^^^•<V.a4.^ 
 
 't 1+ 

 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES
 
 EUROPEAN BISON. 
 
 From a painting on the roof of the Cave 
 of Altamira, Spain. 
 
 AFTER A DRAWING BY 
 M. H BREUIL
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 AS ILLUSTRATED BY 
 
 ANCIENT REMAINS 
 
 AND THE 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 
 OF MODERN SAVAGES 
 
 BY 
 
 The late.Rt. Hon. LORD AVEBURY 
 
 D.C.L. (Oxon.). LL.D. (Cantab., Diibl. et Edin.), M.D. (WCirzb.), F.R.S.. V.P.L.S., F.G.S., 
 
 F.Z.S., F.S.A., F.E.S., Trust. Brit. Mus. ; Assoc. Acad. Roy. des Sci. Brux. ; 
 
 Hon. Mem. R. Irish Acad., Amer. Fthnol. Soc, Anthrop. See. Wash. (U.S.), Brux., Fierenze, 
 
 Anthrop. Verein Graz, Soc. Entom. de France, Soc. Gio). de la Suisse, and Soc. Helviit. des Sci. Nat. 
 
 Mem. Amer. Phil. Soc. Philad. and Soc. d'Ethn. de Paris ; Corresp. Mem. Soc. Nat. des Sci. 
 
 Nat. de Cherb., Berl. Gesell. fiir Anthrop.. Soc. Romana di Antrop., Soc. d'Emul. d'Abbeville. 
 
 Soc. Cient. Arjfentina. Soc. de GtSog. de Lisb., Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Numis. and Ant. Soc. Philad. 
 
 Amer. Entom. Soc. ; F'or. Assoc. Mem. Soc. d'Anthrop. de Paris ; 
 
 For. Mem. Amer. Antiq. Soc 
 
 SEVENTH EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED 
 AND ENTIRELY RESET 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 LOiNDON: WILLIAMS & NORGATE 
 
 1913
 
 LIBRARY 
 ^ [\1 IJNIVERSITY OF CALIFOR] 
 
 -^<v SANTA BARBARA 
 
 At 
 Wl5 
 
 PUBLISHERS' NOTE 
 
 In the spring of the year, and only a few months before 
 his lamented death, Lord Avebury subjected this work to 
 a very thorough revision, making numerous additions 
 dealing with recent discoveries and theories, and cutting 
 out portions which seemed no longer essential. 
 
 Besides this a number of new illustrations have been 
 added, to replace or supplement those of the earlier 
 editions. 
 
 The book has been entirely reset, and, though the 
 author was not able to pass the proof-sheets himself, 
 every care has been taken to carry out his wish that 
 the book should remain an accurate and up-to-date 
 guide to the student of prehistoric times. 
 
 We wish to express our thanks to those who have 
 assisted us in the preparation of this edition or have 
 kindly given us permission to reproduce their work in 
 the illustrations. 
 
 WILLIAMS & NORGATE. 
 
 November ^913.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 9- 
 
 lO. 
 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
 13- 
 14. 
 
 15- 
 16. 
 
 INTRODUCTION ..... 
 
 ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN ANCIENT TIMES 
 
 THE BRONZE AGE .... 
 
 THE USE OF STONE IN ANCIENT TIMES , 
 
 MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS AND TUMULI . 
 
 THE ANCIENT LAKE-HABITATIONS OF SWITZER 
 LAND .... 
 
 THE DANISH K.JOKKENMODDINGS OR SHELL- 
 MOUNDS .... 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY 
 
 QUATERNARY MAMMALIA 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN 
 
 RIVER-DRIFT GRAVEL-BEDS 
 
 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN . 
 
 MODERN SAVAGES 
 
 MODERN SAVAGES — Continued . 
 
 MODERN SAVAGES COncluded . 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS . 
 APPENDIX .... 
 INDEX ..... 
 
 28 
 
 73 
 107 
 
 180 
 
 226 
 250 
 280 
 307 
 340 
 
 383 
 
 427 
 
 490 
 
 538 
 
 578 
 
 595 
 598
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The first appearance of man in Europe dates from a 
 period so remote, that neither history, nor tradition, can 
 throw any light on his origin, or mode of life. Under 
 these circumstances, some have supposed that the past 
 is hidden from the present by a veil, which time will 
 probably thicken, but never can remove. Thus our 
 prehistoric antiquities have been valued as monuments 
 of ancient skill and perseverance, not regarded as pages 
 of ancient history ; recognized as interesting vignettes, 
 not as historical pictures. Some writers have assured us 
 that, in the words of Palgrave, " We must give it up, 
 that speechless past ; whether fact or chronology, doctrine 
 or mythology ; whether in Europe, Asia, Africa, or 
 America ; at Thebes or Palenque, on Lycian shore or 
 Sahsbury Plain : lost is lost ; gone is gone for ever." 
 Others have taken a more hopeful view, but in attempt- 
 ing to reconstruct the story of the past, they have too 
 often allowed imagination to usurp the place of research, 
 and have written in the spirit of the novelist, rather than 
 in that of the philosopher. 
 
 Of late years, however, a new branch of knowledge has 
 arisen ; a new Science has, so to say, been born among 
 us, which deals with times and events far more ancient 
 than any which have yet fallen within the province of the
 
 2 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 archaeologist. The geologist reckons not by days or by 
 years ; the whole six thousand years, which were until 
 lately looked on as the sum of the world's existence, are 
 to him but one unit of measurement in the long suc- 
 cession of past ages. Our knowledge of geology is, of 
 course, very incomplete ; on some questions we shall no 
 doubt see reason to change our opinion, but, on the 
 whole, the conclusions to which it points are as definite 
 as those of zoology, chemistry, or any of the kindred 
 sciences. Nor does there appear to be any reason why 
 those methods of examination which have proved so 
 successful in geology, should not also be used to throw 
 light on the history of man in prehistoric times. Archae- 
 ology forms, in fact, the link between geology and 
 history. It is true that in the case of other animals we 
 can, from their bones and teeth, form a definite idea of 
 their habits and mode of life, while in the present state 
 of our knowledge the skeleton of a savage could not 
 always be distinguished from that of a philosopher. But 
 on the other hand, while other animals leave only teeth 
 and bones behind them, the men of past ages are to be 
 studied principally by their works : houses for the living, 
 tombs for the dead, fortifications for defence, temples for 
 worship, implements for use, and ornaments for decoration. 
 From the careful study of the remains which have 
 come down to us, it would appear that Prehistoric 
 Archaeology may be divided into four great epochs. 
 
 I. That of the Drift ; when man shared the possession 
 of Europe with the Mammoth, the Cave bear, the Woolly- 
 haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. This I 
 have proposed to call the " Palaeolithic " Period. 
 
 II. The later or polished Stone Age ; a period charac- 
 terized by beautiful weapons and instruments made of 
 flint and other kinds of stone ; in which, however, we 
 find no trace of the knowledge of any metal, excepting 
 gold, which seems to have been sometimes used for 
 ornaments. For this period I have suggested the term 
 " Neolithic." ' 
 
 ^ These two names have met with general acceptance.
 
 ARCHEOLOGY IN FOUR PERIODS 3 
 
 III, The Bronze Age, in which bronze was used for 
 arms and cutting instruments of all kinds. 
 
 IV. The Iron Age, in which that metal had superseded 
 bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc. ; bronze, however, 
 still being in common use for ornaments, and frequently 
 also for the handles of swords and other arms, though 
 never for the blades. 
 
 Stone weapons, however, of many kinds were still in 
 use during the Age of Bronze, and lingered on even into 
 that of Iron, so that the mere presence of a few stone 
 implements is not in itself sufficient evidence that any 
 given " find " belongs to the Stone Age. In order to 
 prevent misapprehension, it may also be well to state, at 
 once, that, for the present, I only apply this classification 
 to Europe, though, in all probability, it might be extended 
 also to the neighbouring regions of Asia and Africa. 
 The civihzation of the south of Europe, moreover, 
 preceded that of northern Europe. As regards other 
 civilized countries, China and Japan for instance, we, as 
 yet, know but little of their prehistoric archaeology, 
 though recent researches have gone far to prove that the 
 use of iron was there also preceded by bronze, and bronze 
 by stone. Some nations, indeed, such as the Fuegians, 
 Andamaners, etc., are even now, or were very lately, in 
 an Age of Stone. 
 
 It is probable that gold was the metal which first 
 attracted the attention of man ; it is found in many 
 rivers, and by its bright colour would certainly strike 
 even the rudest savages, who are known to be very fond 
 of personal decoration. Silver does not appear to have 
 been discovered until long after gold, and was apparently 
 preceded by both copper and tin ; for it rarely, if ever, 
 occurs in tumuli of the Bronze Age ; but, however this 
 may be, copper seems to have been the metal which first 
 became of real importance to Man ; no doubt owing to 
 the fact that its ores are abundant in many countries, and 
 can be smelted without difficulty ; and that, while iron is 
 hardly ever found except in the form of ore, copper often 
 occurs in a native condition, and can be beaten at once
 
 4 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 into shape. Thus, for instance, the North American 
 Indians obtained pure copper from the mines near Lake 
 Superior and elsewhere, and hammered it at once into 
 axes, bracelets, and other objects. 
 
 Tin also early attracted notice, probably on account of 
 its great heaviness. When metals were very scarce, it 
 would naturally sometimes happen that, in order to make 
 up the necessary quantity, some tin would be added to 
 copper, or vice versd. It would then be found that the 
 properties of the alloy were quite different from those of 
 either metal, and a very few experiments would determine 
 the most advantageous proportion, which for axes and 
 other cutting instruments is about nine parts of copper 
 to one of tin. No implements or weapons of tin have 
 yet been found, and those of copper are rare, in Western 
 Europe, whence it has been inferred that the art of 
 making bronze was known elsewhere before the use of 
 either copper or tin was introduced into Europe. Many 
 of the so-called " copper " axes, etc., contain a small 
 proportion of tin ; and the few exceptions indicate prob- 
 ably a mere temporary want, rather than a total ignor- 
 ance, of this metal. 
 
 The ores of iron, though more abundant, are much 
 less striking in appearance than those of copper. More- 
 over, though they are perhaps more easily reduced, the 
 metal, when obtained, is much less tractable than bronze. 
 This valuable alloy can very easily be cast, and, in fact, 
 all the weapons and implements made of it in olden times 
 were cast in moulds of sand or stone. The art of casting 
 iron, on the other hand, was unknown until a compara- 
 tively late period. 
 
 In the writings of the early poets, iron is frequently char- 
 acterized by the epithet TroAiy/cAtJ/To?, and its adjective, (7t^>;|0eo9, 
 is used metaphorically to imply the greatest stubbornness. 
 
 These considerations tend very much to remove the 
 a priori improbability that a compound and compara- 
 tively expensive material like bronze should have been in 
 general use before such a common metal as iron, and the 
 evidence that it was so seems conclusive.
 
 ANCIENT ALLUSIONS TO BRONZE 5 
 
 Hesiod, who is supposed to have written about 900 B.C., 
 and who is the earhest European author whose works 
 have come down to us, appears to have lived soon after 
 the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. He 
 distinctly states that iron was discovered later than copper 
 and tin. Speaking of those who were ancient, even in 
 his day, he says that they used bronze, and not iron. 
 
 Toh ^1/ ■yaXKea fxev Tev-vea, -^aXiceoi oe re oIkoi 
 "^aXKM elpyaX^ovTO jixeXag o ovk e<TKe (riotjpo^, 
 
 It is also significant that the word ^^^aXKeueiv, from ^aA«:o9, 
 bronze, means to work in metal. Moreover, the forms 
 of early weapons indicate that those of iron were copied 
 from bronze, not those of bronze from iron. Hesiod's 
 poems, as well as those of Homer, show that more than 
 three thousand years ago the value of iron was known 
 and appreciated. It is true that, as we read in Dr Smith's 
 Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities^ bronze " is 
 represented in the Iliad and Odyssey as the common 
 material of arms, instruments, and vessels of various 
 sorts ; the latter (iron) is mentioned much more rarely." 
 While, however, the above statement is strictly correct, 
 we must remember that among the Greeks the word iron 
 (alStjpo?) was used, even in the time of Homer, as synony- 
 mous with a sword; and that steel also appears to have been 
 known to them under the name of aSdjua?, and perhaps also 
 of Kvapo9y as early as the time of Hesiod. We may, there- 
 fore, consider that the Trojan war took place during the 
 period of transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. 
 
 In the Pentateuch, excluding Deuteronomy, bronze, 
 or, as it is unfortunately translated, brass, is mentioned 
 thirty-eight times, and iron only four times. 
 
 Lucretius distinctly mentions the three ages. He 
 says : — 
 
 " Arma antiqua, manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt 
 Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragmina rami, 
 Posterius ferri vis est, asrisque reperta, 
 Sed prior aeris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus." ^ 
 
 1 V. 1282.
 
 6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Coming down to more modern times, Eccard ^ in 1750, 
 and Goguet in 1758,^ mention the three latter ages in 
 plain terms ; ^ the same idea runs through Borlase's 
 History of Cornwall ; and Sir Richard Colt Hoare also 
 alludes to " instruments of stone before the use of metals 
 was known," and expresses the opinion that instruments 
 of iron " denote a much later period " than those of 
 bronze. 
 
 To the Northern archaeologists, however — especially to 
 C. J. Thomsen, the founder of the Museum at Copenhagen, 
 and to Professor Nilsson — must be ascribed the merit of 
 having raised these suggestions to the rank of a scientific 
 classification. 
 
 The art of obtaining; metal when once discovered 
 offered no great difficulty. Dr Percy indeed tells us * 
 that " nothing more easy can be conceived." In various 
 parts of the world metal is still obtained by very simple 
 methods. Dr Gowland quotes examples ^ from Japan 
 and several parts of Africa, India, etc. Among the hill 
 tribes of the Ghats in India " the furnace is first filled 
 nearly half full of charcoal, and upon this, fire is put, 
 after which it is filled to the top with charcoal. The 
 blast is then applied. When the charcoal sinks at the 
 top of the furnace, alternate charges of ore and charcoal 
 are supplied until the proper charge of ore has been 
 introduced, after which the blast is increased and main- 
 tained till the close of the operation. The greater part 
 of the slag remains in the furnace and is taken out along 
 with the iron. In from four to six hours a charge is 
 completed, when, the front of the furnace being removed, 
 a small mass of malleable iron, slag, and unburnt charcoal 
 is drawn out." The iron is then hammered into a bar. 
 
 Even at the present day in Ceylon the bloom or mass 
 of iron is taken out of the furnace with long tongs made 
 
 ^ Eccard, De Origine et Moribus Germaiioriim. 
 
 ^ Goguet, De VOrigine dcs Lois, des Arts ct des Sciences. See ch. iv. 
 and the Preface. 
 
 ^ See Rhind in Arch. Ins. Jour., vol. xiii. 
 
 * Metallurgy, Iron and Steel, 1864. 
 
 '' The Metals in Antiquity., Huxley Mem. Lecture, 191 2, p. 279.
 
 EARLY HISTORY OF METALS 7 
 
 of greenwood sticks tied together at one end, and is 
 then beaten a little into shape with thick sticks. 
 
 It is probable that a lump of ore chanced to be used as 
 one of the enclosing stones of a hearth, and that metal 
 was thus produced. 
 
 The North American Indians worked the native copper 
 found near Lake Superior, and the Esquimaux made 
 knives, etc., from the Ovifak masses of meteoric iron. 
 In both these cases, however, the metal was used as a 
 malleable stone. 
 
 M. Wibel ^ is of opinion that the ancient bronze was 
 obtained, not by the fusion of copper and of tin, but 
 directly from ore containing the two metals. This is 
 also the opinion of Dr Gowland.^ On the other hand, 
 I was assured by the late Sir H. H. Vivian (afterwards 
 Lord Swansea), than whom we had no higher authority in 
 this country, that in his judgment it is almost impossible 
 that bronze can ever have been so obtained. I cannot, 
 therefore, but agree with those who maintain that the 
 knowledge of bronze must necessarily have been preceded 
 by the separate use of copper and of tin. 
 
 Copper and tin were perhaps discovered in Central 
 Asia. The earliest evidence of their use is in Egypt. 
 Neither of them, however, occurs in that country, though 
 the copper mines of Mount Sinai were worked by King 
 Dyezer of the Ilird Dynasty, about 4000 b.c.,^ and small 
 implements of bronze occur in the tombs of Abydos, 
 El Amreh, etc., which are referred to an even earlier period. 
 The earliest piece of bronze at present known is said 
 to be the rod found at Medum in Egypt, and which is 
 dated at 3700 b.c. The earliest metal dagger yet known 
 is a copper weapon with two holes for rivets, found at 
 Nagada in a necropolis dating from the period preceding 
 the 1st Dynasty ; but the oldest copper daggers from 
 Cyprus and Syria cannot be very much later in date. 
 
 ^ Die Cultiir der Bronze-zeit Nord- itnd Mittel-Eiovpcis, Dr F. Wibel, 
 Kiel. 
 - The Metals in Antiquity^ Huxley Lecture, 1912, p. 241. 
 ^ De Morgan, Rcch. s. I. Or. de V Egypt., p. 230.
 
 8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The Museum of Gizeh contains an admirable bronze 
 statue of Pepi I., who is supposed to have reigned about 
 3400 B.C. It seems probable that the use of metal was 
 not discovered in Egypt, but that the Pharaonic Egyptians 
 brought the knowledge of metals with them from the East. 
 
 As regards iron, Mr Budge informs me that in a 
 passage in the funeral text of Pepi I., about b.c. 3400, it 
 is said that this king will sit upon a " throne of iron 
 ornamented with lions' faces," and the hoofs of the bull 
 Sma-ur (see Recueil de Travaux^ vol. vii. p. 154), and in 
 several places in the texts of this period there is 
 abundant reference to iron. Thus the abode of the 
 blessed was in heaven, the floor of which was made of 
 iron, and the Nile flowed across it. The earth below was 
 lit by night either by lamps being suspended from holes 
 which had been bored in it, or by the light which 
 made its way through the holes. The recensions of these 
 texts which we now have cannot have been made after 
 B.C. 3800, and in his opinion they are much earlier. 
 
 There is a prayer in the Harris papyrus, written during 
 the reign of Rameses III. (1300 b.c), that the words of 
 the king may be " firm as iron." In the same papyrus 
 vessels of iron are mentioned, and the king is said to have 
 made the wall of the temple of Horus like a " hill of 
 iron." Objects of iron are also mentioned in the Karnac 
 tribute. In the lists of Thothmes III. (1600 b.c.) iron 
 comes third in the series of metals paid as tribute. 
 These references, however, imply that the use of iron 
 was already well known. ^ This renders less improbable 
 the authenticity of the piece of iron said to have been 
 found wedged in between two of the stones of the Great 
 Pyramid.^ Maspero, moreover, in 1882 founci some 
 pieces of iron in the Black Pyramid of Abousir (Vlth 
 Dynasty) ; ^ but no iron has been found in any of the 
 tombs belonging to the earlier Egyptian dynasties. 
 
 The earliest evidence of iron in Assyria is an inscrip- 
 
 * I am indebted for these particulars to Mr Budge. 
 
 ^ Vyse, Pyratnids of Gizeh, vi. p. 275. 
 
 ^ Maspero, Guide du Muse'e de Boulaq^ p. 296.
 
 IRON IN ANCIENT EUROPE 9 
 
 tion of TIglath-Pileser (1120 b.c), who says: "In the 
 desert of Mitani near Araziki, which is in front of the land 
 of Hatti, I slew four mighty buffaloes with my great bow 
 and iron arrows, and with my lance." 
 
 In China copper is said to have been used as far back 
 as the reign of Yu Nai Hwang-ti, 2200 B.C. ; and iron in 
 that of Kung Kiu, about 1900 b.c.^ Copper axes of very 
 simple type have also been discovered in India, but we 
 have no means of determining their date. 
 
 The remarkable phase of archaic culture known as 
 Mycenaean — when arms of bronze were beautifully inlaid 
 with gold, when gems were cut, and the potter's art had 
 attained a high degree of perfection — appears to have 
 attained its zenith about 1500 r.c. It must, therefore, 
 have commenced much earlier. 
 
 The date of the introduction of iron into the North of 
 Europe cannot at present be satisfactorily determined ; 
 nevertheless, it is most likely that the use of this metal 
 spread rapidly. Not only does it seem a priori probable 
 that such an important discovery would have done so, 
 but it is evident that the same commercial organization 
 which had already carried the tin of Cornwall all over our 
 continent, would equally facilitate the transmission of 
 iron. However this may be, the soldiers of Brennus 
 were provided with iron swords, and when the armies of 
 Rome brought the civilization of the South into contact 
 with that of the North, they found iron already well 
 known to, and in general use among, their new enemies. 
 Nor is there any reason to suppose that arms of bronze 
 were also at that time still in use in the North, for, had 
 this been so, they would certainly have been mentioned 
 by the Roman writers ; whereas the description given by 
 Tacitus of the Caledonian weapons shows that in his 
 time the swords used in Scotland were made of iron. 
 Moreover, there are several cases in which large quan- 
 tities of arms belonging to the Roman period have been 
 found together, and in which the arms and implements 
 are all of iron. This argument is in its very nature 
 ' De Lacouperie, B>-it. Mits. Cat. of Chinese Coins, p. 9.
 
 lo PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 cumulative, and cannot therefore be fully developed 
 here, but out of many, I will mention a few cases in 
 illustration. 
 
 Some years ago, an old battle-field was discovered at 
 Tiefenau, near Berne, and described by M. Jahn. On it 
 were found a great number of objects made of iron ; 
 such as fragments of chariots, bits for horses, wheels, 
 pieces of coats of mail, and arms of various sorts, includ- 
 ing no less than a hundred two-handed swords. All of 
 these were made of iron, but with them were several 
 fibulae of bronze, and some coins, of which about thirty 
 were of bronze, struck at Marseilles, and presenting a 
 head of Apollo on one side and a bull on the other ; both 
 good specimens of Greek art. The rest were silver 
 pieces, also struck at Marseilles. These coins, and the 
 absence of any trace of Roman influence, sufficiently 
 indicate the antiquity of these interesting remains. 
 
 A very similar collection of antiquities has been 
 obtained from the ancient lake-village near La Tene, on 
 the Lake of Neufchatel. This interesting locality will be 
 referred to again in the chapter on Swiss lake-villages, 
 and I will here only observe that 50 swords, 5 axes, 
 4 knives, and 23 lances have been discovered, but not a 
 single weapon of bronze. Nine coins have been also 
 found here, while not a single one has been met with in 
 any of the Stone Age or Bronze Age villages. Yet the 
 Gauls had a coinage of their own nearly three hundred 
 years before Christ, and the Britons, as Sir John Evans ^ 
 has well shown, about a century or perhaps one hundred 
 and fifty years later. 
 
 Some very interesting " finds " of articles belonging to 
 the Iron Age have been made in the peat bogs of Slesvick, 
 and described by M. Engelhardt, Curator of the Museum 
 at Flensborg. One of these, in the Moss of Nydam, 
 comprises clothes, sandals, brooches, tweezers, beads, 
 helmets, shields, shield bosses, breastplates, coats of mail, 
 buckles, sword-belts, sword-sheaths, 100 swords, 500 
 
 ' The Coins of the Ancient Britons, 1864, by Sir John Evans, K.C.B., 
 F.R.S.
 
 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE ii 
 
 spears, 30 axes, 40 awls, 160 arrows, 80 knives, various 
 articles of horse gear, wooden rakes, mallets, vessels, 
 wheels, pottery, coins, etc. Without a single exception, 
 all the weapons and cutting implements are made of iron, 
 though bronze was freely used for brooches and other 
 similar articles.^ 
 
 In the summer of 1862, M. Engelhardt found in the 
 same field a ship, or rather a large flat-bottomed boat, 
 70 feet in length, 3 feet deep in the middle, and 
 8 or 9 feet wide. The sides are of oak boards, over- 
 lapping one another, and fastened together by iron 
 bolts. On the inner side of each board are several 
 projections, which are not made from separate pieces, but 
 were left when the boards were cut out of the solid 
 timber. Each of these projections has two small holes, 
 through which ropes, made of the inner bark of trees, 
 were passed, in order to fasten the sides of the boat to the 
 ribs. The rowlocks are formed by a projecting horn of 
 wood, under which is an orifice, so that a rope, fastened 
 to the horn and passing through the orifice, leaves a 
 space through which the oar played. There appear to 
 have been about fifty pairs of oars, of which sixteen have 
 already been discovered. The bottom of the boat was 
 covered by matting. I visited the spot about a week 
 after the boat had been discovered, but was unable to see 
 much of it, as it had been taken to pieces, and the boards, 
 etc., were covered over with straw and peat, that they 
 might dry slowly. In this manner, M. Engelhardt hoped 
 that they would perhaps, at least in part, retain their 
 original shape. The freight of the boat consisted of iron 
 axes, including a socketed celt with its handle, swords, 
 lances, knives, brooches, whetstones, wooden vessels, 
 and, oddly enough, two birch brooms, with many smaller 
 articles. Only those, however, have yet been found 
 which remained actually in the boat ; and as, in sinking, 
 
 ^ See Lubbock in Nat. Hist. Rev.., Oct. 1863, and Stephens in Gent. 
 Mag.., Dec. 1863. On one of the arrows were some Runic characters. I 
 had the pleasure of visiting this interesting spot with M. Engelhardt in 
 1862. See also Denmark in the Early Iron Age, by C. Engelhardt.
 
 12 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 it turned partly over on its side, no doubt many more 
 articles will reward further explorations. It is evident 
 that this ancient boat was sunk on purpose, because 
 there is a square hole about six inches in diameter hewn 
 out of the bottom ; and it has been suggested that these 
 objects were sunk as offerings to the Lake, but, on the 
 whole, it seems more probable that in some time of panic 
 or danger the objects contained in it were thus hidden by 
 their owner, who was never able to recover them. Even 
 in recent times of disturbance, as, for instance, in the 
 beginning of last century, and in 1848, many arms, 
 ornaments, household utensils, etc., were so effectually 
 hidden in the lakes and peat mosses, that they could 
 never be found again. Much interest is added to this 
 vessel and its contents, by the fact that we can fix almost 
 their exact date. The boat lies, as I have already 
 mentioned, within a few yards of the spot where the 
 previous discoveries at Nydam were made, and as all the 
 arms and ornaments exactly correspond, there can be 
 little doubt that they belong to the same period. Now, 
 the previous collection included nearly fifty Roman coins, 
 ranging in date from a.d. 67 to a.d. 217, and we cannot 
 therefore be far wrong in referring these remains to the 
 third century. 
 
 A very similar discovery has been made at Thorsbjerg 
 in the same neighbourhood, but in this case, owing to 
 some chemical difference in the peat, the iron has been 
 almost entirely removed. It may naturally be asked 
 why, then, this should be quoted as an instance of the 
 Iron Age ? And the answer seems quite satisfactory. 
 All the swords, lance-heads, and axe-blades have dis- 
 appeared, while the handles of bronze or wood are 
 perfectly preserved, and as the ornaments and other 
 objects of bronze are well preserved, it is evident that 
 the swords, etc., were not of that metal ; and it is there- 
 fore reasonable to conclude that they were of iron, 
 more especially as the whole character of the objects 
 resembles that of those found at Nydam, and the coins, 
 which are about as numerous as those from the latter
 
 IRON IN NORTHERN EUROPE 
 
 13 
 
 place, range from 60 a.d. to 197 a.d. ; so that these 
 two great " finds " may be regarded as almost con- 
 temporaneous. 
 
 Not only are the weapons in these finds all of 
 iron, but their forms and the character of the orna- 
 mentation are very different from those of the Bronze 
 
 f 
 
 L^l 
 
 9 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 IX 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 M 
 
 > X 
 
 Fig. I. — Ancient Danish arrow-head, with owner's mark. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Modern Esquimaux arrowhead, with owner's mark. In my 
 
 collection, one-half natural size. 
 Fig. 3. — Owners' marks from various ancient Danish arrows. 
 
 Age ; resembling in some respects Roman arms, in others 
 they are quite peculiar, and evidently representative of 
 Northern art. 
 
 Many of the arrows had owners' marks on them (figs. 
 I and 3) resembling those on the modern Esquimaux 
 arrows (fig. 2). The Nydam swords also bear seven 
 inscriptions ; three of them are illegible, the others are 
 " ricus," " riccim," " cocillus," and " umored." On the
 
 14 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 umbo of one of the shields is inscribed, in dotted Roman 
 letters, AEL. AELIANUS ; while another one has a short 
 Runic ^ inscription, which Mr Haigh reads as Aisc Ah 
 (Aisc owns) ; ^ two figures resembling Runic letters are 
 also inlaid with golden wire on one of the sword blades. 
 One of the Thorsbjerg scabbards also has a Runic in- 
 scription of two lines, each containing ten letters. 
 
 I particularly dwell on these cases, because no inscrip- 
 tions or coins have yet been found which can be referred 
 to the Bronze Age. 
 
 For the same reason the abundance of silver is very 
 significant ; out of two hundred buckles and square silver 
 girdle ornaments, the greater number are of bronze 
 plated with silver, and silver was also used to ornament 
 shield rims, sandals, brooches, breast-plates, sword-hilts, 
 sword-sheaths, girdles, harness, etc., as well as for clasps, 
 pendants, boxes, and tweezers, while one helmet was 
 formed entirely of this comparatively rare metal. 
 
 The ornamentation also of the shields, etc., is of a 
 character altogether unlike any that occurs in the Bronze 
 Age. 
 
 An assemblage of objects very similar to those of 
 Nydam and Thorsbjerg has also been found in the 
 " Vimose," or " Moss of the Temple." It comprises no 
 less than 1 500 lance-heads, 40 axes, and 30 swords, all 
 of iron ; abundance of silver ; one Roman and three 
 Runic inscriptions ; and a coin of Faustina Junior. 
 Here, again, bronze weapons are entirely absent, though 
 bronze was used for ornaments, etc. 
 
 From these and similar discoveries, it appears evident 
 that the use of bronze weapons had been discontinued in 
 the North long before the commencement of our era. 
 From the ease with which bronze could be worked, this 
 metal was still used for brooches and ornaments ; but in 
 the manufacture of swords, axes, and similar implements, 
 it had been entirely superseded by iron. There are many 
 cases on record of iron swords with bronze handles or 
 scabbards, but scarcely an instance of the reverse. 
 
 ' See Appendix No. i. " - Archaological Journal^ 1863.
 
 EARLY USE OF BRONZE 15 
 
 Conversely, as bronze weapons are entirely absent 
 from the great " finds " of the Iron Age, so are iron 
 weapons altogether wanting in those instances where, as 
 for instance at Nidau, on the Lake of Bienne, and Esta- 
 vayer, on that of Neufchatel, large quantities of bronze 
 tools and weapons have been found together. 
 
 To sum up this argument, though the discoveries of 
 bronze and of iron weapons have been very numerous, 
 yet there is hardly a single case in which swords, axes, 
 daggers, or other weapons of these two different metals 
 have been found together ; nor are bronze weapons 
 found associated with inscriptions, or with coins, pottery, 
 or other relics of Roman origin. 
 
 So, also, though no doubt stone weapons were used 
 during the Bronze Age, there are many cases in which 
 large numbers of stone implements and weapons have 
 been found without any of metal. 
 
 In illustration of this argument, 1 must call attention 
 to the following table. Objects found singly teach us 
 comparatively little, but when numbers occur together 
 they become much more instructive. The first ten 
 localities are some of the Swiss lake-villages, which will 
 be described in Chapter VI. ; to which I have added the 
 Nydam find just alluded to, and two of the great French 
 bronze finds. 
 
 Now from the ancient lake -village in the peat moss of 
 Moosseedorf we have a list comprising 75 flint nuclei, 25 
 arrow-heads, 12 spear-heads, 90 scrapers, 30 saws, 96 
 axes, 310 long flakes and about 2000 small ones, 25 
 hammers, 45 grindstones, etc., 71 awls of bone, 12 pointed 
 ribs, 160 bone chisels, 18 sharpened boar's teeth, 8 
 perforated boar's teeth, 2 perforated bear's teeth, 5 
 harpoons of horn, 8 chisels and 4 awls of horn, besides 
 30 axe-handles or sockets, without a trace of metal. The 
 result, so far as six stations are concerned, is shown in the 
 following table (p. 16). 
 
 If, for instance, we commence with the remains dis- 
 covered at Wangen, on the Lake of Constance, we have 
 an even more remarkable case. M. Lohle has found
 
 i6 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ■ssrioo 1 
 
 ooooo oooo oa oo ^ 
 
 1 
 
 •i^i^x 
 
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 835 
 617 
 510 
 210 
 
 15 
 
 1800 
 453 
 
 •saupung 
 
 305 
 
 208 
 
 150 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 758 
 1 
 
 Ornaments 
 
 very 
 numerous 
 
 •s^uaiuBUJO 
 
 o lo CO in 00 iH 00 
 
 . 0^ i-H O to O to rj< • 
 
 'SfooH-UstJ 
 
 ::::S j:IS:S :to: : 
 
 •S9[>i.i!S 
 
 ::::°3 <MrHi>s '■ ^a '^ : 
 
 •saouui 
 
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 K5 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 ! 
 
 •mox 
 
 4450 
 
 2702 
 
 1230 
 
 426 
 
 368 
 
 •sqoaCqo-is'nO 
 
 450 
 
 277 
 
 30 
 
 147 
 
 335 
 Corn- 
 crushers 
 
 Many 
 
 Ccirn- 
 
 crushers 
 
 12 
 BaUs 
 
 A few 
 
 Whet- 
 stones. 
 
 •S93l«[J 
 
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 o«o^co ^c^,^o : :: : 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Wangen 
 
 Moosseedori . , 
 
 Nussdorf 
 
 Wauwyl 
 
 Nidau 
 
 Cortaillod 
 
 Estavayer .... 
 
 Corcelettes 
 
 Morges 
 
 Marin 
 
 Larnaud 
 
 R^allon 
 
 Denmark. 
 Nydara
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 17 
 
 there more than 1500 axes, 100 whetstones, 150 corn- 
 crushers, and 2500 arrow-heads, flint flakes, chips, etc. ; 
 altogether more than 4450 instruments of stone, besides 
 about 350 of bone, making, with 100 earthenware spinning- 
 weights, a grand total of nearly 5000 objects, and yet not 
 a trace of metal. The number of corn-crushers and 
 spindle-whorls is interesting, when we remember that 
 Wangen alone, among these four localities, has supplied 
 us with specimens of carbonized grain, and flax fabrics. 
 
 Now let me ask the reader to compare with the four 
 cases given in the table on p. 16 the list of remains from 
 the Bronze Age settlements of Morges, Nidau, Estavayer, 
 Cortaillod, and Corcelettes, and the two Bronze Age finds 
 of Larnaud and Reallon. The manner in which the 
 collections were made accounts, probably, for the absence 
 of whetstones, and, perhaps, to a great extent, for that of 
 the flint flakes, etc. On these points, therefore, I lay 
 little stress ; but the total absence of stone axes at 
 Morges, and their rarity at Nidau and Estavayer, is very 
 remarkable. At the former, M. Forel, after the most 
 careful search, has found but one object of iron. The 
 large number of corn-crushers and the presence of 
 spinning-weights are also significant. 
 
 Colonel Schwab's splendid collection from Nidau tells 
 the same tale. When I saw it he had only 2,3 stone 
 axes, and yet as many as ^35 corn-crushers. The ruder 
 articles of stone he had not apparently collected. He 
 had nearly 200 spindle-whorls, and many earthenware 
 rings, specimens of which have also been found at 
 Morges, but which are entirely wanting at the Pont de 
 Thiele, at Wauwyl, at Moosseedorf, and at Wangen. 
 
 It is, of course, possible that very difl^erent states of 
 civilization may co- exist in different parts of the same 
 country ; but in this case we must remember that the 
 settlement at Nidau is only about fifteen miles from 
 Moosseedorf. Nor can we suppose that the difi^erences 
 were merely a question of wealth ; the bronze fish-hooks, 
 axes, small rings, pins, etc., which are found in such large 
 numbers, show that bronze was used not for the articles
 
 1 8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of luxury only, but also for the ordinary implements of 
 daily life. 
 
 Nor is it only in the presence or absence of bronze 
 that the lake-dwellings differ from one another ; there 
 are many other indications of progress. We cannot 
 expect to find much evidence of this in the implements 
 of bone or stone ; but, as has already been mentioned, 
 the better forms of stone axe, and those which are per- 
 forated, are very rare, if not altogether absent, in the 
 Stone Age, none having been found at the Pont de 
 Thiele, at Moosseedorf, or at Wauwyl, and only two at 
 Wangen. 
 
 Again, it is not only by the mere presence of bronze, 
 but by the number, beauty, and variety of the articles 
 made out of it, that we are so much struck. In a collec- 
 tion of objects made at any of the Stone Age settlements, 
 no one can fail to remark the uniformity which prevails. 
 The wants of the artificers seem to have been few and 
 simple. In the Bronze Age all this is altered. We find 
 not only axes, arrows, and knives, but, in addition, 
 swords, lances, sickles, ear-rings, bracelets, pins, rings, 
 and a variety of other articles. The list on page i6 gives 
 an idea of the objects found in some of the Swiss lake 
 settlements, whilst the number of bronze objects found 
 in the lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel alone exceeds 
 20,000. As regards France, M. Chantre gave the 
 following numbers: — Celts, 9153 ; swords and daggers, 
 727 ; lances, 513 ; knives, 342 ; sickles, 225 ; pins, 
 1220 ; needles, 204 ; bracelets, 1086 ; rings and chains, 
 1572 ; arrow-heads, 213 ; hammers, 23 ; anvils, 5 ; 
 chisels, 58 ; gouges, 31 ; razors, 62 ; saws, 8 ; hooks, 
 172 ; moulds, 74 ; and a variety of other articles, making 
 altogether no less than 20,000 objects, since which time 
 many more have been discovered. The bronze objects, 
 therefore, evidently cannot be regarded as mere isolated 
 and exceptional specimens, but represent a special and 
 somewhat advanced phase of civilization. 
 
 The pottery also shows a considerable advance. The 
 potter's wheel indeed seems to have been unknown
 
 ORIGIN OF BRONZE WEAPONS 19 
 
 during both the Bronze and Stone Ages, but the material 
 of which the Stone Age pottery is composed is rough, ^ 
 containing large grains of quartz, while that used during 
 the Bronze Age is more carefully prepared. The orna- 
 ments of the two periods show also a great contrast. In 
 the Stone Age they consist of impressions made by the 
 nail or the finger, and sometimes by a cord twisted round 
 the soft clay. The lines are all straight, or if curved are 
 very irregular and badly drawn. In the Bronze Age all 
 the patterns present in the Stone Age are continued, but 
 in addition we find circles and spirals ; while imitations of 
 animals and plants are characteristic of the Iron Age. 
 
 So again the distinction between the Bronze and Iron 
 Ages rests by no means merely on the presence of iron. 
 The pottery is different, the forms of the implements and 
 weapons are different, the ornamentation is different, the 
 knowledge of metallurgy was more advanced, silver and 
 lead were in use, letters had been invented, coins had 
 been struck. The entire absence of silver, of coins, and 
 of inscriptions, in the bronze finds, is very remarkable. 
 
 This class of evidence is by no means confined to the 
 Swiss lake discoveries. In various parts of Europe more 
 or less extensive deposits of bronze implements have 
 been found. They may be divided into two principal 
 classes — (i) treasures, which were hidden away by their 
 owners and never recovered, and (2) founders' stocks. 
 The former consist of implements, weapons, and orna- 
 ments, entire, and often almost new ; the latter principally 
 of worn and broken objects, often with lumps of rude 
 metal. In the table given on page 16 I have given two 
 of these finds, one (Reallon) a treasure, the other (Larnaud) 
 a founder's stock. These finds are particularly instructive, 
 because the objects contained in them are evidently con- 
 temporaneous. It will be seen from the lists on pp. 16, 
 18, 25, and 47 that the numbers of bronze objects are 
 
 ^ The extreme coarseness of the Swiss lake pottery is, perhaps, partly 
 owing to its having been intended for kitchen purposes; for the vessels 
 found in tumuli of the Stone Age, the material was often more carefully 
 prepared.
 
 20 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 very considerable ; indeed, for France and Switzerland 
 alone they amount to between 30,000 and 40,000, and 
 the number is continually increasing.^ 
 
 The value of this evidence will be better appreciated 
 after reading the following extract from Mr Wright's 
 Essays on Archeology : ^ 
 
 "All the sites of ruined Roman towns with which I am 
 acquainted present to the excavator a numerous collection 
 of objects, ranging through a period which ends abruptly 
 with what we call the close of the Roman period, and 
 attended with circumstances which cannot leave any doubt 
 that this was the period of destruction. Otherwise, surely 
 we should find some objects which would remind us of 
 the subsequent periods. I will only mention one class 
 of articles which are generally found in considerable 
 numbers, the coins. We invariably find these presenting 
 a more or less complete series of Roman coins, ending at 
 latest with the emperors who reigned in the first half of 
 the fifth century. This is not the case with Roman towns 
 which have continued to exist after that period, for then, 
 on the contrary, we find relics which speak of the subse- 
 quent inhabitants, early Saxon and Mediaeval. I will only, 
 for want of space, give one example, that of Richborough, 
 in Kent. The town of Rutupiae seems to have capitulated 
 with the Saxon invaders, and to have continued until its 
 inhabitants, in consequence of the retreat of the sea, 
 gradually abandoned it to establish themselves at Sand- 
 wich. Now the coins found at Richborough do not end 
 with those of the Roman emperors, but we find, first, a 
 great quantity of those singular little coins which are 
 generally known by the name minimi, and which, pre- 
 senting very bad imitations of the Roman coinage, are 
 considered as belonging to the age immediately following 
 the Roman period, and preceding that of the Saxon 
 coinage." 
 
 We may assume, then, on the authority of Mr Wright 
 himself, that if all the bronze arms which are so abundant 
 
 ' Chantre, ^Ige die Bronze, vol. ii. p. 2715. 
 ^ Essays on Archceology, p. 105.
 
 ORIGIN OF BRONZE WEAPONS 21 
 
 in our museums were really of Roman origin, many of 
 them would have been found from time to time in con- 
 junction with other Roman remains ; whereas bronze 
 weapons are never found in association with coins, pottery, 
 or other relics of Roman origin. 
 
 Elsewhere, indeed, he has called this fact in question, 
 but in spite of his profound acquaintance with archaeo- 
 logical literature, he has only been able to bring forward 
 three cases in support of his argument, not one of which 
 appears to me to be satisfactory. 
 
 For a full statement of his views I must refer to his 
 " Memoir on Bronze Weapons," in the Transactions of the 
 Ethnological Society^ which, in conjunction with my 
 brother Frederic, I have endeavoured to answer before 
 the same learned body.^ I will, however, refer to the 
 only three cases which Mr Wright has been able to 
 discover. 
 
 The first is that of the bronze sword figured in Stuart's 
 Caledonia Romana^ pi. v. "This sword," says Mr 
 Wright, " is stated to have been found at the Roman 
 station of Ardoch, in Scotland, on the wall of Antoninus, 
 and there appears no reason to doubt the statement." 
 In truth, however, there is no such statement ; Mr 
 Wright has been misled by the fact that the sword is 
 figured on the same plate with some Roman remains 
 from Ardoch. 
 
 The second case quoted by Mr Wright is that of a 
 sword described by Mongez before the French Institute, 
 on the "i6th Prairial, An. 9," i.e. 5th June 1801. It 
 is stated to have been found in a peat-moss at Heilly, 
 near Abbeville, with the skeletons of a man and a horse, 
 and four coins of the Emperor Caracalla. " This sword, 
 therefore," says Mr Wright, " was that of a Roman cavalry 
 soldier, not older, and perhaps a little later, than this 
 reign, who had sunk in the bog to which this turbary had 
 succeeded." 
 
 Mongez, on the contrary, concluded that the skeleton 
 
 ' TransactioJis of the Ethnological Soc, N.S., \ol. iv. p. 176. 
 2 Ditto, N.S., vol. V. p. 105.
 
 22 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 could not have been that of a cavalry soldier at all, because 
 a cavalry soldier would not have been armed with a short 
 sword ; and so far from regarding the sword as Roman, 
 "On ne pourroit," he says, " egalement pas I'attribuer 
 aux Romains, si Ton ne raisonnoit que d'apres la matiere 
 dont elle est faite."^ And in the next page he adds, 
 " We are therefore certain, that after the second Punic 
 war the Roman swords were made of iron." ^ 
 
 It is true that five months later he changed his mind, 
 and came to the conclusion that, after all, the bronze 
 swords were Roman ; but I cannot consider that much 
 weight should be attached to this opinion, which was in 
 direct opposition to that which he entertained a few 
 months previously. 
 
 Finally, Mr Wright cites an instance of a bronze 
 sword found with some Roman coins of Maxentius, who 
 reigned from 306 to 312 a.d. This sword was dis- 
 covered in a turbary at Piquigny, near Abbeville, in a 
 large boat, which it would seem had been sunk, and in 
 which were several skeletons. The reason for referring 
 this bronze sword to the Roman epoch was the presence 
 in this case, as in the last, of Roman coins. But it is 
 somewhat remarkable that the antiquaries who recorded 
 the discovery attributed so little importance to the 
 presence of these coins that they did not in either case 
 take the trouble to specify the exact position which these 
 occupied with reference to the bronze weapons ; in fact 
 they only mention the coins casually, and as it were by 
 an afterthought, in a footnote. I may be pardoned, 
 then, if 1 do not myself look upon them as being certainly 
 of the same date as the weapons near which they are 
 said to have been discovered. But even if it be admitted 
 that in these two cases bronze weapons were actually 
 discovered near some Roman coins, still, when we con- 
 sider the great abundance of Roman coins on the one 
 hand, and of bronze weapons on the other, we cannot be 
 
 ^ Loc. cit.^ p. 193. 
 
 - " Nous voila done certains que I'^pde des Romains, depuis la seconde 
 guerre Punique, fut fabriquce en fer," p. 194.
 
 SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT 23 
 
 surprised that there should be one or two cases in which 
 they have been found associated together. 
 
 Again, the geographical distribution of bronze weapons 
 and implements does not favour such a theory. The 
 Romans never entered Denmark ; it is doubtful whether 
 they ever landed in Ireland ; no Roman road, masonry, 
 or earthwork has ever been found there. Yet while 
 more than 350 bronze swords have been found in 
 Denmark,^ more than 400 in France, and a very large 
 number in Ireland,^ the Italian museums only contain 
 about 50. Indeed, the rich museums at Florence, Rome, 
 and Naples do not appear to possess a single specimen of 
 those typical, leaf- shaped bronze swords, which are, com- 
 paratively speaking, so common in the North. That the 
 i3ronze swords should have been introduced into Denmark 
 by a people who never occupied that country, and from 
 a part of Europe in which they are very rare, is, I think, 
 a most untenable hypothesis. I may add that no swords 
 or celts of bronze have been found in the excavations of 
 Pompeii.^ 
 
 Moreover, the use of the word "ferrum" (iron) as 
 synonymous with a sword, clearly proves that the Roman 
 swords were made of that metal. 
 
 I have already mentioned that silver and lead do not 
 occur in Bronze Age finds, that coins and letters are 
 equally absent, and that the ornamentation of the Bronze 
 Age, though sometimes very beautiful, is not of a Roman 
 character. 
 
 Lastly, the bronze which was so largely used by the 
 Romans for ornaments, etc., was composed partly of lead, 
 whereas that of the Bronze Age consists of copper and 
 tin only. Other metals, indeed, such as iron, silver, 
 
 ' If daggers are included the number would reach nearly 1200, and 480 
 for Sweden. — Chantre, Age du Bronze^ vol. i. p. 134. 
 
 ^ The Museum at Dublin contains 282 swords and daggers ; the 
 number of swords is not stated separately. 
 
 ^ This statement has been questioned by Mr Wright, who pointed out 
 that two bronze celts in the museum at Naples have been figured and 
 described as coming from Pompeii. During a visit to Naples, I looked 
 out these celts, and found that they did not come from Pompeii, but from 
 an ancient tomb in Magna Graecia.
 
 24 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 nickel, and lead itself, are present ; but in small quantities, 
 not having been purposely introduced, but only occurring 
 as impurities. 
 
 In Plutarch's Essay On the Pythian Responses^ Philinus 
 describes certain ancient bronze statues which were of a 
 peculiar colour, and says : Was " there then some mode 
 of alloying and preparing the bronze used by the ancient 
 artificers, like the traditional tempering of swords, which 
 process being lost, bronze obtained exemption from war- 
 like employment" ?^ 
 
 The reasons, then, which satisfy me that our bronze 
 weapons cannot be referred to Roman times, may be 
 summed up as follows : — 
 
 Firstly. They have never been found in company with 
 Roman pottery, or other remains of the Roman period. 
 
 Secondly. They are very abundant in some countries, 
 as, for instance, in Denmark and Ireland, which were 
 never invaded by Roman armies. 
 
 Thirdly. The bronze swords do not resemble in form 
 those used by Roman soldiers. 
 
 Fourthly. The Latin word " ferrum " was used as 
 synonymous with a sword, showing that the Romans 
 always used iron. 
 
 Fifthly. The ornamentation is not Roman in its 
 character. 
 
 Sixthly. The bronze used by the Romans contained, 
 generally, a large proportion of lead, which is never the 
 case in that of the Bronze Age. 
 
 Nor is there any subsequent period to which we can 
 refer the weapons and implements of bronze. Great 
 numbers of Saxon interments have been examined both 
 in this country and on the Continent, and we know that 
 the swords, lances, knives, and other weapons of that 
 time were all of iron. Besides this, if the bronze im- 
 plements and weapons had belonged to post-Roman times, 
 we should certainly, I think, have found some of them 
 in the ruined towns, and with the pottery and coins of 
 that period. Moreover, the similarity to each other of 
 ' Plutarch, On the Pythian Responses.
 
 HALLSTADT 
 
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 26 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the weapons found in very distant parts of Europe, 
 implies more extended intercourse between different 
 countries than any which existed in those centuries. On 
 the whole, then, the evidence is conclusive that the use 
 of bronze weapons characterizes a particular phase in the 
 history of European civilization, and one which was 
 anterior to the discovery of iron, or at any rate, to the 
 general use of that metal for cutting purposes. 
 
 Evidently, however, the transition from the use of 
 
 bronze weapons to 
 those of iron must 
 have been gradual, 
 and there must have 
 been a time when 
 the two were in 
 use together. M. 
 Ramsauer,for many 
 years director of the 
 salt-mines at Hall- 
 stadt, near Salzburg, 
 in Austria, has dis- 
 covered an exten- 
 FiG. 5.— Winged sivc Cemetery be- 
 
 celt, or Paal- lo,^^i„^ ^O this 
 
 stave, from Ire- ^ . p 
 
 land. transitional period. 
 
 He has opened no 
 less than 9 80 graves, 
 evidently of those who even at that early period worked 
 the salt-mines which are still so celebrated. The objects 
 discovered are described and figured in an album, which 
 has unfortunately never been published, but of which Sir 
 John Evans and I secured a copy. The foregoing table 
 will sufficiently prove the importance of the discovery. 
 
 That the period to which these graves belonged was 
 that of the transition between the Bronze and Iron Ages, 
 is evident ; both because we find cutting instruments of 
 iron as well as of bronze, and also because both are of 
 somewhat unusual, and we may almost say of intermediate 
 types. The same remark applies to the ornamentation. 
 
 ""^I>lll|l!,|lll!!;!liij| 
 
 Fio. 4. — Copper (?) celt from 
 Waterford — 6 inches long, 
 3f wide at the broader 
 end, and i| at the smaller, 
 which is about i-i6th 
 thick.
 
 HALLSTADT 
 
 27 
 
 Animals are frequently represented, but are very poorly 
 executed, while the geometrical patterns are well drawn. 
 Coins are entirely absent. That the transition was from 
 bronze to iron, and not from iron to bronze, is clear ; 
 because here, as elsewhere, while iron instruments with 
 bronze handles are common, there is not a single case of 
 a bronze blade with an iron handle. This shows that, 
 when both metals were in use, the iron was preferred for 
 blades. Another interesting point in the Hallstadt 
 bronze, as in that of the true Bronze 
 Age, is the absence of silver, lead, and 
 zinc (excepting, of course, as mere im- 
 purities in the bronze). This is the more 
 significant, inasmuch as the presence, not 
 only of the tin itself, but also of glass, 
 amber, and ivory, indicates the existence 
 of an extensive commerce. 
 
 Moreover, as Morlot well pointed out, 
 the absence of silver cannot be accidental, 
 because the bronze of Hallstadt contains 
 no lead, and the absence of lead en- 
 tails that of silver, since the latter could 
 not, at least in Europe, be obtained without the former.^ 
 
 In the fifty years which have elapsed since this chapter 
 was written much more evidence has accumulated, and 
 archaeologists are now agreed that the use of iron was 
 preceded by that of bronze, and that iron dates back to 
 a very early period, which in Egypt, Assyria, and the 
 South of Europe may be estimated as at least 1500 b.c. 
 In our own country I estimate the introduction of iron 
 as havino- occurred about 1000 b.c. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Socketed 
 celt from Ireland, 
 one - third of the 
 actual size. 
 
 * For further information on the subject of this chapter I may refer to 
 Sir John Evans' admirable Aticieiit Bronze Impleiuetits of Great Britain 
 and Ireland^ which has appeared since the 4th edition of this work ; to 
 Sir C. H. Read's British Museum Catalogue^ The Bronze A^e ; and to 
 various works bv Montelius.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ON THE USE OF BRONZE IN ANCIENT TIMES 
 
 The commonest and, perhaps, most characteristic objects 
 belonging to the Bronze Age are the so-called " celts " 
 (figs. 4—18), which were probably used for chisels, hoes, 
 war-axes, and a variety of other purposes. Implements 
 
 ¥ic,s. 7, 8, 9. — The three principal types of celts, and the manner in which they 
 are supposed to have been handled. 
 
 similar, though not identical, and made of iron instead of 
 bronze, are even now employed in Siberia (fig. 10) and 
 some parts of Africa.^ The French Museums contain 
 more than 10,000 bronze celts. More than 2000 are 
 known to exist in the different Irish collections, of which 
 the great Museum belonging to the Royal Irish Academy 
 at Dublin contained in the year i860 no less than 688,^ 
 
 ' Klcmm's Culturgeschichte der Afetisc/ien, vol. iii. p. 160. //ore? 
 Ferales, p. JJ. 
 2 In the Museum at Edinburgh are more than loo, at Copenhagen 350. 
 
 28
 
 BRONZE CELTS 
 
 29 
 
 Fig. 10. — Kalmuck 
 Axe ; iron. In the 
 collection of the 
 late Dr Klemm. 
 
 Fig. II.— Copper (?) 
 celt from Ireland, 
 one - half of the 
 actual size. 
 
 no two of which were cast in the same mould. They 
 vary in size from an 
 inch to a foot in length, 
 and may be divided 
 into three principal 
 classes (figs. 7-9) ac- 
 cording to the manner 
 in which they were 
 handled ; though we 
 must remember that 
 there were many inter- 
 mediate forms. The 
 first class (figs. 4, 7, 
 
 II, 13, I4> 15, 17, and 
 
 18) is the simplest in 
 
 form, and evidently the 
 
 oldest, being " formed 
 
 on the type of the old 
 
 stone celts." There can be little doubt that these simple 
 celts were handled in the manner indi- 
 cated (fig. 7). Fig. 19 represents a 
 modern African axe in my collection. 
 Here, indeed, the blade is of iron. 
 
 Evidently, however, in such an axe 
 the blade would tend to split the handle 
 in which it was placed. To remedy 
 this defect, a stop, or ridge, was raised 
 across the celt, and the metal and wood 
 were made to fit into one another 
 (figs. 5, 8, and 20). This second 
 
 Fig, 12.— Half of a celt form of Celt is known as a Paalstab, 
 mould from Ireland, or Paalstavc, and has often a small 
 
 It is of mica slate, 6| , • j / i • i l li 
 
 inches long, 4 wide, loop on onc Side (which was probably 
 and presents upon the usg^j ^q attach the Celt to the handle 
 
 surface the apertures by , , • j- j • r n\ j 
 
 means of which it was by a cord, as indicated in hg. 8), and a 
 adjusted by the other ^^{ncr on cach sidc. A Still further im- 
 
 half '-' 
 
 provement consisted (figs. 6, 9, 16) in 
 reversing the position of the metal and the handle, making 
 the axe hollow at one end, and so passing the handle into it.
 
 30 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Bronze celts are generally plain, but often ornamented 
 with ridges, dots, or lines, as in figs. 6, 9, 13, 15, 16, 
 
 and 20. That they were made in 
 the countries where they are found 
 is proved by the presence of moulds 
 (fig. 12). It is difficult to under- 
 stand why the celt-makers never 
 cast their axes as we do ours, with 
 a transverse hole, through which 
 the handle might pass. No bronze 
 implement of this description has, 
 however, so far as I know, been 
 yet found in Great Britain, though 
 a few have occurred in Denmark, 
 where they are of great beauty and 
 highly decorated. 
 
 The development of the beauti- 
 ful leaf-shaped spears is also very 
 interesting, and has 
 been well described 
 by Rev. W. Green- 
 well and MrBrewis.^ 
 They are derived 
 from the small and 
 rather weak knife (commonly called a knife- 
 dagger), so frequently found associated with 
 early burials. This eventually passed into 
 the true dagger, which was the immediate 
 parent of the spear-head, the rapier, and 
 the sword. The base of the dagger blade 
 
 tang with 
 
 was added 
 
 it to the 
 
 Fig. 13. — Decorated celt from 
 Ireland — Si inches long, 4 
 wide at the blade end, and 
 half an inch thick. 
 
 was first narrowed, and a flat 
 
 Fig. 14. — Simple 
 celt from Den- 
 mark, one-third 
 of the actual 
 size. 
 
 a peg hole at its termination 
 
 to it, for the purpose of fixing 
 
 shaft. This tanged blade constitutes the 
 
 first true spear-head of metal. The next 
 
 addition of a loose ferrule, which enclosed the wood 
 
 through which the tang was carried. The object of this 
 
 was to prevent the wood splitting and the head being 
 
 ' Archaologia, vol. Ixi., 1909. 
 
 change was the
 
 BRONZE CELTS 
 
 3i 
 
 Fig. 1 6. — Socketed 
 celt from Den- 
 
 torn from the shaft. The head was then improved still 
 
 further by the omission of the 
 
 tang, and by the amalgamation 
 
 of the ferrule with the blade. 
 This, however, 
 did not materi- 
 ally alter the ap- 
 pearance of the 
 head, though it 
 added much to 
 the firmness of 
 the hold which 
 the two parts of 
 mark, one-third of ^^^ spear had on 
 
 the actual size. r 
 
 each other. A 
 head was thus produced which 
 was provided with a socket, 
 though at that time the cavity 
 
 was not carried 
 
 up into the 
 
 blade. These 
 
 apparent rivet pic 15.— Ornamental celt from 
 heads are simu- Denmark, one-third of the 
 
 1 J 1 actual size. 
 
 lated, as also 
 
 the junction of the blade socket. The 
 next step was the extension of 
 the socket up into the blade. 
 
 The wings undergo many sig- 
 nificant and interesting changes. 
 At first the outline of the base 
 of the wings, where it emerges 
 from the socket, retains the old 
 concave form, which is a sur- 
 vival of the period when the 
 edge stopped at the simulated 
 junction of the blade and ferrule. 
 This is illustrated in fio-. 21, re- 
 
 presentnig a specimen from the Arreton Down hoard. 
 
 The rivets which originally fastened on the sheath are 
 
 Fig. 17. — Bronze celt, in the 
 Museum, Bergen.
 
 32 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 indicated by knobs, which are of course mere survivals 
 and of no use. 
 
 The next improvement was the addition of a pair of 
 loops, by which the blade was still more firmly fastened 
 to the shaft, as in fig. 22, which represents a specimen 
 
 Fig. 18. — Bronze celt, in the Museum, Fig. 19. —Modern African a.xe. In 
 Bergen. my collection, one-sixth natural size. 
 
 from Rostrevor Down. The loops are some way down 
 the shaft. 
 
 Gradually, however, they move up to the base of the 
 wings, as in fig. 23 from Bush Mills. Finally, they are 
 included in the sloping outline of the blade (fig. 24 from 
 Dowris Hoard), into which also the shaft is carried. 
 
 The thongs attached to the loops were then found to 
 be unnecessary and somewhat inconvenient.
 
 BRONZE SPEARS 
 
 3i 
 
 The longer shaft rendered them less necessary, and they 
 were replaced by a peg much reduced in size, so as to be 
 practically useless, then simulated, and finally disappeared. 
 
 The angular break in the flow of the outline of the 
 
 Fig. 20. — Bronze celt from 
 Sweden. After Montelius. 
 
 Fig. 21. — Spearhead from Arreton 
 Down. 
 
 wings, the upper part of the blade alone being provided 
 with a sharp edge, is due to the fact that in the earlier 
 examples the edge stopped at the simulated junction of 
 the blade and socket. 
 
 This form is almost confined to the United Kingdom, 
 though a few have been found at Mycenas, in Hungary, 
 
 3
 
 34 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and elsewhere in Europe, though 
 our specimens are perhaps the most 
 beautifully proportioned, and grace- 
 
 
 VlG. 22. ^Spear-head 
 from Rostrevor Down. 
 
 fully though simply decorated. The 
 loops are replaced by lunate openings, 
 mainly for ornament, though they 
 served also to lighten the spear without 
 seriously reducing the strength. 
 
 Fig. 24.
 
 BRONZE SWORDS 
 
 35 
 
 M 
 
 Fig. 25.— Iron 
 sword from a 
 cemetery at 
 Brighthamp- 
 ton in Ox- 
 ford s h i re, 
 one-eighth of 
 the actual 
 size. 
 
 It is, unfortunately, impossible to date the specimens 
 or the changes, but the gradual .jg^ 
 
 development, the obvious ad- i 
 
 vantages gained, and the simu- | 
 
 lation of old forms, leave M 
 
 scarcely any room for doubt 
 as to the sequence through 
 which the beautiful leaf-shaped 
 spear-head has been evolved. 
 
 The swords of the Bronze 
 Age (figs. 26-33 ^) '^^^ more 
 or less leaf -like in shape, 
 double-edged, sharp-pointed, 
 and intended for stabbing and 
 thrusting rather than for cut- 
 ting. This is evident, not 
 only from the general shape, 
 but also from the condition of 
 the edges. They never have 
 any hand-guards : the handles 
 are sometimes solid (figs. 29- 
 36) ; this is generally the case 
 with those found in Den- 
 mark : sometimes (figs. 26- 
 28) flat, thin, and evidently 
 intended to be plated with 
 wood or bone : while some- 
 times the sword expands at 
 its base, and is fastened to a 
 handle by from two to four 
 rivets. Swords of this class 
 are generally shorter than the 
 others, and indeed we find 
 every intermediate form be- 
 tween the true sword and the 
 dagger (figs. 37, 38, 39) ; 
 of the two classes together, the Dublin Museum contains 
 
 Vie. 26. — Sword 
 from Ireland — 
 235 inches long, 
 I ij wide in the 
 centre of the 
 blade, which is 
 margined by a 
 grooved feather 
 edge. 
 
 ^ In fig. 25 an ancient iron sword is represented, in order to show the 
 difiference in form.
 
 36 
 
 prehistoric! times 
 
 nearly 300. The handles of the bronze 
 swords are very short, a char- 
 acteristic much relied on by 
 those who attribute the in- 
 troduction of bronze into 
 Europe to a people of Asiatic 
 origin, but is probably due 
 to the manner in which they 
 were held. The Museums 
 of Denmark contain more 
 than 1000 bronze swords, 
 that of Stockholm, includ- 
 ing -daggers, over 500. At 
 Mycenae 150 swords were 
 found, all of bronze. 
 
 Bronze arrows are not very 
 common in Northern Europe, 
 probably because flint was so 
 much cheaper, and almost as 
 effective. 
 
 More than a hundred 
 bronze fish-hooks have been 
 found at Nidau in the Lake 
 of Bienne, but elsewhere 
 they appear to be rare ; the 
 Museum at Dublin contains 
 only one. Sickles are more 
 numerous ; at Copenhagen 
 there are 25, at Dublin 1 1 ; 
 in the lake-village at Morges 
 1 1 have been found, at Nidau 
 1 8 ; they are generally about 6 
 inches in length, flat on one 
 side, and raised on the other ; 
 they were always intended to 
 be held in the right hand. 
 Kir.. 27. -Sword Bronze knives (figs. 40-44) 
 
 from bweden, i r i • i- 
 
 one-fourih of are frequently round \n tumuli, and among 
 the actual size. ^T^^ remains of the Swiss lake habitations ; 
 
 Fig. 28. — Swoid 
 from Switzer- 
 land, one-fifth 
 of the actual 
 si/.e. In the 
 museum of Col. 
 Schwal).
 
 BRONZE KNIVES 
 
 37 
 
 Fig. 29. — Sword from 
 Concise on the Lake 
 of Neufchatel, J of 
 the actual size. In 
 the museum of Col. 
 Schwab. 
 
 il:' 
 
 m 
 
 20, for Instance, at Morges, 26 at 
 
 Estavayer, and about 100 at Nidau ; in 
 
 Ireland they appear to be very rare ; 
 
 the Dublin Museum does 
 
 not contain one. They 
 
 were generally fitted into 
 
 handles of bone, horn, or 
 
 wood, and the blade was 
 
 almost always more or 
 
 less curved ; those of iron 
 
 knives, on the contrary, 
 
 being generally straight. 
 
 Fig. 48 represents a 
 bronze knife figured in 
 Lee's translation of Keller, 
 page 276,^ and said to have 
 been found at Thebes by 
 Sir Gardner Wilkinson. 
 The type, however, is not 
 Egyptian. It is just pos- 
 sible that the knife may 
 have been carried to that 
 country in ancient times, 
 but it seems more probable 
 that there is an error as to 
 the locality. 
 
 The small bronze razor- 
 knives (figs. 45, 46), indeed, 
 have straight edges, but they 
 are quite of a different char- 
 acter from the iron knives ; 
 from the ornaments en- 
 graved on them, I am dis- 
 posed to regard them as 
 belonging to a late period in the Age 
 of Bronze, if not in some cases to the 
 
 ' See also for Egyptian bronze implements and 
 weapons, Mr A. Arcelin's paper in the Mater, p. 
 scr. a PHist. Prhn. de Phof/itne., 1869, p. 376. 
 
 Fig. 30. — Sword 
 from Scandi- 
 navia.
 
 38 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 beginning of that of Iron. Indeed, the Flensborg 
 
 Museum contains a razor- 
 knife, said to have been 
 found together with objects 
 of the latter metal. A some- 
 what similar pattern occurs 
 on the knife fig. 42, which, 
 from the human figure form- 
 ing the handle, I should also 
 refer to the Iron 
 Ao^e. 
 
 o 
 
 Ornaments 
 of bronze do 
 not, like the 
 weapons of that 
 metal, charac- 
 terize a definite 
 period, but may 
 belong to any 
 age. Some 
 forms have 
 maintained 
 themselves al- 
 m o s t u n- 
 changed for 
 ages. The 
 " safety - pin," 
 for instance, 
 was invented 
 in the Bronze 
 Age. Before, 
 therefore, we 
 refer any par- 
 ticular orna- 
 ment to this 
 period, we must 
 know the cir- 
 cumstances under which it was found. The following 
 illustrations are, however, principally from the Swiss 
 
 Fig. 31.— Sword 
 from Denmark, 
 found in the 
 Treenhoi tu- 
 mulus. 
 
 1'"IG. 32. 
 sword, 
 holm. 
 
 -Bronze 
 
 Stock- 
 
 FiG. 33. — Sword 
 from Denmark, 
 one-sixth of the 
 actual size.
 
 BRONZE ORNAMENTS 
 
 39 
 
 lake-villages, and may be regarded as belonging to the 
 
 Bronze Age. 
 
 ^^m^- 
 
 fourth of the actual 
 size. 
 
 The personal ornaments which may, 
 I think, safely be referred to the 
 Bronze Age, consist principally of 
 bracelets (figs. 49, 50), pins (figs. 51- 
 54), and rings. The bracelets are 
 either simple spirals, or rings open 
 at one side, and decorated by those 
 combinations of straight and curved 
 lines so characteristic of the Bronze ''T;om T)e''n'lt"one' 
 Age. Like the weapons, they gener- 
 ally indicate small hands, but, like the 
 bronze ornaments of various existing savages — for in- 
 stance, of many Negro tribes, of the Khonds in Orissa, 
 
 etc. — they are 
 
 often extremely 
 
 heavy. 
 
 Bronze pins are 
 
 very abundant : 
 
 for instance, 239 
 
 from Estavayer, 
 
 600 from Nidau, 
 
 and more than 
 
 6000 from the 
 
 two lakes of 
 
 Bienneand Neuf- 
 
 chatel.^ Theyare 
 also very frequently found in graves, 
 where they were used, as pointed 
 out by Sir R. C. Hoare, to secure 
 the linen cloth which enveloped 
 the bones. Although brooches of 
 bronze are very common, they have 
 generally been found in conjunction 
 with iron, and during the Bronze 
 Age their place seems to have been generally filled by 
 mere pins. Many of the latter articles found in the 
 ^ See Appendix. 
 
 Fig. 35. — Hilt of sword 
 from Denmark, one- 
 fourth of the actual 
 size. 
 
 Fig. 36, — 1 Ilk -il bronze 
 sword, Mu>Lum, IJergen.
 
 40 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Swiss lakes appear, however, to have been hairpins. Some 
 of them are nearly a foot in length, 
 and two found near Berne even as 
 much as 2 ft. 9 in. Many of the 
 pins have large hollow spherical 
 heads, as in figs. 51, 52 ; the others 
 vary so much that it is impossible 
 to give any general description of 
 them. There 
 can be little doubt 
 that these pins 
 really belong to 
 the Bronze Age ; 
 but the fact that 
 similar ones con- 
 tinued in use 
 long after the 
 introduction of 
 iron is equally 
 well established. 
 One of these later 
 bronze pins is re- 
 presented in fig. 
 194. Some other 
 
 blade from Ireland— loj small objCCtS of 
 
 inches long by 2^ wide, i inrliiH- 
 
 The four rivets liy which OronZC, mClUQ- 
 
 it is fastened to the handle ii-jcr tWO necdlcS, 
 
 are still /// s////. r '^ ^.U T 1 ^£ 
 
 troni the Eake or 
 Neufchatel, are represented in figs. 
 55-60. Bronze hammers are very 
 rare : it is probable that stones were 
 used for this purpose. Gouges are 
 more common. Small saws have been 
 discovered in Germany and Denmark, 
 but not, as yet, in Great Britain. 
 Studs or buttons, though not very 
 abundant, are found both in Switzerland and Scandinavia.^ 
 
 ' Further information as to tlie objects of bronze from Switzerland will 
 be found in the chapter on Swiss lake habitations. 
 
 Fig. 37. — Bronze dagger- 
 
 Fk;. 38. — Bronze dagger 
 from Ireland, two-thirds 
 of the actual size.
 
 BRONZE ORNAMENTS 
 
 41 
 
 Brooches were very rare in Western Europe, if, indeed, 
 they had been invented, during the Bronze Age. No 
 Enghsh specimens have been dis- 
 covered which can with certainty be 
 referred to this period. Ahiiost the 
 same may be said as regards the Swiss 
 Bronze Age lake-villages. They are 
 said, on the contrary, to be common 
 in Sweden. The earliest form re- 
 sembled what is now known as a 
 safety-pin. Silver, lead,^ and zinc 
 
 appear to have been 
 
 unknown, or very rare, 
 
 during; the Bronze Age. 
 
 Glass beads were in 
 
 use, but no vessels of 
 
 f{ —^ glass have yet been dis- 
 
 ^"^vo^ covered; in the same 
 
 Fig. 39. — Bronze dagger- 
 blade from Ireland, J 
 of the actual size. 
 
 manner there are barbarous tribes now 
 which are well supplied with European 
 beads, but which possess no glass vessels. 
 
 The weapons and ornaments of the 
 Bronze Age are all cast, and show con- 
 siderable skill in metallurgy." Three 
 modes of casting were employed. One 
 was that in a mould, either of stone or 
 metal. Of course in this case the mould 
 was necessarily in two halves, and the 
 line of junction was generally visible, as 
 in fig. 6r, representing a celt, which has 
 knife from Den- evidently been cast in this manner. This 
 
 mark, one-half • r j • t-'' ^ J ^ j 
 
 ofthe actual size. Specimen was found in Kent, and presented 
 
 to me by Sir George Dasent. It is clear, 
 
 however, that such an object as the knife in fig. 43 
 
 could not have been cast in this manner. Neither were 
 
 ' Lead, however, is mentioned in the inscriptions of Karnak. See 
 Lepsius, Les inetaux dans Ics Ins. Egypt, P- 58- 
 
 - See Morlot's interesting memoir : Sur le passage dc r A^e de la Pierre 
 a f Age dit Bronze et sur les mciaiix employes dans I' Age dii Bronze. 
 Copenhague, 1866. 
 
 Fig. 40.— Br
 
 42 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the pins figs. 51-54, for if they had been, the line of 
 junction between the two halves of the mould must have 
 been traceable. 
 
 Indeed, this mode of casting was evidently unusual. 
 This is proved by the condition of the objects, by the 
 scarcity of moulds, and also by the fact that we seldom 
 find any two bronze objects exactly similar to one another. 
 
 Thus, out of the 688 speci- 
 mens in the Dublin Museum, 
 no two were cast in the same 
 mould, clearly showing that the 
 moukis were not permanent. 
 
 The second mode of casting 
 was by making a model of the 
 object in wood or some other 
 hard substance, and pressing it 
 on fine sand, so as to obtain 
 a corresponding hollow. The 
 sand must of course have been 
 contained in two boxes or 
 frames, fitting like the solid 
 moulds one on the other. Ob- 
 jects cast in this manner would 
 therefore also show the line 
 of junction. The advantage 
 TT,^, .' ^ -R 1 • r of this method is that sand 
 
 I^IGS. 41, 42. — Bronze knives from 
 
 Denmark, one-third of the actual can Casily be WOrkcd intO the 
 
 ^''''^" required form, and wooden 
 
 models were much more easily made than hollow moulds, 
 either of stone or metal. Like the former, however, 
 this method was applicable to very simple castings only. 
 Specimens in which the line of junction is not exactly 
 central, or symmetrical, were probably cast in this manner, 
 the model having been pressed into the one mould rather 
 more deeply than into the other. 
 
 The third method of casting was with wax or wood. 
 In this case, as in the former, a model was made and 
 enclosed in prepared earth, made of some clayey soil 
 mixed probably with cow-dung, or some other inflammable
 
 METALLURGY OF BRONZE AGE 
 
 43 
 
 substance, in order that when subjected to heat it might 
 become porous. The frame was then heated until the wax 
 or wood disappeared. This 
 mode of casting required fewer 
 instruments, and did not, like 
 the other two methods, in- 
 volve a line of junction, which 
 was a great advantage, because 
 in the absence of steel the 
 projecting ridge thus produced 
 was very difficult to remove, 
 especially when the objects were 
 ornamented. In one case M. 
 Morlot observed on an object 
 of bronze the mark of a finger, 
 evidently resulting from an 
 impression on the soft wax. 
 Occasionally, again, when the 
 
 wax was heated 
 
 carelessly, it 
 
 burned and left 
 
 a carbonized film, 
 
 which of course 
 
 produced a cor- 
 responding mark 
 
 on the object 
 
 cast. The use 
 
 of wax in this 
 
 manner, though 
 
 presenting many 
 
 acivantages, does not appear to have been 
 
 frequent in Great Britain. 
 
 In some few cases the interiors of bronze 
 
 vessels show the marks of the spatula with 
 
 which the wax was worked. 
 
 The evidences of imperfect metallurgical knowledge 
 
 and appliances are also very interesting ; the art of 
 
 soldering appears to have been unknown. M. Morlot 
 
 has called attention to a striking instance of this pre- 
 
 P'lGS. 43, 44. — Bronze knives from 
 the lake-village of Estavayer, on 
 the Lake of Neufchatel, one-half 
 of the actual size. 
 
 Fig. 45. — Razor- 
 knife from Den- 
 mark, one-half 
 of the actual 
 size.
 
 44 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 sented by one of the large Schwcrin brooches (fig. 62). 
 This was evidently a chef cfceuvre^ but the intermediate 
 bow connecting the two great discs had been accidentally 
 broken. In order to mend it again, 
 the two pieces were put into their 
 proper relative position, and the 
 broken bow was covered with a 
 layer of wax. The whole was then 
 surroundeci with the usual prepara- 
 tion of clay, etc. ; the wax was melted 
 out and replaced 
 with bronze. 
 
 Again, besides 
 the orifice 
 through which 
 the bronze was 
 poured into the 
 mould, it was 
 necessary to leave 
 one or more holes 
 through which 
 the air might 
 escape. The 
 
 Fig. 46. — Razor-knife from 
 Denmark, one-half of the 
 actual size. 
 
 first, being 
 
 fun- 
 
 nel-shaped, was easily removed, but 
 the latter were frequently beaten over, 
 as is seen at the top of fig. 63, for 
 without steel it was almost impossible 
 to cut them off. Indeed, the smiths 
 of the Bronze Age seem to have 
 been unable to pierce bronze, and the 
 holes for rivets, as in the swords, i*^''-- 47-— Bronze knife, 
 
 , . J actual size, Denmark. 
 
 etc., are cast, and not pierced. 
 
 Even the ornamentation in circles, spirals, etc., on the 
 bronze objects is mostly cast, and though beautifully 
 drawn, was evidently done with the free hand ; compasses 
 seem therefore to have been unknown. 
 
 In some cases, however, the ornamentation appears to 
 have been engraved on the objects themselves. For this
 
 METALLURGY OF BRONZE AGE 
 
 45 
 
 purpose short instruments were used, in which there 
 was a much larger proportion of tin than usual. Such 
 
 Fig. 48. — Bronze knife, said to have been found by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, 
 at Thebes, but probably European. 
 
 implements are very hard, but at the same time very 
 brittle, and therefore not 
 suited for ordinary pur- 
 poses. Instruments of this 
 character, though rare, have 
 been met with in the great 
 bronze find at Larnaud and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 On some of the bronze 
 vessels the ornamentation 
 has been produced by ham- 
 mering. This, however, 
 indicates a considerable pro- 
 gress in metallurgy. 
 
 Soldering seems to have 
 been entirely unknown during the Bronze Age, and even 
 
 during the earlier times of the Iron 
 Age. Thus the Hallstadt bronze 
 vessels, when broken, were always 
 riveted together. 
 
 I have also figured a group (figs. 
 64-67) of Irish gold ornaments. 
 The earlier ones probably belong 
 to the Bronze Age ; a torque 
 
 I'k;. 50. — Bronze bracelet from 1 i-i r /- c j r 
 
 Cortaiiiod, on the Lake of much like fig. 64 tormed part ot 
 Neufchatei, one-third of the the orreat Lamaud find, but they 
 
 actual size. ^ , , ■' 
 
 appear to have come clown to a 
 much later period. The fact is interesting that very 
 similar ornaments, made, however, not of gold, but of 
 
 Fig. 49. — Bronze bracelet from Cor- 
 taiiiod, on the Lake of Neufchatei, 
 one-third of the actual size.
 
 46 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 iron, are now worn by the natives of Africa. One of 
 these is represented in fig. 68.^ 
 
 The ornamentation on the objects of bronze is of a 
 peculiar, and at the same time uniform, character ; it 
 consists of simple geometrical patterns, and is formed by 
 combinations of spirals, circles, and zigzag lines ; repre- 
 sentations of animals, and plants being very rarely 
 attempted. Even the few exceptions to this rule are 
 perhaps more apparent than real. Thus, two such only 
 are figured in the Catalogue of the Copenhagen Museum ; 
 one is a rude figure of a swan (fig. 40), the other of a 
 
 Figs. 51, 52, 53, 54. — Bronze hair-pins from the Swiss lakes, one-half 
 of the actual size. 
 
 man (fig. 42). The second of these forms the handle 
 of a knife, which appears to be strai2;ht in the blade, a 
 type characteristic of the Iron Age, but rarely found in 
 that of Bronze. As regards one of them, therefore, there 
 is an independent reason for referring it to the period 
 of transition, or at least to the close of the Bronze Age. 
 There is, indeed, one type of pattern, usually found on 
 the razor-knives, but sometimes also on others, intended 
 probably for a rude representation of a ship (fig. 46). 
 Even, however, if we admit this to be the case, and if 
 we accept these objects as belonging to the Bronze Age, 
 this will only show how little advance had yet been made 
 in the art of representing natural objects. 
 
 ' Atc/ucoloi;'ia, vol. xliii. p. 442.
 
 OBJECTS OF BRONZE 
 
 47 
 
 Celts and Fray:ments, 
 
 Swords, 
 
 Hammers, 
 
 Knives and Fragments, 
 
 Pins, .... 
 
 Small Rings, 
 
 Ear-rings, . 
 
 Bracelets and Fragments, 
 
 Fish-hooks, 
 
 Awls, 
 
 Spiral Wires, 
 
 Lance-heads, 
 
 Arrow-heads, 
 
 Buttons, 
 
 Needles, . 
 
 Various Ornaments, . 
 
 Saws, 
 
 Daggers, . 
 
 Sickles, 
 
 Double-pointed I'ins, 
 
 Small Bracelets, 
 
 Sundries, . 
 
 Total, 
 
 4 
 1 02 
 611 
 496 
 238 
 
 55 
 189 
 
 95 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 75 
 20 
 96 
 
 2004 
 
 19 
 
 53 
 28 
 42 
 
 14 
 12 
 
 208 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 '^ 
 
 > 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 
 14 
 
 22 
 
 239 
 
 1^3 
 
 115 
 
 195 
 
 .36 
 
 116 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 43 
 
 71 
 
 49 
 
 98 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 II 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 618 
 
 835 
 
 19 
 237 
 
 202 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 I 
 
 539 
 
 14 
 
 ^ ; Total. 
 
 II 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 22 
 
 3 
 5 
 2 
 I 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 193 
 
 1367 
 
 1053 
 440 
 
 145 
 248 
 262 
 
 lOI 
 
 47 
 6 
 
 49 
 30 
 49 
 
 45 
 
 75 
 
 31 
 
 124 
 
 69 4346 
 
 -Bronze awl from the Swiss 
 lakes, actual size. 
 
 The foregoing table, which I owe to the kindness 
 of Dr Keller, and the list given on p. 18, will give 
 an idea of the relative num- 
 bers of the different ob- 
 jects. Since it was drawn ,., , ,, 
 up the numbers have con- 
 siderably increased, and the 
 
 total number of bronze objects recovered from the 
 two lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel alone now exceeds 
 20,000. 
 
 Dr Thurnam gives the following list of the bronze 
 objects found by Sir R. C. Hoare in the Wiltshire 
 tumuli.
 
 48 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Objects of Bronze, 
 
 With Unburnt 
 
 With Burnt 
 
 
 
 Bodies. 
 
 Bodies. 
 
 Total 
 
 Celts .... 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 Blades of knives, daggers, etc 
 
 i6 
 
 44 
 
 60 
 
 Awls and drills 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 Crutch-headed screws . 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Large pin with rings 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Prong with rings . 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 Rivets and pieces of bronze- 
 
 
 
 
 mounted shield (?) 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 Bracelet 
 
 I 
 
 . . . 
 
 I 
 
 Buckle. 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Bead .... 
 
 . , . 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Total 
 
 29 
 
 79 
 
 108 
 
 As already mentioned (ante, p. 19), the bronze objects 
 were evidently in many cases made by travelling pedlars 
 
 Figs. 56-60. — Various small objects of bronze from the Swiss lakes. 
 
 who exchanged new ones for old, or for broken pieces. 
 To save carrying about heavy and precious objects, they 
 often concealed part of their stock, and many of their 
 hoards have been discovered, in France alone over 400. 
 These hoards are very instructive, and I shall refer to
 
 OBJECTS OF BRONZE 
 
 49 
 
 them again when we come to consider the chronology of 
 the Bronze Age. 
 
 There is, I beheve, only one case in which any bronze 
 weapon or implement bears an inscription ; a fact which 
 is the more significant when we remember how often 
 letters are met with on 
 those of iron. Fig. 71 
 represents this interesting 
 specimen, which is a winged 
 celt, and is in the Museum 
 Kircherianum of the Col- 
 legio Romano, at Rome. 
 No explanation of the 
 inscription has yet been 
 given, nor do we even 
 know to what alphabet 
 the letters belong. It was 
 found in the Campagna, 
 but there is unfortunately 
 no record of the circum- 
 stances under which it was 
 discovered. 
 
 The skill displayed in 
 the manufacture of the 
 objects described in this 
 chapter, as well as the 
 beauty of their form and 
 ornamentation, shows a 
 considerable development 
 of art. The discovery of 
 a bar of tin at Estavayer, and of a mould for casting 
 celts at Morges, has proved that some at least of these 
 objects were made in Switzerland, just as evidence of 
 a similar nature shows that other countries in Europe, 
 as, for instance, Denmark, England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 had also their own foundries. The similarity of form 
 and ornamentation appears also to indicate some com- 
 munication between different parts of Europe ; but each 
 country presents special types ; but as Cornwall, Saxony, 
 
 4 
 
 Fig. 61. — Bronze celt, one-half natural 
 size. Showing the line of junction of 
 the two halves of the mould in which 
 it was cast.
 
 50 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and Spain ^ are the only known European sources from 
 which tin can be obtained in any quantity, the mere 
 
 Fig. 62. —Bronze brooch, Mecklenburg, three-tenths natural size. Showing 
 the manner in which it has been mended. 
 
 presence of bronze is in itself a sufficient evidence 
 not only of metallurgical skill, but also 
 of commercial intercourse. 
 
 We should hardly, perhaps, have hoped 
 to ascertain much of the manner in 
 which the people of the Bronze Age were 
 dressed. Considering how perishable are 
 the materials out of which clothes are 
 necessarily formed, it is wonderful that 
 any fragments of them should have re- 
 mained to the present day. There can 
 be little doubt that the skins of animals 
 were extensively used for this purpose, 
 as indeed they have been in all ages 
 of man's history ; many traces of linen 
 tissue also have been found in English 
 
 Fig. 63.— Bronze celt, tumuli of the Bronze Age, and in the 
 Showing the air- g^igg lakcs. Fio;s, i8q-iqo represent 
 
 vents bent over. . r r 1 • r i-» 1 1 
 
 pieces or rabnc from Robenhausen m 
 Switzerland ; they belong, however, in all probability, 
 
 ' Tin is said to have anciently been obtained in Pannonia, near the 
 modern Temesvar, but 1 do not know whether the mines were extensive. 
 See Iloworth, Stockholtn Frcliist. Coni^rcss, p. 533.
 
 DRESS OF THE] BRONZE AGE 51 
 
 to the Stone Age. Even small fragments such as these 
 throw much light on the manufactures, if we may call 
 them so, of the period to which they belong ; but for- 
 tunately we need not content ourselves with any such 
 partial knowledge as this, as we possess the whole dress 
 of a chief belonging to the Bronze Age. 
 
 P'iG. 64. — Gold torque, consisting oi a simple flat strip or band of gold, loosely 
 twisted, and having expanded extremities which loop into one another. It 
 measures 52 inches across, and was found near Clonmacnoise, in Ireland. 
 
 On a farm near Ribe, in Jutland, is a tumulus known as 
 Treenhoi, which was examined in 1861 by MM. Worsaae 
 and Herbst. It is about fifty ells in diameter and six in 
 height, being composed of a loose sandy earth. In it, 
 near the centre, were found three wooden coffins, two of 
 full size and one evidently intended for a child. The 
 coffin with which we are now particularly concerneci was 
 about 9 ft. 8 in. long and 2 ft. 2 in. broad on the outside ; 
 its internal measurements were 7I ft. long and i ft. 8 in. 
 broad. It was covered by a movable lid of corresponding
 
 52 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 size. The contents were peculiar and very interesting. 
 
 While, as might naturally be expected, we find, in most 
 ancient graves, only the bones and 
 teeth, all the soft parts having long 
 ago decayed away, in some cases 
 — and this was one of them — almost 
 exactly the reverse has happened. 
 Through the action of water, owing 
 perhaps to the fact that it was 
 strongly impregnated with iron, the 
 soft parts of the body had been 
 
 Fig. 65.-Goid fibula, one- ^^^ncd into a dark,_greasy substance ; 
 
 half of the actual size, and the boncs, with the exception 
 
 Srcup^deSp^'and'conSi' o^ ^ fcw fragments, were changed 
 
 into a kind of blue powder. 
 
 Singularly enough, the brain seems to have been the 
 
 part which had undergone least change. On opening the 
 
 coffin, it was found lying at 
 
 one end, where no doubt the 
 
 head had originally been placed, 
 
 covered by a thick hemi- 
 spherical woollen cap, about 
 
 six inches in height (fig. 72). 
 
 The outer side of the cap was 
 
 thickly covered by short loose 
 
 threads, every one of them 
 
 ending in a small knot, which 
 
 gave the cap a very singular 
 
 appearance. The body of the 
 
 corpse had been wrapped in a 
 
 coarse woollen cloak (fig. 73), Fig. 66.— Smooth, massive, cylin- 
 
 Which was almost semicircular, '^"'r''^ gold ring with ornamented 
 J , ., . , •" ends, one-half of the actual size. 
 
 and hollowed out round the 
 
 neck. It was about 3 ft. 8 in. long, and broad in pro- 
 portion. On its inner side were left hanging a great 
 number of short woollen threads, which gave it somewhat 
 the appearance of plush. 
 
 On the right side of the body was a box, closed by a 
 lid of the same diameter. It was 7! in. in diameter.
 
 DRESS OF THE BRONZE AGE 
 
 S3 
 
 H 
 
 in. high, and was fastened together by pieces of 
 osier or bark. In this box was a similar smaller one, 
 without a lid, and in this again were three articles, namely. 
 
 Fig. 6y. — Gold fibula, one-third of the actual size. The external surfaces of the 
 cups are decorated with circular indentations surrounding a central indented 
 spost. There is also an elegant pattern where the handle joins the cups. It is 
 8g inches long, and weighs 33 ounces, being the heaviest now known to exist. 
 
 a cap 7 in. high, of simply woven woollen stuff (fig. 74) ; 
 a small comb 3 in. long, 2^ in. high (fig. 75) ; and a small 
 simple razor-knife. 
 
 After the cloak and the bark-box had been taken away. 
 
 jScc^i'on 
 
 Fig. 68. — Iron ornament, Africa. 
 
 two woollen shawls came to view, one of them coveringr 
 the feet, the other lying nearer to the head. They were 
 of a square shape, rather less than 5 ft. long, 3 ft. 9 in. 
 broad, and with a long fringe (fig, 77). At the place 
 where the body had lain was a shirt (fig. 76), also of
 
 54 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Fig. 69. — Bronze necklet in Bergen 
 Museum. 
 
 woollen material, cut out a little for the neck, and with a 
 long projecting tongue at one of the upper angles. It 
 
 was fastened at the waist by 
 a long woollen band, which 
 went twice round the body, 
 and hung down in front. 
 On the left side of the 
 corpse was a bronze sword 
 (fig. 3 i), in a wooden sheath. 
 It is 2 ft. 3 in. in length, and 
 has a solid simple handle. 
 
 At the feet were two pieces 
 of woollen stuff, about 14^ 
 in. long and 3^^ in. wide 
 (fig. 78), the use of which 
 does not seem quite clear, though they may be supposed 
 to have been leggings. At the end of the coflfin were 
 found traces of leather, 
 doubtless the remains of 
 boots. In the cap, where 
 the head had been, was 
 some black hair, and the 
 form of the brain was still 
 recognizable. Finally, 
 this ancient warrior had 
 been wrapped round in 
 an ox's hide, and so com- 
 mitted to the grave. 
 
 The other two coffins 
 were not examined by 
 competent persons, and 
 the valuable information 
 which they might have 
 afforded was thus lost to us. The more indestructible 
 things were, however, preserved ; consisting of a sword, 
 a brooch, a knife, a double-pointed awl, a pair of tweezers, 
 a large double button or stud, all of bronze ; a small 
 double button of tin, and a javelin-head of flint. 
 
 The baby's coffin produced only an amber bead, and 
 
 Fig. 70. — Bronze torque from Norway, 
 in Bergen Museum.
 
 DRESS OF THE BRONZE AGE 
 
 SS 
 
 Fig. 71. — Inscribed celt, 
 Museum Kircherianum, 
 Rome, one-half of the 
 actual size. 
 
 a small bronze bracelet, consisting of a simple ring of 
 
 metal. 
 
 Another tumulus on the same farm contained four 
 
 wooden coffins, in which were bodies clothed in woollen 
 
 garments, a bronze sword in a wooden 
 
 sheath ornamented with carvings, two 
 
 bronze daggers, a wooden bowl orna- 
 mented by a large number of tin 
 
 nails, a vase of wood, and a small 
 
 box of bark. 
 
 In another instance, near Aarhuus, 
 
 the dress of a woman was discovered 
 
 under similar circumstances. Over 
 
 her head were two shawls, one rather 
 
 fine, the other coarser. She wore a 
 
 cloak with sleeves, and a long shirt 
 
 tied round the waist by woollen cords. 
 
 She also had been buried with a 
 
 bronze dagger. 
 
 There can, therefore, be no doubt that these very 
 
 interesting tumuli date from the Bronze Age, and I am 
 inclined to place them somewhat late 
 in that period, partly on account of 
 the knife and razor-knife, both of 
 which belong to forms which there 
 are, as already mentioned, other reasons 
 for referrino- to the close of the Bronze 
 Age, and to the beginning of that of 
 Iron. Bronze brooches are also very 
 size. Found with tiie rarely found in the Bronze Ao;e, and 
 bronze sword (fig. 32) ^^^ common in that of Iron^ The 
 
 in a Danish tumulus. 1 • i 1 
 
 sword, again, belongs to a form which 
 is regarded by Professor Nilsson as being of late 
 introduction. 
 
 The ancient Egyptians and Assyrians were both ac- 
 quainted with the art of embroidery at a very early date.^ 
 Leviticus (about 1500 r.c.) mentions garments of linen 
 
 ' See Cole on "Ancient Embroideries," Soc. of Arts ^ Feb. 1895. Also 
 Yates' Textimiim Afifiqiionan. 
 
 Fig. 72. — Woollen cap, 
 one-sixth of the actual
 
 56 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and wool. Pliny attributes the invention of cotton weav- 
 ing to the reign 
 of Semiramis. In 
 one of the wall 
 paintings at Beni- 
 hassanon the Nile 
 (about 2 100 B.C.), 
 a figure is re- 
 presented in a 
 spotted dress — 
 apparently woven 
 with a shuttle. 
 On another tomb 
 at Thebes, a per- 
 sonage is repre- 
 sented in a dress 
 with red and blue 
 spots, which, 
 however, may 
 have been darned 
 on. On a wall 
 painting in the 
 
 Ramesseum (about 1400 b.c.) an Egyptian being is 
 
 represented in a dress striped with blue and yellow, 
 
 while his horse carries a cloth striped 
 
 with blue, yellow, red, and green. 
 
 Herodotus describes a corselet sent 
 
 as a present by Amasis to the Greeks 
 
 as being of linen with " many figures 
 
 of animals unwrought, and adorned 
 
 Fig. 73. — A woollen cape, one-sixth of the actual size. 
 Found with the preceding. 
 
 with gold and tree wool." 
 
 From 1000 B.C. we have actual 
 specimens of embroidery. 
 
 Finally, the mode of sepulture, 
 though other similar cases are on 
 record, is, to say the least, very 
 unusual ; in the Age of Iron, indeed, the corpse was 
 generally extended, but in that of Bronze the dead were, 
 with few exceptions, burned, or buried in a'^contracted 
 
 Fig. 74. — Another woollen 
 cap, one - sixth of the 
 actual size. Found with 
 the preceding.
 
 BURIAL DURING THE BRONZE AGE 
 
 57 
 
 attitude. In Denmark, cremation appears to have been 
 almost universal ; in England, I have taken out the 
 statistics of loo cases of tombs containing objects of 
 bronze, 37 recorded by Mr Bateman anci 63 by Sir 
 R. C. Hoare ; and the following table shows the 
 manner in which the corpse had been treated. 
 
 
 Contracted. 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 Extended. 
 
 Uncertain 
 
 Bateman 
 
 • 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 Hoare. 
 
 4 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 59 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 AiVAji 
 
 mik\ 
 
 In 100 cases recorded by Canon Green well, all were 
 contracted or burnt. 
 
 We may consider, therefore, that during this period 
 
 the corpse was sometimes, though 
 
 very rarely, extended on its back, 
 
 and more frequently it was buried 
 
 in a sitting or crouching position, 
 
 and in a small chamber formed by l 
 1 111 ^. lA 
 
 large stones, but that the most usual „ a „ , 
 
 ° . ' , 111 1 Fig. 75. — A small comb, 
 
 practice was to burn the dead, and one-sixth of the actual 
 collect the ashes and fragments of '''^^- ,f°""'' '^'^'^ 'he 
 
 . o preceding. 
 
 bones m or under an urn. 
 
 The ancient funeral customs, however, will be more 
 fully considered in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 The people of the Bronze Age led a pastoral life, 
 having cows, sheep, pigs, dogs, and horses. The cows 
 were small, about the size of the present Kerry breed, 
 standing 3 ft. 5 in. at the shoulder. Larger oxen some- 
 times occurred, but were not common. The sheep and 
 horse were also small ; but the pigs, though slender, 
 were about the average size of modern specimens. There 
 are indications that they cultivated the soil from the 
 prevalence of lines of terrace near the camps, but on this 
 point the evidence is not conclusive. 
 
 The camps were no doubt occupied for a long period, 
 and from that day to this objects have been dropped in 
 them, and especially in the ditch. General Pitt Rivers,
 
 58 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 however, has carefully recorded not only when, but at 
 
 what depth, every object, even 
 every bit of pottery, was found, 
 and the result is most inter- 
 esting and instructive. He has 
 also given average sections of 
 the camps and the ditches, 
 showing the position of the 
 relics projected into them. 
 
 We know as yet very little 
 about the architecture of the 
 
 Bronze Ape. 
 
 o 
 
 Rougemont ^ 
 
 considers that the Round towers 
 belong to that period, but 1 
 know no sufficient reason for 
 this opinion. 
 In the next 
 
 Fig. 76. — A woollen shirt, one- chapter I 
 sixth of the actual size. Found i 11 
 
 for 
 
 shall give m^ 
 
 with the preceding. 
 
 reasons 
 referring some at least of our so-called 
 Druidical remains to that period, and 
 many of the Swiss lake-villages cer- 
 tainly belong to it. These remains, 
 indeed, give us little information as to 
 the kind of houses then in use. Cer- 
 tain " hut-urns," however, or urns in 
 the form of huts, which have been 
 discovered in Italy and Germany, appear 
 to belong to the close of the Bronze 
 Acre. The Italian " hut-urns " were 
 discovered in 1817'' at Albano, near 
 Rome, under an undisturbed layer of 
 peperino or consolidated volcanic ash, 
 and belong, therefore, to a time when the volcanoes near 
 Rome were still in a state of activity. The volume of 
 
 Fig, 77. — A woollen 
 shawl, one-sixth of the 
 actual size. Found 
 with the preceding. 
 
 1 IJAi^e dii Bronrjc, pp. 12, 380. 
 
 2 Sq-Q. Letlcra del Sionor D. A. Visco?iii sopra alcuni vast sepolchrali 
 rinve7iuti nelle 7nnci7tanze della antica Alba-Loni^a^ Roma, 1867.
 
 HUT URNS 
 
 59 
 
 the Arch^ologia for 1869 contains a full account by 
 Professor Pigorini and myself of the numerous vases 
 and other objects found with these hut-urns. The 
 pottery is peculiarly dark and com- 
 pact, and with it were found several 
 bronze knives. The presence of 
 some fragments of iron, however, 
 appears to show that the huts be- 
 long quite to the close of the Bronze 
 Age, or rather to the commence- 
 ment of that of Iron. The follow- 
 ing figure will give an idea of the 
 urns themselves, as well as of the 
 houses they were intended to re- 
 present. 
 
 These cases are not isolated. In f,^ -^ a ■ n • 
 
 L o TA -n r riG. 7b. — A pair of legi^incjs 
 
 the year 1837 Dr Beyer found near one-third of the actual size. 
 
 Parchim a somewhat similar hut- Found with the preceding. 
 
 urn in_ a tumulus, which, both from its form and as 
 
 containing bronze, is considered by Dr Lisch as certainly 
 
 belonging to the Bronze Age.^ 
 
 In 1849 ^" '^^"j evidently 
 intended to represent a house 
 with a tall straw roof, was founci 
 in a tumulus at Aschersleben. 
 From its colour and material 
 Dr Lisch refers this urn also to 
 the Bronze Ao^e. 
 
 The Museum at Munich con- 
 tains a very interesting piece of 
 pottery (fig. 80), apparently in- 
 tended to represent a Lake- 
 hamlet comprising seven small 
 round huts. The huts are arranged in "three rows of 
 three each, thus forming three sides of a square. The 
 fourth side is closed by a wall, in the centre of which 
 IS an opening leading into a porch, which is represented 
 as being thatched. The platform on which the huts 
 
 ^ Uebcr die Haiisiirueu, Schvverin, 1856. 
 
 Fig. 79. — Hut urn. Albano.
 
 6o 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 stand is supported by four columns represented as con- 
 sisting of logs, lying one upon the other. The roofs are 
 unfortunately wanting. The sides are ornamented with 
 the double spiral so characteristic of the Bronze Age. 
 
 In North Germany and Denmark also urns have been 
 discovered somewhat resembling that in fig. 79. In 
 some cases the " door " is in the roof. Dr Lisch 
 considers that these last urns are the earliest, and repre- 
 sent a form of dwelling even more ancient than those in 
 which the door is in the side. To me, I confess, it 
 seems more probable that these urns belong to a later 
 
 period, when the repre- 
 sentation of the ciwelling 
 was more conventional, 
 and the resemblance 
 consequently less. 
 
 Many of the dwell- 
 ings in use during the 
 Bronze Age were no 
 doubt subterranean or 
 semi - subterranean. 
 On almost all large 
 
 Fig. 80.— Urn apparently representing a lake- ^ . f .mrnlti vated 
 
 dwelling. In the Munich collection. iraClS OI UnCUinvatCU 
 
 land ancient villao-es of 
 
 o 
 
 this character may still be traced. A pit was dug, 
 generally from 6 to 16 feet in diameter, and the earth 
 which was thrown out formed a circular wall, the whole 
 being then probably covered over with boughs. 
 
 True hut circles, however, occur in many places. In 
 Anglesea a group of such have been well described by 
 the Honourable Owen Stanley.^ 
 
 On Dartmoor and elsewhere, where large blocks of 
 stone abounded, the natives saved themselves the trouble 
 of excavating, and built up circular walls of stone. In 
 other cases, perhaps when concealment was an object, or 
 for use in severe weather, the dwellings were entirely 
 subterranean. 
 
 ' On Remains of the Ancieni Ciiriilar irabitations in Holyhead 
 Island, by the Hon. W. O. Stanley, M..V.
 
 PICTS' HOUSES 
 
 6i 
 
 Such ancient dwellings are in Scotland known as 
 " weems," from " Uamha," a cave. In one of these, at 
 Monzie, in Perthshire, a bronze sword was discovered.^ 
 Such underground chambers, however, appear to have 
 been used in Scotland as dwellings, or at least as places 
 of concealment, down to the time of the Romans ; for a 
 weem described by Lord Rosehill ^ was constructed partly 
 of stones " showing the diagonal and diamond markings 
 peculiar to Roman workmanship." The so-called Picts' 
 
 Fk;. Si. — Beehive house, Inishmurray, Sligo. 
 
 houses, which are so common in the north of Scotland, 
 are but slightly, and often not at all, sunk beneath 
 the surface, though, being covered with earth, they are 
 scarcely distinguishable externally from the larger tumuli : 
 but on digging into the green mound, it is found to 
 cover a series of large chambers, built generally with 
 stones of considerable size and convermng; towards the 
 centre, where an opening appears to have been left for 
 light and ventilation. These differ little from many of 
 the subterranean weems, excepting that they are erected 
 on the natural surface of the soil, and have been buried 
 
 ' Wilson, Pre- Historic Annals of Scotland^ vol. i. p. 104. 
 
 ^ Lord Rosehill, Proc. of the Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, 1869, p. 109.
 
 62 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 by means of an artificial mound heaped over them. It 
 may seem improbable that a people living in such rude 
 dwellings should possess a knowledge of metallurgy, but 
 the Kaffirs and other existing African tribes present us 
 with a similar case. 
 
 From these we pass naturally to the beehive houses, 
 which are constructed of dry, thick walls in the form 
 indicated by the name.-^ No doubt many of these are 
 very ancient, and some probably date from the Age of 
 Stone ; but on the other hand, they also come down to 
 the present day, and fig. 82 represents a group in Long 
 Island, on the shore of Loch Resort, which was inhabited 
 
 Fir.. 82. — Group of beehive he uses, Scotland. 
 
 down to the year 1823. Even now some few beehive 
 houses are still occupied in the Island of Uig. 
 
 The celebrated " brochs " or " burp-hs " which abound 
 in the north of Scotland, as well as in the Orkneys and 
 Shetlands, are of a very peculiar character. They have 
 been supposed by some to be Scandinavian, but no 
 similar buildings occur in Norway, Sweden, or Denmark. 
 
 Fig. 83 is from a photograph of the celebrated Burgh 
 of Moussa, in the Shetlands, the best preserved specimen 
 of this curious style of architecture. I visited this most 
 interesting building in 1867. It stands close to the sea, 
 on the little Island of Moussa, and may be taken as a 
 typical specimen. Some 300 are known, almost all in 
 the north of Scotland or on the Islands. They are all 
 circular, about 60 feet in diameter, with walls about 
 
 1 See Captain Thomas on Ueehive Houses, J'roc. Soc. Afitiq. Scotland, 
 vol. iii. p. 133; vol. vii. p. 153. See also Petrie, J^roc. Soc. Atitiq. 
 Scotland, vol. vii. p. 201.
 
 BURGH OF MOUSSA 
 
 63 
 
 1 5 feet thick, enclosing a courtyard about 30 feet in 
 diameter. The walls contain a staircase, which leads to 
 the top of the building, several horizontal galleries, and 
 some small conical chambers, all opening on the inside ; 
 the only external orifice being the door, which is about 
 7 feet high. 
 
 Fig. 83. —The Burgh of Moussa, Shetland. 
 
 The absence of trees and abundance of stone probably 
 led to this curious style of architecture. Although, 
 moreover, so archaic in character, these burghs continued 
 in use down to historical times, in fact until the intro- 
 duction of lime, and the knowledge of the true principle 
 of the arch enabled the natives to construct buildings of 
 a more modern character ; they are extremely numerous 
 in Caithness, in the Orkneys, and the Shetlands ; but this 
 Moussa Bursh is one of the few that are mentioned in
 
 64 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 history. Torfoeus tells us that about the year 1 1 50 Erling 
 carried off the beautiful Margaret, mother of Harold, the 
 then Earl of Orkney, and was besieged in Moussa by 
 Harold, who, however, being unable to take the place, at 
 length thought it politic to consent to the marriage. By 
 far the greater number of the burghs are mere ruins, and 
 the so-called Dun of Dornadilla, supposed to have been 
 erected by the ancient Scotch king of that name, is the 
 only one which is at all as complete as that of Moussa. 
 Whether any of the burghs are referable to the Bronze 
 
 Fu;. 84. — Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry. From a model in the 
 collection of the Royal Irish Academy. 
 
 Age it is impossible to say. It is remarkable, however, 
 that in the Island of Sardinia there are archaic buildings 
 known as " nurhags," which closely resemble the British 
 burghs. 
 
 In a future chapter I shall endeavour to show that 
 Stonehenge and Avebury belong to the Bronze Age. 
 Some of the ancient fortifications also probably are of this 
 period, but a large proportion, as well as many of the 
 earthen forts known as Raths and Duns and the stone 
 forts known as Cashels or Cahirs, as for instance the 
 Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry, fig. 84, belong in 
 all probability to a much later period. In Sligo alone 
 there are said to be no less than 1 800 forts. ^ 
 
 ' T. R. Irish Soc. of A/tL, 1891.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE BRONZE AGE 
 
 There have been four principal theories as to the Bronze 
 Age. According to some archaeologists, the discovery, 
 or introduction, of bronze was (i) due to Roman influence, 
 (2) to the Etruscans, (3) to the Phoenicians, (4) to a new 
 and more civilized people of Indo-European race, coming 
 from the East, who, bringing with them a knowledge of 
 bronze, overran Europe, and dispossessed — in some places 
 entirely destroying — the original or rather the earlier 
 inhabitants, or, lastly, was the result of gradual and 
 peaceable development. 
 
 The Roman theory has been dealt with, perhaps under 
 the circumstances at almost unnecessary length, and has 
 now no adherents. 
 
 M. Wiberg attempted to show that the Bronze Age in 
 Northern Europe was mainly due to Etrurian merchants. 
 Without, however, altogether denying the influence of 
 Etrurian art, we have not any evidence that Etruria ever 
 enjoyed so extensive a commerce as would account for 
 the great number of bronze objects which have been 
 found in Northern and Western Europe. 
 
 The theory which attributed the Bronze Age civiliza- 
 tion in Northern Europe to Phoenician influence was 
 maintained by Professor Nilsson with great ability.-^ 
 Since he wrote, however, the evidence has convinced 
 archiEologists that the Bronze Age commenced much earlier 
 than was supposed fifty years ago. Marseilles was only 
 
 ^ Skandinaviska Nordens Uf-invanare, af S. Nilsson, Stockholm, 1862. 
 English ed., ed. by Sir John Lubbock : Longmans. 
 
 65 5
 
 66 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 founded in 600 b.c. ; Carthage in 800 b.c. ; and Utica, 
 according to Strabo and Pliny, about 300 years earlier ; 
 and, as we shall see, the Bronze Age commenced long 
 before these dates. 
 
 Nor is there any sufficient evidence that bronze was 
 introduced by a new superior or conquering race, which 
 disposed, or destroyed, the previous neolithic inhabitants. 
 
 It would seem, therefore, that the knowledge of bronze 
 was introduced from the East, and gradually made its 
 way over Europe. 
 
 A circumstance which strongly militates against the 
 theory of a gradual and independent development of 
 metallurgical knowledge in different countries, is the fact 
 which, though perhaps somewhat too strongly stated by 
 Mr Wright, is substantially correct, that whenever we 
 find the bronze swords or celts, " whether in Ireland, in 
 the far west, in Scotland, in distant Scandinavia, in 
 Germany, or still further east in the Sclavonic countries, 
 they are the same, not similar in character, but identical." 
 The great resemblance to each other of stone implements 
 found in different parts of the world may be satisfactorily 
 accounted for by the similarity of the material, and the 
 simplicity of the forms. But this argument cannot be 
 applied to the bronze arms and implements. Though 
 there are certain differences, yet several varieties of celts 
 found throughout Europe, as well as some of the swords, 
 knives, daggers, etc., are so similar that they seem as if 
 they must have been cast by the same maker. Compare, 
 for instance, figs. 4, 6, and 13, which represent Irish 
 celts, with 14, 15, and 16, which are copied from Danish 
 specimens ; the three swords, figs. 26, 27, and 28, which 
 come respectively from Ireland, Sweden, and Switzerland, 
 and the two, figs. 29 and 30, of which the first is Swiss, 
 the second Scandinavian. It would have been easy to 
 multiply examples of this similarity, and it is not going 
 too far to say that these resemblances cannot be the 
 result of accident. On the other hand, it must be 
 admitted that each country has certain minor peculiarities. 
 Neither the form nor the ornaments are exactly similar.
 
 SIMILARITY OF BRONZE IMPLEMENTS 67 
 
 In Denmark and Mecklenburg, spiral ornaments are 
 most common ; farther south, these are replaced by ring 
 ornaments and lines. The Danish swords generally have 
 solid and richly-decorated handles, as in figs. 30-36, 
 while those found in Great Britain (fig, 26) terminate in 
 a plate which was riveted to pieces of wood or bone. 
 Again, the British lance-heads frequently have loops at 
 the side of the shaft-hole, as in figs. 22, 23, and 24, which 
 is never the case with Danish specimens. 
 
 The evidence also indicates that the use of bronze, 
 when once discovered, spread rapidly, because we find 
 the simplest and earliest forms scattered over the whole 
 area, whereas if the process had been slow, the more 
 useful and complex forms would have been developed 
 before the use of metal reached our shores. 
 
 The impurities in the bronze indicate, as was shown in 
 the last chapter, that the copper ore was not all derived 
 from one locality ; and lastly, the discovery of moulds in 
 Ireland, Scotland, England, Switzerland, Denmark, and 
 elsewhere, proves that the art of casting in bronze was 
 known and practised in many countries. 
 
 On the whole, then, though there is, I think, ample 
 evidence to prove that the general use of bronze weapons 
 and implements characterizes a well-marked epoch in 
 history, it must also be admitted that we have still very 
 much to learn in regard to this interesting phase in the 
 development of European civilization, and the race by 
 whom the knowledge of metals was introduced into our 
 Continent. 
 
 The discoveries of bronze implements may be arranged 
 under three heads : — 
 
 (i) Objects lost ; 
 
 (2) Objects buried with the dead ; 
 
 (3) Hoards ; 
 
 Of these three classes the third is the most important 
 and instructive. 
 
 In Great Britain the objects found with burials are
 
 68 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 comparatively few. In Europe, on the contrary, some of 
 them were rich anci important. 
 
 Hoards, again, may be divided into 
 
 (i) Treasures. 
 
 (2) Stocks- in-trade. 
 
 The greatest of all hoards is that discovered in 1877 by 
 Signor Zannoni, who in excavating for a new sewer on behalf 
 of the municipality of Bologna came across an immense 
 vase of bronze containing no less than 14,800 objects in 
 that metal, and 3 small pieces of iron.^ 
 
 Chantre describes some fifty French hoards, and Evans 
 gives a most interesting table of 1 10 found in Britain. 
 
 The late Sir John Evans in his masterly work on The 
 Bronze Age ciivided it into three periods. Montelius 
 now considers ^ that five can be satisfactorily distinguished. 
 Types belonging to two periods are very seldom found 
 together. Some cases, indeed, occur in which types of the 
 first and second, or of the third and fourth periods occur 
 together, but the first and third, or the second and fourth, 
 are never, or scarcely ever, represented in the same 
 find. The exceptions to this rule are very rare, which 
 shows that the types were really successive. 
 
 Period i 
 
 This might be termed the Copper Age, most of the 
 metallic objects being of pure copper. Stone implements 
 were still abundant, metal being rare. The axes of 
 copper were simple and flat, without ridges or stops 
 (figs. 4, 7). There were also daggers with a broad flat 
 tang and generally without rivet holes. The objects of 
 bronze were in fact copies of those of stone. 
 
 The metallic objects of this period consisted of — 
 (i) Small bronze blades. 
 
 It may be suggested that these were in many cases 
 made specially for the use of the dead in the next world, 
 
 1 Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, p. 242. Miss Cameron, Old Eirurta, 
 p. 104. 
 
 2 Archceologia, Ixi. p. 97.
 
 PERIODS OF THE BRONZE AGE 69 
 
 and that this may account for their small size and 
 flimsiness. 
 
 (2) Simple flat axes without flanges or a stop-ridge. 
 
 There are also rare objects of gold, amber, and jet. 
 The pottery belongs to the classes known as drinking- 
 cups (fig. r8o) and food vessels (fig. 178). 
 
 Stonehenge probably belongs to this period. 
 
 Period 2 
 
 The metal characteristic of this period is a true bronze 
 containing often 10 per cent, of tin. Weapons and 
 implements of stone are much rarer. The axes are in 
 many cases still flat, but broader at the edge : many, how- 
 ever, are flanged, and the blade is not unfrequently orna- 
 mented with chevrons or spiral fluting, but there are still 
 none with stop-ridges or sockets. The flange is so great, 
 and at the same time so simple, an improvement, that 
 when it was once introduced it would soon supersede the 
 old flat blade. 
 
 The daggers are larger and often provided with bronze 
 rivets, and sometimes with small gold pins. There are 
 also halberds with the blade inserted at rio;ht anMes into 
 the handle. Gold is more abundant, and there are some 
 beautiful neck ornaments or lunulae. 
 
 Period 3 
 
 No stone weapons have been found in any burial or 
 any hoard belonging to this or the later periods. 
 
 The bronze axes are more elaborate, the flanges are 
 higher, and the edge often more expanding, sometimes 
 almost semilunar. Some of them have a loop, for attach- 
 ment to the handle, on one or both sides. There are no 
 socketed axes, but on the other hand some of the daggers 
 have sockets, if these really belong to this period. 
 
 Several sickles have been found and may be referred 
 to this period. 
 
 The ornaments are richer and more elaborate. They com- 
 prise bracelets, " torques " (figs. 64, 70), and gold collars.
 
 70 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Some rich hoards belong to this period ; I may mention 
 those of Grunty Fen, Cambridge ; Lovehayne, Devon ; 
 Plymstock, Devon ; Arreton Down, Isle of Wight ; West 
 Buckland, Somerset ; Edington Burtle, Somerset ; Hol- 
 lingbury, Sussex ; Wrexham. 
 
 Period 4 
 
 The objects of bronze are again more varied and 
 elaborate : the axes have stop-ridges and are often 
 socketed ; the daggers are more elongated ; swords make 
 their appearance, sometimes with bronze handles ; there 
 are also socketed spear-heads, sometimes with loops at the 
 side, or at the base of the blade ; torques, armlets, etc. 
 
 Period 5 
 
 Socketed and winged axes. 
 
 Socketed hammers. 
 
 Tanged chisels. 
 
 Gouges. 
 
 Socketed dagg^ers. 
 
 Leaf-shaped swords, some with solid handles. 
 
 Trumpets. 
 
 Socketed spear-heads. 
 
 Horse-bits. 
 
 Bracelets and necklets of bronze or gold. 
 
 Razors. 
 
 Knives. 
 
 The gradual development of the axe thus shown is 
 very interesting. Beginning with the flat simple form 
 (figs. 4, 11), which is obviously a copy of the stone axe, 
 we pass (2) to the form (figs. 13, 15, 17) with slight 
 side flanges ; the next stage (3) is the addition of a stop- 
 ridge (figs. 5, 8, 20), the next the invention of the socket, 
 and, lastly, the addition of wings placed (figs. 6, 9, 16) 
 near the top. 
 
 From the evidence given in Chapter I., it may be, 
 I think, concluded that iron was beginning to be used in 
 Britain about 1000 B.C.
 
 DATE OF BRONZE AGE 71 
 
 As regards bronze, some articles of copper are said by 
 M. de Morgan to have been in the tomb supposed to 
 have been that of Menes, 4400 B.C. A bronze rod was 
 found in the Pyramid of Medum 3700 b.c.^ The copper 
 mines of Sinai were worked in the time of Seneferu, 
 3733 B.C. 
 
 Sir Arthur Evans assigns the date of 2500 B.C. to some 
 of the copper objects from Knossos. Schhemann found 
 copper objects in the lowest stratum of the first pre- 
 historic city, 3000-2500 B.C. according to Dorpfeld. 
 From Mesopotamia there is a small bronze figure bearing 
 the name of King Gudea, 2500 b.c.,^ and blocks of the 
 metal were recorded by Thothmes III. as among the 
 tribute received by him. 
 
 It is evident that none of these finds takes us back to 
 the earliest use of copper, for they all indicate consider- 
 able knowledge and skill. We may then, I think, safely 
 carry back the discovery of copper to about 5000 b.c. 
 
 It remains to consider how long a period we should 
 allow for the knowledge of metal to spread from the 
 ^gean to Great Britain. 
 
 The late Sir John Evans, in his work on the Bronze 
 Age, estimated ^ the commencement of the Bronze Age 
 in England at from 1400 to 1200 b.c To quote other 
 high authorities, Dr Sophus Muller suggests about 1200 
 B.C. ; Abercromby, in his excellent work on Pottery, 
 agrees with Sir J. Evans' chronology;* and Sir C. H. 
 Read, 1800 b.c, "within a few centuries."^ This, how- 
 ever, Evans regarded as a conservative estimate, and if 
 he were writing now he would, I think, have carried it 
 further back. 
 
 Though it may seem an extreme view to adopt, I am 
 disposed to suggest that we must carry the knowledge of 
 bronze in this country to an even more remote period. 
 Montelius himself says ^ that " new finds will probably 
 
 ' British Museum Bronze Age Cat., p. 126. 
 
 2 British Museum Cat., Bronze Age, p. 9. 
 
 ^ Loc. cit., p. 473. * Bro7ize Age Pottery, p. 102. 
 
 ^ British Museum Guide to the Bronze Age, p. 26, 
 
 " Archcrologia, Ixi. p. 162,
 
 72 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 give a still higher date for the earliest use of copper there," 
 i.e. in Britain. 
 
 In the first place, I am impressed by the number of 
 copper and bronze objects found here anci in Scandinavia, 
 and which seems to indicate a very long period. 
 
 Secondly, the gradual development of new forms and 
 ornaments must have taken very long. We can hardly, 
 I think, attribute less than say three hundred years to each 
 of Montelius' five periods. 
 
 In the third place, if the dates given for Egypt and 
 Greece are correct, even Montelius' earliest date assumes 
 that metal was used in the South two thousand years before 
 the knowledge reached Britain. I cannot think it could 
 have taken so long. 
 
 Coins were invented about 650 b.c, and our earliest 
 coins were struck in Kent about 200 r.c, i.e. after an 
 interval of under five hundred years. 
 
 Fourthly, the copper and early bronze objects found in 
 Britain belong to the earliest and simplest types. Now, 
 if the use of bronze had been known in Southern and 
 Eastern Europe two thousand years before it reached us, it 
 must have attained to a high stage. Our earliest specimens 
 would be socketed celts, leaf-shaped spear-heads, swords, 
 etc. As a matter of fact they are, as we have seen, 
 simple flat axes, evident copies of stone implements, 
 small bronze knife-blades, etc., evidently dating back to 
 quite archaic times. We cannot, then, surely allow more 
 than a thousand years, if so much, to have elapsed between 
 the discovery of copper in the East and its appearance on 
 our shores. 
 
 The tendency of recent researches has been to carry 
 back our dates, and, taking all the facts into considera- 
 tion, it seems reasonable to estimate that the Bronze Age 
 in Northern Europe and Great Britain commenced about 
 
 2500 B.C.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE USE OF STONE IN ANCIENT TIMES 
 
 The preceding chapters have been devoted to the Age of 
 Bronze. We must now pass on to still earlier times and 
 ruder races of men ; to a period which, for obvious reasons, 
 is called by archoeologists the Stone Age.^ 
 
 The Stone Age, however, falls naturally, as has been 
 already stated, into two great divisions : 
 
 First, that of the Drift, which I have proposed to 
 call the Palaeolithic Period. 
 
 Secondly, the later Stone Age, for which I have sug- 
 gested the term Neolithic, and in which the stone imple- 
 ments are more skilfully made, more varied in form, and 
 often polished. We will now consider this later period, 
 reserving the earlier for a subsequent chapter. 
 
 The immense number of stone implements which occur, 
 in all parts of the world, is sufficient evidence of the im- 
 portant part they played in ancient times. M. Herbst 
 has favoured me with the followino- list of the numbers 
 
 o 
 
 contained in the Copenhagen Museum : — 
 
 Flint axes and wedges . 
 Broad chisels 
 Hollow ditto 
 Narrow chisels 
 Hollow ditto 
 
 lO/O 
 
 285 
 
 270 
 33 
 
 ' For further information on the subject of this chapter, I may refer to 
 Sir John Evans' excellent work on Ancient Stone Implements ; to Sir 
 C. H. Read's British Miiseitm Guide to Stone Implements ; and to M. 
 Delechette's Archeologie Prehistoiique. 
 
 73
 
 74 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Poniard chisels . 
 
 Lance-heads 
 
 Arrow-heads 
 
 Half-moon-shaped implements 
 
 Pierced axes and axe-hammers 
 
 Flint flakes 
 
 Sundries .... 
 
 Rough stone implements from the Kjok- 
 kenmoddings . . . . , 
 
 Bone implements . . . . 
 
 Ditto from Kjokkenmoddings 
 
 250 
 656 
 171 
 
 205 
 746 
 300 
 489 
 
 4840 
 
 3678 
 
 171 
 109 
 
 8798 
 
 These figures refer to the year 1864, and if duplicates 
 and broken specimens were counted, M. Herbst thinks 
 that the number would have been between 11,000 and 
 12,000. He has also had the kindness to estimate for 
 me the numbers in private and provincial museums, and, 
 on the whole, he believes we shall be within the mark if 
 we consider that the Danish museums contain 30,000 
 stone implements, to which, moreover, must be added 
 the rich stores then at Flensborg and Kiel, as well as the 
 very numerous specimens with which the liberality of 
 Danish archaeologists has enriched other countries, for 
 there is scarcely any important collection in Europe 
 which does not possess some illustrations of the Danish 
 stone implements. 
 
 The museum of the Royal Irish Academy includes 
 (1865) 512 celts, more than 400 arrow-heads, and 50 
 spear-heads, besides 75 "scrapers," and numerous other 
 objects of stone, such as flakes, slingstones, hammers, 
 whetstones, querns, grain-crushers, etc. Again, the 
 museum at Stockholm is estimated to contain between 
 1 5,000 and 1 6,000 specimens. 
 
 In addition to those cases in which large numbers of 
 stone implements have been found on spots which were
 
 USE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS 75 
 
 evidently the sites of dwellings or villages, there are many 
 instances in which considerable numbers have been met 
 with under circumstances which show that they were 
 purposely deposited, either hidden away for future use, 
 or perhaps, as Worsaae has maintained,^ as offerings to 
 the gods. Thus at Frederickville in Illinois, 3500 disks 
 of flint were found at a depth of about five feet ranged 
 carefully side by side ; in Ross County, Ohio, 4000 disks 
 and pointed instruments of stone were found near some 
 ancient mounds known as Clark's Work. 
 
 Yet the very existence of a Stone Age has till lately 
 been denied by some eminent archaeologists. Thus, Mr 
 Wright, the learned Secretary of the Ethnological Society, 
 while admitting that " there may have been a period when 
 society was in so barbarous a state that sticks or stones 
 were the only implements with which men knew how to 
 furnish themselves," doubted " if the antiquary has yet 
 found any evidence of such a period," 
 
 If we consider the difficulties of mining in early days, 
 the rude implements with which men had then to work, 
 their ignorance of the many ingenious methods by which 
 the operations of modern miners are so much facilitated, 
 and, finally, the difficulties of carriage either by land or 
 water, it is obvious that bronze implements must always 
 have been very expensive. 
 
 In addition, moreover, to the a priori probability, there 
 is plenty of direct evidence that bronze and stone were in 
 use at the same time. Thus Mr Bateman records thirty- 
 seven instances of tumuli which contained objects of 
 bronze, and in no less than twenty-nine of these stone 
 implements also were found. At the time of the discovery 
 of America, the Mexicans, though well acquainted with 
 the use of bronze, still used flakes of obsidian for knives 
 and razors, and even after the introduction of iron^ stone 
 was still used for various purposes. 
 
 There can no longer, however, be any doubt not only 
 that there was a period " when society was in so barbarous 
 a state that sticks or stones " (to which we must add horns 
 
 1 Mat. p. Serv. 1882, p. 131.
 
 76 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and bones) " were the only implements with which men 
 knew how to furnish themselves," but also that the 
 antiquary has found " clear evidence of such a period," 
 
 Moreover, as already mentioned, the Stone Age falls 
 into two distinct periods, the oldest of which, or Palaeo- 
 lithic, will be dealt with in subsequent chapters. 
 
 So far as the Neolithic, or more recent Stone Age, is 
 concerned, our knowledge is derived principally from four 
 sources, to the consideration of which I propose to devote 
 four separate chapters : namely, the Tumuli, or ancient 
 burial-mounds ; the lake-habitations of Switzerland ; the 
 Kjokkenmoddings, or shell-mounds, of Denmark ; and 
 the Bone-caves. There are, indeed, many other remains 
 of great interest, such, for example, as the ancient fortifica- 
 tions, the " castles " and " camps " which crown so many 
 of our hill-tops ; and the great lines of embankment, 
 which cross so many of our uplands, such as Offa's Dyke 
 and the Wans Dyke ; there are the so-called Druidical 
 circles and the vestiges of ancient habitations ; the " Hut- 
 circles," " Cloghauns," " Weems," " Pen-pits," " Picts' 
 houses," etc. The majority of these belong, however, in 
 all probability, and many of them certainly, to a later 
 period ; and in the present state of our knowledge, we 
 cannot say which, or how many, are referable to the 
 Stone Age. 
 
 Flint was the material most commonly used, but every 
 kind of stone, hard and tough enough for the purpose, 
 was utilized during the Stone Age in the manufacture of 
 implements. The magnificent collection of celts at Dublin 
 has been specially studied, from a mineralogical point of 
 view, by the Rev. S. Haughton, and the results are thus 
 recorded by Wilde : ^ 
 
 " Of the better qualities of rock suited for celt-making, 
 the type of the felspathic extreme of the series of trap 
 rocks is the pure felstone, or petrosilex, ... of a pale 
 blueish or greyish green, except where the surface has 
 been acted upon, and the average composition of which is 
 25 parts quartz and 75 felspar. Its physical characters 
 ' Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy^ p. 72.
 
 MATERIALS FOR STONE IMPLEMENTS 77 
 
 are absence of toughness, and the existence of a splintery 
 conchoidal fracture almost as sharp as that of flint. . . . 
 At the hornblendic extreme of the trap rocks we find the 
 basalt, of which also celts were made ; tough and heavy, 
 the siliceous varieties having a splintery fracture, but 
 never affording so cutting an edge as the former. . . . 
 Intermediate in character between these two rocks we find 
 all the varieties of felstone, slate, and porphyry streaked 
 with hornblende, from which the great majority of the 
 foregoing implements have been made." 
 
 It is very remarkable how carefully the best kinds of 
 stone were selected, even when very rare. Of this the 
 most interesting example is afforded by the axes, etc., of 
 jade or nephrite, of jadeite and of saussurite. These 
 minerals are very distinct chemically, but so similar in 
 appearance that they can only be distinguished by analysis. 
 Objects made from them, though far from common, are 
 not very rare. M. Fischer gives the following table : — 
 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Jade or nephrite 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 II18 
 
 Jadeite 
 
 • 77 
 
 46 
 
 138 
 
 Chloromelanite . 
 
 • S3 
 
 17 
 
 66 
 
 Till 1884, no European locality of jade or nephrite 
 was known, and though it has now been discovered in 
 Silesia, and some few other places, they are very rare, and 
 have not been found anywhere near Brittany. 
 
 Beads of Baltic amber are scattered over Central 
 Europe. The same may be said of obsidian, for which 
 there are only one or two sources. Another interesting 
 case is afforded by the Pressigny flint implements (see 
 page 81). 
 
 Again, beads of Callais, another mineral not known to 
 occur in Europe, have been found in the tumuli of 
 Brittany and some other parts of France. 
 
 Other facts of a similar nature are on record. Thus 
 Messrs Squier and Davis tell us that in the tumuli of 
 the Mississippi valley we find " side by side, in the same 
 mounds, native copper from Lake Superior, mica from
 
 78 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the Alleghanies, shells from the Gulf, and obsidian 
 (perhaps porphyry) from Mexico." Fair representations 
 of the sea-cow or manatee are found a thousand miles 
 from the shores inhabited by that animal, and shells of 
 the large tropical Pyrula perversa are met with in the 
 tumuli round the great lakes, two thousand miles from 
 home. 
 
 In Central America thousands of jadeite implements 
 occur, but no locality for native jadeite has yet been 
 discovered.^ 
 
 On the whole, however, flint was the stone most 
 frequently used in Europe ; and it has had a much more 
 important influence on our civilization than is generally 
 supposed. Savages value it on account of its hardness 
 and mode of fracture, which is such that, with practice, a 
 good sound block can be chipped into almost any form 
 that may be required. 
 
 In many cases, blocks and pebbles of flint, picked up 
 on the surface of the ground, were used in the manu- 
 facture of implements ; but in others much labour was 
 spent in obtaining flint of good quality. A good 
 illustration of this is affbrded by the so-called Grimes' 
 Graves, near Brandon, which have, by the kind per- 
 mission of Mr Angerstein, been explored by Canon 
 Greenwell ;^ who has shown them to be excavations made 
 in the chalk for the purpose of obtaining flint. They are 
 254 in number, varying in diameter from 20 to 60 feet, 
 placed irregularly, generally about 25 feet apart, and 
 occupying rather more than 20 acres. They have been 
 filled up, and are now indicated by shallow depressions, 
 but Canon Greenwell has proved that the pits originally 
 went down to a depth of about 40 feet, when they branch 
 out into passages, often communicating with one another. 
 On the east side is a mound, apparently consisting of 
 chalk taken from the first pit ; after which it would seem 
 that when a new pit was dug, most of the material was 
 thrown down the old shafts, which were thus filled in, to 
 
 1 Wilson, Prehistoric Art, Smithsonian Institution, 1898, p. 459. 
 - Trans. Ethn. Soc.^ 1870, p. 419.
 
 FLINT 
 
 79 
 
 within a few feet of the surface. As usual in the Upper 
 Chalk, the flint is disposed in layers, which differ in 
 quality, while maintaining the same character over con- 
 siderable areas. It may be remarked that, as Sir W. 
 Fowler has well pointed out,^ Brandon, " though situated 
 in a bleak and barren district, has evidently been a place of 
 considerable resort from a very remote period — a circum- 
 stance which can only be attributed to the abundance 
 and good quality of the flint found there." Palasolithic 
 implements abound in the drift gravels ; the surface is 
 strewn with flint flakes and fragments of flint implements, 
 and at the present time it is the only place in England 
 where gun-flints are still made. For this purpose, one 
 particular layer of flint is found to be peculiarly well 
 adapted, on account of its hardness and fineness of grain, 
 while another layer, less suitable for gun-flints, is known 
 as " wall-stone," being much used for building purposes. 
 Now it is interesting to find that, even in very early 
 times, the merits of the gun-flint layer were well known 
 and appreciated ; for although there is abundance of 
 flint on the surface, the ancient flint-men sank their 
 shafts down past the layer of " wall-stone," which occurs 
 at a depth of i^^ feet, to the gun-flint layer, which at the 
 spot in question is 39 feet deep, although about a mile 
 to the south-west, where it is now worked, it is much 
 nearer the surface. 
 
 At present the workmen excavate the chalk both above 
 and below the layer of flint ; but in the old galleries, 
 perhaps from the greater difficulty of raising the material, 
 the chalk below the flint-bed was in no case removed. 
 The implements used in making these excavations were 
 deers' horns ; the brow tine being used as a pick, and the 
 others removed. Thus treated, a deer's horn closely 
 resembles in form a modern pick, but of course it is 
 subject to rapid wear by use, which accounts for the large 
 numbers of worn-out implements found by Canon Green- 
 well among the rubbish. 
 
 In one case the roof of a passage had given way. On 
 
 ' Trans. Ethn. Soc.., 1870, p. 437.
 
 8o PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 removing the chalk which had fallen in, the end of the 
 gallery came in view. The flint had been hollowed out 
 in three places, and in front of two of these recesses, 
 pointing towards the half-excavated stone, were two deer- 
 horn picks, lying just as they had been left, still coated 
 with chalk dust, on which was in one place plainly visible 
 the print of the workman's hand. The tools had 
 evidently been left at the close of a day's work ; during 
 the night the gallery had fallen in, and they had never 
 been recovered. 
 
 " It was a most impressive sight," says Canon Green- 
 well, "and one never to be forgotten, to look, after a 
 lapse, it may be, of three thousand years, upon a piece of 
 work unfinished, with the tools of the workmen still lying 
 where they had been placed so many centuries ago." 
 
 Deer-horn picks have been found in other localities, 
 where chalk has been worked for flint, and also in the 
 Cornish Tin Stream Works. ^ Near Spiennes also, in 
 Belgium, there are extensive workings, consisting of a 
 system of shafts and galleries, very like those of Grimes' 
 Graves. These have been described by MM. Malaise, 
 Briart, Cornet, and Houzeau de Lehaie.- Many tools of 
 deers' horns have been obtained, but they are of a very 
 different character, having been apparently used as 
 hammers, the horn being cut oiFjust above the brow 
 tine, which served as a handle. 
 
 In addition to the deer-horn picks, a few adze-shaped 
 tools of flint have been discovered in Grimes' Graves, 
 and a basalt hatchet, in form resembling that represented 
 in fig. 1 06, but with an oblique cutting edge, the marks 
 of which were distinctly seen upon the sides of the 
 gallery, showing that it had been used in excavating the 
 chalk. 
 
 As already mentioned, it was important, in the manu- 
 facture of flint implements, to have the flint of a good 
 quality, free from cracks and flaws, and easily accessible. 
 Hence, places which fulfilled these conditions were 
 
 ^ See, for instance, Rep. of the Roy. Inst, of Corn:o(i/l, 1S71, p. xxii. 
 2 Mem. de la Soc. des Scie?tccs, dcs Arts, etc., du Haitiaut, 1866-7.
 
 GRIMES' GRAVES— PRESSIGNY 8i 
 
 specially frequented in ancient times, and whole districts 
 were supplied from these 
 favoured localities. One 
 of the most remarkable of 
 these manufactories is that 
 discovered by Dr Leveille 
 at Pressigny-le-Grand, in 
 France, about half-way be- 
 tween Tours and Poitiers. 
 Here there is an abundance 
 of good flint of a honey 
 colour, and of even, though 
 coarse, texture. This flint 
 was largely used in ancient 
 times : the fields are covered 
 with nuclei, flakes, etc. ; and 
 implements made here, and 
 easily recognizable by the 
 peculiar colour, have been 
 founci in various parts of 
 France, and even, it would 
 seem, in Belgium. I have 
 in my collection a block of 
 Pressigny flint, from which 
 a flake more than 12 inches 
 in length has been struck. 
 The large nuclei of this 
 form (fig. 85), which from 
 their shape are known as 
 " livres de beurre," have 
 excited a good deal of dis- 
 cussion. They are generally 
 from 8 to 13 inches in 
 length, shaped more or less 
 like a boat, with a broad j,,,^ ^,, ivT.^i„„ef , u; 1 1 « 1 
 
 ' . Pig. 65. — JN'ucleustrom \vniclilony;nakes 
 
 butt at one end, tapering have been struck in Pressigny, France. 
 gradually to the other. The l^^^^ '^^^ collection. One-half actual 
 
 form has been attained by 
 
 a succession of lateral chips, at right angles to the longer 
 
 6
 
 82 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 axis, while generally one or more longitudinal flakes have 
 also been removed. 
 
 Many of the flint flakes were certainly never intended 
 
 Fig. 86. — Flint coreornucleus, 
 from which flakes have been 
 struck, Jutland. One-half 
 of the actual size. In my 
 own collection. 
 
 Figs. 87, 88, 89.— Three views of a flint flake 
 from the Ivjokkenmodding at Fannerup, in 
 Jutland, one-half of the actual size, a repre- 
 sents the bulb of percussion, which is also 
 shown by the shading in fig. 87. In my own 
 collection. 
 
 to serve as knives, but were worked up into saws, awls, 
 or arrowheads. Savages use flint or chert in this manner, 
 even at the present day ; and the Mexicans, in the time 
 of Cortez, used precisely similar fragments of obsidian.
 
 THE FRACTURE OF FLINT 
 
 83 
 
 The operations of modern gun-flint makers give us a 
 very clear insight into the mode of manufacture of ancient 
 flint implements, and the process is one of considerable 
 interest. 
 
 If we take a rounded hammer, and with it strike on a 
 flat surface of flint, a conoidal fracture is produced, the 
 size of which depends, in a great measure, on the form 
 of the hammer. The surface of 
 fracture is propagated downwards 
 through the flint, in a diverging 
 direction, and thus embraces a cone, 
 the apex of which is at the point 
 struck by the hammer, and which 
 can afterwards be chipped out of 
 the mass. Flint cones, formed in 
 this way, may sometimes be found 
 among heaps of stones broken up 
 to mend the roads, and have doubt- 
 less often been mistaken for casts 
 of fossil shells. 
 
 If a blow is given, not on a flat ) 
 surface, but at the angle of a more 
 or less square flint, the fracture is 
 at first semiconoidal or nearly so, 
 but after expanding for a short dis- 
 tance, it becomes flat, and may be 
 propagated through a length of as 
 much as n inches, thus forming: a is worked up at the butt 
 
 11J1-1 ni /r r,^ \ -1 end, as if intended ior a 
 
 blaae-nke rlake (ngs. 86-94J, with handle. 
 a triangular cross section (fig. 95). 
 
 The consequence is, that a perfect flint flake will always 
 have a small bulb, or projection (fig. 88, «), at the butt 
 end, on the flat side ; this has been called the bulb, 
 or cone, of percussion. After the four original angles 
 of a square block have been thus flaked off, the eight 
 new angles may be treated in a similar manner, anci 
 so on. Fig. 86 represents a block, or core, from 
 which flakes have been struck off. A very long flake 
 in my collection, from Fannerup in Jutland, is figured. 
 
 Fig. 90. — Arrow - shaped 
 flake from Ireland. It
 
 84 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 one-half of the natural size, in figs. 87-89. The bulb 
 is shown in figs. 88, a^ and 89, and the flake has been 
 worked into a point at the end. The largest flake I am 
 acquainted with is described by M. de Caneto, in the 
 Revue de Gascoyne, for 1865. It was found in the 
 commune of Pauilhaic, and is 13^ inches in length. 
 Fig. 90 is an arrow-shaped flake, chipped away at the 
 base, apparently to adapt it to a handle or shaft. 
 
 ' 
 
 Figs. 91, 92, 93. — ^Flakesfrom a Danish shell-mound, actual size. 
 In my own collection. 
 
 Figs. 91-94 represent small Danish flakes : forms 
 exactly similar may be found in any country where the 
 ancient inhabitants could obtain flint or obsidian. In 
 fig. 91 we see that another flake had been previously 
 taken from the same block. Figs. 91, 92 represent 
 flakes of which the points have been broken off, but we 
 see along their whole length the depression caused by 
 the previous removal of other flakes. The section of 
 such a flake is, therefore, not triangular, as in fig. 95, a, 
 but four-sided, as in fig. 95, h. Sometimes, though not 
 often, a wide flake is taken ofi' in such a way as to over-
 
 FLINT FLAKES 
 
 85 
 
 lap two previous flakes, as in the case of the one repre- 
 sented in fig. 94. In this instance, the section is 
 pentagonal ; the flat under-surface remaining always the 
 same, but the upper side showing four facets. 
 
 Easy as it may seem to make such flakes as these, 
 a little practice will convince anyone who attempts to do 
 so, that a certain knack is required ; and 
 a gun-flint maker at Brandon told me 
 that it took him two years to acquire the 
 art. It is also necessary to be careful in 
 selecting the flint. It is therefore evident 
 that these flakes, simple as they may 
 appear, are always the work of man. ^^^^: 94- — Minute 
 
 rJr , in- 1111 "'"t flake from 
 
 i o make one, the nint must be held Denmark, actual 
 firmly, and then a considerable force ^'^,^- in my own 
 
 •' , T 1 • 1 1 collection. 
 
 must be apphed, either by pressure or 
 by blows, repeated three or four times, but at least 
 three, and given in certain slightly different directions, 
 with a certain definite force ; conditions which could 
 scarcely occur by accident ; so that a flint flake, simple as 
 it may seem to the untrained eye, is to the antiquary as 
 
 Fig. 95. — Sections oi flakes, a is that of a simple triangular flake ; i is that of a 
 large flat flake split off the angle from which the smaller flake a had 
 been previously taken. Consequently the section is four-sided. 
 
 sure a trace of man as the footprint in the sand was to 
 Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say that flakes have a sharp 
 cutting edge on each side, and might therefore be at once 
 used as knives, as in fig. 96, which represents a North 
 American two-bladed knife : they are indeed so named by 
 some archaeologists ; but it seems to me more convenient 
 to call them simply flakes, and to confine the name of
 
 86 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 knife to implements more especially intended and adapted 
 for cutting purposes. Fig-. 98 represents an Australian 
 flake, and fig. 97, one from the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Figs. loi and 102 represent a New Caledonian javelin, 
 
 with an obsidian flake 
 (fig. 101) for a head. 
 
 1 give for comparison 
 with the New Caledonian 
 javelin a figure (fig. 9 9) 
 of an Irish flake which I 
 found some years ago on 
 the shore of Loch Neagh, 
 in Ireland. It will be 
 seen that both are flat 
 on one side, convex on 
 the other, triangular in 
 section, broad at the base, 
 pointed at the tip, chipped 
 up at the base so that 
 they may be tied on to 
 the shaft, and trimmed 
 on one side near the tip, 
 no doubt that they might 
 fly straight. 
 
 Some of the old Spanish 
 
 writers in Mexico give us 
 
 a description of the manner 
 
 in which the Aztecs ob- 
 
 ^,ct.^it rained their obsidian flakes. 
 
 Fig. 97.— Flake from ^_, i i i • 
 
 the Cape of Good I Orqucmada,' who IS con- 
 Hope, actual size, firmed bv Hemandcz, tclls 
 
 In my own collec- ^ ■' ^ tv /r 
 
 tion. US — 1 quote rrom Mr 
 
 Tylor's Anahuac- — " they 
 had, and still have, workmen who make knives of a 
 certain block stone or flint (obsidian), in this manner : 
 one of these Indian workmen sits down upon the 
 ground, and takes a piece of this black stone, which is 
 like jet, and as hard as flint. . . . The piece they take is 
 
 ' Torquemada, J/^Wf^i-'y/z/rt /7;^//V/;/rt, Seville, 161 5. 
 
 Fig, 96. — North 
 American two- 
 bladed knife, 
 made of two 
 flakes.
 
 MODERN FLAKES 
 
 87 
 
 about eight inches long, or rather more, and as thick as 
 one's leg, or rather less, and cylindrical ; they have a 
 stick as large as the shaft of a 
 lance, and three cubits or rather 
 more in length, and at the end of 
 it they fasten firmly another piece 
 of wood, eight inches long, to 
 give more weight to this part ; 
 
 then pressing 
 
 their naked feet 
 
 together, they 
 
 hold the stone 
 
 as with a pair of 
 
 pincers, or the 
 
 vice of a car- 
 penter's bench. 
 
 They take the 
 
 stick (which is 
 
 cut off smooth 
 
 at the end) with 
 
 both hands, and Fig 
 
 set it well home 
 
 against the edge 
 
 — Australian flake. 
 In my own collection. Actual 
 size. 
 
 of the front of the stone, which also 
 is cut smooth in that part ; and then 
 they press it against their breast, and 
 with the force of the pressure there 
 flies off a knife, with its point and 
 edge on one side, as neatly as if one 
 were to make them of a turnip with a 
 sharp knife, or of iron in the fire." 
 
 Thus it appears that the obsidian 
 
 flakes were made, not by blows, but 
 
 by strong pressure ; and the same is 
 
 the case with the chert implements 
 
 of the Esquimaux, according to the 
 
 description given by Sir E. Belcher.^ "Selecting," he 
 
 says, "a log of wood in which a spoon-shaped cavity 
 
 ' Tran';. of the Ethtioloi^ical Soc, New Series, vol. i. p. 138. 
 
 Fig. 99.— Flint flake from 
 Loch Neagh, Ireland. 
 In my own collection.
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 was cut, they placed the splinter to be 
 worked over it, and by pressing gently 
 along the margin vertically, first on one 
 side, then the other, as one would set a 
 saw, they splintered off alternate frag- 
 ments, until the object, thus properly out- 
 lined, presented the spear or 
 ' 1^ arrov/-head form, with two 
 - ; cutting serrated sides." A 
 very similar account is also 
 given by Lieutenant Beck- 
 with of the method used 
 by the North American 
 Indians;^ among whom 
 certain men devoted them- 
 selves specially to the manu- 
 facture of arrow-heads." 
 
 Many of the ruder flint 
 flakes were, no doubt, as 
 Sir John Evans has sug- 
 gested, used for strike o' 
 
 lights. 
 
 Next to flint flakes, the 
 
 axes, wedges, or celts are, 
 
 perhaps, of most importance. 
 
 Fig. ioo. — Pol- The largest and finest speci- 
 
 ished stone 
 gouge. 1 
 Museum. 
 
 gouge. Bergen "^^"^ ^^^ found In Denmark ; 
 
 one in my possession, of 
 beautiful white flint, is 13 in. 
 long, i|- in. thick, and 3^^ in. in breadth. 
 The Seeland axes have very often, indeed 
 generally, perpendicular sides ; in Jutland 
 many have sloping sides ; this is also 
 usually the case in other parts of North- 
 Western Europe. Fig. 103, and a very large 
 
 ' Report of the Explorations and Surveys of the 
 Pacific Railroad, 1855, vol. ii. p. 43. 
 
 2 Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, 
 vol. i. p. 342. 
 
 #/// 
 
 Fig, ioi. — Head 
 of New Cale- 
 donian javelin, 
 one-half of ac- 
 tual size. In my 
 own collection. 
 
 Fi<;. 102. — New 
 Caledonian 
 javelin, one- 
 sixth actual size. 
 In my own col- 
 lection.
 
 STONE AXES 
 
 89 
 
 specimen in fig. 104 was found 
 in the same tumulus as the 
 very fine stone chisel (fig. 105). 
 The common Danish axe or 
 wedge is figured in fig. 103. 
 Figs. 106 and 107 represent 
 forms which, though rare in 
 Seeland, are common in other 
 parts of Europe. Those found 
 in Denmark are sometimes 
 polished, but almost, if not 
 quite as often, left rough. On 
 the contrary, in other parts of 
 North - Western Europe, the 
 axes are usually ground to a 
 more or less smooth surface. 
 That some were held in the 
 hand is evident, but that others 
 were fixed in wooden handles 
 is equally clear, in many speci- 
 mens, from the presence of 
 peculiar polished spaces, which 
 have been produced by the 
 friction of the wood. In 
 almost all cases, the wooden 
 handle has long perished, but 
 there are one or two instances 
 on record in which it has been 
 preserved. Fig. 108 repre- 
 sents a stone hatchet, found 
 some years ago, in the county 
 of Monaghan ; the handle was 
 of pine, and was 13!^ in. long. 
 A somewhat similar specimen, 
 found in Solway Moor, is pre- 
 served in the British Museum. 
 
 Fig. 109 represents another Fi^-- lo.i- i^ani.h flint 
 
 ^ ■ -1 11 ,, • In my own collection. 
 
 stone axe in its handle; this third actual size. 
 specimen was found at Concise, 
 
 axe. 
 One-
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 on the Lake of Neufchatel, and 
 closely resembles the modern African 
 axe (fig. 19). In the latter case, how- 
 ever, the blade is of 
 iron. It will be ob- 
 served that the Swiss 
 specimen differs from /f 
 the other two in hav- 
 ing an intermediate 
 piece of horn. These 
 horn sockets are very 
 numerous in some of 
 the Swiss lake-villages. 
 To us, accustomed 
 as we are to the use 
 of metals, it seems 
 difficult to believe that 
 such rude implements 
 were ever made use 
 of ; we know, how- 
 ever, that many sav- 
 ages of the present day 
 have no better tools. 
 Yet, with axes such as 
 these, generally with 
 the assistance of fire, 
 they will cut down 
 large trees, and hollow 
 them out into canoes. 
 The piles used in the 
 
 Swiss Stone A^e lake- 
 
 Fig. 105. — Danish 
 chisel. In my 
 own collection. 
 One-half actual 
 size. 
 
 habitations were evi- 
 dently, from the marks 
 of the cuts on them, 
 prepared with the help 
 of stone axes ; and in Danish peat- 
 bogs, several trees have been found 
 with the marks of stone axes, and of 
 fire, upon them, and in one or two 
 
 Fig. 104. — Danish flint 
 axe. In my own collec- 
 tion. One-third actual
 
 STONE AXES 
 
 91 
 
 cases, stone celts have even been found lying at the 
 side. In the excavations known as Grimes' Graves, 
 again, as already mentioned [ante^ p. 80), a basalt hatchet 
 was found, which had evidently been used for excavat- 
 ing the gallery, as shown by the 
 marks still distinctly visible on the 
 walls. 
 
 One use of the North American 
 tomahawk was to crush bones for 
 the sake of the marrow ; ^ and no 
 doubt the ancient stone implements 
 also served the same purpose. 
 
 In many cases the axes them- 
 selves bear unmistakable marks of 
 
 Fig. 106. — Stone celt or 
 hatchet. Formed of fel- 
 stone, 5f inches long and 
 2 broad. 
 
 Fig. 107. — Stone celt 
 or hatchet, actual 
 size. Found in the 
 riverShannon. One 
 of the smallest vet 
 found in Ireland. 
 
 Fig. ioS. — Stone celt 
 with a wooden 
 handle, Monaghan, 
 Ireland. 
 
 long continued use. For instance, the specimen repre- 
 sented in figs. 1 10, III, has no doubt once been much 
 longer, and had surfaces consisting of one continuous 
 sweep. The edge, however, having been destroyed by 
 use, it was again chipped sharp and repolished, the new 
 surface meetino- the old one at a. A second time the 
 
 ' James' Expedition to /he Rocky Moimiaiiis^ vol. i. p. 193.
 
 92 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 edge became destroyed, and the owner, as may be seen in 
 fig. Ill, has commenced the formation of a new one. 
 
 That they were also weapons of war is probable, not 
 only on a priori grounds, but also because they have fre- 
 quently been found in the graves 
 of chiefs, associated with bronze 
 daggers. About the year 1 809, a 
 large cairn in Kirkcudbrightshire, 
 popularly supposed to be the tomb 
 of a King Aldus M'Galdus, was 
 removed by a farmer. " When 
 the cairn had been removed, the 
 workmen came to a stone coffin 
 of very rude workmanship, and on 
 removing the lid, they found the 
 skeleton of a man of uncommon 
 size. The bones were in such a 
 state of decomposition that the ribs 
 and vertebrae crumbled into dust 
 on attempting to lift them. The 
 remaining bones, being less de- 
 cayed, were taken out, when it was 
 discovered that one of the arms 
 had been almost separated from 
 the shoulder by the stroke of a 
 stone axe, and that a fragment of 
 the axe still remained in the bone. 
 The axe was of greenstone, a 
 FIG. io9.-Stone celt with material which does^lOt occur in 
 wooden handle, one-third that part of Scotland. There were 
 Se"' From IZu '' ^"" ^^^o found with this skeleton a ball 
 of flint, about three inches in dia- 
 meter, which was perfectly round and highly polished, 
 and the head of an arrow, also flint, but not a particle 
 of any metallic substance."^ 
 
 We know also the North American stone axe or toma- 
 hawk served not merely as an implement, but also as a 
 
 ^ Ne7v Statist. Ace, Kirkciidbrii^htshire, vol. iv. p. 332. Quoted by 
 Wilson, Pf-ehist. Ann. of Scotland, 2nd edit., vol. i. p. 187.
 
 PIERCED STONE HATCHETS 
 
 93 
 
 weapon, being used both in the hand and also as a 
 missile.^ 
 
 Another class of stone hatchets are those which are 
 pierced for the handle. From the nature of flint these 
 were scarcely ever made of that material. There are, 
 however, in Copenhagen, two such hatchets, in which 
 advantage has been ingeniously taken of a natural hole in 
 the flint. In many kinds of hard stone, however, it is 
 
 Figs, iio, hi. — Danish axe, re-ground. One-half actual size. 
 From my own collection. 
 
 quite possible to drill a hole by means of a cylinder of 
 bone or horn, with a little sanci and water ; yet it is very 
 doubtful whether this class of implements truly belong to 
 the Stone Age. The pierced axes are generally found 
 in graves of the Bronze Period, and it is most probable 
 that this mode of attaching the handle was used very 
 rarely, if at all, until the discovery of metal had rendered 
 the process more easy than could have been the case 
 previously. 
 
 The "scrapers" (figs. 112, 113) are oblong stones 
 
 ^ Colden's History of the Five Nations, vol. i. p. 10.
 
 94 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 rounded at one end, which is brought to a bevelled edge 
 by a series of small blows. One side is flat, the other, 
 or outer, one is more or less convex ; sometimes they 
 have a short handle, which gives them very much the 
 appearance of a spoon. They have been found in 
 England, France, Denmark, Ireland, Switzerland, and 
 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 112. — Skin-scraper from Boiir- 
 deilles in ihe south of France, 
 actual size. Found by me. 
 
 FlC. 113. — Ditto, under side. 
 
 Other countries. They vary from one to four inches in 
 length, and from half an inch to two inches in breadth. 
 An Esquimaux scraper used in preparing skins is repre- 
 sented in figs. 114— 116. These modern specimens are 
 of exactly the same form as the old ones. 
 
 It is curious, that while these spoon-shaped scrapers 
 are so common in Europe, they are very rare, if indeed 
 they occur at all, in North America south of the Esqui- 
 maux region.
 
 SHELL-MOUND AXES 
 
 95 
 
 To the small, triangular "axes" (figs. 117- 119), 
 which are very characteristic of the Kjokkenmoddings, 
 as well as of the coast-finds, I have applied the name by 
 which they are usually known, but without wishing to 
 prejudge the question as to their purpose. They are 
 flat on one side, and more or less convex on the other ; 
 rudely triangular or quadrangular in shape, with the 
 cutting edge at the broader end ; and from 2^ in. to 
 5^ in. in length, with a breadth of r|- in. to 2^ in. They 
 are never ground, and the cutting edge, though not 
 
 <<!Z;,'*,».i?.aw( 
 
 »>>, 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 >1 
 
 ,/,''^ 
 
 %, 
 
 ^SiiiiiSi 
 
 msss^^^ 
 
 Figs. 114, 115. 116. — Skin-scraper used by the modern Esquimaux of the Polar 
 basin, within Behring's Straits, actual size. It was fastened into a handle 
 of fossil ivory. In the Christy Museum. 
 
 sharp, is very strong, as it is formed by a plane, meeting 
 the flat side at a very obtuse angle. Professor Steenstrup 
 doubts whether these curious and peculiar implements 
 were ever intended for axes, and regards them as having 
 been, in all probability, mere weights for fishing-lines, in 
 support of which view he figures some not, perhaps, very 
 dissimilar stone objects, used for that purpose by the 
 Esquimaux. The so-called edge, in his opinion, neither 
 has nor could have been used for cutting, but is merely 
 the result of that form which was found by the fishermen 
 to be most convenient. He also calls attention to the 
 polished facets on their surfaces, which he regards as 
 aff'ording strong support to his opinion.
 
 96 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 It must be at once admitted that there are some of 
 these " axes " which could never have been used for 
 cutting, but these may be regarded as imperfect, and are 
 certainly not to be taken as normal specimens. It is true 
 that the two surfaces, constituting the edge, form a very 
 obtuse angle with one another, but we must remember 
 that if this detracts from the sharpness, it adds greatly to 
 the strength. Moreover, the angle is almost exactly the 
 
 Fig. 117. — Flint axe from the 
 shell-mound at Meilgaard, in 
 Jutland, actual size. Upper 
 surface. 
 
 Fig. 118. — Ditto, under 
 surface. 
 
 Fig. 119.- 
 
 Ditto, 
 side view. 
 
 same as that which we find in the adze of the New 
 Zealanders and other South Sea Islanders. Figs. 120-122 
 represent a recent adze, brought by the Rev. R. Taylor 
 from New Zealand, and now in the British Museum, which 
 very closely resembles the typical axes of the Kjokken- 
 moddings. The edge, indeed, is polished, but is after 
 all not smoother than the natural fracture of the flint. 
 The projection on the under side of the Danish specimen 
 (fig. 119) is accidental, and due to some peculiarity in the 
 flint. This face is usually as flat in the Danish specimens
 
 CHISELS 
 
 97 
 
 as in those from New Zealand. Axes of the same type 
 have been found by General Pitt Rivers in Wiltshire ; 
 they also occur in France, Egypt, and in the shell-mounds 
 of Japan. 
 
 The chisels (fig. 105) resemble the Danish axes in 
 having perpendicular sides, but they are narrower, and 
 are almost always ground to a smooth surface. Many of 
 them are slightly hollowed on one side, as in fig. 123. 
 
 G. 120.— Modern New Zealand adze, Fig. 121. — Ditto, under surface. Fig 122 — 
 
 actual size. Upper surface. Jn ihe Dittr. it 
 
 B*.- 1 ^# J.-'IllG, .side 
 
 ntish Museum. ^j^ ' 
 
 Certain flat, semicircular flint instruments are common 
 in Denmark and Scandinavia, but (with one exception) 
 rarely, if ever, found elsewhere. The convex edge was 
 fastened into a handle of wood, the marks of which are 
 still, in many cases, plainly visible. The other edge, 
 which is either straight or concave, is generally provid^ed 
 with a number of teeth, giving it more or less resemblance 
 to a saw. In some cases it is so much worn away by 
 use, that the implement takes the form of a new moon 
 or of a boomerang. The edge is in many cases quite 
 polished, evidently by continuous friction against a soft 
 
 7
 
 98 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 substance. I say a soft substance, because the polished 
 part overlaps on both sides, and passes in between the 
 teeth of the saw, which would not have been otherwise 
 the case. It is probable that the 
 semi-lunar instruments were fixed in 
 wooden handles, and then used in 
 cleaning skins. Similarly-shaped in- 
 struments are even now used as 
 knives by the Esquimaux women, 
 under the name of Ooloos. It might 
 be convenient to apply 
 this term to the ancient 
 Danish specimens. 
 
 The so-called "awls" 
 are rude pieces of flint, 
 or flakes worked up at 
 one place by a number 
 of small chips to a point 
 (fig. 195)- Though 
 not very sharp, they are 
 pretty strong. 
 
 The spear-heads are 
 
 Fu;. 123. Hollow chisel vcry Variable in size and 
 
 In my {qj-j^j . somc of them 
 
 are scarcely distinguish- 
 able from large arrow-heads ; others are 
 much larger. Some are so rude that it 
 is questionable whether they were finished, 
 while others are marvellous specimens of 
 ancient art. One in my possession is 12 in. 
 in length, i^ in. in breadth, and of wonder- 
 fully beautiful workmanship. It is one of 
 six, found together in the chamber of a 
 large tumulus in the island of Moen. 
 
 The daggers (figs. 124-128) are often 
 marvels of skill in flint-chipping. The form so closely 
 resembles that of metallic daggers, that some antiquaries 
 are inclined to regard them as copies of bronze daggers, 
 and therefore as not belonging to the Stone Age. The 
 
 from Denmark, 
 own colleclion. 
 
 7 Vii« • - ~ , 
 
 Fig. 124. — Flint 
 dagger in the 
 State Museum, 
 Stockholm.
 
 DAGGERS, SLING-STONES, TOOL-STONES 99 
 
 ^^HQj^<, 
 
 localities in which they have been found do not, how- 
 ever, offer any support to this hypothesis. Another form 
 of flint weapon (fig. 129), which is common in Den- 
 mark, has a handle like that of the last form, but instead 
 of a blade, it ends in a point, and sug- 
 gests the idea that if the tip of the 
 dagger had been accident- 
 ally broken off, or the 
 blade rendered narrow by 
 wear and tear, the rest of 
 the weapon might have 
 been worked up into a 
 poniard, and thus utilized. 
 In both these classes the 
 crimping along the edges 
 of the handle is very 
 curious. 
 
 The sling-stones are of 
 two kinds. The first are 
 merely rough pieces of 
 flint reduced by a few 
 blows of a hammer to a 
 convenient size and form. 
 But for the situations in 
 which they are found, 
 these might almost be re- 
 garded as natural frag- 
 ments. Professor Steen- 
 strup is now disposed to 
 think that many of them 
 were used as sink-stones 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 Flint 
 
 dagger in the State 
 
 Ml. 
 
 hoi 
 
 for nets, but that some 
 
 Fig. 126. — Flint 
 dagger in the 
 State Museum, 
 Stockholm. 
 
 Museum, Stock- havc really served as sling-stones seems 
 
 to be indicated by their presence in the 
 Peat-mosses, which it is difficult to account for in any 
 other way. The other kind of sling-stones are round, 
 flattish flint disks, some of which are beautifully made. 
 
 The oval tool-stones (fig. 130), or " Tilhuggersteens " of 
 the northern antiquaries, are oval or egg-shaped stones.
 
 lOO 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 more or less indented on one or 
 both surfaces. Their use is not 
 at present thoroughly understood. 
 Some antiquaries 
 suppose that they 
 were held between 
 the finger and 
 thumb, and used as 
 hammers or chip- 
 pers. If, however, 
 a large series is 
 obtained, it will be 
 found that the 
 depression varies 
 greatly in depth, 
 and that sometimes 
 the stone is com- 
 pletely perforated, 
 which favours the 
 view of those who 
 regard these im- 
 plements as ring- 
 stones for nets, or 
 small hammer- 
 heads. It is very 
 doubtful whether 
 these implements 
 really belong to the 
 Stone Age. 
 
 Other stones, in 
 which the longer 
 Fig. i27.-Danish axis is encircled by 
 dagger. In my ^ groovc, appear to 
 
 own collectit)n. , ^ , . , , 
 
 have been evidently 
 intended as sink-stones for nets. 
 
 The arrow-heads may be divided 
 into six varieties. Firstly, the 
 triangular (fig. 131)) which fre- 
 quently had a notch on each side 
 
 Fig. 128. — Flint dagger, one- 
 half of the actual size. This 
 beautiful specimen was found 
 in a large tumulus with a 
 second imperfect dagger, a 
 rude flint core, an imperfect 
 crescent-shajied knife, one or 
 two flakes, two amber beads, 
 and some bits of pottery. 
 Denmark. In my own col- 
 lection.
 
 ARROW-HEADS 
 
 lOI 
 
 Fig. 130. — Oval tool - 
 stone. 
 
 to receive the string which attached it to the shaft ; 
 secondly, that which is hollowed out or indented at the 
 base, as in fig. 132 ; thirdly, the stemmed arrow, which 
 has a tang or projection for sinking into 
 the shaft ; fourthly, when the wings are 
 prolonged on each side, this passes into 
 the barbed arrow (fig. 
 133) ; fifthly, we have 
 the leaf-shaped form, a 
 beautiful example of 
 which is represented in 
 fig. 134. Lastly, there 
 is a form resembling 
 figs. 1 17-1 19, but in miniature. This 
 form is not confined to Northern Europe, 
 but occurs elsewhere, as for instance in 
 Egypt, where one, still 
 fixed to the shaft, has 
 been discovered in a 
 tomb.^ True arrow- 
 heads are generally about 
 an inch in length, but 
 they pass gradually into 
 the javelin, and from 
 that into the spear-head. 
 The great similarity of 
 arrow-heads, even from fig. 131. 
 the most distant locali- 
 ties, may be seen in figs. 
 135, 136, and 137, which represent speci- 
 mens from France, North America, and 
 Tierra del Fuego respectively. 
 
 The ciifferent forms were perhaps in 
 use in different tribes, but more probably they are due 
 to the variety of purposes for which they were intended ; 
 thus in North America the war arrows taper to the end, 
 so that when the shaft is drawn out, the head remains 
 in the wound ; while hunting arrows are expanded at 
 
 ^ Baye, Fointcs deflcche en Silex^ p. 139, 1874. 
 
 Tiiangiil.ir 
 flint arrow ■ head, 
 actual size. 
 
 Fig. 129. — Another 
 form of flint dagger. 
 Also from Den- 
 mark. In my own 
 collection.
 
 I02 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Fig. 132. — Indented 
 flint arrow - head, 
 actual size. 
 
 Fig. 133. — Barbed 
 flint arrow-head, 
 actual size. 
 
 the end, so that the head is drawn out with the shaft. 
 The Bygas, an aboriginal tribe of Central India, according 
 to Forsyth, make the same distinction.^ 
 Among other tribes, the lance-shaped 
 arrows are used in hunting, barbed arrow- 
 heads in war,^ The Negritos of the 
 Philippine Islands have 
 three kinds of arrows. 
 One, with a separate head- 
 piece, for wild boars, one 
 for birds. The use of the 
 third is not stated. Every 
 man carries one of each 
 kind.^ The manufacture 
 of these arrows requires much time and 
 skill : "Under the most favourable circum- 
 stances," Messrs Blackmore and Dodge 
 tell us, " the most skilful Indian work- 
 man cannot hope to complete more 
 than a single arrow in a 
 hard day's work."^ 
 
 There are various 
 other kinds of flint im- 
 plements such as ham- 
 mers, saws (fig. 138), 
 harpoons, etc., but — 
 omitting for the pre- 
 sent the earlier, or drift 
 types — the above are 
 , , , , the principal forms of 
 
 Fig. 134. — Leaf-shaped ' ^ j • 1 
 
 flint arrow-head, actual stone weapons and implements, 
 size. Showing the Homs and boncs, besides beingr em- 
 gradual passage into ^ U JT ^L ^ 
 
 the spear-head. ploycQ tor handhng the Stone axes, 
 
 were much used as the material of vari- 
 ous simple implements, and those of the stag appear to 
 
 Fig. 135. — French 
 arrow-head, ac- 
 tual size. In my 
 own collection. 
 
 ' Hii^hlands of Central Ifidta, p. 361. 
 
 - Murray, Travels in North America^ vol. i. p. 385. 
 
 ■' .Sc-hadenbcrj,s Z. f. Ethn.. 1880. 
 
 ' Hunting Grounds of the Great IVest, Dodge and Blackmore, p. 349.
 
 BONE IMPLEMENTS 
 
 103 
 
 have been preferred, as being the hardest. The commonest 
 bone implement is the pin or awl (fig. 139) ; not much 
 less numerous are certain oblono^ chisel- 
 like implements (fig, 140), the use of which 
 it is not easy to determine. Ribs split 
 open, and pointed at one end, are some- 
 times found, and have been supposed by 
 some archaeologists to have been used in 
 the manufacture of pottery ; others refer 
 them to a later period, and 
 think they were used in 
 preparing flax. Fish were 
 caught with bone harpoons 
 (figs. 141, 142). The latter 
 figure represents a bone fig. 137.— Fuegian 
 
 harpoon belonging to the arrowhead, ac- 
 
 m 
 
 tual size. 
 
 /o:. 
 
 Reindeer Period, which will 
 be described in the chapter on Caves. 
 Fig. 136.— North- Arrow-heads, spear- heads, and chisels, 
 
 American arrow- , t^- -vt i 
 
 head, actual size. ^Iso occur. tig. 1 43 represents a North 
 In my own col- American bone chisel used in dressing deer- 
 skins for taking off the hair. Pierced teeth 
 also were not unfrequently worn as amulets. Frag- 
 ments of tissue made of flax have been met with in 
 some of the Swiss lake-dwell- 
 ings. Wool may also have 
 been used, and no doubt the 
 skins of animals. M V ^^"^^^-^r-^ 
 
 Stone implements are fre- \J ''^'■'^^^ijCM/dM^ 
 quently found on the surface fj,-,. 138. — stone saw in wooden 
 
 of the crrOUnd or are dup" handle, Switzerland, one-half actual 
 
 to _ ' o gJ2g 
 
 up in agricultural and other 
 
 operations. But those found singly in this manner have 
 comparatively little scientific value : it is when they 
 occur in considerable numbers, and especially when 
 associated with other remains, that they serve to throw 
 much light on the manners and customs of ancient times. 
 As already mentioned, the tumuli, the lake habitations, 
 and the shell-mounds are specially valuable in this
 
 I04 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 respect, but I must also say a few words about the 
 " coast-tinds " of the Danish antiquaries. " Coast-finds " 
 are discoveries of rude flint inplements, 
 which are found lying in large numbers 
 on certain spots along the whole line of 
 coast. Owing probably to the elevation 
 of the land which has taken place in 
 Jutland since the Stone Age, some of them 
 are now a considerable distance from the 
 present water-line. Some, on the other 
 hand, are at low levels ; one, for instance, 
 close to the railway-station at Korsor, is 
 exposed only at low tide, and others are 
 always covered. The " coast-finds," how- 
 ever, belong probably to 
 different classes. Thus, 
 one at Anholt was evidently 
 a workshop of flint imple- 
 ments, as is shown by the 
 character of the chips, and by 
 the discovery of more than 
 sixty flint cores. Those, 
 on the contrary, which, even 
 at the present day, are under 
 ^'pinifa^dfrom ^atcr, wcre probably so in 
 Scotland, actual old times, and as there are 
 no traces of lake-habitations 
 in Denmark, it has been supposed that 
 they were the places where the fishermen 
 used to drag their nets. It is still usual 
 to choose particular spots for this pur- 
 pose, and it is evident that many of the 
 rude objects used in fishing, especially 
 of the stones employed as net-weights, 
 would there be lost. I am rather disposed to regard 
 them as camping stations. The objects discovered are 
 just what might have been expected under these circum- 
 stances. They consist of irregular flint chippings, net- 
 weights or sling-stones, flakes, scrapers, awls, and axes. 
 
 Fig. 140. — Bone 
 chisel, actual size. 
 From Wangen, 
 on the Lake of 
 Constance. In 
 my own collec- 
 tii)n.
 
 FLINT-FINDS 
 
 105 
 
 la 
 
 p 
 
 /// 
 
 These six different classes of objects have been found 
 
 in most, if not all, of the coast-finds, though 
 
 in different proportions. 
 
 To give an idea of the 
 
 numbers in which they 
 
 occur, I may mention that 
 
 Professor Steenstrup and I 
 
 gathered, in about an hour, 
 
 at Froelund, near Korsor, 
 
 141 flakes, 84 weights, 5 
 
 axes, I scraper, and about 
 
 150 flint chips ; while at a 
 
 similar spot, near Aarhuus 
 
 in Jutland, I myself picked 
 
 up, in two hours and a half, 
 
 76 weights, 40 flakes, 39 
 
 scrapers, 17 awls, and a 
 
 considerable number of flint 
 
 chips. 
 
 In many instances, a layer 
 
 of sand has accumulated 
 
 over and thus protected the 
 
 flint fragments. This was 
 
 the case with both the above- 
 mentioned coast-finds, one 
 
 of which was exposed in 
 
 draining the land, the other 
 
 in a railway cutting. Some- 
 times a change of conditions 
 
 will remove the light sand, 
 
 and leave the heavier stones, 
 
 which again in other cases 
 
 have lain apparently undis- 
 ■ ^ turbed and exposed from the 
 
 Fig. 141.— Bone ^^^t ; and in such instances 
 harpoon, actual the spots are somctimcs so thickly strewn 
 
 with white flints that they may be distin- 
 guished by their colour, even at a considerable distance. 
 We could not expect to find similar coast-finds on our 
 
 Fig. 142.— Ancient 
 bone harpoon, 
 actual size. Dor- 
 dogne.
 
 io6 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ii 
 
 Southern and Eastern shores, because even in historical 
 times the sea has encroached gently. " Flint-finds," 
 however, resembling in many respects these Danish 
 " coast-finds," are not unknown in this country, or on 
 the Continent. They appear to indicate the position of 
 ancient villages ; and in some cases, as, 
 for instance, those of Grimes' Graves and 
 Pressigny, are evidently places selected for 
 the manufacture of stone implements on 
 account of the good quality of the flint. 
 Nor are these discoveries confined to Europe. 
 Mr Busk and Mr Langham Dale have met 
 with a very similar assemblage of flakes, 
 etc., on the Cape Flats, at the Cape of 
 Good Hope.^ I have myself found them 
 in abundance on the high ground along the 
 Nile valley.^ 
 
 Throughout the whole of America, 
 Australia, and Polynesia, indeed, stone im- 
 plements were in use down to a comparatively modern 
 period, and in many parts are so still. In Asia and 
 Africa, on the contrary, as in Europe, stone implements 
 have, for the most part, been long abandoned. Still 
 there also, as, for instance, in Algeria, Egypt, Somaliland 
 and at the Cape, in Palestine and Assyria, in India and 
 Japan, stone implements have been discovered, showing 
 that these countries, like Europe, have, undoubtedly, 
 passed through an Age of Stone. 
 
 Fig 
 
 J. — Bone 
 scraper, North 
 America. 
 
 ' Trans. Eth}i. Soc.., 1869, p. 51. 
 
 -Jour. Anthrop. Institute., 1871.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS AND TUMULI 
 
 All over Europe, we might indeed say all over the world, 
 wherever they have not been destroyed by the plough 
 
 Fig. 144. — A tumulus of the Stone Age, at Roddinge in Denmark. 
 It contains two chambers. 
 
 or the hammer, we find relics of prehistoric times — 
 camps, fortifications, dykes, tumuli, menhirs or standing 
 stones, cromlechs or stone circles, dolmens ^ or stone 
 
 ' In this country, it has become the custom to reverse these two names. 
 Cromlech, however, is derived from "crom," a circle, and "lech," stone ; 
 
 107
 
 io8 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 chambers, etc., many of which astonish us by their 
 magnitude, so that of some of them we may almost say, 
 with Sir Thomas Browne, that " these mountainous 
 monuments may stand, and are like to have the same 
 period with the earth " ; while they all excite our interest 
 by the antiquity of their origin, and the mystery by 
 which they are surrounded.^ 
 
 In our own island the smaller tumuli may be seen on 
 almost every down ; in the Orkneys alone it is estimated 
 that more than 2000 still remain. On the Wiltshire 
 
 Downs there are over 1000 ; 
 in France there are 4000 
 dolmens, 6000 ^ menhirs, 
 and 450 stone circles ; in 
 Denmark they are even 
 more abundant ; they are 
 found all over Europe, from 
 the shores of the Atlantic 
 to the Oural mountains ; 
 in Asia they are scattered 
 over the great steppes, from 
 the borders of Russia to the 
 Pacific Ocean, and from the plains of Siberia to those 
 of Hindostan ; the entire plain of Jelalabad, says Masson, 
 " is literally covered with tumuli and mounds." ^ In 
 America we are told that they are to be numbered by 
 thousands and tens of thousands ; nor are they wanting 
 
 Fig. 145. — Ground plan of foregoing. 
 
 and dolmen from " daul," a table, and " maen," a stone. They should 
 therefore, I consider, be used as in the text. I may add that "menhir," 
 a standing stone, is derived from "maen," stone, and " hir," long. 
 
 ' During the last fifteen years, several important contributions have 
 been made to our knowledge of ancient British burial customs. I may 
 refer especially to Gen. Pitt Rivers' researches among the Antiquities 
 of WillsJiire ; to (jreenwell and Rolleston's British Barrows ; Jewitt's 
 Grave Mounds^ and their Conte7its ; Borlase's A^^wzVz Corniibicr ; Warne's 
 Celtic 7'wnu/i of Dorset ; iind \ior\a.se's /)o /mens of /re land. Fergusson's 
 Bi/de Stone Jhom/ments, also, though written in support of a theory which 
 is, I think, erroneous, contains a valuable summary of our knowledge of 
 megalithic monuments. 
 
 ^ Delechette, j). 431. 
 
 •'' fourneys in Baloochistan^ Afghanistan^ etc.^ vol. ii. p. 164. See also 
 p. I 55, and vol. ii. pp. 1 1 l-i 13.
 
 TUMULI, DOLMENS, STONE CIRCLES 109 
 
 in Africa,^ where the Pyramids themselves exhibit the 
 most magnificent development of the same idea ; indeed 
 
 
 Fig. 146. — Stone circle, Denmark. 
 
 the whole world is studded with the burial-places of the 
 dead. Many of them, indeed, are small, but some are 
 
 Fig. 147. — Dolmen, Denmark. 
 
 very large, such as, for instance, those of Odin, Thor, 
 and Freya, at Upsala. Near Avebury, in Wiltshire, is 
 (see p. 129) Silbury Hill, the greatest tumulus in Europe, 
 
 ' See, for instance, Lhniia^stone's Miss, 'ffave/s, pji. 219, 304.
 
 I lO 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 having a height of one hundred and thirty feet, and 
 covering five and a half acres. 
 
 The standing stones, or " menhirs," also were no doubt 
 generally erected in memorial of some particular event, 
 the majority being, in fact, the tombstones of Archaic 
 times. 
 
 Fig. 148. — Biennanstovvn Dolmen, Co. Dublin. Photo by W. II. Matthews, 
 F.R. S.A.I, l^imensions of covering-stone : length, 15^ feet ; breadth, I5i ; 
 the thickness varies from 3 feet at the east end to 5 feet at its west. 
 
 Tumuli were, as a rule, burial mounds, but sometimes 
 memorials, as in Fiji. 
 
 In addition to these memorials of the past, ancient 
 camps and fortifications crown many of our hills. 
 
 In parts of Scotland some of the old hill fortresses 
 present the remarkable peculiarity, first noticed by Mr 
 John Williams in 1777, of having been subjected to 
 considerable heat. Until 1837 these vitrified forts were 
 supposed to be peculiar to our island, but in that year 
 Professor Zippe called attention to the existence of similar
 
 TUMULI AT UPSALA 
 
 1 1 r
 
 112 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 remains in Bohemia, and since that time vitrified forts have 
 been discovered in various parts of France and Germany.^ 
 
 Fig. 150. — The devil's arrows, Boroughbridge — Northern and Central menhirs. 
 Photo l)y W. H. Matthe"ws, F. U.S.A. I. 
 
 Lastly, the country is intersected by great dykes, or 
 lines of embankment — such, for instance, as the Wans 
 
 ' References to the various memoirs in which these are described are 
 given by Virchow, Zeit.f. lithiwloi^ie, 1870, p. 258. See also papers by 
 Mr Stuart and Dr Fodisch in the Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, vol. viii.
 
 DOLMENS, MENHIRS, STONE CIRCLES 113 
 
 Dyke, the Devil's Dyke at Newmarket, and Offa's Dyke, 
 
 which runs from the Bristol Channel to the Dee, thus 
 roughly dividing England from Wales — which were no 
 doubt partly boundary-lines and partly fortifications, like 
 the Roman Wall or the still more remarkable Wall of 
 China. 
 
 The tumuli, menhirs, or standing stones, dolmens or 
 stone chambers, stone circles, and stone rows or avenues, 
 may all, I think, be considered as parts of one com.mon 
 plan. The great majority were tombs. In some cases 
 
 Fir,. 151. — Kit's Coty House, near Maidstone. 
 
 the dead was buried in his actual house, the entrance of 
 which was then closed. In others the tomb was a copy 
 of the house. We may regard a perfect megalithic inter- 
 ment as having consisted of a stone chamber, communi- 
 cating with the outside by a passage, covered with a mound 
 of earth, surrounded and supported at the circumference 
 by a circle of stones, and in some cases surmounted by a 
 stone pillar or "menhir," Sometimes, however, we find 
 the central chamber standing alone, as at Kit's Coty House, 
 near Maidstone, which may or may not have ever been 
 covered by a mound ; sometimes — especially, of course, 
 where stone was scarce — we find the earthen mound 
 alone ; sometimes only the menhir. The celebrated 
 
 8
 
 114 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 stone avenues of Carnac, in Brittany, and the stone rows 
 of Avebury, may, I think, have been highly developed 
 specimens of the entrance passage ; in Stonehenge, and 
 many other instances, we have the stone circle. In 
 fact, these different parts of the perfect monument are 
 found in every combination and in every degree of 
 development, from the slight elevation, scarcely perceptible 
 to the eye, excepting, perhaps, when it is thrown into 
 relief by the slanting rays of the rising or setting sun, to 
 the gigantic hill of Silbury ; from the small stone circle to 
 the stupendous monuments of Stonehenge or Avebury. 
 
 Some of the oldest tumuli of Western Europe, as 
 figs. 144-5,^ contain a passage, formed by great blocks of 
 stone, almost always opening (as do those of Brittany) 
 towards the south or east — never to the north — and lead- 
 ing into a large central chamber, round which the dead 
 sit. At Godhavn, for instance, in the year 1830, a grave 
 (if so it can be called) of this kind was opened, and 
 numerous skeletons were found, sitting on a low seat 
 round the walls, each with his weapons and ornaments by 
 his side. Now the dwellings used by Arctic nations — the 
 " winter-houses " of the Esquimaux and Greenlanders, 
 the " Yourts " of the Siberians — correspond closely with 
 these " Ganggraben " or " Passage graves." The Siberian 
 Yourt, for instance, as described by Erman, consists of a 
 central chamber, sunk a little in the ground, and, in the 
 absence of great stones, formed of timber, while earth is 
 heaped up on the roof and against the sides, reducing it 
 to the form of a mound. The opening is on the south, 
 and a small hole for a window is sometimes left on the 
 east side. Instead of glass, a plate of ice is used ; it is at 
 first a foot thick, and four or five generally last through 
 the winter. The fireplace is opposite the entrance ; and 
 round the sides of the room, against the walls, " the floor 
 is raised for a width of about six feet, and on this elevated 
 part the inmates slept at night, and sat at work by day." 
 
 Captain Cook gives a very similar description of the 
 winter habitations used by the Tschutski in the extreme 
 ' M. Delechette gives a figure, Man. d'Arc/u'ol., p. 381.
 
 TUMULI-LIKE DWELLINGS 
 
 115 
 
 north-east of Asia. They are, he says,^ " exactly like a 
 vault, the floor of which is sunk a little below the surface 
 of the earth. One of them, which I examined, was of an 
 oval form, about twenty feet long and twelve or more 
 high. The framing was composed of wood, and the 
 ribs of whales, disposed in a judicious manner, and bound 
 together with smaller materials of the same sort. Over 
 this framing is laid a covering of strong coarse grass, and 
 that, again, is covered with earth ; so that, on the outside, 
 the house looks like a little hillock supported by a wall 
 
 Fi(".. 152. — Summer and winter dwellings in Kamschatka. 
 
 of stone three or four feet high, which is built round the 
 two sides and one end." 
 
 "The Aleutian Islanders," says Mr Dall, " especially 
 in their winter villages, were used to construct large, half- 
 underground habitations, often of extraordinary size. 
 These were so arranged by internal partitions as to affbrd 
 shelter to even as many as one hundred families. No 
 fires were built in the central undivided portion, which 
 was entered through a hole in the roof, provided with a 
 notched log by way of ladder. In the small compartments 
 each family had its own oil lamp, which, with the closely 
 fitting door of skins, and the heat of numerous bodies in 
 a very small space, sufficed to keep them warm. We 
 
 * Foyaj^es to the Pacific Ocean, vol. ii. p. 450. See also vol. iii. p. 374.
 
 Tl6 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 learn that the bodies, while being prepared for encasement, 
 as above described, were sometimes kept in the compart- 
 ment which they had occupied during life until ready 
 for deposition elsewhere. We also know from early 
 accounts, proved true by our own excavations, that the 
 bodies of the dead, in the compressed position before 
 mentioned, were sometimes placed in the compartment, 
 laid on their sides, and covered with earth, with which the 
 whole compartment was filled and then walled up. It 
 
 is stated that 
 others in the 
 same yourt 
 continued to 
 occupy their 
 several com- 
 partments 
 after this as 
 usual, a pro- 
 ceeding very 
 different from 
 that of the 
 majority of the 
 I nn uit, who 
 usually aban- 
 don at once a house in which a death has occurred." ^ 
 
 Fig. 153 represents the plan of a Laplander's gamme, 
 or hut, at Komagfiord, as given by Mr Brooke." It was 
 built of sods, supported by a rude framework, and the 
 interstices were stuffed with moss. The greatest height 
 was 6 ft., the breadth 14 ft., the whole length 30 ft. A 
 is the door ; B the passage, 3 ft. high, 6 ft. broad, and 
 12 ft. in length ; C is the inner door, opening into the 
 gamme, D ; E the fireplace, composed of a few large 
 stones to confine the wood-fire ; F an opening in the 
 roof to let out the smoke ; G G are sleeping divisions, which 
 serve also to support the roof ; H is a portion fenced off 
 for the sheep and goats. A comparison of this hut with 
 
 ' Dall, The Aleutian hhiuds. Smithsonian Contributions, 1878. 
 ^ Brooke's Tfajiels in Lap/iuid, \). 318. 
 
 Fig. 153. — Laplander's gamme or hut.
 
 HUT-BURIAL AMONG SAVAGES 117 
 
 the corresponding plan of a tumulus (fig. 163, p. 163), 
 will show how closely these dwellings appear to agree 
 with the " Ganggraben " : indeed, it is possible that in 
 some cases ruined dwellings of this kind have been mis- 
 taken for sepulchral tumuli ; ^ for some mounds have been 
 examined which contained broken implements, pottery, 
 ashes, etc., but no human bones ; in short, numerous 
 indications of life, but no trace of death. We know, 
 also, that several savage tribes have a superstitious re- 
 luctance to use anything which has belonged to a dead 
 person, perhaps from fear of irritating his ghost ; in 
 some cases this applies to his house, which is either 
 deserted or used as a grave. Thus, some of the North 
 American tribes, for instance, the Cherokees and 
 Chichasaws, buried the dead under the couch on which 
 he died.^ The Indians of the Amazons also bury their 
 dead under their houses, which, however, are not therefore 
 abandoned by the living. 
 
 Among the New Zealanders, according to Mr Taylor, 
 " when the owner died, and was buried in his house, it 
 was left with all it contained ; the door was tied up and 
 painted with ochre, to show it was made tapu, and then 
 no one ever entered it again." ^ In many villages, he 
 says, nearly half the houses belonged to the dead. The 
 islanders of Torres Straits also used the ordinary huts as 
 dead houses.* 
 
 Denham''* tells us that in the great Central African 
 kingdom of Bornou " every one is buried under the floor 
 of his own house, without monument or memorial ; and 
 among the commonalty the house continues occupied as 
 usual, but among the great there is more refinement, and 
 it is ever afterwards abandoned." The same is the case 
 with the Dahomans, Yorubans, Fantees, and other African 
 tribes.^ Other races, as, for instance, some of the Tibeto- 
 
 1 The so-called " Pond-barrows " perhaps belong to this class. 
 
 2 Jones, Antiquities of tJie Soiit/te?-ii I/idiatis, p. 114. 
 ^ New Zealand and its Inhabitants, p. 10 1. 
 
 * M'Gillivray, Voyage of the '"^Rattlesnake" vol. ii. p. 48. 
 ^ Travels in Africa, vol. iv. pp. 55-130 
 ** Burton's Mission to Dahonie, vol. ii. p. 2.
 
 ii8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Burman ^ tribes and the natives of Madagascar,^ erect 
 miniature houses over graves. 
 
 Hut burial also occurs among several South American 
 tribes. 
 
 It is still more significant that the Esquimaux them- 
 selves frequently leave the dead in the houses which they 
 occupied when alive. ^ Nor can anyone compare the 
 plan of a Scandinavian " passage grave," as, for instance, 
 the one represented in fig. 163, with any drawing of 
 an Esquimaux snow house, without being struck with 
 the great similarity existing between them. 
 
 Under these circumstances we may consider these 
 chamber graves as a copy, a development, or an adaptation, 
 of the dwelling-house ; that the ancient inhabitants of 
 Scandinavia, unable to imagine a future altogether different 
 from the present, or a world quite unlike our own, 
 showed their respect and affection for the dead by burying 
 with them those things which in life they had valued 
 most : with women, their ornaments ; with warriors, their 
 weapons. They buried the house with its owner, and the 
 grave was literally the dwelling of the dead. When a 
 great man died, he was placed on his favourite seat, food 
 and drink were arranged before him, his weapons were 
 placed by his side, his house was closed, and the door 
 covered up ; sometimes, however, to be opened again 
 when his wife or children joined him in the land of 
 spirits. 
 
 So, again, the tomb in the same way becomes a temple. 
 The Khasias are a primitive people of India who even 
 now construct monuments over the dead. They then 
 proceed to offer food and drink to the deceased, and to 
 implore their assistance. If after praying at a particular 
 tomb they obtain their desires, they return again, and if 
 success is repeated, this tomb gradually acquires a certain 
 reputation, and the person buried in it becomes more or 
 less a deity. When a considerable celebrity has thus 
 
 * M'Mahon, Karens of the Golden Chersonese, pp. 91, 31 8. 
 2 Sibrec, Maddij^ascar and its People, pp. i66, 251. 
 ^ Ross' Arctic Expedition, 1829-1833, p. 290.
 
 STONE CIRCLES 119 
 
 been acquired, other shrines would naturally be conse- 
 crated to him by those anxious for his assistance, and 
 these would be constructed on the model of the first. No 
 wonder, then, that it is impossible in all cases to dis- 
 tinguish the tomb from the temple.-^ 
 
 We will now briefly consider the different classes of 
 monuments. 
 
 Stone circles, or cromlechs, consist of rough upright 
 stones, arranged in a circle. The usual diameter is about 
 100 feet, but some are much larger, the principal circle 
 at Avebury, for instance, being 1200 feet across. The 
 stones are placed at equal distances, and the number of 
 them had probably some significance. " The two inner 
 circles at Abury, the lesser circle at Stennis, and one at 
 Stanton Drew, each consisted of twelve ; the outer circles 
 at Abury, the outer circles of uprights and transoms at 
 Stonehenge, the large circle at Stanton Drew, and the 
 circle at Arbor Low, each of thirty ; those of Rollrich and 
 Stennis, of sixty ; and the large enclosing circle of Abury, 
 of one hundred stones. Four circles at Boscawen, and 
 adjacent places in Cornwall, have each been formed of 
 nineteen stones."^ Avebury and Stonehenge are the 
 most celebrated examples of stone circles, but they differ 
 from the usual type in several respects ; for instance, in 
 having the principal stones roughly hewn, and in the 
 presence of capstones. 
 
 Stone circles occur in various parts of the Continent, 
 but are less frequent than in our islands. Nor are they 
 by any means confined to Europe. The Todas of the 
 Neilgherry Hills have stone circles within which burial 
 ceremonies are performed, the ashes being placed under 
 one of the stones.^ Throughout the Deccan are 
 numerous stone circles sacred to Vetal, whose worship 
 still holds its own against the Brahmanical innovations ;* 
 while Sir Bartle Frere, in his Introduction^ to Miss 
 
 1 Sir John Lubbock, Preface, p. 5, to Our Ancient Monuments and the 
 Land Around Them, by C. Pli. Kains-Jackson, 1880. 
 
 2 Thurnam, Crania Britannica. Decade iv. 
 
 ^ Breaks, Primitive Tribes of the Neilgherrics, pp. 24, 72. 
 •• Old Deccan Days, p. x. ^ Loc. cit., p. x.
 
 120 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ■^^^^ii?:- 
 
 , %
 
 STONE CIRCLES 121 
 
 Frere's charming Old Deccan Days^ tells us that in that 
 part of India outside almost every village there is a circle 
 of large stones sacred to Vetal. Stanley saw, a few miles 
 to the north of Tyre, a circle of rough upright stones ; 
 Mr Palmer, in his Desert of the Exodus^ mentions the 
 existence of " huo;e stone circles in the neighbourhood of 
 Mount Sinai, some of them measuring 100 feet in 
 diameter, having a cist in the centre covered with a heap 
 of large boulders" ; and Kohen, a Jesuit missionary, has 
 recently discovered in Arabia, near Khabb, in the district 
 of Kasim, three large stone circles described as being 
 extremely like Stonehenge, and consisting of very lofty 
 trilithons.-^ Barth also describes and figures similar 
 trilithons as occurring in Tripoli.'-^ In this case the pillars 
 are 10 feet high, and stand on a raised foundation. 
 
 Arctic travellers, also, mention stone circles and stone 
 rows among the Esquimaux. These are, however, of a 
 different character, being quite small, and probably are 
 merely the lower part of habitations. 
 
 Lafitau figures an Indian (Virginian) temple consisting 
 of a circle of upright stones, which, however, are carved 
 at the top into rude representations of human faces.^ 
 Mr Squier mentions stone circles as occurring in Peru.* 
 
 As regards the period at, or purposes for, which the 
 European stone circles were erected, history gives us no 
 information. 
 
 Mr George Petrie, indeed, has pointed out several 
 cases in which the Orkney circles were mentioned in old 
 deeds, etc.^ Thus, in 1349, William de Saint Michael 
 was summoned to attend a court held " apud stantes 
 lapides de Rane en le Garniach," to answer for his 
 forcible detention of certain ecclesiastical property ; and 
 in 1380, Alexander, Lord of Regality of Badenoch, and 
 son of Robert II., held a court, "apud le standand stanys 
 
 ^ Bonstetten, Sur les Dolmc7is, p. 27. 
 ^ T?-ai>els in Central Africa^ vol. i. pp. 58, 74. 
 
 ^ Mceurs des Sauv. Atncr.^ vol. ii. p. 135. I have given a copy in the 
 Origin of Civilirjation, 2nd ed., p. 179. 
 * Anicr. Nat., vol. iv. p. 12. 
 ^ Prehistoric Afinals of Scotland, 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 164.
 
 122 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 de la Rathe de Kyngucy Estir," to inquire into the 
 titles by which the Bishop of iVIoray held certain of his 
 lands. Even so late as the year 1438, we find a notice 
 that "John off Erwyne and Will Bernardson swor on the 
 Hirdmane Stein before oure Lorde ye Erie off Orknay 
 and the gentiless off the cuntre." It is obvious, however, 
 that this comparatively recent use of the stone circles does 
 not enable us to form any opinion as to the purpose for 
 which they were originally intended. 
 
 It is perhaps more relevant to observe that both in the 
 Iliad (B. xviii.) and Odyssey (B. viii.) assemblies of elders 
 are mentioned as sitting in solemn conclave on stone seats 
 arranged in circles. In the former case the seats are said 
 to have been polished. None of our stone circles, how- 
 ever, appear to have been used for any such purpose. 
 Some of them were certainly sepulchral ; and it seems 
 probable that this was their original purpose ; but that, 
 like other shrines, they were subsequently used as 
 temples. 
 
 As regards stone pillars and tumuli, we are told, in 
 Gen. xxxi., that " Jacob took a stone and set it up for a 
 pillar" ; and in verse 51, " Laban said to Jacob, Behold 
 this heap, and behold this pillar, which I have cast 
 between me and thee. This heap is a witness, and this 
 pillar is a witness, that I will not pass over this heap to 
 thee, and that thou shalt not pass over this pillar to me, 
 to do me harm," etc. At Mount Sinai, Moses erected 
 twelve pillars.^ And so, again, when the children of 
 Israel had crossed over Jordan, Joshua took twelve 
 stones and pitched them in Gilgal. " And he spake unto 
 the children of Israel, saying. When your children shall 
 ask their fathers in time to come, saying, What mean 
 these stones .'' then ye shall let your children know, 
 saying, Israel came over this Jordan on dry land." ^ 
 
 Achan and his whole family were stoned with stones 
 and burned with fire, after which we are told that Israel 
 " raised over him a great heap of stones unto this day. 
 So the Lord turned from the fierceness of his anger." 
 
 ^ Ex. xxiv. 4. -' Joshua iv. 21, 22.
 
 ANTIQUITY OF TUMULI 123 
 
 Again, the king of Ai was buried under a great heap of 
 stones ; and so also was Absalom, of whom likewise we 
 are told that he " reared up for himself a pillar, which is 
 in the King's Dale ; for he said, I have no son to keep 
 my name in remembrance ; and he called the pillar after 
 his own name, and it is called unto this day Absalom's 
 Place." 
 
 In one of the ancient Babylonian records, Izdubar is 
 recorded to have erected a memorial mound. -^ 
 
 According to Diodorus, Semiramis, the widow of 
 Ninus, buried her husband within the precincts of the 
 palace, and raised over him a great mound of earth, 
 Pausanias mentions that stones were collected together, 
 and heaped up over the tomb of Laius, the father of 
 CEdipus. In the time of the Trojan war, Tydeus and 
 Lycus are mentioned as having been buried under two 
 earthen barrows. " Hector's barrow was of stone and 
 earth. Achilles erected a tumulus, upwards of an 
 hundred feet in diameter, over the remains of his friend 
 Patroclus. The mound, supposed by Xenophon to 
 contain the remains of Alyattes, father of Croesus, king 
 of Lydia, is of stone and earth, and more than a quarter 
 of a league in circumference. The tradition that the 
 tumulus at Marathon is the tomb of the Greeks who fell 
 in that battle, has been confirmed by the recent discovery 
 in it of vases belonging to that period. Alexander the 
 Great caused a tumulus to be heaped over his friend 
 Hephaestion, at the cost of 1200 talents, no mean sum 
 even for a conqueror like Alexander, it being ^^23 2,500 
 sterling."^ Virgil tells us that Dercennus, king of 
 Latium, was buried under an earthen mound ; and 
 according to the earliest historians, whose statements 
 are confirmed by the researches of arch^ologists, mound- 
 burial was practised in ancient times by the Scythians, 
 Greeks, Etruscans, Germans, and many other nations. 
 Silbury Hill near Avebury, the greatest tumulus in 
 Europe, is 130 feet high and covers 5^- acres. 
 
 ^ Le Normant, Lcs Premieres Civilizalions^ vol. ii. p. 47. 
 
 - Ten Vearj,' Diggings in the Celtic and Saxon Grave /nils, p. v.
 
 124 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 By far the greater number of the tumuli in Western 
 Europe are entirely prehistoric, but there are some few 
 of which the date and origin are known to us, such as the 
 tumuli of Queen Thyra and King Gorm, who died about 
 950, at Jellinge, in Denmark, 
 
 The Mausoleum of Augustus was justly called by 
 Tacitus a tumulus, since it was covered by an immense 
 mound of earth. The tumulus from which Taplow 
 takes its name, the Low or Mound on the Hill-top, 
 was the burial-place of a Viking of about the seventh 
 century. 
 
 There are, moreover, other cases in which tumuli are 
 mentioned, though not in a manner which enables us to 
 identify them with any of those now existing. Thus 
 Gregory of Tours ^ has a quaint story to the effect that 
 Macliav, flying from his brother Chanaon, took refuge 
 with Chonomor, Count of the Bretons. Chanaon sent 
 messengers to demand that Macliav should be given up 
 to him, but Chonomor concealed him in a tomb, " rearing 
 over him a tumulus in the usual manner, but leaving 
 a small opening for the entrance of air" (componens 
 desuper ex more tumulum, parvumque ei spiraculum 
 reservans, unde halitum resumere posset). He then 
 showed this tumulus to the messengers, and assured them 
 that Macliav was buried in it. 
 
 The Codex Diplomaticus contains references to more 
 than sixty barrows or lows, bearing the names of particular 
 persons ; some of them, as, for instance, Wodne's 
 Beorgh, or Woden's Barrow, are probably mythical, but 
 there seems no reason to doubt that some — for instance, 
 Alfrede's Beorh, ^thelwolde's Beorh, Cissan Beorh, 
 Cwichelme's Hloew, Oswolde's Hloew, etc. — retain the 
 name of the person really buried within," It appears 
 that in England the habit of burying under tumuli was 
 finally abandoned during the tenth century. 
 
 The Danish Sagas also tell us that in the middle of the 
 
 ' Historia Francorujii^ iv. 4. 
 
 2 For an interesting memoir on notices of heathen interment in the 
 Codex Diplomaticus, see Kemble, Arch.Jou?:, vol. xiv. p. 119.
 
 TUMULI IN ANCIENT HISTORY 125 
 
 eighth century, Sigurd Ring, having conquered his uncle, 
 King Harald Hildetand, in the battle of Braavalla, 
 " washed the corpse, placed it on Harald's war-chariot, 
 and buried it in a tumulus which he had formed for the 
 purpose. Harald's horse also was slain and buried with 
 him, with the saddle, so that Harald might either ride to 
 Valhalla, or go in his chariot, as he preferred. Sigurd 
 then gave a great feast, after which he recommended the 
 chiefs present to throw their ornaments and arms into the 
 tumulus in honour of Harald. Finally the tumulus was 
 carefully closed." ^ 
 
 By far the greater number of these monuments, how- 
 ever, are doubtless far older. Some, indeed, were ancient 
 and mysterious even in the days of Homer. Thus, at 
 the burial of Patroclus, when Nestor is pointing out to 
 his son Antilochus the course for the chariot race, he 
 says : — 
 
 " Plain is the goal 
 That now I tell thee of; nor canst thou miss it : 
 
 On either side 
 Where narrowest is the way, and all the course 
 Around is smooth, rise two white stones, set there 
 To mark the tomb of some one long since dead. 
 Or form a goal for men in ages past." ^ 
 
 It is very striking to find these menhirs mentioned in 
 our earliest writings, as monuments of events even then 
 already lost in the obscurity of the past. 
 
 Many of the very largest tumuli in Western Europe 
 appear, from the nature of their contents, to have been 
 constructed during the Stone Age. At first, indeed, it 
 seems almost incredible that the immense tumuli of 
 Brittany should have been erected by a people who 
 possessed no metal. We must remember, however, that 
 
 ^ Engelhardt, Guide Illustrc du Musce des Antiquites du Nord a 
 CopenJiagite^ 1868. See also Saxo Grammaticus, His. Dan.., 1. x. ch. xii. 
 
 ^ Hind, xxiii. 384. I have quoted from Mr Wright's translation, which, 
 in this passage at least, is more faithful than any other with which I am 
 acquainted.
 
 126 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 some of the South Sea monuments were quite as con- 
 siderable. Moreover, though hundreds of beautiful 
 stone axes and ornaments have been found in the tumuli 
 of Brittany, no weapons of metal have yet occurred in 
 them. It has been supposed that the carvings on some 
 of the stones could not have been cut without metal. 
 Actual experiments, however, as Messrs Bertrand and de 
 Mortillet have shown me, prove that the stone can be 
 cut with flint, while bronze produces no effect on it. 
 Sir James Y. Simpson also has shown that the engravings 
 on the Scotch rocks, even those on granite, may have 
 been carved with a flint tool.^ 
 
 In this country we still habitually call the megalithic 
 monuments " Druidical," but it is hardly necessary to 
 mention that there is really no sufficient reason for con- 
 necting them with Druidical worship. 
 
 The orreatest of all so-called Druidical monuments is 
 the temple of Avebury, in Wiltshire. It is, indeed, 
 much less known than Stonehenge ; and yet, though a 
 ruder, it was a much grander temple. According to 
 Aubrey, Avebury " did as much exceed Stonehenge as 
 a cathedral does a parish church." When perfect, it 
 consisted of an embankment and a circular ditch, con- 
 taining an area of 28^ acres ; inside the ditch was a 
 circle of great stones, and within this, again, two smaller 
 circles, formed by a double row of smaller stones, stand- 
 ing side by side. From the outer embankment started 
 two long winding avenues of stones, one of which went in 
 the direction of Beckhampton, and the other in that of 
 Kennet, where it ended in another double circle. Stukely 
 fancifully supposed that the idea of the whole was that 
 of a snake transmitted through a circle ; the Kennet 
 circle representing the head, the Beckhampton avenue 
 the tail. Midway between the two avenues stood Silbury 
 Hill, the largest artificial mound in Europe, measuring 
 no less than 130 feet in height, and covering 5^- acres. 
 At one time it was no doubt even higher. From its 
 position it appears to form part of the general plan, but 
 ' Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, vol. vi. 1867, p. 122.
 
 127 
 
 AVEBURY AND SILBURY HILL 
 
 though it has been twice examined, no primary interment 
 has been found in it. On the whole, this appears to 
 
 
 IlKMn, ^'?' ; 
 
 have been the finest megalithic ruin in Europe ; but un- 
 fortunately for us, the pretty little village of Avebury,
 
 128 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 like some beautiful parasite, has grown up at the expense, 
 and in the midst, of the ancient temple, and out of 650 
 great stones, not above 20 are still standing. 
 
 Excavations were made at Avebury by a British Asso- 
 ciation Committee of which I was a member. The work 
 was carried out under the supervision of Mr St George 
 Gray, Curator of the Taunton Museum, and has shown 
 what an immense undertaking it was, especially as the 
 constructors had nothing but stone implements and antler 
 picks to work with. The vallum as already mentioned 
 includes 28^ acres. At present the central plateau is 
 
 Fig. 156. — Avebury stones. 
 
 about 12 feet, and the crest of the vallum 31 feet above 
 the present level of the fosse, which however has gradually 
 filled in. The true bottom was 49*7 feet below the 
 crest of the vallum, and supposing this to have sunk 
 about 5 feet, the original depth of the fosse must have 
 been over 50 feet ! The filling in may have been rapid 
 at first, but no doubt became gradually slower. The 
 fosse excavations so far made represent a length of 90 
 feet, and the objects found were very instructive. Near 
 the surface to a depth of 2 to 3 feet were fragments of 
 mediaeval pottery ; from 3*5 to 4*5 feet fragments of 
 Roman pottery and a brooch with the maker's name 
 " Aucissa," several of whose works have been found in 
 other parts of England. Nothing Roman was found 
 below this level, but only prehistoric pottery, flint chips,
 
 AVEBURY AND SILBURY HILL 
 
 129 
 
 scrapers, and a well-worked knife, antlers of red-deer and 
 shoulder-blades, the horns having been used to dig out 
 the chalk, and the shoulder-blades to shovel it up. The 
 results therefore go far to confirm the view that Avebury 
 
 belongs to the later Stone Age. 
 
 Mr Fergusson ^ has attempted to prove that both 
 Stonehenge and Avebury belong to post-Roman times. 
 " The Roman road," he says, "from Bath to Marlborough, 
 either passes under Silbury Hill, or makes a sudden 
 
 Fig. 157.— Silbury Hill. 
 
 bend to get round it in a manner that no Roman road, 
 in Britain at least, was ever known to cio. . . . From a 
 careful examination of all the circumstances of the case, 
 the conclusion seems inevitable that Silbury Hill stands 
 on the Roman road, and consequently must have been 
 erected subsequently to the time of the Romans leavin2[ 
 the country," 
 
 Startled by this argument, and yet satisfied that there 
 must be some error, I turned to the Ordnance map, and 
 found, to my surprise, that the Roman road was distinctly 
 laid down as passing, not under, but at the side of, 
 Silbury Hill. Not content with this, I persuaded Pro- 
 
 ' Rude Sfone Monimients.
 
 I30 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 fessor Tyndall to visit the locality with me, and we con- 
 vinced ourselves that upon this point the map was quite 
 correct. The impression on our minds was that the 
 Roman engineer, in constructing the road from Morgan's 
 Hill, had taken Silbury Hill as a point to steer for, 
 swerving only just before reaching it. Moreover, the 
 map will show that not only this Roman road, but some 
 others, in the same part of England, are less straight than 
 is usually the case. 
 
 In order to set the point at rest, 1 caused excavations 
 to be made, under the auspices of the Wiltshire Archaeo- 
 logical Society, at the side of Silbury Hill. The ditches 
 running along the Roman road could still be followed, 
 and it is clear that the road swerved shortly before 
 arriving at, and in order to avoid the tumulus. I quite 
 agree, therefore, with old Stukely, that the Roman road 
 curved abruptly southward to avoid Silbury Hill, and 
 that " this shows Silbury Hill was ancienter than the 
 Roman road." ^ How much more ancient it is impossible 
 to say,^ but some excavations made by Mr Pass in 1886^ 
 would seem to indicate that it cannot be later than the 
 Bronze, if indeed it does not belong to the close of the 
 Stone Age. Round the hill is an excavation from which 
 the chalk, of which the hill is composed, was taken. The 
 depression thus formed, though still well marked, is 
 partly filled up with some 9 feet of white alluvial matter. 
 Mr Pass sunk several shafts through this, and at the 
 base of one of them he found several flakes and one well- 
 marked flint implement. This may be either an un- 
 finished arrow-head or a small cutting instrument. 
 
 As regards Stonehenge, we have, I think, satisfactory 
 reasons for attributing it to the Bronze Age. 
 
 The account given by Giraldus Cambrensis, writing at 
 
 ' Mr Blandford, who superintended the opening of the Hill in 1849, 
 came also to the same conclusion. P70C. Arclurol. Insi., 1849, p. 303. 
 See also the interesting memoir in the same volume, by the Rev. A. C. 
 Smith. 
 
 - Stukely thinks it was founded in 1859 B.C., the year of the death of 
 Sarah, Abraham's wife. 
 
 ■' Journ. Wilts. A>xh. and Nat. His. Soc, Aug. 1887.
 
 STONEHENGE 131 
 
 the close of the 12th century, is clearly mythical. Accord- 
 ing to him, it was erected by Aurelius Ambrosius in 
 memory of the British chieftains treacherously murdered 
 by Hengist and the Saxons, about the year 460. " There 
 was," he says, " in Ireland, in ancient times, a pile of 
 stones worthy of admiration, called the Giant's Dance, 
 because giants from the remotest part of Africa brought 
 them into Ireland ; and in the plains of Kildare, not far 
 from the castle of Naas, as well by force of art as strength, 
 miraculously set them up ; and similar stones, erected in 
 a like manner, are to be seen there at this day. These 
 stones (according to the British history) Aurelius 
 Ambrosius, king of the Britons, procured Merlin, by 
 supernatural means, to bring from Ireland into Britain. 
 And that he might leave some famous monument of so 
 great a treason to future ages, in the same order and art as 
 they stood formerly, set them up where the flower of the 
 British nation fell by the cut-throat practice of the Saxons, 
 and where, under the pretence of peace, the ill-secured 
 youth of the kingdom, by murderous designs, were slain. "^ 
 This account is clearly mythical. The larger stones 
 were evidently obtained in the neighbourhood, and are 
 in fact " Sarcens," identical with those which occur in 
 hundreds on Salisbury Plain. Moreover, the very name 
 of Stonehenge, like those of Stanton Drew, Stennis, etc., 
 seems to me a very strong argument against those who 
 attribute these monuments to so recent an oriffin. 
 Stanton Drew, for instance, is " The Stone Town of the 
 Druids." How could it have been called so if it was 
 erected in Saxon times ? Stonehenge is generally con- 
 sidered to mean the Hanging-stones, as indeed was long ago 
 suggested by Wace, an Anglo-Norman poet, who says : 
 
 Stanhengues out nom en Englois 
 Pieres pandues en Francois ; -^ 
 
 but it is surely more natural to derive the last syllable 
 from the Anglo-Saxon word " ing," a field ; as we have 
 
 ^ Giraldus, Topogr. of Ireland. 
 
 - Wright's Wanderings of an Antiquary, p. 301.
 
 132 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Keston, originally Kyst-stan-ing, the field of stone coffins. 
 What more natural than that a new race, finding this 
 magnificent ruin standing in solitary grandeur on Salisbury 
 Plain, and able to learn nothing of its origin, should call 
 it simply tht place of stones ? What more unnatural than 
 that they should do so, if they knew the name of him in 
 whose honour it was erected ? The plan also of Stone- 
 henge seems to be a sufficient reason for not referring it 
 to post-Roman times. It has, indeed, been urged that 
 if Stonehenge had existed in the time of Csesar, we should 
 find it mentioned by ancient writers. Hecatasus, how- 
 ever, does allude to a magnificent circular temple in the 
 island of the Hyperboreans, over against Celtica, and 
 many archaeologists have confidently assumed that this 
 refers to Stonehenge. But why should we expect to find 
 it described, if it was, as we suppose, even at that time a 
 ruin, more perfect, no doubt, than at this day, but still a 
 ruin } The Caledonian Wall was a most important 
 fortification constructed by the Romans themselves, and 
 yet, as Dr Wilson tells us,^ only one of the Roman 
 historians makes the least allusion to its erection, nor is 
 Avebury itself mentioned by any mediaeval author. 
 
 It is evident that Stonehenge was at one time a spot of 
 great sanctity. A glance at the Ordnance map will show 
 that tumuli cluster in great numbers round and within 
 sight of it ; within a radius of three miles, there are 
 about three hundred burial mounds, while the rest of the 
 country is comparatively free from them. If, then, we 
 could determine the date of these tumuli, we should be 
 justified, I think, in referring the Great Temple itself to 
 the same period. Now, of these barrows. Sir Richard 
 Colt Hoare examined a great number, 151 of which had 
 not been previously opened. Of. these the great majority 
 contained interments by crematiop, in the manner usual 
 during the Bronze Age. Ont)^ two contained any iron 
 weapons, and these were both secondary interments ; that 
 is to say, the owners of the iron weapons were not the 
 original occupiers of the tumuli. Of the other burial 
 1 Prehistoric Ann. 0/ Scot., vol. ii. p. 39.
 
 STONEHENGE 133 
 
 mounds, no less than 39 contained objects of bronze, and 
 one of them, in which were found a spear-head and pin 
 of bronze, was still more connected with the temple by 
 the presence of fragments, not only of Sarcen stones, but 
 also of the blue stones which form the inner circle at 
 Stonehenge ; and which do not naturally occur in Wilt- 
 shire. Stonehenge then may, I think, be regarded as a 
 monument of the Bronze Age, though apparently it was 
 not all erected at one time, the inner circle of small, 
 unwrought, blue stones being probably older than the 
 rest.^ 
 
 Stonehenge points approximately to the rising of the 
 sun on Midsummer Day, and visitors still go every 
 year to watch the interesting spectacle of the sun rising 
 over the so-called " Friar's Heel " (fig. 158). 
 
 An " avenue," as it is called, formed by two ancient 
 earthen banks, which were formerly more marked than 
 they are now, extends for a considerable distance in 
 the direction of the rising sun. In Sir N. Lockyer's 
 opinion the monument is a temple, was originally roofed 
 in, "and the sun's first ray, suddenly admitted into the 
 darkness, formed a fundamental part of the cultus." ^ 
 
 This was important, not only from a religious point of 
 view, but as marking distinctly and officially the com- 
 mencement of a new annual period, which was useful on 
 various grounds and especially from an agricultural point 
 of view. 
 
 The theory assumes that when the monument was 
 
 ' Some archaeologists, however, including the high authority of Mr 
 Flinders Petrie, are of the opposite opinion. There are, in fact, four kinds 
 of stones in Stonehenge. The great outer circle and the trilithons are 
 " Sarcen " stones, that is to say, they are formed from the sandstone blocks 
 of the neighbourhood. The majority of the -small pillars forming the inner 
 circle consist of an igneous rock known as Diabase, but four stones of this 
 series are schistoid, and resemble some of the Silurian and Cambrian rocks 
 of North Wales and Cumberland. Lastly, the so-called altar stone is grey 
 sandstone, resembling some of the Devonian and Cambrian rocks. 
 Maskelyne, Wilts. Arch. Magazine., Oct. 1877. It has been said that 
 some Roman pottery was found under one of the trilithons at Stonehenge. 
 Mr Cunnington, however, has pointed out that there is no authority for 
 this statement. Wilis. Arch. Mag., Dec. 1883. 
 
 - AUilinr, Nov. 1901.
 
 134 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 erected the axis pointed exactly to the rising of the sun 
 at Midsummer Day. This, however, does not now hold 
 good, but Sir N. Lockyer on astronomical grounds con- 
 cludes that this was the case in 1680 B.C., which accordingly 
 
 Fig. 158. — Plan of Stonehenge. 
 
 he considers to be the date of the monument, with a 
 possible error of ±200 years. 
 
 But this was not the original monument. The so- 
 called blue stones are considered by most, though not by 
 all, archaeologists to be much older, and Lockyer suggests 
 for them a date of 2680 B.C. As regards Avebury, since 
 the stones are all in their natural condition, while those 
 of Stonehenge are roughly hewn, it seems reasonable to 
 conclude that Avebury is the older of the two, and belongs
 
 CARNAC, BRITTANY 135 
 
 either to the close of the Stone Age, or to the commence- 
 ment of that of Bronze. 
 
 A complete burial-place may be described as a dolmen, 
 covered by a tumulus, crowned by a menhir, sur- 
 rounded by a stone circle, and led up to by a stone 
 rov/. Often, however, we have only the tumulus, some- 
 times only the dolmen, and sometimes again only the 
 stone circle. 
 
 The celebrated monument of Carnac (fig. 159), in 
 Brittany, consists of eleven rows of unhewn stones, which 
 differ greatly both in size and height, the largest being 
 22 feet above ground, while some are quite small. It 
 appears that the avenues originally extended for several 
 miles, but at present they are very imperfect, the stones 
 having been cleared away in places for agricultural im- 
 provements. At present, therefore, there are several 
 detached portions, which, however, have the same general 
 direction, and appear to have been connected together. 
 
 They may, I think, be regarded as highly developed 
 examples of the passage which leads to the central 
 chamber in so many tumuli, or corresponds with the 
 covered passage leading to the dwelling in arctic regions. 
 
 They appear to have always terminated in a circle, 
 often, however, quite insignificant in comparison with the 
 stone row. 
 
 Most of the great tumuli in Brittany probably belong 
 to the Stone Age, and I am therefore disposed to regard 
 the Carnac, and other rows of stones, as having been 
 erected during the same period. 
 
 Megalithic erections, resembling those which are 
 generally, but without sufficient reason, ascribed to the 
 Druids, are found in very distant countries. In Moab, 
 De Saulcy observed rude stone avenues, and other monu- 
 ments, which he compares to Celtic dolmens. Lieut. 
 Oliver, also, mentions that the Hovas of Madagascar to 
 this day erect monoliths and stone tombs closely resem- 
 bling those of Western Europe.^ Mr Maurice ^ was, I 
 believe, the first to point out, that in some parts of India 
 ' Trans. Etlm. Soc, 1870, p. 67. - India Antiqua.
 
 136 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES
 
 INDIAN DOLMENS 137 
 
 there are various monuments of stone, which, in the words 
 of Colonel Yule, "recall strongly those mysterious, solitary, 
 or clustered monuments of unknown origin, so long the 
 puzzle and delight of antiquaries, which abound in our 
 native country, and are seen here anci there in all parts 
 of Europe and Western Asia."^ Mr Fergusson goes 
 farther, and argues with great ingenuity that the "Buddhist 
 architecture in India, as practised from the third century 
 B.C. to seventh a.d., is essentially tumular, circular, and 
 external, thus possessing the three great characteristics of 
 all the so-called Druidical remains." " These resemblances, 
 indeed, are too great to be accidental, and the differences 
 represent, not so much a difference in style, as in civiliza- 
 tion. " In the most celebrated example in India, that at 
 Sanchee, the circle consists of roughly squared upright 
 stone posts, joined at the top by an architrave of the 
 same thickness as the posts, exactly as at Stonehenge ; 
 the only difference being the insertion of three stone rails 
 between each of the uprights, which is a masonic refine- 
 ment hardly to be expected among the Celts." In India, 
 then, the circles of stones seem generally to have sur- 
 rounded tumuli ; but this is not always the case, and 
 there are some " which apparently enclose nothing." 
 Again, they are generally covered with sculpture ; but to 
 this also there are exceptions, as, for instance, at Amravati, 
 where there are numberless little circles of rude unhewn 
 stone, identical with those in this country, but smaller. 
 
 In Europe we know that the stones of megalithic 
 monuments are almost invariably uncarved. 
 
 There is indeed a dolmen, near Confolens in Charente, 
 in which the upper stone is supported, not on rude stone 
 blocks, but on four slender columns.^ I agree, however, 
 with M. Rochebrune, that the supports were probably 
 carved at a period long subsequent to the erection of the 
 
 ' Jour, of the Asiat. Soc. of Be7igal., vol. xiii. p. 617. See also Pr'oc. 
 Sac. Antiq. Scotland^ vol. i. p. 93. Babin^^ton, Trans. Lit. Soc. Botnbay, 
 1823. Congreve, Madras Jour, of Lit. and Science, 1847. Yu.\e., Proc. 
 Soc. A?it. Scotland, \ol. i. p. 93. Wise, ditto, p. 154. Hooker's Hima- 
 layan Journals. Taylor, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad.., vol. xxiv., etc. 
 
 - Loc. cit.., p. 212. ^ Statistiquc Monunicntalc de la Charente.
 
 138 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 monument. ^ It is one of the many cases in which mega- 
 lithic monuments have been " christianised." Many of 
 the French menhirs have had a cross fixed at the top, and 
 one is built into the wall of the cathedral at Mans." At 
 Stonehenge the stones are carefully hewn, but at this 
 stage the megalithic architecture in Western Europe seems 
 to have been replaced by a totally different style. In 
 Algeria,^ on the contrary, it advanced further ; we there 
 find tumuli of regular masonry and stone circles, in which 
 the floors are paved. On the principal stones in one of the 
 stone circles are letters, the meaning of which, however, 
 is unknown. In India it reached a still higher stage of 
 development, so that it requires an observant eye to 
 detect in the rude cromlechs, stone circles, and tumuli, 
 the prototypes of the highly decorated architecture of the 
 Buddhists. 
 
 It is a very remarkable fact, that even to the present 
 day, some of the hill tribes in India continue to erect 
 menhirs, cromlechs, and other combinations of gigantic 
 stones, sometimes singly, sometimes in rows, sometimes 
 in circles, in either case very closely resembling those 
 found in Western Europe. Among the Khasias,* " the 
 funeral ceremonies are the only ones of any importance, 
 and are often conducted with barbaric pomp and expense ; 
 and rude stones of gigantic proportions are erected as 
 monuments, singly or in rows, circles, or supporting one 
 another like those of Stonehenge, which they rival in 
 dimensions and appearance." 
 
 Dalton ^ mentions several menhirs erected by the 
 present generation in memory of relatives who have 
 recently died. 
 
 An interesting account is given by Dr Inman, on the 
 authority of Mr Greey, of the mode in which these large 
 
 ' Mem. sur les Restes d' Industrie appurtenant aiix temfis pri?nordiaux 
 dans le Dep. de la Charente^ 1 866. 
 
 2 Delechette, Archrol. Prchist., p. 440. 
 
 ^ Recueil des Notices et Mcnioires de la Socidtt? Archi'ologique de la 
 Province de Constafitine, 1863, p. 214. See also Letourneux, Ar, f. 
 Anthropolfli^ie, 1868, p. 307. 
 
 * Dr Hooker's Himalayan Jour., vol. ii. p. 276. See also p. 320. 
 
 '' Et lino logy of Bengal^ p. 203.
 
 INDIAN DOLMENS 139 
 
 blocks of stone are moved. Two long horizontal poles 
 are placed under the stone pillar, and firmly lashed to it, 
 one at each end. At intervals of about three feet other 
 poles were then fastened to the two first, parallel to the 
 stone pillar, so that a large number of men could get a 
 firm hand-hold. In this manner Mr Greey saw a stone 
 about 30 feet long, 10 feet broad, and weighing about 
 24 tons, easily moved by about 600 men.^ 
 
 The sin2;le pillars are sometimes tombstones, sometimes 
 memorials of important events. Colonel Yule once asked 
 a native if there were any tradition about one of these 
 pillars, which is known as Mausmai, i.e. " the stone of 
 the oath." " There was war," said the man, " between 
 two villages, and when they made peace, and swore to it, 
 they erected this stone for a witness.'" " 
 
 Sir Joseph Hooker " has called attention to the fact that 
 the Khasian word for a stone, " Mau," as commonly 
 occurs in the names of their villages and places, as that of 
 Man, Maen, and Men, does in those of Brittany, Wales, 
 Cornwall, etc, ; thus Mausmai signifies in Khasia the 
 Stone of Oath, — Mamloo, the Stone of Salt, — Mouflong, 
 the Grassy Stone, — just as in Wales, Penmaenmawr 
 signifies the Hill of the Big Stone ; while a menhir is a 
 standing stone, and a dolmen a table stone, etc. Those 
 who believe that the use of metal was introduced into 
 Europe by a race of Indo-European origin, will find in 
 these facts an interesting confirmation of their opinion. 
 
 How closely these Indian dolmens resemble those of 
 Europe may be seen by comparing figs. 160 and 161 with 
 147 and 148. 
 
 The Indian dolmens, as shown in the valuable memoirs 
 by Colonel Meadows Taylor* (figs. 160, 161), may truly 
 be said to be identical with those of Western Europe. 
 He examined a very considerable number, having obtained 
 particulars of no less than 2129 dolmens in the district of 
 
 ' Proceedings Lit. and P kilos. Soc. of Liverpool., vol. xxx. p. loS. 
 - Proc. Soc. Aniiq. Scotland, vol. i. p. 93. 
 ^ Address to the British Association, 1868, p. 7. 
 
 * Trans. R. Irish Academy, vol. xxiv. p. 329. See also Col. Forbes 
 Leslie's valuable work, The Early Races of Scotland,
 
 140 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Bellary, in the Dekkan, and it is interesting that, as is 
 sometimes the case in Europe, more than 11 00 had an 
 
 Fig. 160. — Indian Dolmen. After Colonel Meadows Taylor. 
 
 opening in one of the side stones, perhaps in order to 
 introduce food, perhaps as an exit for the spirit of the 
 dead. Montperieux figures (pi. xxx.) a dolmen with a 
 similar hole, in his work on the Caucasus, 
 
 Fig. 161. — Indian Dolmen. After Colonel Meadows Taylor. 
 
 Schoolcraft also mentions that in the United States the 
 Redskins very frequently left an opening in the grave 
 cover for the same purpose.^ 
 
 ^ Schoolcraft's hjdiati Tribes, pt. i. p. '^2)-
 
 MODES OF BURIAL IN TUMULI 141 
 
 Archa^oloo-ists are divided as to whether dolmens were 
 in all cases originally covered over with earth. Mr 
 Fergusson denies this, while it has been ably maintained 
 by Mr Lukis. It must, I think, be admitted that some 
 of the cases relied on by Mr Fergusson must be aban- 
 doned ; nevertheless, I am disposed to believe that in 
 some instances the dolmen was left uncovered. 
 
 The majority of these dolmens were no doubt sepulchral. 
 Some, however, were very probably shrines, erected in 
 honour of a god, not of a man. Mr Walhouse, in an 
 interesting paper on non-sepulchral rude stone monu- 
 ments,^ describes a dolmen consisting of back and side 
 slabs set on edge, observed by him on the table-land of 
 Mysore, and which was a temple to Hanuman, containing 
 a rude image of the god, with a few flowers strewn before 
 it. Subsequently he found these temple dolmens in 
 common use by the Malayalies, a Tamil race inhabiting 
 the Shiarai Hills. 
 
 We must not, however, attribute too much importance 
 to the similarity existing between the megalithic erections 
 in various parts of the world. Give any child a box of 
 bricks, and it will immediately build dolmens, cromlechs, 
 and " trilithons," like those of Stonehenge, so that the 
 construction of these remarkable monuments may be 
 regarded as another illustration of the curious similarity 
 existing between the child and the savage. 
 
 Tumuli or barrows are much more numerous and 
 more widely ciistributed than stone circles. No doubt 
 the great majority of them are burial mounds, but some 
 also were erected as memorials, like the " heap of witness " 
 erected by Laban and Jacob, or the mound heaped up by 
 the Ten Thousand in their celebrated retreat, when they 
 obtaineci their first view of the sea. 
 
 The tumuli were generally constructed of materials 
 found on the spot, the cists, however, and chambers, when 
 present, being often built of slabs brought from a distance. 
 Generally the earth, etc., is heaped up without any order, 
 having been, at any rate in many cases, dug with deer's- 
 1 Jour. Anthr. Inst.., Aug. 1877.
 
 142 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 horn picks, and carried to the mound perhaps in baskets. 
 In other cases the materials are arranged in more or less 
 regular layers. 
 
 The size of the tumulus may be taken as a rough 
 indication of the estimation in which the deceased was 
 held, as James ^ also tells us was the case among the North 
 American Indians. The Scotch Highlanders^ have a 
 complimentary proverb, " Curri mi clach er du cuirn," i.e. 
 " I will add a stone to your cairn " ; and I am informed 
 by Mr R. Gray that the custom still exists in the Hebrides, 
 as it does among various savage and semi-savage races. 
 
 The remark made by Schoolcraft as regards the 
 American Indians is applicable to many savage tribes. 
 " Nothing that the dead possessed was deemed too valu- 
 able to be interred with the body. The most costly dress, 
 arms, ornaments, and implements, are deposited in the 
 grave " ; which is " placed in the choicest scenic situations 
 — on some crowning hill or gentle eminence in a secluded 
 valley." And the North American Indians are said, even 
 until within the last few years, to have long cherished a 
 friendly feeling for the French, because, in the time of 
 their supremacy, they had at least this one great merit, 
 that they never disturbed the resting-places of the dead. 
 
 Coffins do not appear to have been used in ancient 
 times. Canon Greenwell has sometimes found traces of 
 decayed wood, and in one case the side of a grave showed 
 the impression of a rough board. Such burials, I believe, 
 generally belong to the Bronze Age. A good example is 
 that of Gristhorpe, near Scarborough, described by Prof. 
 Williamson, which, among other relics, contained a small 
 bronze dagger. The majority of tumuli are mere heaps 
 of earth, or of stones, covering the bones or ashes of the 
 dead ; in many cases, however, the mound contains a cist 
 of stones, evidently intended to protect the remains of the 
 cieceased, while in other cases the dead man was buried in 
 a dolmen, more or less resembling those represented in 
 figs. 1 46- 148, and the whole was then covered over. Such 
 
 ^ Expedition to the Rocky Mountains^ vol. ii. p. 2. 
 
 2 Wilson, Prehistoric Atinals of Scotland, vol. i. p. 86, 2nd cd.
 
 MODES OF BURIAL IN TUMULI 143 
 
 dolmens, either covered or uncovered, occur, as already 
 mentioned, in Northern Africa and in India. Some 
 archaeologists have considered that all dolmens were 
 originally covered with earth or stones, but I think the 
 evidence shows that some at least were intentionally left 
 exposed. 
 
 It is just possible that the comparative rarity of 
 chambered tumuli in England and France may be con- 
 nected with the greater mildness of the climate, which 
 did not necessitate the use of underground " winter- 
 houses " ; or it may be an indication of a difference in 
 race. Further investigations will, doubtless, decide this 
 point. In the meantime we must remember that the 
 so-called " Picts-houses " are abundant in the northern 
 parts of Great Britain. These curious dwellings are 
 " scarcely distinguishable from the larger tumuli ; but on 
 digging into the green mound, it is found to cover a 
 series of large chambers, built generally with stones of 
 considerable size, and converging towards the centre, 
 where an opening appears to have been left for light and 
 ventilation. These differ little from many of the sub- 
 terranean weems, excepting that they are erected on the 
 natural surface of the soil, and have been buried by 
 means of an artificial mound heaped over them." ^ 
 
 According to Mr Bateman, who has recorded the 
 systematic opening of more than four hundred tumuli 
 (a very large proportion of which were investigated in 
 his presence), and whose opinion is therefore of great 
 value, the leading feature of these ancient British 
 sepulchral mounds is, that they enclose either an artless 
 stone vault, or chamber, or a stone chest, otherwise called 
 a Kistvaen, built with more or less care ; and, in other 
 cases, a grave cut out more or less below the natural 
 surface and lined, if need be, with stone slabs, in which 
 the body was placed in a perfect state, or reduced to 
 ashes by fire." ^ 
 
 The " long barrows " are rarer ; they resemble, in 
 
 ' Wilson, loc. ciL, vol. i. p. i6i. 
 
 - Bateman, Teti Years' Diggings, p. ii.
 
 144 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 some respects, the Scandinavian " Ganggraben," and, 
 like them, in districts where large blocks of stones occur, 
 contain megalithic chambers, in which the dead were 
 buried and not burnt. No trace of metal has yet been 
 found in this class of tumulus ; which therefore probably 
 belongs to the Stone Age. The skulls found in these 
 tumuli are long and narrow skulls, which have received 
 from Dr Wilson the name of " Kumbecephalic," or boat- 
 shaped skulls, resembling the one in fig. 162, which was 
 obtained by Mr Bateman from the tumulus known as 
 " Longlow," near Watton, in Derby- 
 shire. This tumulus contained the 
 remains of thirteen individuals, who 
 had been buried in the usual con- 
 tracted position. They were con- 
 tained in a cist composed of large 
 stones, and were accompanied with 
 several worked flints, including three 
 carefully made arrow-heads. Long 
 skulls are comparatively rare in the 
 round tumuli of England, while, on 
 the contrary, no round skulls have 
 Fig. 162.— Kumbecephalic yet been met with in the long tumuli, 
 
 skull from Derbyshire. ^ ^ • tttm^ i • j /^i 
 
 After Bateman. ^t any rate m Wiltshire and Lrlouces- 
 
 tershire : so that the evidence appears 
 to support Dr Thurnam's aphorism, long barrows, long 
 skulls ; round barrows, round skulls.^ This conclusion 
 rests on the measurements of 137 skulls, 70 from round 
 barrows and 67 from long ones, and it must be observed 
 that these are not selected specimens, but, so far as the 
 long-barrow skulls are concerned, comprise the whole 
 number which we possess in a sufficiently perfect con- 
 dition ; while, as regards the 70 from round tumuli, 
 Dr Thurnam has taken the whole number (41) contained 
 in the Bateman collection, those described in the Crania 
 Britannica^ and all those in his own collection. It is 
 important to observe, therefore, that in neither case has 
 any selection been made which could influence the re- 
 ^ Mem. Anthropological Soc.., vol. i.
 
 LONG BARROWS 
 
 HS 
 
 suits. Now if we class those skulls in which the relation 
 of the breadth to the length is less than 73 to 100 as 
 long heads, or Dolichocephalic, those in which it is from 
 74-79 to 100 as medium heads, and those in which the 
 proportion is 80 or more than 80 to 100 as short heads, 
 or Brachycephalic, we shall have the following result : — 
 
 Total Dolicho- Ortho- Brachy- 
 
 number cephalic cephalic cephalic 
 
 of skulls. 63-73. 74~79- 80-89. 
 
 Long barrows .67 ^^ 11 o 
 
 Round barrows .70 o 26 44 
 
 Thus there is not a single long head among the 70 
 specimens from round barrows, nor a single round head 
 among the 67 specimens from long barrows. So remark- 
 able a distinction certainly appears to imply a difference 
 of race. 
 
 The more recent researches of Canon Greenwell and 
 Dr Rolleston confirm these views. They have never 
 found a round skull in a long barrow. On the other hand, 
 although Dr Thurnam found no long skulls in round 
 barrows, yet, unless the long-headed race were entirely 
 destroyed by the men with round heads, we should 
 naturally expect that, though the round heads would 
 preponderate in the later round barrows, still skulls of 
 the earlier long-headed race would sometimes occur ; and 
 this we find is really the case. The women at any rate 
 of the earlier race were probably not wholly exterminated. 
 
 Dr Thurnam is disposed to refer the Dolichocephalic 
 people to the Neolithic Age, the Brachycephalic to that 
 of Bronze. 
 
 It seems to me that both existed during the Neolithic 
 Period. Many, if not most, of the round barrows are 
 certainly referable to this phase in our history. 
 
 As yet, no bone belonging to any of the extinct 
 mammalia has been found in a tumulus. Even the rein- 
 deer, so far as our present evidence goes, is entirely 
 wanting. Again, the stone implements, as already 
 mentioned, are of a character very different from those 
 
 10
 
 146 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 used by Palaeolithic men. It is therefore not surprising 
 to find that the skulls which have been obtained from 
 tumuli attributed to the Stone Age, indicate that Europe 
 was, even at that period, already inhabited by more than 
 one race of men. 
 
 On the Continent, as in England, some are brachy- 
 cephahc, or short-headed, and so far resemble those of 
 the Lapps, while others are dolichocephalic, or long- 
 headed^ (fig. 162). Virchow^ has published a memoir 
 on the skulls obtained from Danish tumuli, and contained 
 in the Copenhagen Museum. Omitting fragmentary 
 specimens, and those belonging to young persons, he has 
 examined 41 skulls referred to the Stone Age, 3 to the 
 Bronze Age, and 5 to the Iron Age, and compared them 
 with the specimens of Lapp (6), Greenland (5), and Finn 
 (3) skulls contained in the same collection. On the 
 whole, these Stone Age skulls are orthocephalic, inclining 
 to brachycephalism ; the Bronze Age and Iron Age 
 specimens are dolichocephalic, but it must be remarked 
 that it would not be safe to draw any definite conclusion 
 from so small a number of specimens ; and that even if 
 the Bronze Age indicates the immigration of a new race 
 into Western Europe, they would probably not exter- 
 minate the earlier inhabitants, but would at any rate spare 
 the young women, so that, until we have a considerable 
 body of evidence, it would be very unsafe to speculate 
 on the character of the population during the Bronze 
 
 The Lapps and Finns are brachycephalic ; but Virchow 
 observes that if in this respect the skulls of the latter 
 resemble the type of the Danish Stone Age, they differ 
 greatly in height and breadth, so that no ethnic affinity 
 can be predicated between them. 
 
 In some cases the skulls obtained from one and the 
 same buried mound differ from one another very con- 
 siderably. Thus among those found in the great tumulus 
 at Borreby, in Denmark, the breadth, taking the length 
 
 ' Nilsson's Stone Age^ English ed., p. 121. 
 - Ar.J'iir Anthrojiologie, 1870, p. 55.
 
 OBJECTS BURIED WITH THE DEAD 147 
 
 at 100, varied from 71 -8 to 8575 or no less than 14 per 
 cent.^ 
 
 The care with which the dead were interred, and the 
 custom of burying implements with them, may fairly be 
 regarded as indicating the existence of a belief in the 
 immortality of the soul, and in a material existence after 
 death. 
 
 The objects buried with the dead are sometimes 
 numerous, and always interesting. In a large tumulus 
 near Everley, a deposit of burnt bones was " surrounded 
 by a circular wreath of horns of the red-deer " ; whilst at 
 a higher level, though three feet from the summit, was 
 the skeleton of a small dog, the " attendant in the chase, 
 and perhaps the victim in death," of the hunter, whose 
 exquisitely chipped arrow-heads, five in number, were 
 deposited with his ashes.^ 
 
 But it is very far from being " constantly " the case 
 that the dead were so well supplied with what we call 
 the necessaries of life ; indeed, it is the exception and not 
 the rule. Thus, out of more than 250 interments described 
 by Sir R. Colt Hoare in the first volume of his great work 
 on Ancient Wiltshire^ only 18 had any implements of stone, 
 only 31 of bone, 67 of bronze, and 1 1 of iron ; and 
 while pottery was present in 107, more than 60 of these 
 contained only sepulchral urns, intended to receive the 
 ashes of the dead, and certainly never meant to hold food. 
 So far, however, as stone implements are concerned. Sir 
 R. C. Hoare appears to have overlooked the ruder instru- 
 ments and weapons. I will, therefore, rely principally 
 on the evidence afforded by the researches of Mr Bateman 
 and Canon Greenwell. 
 
 Although a large number of the interments described 
 by Mr Bateman had been already examined, there were 
 297 which had not been already disturbed, and though 
 he carefully mentions even the rudest bit of chipped flint, 
 no less than 100 of these were without any implement at 
 all, either of stone or metal, and the drinking-vessels and 
 food-vases were only about 40 in number. Moreover, 
 
 1 Busk, Vogfs Lectures on Man, p. 384. - Archceologia, xliii. p. 536.
 
 148 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 lest it should be supposed that these ill-provided inter- 
 ments were those of poor persons or enemies, we will 
 leave all these out of consideration. This we can easily 
 do. We may be sure that these tumuli, which must 
 have required much labour, were only raised in honour 
 of the rich or great ; though they may have served, and, 
 no doubt, often did serve afterwards, as burial-places for 
 the poor. But it is almost always easy to distinguish the 
 primary interment ; for though there are some few cases 
 in which the original occupant has been ignominiously 
 ejected from his grave to make room for a successor, 
 these instances are rare, and can generally be detected, 
 while the secondary interments are usually situated either 
 above the first or on the sides of the tumulus. The 
 same feeling which made our ancestors prefer to bury 
 their dead in a pre-existing tumulus, generally prevented 
 them from desecrating the earlier interments. 
 
 In the following tables, then, I have recorded the 
 primary interments only ; the first column contains the 
 name of the tumulus, the succeeding nine indicate the 
 disposition of the corpse, and the articles found therewith, 
 while the last is reserved for any special remarks. Out 
 of 139 interments examined by Mr Bateman, only 105 
 had any implements or weapons, and only ^S were 
 accompanied by any pottery that can have held either 
 food or drink. Moreover, if we examine the nature 
 of the implements which were deposited with the dead, 
 we shall find that they are far from representing complete 
 sets of tools or ornaments. The rarity of bronze in 
 tombs is, perhaps, not surprising ; but to men so practised 
 as our predecessors, it must have been an easy matter to 
 make a rude arrow-head, or a flint flake. Yet some of 
 the corpses are accompanied by but one single arrow- 
 head, others by a small flint flake ; some, again, by a 
 single scraper. Such isolated objects may in many cases 
 have been dropped accidentally. It must also be observed 
 that many of the stone objects found by Mr Bateman 
 are much ruder than might be supposed from the names 
 he has given them.
 
 OBJECTS BURIED WITH THE DEAD 149 
 
 In the table (p. 154) with which Canon Greenwell has 
 been so good as to furnish me, and which shows the 
 primary deposits in 102 tumuH examined by him, it 
 will be observed that only 30 contained any implement, 
 the other 72 being altogether bare.^ They were always 
 buried in a contracted position,^ or burnt, and there is 
 not a single case in which the corpse was deposited in 
 that extended position which seems to us so natural. 
 
 Thus, then, there seems to have been no intention of 
 depositing with each corpse a complete set of implements. 
 The barrow on Cronkstone Hill, for instance, contained 
 the skeleton of a man, with whom had been buried the 
 burnt bones of someone, probably a slave, or, perhaps, a 
 wife, who had been sacrificed at his grave, and yet the only 
 implement found with him was a "circular instrument," 
 probably a flint scraper or a sling-stone. Again, the 
 mound known as " Cow Low " contained only a bone 
 pin. The affectionate relatives who heaped up this 
 tumulus would certainly not have sent their dead sister 
 into the new world with nothing but a bone pin, if they 
 had thought that the things they buried with her could 
 be of any use. Even the great tumulus at Arbor Low 
 contained only a bone pin, a piece of iron pyrites, a 
 kidney-shaped instrument of flint, and two vases. It 
 would be easy to multiply illustrations, and it is, I think, 
 sufficiently evident that the articles found in the graves 
 cannot seriously be considered as affording any evidence of 
 a definite and general belief in a future state of existence, 
 or as having been intended for the use of the dead in the 
 new world to which they were going. Moreover, there 
 is a well-marked speciality in each case, which seems to 
 show that the presence of these rude implements, far 
 from being the result of a national belief, are simply the 
 touching evidence of individual affection, 
 
 ^ Canon Greenwell's subsequent researches have tended to confirm this. 
 Out of 379 burials, 63 only had implements of stone, 16 of bronze, and 4 
 of bone. 
 
 ^ The custom of burying the dead in a contracted position was very 
 widely extended. In the Neohthic interments of Egypt the corpse was 
 always in this attitude.
 
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 the bar 
 . Deposi 
 al surfac 
 
 tural su 
 of cairn 
 tural su 
 of cairn 
 al surfac 
 
 
 
 
 young 
 ase of 
 tbeads 
 natur 
 
 rt a> =3 1) s-i 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 c 2 c 2 =^ 
 
 
 
 c« 
 
 II 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 ^i 
 
 ery 
 16 1 
 irje 
 the 
 
 |3|§^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Ooo 
 
 ^«3fl 
 
 <p (1 «- a 
 
 
 
 < PhO 
 
 M M 
 
 
 > • 
 
 • • > 
 
 
 
 Deepg 
 
 Deepg 
 Grave 
 Shallo 
 Shallo 
 Shallo 
 Shalloi 
 
 Grave 
 
 Cist 
 Shallo 
 
 Grave 
 Shallo 
 
 Grave 
 
 Shallo 
 
 Cist 
 
 Grave 
 
 Grave 
 Cist 
 
 Cist 
 
 Cist 
 
 Ur'ii '.'. '.'. 
 Urn 
 
 Two urns 
 Urn 
 
 Cinerary urn . . 
 
 Drinking cup . . 
 Drinking cup . 
 
 Food vessel 
 Incense cup 
 
 Food vessel 
 
 Cinerary urn . . 
 Cinerary urn . . 
 
 Food vessel 
 
 
 a : : : 
 
 5 
 
 o ■ '■ '■ 
 
 
 
 )? S S PM <; M 
 
 •11 1 -1 1 -1 1 • -1 M 1 • -1 -11 h = • 
 
 t. 
 
 I-II-I M l-H t> t> M 1-1 HH H-l [> 
 M l-l l-l "^ I— |l-l 
 
 = _ >T3 . 
 
 <» 0> O 1-1 I 
 
 
 00 CO CO 00 00 00 00 
 
 
 l-HM 
 
 AND 
 
 ck .. 
 
 lenj 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 « 
 w 
 
 
 ■< t 
 
 iJ P 0. 
 
 
 .i: 
 
 3 53 
 
 W -i S 
 
 SQ • 
 
 
 tf - 
 
 « 05? = =& 
 
 Plz; w 
 
 m 3 
 
 STMO 
 Moor 
 Kirby 
 
 Ware 
 Asby 
 
 
 p^ p^ 
 
 go 
 
 S f^ 
 
 ^?^ 
 
 Ph iH (M CO tK lO 
 
 iz; § 
 
 . -e
 
 158 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 In some cases, however, the facts certainly seem to indi- 
 cate a belief that the dead could carry their wealth with 
 them to another world. For instance. Canon Greenwell 
 found in one barrow^ no less than 79 saws, 17 scrapers, 
 3 leaf-shaped arrow-points, 2 pointed tools (probably for 
 boring), several flint articles of uncertain purpose, a 
 hammer-stone, and a piece of a greenstone axe. Many 
 of the saws were very delicately serrated, some along 
 both edges, and showing by the glaze upon the edge that 
 they had been in use. The number of saws in this case 
 far exceeded the aggregate of those obtained from all the 
 barrows he had opened ; and though, as he says, " it is 
 by no means easy to give any reasonable explanation of 
 the phenomenon," I would venture to suggest that they 
 were regarded as wealth ; in fact as a form of money, 
 which would enable their owner to purchase what he 
 might require. 
 
 In some few cases, again, small models of weapons 
 have been found, in lieu of the weapons themselves. In 
 modern Esquimaux graves, small models of kajaks, 
 spears, etc., are sometimes buried, and a similar fact has 
 been observed in Egyptian tombs. Mr Franks informs 
 me that much of the jewellery found in Etruscan tombs 
 is so thin that it can scarcely have been intended for wear 
 during life. In Japan those who are entitled to wear 
 swords during life have wooden ones placed in their 
 graves, as insignia of rank ; and it has long been the 
 custom in China to bury paper cuttings, or drawings, of 
 horses, money, etc., under the belief that the objects so 
 represented will be actually possessed by the deceased.^ 
 
 We must always bear in mind that the ancient tumuli 
 do not all belong to one period, nor to one race of men. 
 No tumuli belonging to the Palaeolithic Period have yet 
 been discovered, but this mode of burial appears to have 
 existed in Northern and Western Europe from the 
 Neolithic, or second Stone Period, down to the introduc- 
 tion of Christianity. Indeed it was the examination of 
 
 ^ British Barrows^ p. 262. 
 
 2 See, for instance, Marco Polo's Travels, Edinburgh, 1846, pp. 248-260.
 
 PERIOD OF THE BARROWS 
 
 159 
 
 the tumuli which first induced Sir R. Colt Hoare, and 
 other archaeologists, to adopt for Northern Europe the 
 division into three great periods. 
 
 So far, however, as the barrows themselves are con- 
 cerned (though the passage-graves and long barrows 
 seem always to belong to the Stone Age), we are not 
 acquainted with any external differences by which the 
 tumuli of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages can, with 
 certainty, be distinguished from one another. The 
 contents of the graves are more instructive, though it 
 would of course be unsafe to conclude that a given 
 tumulus belongs to the Stone Age, because it contained 
 one or two implements made of that material. We 
 know that stone was extensively used throughout the 
 Bronze Age ; and, indeed, out of 37 tumuli in which 
 Mr Bateman found objects made of bronze, no less than 
 29 contained also stone implements, many of which, 
 moreover, were extremely rude. 
 
 Evidently, therefore, the mere presence of a few 
 implements of stone is in itself no sufficient reason for 
 referring any given interment to the Stone Age. The 
 following tabular statement of 297 interments, recorded 
 by Mr Bateman, will, I think, be found interesting : — 
 
 Implements. 
 
 Corpse. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Contracted, 
 i.e. in a sit- 
 ting posture. 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 Ex- 
 tended. 
 
 Position 
 uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 None 
 Stone 
 Bronze . 
 Iron 
 
 Total 
 
 27 
 53 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 63 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 100 
 
 134 
 
 37 
 
 26 
 
 97 
 
 124 
 
 24 
 
 52 
 
 297 
 
 These interments are all from the counties of Derby, 
 Stafford, and York. In his work on ancient Wiltshire, 
 Sir R. C. Hoare records the examination of 267 inter- 
 ments, which may be tabulated in a similar manner, as 
 follows : —
 
 i6o 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Implements. 
 
 Corpse. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Con- 
 tracted. 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 Ex- 
 tended. 
 
 Position 
 
 Un- 
 certain. 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 None . 
 Stone . 
 Bronze . 
 Iron 
 
 Total 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 i6o 
 
 5 
 49 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 184 
 
 9 
 
 63 
 
 II 
 
 15 
 
 214 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 267 
 
 We see that in these tables nearly all the cases of 
 bronze were interments in which the body was contracted, 
 preceded by cremation, and the same is the case in the 
 Yorkshire tumuli examined by Canon Greenwell. As 
 regards the Salisbury Plain tumuli, I am disposed to 
 regard the great majority as belonging to the Bronze 
 Age. No less than 270 cluster round Stonehenge, and 
 it seems most probable that the dead were brought from a 
 distance to lie near the great temple. In this case the great 
 majority of the tumuli belong, therefore, to one period, 
 that, namely, at which the temple was held sacred. Some 
 few, indeed, may be referable to earlier or later times, but 
 as out of 152 of these interments which were examined 
 by Sir R. C. Hoare, no less than 39 contained objects of 
 bronze, I am disposed to regard the whole group as 
 belonging to the Bronze Period. Now in these 152 
 cases the corpse was contracted in 4 only, and extended 
 in 3. In 16 the disposition of the corpse was not 
 ascertained, and in no less than 129 it had been burnt. 
 
 If we combine the observations of Sir R. C. Hoare and 
 Mr Bateman, we shall obtain the following table : — 
 
 Implements. 
 
 Corpse. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Con- 
 tracted. 
 
 Burnt. 
 
 Ex- 
 tended. 
 
 Position 
 
 Un- 
 certain. 
 
 None . 
 Stone . 
 Bronze . 
 Iron 
 
 1 Total 
 
 36 
 
 55 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 223 
 
 53 
 
 59 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 32 
 
 15 
 II 
 
 284 
 
 143 
 100 
 
 37 
 
 112 
 
 338 
 
 37 
 
 77 
 
 564
 
 PERIODS TO WHICH TUMULI BELONG i6i 
 
 Some few of these interments were no doubt Anglo- 
 Saxon ; if these had been eliminated the argument would 
 have appeared still stronger ; but taking them as they 
 are, out of 37 graves containing iron weapons or imple- 
 ments, the corpse was certainly extended in 2 1 cases, and 
 probably so in several others ; while, out of no less than 
 527 cases in which iron was not present, the corpse was 
 extended only in 1 6, the proportion being at least y2^^^ ^^ 
 one case, and only -jg-rd in the other. On the whole we 
 may certainly conclude that this mode of burial was 
 introduced at about the same period as the use of iron. 
 
 As regards the habit of burning the dead, the evidence 
 is less conclusive. Out of 100 cases, indeed, of graves 
 characterized by the presence of bronze, the corpse 
 appears to have been buried in a contracted posture 
 19 times only; in an extended position, only 7 times. 
 It would seem, therefore, that during the Bronze Age 
 the dead were generally burnt. It is also true that there 
 are many cases in which interments by cremation, if I 
 may use such an expression, contain no weapons or 
 objects of bronze. We know, however, that this metal 
 must always have been expensive, and it is not unreason- 
 able to suppose that many, at any rate, of these interments 
 may belong to the Bronze Age, although no objects of 
 metal occurred in them. 
 
 There can be no doubt that in the Neolithic Stone 
 Age it was usual to bury the corpse in a sitting or 
 contracted posture ; and, indeed, it appears probable, 
 although far from being satisfactorily established, that in 
 Western Europe this attitude generally indicates an 
 interment of the Stone Age ; while those cases in which 
 the skeleton was extended may be referred, with little 
 hesitation, to the Age of Iron. At the same time we 
 must remember that in Ang^lo-Saxon times the dead were 
 burned by some tribes, and buried by others, and there 
 may well have been differences during the Stone Age 
 also between different tribes. 
 
 But although the presence of a few flint flakes, or 
 other stone implements, is certainly no sufficient reason 
 
 II
 
 i62 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 for referring any given tumulus to the Stone Age, the 
 case is different where a large number of objects have 
 been found together ; for instance, I have in my col- 
 lection a group of stone implements consisting of 
 14 beautifully made axes, wedges, chisels, spear-heads, 
 etc., and more than 60 capital flakes, which were all 
 found together in one of the large Danish sepulchral 
 chambers, on the Island of Moen, and have been 
 described by M. Boye.^ The tumulus had a circum- 
 ference of 140 ells, and a height of about 8 ells. It 
 is probable that it had been surrounded by a circle 
 of stones, for M. Jensen, the owner, remembered that, 
 many years before, the northern side had been surrounded 
 by a row of stones standing close together. None of them, 
 however, at present remain. Unfortunately M. Boye was 
 not present when they began to remove the tumulus ; 
 still he thinks that the account given to him may be 
 relied on with safety. M. Jensen began to dig on the 
 east side of the tumulus, and the first thing which he 
 came to was a jar, which he unfortunately broke. It 
 contained burnt bones and a bronze pin, the head of 
 which was ornamented with concentric lines. Towards 
 the S.S.E. was found a cist, about an ell long, and 
 formed of flat stones. In it were burnt bones, a bent 
 knife, and a pair of pincers two inches in length ; both 
 these objects were of bronze. Not far from this cist was 
 another urn, containing burnt bones, with several objects 
 of bronze, namely, a knife four inches in length, part of a 
 small symbolical sword, and two fragments of an awl. It 
 is evident that these three interments belonged to the 
 Bronze Age, and also that they were secondary, that is to 
 say, that they belonged to a later date than the original 
 sepulchral chamber, over which the tumulus had been 
 made. 
 
 The sepulchral chamber itself (fig. 163) lay north and 
 
 south, was of an oval form, about eight and a half ells in 
 
 length, and twenty and a half in circumference, and about 
 
 two and a half in height. The walls consisted of twelve 
 
 ^ Annaler for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historic, 1858, p. 202.
 
 CHAMBERED TUMULI 
 
 163 
 
 very large, unhewn stones, which, however, did not in 
 most cases touch one another, but left intervals which 
 were filled up by smaller stones. The roof was formed by 
 five great blocks, the spaces between them being filled up 
 by smaller ones. The passage, which was on the east 
 side, was five ells long and one ell broad, and was formed 
 by eleven side stones and three roof stones. At the place 
 (a) was, on each side, a smaller stone, which in conjunction 
 with another on 
 the fioor between 
 them, formed a 
 sort of threshold, 
 probably indicat- 
 ing the place 
 where the door 
 stood. Similar ^ 
 traces of a door- 
 way have been 
 found in other 
 Danish tumuli, 
 and may, perhaps, 
 be taken as evi- 
 dence that the 
 mounds had been 
 used previously 
 as houses ; at the 
 time of the interment the construction of a door would 
 have been simply purposeless, the passage leading to 
 it being filled up with rubbish. The chamber was filled 
 up with mould to within half an ell of the roof. About 
 the middle, not far from the bottom, a skeleton, per- 
 haps of a sacrificed slave, was extended (at ^), with the 
 head towards the north. On the south side (at c and ^) 
 occurred two crania, each of which lay on a quantity of 
 bones, indicating that the corpses had been buried in a 
 sitting posture. At (e) was a similar skeleton, close to 
 which were three amber beads, a beautiful flint axe, which 
 did not seem to have been ever used, a small unfinished 
 chisel, and some fragments of pottery, ornamented with 
 
 Fig. 163.— Ground plan of a sepulchral chamber in a 
 large tumulus on the Island of Miien.
 
 164 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 points and lines. At (/) was another skeleton, in a 
 similar position, with a flint flake, an amber bead, and 
 some fragments of pottery. Figs. 164, 165 represent 
 one of the skulls from this stone chamber. Several other 
 skeletons were found sitting round the side walls, but 
 they had unluckily been removed and thrown away before 
 the arrival of M. Boye. With them were at least twenty 
 difi^erent jars or urns, all of them inverted, and prettily 
 decorated with points and lines. 
 
 Besides these objects, the earth in the chamber contained 
 5 flint spear-heads, a fragment of a flint spear which 
 
 Fig, 164. — Brachycephalic skull from Fig. 165. — Ditto, side view, 
 
 the same tumulus, one-quarter of the 
 natural size. 
 
 had been broken and worked up again, 2 small flint 
 chisels, 53 flint flakes, varying from three to five and a 
 half inches in length ; 19 perfect, and 31 broken, amber 
 beads, of which the greater number were hammer-like, 
 the rest tubular or ring-shaped. The passage was filled 
 up by earth, mixed with fragments of pottery, and small 
 stones. About the middle was a skeleton, with the head 
 towards the east, at the side of which were five flakes and 
 an amber bead. Close to the feet was ajar, unornamented, 
 and much ruder than those found in the chamber itself. 
 Not the smallest fragment of metal was found either in 
 the chamber or in the passage. 
 
 Again, as a second case of the same sort, 1 may mention 
 the Long Barrow (fig. 166) near West Kennet, in Wilt-
 
 LONG BARROW, WEST KENNET 165 
 
 shire, described by Dr Thurnam.^ The tumulus in this 
 case is 23^ feet in length, 40 feet wide at the west end, 
 and 75 feet at the east, with a height of 8 feet. The 
 walls of the chamber are formed by six great blocks of 
 stone, and it opens into a passage, so that the ground 
 
 Fig. 166. — Interior of the sepulchral chamber in the Long Barrow- 
 near West Kennet.'-^ 
 
 plan very closely resembles that of the tumulus just 
 described, and, in fact, of the "Passage graves" generally. 
 The chamber and entrance were nearly filled with chalk 
 rubble, containing also bones of animals, flint implements 
 (figs. 167-170), and fragments of pottery. In the 
 chamber were four skeletons, two of which appear to 
 
 ' Archaologia^ vol. xxxviii. p. 405. 
 
 '■^ Figs. 166-176 are from Archceologia, vol. xxxviii.
 
 i66 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ^*v 
 
 j:^^ 
 
 Figs. 167, 168. — Flint scrapers from Long 
 Barrow, two-thirds of the actual size. 
 
 have been buried in a sitting posture. In different parts 
 
 of the chamber were 
 found nearly 300 
 flakes, 3 or 4 flint 
 cores, a whetstone, a 
 scraper, part of a bone 
 pin, a bead of Kim- 
 meridge shale, and 
 several heaps of frag- 
 ments of pottery (figs. 
 1 71-176) belonging 
 apparently to no less 
 than 50 different vessels, and all made 
 by hand, with one doubtful exception. 
 No trace of metal was discovered. The 
 two pieces figs. 175, 176 were found 
 apart from the rest, and may, perhaps, 
 
 be of later origin. 
 The large 
 tumuli of Brit- 
 tany, most of 
 which have re- 
 cently been 
 opened, have 
 afforded several 
 other instances of 
 the same kind. 
 
 Thus the great Mont St Michel, at 
 Carnac, which is no less than 380 
 feet in length, and 190 feet broad, 
 with an average height of 33 feet, 
 was found to contain a square 
 Fig. 170. -Flint implement chamber, in which were 11 beauti- 
 
 from the same, two-thirds {^\ i^de CcltS, 2 lar^-e roUffh CeltS, 
 of the actual size. ^ /■ ^^ r-\ rP i^l -j 
 
 and 26 small nbrolite celts, besides 
 1 10 beads, mostly of callais, and some fragments of flint.^ 
 
 1 Rapport li M. le Prcfet du Morbihan siir les fo id lies die Mont 
 St Michel^ par M. Rene Galles, 1862. Beads of callais have also been 
 found in the south of France and in Portugal. Cartailhac, At^es Prchist. 
 de VEspagne et du Portugal^ pp. 130-132. 
 
 Fig. 169. — Flint flake 
 from the same, two- 
 thirds of the actual 
 size.
 
 BRETON TUMULI 
 
 167 
 
 KiG. 171. — Fragment of pottery from the 
 same, two-thirds of the actual size. 
 
 Again, the chamber in (he tumulus called Manne-er- 
 H'roek contained 103 stone axes, 3 flint flakes, and 
 50 beads of callais, jasper, quartz, and agate, but neither of 
 these o-reat tumuli con- 
 
 tained a trace of metal. ^ 
 Other similar cases 
 
 might be mentioned," in 
 
 which tumuli of largesize, 
 
 covering a sepulchral 
 
 chamber, constructed 
 
 with great labour, and 
 
 evidently intended for a 
 
 person or persons of high 
 
 rank, have contained 
 
 numerous objects of 
 
 stone and pottery, with- 
 out a trace of metal. 
 
 It appears reasonable to conclude that these interments 
 
 belong to the ante-metallic period ; especially when, as in 
 
 the first-mentioned case, we find several secondary inter- 
 ments, plainly belonging to a 
 later age, and although pre- 
 senting no such indications 
 of high rank, still accom- 
 panied by objects of bronze. 
 It may seem at first sight 
 very improbable that works 
 so considerable should have 
 been undertaken and carried 
 out by nations entirely igno- 
 rant of metal. The burial 
 mound of Oberea, in Ota- 
 heiti, was nevertheless ■267 
 
 feet long, 87 feet wicie, and 44 feet in height. And in 
 
 treating of modern savages, I shall hereafter have occasion 
 
 to notice other instances quite as extraordinary. 
 
 ^ Ma7i7it'-er-H'roeck : Rapport a la Socicte Polyi)iathiqiie^ par M. 
 Lefebvre et M. Rene Galles, 1863. 
 
 2 See, for instance, Lukis, Archcvologia^ vol. xxxv. p. 247. 
 
 Fig. 172. — Fragment of pottery from 
 the same, actual size.
 
 i68 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The practice of burying in old tumuli, which continued 
 even down to the times of Charlemagne,^ has led to some 
 confusion, because objects of very different date are thus 
 liable to be described as coming from one grave ; yet, on 
 the other hand, it is very instructive, as there are several 
 cases on record, besides the one above mentioned, of 
 interments characterized by bronze being found above, 
 and being, therefore, evidently subsequent to others, 
 accompanied by stone only." 
 
 Figs. 173, 174. —Fragments of pottery from the same, two-thirds of the actual size. 
 
 On the whole, however, though it is evident that the 
 objects most frequently buried with the dead would be 
 those most generally used by the living, and though the 
 prevalence of stone implements proves the important part 
 played by stone in ancient times, and goes far to justify 
 the belief in a Stone Age ; still, the evidence to be brought 
 forward on this point in the following chapters will, 
 probably, to many minds seem more satisfactory ; and, at 
 
 ' One of his regulations ran as follows : — " Jubemus ut corpora Chris- 
 tianorum Saxonorum ad cemeteria ecclesia: deferantur, et non ad tumulus 
 paganorum." 
 
 ^ See, for instance, Von Sacken, Leiifaden zur Kunde des heidtiischen 
 Alterthums, p. 15.
 
 CONTENTS OF TUMULI 
 
 169 
 
 175. — Fragment of pottery from 
 the same, two-thirds of the actual 
 size. 
 
 any rate, we must admit that in the present state of our 
 knowledge, there are comparatively few interments which 
 we could, with confidence, refer to the Neolithic Stone 
 Age, however firmly we may 
 believe that a great many of 
 them must belone: to it, 
 
 Mr Bateman^ has proposed 
 to range the pottery found in 
 ancient British tumuli under 
 four different heads, namely : 
 (i) Urns ; (2) Incense Cups ; 
 (3) Food Vases ; (4) Drink- 
 ing Cups. The urns gener- 
 ally accompany interments by 
 cremation, and have either 
 contained or been inverted 
 over burnt human bones. They are generally of large 
 size, "from 10 to 16 inches high, with a deep border, 
 more or less decorated by impressions of twisted thongs, 
 
 and incised patterns in which 
 the chevron or herrino--bone 
 
 O 
 
 constantly recurs in various 
 combinations, occasionally re- 
 lieved by circular punctures, 
 or assuming a reticulated 
 appearance. They are all 
 made by hand, no trace of 
 the potter's wheel being ever 
 found on them. They al- 
 most invariably have an over- 
 hanging rim. The material 
 of which they are formed is 
 clay mixed with pebbles, and some of them have been 
 described as " sun-dried." This, however, appears to 
 be altogether a mistake, arising from the imperfect 
 manner in which they were burnt. In colour, they 
 
 > Ten Years' Diggings i7t Celtic atid Sa.xotT Gravehills. The pottery of 
 the Stone Age has recently been well described by the Hon. J. Abercromby 
 in a special work. 
 
 Fig. 176. — Fragment of pottery, 
 actual size.
 
 lyo 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Fig. 177, — Urn from Flaxdale Barrow. 
 The original is 14 inches in height. 
 
 are generally brown or burnt umber outside and black 
 inside. Fig. 177 represents a specimen from Flaxdale 
 
 Barrow, in Derbyshire. 
 
 Secondly, the " incense 
 cups," so calleci by Sir R. 
 Colt Hoare. They differ 
 very much in shape, and are 
 seldom more than 3 inches 
 high. When decorated the 
 patterns are the same as those 
 on the urns, and are usually 
 on the under surface, but they 
 are often left plain. They 
 are often pierced. " Incense 
 cups " have been found 
 throughout Great Britain, 
 and also in Ireland. Their 
 use seems to me still very 
 doubtful. They have in 
 several cases been found with bronze. " The third 
 division includes vessels of every style of ornament, 
 from the rudest to the most elaborate, but nearly alike 
 in size, and more difficult to assign to a determinate 
 period than any 
 other, from the 
 fact of a coarse 
 and a w e 1 1 - 
 finished one 
 having several 
 times been 
 found in com- 
 pany." The 
 woodcuts (figs. 
 178, 179) represent two vessels found in a barrow on 
 the circle at Arbor Low, in Derbyshire. 
 
 Fourthly, " The drinking cups (fig, 180) are generally 
 from six and a half to nine inches high, of a tall shape, 
 contracted in the middle, globular below, and expanding 
 at the mouth : they are carefully formed by hand, of fine 
 
 Figs. 178, 179. — Vases from Arbor Low, in Derbyshire.
 
 URNS, FOOD VASES, DRINKING CUPS 171 
 
 clay, tempered with sharp sand, and well-baked ; the 
 walls are thin, averaging about three-eighth of an inch, 
 light brown outside, and grey within," They have not 
 yet been found in Ireland. They are generally much 
 ornamented, and usually accompany well-made flint imple- 
 ments and unburnt bodies. Mr Bateman considered that 
 the greater number belong to the ante-metallic period, 
 but they have so often been 
 found in association with 
 bronze, that I think we may 
 safely refer them to the Bronze 
 Age. 
 
 The Domestic Pottery of 
 the period is not so well known 
 to us, but some has been found 
 in caves, and on the site of 
 ancient dwelling-places. It is 
 formed of the same material as 
 that found in the tumuli, but is 
 of different and plainer forms, 
 and generally entirely without 
 ornament. The pottery of the 
 pre-Roman tumuli is very dis- 
 tinctive, and differs in material, 
 form, colour, and mode of de- 
 coration, both from that of the 
 Roman and of the Anglo-Saxon periods. It is, I believe 
 I may say invariably, hand-made ; and is never artificially 
 coloured. 
 
 Numerous as are the varieties of pottery found in ante- 
 Roman tumuli, they appear (so far, at any rate, as those 
 discovered by Mr Bateman are concerned) to have been 
 all made by hand, without any assistance from the potter's 
 wheel ; they are formed of clay tempered with sand, and 
 often containing small pebbles ; they very rarely have 
 handles, and spouts seem to have been unknown ; the 
 ornaments consist of straight lines, dots, or marks, as if 
 a cord had been impressed on the soft clay ; circular or 
 curved lines are rare, nor is there the slightest attempt to 
 
 Fig. 180. — Drinking cup from 
 Green Low.
 
 172 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 copy any animal or plant. In some cases it is obvious 
 that woven fabrics have been impressed on the clay while 
 still soft, anti we thus obtain proof of the existence of 
 prehistoric textile fabrics, the actual specimens of which 
 have long ceased to exist.-^ 
 
 As a general rule the megalithic monuments are con- 
 structed of rough stones neither hewn nor ornamented. 
 Lately, however, many instances of engravings have been 
 observed. In the north of England and in Scotland 
 these generally take the form of cups, spirals, circles with 
 a dot in the middle, or incomplete circles with a dot in 
 the middle, or incomplete circles with a line running from 
 the centre through the interval, as in fig. i8i.^ We have 
 as yet no satisfactory clue to the meaning of these en- 
 gravings, many of which have been figured by Mr Tate 
 and Sir J. Y. Simpson. They occur in evident association 
 with ancient oppida and fortifications, as well as on 
 menhirs, and on the stones composing dolmens and 
 cromlechs. Fig. 1 8 1 represents a characteristic group on 
 a rock at Auchnabreach in Argyllshire. The surface of 
 the rock is well adapted to receive such sculpturings, 
 having been smoothed and prepared by glacial action. 
 
 Similar sculpturings have been found in Ireland, where 
 also the great tumuli on the Boyne afford instances of 
 more elaborate ornamentation. The great stone at the 
 entrance of New Grange, for instance, is covered with 
 double spirals, and those forming the central chamber are 
 also covered with circles, spirals, and other patterns, one 
 of the most remarkable being that of a so-called fern leaf, 
 which occurs also in Brittany and in the so-called temple 
 of Hagiar Kem, in Malta. Mr Conwell has recently 
 discovered an extensive series of interesting sepulchral 
 sculptures in the county of Meath. With the exception 
 
 ^ See, for instance, Holmes, Rep. of U.S. Bur. of Ethnoloi^y, 1881. 
 
 ^ See Tate on The Sculptured Rocks of Northumberland, 1865 ; Sir 
 J. Y. Simpson on "Ancient Sculpturings of Cups and Concentric Rings, 
 etc.," Proc. S. of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. vi., 1867. The monuments 
 described by Mr Stuart, in his great work on The Sculptured Stones of 
 Scotlatid, belong to a much later period, and scarcely fall within the scope 
 of the present work. P'or rock carvings in Spain, see Don M. de Gongora 
 y Martinez, Antigiiedades Prehistdricas de Andalucia.
 
 ROCK SCULPTURES 
 
 173 
 
 of the " fern leaf," all these archaic sculpturings in Great 
 Britain are mere geometrical figures. The same figures 
 also occur in Brittany, accompanied, however, by frequent 
 representations of stone axes, both with and without 
 handles. 
 
 The rock sculptures of Scandinavia present a still 
 further advance, many of them being rude representations 
 
 Fig. 181. — Sculptures on the Lower Rock at Auchnabreach, Argyllshire. 
 After Sir J. Y. Simpson. 
 
 of boats, much like those on some of the bronze knives 
 (figs. 45-46). 
 
 The most remarkable monument of this kind, however, 
 is that of Kivik in Scania, close to the shore of the Baltic. 
 
 Cup markings also occur among the Kumaon Hills in 
 Hindostan. Mr Rivett Carnac has suggested that they 
 are connected with Lingam worship ; the central mark 
 representing the Lingam, the circle the Yoni. The rich, 
 he supposes, put up a monument, the poor merely carved 
 the symbol.
 
 174 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Crooke ^ mentions that " in almost every Panjab village 
 may be seen small platforms with rows of little hemi- 
 spherical depressions, into which milk and Ganges water 
 are poured, and by which lamps are lit, and Brahmans 
 fed to conciliate the Dead"; "while the careful mother 
 will always dedicate a rupee to him, anci hang it round her 
 child's neck till he grows up." Mr Ibbetson ^ suggests 
 that this may have been the origin of the mysterious 
 so-called "cup-marks." Montelius informs us^ that in 
 out-of-the-way parts of Sweden offerings to the Spirit 
 are made in these cup-markings, even at the present day. 
 
 The remains of other mammals found with ancient 
 human relics have acquired increased interest, since the 
 admirable researches of the Danish and Swiss zoologico- 
 archaeologists, and especially of Steenstrup and Rotimeyer, 
 by whose skilful cross-examination much valuable and 
 unexpected evidence has been elicited from materials 
 of most unpromising appearance. Unfortunately the 
 non-human remains found in tumuli are usually in a very 
 fragmentary condition. No remains of any extinct 
 animal have as yet been found in the tumuli of Western 
 Europe. Even the reindeer is altogether absent. The 
 deer and ox are most frequent. The latter was certainly 
 domesticated in Switzerland as early as the Neolithic 
 period. Whether this was the case in Northern Europe, 
 though probable, is still uncertain. Some archaeologists 
 believe the dog to have been at that period the only 
 animal domesticated ; others, on the contrary, consider the 
 cow, sheep, pig, and goat, if not the horse, to have been 
 at that early period domesticated in the North. In the 
 contents of British barrows, bones of these animals have 
 been frequently observed ; and it would appear from the 
 researches of Canon Greenwell that most of them belonged 
 to domesticated animals.* 
 
 Remains of the horse are very rare in English barrows, 
 
 ' An Introduction to the Popi/lar Religion and Folk-lore of Northern 
 India, by W. Crooke, B.A. (1894). 
 
 2 Ibbetson, Rep. on the Karnal Dis., ch. ix. 
 
 3 The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times, p. 36. 
 ^ Greenwell, British Barroivs.
 
 BONES IN TUMULI 175 
 
 and I know no well-authenticated case of their occurrence 
 in a long barrow. I have thought, therefore, that it 
 might be of interest to point out the class of graves in 
 which bones or teeth of horses were found. In Mr 
 Bateman's valuable works there are, altogether, 28 
 cases ; but of these, 9 were in tumuli which had been 
 previously opened, and in one case no body was found. 
 Of the remaining 1 8, 5 were tumuli containing iron, 
 and 7 were accompanied with bronze. In one more 
 case, that of the " LifFs," it is doubtful whether the 
 barrow had not been disturbed. Of the remaining 6 
 tumuli, 2 contained beautiful drinking vessels, of a very 
 well-marked type, certainly in use during the Bronze 
 Age, if not peculiar to it ; and in both these instances, as 
 well as in a third, the interment was accompanied by 
 burnt human bones, suggestive of dreadful rites. Even, 
 however, if these cases cannot be referred to the Bronze 
 Age, we still see that out of the 297 interments only 
 63 contained metal, or about 2 1 per cent. ; while out of 
 the 18 cases of horses' remains, 12, or about 66 per cent., 
 certainly belong to the metallic period. Canon Green- 
 well also found the bones of the horse only in 3 or 4 
 interments, all apparently of the Bronze Age or later. 
 This seems to be prima facie evidence that the horse 
 was very rare, if not altogether unknown, in England 
 during the Stone Age. Both the horse and bull appear 
 to have been sacrified at graves during later times, and 
 probably formed part of the funeral feast. The teeth of 
 oxen are so common in tumuli, that they are even said 
 by Mr Bateman to be " uniformly found with the more 
 ancient interments." 
 
 The very frequent presence of the bones of quadrupeds 
 in tumuli appears to show that sepulchral feasts were 
 generally held in honour of the dead, and the numerous 
 cases in which interments were accompanied by burnt 
 human bones tend to prove the prevalence of still more 
 dreadful customs, and that not only horses^ and dogs, 
 
 ^ Even so lately as in 1871, Frederick Casimir was laid in his grave with 
 his slaughtered horse. Horu: ferales, p. 66.
 
 176 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 but slaves also, were frequently sacrificed at their masters' 
 graves ; it is not improbable that wives often were burnt 
 with their husbands, as in India, and among many savage 
 tribes. For instance, among the Fijis it is usual on the 
 death of a chief to sacrifice a certain number of slaves, 
 whose bodies " are called ' grass ' for bedding " the grave.-^ 
 " It is probable," says Mr Bateman, " that the critical 
 examination of all deposits of burnt bones would lead to 
 much curious information respecting the statistics of 
 suttee and infanticide, both which abominations we are 
 unwillingly compelled, by accumulated evidence, to 
 believe were practised in pagan Britain." 
 
 But it was not only human beings and animals who 
 were sacrificed at the grave in order that their ghosts 
 might accompany their masters to the land of spirits. 
 The implements and weapons found in graves have in 
 many cases been intentionally broken, and I have else- 
 where suggested that this was done in order to kill them. 
 Herodotus in an interesting passage ^ tells us that Melissa, 
 wife of Periander, complained of cold in the other world, 
 as she was naked, having no clothes, because none had 
 been burnt at her burial. 
 
 From the numerous cases in which the bones of an 
 infant and a woman have been found together in one 
 grave, it would seem that if any woman died in child- 
 birth, or while nursing, the baby was buried alive with 
 her, as is still the practice among some Esquimaux 
 families. It is, however, an interesting fact, and throws 
 some light on the social relations of the times, that there 
 are several cases in which a barrow even of considerable 
 size has been erected over the remains of an infant — the 
 favourite child, we may suppose, of some powerful chief. 
 
 No traces of Corn have yet been met with in any of 
 our Neolithic barrows. 
 
 These conclusions, however, cannot be extended to 
 Europe. In Switzerland, for instance, as far as our 
 
 ' Manners and Customs of the Feegees, by T. Williams, i860, vol. i. 
 p. 189. 
 
 2 Terpsichore, v. 92.
 
 PREHISTORIC RACES OF MEN 177 
 
 present evidence goes, though it is far from being so full 
 as that derived from English sources, the introduction of 
 bronze does not appear to have been accompanied by any 
 change of race. In Scandinavia, again, we have two 
 classes of barrows corresponding to those of this country. 
 But though the Scandinavian long barrows so remarkably 
 resemble those of England, they were erected by a very 
 different race ; that of the English long barrows being 
 long-headed, while the constructors of the Scandinavian 
 chambered barrows were, on the contrary, almost always 
 round-headed. It is curious that in certain barrows no 
 trace of a burial has been found. Some archaeologists 
 suppose that in these cases the body was buried without 
 any vase, ornament, or implement, and that it has wholly 
 disappeared. I should, however, rather be disposed to 
 regard them as memorial barrows. The common people 
 were interred without barrows. 
 
 On the whole, then, the tumuli of Northern Europe 
 appear to range in point of time from the Neolithic down 
 to post-Roman times. Since, however, they never 
 contain remains of the extinct mammalia, nor even of the 
 reindeer, and as no implements of the Palaeolithic type 
 have ever been discovered in them, we cannot refer any 
 of them to the earlier Stone Age. So far as England is 
 concerned, the ante-Roman barrows appear to fall into 
 two great groups — the long barrows and the round 
 barrows. The long barrows are apparently the earlier 
 and belong exclusively to the Stone Age, as they also do 
 in Scandinavia. They contain no metal, little pottery, 
 and were constructed by a long-headed race. Professor 
 RoUeston has called attention to the remarkable character 
 afforded by the lower jaw ; the tumid horizontal segment 
 corresponding to its molar teeth, the wide ramus, short 
 coronoid process, feeble chin, and rounded, often inwardly 
 bent, angle. It is true that similar lower jaws occur 
 among the Bushmen, Tasmanians, Melanesians, and other 
 low races, but Professor Rolleston affirms ^ that amongst 
 Esquimaux only do we find such jaws combined with the 
 
 ' Greenwell and Rolleston, British Barrows^ p. 718. 
 
 12
 
 1 78 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 widely open orbit and vertically elongated nasal cavity so 
 characteristic of the long barrow race. 
 
 The round barrows belong in many cases to the Bronze 
 Age. The presence of metal, the forms of some of the 
 stone implements, as, for instance, the tanged arrow-heads 
 and the pierced stone axes, as well as the character of the 
 pottery, justify the conclusion that they belong to a later 
 period than the long barrows — one, moreover, at which 
 Britain was occupied by a round-headed race, among 
 whom lived, however, probably in a subordinate position, 
 representatives of the earlier long-headed people. 
 
 I would particularly urge on those who may in future 
 open barrows — 
 
 (i) To record the sex of the person buried; this is 
 more satisfactorily to be determined from the form of the 
 pelvis than from the skull. In this manner we may hope 
 to determine the relative position, and the separate occupa- 
 tion (if any) of the two sexes. 
 
 (2) To observe the state of the teeth, from which we 
 may derive information as to the nature of the food. 
 
 (3) To preserve carefully any bones of quadrupeds that 
 may be present, in order to ascertain the species, and, in 
 the case of the ox and hog, to determine, if possible, 
 whether they belong to wild or domesticated individuals. 
 
 We may fairly hope that when thoroughly questioned 
 the barrows will not only answer many of these interesting 
 questions, but that they will also tell us many things 
 which it would never occur to us to ask. It is evident, 
 at least, that when a sufficient number shall have been 
 examined, we shall know much more than we do yet 
 about the social and domestic life of those early ages ; we 
 shall know whether during the Stone Age they had 
 domestic animals in the North, as would appear to have 
 been the case in Switzerland ; we shall know in part what 
 kind of clothes they wore, and by the remains found 
 with female skeletons we shall even be able to ascertain, 
 in some measure, the position occupied by woman with 
 reference to man. 
 
 If, however, we are to acquire all the information that
 
 PRESERVATION OF MONUMENTS 179 
 
 can be derived from the burial mounds, it must be done 
 quickly. Every year many are destroyed, and Avebury 
 itself, the grandest of megalithic monuments, was sacrificed 
 for a paltry profit of a few pounds. 
 
 Moreover, as population increases, and land grows 
 more valuable, these ancient monuments become more 
 and more liable to mutilation and destruction. Since the 
 first edition of this work was published, an Act of 
 Parliament has been passed for their protection, and an 
 inspector has been appointed. This is so far satisfactory. 
 Unfortunately, however, the powers given under the Act 
 are far from suf^cient.^ I have suo:2:ested that we might 
 justly insist on the preservation of these national monu- 
 ments, and that if their owners do not care to preserve 
 them, the nation should have the option of purchase at a 
 fair price. It is surely not only our right, but our duty, 
 to protect them. These monuments are national heir- 
 looms ; they do not belong to any one generation. They 
 were erected by our forefathers, and we are bound to 
 preserve them for those who will come after us. 
 
 > These have been strengthened by subsequent legislation.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE ANCIENT LAKE-HABITATIONS OF SWITZERLAND 
 
 In consequence of the extraordinary dryness and cold of 
 the weather during the winter months of 1853, the rivers 
 of Switzerland did not receive their usual supplies, and 
 the water in the lakes fell much below its ordinary level, 
 so that, in some places, a broad strand was left uncovered 
 along- the maro;in, while in others shallow banks were 
 converted into islands. The water level of this season 
 was, indeed, the lowest upon record. The lowest level 
 marked on the so-called stone of Stafa was that of 1674 ; 
 but in 1854 the water sank a foot lower still. 
 
 In a small bay between Ober Meilen and Dollikon, on 
 the Lake of Zurich, the inhabitants had taken advantage 
 of the lowness of the water to increase their gardens, by 
 building a wall along the new water-line, and slightly 
 raising the level of the piece thus reclaimed by mud 
 dredged from the lake. In the course of .this dredging 
 they found great numbers of piles, of deer-horns, and also 
 some implements. M. Aeppli was the first to observe 
 these specimens of human workmanship, which he justly 
 supposed might throw some light on the history and 
 condition of the early inhabitants of the Swiss valleys. 
 He at once, therefore, called the attention of Dr Keller 
 to them, and that eminent antiquary soon satisfied himself 
 as to their true nature, and proved that the early inhabi- 
 tants of Switzerland constructed some, at least, of their 
 dwellings above the surface of the water, and that they 
 must have lived in a manner very similar to that of the 
 Pasonians, thus described by Herodotus^: — 
 
 ' Terpsichore^ v. 14. 
 180
 
 LAKE-DWELLINGS 1 8 1 
 
 " Their dwellings," he says, " are contrived after this 
 manner : planks fitted on lofty piles are placed in the 
 middle of the lake, with a narrow entrance from the 
 mainland by a single bridge. These piles that support 
 the planks all the citizens anciently placed there at the 
 public charge ; but afterwards they establisheci a law to 
 the following effect : whenever a man marries, for each 
 wife he sinks three piles, bringing wood from a mountain 
 called Orbelus ; but every man has several wives. They 
 live in the following manner : every man has a hut on 
 the planks, in which he dwells, with a trap-door closely 
 fitted in the planks, and leading down to the lake. They 
 tie the young children with a cord round the foot, fearing 
 lest they should fall into the lake beneath. To their 
 horses and beasts of burden they give fish for fodder ; of 
 which there is such an abundance that when a man has 
 opened his trap-door, he lets down an empty basket by 
 a cord into the lake, and, after waiting a short time, 
 draws it up full of fish." 
 
 At the Newcastle meeting of the British Association in 
 1863, Lord Lovaine described a lake-dwelling observed 
 by him in the south of Scotland ; and in the Natural 
 History Review for July 1863, I had already mentioned 
 one in the North, which, however, had not at that time 
 been thoroughly examined. Sir Charles Bunbury has 
 recorded {Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. 
 xii., 1856) some similar remains found near Thetford, 
 which have been described at greater length by Mr Alfred 
 Newton in an interesting paper " On the Zoology of 
 Ancient Europe."^ A lake-village has been discovered 
 near Glastonbury, and is being carefully excavated by 
 Dr Bulleid. In his fifth memoir on the Pfahlbauten,^ 
 Dr Keller has described a lake-dwelling at Peschiera, on the 
 L. di Garda ; and we are indebted to MM. B. Gastaldi,^ 
 
 ' See also Munro, Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellini^s ; and The Lake 
 Dwellings of Europe. 
 
 - Mitthciliingcn der antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich^ 1863. 
 
 ^ Nitoin Cenni sitgli oggetti di alta Antichifa irovaii ncllc Torbicre e 
 nelle Marniefe delV Italia. See also Stoppani, " Prima ricerca di Abita- 
 zioni lacustri nei Laghi di Lombardia," Atti delta Soc. Italiatii di Scienze 
 Natiirali, 1863, vol. v. p. 154.
 
 I82 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 P. Strobel, and L. Pigorini, for a description of ruins 
 of a similar nature which have been found in Northern 
 Italy. Dr Lisch has described several pile-dwellings 
 in Mecklenburg, and M. Boucher de Perthes, in his 
 celebrated work, Antiquith Cehiques et Antediluviennes^ 
 mentions certain remains found in the peat near Abbe- 
 ville, which appear to have been the ruins of lake- 
 dwellings ; an observation which is of special interest, 
 as an additional argument for referring the Swiss lake- 
 
 FlG. 182. — Modern lake-dwellings in the Celebes. After Sarasin. 
 
 dwellings to the period of the peat in the Somme 
 valley, and therefore to an epoch long subsequent to that 
 of the drift hatchets. This inference is entirely in accord- 
 ance with the conclusions derived from the study of the 
 stone implements themselves. 
 
 But it is not necessary to go back to prehistoric times ; 
 nor need we appeal to doubtful history or ancient remains 
 for evidence of the curious habit of water-dwelling. 
 Many savage or semi-savage tribes live in the same 
 manner, even at the present day. I have been informed 
 by a friend who lives at Salonica that the fishermen of 
 Lake Prasias still inhabit wooden cottages built over the
 
 MODERN LAKE-DWELLINGS 183 
 
 water, as in the time of Herodotus. The city of 
 Tcherkask also is partly built over the Don. Some of 
 the Garos and Bogshas of Upper India, the Kanikars of 
 Southern India, the pastoral tribes in parts of Sinde, 
 dwell in habitations elevated 8 or 10 feet from the 
 ground, to avoid the damp and the insects occasioned by 
 it.^ Similar dwellings are extensively used in the northern 
 parts of South America ; Venezuela, indeed, having been 
 so called because the houses resemble those of Venice 
 in being constructed over water. But it is in the East 
 Indies that this habit prevails most extensively. The 
 city of Borneo is altogether built upon piles, and similar 
 constructions have been described by various travellers 
 in New Guinea, Celebes, Solo, Ceram, Mindanao, the 
 Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast, and elsewhere. 
 Dampier long ago mentioned similar dwellings constructed 
 over the water ; and Dumont d'Urville," quoted by 
 M. Troyon, tells us that " Jadis toute la ville de Tondano 
 etait construite sur le lac, et Ton ne communiquait d'une 
 maison a une autre qu'en bateau." The Bishop of 
 Labuan thus describes the dwellings of the Dyaks : 
 " They are built along the river-side, on an elevated 
 platform 20 or 30 feet high, in a long row ; or rather it 
 is a whole village in one row of some hundreds of feet 
 long. The platforms are first framed with beams, and 
 then crossed with laths about 2 inches wide and 2 inches 
 apart, and in this way are well ventilated ; and nothing 
 remains on the floors, but all the refuse falls through and 
 goes below." ^ 
 
 In Ireland a number of more or less artificial islands 
 called "Crannoges"* (fig. 183) are known historically to 
 have been used as strongholds by the petty chiefs. They 
 are composed of earth and stones, strengthened by piles, 
 and have supplied the Irish archaeologists with numerous 
 weapons, implements, and bones. From the crannoge 
 
 ^ Burnes' Travels into Bokhara, vol. iii. p. 90. 
 
 2 Voyage de " V Astrolabe^'' vol. v. p. 635. 
 
 ^ Tratis. of the Ethnol. Soc, New Series, vol. ii. p. 28. 
 
 * See Wilde's Catalogue, vol. i. p. 220.
 
 i84 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 at Dunshaughlin, indeed, more than one hundred and 
 fifty cart-loads of bones were obtained and used as 
 manure ! These lake-dwellings of Ireland, however, 
 are referable to a much later period than those of 
 Switzerland, and are frequently mentioned in early 
 history. Thus, according to Shirley, " One Thomas 
 Phettiplace, in his answer to an inquiry from the Govern- 
 ment, as to what castles or forts O'Neill hath, and of 
 what strength they be, states (May 15, 1567): 'For 
 castles, I think it be not unknown to your honours, he 
 trusteth no point thereunto for his safety, as appeareth 
 by the raising of the strongest castles of all his countreys. 
 
 Fig, 183. — Crannoge in Aidakillin Lough, near Stokestown, county of Ros- 
 common. It is constructed of stones and oak piling. The top line shows 
 the former highest water level ; the second, that of the ordinary winter flood ; 
 the third, the summer level. 
 
 and that fortification which he only dependeth upon is 
 in sartin ffreshwater loghos in his country, which from the 
 sea there come neither ship nor boat to approach them : 
 it is thought that there in the said fortified islands lyeth 
 all his plate, which is much, and money, prisoners, and 
 gages : which islands hath in wars to fore been attempted, 
 and now of late again by the Lord Deputy there. Sir 
 Harry Sydney, which for want of means for safe conducts 
 upon the water it hath not prevailed.' " 
 
 Again, the map of the escheated territories, made for 
 the Government, a.d. 1591, by Francis Jobson, or the 
 Piatt of the County of Monaghan^ contains rough sketches 
 of the dwellings of the petty chiefs of Monaghan, 
 which " are in all cases surrounded by water." In 
 the Annals of the Four Masters^ and other records of 
 early Irish history, we meet with numerous instances in
 
 LAKE-VILLAGES 185 
 
 which the crannoges are mentioned, in some of which 
 their position has not preserved them from robbery and 
 destruction ; and we need not, therefore, be surprised to 
 find that many of the Swiss Pfahlbauten appear to have 
 been destroyed by fire. 
 
 Not only in the Lake of Zurich, but also in Lakes of 
 Constance, Geneva, Neufchatel, Bienne, Morat, Sempach, 
 in fact in most of the large Swiss lakes, as well as in several 
 of the smaller ones (Inkwyl, Pfeffikon, Moosseedorf, 
 Luissel, etc.), similar lake-habitations have been dis- 
 covered. In the larger lakes, indeed, not one, but many 
 of these settlements existed ; thus, there are already on 
 record, in Lake Bienne, twenty ; in the Lake of Geneva, 
 twenty-four ; in the Lake of Constance, thirty-two ; in 
 the Lake of Neufchatel, as many as forty-nine ; on the 
 whole more than two hundred ; and many others, doubt- 
 less, remain to be discovered. Of those already known, 
 some belong to the Iron Age, some few even to Roman 
 times ; but the greater number appear to be divided in 
 almost equal proportions between the Age of Stone and 
 that of Bronze. 
 
 Though the architecture of this period was probably 
 simple, still the weight to be sustained on the wooden 
 platforms must have been considerable ; many of the 
 piles are either bent or broken ; and to prevent their 
 sinking too deeply into the soft mud, they were some- 
 times driven through boards which rested on the bottom. 
 
 The dwellings of the Gauls are described as having 
 been circular huts, built of wood and lined with mud. 
 The interstices appear to have been filled with moss or 
 clay. Some of the huts on the pile-works were probably 
 of a similar nature. This is not a mere hypothesis, but 
 many fragments of the clay used for the lining have been 
 discovered. Their preservation is evidently due to the 
 building having been destroyed by fire, which has hardened 
 the clay, and enabled it to resist the action of the water. 
 These fragments bear, on one side, the marks of inter- 
 laced branches, while on the other, which apparently 
 formed the inner wall of the cabin, they are quite smooth.
 
 i86 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The huts, like those in the British lake-village of 
 Glastonbury, were circular, and from ten to fifteen feet 
 in diameter. It would be most interesting if we could 
 construct a retrospective census for these early periods, 
 and M, Troyon has made an attempt to do so. The 
 settlement at Morges, which is one of the largest in the 
 Lake of Geneva, is 1200 feet long and 150 broad, giving 
 a surface of 1 80,000 square feet. Allowing the huts to 
 have been fifteen feet in diameter, and supposing that 
 they occupied half the surface, leaving the rest for gang- 
 ways, he estimates the number of cabins at 311 ; and 
 supposing again that, on an average, each was inhabited 
 by four persons, he obtains for the whole a population of 
 1244. Starting from the same data, he assumes for the 
 Lake of Neufchatel a population of about 5000. Sixty- 
 eight villages belonging to the Bronze Age are supposed 
 to have contained 42,500 persons ; while for the pre- 
 ceding epoch, by the same process of reasoning, he 
 estimates the population at 31,875. 
 
 I am not, however, inclined to attribute much value to 
 the estimates of population based on the extent of the 
 platforms. M. Troyon himself admits that his " chiffres 
 sont peut-^tre un peu eleves, en egard aux habitations 
 sur terre ferme, dont il ne peut etre question dans ce 
 calcul, et vu qu'on est encore bien loin de connaitre tous 
 les points des lacs qui ont ete occupes," and indeed, in 
 Switzerland, since his book was written, the number of 
 lake-villages discovered has already been more than 
 doubled. Moreover, M. Troyon assumes that the lake- 
 villages of the Bronze Age were contemporaneous, and 
 that the same was the case with those belonging to the 
 Stone Age. This also I should be disposed to question ; 
 both these periods, but especially the Stone Age, in all 
 probability extended over a long series of years ; and 
 though in these matters it is of course necessary to speak 
 with much caution, still if we are to make any assumption 
 in the case, it would seem safer to suppose that in each 
 period some of the villages had perished or been forsaken 
 before others were built.
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLATFORMS 187 
 
 We might feel surprised that a people so uncivilized 
 should have constructed their houses with immense 
 labour on the water, when it would seem so much more 
 easy to have built them on dry land. But we have 
 already seen how, even in historical times, such dwellings 
 have served as simple and yet valuable fortifications. 
 Still, though it is evident that the security thus given 
 would amply compensate for much extra labour, it 
 remains ciifficult to understand in what manner the piles 
 were driven into the ground. 
 
 In many cases, indeed, settlements of the Stone Age 
 are characterized by what are called " Steinbergs," that is 
 to say, artificial heaps of stones, etc., evidently brought by 
 the natives to serve as a support to the piles. A boat 
 laden with stones, apparently for this purpose, was some 
 years ago discovered in the Lake of Neufchatel. In fact, 
 it was in some places easier to raise the bottom round the 
 piles than to drive the piles into the bottom. On the 
 other hand, some of these constructions, as, for instance, 
 those at Inkwyl and Wauwyl, described respectively by 
 M. Morlot and Col. Suter, more closely resemble the 
 Irish crannoge. We see, therefore, that, as Dr Keller 
 says, the lake-dwellers followed two different systems in 
 the construction of their dwellings, which he distinguishes 
 as " Pfahlbauten," or pile-buildings, and " Packwerk- 
 bauten," or crannoges : in the first of which the platforms 
 were simply supported on piles ; in the second of which 
 the support consisted not of piles only, but of a solid mass 
 of mud, stones, etc., with layers of horizontal and per- 
 pendicular stakes, the latter serving less as a support 
 than to bind the mass firmly together. It is evicient that 
 the " Packwerkbau " is a simpler and ruder aff^air than 
 the " Pfahlbau," in which no small skill must have been 
 required to connect the perpendicular and horizontal piles 
 firmly together. Still the " Packwerkbauten " were not 
 suitable for the larger lakes, as during storms they would 
 have been injured by the waves, which passed harmlessly 
 through the open work of the " Pfahlbauten." We find, 
 therefore, that while the former method of construction
 
 i88 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 prevailed only in small lakes or morasses, the latter was 
 adopted in the larger lakes, and even sometimes, possibly, 
 on dry land ; a custom which, however singular, exists at 
 the present day, as, for instance, in the island of Borneo, 
 and even in Switzerland itself. 
 
 The antiquities found in the small Swiss lakes and 
 peat-bogs are more or less covered by a thick layer of 
 peat, which perhaps at some future date will give us a 
 clue to their age. On the contrary, in the large lakes no 
 peat grows. At the entrance of the rivers, indeed, much 
 mud and gravel is of course accumulated ; the Lake of 
 Geneva, for instance, once no doubt extended for a 
 considerable distance up the valley of the Rhone. But 
 the gravel and mud brought down by that river are 
 deposited, as everyone knows, near its entrance into the 
 lake, and the water of the lake is elsewhere beautifully 
 clear and pure. 
 
 The lake itself is very deep, in parts as much as nine 
 hundred and eighty feet ; and the banks are somewhat 
 steep, but round the margin there is, in most places, a 
 fringe of shallow water, due, probably, to the erosive 
 action of the waves, and known to the fishermen as the 
 " blancfond," because the lake is there of a pale greyish 
 hue, when contrasted with the bright blue of the central 
 deeper water. It is on this " blancfond," and at a depth 
 of sometimes as much as fifteen feet, that the Pfahlbauten 
 were generally constructed. On calm days, when the 
 surface of the water is unrufiled, the piles are plainly 
 visible. Few of them now project more than two feet 
 from the bottom ; eaten away by the incessant action of 
 the water, some of them " n'apparaissent plus que comme 
 aiguilles," which finally also disappear, and leave only a 
 black disk at the surface of the mud. This, however, 
 is the case principally in the lake-villages of the Stone 
 Age. 
 
 The more complete destruction of the piles belonging 
 to the earlier period depends not only on their greater 
 age, but on their occurrence in shallower water. The 
 action of the waves being greatest near the surface, and
 
 LAKE-DWELLINGS, DIFFERENT PERIODS 189 
 
 diminishing gradually downwards, not only are those piles 
 which occupy the deeper parts least liable to destruction, 
 but in each the erosion takes place gradually from above, 
 so that the upper end of the piles is often more regularly 
 pointed even than the lower. Lying among them are 
 fragments of bone, horn, pottery, and sometimes objects 
 of bronze. Most of these are embedded in the mud, or 
 hidden under the stones, but others lie on the bottom yet 
 uninjured ; so that when, for the first time, I saw them 
 through the transparent water, a momentary feeling of 
 doubt as to their age rose in my mind. So fresh are they 
 and at first sight so unaltered, they look as if they were 
 only things of yesterday, and it seems hard to believe that 
 they can have remained there for centuries. The explana- 
 tion of the difficulty is, however, to be found in the fact 
 that the action of the most violent storms reaches only 
 to a small depth. Except, therefore, near the mouths of 
 rivers, or where there is much vegetation, which in the 
 large lakes is rarely the case, the deposition of mud 
 at depths greater than four feet is an extremely slow 
 process, and objects which fall to the bottom in such 
 situations will neither be covered over nor carried away. 
 "J'ai peche," says M. Troyon, " sur I'emplacement en 
 face du Moulin de Bevaix, les fragments d'un grand vase 
 qui gisaient a peu de distance les uns des autres, et que 
 j'ai pu reunir de maniere a les remontre completement. 
 A la Tongue, pres d'Hermance, j'ai trouve les deux 
 fragments d'un anneau support, distants de quelques pieds, 
 qui, en les raprochant ne laissent aucun interstice." The 
 upper parts of the objects also, which are bathed by the 
 water, are generally covered by a layer of carbonate of 
 lime, while the lower part which has sunk into the mud 
 is quite unaltered. M. Troyon once obtained at Cortaillod 
 a pair of bracelets in one haul of the dredge — the first, 
 which had been visible from the boat, was greenish and 
 covered with incrustation ; the second, which had been in 
 the mud immediately below, was as fresh as if it had only 
 just been made. 
 
 As piles of the Bronze Age are sometimes found at a
 
 I90 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 depth of as much as fifteen feet, and as it is manifest that 
 buildings cannot have been constructed over water much 
 deeper than this, it is evident that the Swiss lakes cannot 
 then have stood at a much higher level than at present. 
 This conclusion is confirmed by the position of Roman 
 remains at Thonon, on the Lake of Geneva, and we thus 
 obtain satisfactory evidence that the height of the Swiss 
 lakes must have remained almost unaltered for a very 
 long period. 
 
 In the large lakes the passing traveller may readily 
 mark the number and general distribution of the piles ; he 
 may determine the area which they occupy, and pick up 
 fragments of bone and pottery ; but, on the whole, the 
 peat-mosses are more instructive. In them we not only 
 obtain evidence as to the size, form, and construction of 
 the huts, but implements of wood, specimens of fruit, 
 nuts, grain, and even fragments of clothing, none of 
 which can be preserved in the open water of the large 
 lakes. 
 
 After having chosen a favourable situation, the first 
 step in the construction of the lake-habitations was to 
 obtain the necessary timber. To cut down a tree with a 
 stone hatchet must have been no slight undertaking. It 
 is, indeed, most probable that use was made of fire, in the 
 same manner as is done by existing savages in felling trees 
 and making canoes. Burning the wood and then scraping 
 away the charred portion renders the task far more easy, 
 and the men of the Stone Period appear to have avoided 
 the use of large trees, except in making their canoes. 
 Their piles were embedded in the mud from one to five feet, 
 and must also have projected from four to six feet above 
 the water level, which cannot have been very different 
 from what it is at present. They must, therefore, have 
 had a length of from fifteen to thirty feet, and they were 
 from three to nine inches in diameter. The pointed 
 extremity which entered into the mud still bears the marks 
 of the fire and the rude cuts made by the stone hatchets. 
 The piles belonging to the Bronze Period, being prepared 
 with metal axes, were much more regularly pointed, and
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF LAKE-DWELLINGS 191 
 
 the differences between the two have been ingeniously- 
 compared to those shown by lead pencils well and badly 
 cut. Moreover, the cuts made by the ordinary Swiss 
 stone axe (fig. 185) are more or less concave, whereas 
 those made with metal are flat. To drag the piles to the 
 lake, and fix them firmly, must also have required much 
 labour, especially when their number is considered. At 
 Wangen alone M. Lohle has calculated that 50,000 piles 
 were used ; but we must remember that these were 
 probably not all planted at one time nor by one genera- 
 tion. Wangen, indeed, was certainly not built in a day, 
 but was, no doubt, gradually en- 
 larged as the population increased. 
 Herodotus informs us that the 
 Paeonians made the first platform 
 at the public expense, but that, 
 subsequently, at every marriage 
 (and polygamy was permitted), the 
 bridegroom was expected to add a 
 certain number of piles to the com- 
 mon support. Fig. 1 84 represents 
 a section taken at Robenhausen, 
 and shows two series of piles, one 
 over the other. The layer of ashes 
 appears to indicate that the settle- 
 ment was burnt down, and subse- 
 quently rebuilt. The pile-works of subsequent periods 
 differ little from those of the Stone Age, so far at least as 
 can be judged by the parts remaining, but the piles are 
 less decayed, and project above the mud farther than is 
 the case with those of the preceding epoch. 
 
 Through the kindness of Colonel Suter, I had an 
 opportunity of examining the construction of the lake- 
 dwelling at Wauwyl, near Zofingen, in the canton of 
 Lucerne. This apparently belonged to the Stone Age, 
 no trace of metal having yet been discovered in it. It is 
 situated in a peat moss, which was evidently at one time 
 the bed of a shallow lake. By the gradual growth of 
 peat, however, the level has been raised several feet, and 
 
 Fig. 184. — Section of the 
 lake-dwelling at Niederwyl.
 
 192 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the plain has recently been drained. We were assisted 
 by six labourers, who dug out the peat, which we then 
 carefully examined. I mention this because the difference 
 in the objects collected from different Pfahlbauten may 
 probably be, in part at least, accounted for by the different 
 ways in which the search has been made. The peat at 
 Wauwyl varies in thickness from 3 to lo feet, and rests 
 on a white bed consisting of broken fresh-water shells. 
 This stratum, though only a few inches thick, is found in 
 the old beds of many small lakes, and is frequently 
 mentioned by the Swiss archaeologists under the name of 
 " weissgrund." It must not, however, be confounded 
 with the " blancfond " of the larger lakes. The piles go 
 through the peat and the " weissgrund " into the solid 
 ground below. It is not easy to obtain them whole, 
 because the lower portions are much altered by time, and 
 so thoroughly saturated by water that they are quite soft. 
 Colonel Suter, however, extracted two of them ; one was 
 14 feet 6 inches in length, of which 4 feet was in the peat, 
 and the remaining 10 feet 6 inches in the sand beneath ; 
 the other was only 8 feet 6 inches long, 4 feet of which 
 was in the peat, the other 4 feet 6 inches in the solid 
 ground. The piles vary from 3 to 5 inches in diameter, 
 and are always round, never having been squared. The 
 lower part is very badly cut, so that it is difficult to 
 understand how they can have been forced to so great a 
 depth into the ground. 
 
 In most of the Pfahlbauten the piles are scattered, more 
 or less irregularly, over the whole extent of the settle- 
 ment : at Wauwyl this is not the case, but they enclose, 
 as it were, four quadrangular areas, the interiors of which 
 are occupied by several platforms one over the other, the 
 interstices being filled up by branches, leaves, and peat. 
 The objects of antiquity are not scattered throughout the 
 peat, but lie either on the layer of broken shells, which 
 formed the then bottom of the lake, or in the lower part 
 of the peat. It is, therefore, evident that almost the 
 whole, if not the whole, of the peat has grown since the 
 time at which this interesting ruin was inhabited. The
 
 REMAINS FOUND AT WAUWYL 193 
 
 upper part had, however, been removed before our arrival, 
 so that the " Culturgeschicht," the layer containing the 
 objects of antiquity, was exposed ready for examination in 
 the manner already described. 
 
 Some of the piles still stood two or three feet above the 
 level of the peat, but the greater number were broken off 
 lower down. We stood on one of the upper platforms, 
 which seems to have been the floor on which the huts 
 were erected, and the beams of which are still perfectly 
 preserved. It was at first a question in what manner the 
 platforms at this place were supported ; whether they lay 
 like a raft on the surface of the water, rising and sinking 
 with it ; ^ or whether they were fixed, and rested on a 
 sort of artificial island, formed by the clay, branches, etc., 
 which now occupy the interspaces between the different 
 platforms. Subsequent observations, however, confirmed 
 as they have been by discoveries elsewhere, as, for instance, 
 at Inkwyl and Niederwyl, have decided the question in 
 favour of the latter hypothesis. 
 
 During my visit at Wauwyl we obtained 4 small stone 
 axes, I arrow-head, 4 flint flakes, 15 rude stone hammers, 
 8 whetstones, 33 slingstones, 8 instruments of bone, and 
 2 of wood, besides numerous bones, and a great quantity 
 of broken pottery. Colonel Suter regarded this as a fair 
 average day's work. Altogether about 500 instruments 
 of stone and bone had been discovered at Wauwyl ; at 
 Moosseedorf more than 3300 ; at Wangen no less than 
 5800, while M. Troyon estimated that those at Concise 
 must have amounted to 25,000, and these numbers have 
 since been largely increased. 
 
 The axe was pre-eminently t/ie implement of antiquity. 
 It was used in war and in the chase, as well as for domestic 
 purposes, and great numbers have been found, especially 
 at Wangen (Lake of Constance) and Concise (Lake of 
 Neufchatel). With a few exceptions, they are small, 
 especially when compared with the magnificent specimens 
 
 ' Dwellings of this character occur in the East and in South America. 
 See, for instance, Anderson's Missioti to Sumatra, p. 395 ; Squier, 
 American Naturalist, vol. iv. p. 18. 
 
 13
 
 194 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 from Denmark ; in length they varied from i to 6 inches, 
 while the cutting edge had generally a width of from 1 5 
 to 20 lines. Flint was sometimes used, and nephrite or 
 jade in a few cases, but serpentine and diorite were the 
 principal materials. Most of the larger settlements were 
 evidently manufacturing places, and many spoilt pieces 
 and half-finished specimens have been found. After 
 having chosen a stone, the first step was to reduce it by 
 
 blows with a hammer to a suitable 
 size. Then grooves were made 
 artificially, which must have been 
 a very tedious and difficult opera- 
 tion, when flint knives, sand, and 
 water were the only available in- 
 struments. Having carried the 
 grooves to the required depth, 
 the projecting portions were re- 
 moved by a skilful blow with a 
 hammer, and the implement was 
 then sharpened and polished on 
 blocks of sandstone. 
 
 The axes appear to have been 
 fastened into the handles by means 
 of bitumen, obtained probably 
 either from the Val de Travers 
 near Neufchatel or from the Perte 
 du Rhone. 
 
 The stone knives may be con- 
 sidered as of two sorts. Some 
 differ from the axes principally in 
 havino; their width greater than their length. In other 
 cases flint flakes were set in wooden handles, and fastened, 
 like the axes, by means of bitumen. Saws also (fig. 138) 
 were made in a similar manner, but with their edges some- 
 what rudely dentated ; we do not find in Switzerland any 
 of the semi-lunar stone implements which are frequent in 
 Denmark. The arrow-heads were made of flint, or in 
 some cases of rock-crystal, and were of the usual forms. 
 Spindle-whorls of rude earthenware (fig. 186) were 
 
 Fio. 1S5. — Swiss axe of ser- 
 pentine, actual size. From 
 Wangen, on the Lake of 
 Constance. In my own col- 
 lection.
 
 REMAINS FOUND AT WAUWYL 195 
 
 abundant in some of the lake-villages even of the Stone 
 Age. The presence of these whorls indicates a knowledge 
 of weaving, which indeed is proved by even more con- 
 clusive evidence. At Locray, a 
 spindle-whorl was found actually 
 attached to the spindle, which 
 had thread still wound round it. 
 There are also found rounded 
 stones, pierced with one or some- 
 times two holes. The use of 
 these is uncertain, but they may 
 perhaps have been used to sink 
 fishing-lines. 
 
 The flint flakes offer no peculi- 
 arities ; the Swiss specimens are, 
 however, of small size. Corn- 
 crushers, which are round balls of hard stone, two or 
 three inches in diameter, occur even in the villages of the 
 Stone Age. 
 
 The list of objects hitherto found at Wauwyl is as 
 follows : — 
 
 Fig, 186. — Spindle whorl, actual 
 size. From Wanyen, on the 
 Lake of Constance. In my 
 own collection. 
 
 Stone axes, principally of serpen- 
 
 
 
 tine ..... 
 Small flint arrow-heads 
 
 43 
 36 
 
 
 Flint flakes .... 
 
 200 
 
 
 Corn-crushers .... 
 
 16^ 
 
 
 Rude stones, used as hammers, 
 
 common (say) 
 Whetstones .... 
 
 20 
 26 
 
 Not all 
 collected 
 
 Slingstones, etc. 
 
 85J 
 
 
 In all about .... 426 articles of stone. 
 
 The flint, of which the flakes and arrow-heads were 
 formed, must have come from a distance, and the best 
 pieces in all probability were obtained from France. 
 Visits may have been made to the French quarries, just 
 as Catlin tells us that the American tribes, from far and 
 near, visited the red pipestone quarry of Coteau des
 
 196 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Prairies. A few fragments of Mediterranean coral have 
 been found at Concise, and of Baltic amber at Meilen. 
 Some archaeologists have argued from these facts that 
 there must have been a certain amount of commerce even 
 in the Stone Age. As, however, both these settlements 
 appear to have belonged to the transitional period 
 between the Age of Stone and that of Bronze, it would 
 be safer to refer both the amber and the coral to the later 
 period. 
 
 Like other savages, the lake-dwellers made the most 
 of any animal they could catch. They ate the flesh, used 
 
 Fig. 187. — Piece of pottery, showing the impressions of the finger-tip, and 
 the marks of the nail, actual size. Lake of Zurich. 
 
 the skin for clothing, picked every fragment of marrow 
 out of the bones, and then, in many cases, fashioned the 
 bones themselves into weapons. The larger and more 
 compact ones, as well as horns of the deer, served as 
 hammers, and were used as handles for hatchets. In 
 some cases, pieces of bone were worked to an edge, but 
 they are neither hard nor sharp enough to cut well. 
 Bone awls are numerous, and may have been used in 
 preparing skins for clothes. Fig. 140 represents a chisel 
 or scraper of bone, from Wangen. One purpose for 
 which these were used was no doubt to scrape off the hair 
 in dressing skins. 
 
 A few objects made of wood have also been found at 
 Wauwyl and elsewhere ; but these, even if originally
 
 POTTERY OF LAKE-DWELLERS 197 
 
 numerous, would be difficult to distinguish from the 
 surrounding peat, especially as this contains so many 
 branches of trees and other fragments of wood ; and it 
 would also be very difficult to extract them entire. 
 Perhaps, therefore, implements of wood may have been 
 much more varied and common than the collections 
 would appear to indicate. Tinder has been found in 
 several of the lake-villages, and was no doubt used in 
 obtaining fire. 
 
 The pottery of the Stone Age presents nearly the same 
 characters in all the settlements. Very rude and coarse, 
 it is generally found in broken pieces, and comparatively 
 few entire vessels have been obtained. There is no 
 evidence that the potter's wheel was known, and the 
 baking is very imperfect, having apparently taken place 
 in an open fire. The material is also very rude, and 
 generally contains numerous grains of quartz. The form 
 is frequently cylindrical, but several of the jars are 
 rounded at the base, and without feet. A curious 
 character is the frequent presence of a row of depressions 
 which do not completely penetrate the thickness of the 
 vessel ; but the commonest decorations are simple lines 
 or furrows, made sometimes by a sharp instrument, 
 sometimes by the finger-nail (see fig. 187), and occasion- 
 ally produced by pressing a cord on the soft clay. 
 Curved lines are rare ; no representation of any animal 
 has yet been met with ; and the vase found at Wangen, 
 a restored figure of which has been given both by Dr 
 Keller and by M. Troyon, is almost the only instance in 
 which any attempt has been made to represent a plant. 
 In this case the design is even ruder than mi^ht be 
 inferred from the above-mentioned figures.^ In some of 
 the Bronze Age villages rings of pottery are found, 
 which were evidently intended to serve as supports for 
 these earthenware tumblers, but none of them have yet 
 been met with in any of the Stone Age villages. Possibly 
 the earthenware during; the Stone Aq-c rested on the soft 
 
 ' In Lee's second edition of Keller's Lake Dwellings, pi. xv., a figure is 
 given of the actual fragments.
 
 198 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 earth, and tables were only introduced in the Bronze 
 Age, when by means of metallic implements it became 
 so much easier to cut wood, and particularly to make 
 boards. Many of the vessels had small projections, which 
 were pierced in such a manner that strings might be 
 passed through them, and which may, therefore, have 
 served for suspension. Some of the vessels, also, are 
 pierced by small holes at different levels ; it has been 
 
 Fig. 1S8. — Net fragment from Robenhausen. 
 
 suggested that these may have been used in the prepara- 
 tion of curds, the small holes being intended to permit 
 the escape of the milk. The ornaments on the pottery 
 belonging to this age are of a very rude and simple 
 character. Sometimes a row of knobs runs round the 
 vase, just below the lip ; this style of ornamentation is 
 common on the pottery found by M. Gillieron at the 
 Pont de Thiele. 
 
 Although there can be no doubt that the skins of 
 animals supplied the ancient lakemen with their principal 
 articles of clothing, still in several of the settlements, and
 
 FABRICS FROM LAKE-VILLAGES 199 
 
 especially at Wangen and Robenhausen, both of which 
 belong to the Stone Age, pieces of rude fabric (figs. 188— 
 191) have been found in some abundance. They consist 
 either of flax fibres or straw. The presence of spindle- 
 whorls has been already mentioned. 
 
 For our knowledge of the animal remains from the 
 pile-works we are principally indebted to Professor 
 Rtitimeyer. The bones are in a very fragmentary condi- 
 tion, and have been broken open for the sake of the 
 
 Fig. 189. — Net fragment from Robenhausen. 
 
 marrow. There is also the same absence of certain bones 
 and parts of bones, so that it is impossible to reconstruct 
 a perfect skeleton even of the commonest animal. 
 
 The total number of species amounts to about 70, 
 of which 10 are fishes, 4 reptiles, 26 birds, and the 
 remainder quadrupeds. Of the latter, 6 species may be 
 considered as having been domesticated ; namely, the 
 dog, pig, horse, goat, sheep, and at least two varieties of 
 oxen. The bones very seldom occur in a natural condi- 
 tion ; but those of domestic and wild animals are mixed 
 together, and the state in which they are found, the marks
 
 200 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of knives upon them, and their having been almost always 
 broken open for the sake of their marrow, are all evidences 
 of human interference. 
 
 Two species, the one wild, the other domestic, are 
 especially numerous — the stag and the ox. Indeed, the 
 remains of these two equal those of all the others together. 
 It is, however, an interesting fact, that in the older 
 settlements, as at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, and Roben- 
 
 FiG. 190. — Piece of tissue from Rohenhausen. 
 
 hausen, the stag exceeds the ox in the number of 
 specimens indicated, while the reverse is the case in the 
 more modern settlements of the western lakes, as, for 
 instance, those at Wangen and Meilen. 
 
 Next to these in order of abundance is the hog. Less 
 numerous again, and generally represented by single 
 specimens where the preceding occur in numbers, are the 
 roe, the goat, and the sheep, which latter is most 
 abundant in the later settlements. With these rank the 
 fox and the marten. Foxes are occasionally eaten by the 
 Esquimaux.^ Captain Lyon seems to have taken rather a 
 
 ' Crantz, History of Greenland, vol. i. p. 73.
 
 FAUNA OF LAKE-VILLAGES 201 
 
 fancy to them/ and Franklin assures us that fat fox is 
 better than lean venisonr They also appear, whether 
 from choice or necessity, to have been eaten during the 
 Stone Period. This conclusion is derived from the fact 
 
 Fig. 191. — Piece of tissue from Robenhausen. 
 
 that the bones often present the marks of knives, and 
 have been opened for the sake of the marrow. While, 
 however, the fox is very frequent in the pile-works of the 
 Stone Epoch, it has not yet been found in any settlement 
 belonging to the Bronze Period. Oddly enough, the dog 
 
 ' Lyon's /ournal, p. 77. - Franklin, vol. iii. pp. 219-239.
 
 202 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 is rarer than the fox, at least as far as the observations 
 yet go, in the lake-dwellings of the Stone Period, though 
 more common than the horse ; and of other species but 
 few specimens have been met with, though in some 
 localities the beaver, the badger, and the hedgehog appear 
 in some numbers. The bear and the wolf, as well as the 
 urus, the bison, and the elk, seem to have occasionally 
 been captured ; it is probable that the latter species were 
 taken in concealed pits. 
 
 From the small lake at Moosseedorf, M. Rutimeyer has 
 identified the following list : — Of the dog, 3 specimens ; 
 fox, 4 specimens ; beaver, 5 specimens ; roe, 6 specimens ; 
 goat and sheep, 10 specimens ; cow, 16 specimens ; hog, 
 20 specimens ; stag, 20 specimens. It is certainly very 
 striking to find two wild species represented by the greatest 
 number of specimens, and particularly so, since this is no 
 exceptional case ; but the whole sum of the wild exceeds 
 that of the domesticated individuals, a result, moreover, 
 which holds good in other settlements of this epoch. Not 
 only does this indicate a great antiquity, but also that the 
 population must have been sometimes subjected to great 
 privations, partly from the unavoidable uncertainty of sup- 
 plies so obtained, partly because it is improbable that foxes 
 would have been eaten except under the pressure of hunger. 
 
 The bones of the stag and the wild boar often indicate 
 animals of an unusual magnitude, while, on the other 
 hand, the fox appears to have been somewhat smaller than 
 at present. The dogs varied less than they do now ; in 
 fact they all belong to one variety, which was of middle 
 size, and appears to have resembled our present beagles. 
 (M. Riltimeyer describes it as " resembling the Jagdhund " 
 and the " Wachtelhund.") The sheep of the Stone 
 Period differed from the ordinary form in its small size, 
 fine legs, and short goat-like horns ; particulars in which 
 it is nearly resembled by some northern and mountain 
 varieties at the present day, as, for instance, by the small 
 sheep of the Shetlands, Orkneys, Welsh hills, and parts 
 of the Alps. At Wauwyl, however, M. Rutimeyer found 
 traces of an individual, with large horns. Our knowledge
 
 FAUNA OF LAKE-VILLAGES 
 
 203 
 
 of the wild species of sheep is so deficient, that M. 
 Riltimeyer does not venture to express any opinion con- 
 cerning the origin of the domestic varieties, but his present 
 impression is that they will eventually be traced up to 
 several wild races. 
 
 
 v.; 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 LIST OF SPECIES. 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 ai 
 J3 
 c 
 <u 
 
 XI 
 
 
 2 
 
 c 
 v 
 be 
 
 c 
 
 2 
 
 c 
 
 "G 
 c 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 . 
 
 c 
 a; 
 
 2 
 
 I Ursus Arctos .... 
 
 2 Meles vulgaris . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 Mustela Foina . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 ., Martes 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 5 „ Putorius 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 „ F,rminea 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 ,, Lutra vulgaris 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 Canis Lupus 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 9 „ familiaris (palustris) 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 10 „ Vulpes 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 Felis Catus (ferus) . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 Erinaceus europceus . 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 Castor Fiber 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 Sciurus europasus 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 -> 
 
 
 
 
 1 5 Mus sylvaticus . 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 Lepus timidtis 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 17 Sus Scrofa ferus 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 18 „ Palustris 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 19 „ Scrofa domesticus 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 Equus Caballus . 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 21 E. Asinus . 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 22 Cervus Alces 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 23 „ Elaphus 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 24 ,, Capreolus 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 25 Capra Ibex 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 26 „ Hircus 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 27 Ovis Aries . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 28 Antilope rupicapra . 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 29 Bos primigenius 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 --> 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 30 „ Bison . 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 31 „ Taurus primigenius 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 ? 
 
 5 
 
 ? 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 32 „ Taurus brachyceros 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 ■-> 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 33 „ Taurus frontosus 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 In his first memoir. Professor Rutimeyer gives an 
 interesting table, which, with some additions which I owe
 
 204 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 to his kind courtesy, is here subjoined, the relative 
 frequency being indicated by numerals : 
 
 1 denotes a single individual ; 
 
 2 indicates that the remains of several individuals 
 
 have been met with ; 
 
 3 the species which are common ; 
 
 4 those which are very common ; and lastly, 
 
 5 those which are present in great number. 
 
 The almost entire absence of the hare is perhaps owing 
 to the curious prejudice which was and is entertained by 
 many races against the flesh of this animal. It was never 
 eaten by the ancient Britons, and is avoided by the Lapps 
 at the present day. According to Burton,^ the Somal 
 Arabs will not touch it, and M. Schlegel also states that 
 the prejudice against it existed among the ancient Chinese. - 
 The Namaquas (S. Africa) do not eat it for fear of 
 becoming timid. In confirmation of this, it may be 
 mentioned that it was, among the Hottentots, forbidden 
 to men, but permitted to women.^ It was regarded as 
 unclean by the Jews, being erroneously supposed to chew 
 the cud. According to Crantz, the Greenlanders,* if in 
 want, will eat foxes rather than hares, nor do its remains 
 occur in the Danish shell-mounds. It appears, however, 
 to have been eaten in Palaeolithic times. ^ 
 
 The birds which have been discovered are : — 
 
 Aquila fulva. The golden eagle. At Robenhausen. 
 Aquila hali<£tus. A single bone found at Moosseedorf 
 
 is rather doubtfully referred to this species by 
 
 M. Ratimeyer. 
 Falco milvus. Robenhausen. 
 Falco palumharlus. Wauwyl, Moosseedorf. 
 Falco nisus. Moosseedorf. 
 Falco Buteo. Moosseedorf, Robenhausen. 
 
 * First Footsteps, p. 155. 
 
 2 Azotes and Queries^ on China, Japan, Hong-kong, May 1868. 
 
 ^ Le Vaillant, Voyages dans VAfriqiie, vol. iv. p. 187. 
 
 '' History of Greenland, p. 73. 
 
 ^ Boyd Dawkins, Geol. Jour., 1876, p. 247.
 
 BIRDS OF LAKE-VILLAGES 205 
 
 Strix aluco. Concise. 
 
 ^trix otus. Moosseedorf. 
 
 Strix bubo. Wangen. 
 
 Sturnus vulgaris. Robenhausen. 
 
 Corvus corone. ,, 
 
 Corvus corax. ,, 
 
 Cinclus aquaticus. ,, 
 
 Columba palumbus. „ Moosseedorf. 
 
 Tetrao bonasia. ,, 
 
 Tetrao lagopus. Moosseedorf. 
 
 Ciconia alba. Not unfrequent at Moosseedorf and 
 
 Robenhausen. 
 Ardea cinerea. Robenhausen. 
 Grus cinerea. „ 
 
 Fulica atra. „ 
 
 Larus. Two sp. „ 
 
 Mergus. 
 
 Mergus merganser. Bienne. 
 Cygnus olor. Robenhausen. 
 Anser segetum. „ 
 
 Anas boschas. Robenhausen, Moosseedorf, Wauwyl. 
 Anas querquedula. „ „ 
 
 Podiceps minor. Robenhausen. 
 
 The reptiles and fishes are represented by about ten of 
 our commonest species. 
 
 ^- The common mouse and our two house-rats, as well 
 as the domestic cat, are absent from the lake-habitations 
 of Switzerland, as also from the Kjokkenmoddings of 
 Denmark ; the same is the case with the common fowl, 
 which seems, moreover, to have been unknown to Homer 
 and Hesiod ; Professor Rutimeyer attributes to a later 
 period a single bone of the latter bird which was found 
 at Morges, a settlement belonging to the Bronze 
 Period. 
 
 The earliest remains of the ass mentioned by Professor 
 Rutimeyer are those found at Chavannes and Noville, 
 which, however, were not connected with Pfahlbauten, 
 and belonged to post-Roman times. In the Bible, the
 
 2o6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ass is first mentioned in the time of Abraham, who had 
 " sheep, and oxen, and he-asses, and men-servants, and 
 maid-servants, and she-asses, and camels." ^ It will be 
 observed that in this enumeration no mention is made of 
 horses. Laban, again, had sheep, and goats, and cattle, 
 and camels, and asses, but apparently no horses. Again, 
 the present which Jacob sent to Esau consisted of 200 she- 
 goats and 20 he-goats, 200 ewes and 20 rams, 30 milch 
 camels with their colts, 40 kine and 10 bulls, 20 she-asses 
 and 10 foals.^ Indeed, no mention whatever is made of 
 horses until the children of Israel went into Egypt ; and 
 from the copious and interesting details of their pastoral 
 life, we may feel sure that horses would have been alluded 
 to if the Hebrews had possessed them. As regards 
 Egypt, the horse is not represented in any of the monu- 
 ments anterior to the eighteenth dynasty, after which, 
 however, it appears to have become abundant in that 
 country. 
 
 As regards the Swiss lake-villages, it is singular that 
 though remains of the horse have been found in all the 
 pile-works, they are so rare that their presence may almost 
 be considered accidental : thus, Wangen has only produced 
 a single tooth ; Moosseedorf, a metatarsal bone, which 
 has been polished on one side ; Robenhausen, a single 
 OS naviculare tarsi ; and Wauwyl, only a few bones, which 
 may all have belonged to a single individual. On the 
 other hand, when we come to the Bronze Period, we find 
 at Nidau numerous bones of this species ; so that, as far 
 as these slight indications go, the horse, even if present 
 in the Stone Age, seems to have been rarer than at subse- 
 quent periods. All the remains of this animal belonged 
 apparently to the domestic horse {Equus caballus)^ while 
 those which occur in the Drift gravel beds and in caves 
 fall into two well-marked races, named by Professor Owen 
 E. fosdlis and E. speheus. 
 
 " The genealogy of the domestic hog," says Mr Boyd 
 Dawkins,^ "has been ascertained by MM. RQtimeyer, 
 
 ' Gen. xii. i6. - Gen. xxxiii. 14. 
 
 •' Palcvontographical Soc, 187S, vol. xxxii. p. 13.
 
 HORSE— BOAR 207 
 
 Nathusius, and Schutz, with great accuracy, and Dr 
 Darwin has summed up the evidence with judicial im- 
 partiality.^ It is traced, by these observers, to two distinct 
 strains, the one being the wild boar, which is found 
 throughout the temperate and hot regions of Europe, 
 Asia, and in North Africa ; and (the other) that which is 
 termed by Nathusius the Sus Indica^ of Pallas, and which 
 is known commonly as the small, short-legged, and short- 
 headed pig of Siam and China." 
 
 M. Rutimeyer, in a letter with which he has favoured 
 me, says he is now convinced that the Sus palustris "was 
 imported from the East, and stands in nearest relation to 
 Sus vittatus of East Asia, the stock from which all Asiatic, 
 most African and Southern European (Roman and Greek) 
 races are derived," the Northern European race being, on 
 the contrary, derived from the wild boar. 
 
 Our domestic hog first makes its appearance in the later 
 pile-works. Professor Rutimeyer does not, however, 
 believe that it was tamed by the inhabitants of Switzerland, 
 but is rather disposed to look upon it as having been 
 introduced during the Bronze Age, and the more so as 
 he also finds at Concise traces of a variety of the ox 
 {B. trochoceros) which does not occur in the earlier pile- 
 works. 
 
 The discovery of dung among the remains of the 
 Pfahlbauten sufficiently proves that the lake-dwellers had 
 domestic animals, but there are also other indications from 
 which we may draw the same conclusion. 
 
 In endeavouring to ascertain whether any given bones 
 belonged to a wild or domesticated animal, we must be 
 guided by the following considerations : the number of 
 individuals represented ; the relative proportions of young 
 and old ; the absence or presence of very old individuals, at 
 least in the case of species that serve for food ; the traces 
 of long, though indirect, selection, in diminishing the size 
 of any natural weapons which might be injurious to man ; 
 the direct action of man ciuring the life of the animal ; 
 and, finally, the texture and condition of the bones. 
 ^ Variations under Domestication^ vol. i. ch. i.
 
 2o8 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Applying these considerations to the Sns palustris from 
 Moosseedorf, Professor Riltimeyer concludes that there 
 is no evidence that any of them belonged to domesticated 
 specimens. 
 
 Professor Rutimeyer has also paid great attention to 
 the texture and condition of the bones themselves, and 
 believes that he can, in many cases, from these alone dis- 
 tinguish the species, and even determine whether the 
 bone belonged to a wild or a domesticated animal. 
 
 In wild animals the bones are of a firmer and closer 
 
 Fig. 192. — Portion of the vertebra of a cow. 
 
 texture ; there is an indescribable, but to the accustomed 
 eye very characteristic, sculpturing of the external surface, 
 produced by the sharper and more numerous impressions 
 of vessels, and the greater roughness of the surfaces for 
 the attachment of muscles. There is also an exaggeration 
 of all projections and ridges, and a diminution of all 
 indifferent surfaces. The contrast thus produced will be 
 seen from figs. 192 and 193, the first of which represents 
 a portion of a vertebra belonging to a domestic cow, the 
 second the corresponding surface of the same bone from 
 the bison. In considering the remains of oxen, these 
 distinctions have proved of the greatest importance. By 
 their assistance Professor Rutimeyer has convinced himself
 
 VARIOUS SPECIES OF OXEN 
 
 209 
 
 that, besides the two wild species of bos, namely, the urus 
 [B.primigenius) and the aurochs [B. bison or Bison europ^us)^ 
 four principal races of domestic oxen occur in the lake- 
 villages.^ 
 
 The first of these, the Primigenius race, closely resembles 
 the urus or Bos pritnigeniuSy and was no doubt descended 
 from it. It occurs in all the earlier pile-works, and in 
 the present day is best represented by the great oxen of 
 Friesland, Jutland, and Holstein. 
 
 The second, or Trochoceros race, has not hitherto been 
 
 Fig. 193. — Corresponding portion of the vertebra of a bison. 
 
 found in any of the Stone Age villages. Riltimeyer 
 regards it as scarcely distinguishable from the urus, and 
 observes that its peculiarities are principally, though not 
 exclusively, developed in the female sex. 
 
 The third, or Frontosus race, occurs but sparingly in 
 the older Pfahlbauten ; becomes more frequent in the 
 Bronze Age villages, and prevails at the present day in 
 northern Switzerland. Professor Riltimeyer considers 
 this variety also to be derived from the urus, and remarks 
 that while the wild cattle of Chillingham are true to the 
 Primigenius form, some of the Lyme Park cattle approach 
 
 1 Ar. fiir Anthropologic^ 1866, p. 219. 
 
 14
 
 2IO PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 to the Frontosus type. He has, however, never seen a 
 skull of this type belonging to an undoubtedly wild 
 animal. 
 
 The fourth is the Longifrons or Brachyceros race. The 
 name Brachyceros, by which it was at first known, must 
 be abandoned, having been previously applied by Dr Gray 
 to an African ox. This variety is extremely abundant in 
 all the Pfahlbauten. Professor Rutimeyer regards it as 
 descended, not from the urus, but from a second and 
 smaller species, perhaps from the Bos indicus. He 
 remarks, however, that if it be derived from the urus, it 
 is at least a more distinct, and must be an older variety 
 than any of the preceding. Professor Riltimeyer admits 
 that we have no evidence that B. longifrons ever existed 
 in a wild state in Central Europe. 
 
 Professor M'Kenny Hughes^ considers that the bison 
 became extinct in Britain before the Neolithic Period, and 
 that none of our domestic breeds can be traced to it : 
 that the urus was domesticated in the Neolithic Period, 
 but became extinct before the Roman period : that the 
 shorthorn was the characteristic ox of the Bronze Age, 
 but was improved in Roman times by cattle brought 
 from Italy : and that the Chillingham wild cattle, which 
 have been generally regarded as descended from the 
 urus, are really derived from this breed and not from the 
 urus. 
 
 M. de Quatrefages^ considers all our domestic oxen to 
 be descendants of the urus ; while Mr Darwin ^ regards 
 B. longifrons and B. frontosus as the modern represen- 
 tatives of wild ancestors, specifically distinct from B. 
 primigenius ; and concludes therefore that our " domestic 
 cattle are almost certainly the descendants of more than 
 one wild form." 
 
 Mr Boyd Dawkins* has shown that, as far as this 
 country is concerned, we have no conclusive evidence of 
 
 1 Archcroloi.na, i8g8. 
 
 ^ Re7'. dcs Cours Scicniijiques, 1868, p. 563. 
 
 ^ Animals and Plants under Domestication, vol. i. p. 81. 
 
 ^ Boyd Dawkins, Geol.Jour., 1867, p. 182.
 
 AUROCHS, ELK, RED DEER 211 
 
 more than two species of wild oxen, namely, the urus and 
 the bison. The smaller varieties appear to have been 
 introduced as domesticated animals, and probably do not 
 go back beyond the Neolithic Period. According to 
 Nilsson, on the contrary, both the B. frontosus and 
 B. longifrons inhabited Sweden as wild races. ^ My 
 own impression is that the urus was domesticated in 
 Europe ; but also that some at least of the early settlers 
 brought domestic cattle with them, which may very 
 probably have belonged to a distinct wild race. Further 
 evidence, however, is much needed on this interesting 
 subject. 
 
 Making allowance then for the marine animals, such as 
 seals, fish, oysters, cockles, whelks, etc., which we could 
 not expect to find so far away from the sea, the fauna 
 indicated by the remains found in the Swiss lakes agrees 
 remarkably with that which characterizes the Danish 
 Kjokkenmoddings, so far as wild animals are concerned, 
 and belongs evidently to a far later age than that of the 
 celebrated stone hatchets, which were first made known 
 to us by the genius and perseverance of M. Boucher de 
 Perthes. 
 
 Instead of the elephant and rhinoceros, we find in the 
 Neolithic or second Stone Period — in that, namely, of the 
 Kjokkenmoddings and " Pfahlbauten " — the urus and 
 bison, the elk and the red deer, already installed as 
 monarchs of the forest. Even the reindeer is altogether 
 absent. The red deer, on the contrary, and the boar, 
 appear to have been very frequent, and to have formed a 
 most important article of food for the lake-dwellers. 
 The urus, or great fossil ox, is now altogether extinct, at 
 least as a wild species." It is mentioned by Caesar, who 
 describes it as being little smaller than an elephant. (Hi 
 sunt magnitudine paulo infra elephantos specie et colore 
 et figura tauri.) According to Herberstein, it still 
 
 1 Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.., 1849, PP- 349^35 1- 
 
 - Professor Riitimeyer, as I have already mentioned, considers that the 
 celebrated wild cattle of Tankerville Park are unmistakable, though 
 dwarfish, descendants of the B. pritnige/iius.
 
 212 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 existed in Germany during the sixteenth century, soon 
 after which, however, it must have become extinct. 
 
 The aurochs, or European bison, seems to have dis- 
 appeared from Western Europe at about the same period 
 as the urus. There is no historical record of its existence 
 in England or Scandinavia. In Switzerland we cannot 
 trace it later than the tenth century ; but it is mentioned 
 in the Niebelungen Lied^ of the twelfth century, as occur- 
 ring in the Forest of Worms ; and in Prussia the last 
 was killed in the year 1775. ^^ °^^ period, indeed, it 
 appears to have inhabited almost the whole of Europe, 
 much of Asia, and part even of America ; but at present 
 it is confined in Europe to the imperial forests in 
 Lithuania, where it is preserved by the Emperor of 
 Russia ; while, according to Nordmann and Von Baer, it 
 still exists in some parts of Western Asia. 
 
 We have no notice of the existence of the elk in 
 Switzerland during the historical period, but it is 
 mentioned by Cassar as existing in the great Hercynian 
 forest ; and even in the twelfth century it was to be met 
 with in Sclavonia and Hungary, according to Albertus 
 Magnus and Gesner. In Saxony, the death of the last 
 elk is recorded as having occurred in 1746. At present 
 it inhabits Prussia and Lithuania, Finland and Russia, 
 Scandinavia and Siberia, as far as the shores of the Amoor. 
 
 The ibex survived in the Swiss Alps somewhat longer 
 than the elk. It has lingered longest in the West. In 
 Glarus the last one perished in 1550, though near 
 Chiavenna it existed until the commencement of the 
 seventeenth century, and in the Tyrol until the second 
 half of the eighteenth ; while a few still exist in the 
 neighbourhood of Mount Iseran, where they are pro- 
 tected by the King of Italy. 
 
 The extermination of the bear, like that of the ibex, 
 seems to have begun in the East, and is not yet complete, 
 since this animal still occurs in the Jura and the Grisons, 
 whence it occasionally visits the Valais and the south- 
 eastern parts of Switzerland.^ The fox, the otter, and 
 
 Mt is probably now (1913) extinct in Switzerland.
 
 GENERAL CHARACTER OF FAUNA 213 
 
 the different species of weasel, are still the common 
 carnivora of Switzerland, and the wild cat, badger, and 
 wolf still occur in the Jura and the Alps, the latter in 
 cold winters venturing even into the plains. The beaver, 
 on the contrary, has at last disappeared from Switzerland. 
 It has long been very rare, but some survived until the 
 beginning of the present century in Lucerne and Valais. 
 A few still exist in France near the mouth of the Rhone. 
 Red deer were abundant in the Jura and the Black 
 Forest in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, though 
 they do not appear to have been so large as those which 
 lived in earlier times. The last was shot in the canton 
 of Basle, at the close of the eighteenth century, while in 
 western Switzerland and Valais they lingered somewhat 
 longer. The roe-deer still occurs in some places. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that the animals of the Swiss 
 pile-works belong to the fauna which has occupied Europe 
 from the commencement of the Palaeolithic Period down 
 to the present time. 
 
 While, however, we must regard the fauna of the 
 Stone Age as belonging to the same great zoological 
 epoch as that of the river drift gravels on the one hand, 
 and the present time on the other, we cannot forget that 
 the immense period which has elapsed since the end of 
 the tertiary period has produced great changes in the 
 fauna of Europe. In this post-tertiary era the pile-works 
 occupy, so to say, the middle position. Distinguished 
 from the present fauna of Switzerland by the possession 
 of the urus, the bison, the elk, the stag, and the wild 
 boar, as well as by the more general distribution of the 
 beaver, the bear, the ibex, etc., their fauna differs from 
 that of the drift gravels in the absence of the mammoth, 
 the rhinoceros, the musk ox, the cave hyaena, and the 
 reindeer. 
 
 Professor Riltimeyer thinks that from similar considera- 
 tions alone, even if we had no other evidence, we might 
 carry this division farther ; and if we take the settlements 
 at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen, anci Nidau, 
 which have been the most carefully studied in this respect,
 
 214 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 it certainly appears that the three former, which belong 
 to the Stone Age, offer a marked contrast to the latter, 
 which is the locality whence the largest number of bronze 
 objects has as yet been obtained. 
 
 It is of course unnecessary to point out the interest 
 and importance of such a distinction, which accords so 
 well with that indicated by the study of the weapons and 
 the state of preservation of the piles. Thus, the urus 
 has only occurred at Moosseedorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen, 
 Wangen, and Concise ; the aurochs only at Moosseedorf, 
 Wauwyl, and Robenhausen ; the bear only at Moossee- 
 dorf, Wauwyl, Robenhausen, Wangen, and Concise. A 
 glance at the table given at page 203 will show that 
 several other species have as yet only occurred at 
 Moosseedorf and Robenhausen ; a fact, however, which 
 indicates, perhaps, rather the richness than the antiquity 
 of these localities. Possibly we may consider the presence 
 of these larger species as an indication of their greater 
 abundance in the oldest period ; but we must not forget 
 that not only the bear and the elk, but also the aurochs 
 and the urus, appear at a comparatively late period. On 
 the other hand, the abundance of wild animals, and the 
 fact that at Moosseedorf and Wauwyl the fox was more 
 abundant than the dog, while elsewhere the reverse is the 
 case, certainly speak in favour of the greater antiquity of 
 these two settlements. 
 
 The evidence derived from the distribution of the 
 domestic animals is more satisfactory. The sheep occurs 
 even at Moosseedorf, though not so numerous as at 
 Nidau. On the other hand, the horse is frequent at 
 Nidau, while at Moosseedorf only a single bone of this 
 animal was discovered, in a different condition from that 
 of the other bones, and probably more recent. Finally, 
 the domestic hog of the present race is absent from all 
 the pile-works of the Stone Period, excepting the one at 
 Wauwyl ; and becomes frequent only at Nidau. The 
 following table shows the proportions of wild and tame 
 animals at Wauwyl and Moosseedorf, as representing the 
 Age of Stone ; and at Nidau, as perhaps the best illustra-
 
 FAUNA OF DIFFERENT VILLAGES 215 
 
 tion of that of Bronze, i represents a single individual ; 
 2, several ; 3, the species which are common ; 4, those 
 which are very common ; and 5, those which are present 
 in large numbers. 
 
 Wild Animals. 
 
 Wauwyl. 
 
 Moosseedorf. 
 
 Nidau. 
 
 Brown Bear . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Badger. 
 
 Marten .... 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 Pine Marten 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 Polecat .... 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 Wolf .... 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Fox 
 
 Wild Cat . . . 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 Beaver .... 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 Elk ... . 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 Urus .... 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 Bison .... 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 Stag .... 
 Roe Deer 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 
 Wild Boar . 
 Marsh Boar' 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Domestic Boar 
 
 ?i 
 
 
 3 
 
 Horse .... 
 
 --> 
 
 ?i 
 
 3 
 
 Ox ... . 
 Goat .... 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 Sheep .... 
 Dog ... . 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 If succeeding investigations confirm the conclusions 
 thus indicated, we may infer that the domestic animals, 
 which were comparatively rare in the Stone Period, 
 became more frequent after the introduction of bronze ; 
 a change which indicates and perhaps produced an altera- 
 tion of habits on the part of the inhabitants. 
 
 Rare, indeed, as they may have been, oxen, horses, 
 sheep, and goats could not be successfully kept through 
 the winter in the climate of Switzerland without store of 
 provisions and some sort of shelter. A pastoral people, 
 
 ' Considered by Professor Riitimeyer to have been at first wild, but 
 domesticated at Nidau, and in the later Pfahlbauten.
 
 2i6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 therefore, must have reached a higher grade than a mere 
 nation of hunters. We know, moreover, in another way, 
 that at this period agriculture was not entirely unknown. 
 This is proved in the most unexpected manner, by the 
 discovery of carbonized cereals at various points. Wheat 
 is most common, having been discovered at Meilen, 
 Moosseedorf, and Wangen. At the latter place, indeed, 
 many bushels of it were found, the grains being united 
 in large thick lumps. In other cases the grains are free, 
 and without chaff, resembling our present wheat in size 
 and form, while more rarely they are still in the ear. 
 Ears of the Hordeum hexastichon L. (the six-rowed 
 barley) are somewhat numerous. This species differs 
 from the H. vulgare L. in the number of rows, and in 
 the smaller size of the grains. According to De Candolle, 
 it was the species generally cultivated by the ancient 
 Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. In the ears from 
 Wangen, each row has generally ten or eleven grains, 
 which, however, are smaller and shorter than those now 
 grown. 
 
 Three varieties of wheat were cultivated by the lake- 
 dwellers, who also possessed two kinds of barley, and 
 two of millet. Of these the most ancient and most 
 important were the small six-rowed barley and small 
 " Lake-dwellers " wheat. The discovery of Egyptian 
 wheat {Tritkum turgiduni) at Wangen and Robenhausen 
 is particularly interesting. Oats were cultivated during 
 the Bronze Age, but are absent from all the Stone Age 
 villages. Rye also was unknown. 
 
 Wheat and millet only seem to have been used for 
 making bread. Professor Heer thinks the barley was 
 probably roasted. In six-rowed barley the husks adhere 
 very closely to the grain, and it would have been difficult 
 to separate them ; when roasted, however, they could be 
 easily detached from one another. 
 
 Still more unexpected was the discovery of bread, or 
 rather cakes, for their texture is so solid that leaven 
 appears not to have been used. They were flat and 
 round, from an inch to fifteen lines in thickness, and, to
 
 FLORA OF LAKE-VILLAGES 217 
 
 judge from one specimen, had a diameter of four or five 
 inches. In other cases the grains seem to have been 
 roasted, coarsely ground between stones, and then either 
 stored up in large earthenware pots, or eaten after being 
 shghtly moistened. Grain treated in a similar manner is 
 even now eaten in Germany and Switzerland. In what 
 way the ground was prepared for the cultivation of corn we 
 know not, as no implements have as yet been discovered 
 which can with certainty be regarded as agricultural. 
 
 Carbonized apples have been found at Wangen, some- 
 times whole, sometimes cut into two, or more rarely into 
 four pieces, and evidently dried and put aside for winter 
 use. They have occurred not only at Wangen, but also 
 at Robenhausen in Lake Pfeffikon, and at Concise in 
 Lake Neufchatel. They are small, and resemble generally 
 those which still grow wild in the Swiss forests ; at 
 Robenhausen, however, specimens have occurred which 
 are of larger size and were probably cultivated. No 
 trace of the walnut, the cherry, or the damson has yet 
 been met with, but stones of the wild plum and the 
 Prunus padus have been found. Seeds of the vine, rasp- 
 berry, and blackberry, and shells of the hazel-nut and 
 beech-nut occur plentifully in the mud, but those of 
 the strawberry are rare. Peas have been found at 
 Moosseedorf, but beans do not appear until the Bronze 
 
 From all this, therefore, it is evident that the nourish- 
 ment of the dwellers in the pile-works consisted of corn 
 and wild fruits, of fish, and the flesh of wild and domestic 
 animals. Milk also was doubtless an important article 
 of their diet. 
 
 Altogether 115 species of plants have been determined. 
 The wild species are almost entirely the same as those 
 now living ; the S^ilene cretica^ however, a South European 
 weed, which was doubtless introduced originally and 
 accidentally with the cereals, and which has been found 
 at Robenhausen, does not now inhabit Switzerland ; and 
 the Trapa nutans^ which was used as food by the inhabitants 
 of Moosseedorf and Robenhausen, was supposed to be
 
 2l8 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 extinct in Switzerland, but is now known to occur in one 
 locality. 
 
 I subjoin a table which I have compiled from Dr Heer's 
 memoir, and which shows the more interesting species 
 and varieties. 
 
 1. Hordeum (barley) hexa- 
 
 stichon sanctum 
 
 2. Hordeum hexastichon 
 
 densum 
 
 3. Hordeum distichum 
 
 4. Triticum (wheat) vul- 
 
 gare antiquorum 
 
 5. Triticum vulgare com- 
 
 pactum muticum 
 
 6. Triticum turgidum 
 
 (Egyptian wheat) 
 
 7. Triticum spelta 
 
 8. „ dicoccum 
 
 9. „ monococcum 
 
 10. Secale cereale 
 
 1 1. Avena sativa (oats) 
 
 12. Panicum miliaceum 
 
 13. Setaria itaHca 
 
 14. Silene cretica 
 
 15. Centaurea cyanusfcorn 
 
 flower) 
 
 16. Pastinaca sativa . 
 
 17. Faba vulgaris 
 
 18. Pisum sativum 
 
 19. Ervum lens . 
 
 20. Pyrus malus 
 
 crab-apple) 
 
 21. Trapa natans 
 
 22. Linum angustifolium 
 
 (flax) 
 
 (small 
 
 Stone Age. Transition. Bronze Age. 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 <4H 
 
 ;-. 
 
 
 U 
 (U 
 i/l 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 * 
 
 ■x- 
 
 c 
 <u 
 m 
 
 D 
 
 C 
 (U 
 
 -% 
 
 Pi 
 
 .a 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 
 •X- 
 
 * 
 
 a 
 
 13 
 
 M 
 
 in 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 *1 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 •X- 
 
 •X- 
 
 * 
 
 ■X- 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 Neither hemp, oats, nor rye have yet been found. 
 Small pieces of twine and bits of matting made of flax 
 may have been part of some article of clothing. For 
 ' Only one ear, subsequently lost.
 
 HUMAN REMAINS 219 
 
 this purpose also there can be little doubt that the skins 
 of animals were used. Fragments of leather have been 
 met with, and some of the stone implements seem well 
 adapted to assist in their preparation, while the bone pins, 
 and needles made from the teeth of boars, may have 
 served to fasten them together. 
 
 Dr Heer, from whose very interesting memoir^ the 
 above facts are borrowed, calls particular attention to the 
 fact that, while the remains of wild species found in the 
 Pfahlbauten agree in the most minute particulars with 
 those still living in Switzerland, the cultivated plants, on 
 the contrary, differ from all existing varieties, and in- 
 variably have smaller seeds or fruits. Man has evidently 
 in the course of time effected considerable improvements. 
 It is also very interesting to observe how the evidence 
 derived from the Swiss lake-dwellings agrees with that 
 contained in the most ancient writings which we possess. 
 Thus flax is mentioned in the Pentateuch and in Homer ; 
 it was also largely used by the ancient Egyptians, while 
 hemp seems to have been unknown until a later period. 
 So also wheat and barley, but neither oats nor rye,^ are 
 mentioned in Exodus or by Homer. Even in the time 
 of David, when Barzillai the Gileadite ^ " brought beds, 
 and basins, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and 
 flour, and parched corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched 
 pulse, and honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of 
 kine," it will be observed that neither oats nor rye are 
 mentioned. Flax also is alluded to nine times in the Old 
 Testament, and linen thirteen times, but hemp not once. 
 
 To what race of men the Swiss lake-dwellings are 
 ascribable we have as yet no direct evidence. Human 
 bones are very rare in the pile-works, and may probably 
 be referred to accidents, especially as we find that those 
 of children are most numerous. M. Desor, indeed, states 
 that not a single human skeleton has yet been found in 
 
 ' Die Pflafizen der Pfahlbautc7i. 
 
 ' According to the best Hebrew scholars, the word translated "rye" 
 in Exodus ix. 32 really means " spelt." 
 •* 2 Sam. xvii. 28.
 
 220 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 any of the stations belonging to the Stone Age ; and 
 Dr Keller, in his fifth report, informs us that all the 
 lake-villages taken together have not yet produced more 
 than half a dozen. One mature skull from Meilen has 
 been described by Professor His, who considers that it 
 does not differ much from the present Swiss type. 
 While his work was in the press. Professor Riltimeyer 
 received from Colonel Schwab four more skulls, two of 
 which were obtained at Nidau, one at Sutz, and one at 
 Biel. Another skull shown to me by Professor Desor, 
 and found at Auvernier, completes the number mentioned 
 by Dr Keller. All these settlements, however, appear to 
 have belonged to the Bronze Age, nor has it yet been 
 possible certainly to refer any of the ancient tumuli found 
 in Switzerland to the earlier period. 
 
 Passing now to the lake-habitations belonging to the 
 Bronze Ai^e, we find that they are less generally distributed 
 than those of the earlier period. They have as yet been 
 found principally on the Lakes of Geneva, Luissel, Neuf- 
 chatel, Morat, Bienne, and Sempach ; scarcely any in 
 eastern Switzerland. One settlement of the Bronze Age 
 has been found on the Lake of Constance ; but as the 
 question now stands, pile-works of the Metallic Period 
 are almost peculiar to western and central Switzerland. 
 The constructions of the Bronze Age are more solidly 
 built, but do not otherwise appear to have differed 
 materially from those of the Stone Age. They are often, 
 however, situated farther from the land and in deeper 
 water, partly no doubt on account of the greater skill in 
 working timber, but partly also, perhaps, because more 
 protection was needed as the means of attack were im- 
 proved. The principal objects of bronze are swords, 
 daggers, axes, spear-heads, knives, fish-hooks, sickles, 
 pins, rings, and bracelets. The number of these articles 
 which have been discovered is already very great, the 
 collection of Colonel Schwab alone containing no less 
 than 4346 objects of metal. They are classified in the 
 table in p. 16, which gives an idea of the relative 
 proportions in which they occur.
 
 LAKE WORSHIP 221 
 
 Many of them are really beautiful, and as bronze must 
 have been at that early period of considerable value, it is 
 difficult to understand how so many can have been left 
 uncared for and forgotten, along the shallow margins of 
 the Swiss lakes. " II est evident," says Professor Desor, 
 " que ce ne sont pas de rebuts qui se seraient perdus, 
 sans qu'on s'en inquietat. lis ne sont pas tombes a I'eau 
 par hasard, non plus que cette quantite de vases qui sont 
 accumules sur certain points, ni les jattes a provisions 
 qu'on retire intactes." On the whole he is inclined to 
 think that in some of these cases at least we have " de 
 simples magasins destines aux ustensiles et aux provisions, 
 et qui auraient ete detruits par I'incendie, comme semble 
 I'indiquer la trace du feu que montrent frequemment les 
 poutres aussi bien que les vases en terre. On expliquerait 
 ainsi comment il se fait que les objets en bronze sont 
 presque tous neufs, que les vases sont entiers et reunis 
 sur un seul point." Colonel Schwab, however, than 
 whom no man has had more experience in such matters, 
 while agreeing that comparatively little is ever found 
 except in such lake-villages as show traces of fire, expresses 
 himself decidedly, and I think with reason, against the 
 " bazaar " theory. 
 
 It has been suggested that the early inhabitants of 
 Switzerland may have worshipped the lakes, and that the 
 beautiful bracelets, etc., may have been offerings to the 
 gods. It appears from ancient writers that among the 
 Gauls, Germans, and other nations, many lakes were 
 regarded as sacred. According to Cicero,^ Justin,^ and 
 Strabo,^ there was a lake near Toulouse in which the 
 neighbouring tribes used to deposit offerings of gold and 
 silver. Tacitus, Pliny, and Virgil also mention the 
 existence of sacred lakes. Even so late as the sixth 
 century, Gregory of Tours tells us (De Glor. Confes.^ 
 chap, ii.) that on Mount Helanus there was a lake which 
 was the object of popular worship. Every year the 
 inhabitants of the neighbourhood brought to it offerings 
 of clothes, skins, cheese, cakes, etc. Traces of a similar 
 
 ^ De Nat. Dcor., lib. iii. xxx. - Just.., xxxii. iii. ■* Geog.., vol. iv.
 
 222 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 superstition may still be found lingering in the remote 
 parts of Scotland and Ireland ; in the former country I 
 have myself seen a sacred spring surrounded by the 
 offerings of the neighbouring peasantry, who seemed to 
 consider pence and halfpence as the most appropriate and 
 agreeable sacrifice to the Spirit of the Waters, Neither 
 the coarse, broken pottery, the castaway fragments of 
 bones, nor the traces of habitations, can, however, be 
 accounted for in this manner.^ 
 
 The pottery of the Bronze Period is more varied and 
 more skilfully made than that of the Stone Age, but the 
 potter's wheel does not seem to have been in use. Rings 
 of earthenware are common, and appear to have been 
 used as supports for the round-bottomed vases. The 
 ornaments are of the same general character as those on 
 the objects of bronze. Many of the large urns appear 
 to have been used as store-places for the grain, etc., 
 which was collected during the summer for winter's use. 
 In the absence, perhaps, of boxes and cupboards, even 
 ornaments and instruments seem to have been kept in 
 large jars. Some beautiful bracelets were found with 
 several sickles in a jar at Cortaillod. Pieces of pottery, 
 distorted by fire, during the process of baking, have, 
 according to M. Troyon, been found in many of the 
 lake-villages ; whence he concludes that the pottery was 
 manufactured on the spot. 
 
 Colonel Schwab has found at Nidau more than twenty 
 crescents made of earthenware, with the convex side 
 flattened, to serve as a foot. They are compressed at 
 the sides, sometimes plain, sometimes ornamented, from 
 lo to 12 inches wide, and 6 to 8 in height. Dr Keller 
 was at first inclined to regard them as emblems of moon 
 worship, but it is more probable that they were pillows.^ 
 Though this seems at first very unlikely, and they must, 
 one would think, have been very uncomfortable, still we 
 know that several barbarous races at the present day use 
 
 ' See also Wylie, " On Lake-dwellings of the Early Periods," ArchcroL, 
 vol. xxxviii. p. i8i. 
 
 ^ Vogt's Lectures on Ma/i, p. 368.
 
 INHABITANTS OF LAKE-VILLAGES 223 
 
 wooden pillows or neck-rests of the same kind, as, for 
 instance, the Fijians> who, having enormous heads of 
 hair, sacrifice comfort to vanity, and use a mere wooden 
 bar as a pillow. The very long bronze pins found with 
 these " crescents " indicate that during the Bronze Age 
 the hair was worn very long and was carefully arranged. 
 
 M. Troyon is of opinion that the inhabitants of 
 Switzerland during the Bronze Age were of a different 
 race from those who had lived there during the earlier 
 period, and he agrees with some of the Scandinavian 
 archaeologists in regarding them as the true " Celts," and 
 in attributing to them the habit of burning their dead. 
 It would be very desirable to have some statistics, in 
 order that we might appreciate the value of the evidence 
 to be derived from the ancient Swiss burials. M. Troyon 
 relies on the fact that many of the lake-villages were 
 destroyed by fire, and that when, as appears to have been 
 the case at several places, they were rebuilt during the 
 Bronze Age, this was done, not exactly on the same spot, 
 but farther away from the bank. Dr Keller, on the other 
 hand, considers that the primitive population did not 
 differ, either in disposition (^Anlage)^ mode of life, or 
 industry, from that which was acquainted with the use of 
 bronze ; and that the whole phenomena of the lake- 
 villages, from their commencement to their conclusion, 
 indicate clearly a gradual and peaceable development. 
 The number of instances in which lake-villages had 
 been destroyed by fire has been, he considers, exaggerated. 
 Of the settlements on the Lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel, 
 amounting in all to more than seventy, only a quarter 
 have, according to Colonel Schwab, shown any traces of 
 combustion ; a proportion which is, perhaps, not greater 
 than might have been expected, remembering that the 
 huts were built of wood, and in all probability covered 
 by thatch. Moreover, if these conflagrations had resulted 
 from the attacks of enemies, we ought surely to have 
 found numerous remains of the slain, whereas all the 
 lake-villages together have not as yet supplied us with 
 the remains of more than half a dozen human skeletons.
 
 224 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 It must, I think, be confessed that the arguments used 
 by M, Troyon fail to prove that the introduction of 
 bronze was accompanied by an entire change of population. 
 However this may be, I have in a previous chapter 
 (ch. iii.) given my reasons for believing that the use of 
 bronze in Europe was introciuced by a race coming from 
 the East. 
 
 Towards the close of the Bronze Age the lake-villages 
 appear to have gradually become less numerous. During 
 the Stone Age they were spread over the whole country. 
 Bronze Age settlements are very rare in the east of 
 Switzerland, and the Iron Age is represented only on the 
 Lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel. In these settlements 
 not only has a new substance made its appearance, but 
 the forms of the implements are different. We have, 
 indeed, copies of the bronze axes made in iron, just as 
 we found before that some of the earlier bronze celts 
 resembled the stone axes in form ; but these are excep- 
 tional cases. The swords have larger handles, and are 
 more richly ornamented ; the knives have straight edges ; 
 the sickles are larger ; the pottery is more skilfully made, 
 and is of the kind generally known as Roman ; coins 
 occur, the personal ornaments are more varied, and glass 
 for the first time makes its appearance. Bronze also is 
 present ; but in the first place it is no longer used for 
 weapons, and in the second it is worked in a different 
 manner, being hammered,^ while, as already mentioned, 
 all the objects of the Bronze Age are cast. 
 
 A field of battle at Tiefenau, near Berne (see p. lo), is 
 remarkable for the great number of iron weapons and 
 implements which have been found on it. Pieces of 
 chariots, about a hundred swords, fragments of coat of 
 mail, lance-heads, rings, fibulae, ornaments, utensils, 
 pieces of pottery and of glass, accompanied by more than 
 thirty Gaulish and Massaliote coins of a date anterior to 
 our era, enable us to refer this battle-field to the Roman 
 period. About forty Roman coins have also been found 
 at the small island on the Lake of Bienne. 
 
 ^ See Desor, Lcs Constructions lacustres du Lac dc Neitc/uitel, p. 27.
 
 ANTIQUITY OF LAKE-VILLAGES 225 
 
 After this period we find no more evidences of lake- 
 habitations on a large scale. Here and there, indeed, a 
 few fishermen may have lingered on the half-destroyed 
 platforms, but the wants and habits of the people had 
 changed, and the age of the Swiss pile-works was at an 
 end. 
 
 We have, however, traced them through the Ages of 
 Stone and Bronze down to the beginning of the Iron 
 Period. We have seen evidences of a gradual progress 
 in civilization, and improvement in the arts, an increase in 
 the number of domestic animals, and proofs at last of the 
 existence of an extended commerce. We found the 
 country inhabited only by rude savages, and we leave it 
 the seat of a powerful nation. Changes so important as 
 these are not effected in a day ; the progress of the 
 human mind is but slow ; and the gradual additions to 
 human knowledge and power, like the rings in trees, 
 enable us to form some idea how distant must be the 
 date of their commencement. So varied, however, are 
 the conditions of the human mind, so much are all 
 nations affected by the influence of others, that when we 
 attempt to express our impressions, so to say, in terms of 
 years, we are baffled by the complexity of the problem. 
 
 Some attempts have, indeed, been made to obtain a 
 more definite chronology, and they have been alluded to 
 in an earlier chapter. Though we must not conceal from 
 ourselves the imperfection of the archaeological record, 
 still we need not despair of eventually obtaining some 
 approximate chronology. Our knowledge of primitive 
 antiquity has made an enormous stride in the last ten 
 years, and we may fairly look forward with hope to the 
 future. 
 
 The Swiss archaeologists are continuing their labours, 
 and they may rest assured that we in England watch with 
 interest the result of their investigations. Few things, 
 indeed, can be more interesting than the spectacle of an 
 ancient and long-forgotten people thus rising, as it were, 
 from the waters of oblivion, to take that place which 
 properly belongs to it in the history of the human race. 
 
 15
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE DANISH KJOKKENMODDINGS OR SHELL-MOUNDS 
 
 Denmark occupies a larger space in the history than on 
 the map of Europe ; the nation is greater than the 
 country. With the growth of physical power in sur- 
 rounding populations, she has lost much of her influence 
 in political councils, and has been recently deprived of a 
 great part of her ancient possessions ; but the Danes of 
 to-day are no unworthy representatives of their ancestors. 
 Many a larger nation might envy them the position they 
 hold in science and art, and few have contributed more 
 to the progress of human knowledge. Copenhagen may 
 well be proud both of her museums and of her professors, 
 and I would especially point to the celebrated Museum 
 of Northern Antiquities, as being most characteristic and 
 unique. 
 
 For the formation of such a collection Denmark offers 
 great opportunities. The whole country appears to have 
 been, at one time, thickly studded with tumuli ; where 
 the land has not been brought into cultivation, many of 
 them are often in sight at once, and even in the more 
 fertile and thickly populated parts, the plough is often 
 diverted from its course by one of these ancient burial- 
 places. Fortunately, the stones of which they are con- 
 structed are so large and so hard, that their destruction 
 and removal is a laborious and expensive undertaking. 
 While, however, on the one hand, land grows gradually 
 more valuable, and the stones themselves are more and 
 more coveted for building or other purposes, on the 
 other, the conservative traditions, the feeling of super- 
 stitious reverence for the dead, which have so long 
 
 226
 
 TUMULI AND KJOKKENMODDINGS 227 
 
 protected them from desecration, is gradually becoming 
 weaker ; and it is estimated that not a day passes without 
 witnessing the destruction of one or more of these tumuli, 
 and the loss of some, perhaps almost irrecoverable, link 
 in the history of the human race. 
 
 Many of these barrows, indeed, contain in themselves 
 a small collection of antiquities, and the whole country 
 may even be considered as a museum on a great scale. 
 The peat bogs, which occupy so large an area, may almost 
 be said to swarm with antiquities, and Professor Steen- 
 strup estimates that, on an average, every column of peat 
 three feet square contains some specimen of ancient work- 
 manship. All these advantages and opportunities, how- 
 ever, might have been thrown away but for the genius 
 and perseverance of Professor Thomsen, who may fairly 
 be said to have created the Museum over which he so 
 long and so worthily presided. 
 
 In addition to the objects collected from the tumuli 
 and the peat bogs, and to those which have been found 
 from time to time scattered at random in the soil, the 
 Museum of Northern Antiquities contains an immense 
 collection of specimens from some very interesting shell- 
 mounds, which are known in Denmark under the name 
 of " Kjokkenmoddings," anci were long supposed to be 
 raised beaches, like those which are found at so many 
 points along our own shores. True raised beaches, 
 however, necessarily contain a variety of species ; the 
 individuals are of different ages, and the shells are, of 
 course, mixed with a considerable quantity of sand and 
 gravel. But it was observed, in the first instance, I 
 believe, by Professor Steenstrup, that in these supposed 
 beaches, the shells belonged entirely to full-grown, or 
 to nearly full-grown individuals ; that they consisted 
 of four species which do not live together, nor require 
 the same conditions, and would not, therefore, be found 
 together alone in a natural deposit ; and, thirdly, that 
 the stratum contained scarcely any gravel, but consisted 
 almost entirely of shells. 
 
 The discovery of rude flint implements, and of bones
 
 228 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 still bearing the marks of knives, confirmed the supposi- 
 tion that these beds were not natural formations, and it 
 subsequently became evident that they were, in fact, the 
 sites of ancient villages ; the primitive population having 
 lived on the shore and fed principally on shell-fish, but 
 partly also on the proceeds of the chase. In many places 
 hearths were discovered consisting of flat stones, arranged 
 in such a manner as to form small platforms, and bearing 
 all the marks of fire. The shells and bones not available 
 for food gradually accumulated round the tents and huts, 
 until they formed deposits generally from 3 to 5 feet, but 
 sometimes as much as 10 feet in thickness, and in some 
 cases more than 300 yards in length, with a breadth of from 
 100 to 200 feet. The name Kjokkenmodding, applied to 
 these mounds, is derived from Kjokken^ " kitchen," and 
 modding (corresponding to our local word " midding "), a 
 " refuse heap," and it was, of course, evident that a careful 
 examination of these accumulations would throw much 
 light on the manners and civilization of the then population. 
 
 Under these circumstances a Committee was formed, 
 consisting of Professor Steenstrup, the celebrated author 
 of the treatise On the Alternation of Generations^ Professor 
 Forchhammer, the father of Danish geology, and Pro- 
 fessor Worsaae, the well-known archaeologist ; a happy 
 combination, promisingthe best results to biology, geology, 
 and archaeology. Much was naturally expected from 
 the labours of such a triumvirate, and the most sanguine 
 hopes have been fulfilled. More than fifty of the deposits 
 have been carefully examined, many thousand specimens 
 have been collected, ticketed, and deposited in the 
 Museum at Copenhagen, and the general results have 
 been embodied in six Reports, presented to the Academy 
 of Sciences at Copenhagen.^ 
 
 It is from these Reports, and from the excellent 
 Memoir by M. Morlot, that the following information 
 has principally been derived. Being, however, anxious to 
 
 1 Untersbgelscr i gcoloi!;isk-antiqicarisk Reinittg, af G. Forchhammer, 
 J. Steenstrup, og J. Worsaae. M. Morlot also has published an excellent 
 abstract of the Reports in the Mhn. de la Socictc Vaudoise^ t. vi., i860.
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SHELL-MOUNDS 229 
 
 present to my readers a complete and accurate account 
 of the interesting shell-mounds, 1 have more than once 
 visited Denmark ; first in 1861, with Professor Busk, 
 and again in the summer of 1863. On both these 
 occasions, through the kindness of Professor Thomsen 
 and Herr K. Herbst, every facility has been afforded me 
 of examining the large collections made in different 
 Kjokkenmoddings, in addition to which I had the great 
 advantage of visiting several of the shell-mounds under 
 the guidance of Professor Steenstrup himself — especially 
 one at Havelse in 1861, and those at Meilgaard and 
 Fanner up in 1863. 
 
 Mr Busk and I also visited by ourselves one at Bilidt, 
 on the Isefjord, close to Fredericksund ; but this is one 
 of the places at which it would seem that the inhabitants 
 cooked their dinners actually on the shore itself, so that 
 the shells and bones are much mixed up with sand and 
 gravel ; and we were not very successful in our search for 
 flint implements. At Havelse, on the contrary, the 
 settlement was on rather higher ground, and, though 
 close to the shore, beyond the reach of the waves ; the 
 shells and bones are, therefore, almost unmixed with 
 extraneous substances. At this place the Kjokken- 
 modding is of small extent, and is in the form of an 
 irregular ring, enclosing a space on which the ancient 
 dwelling or dwellings probably stood. In other cases, 
 where the deposit is of greater extent, as, for instance, in 
 the celebrated shell-mound at Meilgaard, the surface is 
 undulating, the greater thickness of the shelly stratum in 
 some places apparently indicating the arrangement of the 
 dwellings. When the shell-mound at Havelse was 
 previously visited by Professor Steenstrup, the shells 
 were being removed to serve as manure, and the mound, 
 presenting a perpendicular section, was in a very favour- 
 able condition for examination. The small pits thus 
 formed had, however, been filled in, so that we were 
 obliged to make a fresh excavation. In two or three hours 
 we obtained about a hundred fragments of bone, many 
 rude flakes, slingstones, and flint fragments, together with
 
 230 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 nine rude axes of the ordinary " shell-mound " type (figs. 
 Ii7-ii9)._ 
 
 Our visit to Meilgaard in 1863 was even more success- 
 ful. This, which is one of the largest and most interesting 
 shell-mounds hitherto discovered, is situated not far from 
 the sea-coast, near Grenaa in North-East Jutland, in a 
 beautiful beech-forest called " Aigt," or " Aglskov," on 
 the property of M. Olsen, who, with a praiseworthy 
 devotion to science, has given orders that the Kjokken- 
 modding should not be destroyed, although the materials 
 of which it consists are well adapted for the improvement 
 of the soil, and for other purposes, to which, indeed, they 
 had already been in part applied before the true nature 
 of the deposit was discovered. Arriving at his house, 
 without invitation or notice, we were received by M. 
 Olsen and his family with kindness and hospitality. 
 M. Olsen immediately sent two workmen to clear away 
 the rubbish which had fallen in since the last archaeo- 
 logical visit, so that when we reached the spot we found a 
 fresh wall of the shell-mound ready for examination. In 
 the middle, this Kjokkenmodding has a thickness of 
 about ten feet, from which, however, it slopes away in 
 all directions ; round the principal mound are several 
 smaller ones, of the same nature. Over the shells a thin 
 layer of mould has formed itself, on which trees grow. 
 A good section of such a Kjokkenmodding can hardly 
 fail to strike with astonishment anyone who sees it for 
 the first time, and it is difficult to convey in words an 
 exact idea of the appearance which it presents. The 
 whole thickness consists of shells, oysters being at 
 Meilgaard by far the most numerous, with here and there 
 a few bones, and still more rarely stone implements or 
 fragments of pottery. Excepting just at the top and 
 bottom, the mass is quite unmixed with sand and gravel ; 
 and, in fact, contains nothing but what has been in some 
 way or other subservient to the use of man. The only 
 exceptions which I could see were a few, very few, rough 
 flint pebbles, which were probably dredged up with the 
 oysters. While we were in this neighbourhood, we
 
 SHELL-MOUNDS IN SCOTLAND 231 
 
 visited another Kjokkenmodding at Fannerup on the 
 Kolindsund, which was even in historical times an arm of 
 the sea, but is now a fresh-water lake. Other 
 similar deposits have been discovered at various 
 points along the Danish coast. Generally it is 
 evident that deposits of this nature were scattered 
 here and there over the whole shore, but that 
 they were never formed inland. The whole 
 country was more intersected by fjords during 
 the Stone Period even than it is now. Under 
 these circumstances it is evident that a nation 
 which subsisted principally on marine mollusca 
 would never form any large inland settlements. 
 In some instances, indeed, Kjokkenmoddings 
 have been found as far as eight miles from the 
 present coast, but in these cases there is good 
 reason for supposing that the land has encroached 
 on the sea. On the other hand, in those parts 
 where Kjokkenmoddings do not occur, their 
 absence is no doubt occasioned by the waves 
 having to a certain extent eaten away the shore ; 
 an explanation which accounts for their being 
 so much more frequent on the borders of the 
 inland fjords than on the coast itself ; and which 
 seems to deprive us of all hope of finding any 
 similar remains on our eastern and south-eastern 
 shores. Shell-mounds, although probably be- 
 longing to a later date, have, however, actually 
 been found on our coasts. They were observed 
 by Dr Gordon, of Birnie, on the shores of the 
 Moray Firth. I have had the advantage of ^ig. 194.— 
 visiting these shell-mounds with him. The Bronze 
 largest of the Scotch Kjokkenmoddings is on luaiske." 
 Loch Spynie. We did not find any imple- 
 ments or pottery in it, although we searched for several 
 hours ; but a labourer, who had been employed in carting 
 it away for manure, had previously found some frag- 
 ments of rude pottery and a bronze pin (fig. 194). 
 Loch Spynie has been partially drained, anci is shut out
 
 232 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 from the sea by a great accumulation of shingle, so that 
 the water is now perfectly fresh. From ancient records 
 it appears that the shingle barrier was probably completed 
 and the lake shut out from the sea in the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries. On the other hand, I have sub- 
 mitted the bronze pin figured here to Mr Franks, who 
 gives it as his opinion that it is probably not older than 
 800 or 900 A.D. If, therefore, it really belongs to the 
 shell-mound, and there seems no reason to doubt the 
 statement of the man who found it, we thus get an 
 approximate date for the accumulation of the mound 
 itself. Mr Pengelly and Mr Spence Bate have recently 
 described some shell-mounds in Cornwall and Devon- 
 shire, and similar shell-mounds have also been found 
 at various places on the Irish coast. At St Valery, 
 close to the mouth of the Somme, Sir John Evans, 
 Mr Prestwich, and I found a large accumulation of 
 shells, from which I obtained several flint flakes, and 
 some pieces of rude pottery. Similar remains have 
 been observed in various parts of the world, as, for 
 instance, in Australia by Dampier,-^ in Tierra del Fuego 
 by Mr Darwin,^ in the Malay Peninsula by Mr Earle,^ 
 in the Andaman Islands by Dr Stolickza,* in Japan,^ in 
 both North ^ and South America,'^ in Tasmania, and in 
 South Africa. 
 
 The fact that the majority of the Danish shell-mounds 
 are found at a height of only a few feet above the sea 
 appears to prove that there has been no considerable 
 subsidence of the land since their formation, while, on 
 the other hand, it clearly shows that there can have been 
 no elevation. In certain cases, however, where the shore 
 is steep, they have been found at a considerable height. 
 It might indeed be supposed that where, as at Bilidt, the 
 
 ' Pinkerton's Travels^ vol. ii. p. 473. - Journal, p. 234. 
 
 ^ Ethnological Soc. Trans., New Series, vol. ii. p. 119. 
 
 * Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, Jan. 1870. 
 
 ^ Morse, ATem. of Univ. of Tokio, vol. i. 
 
 ^ H. Wyman, The American Naturalist, vol. ii., Nos. 8, 9, and il ; 
 Foster, Prehistoric Races of the Uftited States, p. 1 56. 
 
 "^ Brett's Indian Tribes of Guiana ; Pi.gsi5s\z, Journey in Brazil.
 
 FAUNA IN THE SHELL-MOUNDS 233 
 
 materials of the Kj5k:kenm5dding were rudely inter- 
 stratified with sand and gravel, the land must have sunk ; 
 but if for any length of time such a deposit was subjected 
 to the action of the waves, all traces of it would be 
 obliterated, and it is, therefore, probable that an explana- 
 tion is rather to be found in the fact that the action of 
 waves and storms may have been greater at that time 
 than it is now. At present the tides only affect the 
 Kattegat to the extent of about a foot and a half, and the 
 configuration of the land protects it very much from the 
 action of the winds. On the other hand, the tides on the 
 west coast of Jutland rise about nine feet, and the winds 
 have been known to produce differences of level amounting 
 to twenty-nine feet ; and as we know that Jutland was 
 anciently an archipelago, and the Baltic was more open to 
 the German Ocean than it is now, we can easily under- 
 stand that the fluctuations of level may have been greater, 
 and we can thus explain how the waves may have risen 
 over the Kjokkenmodding at Bilidt (which is after all not 
 much more than ten feet above the water), without 
 resorting to the hypothesis of a subsidence and subsequent 
 elevation of the coast. 
 
 In the lake-habitations of the Stone Age in Switzerland, 
 grains of wheat and barley, and even pieces of bread, or 
 rather biscuit, have been found. It does not, however, 
 appear that the men of the Kjokkenmoddings had any 
 knowledge of agriculture, no traces of grain of any sort 
 having been hitherto discovered. The only vegetable 
 remains found in them have been burnt pieces of wood, 
 and some charred substance, referred by M. Forchhammer 
 to the Zostera marina^ a sea-plant, which was, perhaps, used 
 in the production of salt. 
 
 The four species which are the most abundant in the 
 shell-mounds are : — 
 
 The oyster {Ostrea edulis, L.), 
 The cockle {Cardium edule^ L.), 
 The mussel {Mytilus edulis^ L.), and 
 The periwinkle {^Littorina littorea^ L.),
 
 234 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 all four of which are still used as food for man. Other 
 species occur more rarely, namely, — 
 
 Nassa reticulata^ L. 
 Buccinum undatum^ L. 
 J^enus pullastra^ Mont. 
 Helix nemoralis^ Mall. 
 Venus aurea^ Gm. 
 Trigonella plana^ Da. C. 
 Littorina ohtusata^ L. 
 Helix strigella^ Mall., and 
 Carocolla lapicida^ L. 
 
 It is remarkable that the specimens of the first seven 
 species are well developed, and decidedly larger than any 
 now found in the neighbourhood. This is especially the 
 case with the Cardium edule and Littorina littorea^ while 
 the oyster has entirely disappeared, and even in the 
 Kattegat itself occurs only in a few places ; a result which 
 may, perhaps, be partly owing to the quantities caught 
 by fishermen. Some oysters were, however, still living 
 in the Isefjord at the beginning of this century, and their 
 destruction cannot be altogether ascribed to the fishermen, 
 as great numbers of dead shells are still present ; but in 
 this case it is attributed to the abundance of starfishes, 
 which are very destructive to oysters. On the whole, 
 their disappearance, especially when taken in connection 
 with the dwarf size of the other species, is evidently 
 attributable in a great measure to the smaller proportion 
 of salt in the water. 
 
 Of Crustacea, only a few fragments of crabs have 
 hitherto been found. The remains of vertebrata are very 
 numerous and extremely interesting. In order to form 
 an idea of the number of bones, and of the relative pro- 
 portions belonging to different animals. Professor Steen- 
 strup dug out from three different parts of the shell-mound 
 at Havelse, square pillars with sides three feet in length, 
 and carefully collected the bones therein contained. In 
 the first pillar he found 175 bones of mammals and 35 
 of birds ; in the second pillar he found 121 of mammals
 
 MAMMALS, BIRDS, FISHES 235 
 
 and 9 of birds ; in the third, 309 of mammals and 10 of 
 birds. The pillars, however, were not exactly comparable, 
 because their cubic contents depended on the thickness 
 of the shell-mound at the place where they were taken, 
 and varied between 17 and 20 cubic feet. On the whole, 
 Professor Steenstrup estimates that there were from 10 
 to 12 bones in each cubic foot. It will be seen, there- 
 fore, that the number of bones is very great. Indeed, 
 from the mound at Havelse alone the Committee obtained 
 in one summer 3500 bones of mammals and more than 
 200 of birds, besides many hundred of fishes, which latter, 
 indeed, are almost innumerable. The most common 
 species are — 
 
 Clupea harengus^ L. (the herring), 
 Gadus callarias^ L. (the dorse), 
 Pleuronectes limanda^ L. (the dab), and 
 Murcena anguilla^ L. (the eel). 
 
 The remains of birds are highly interesting and 
 instructive. The domestic fowl {Gallus domes ticus) is 
 entirely absent. The two domestic swallows of Denmark 
 {Hirundo rustica and H. urbkci)^ the sparrow, and the stork, 
 are also missing. On the other hand, fine specimens of 
 the capercailzie {Tetrao urogallus)^ which feeds principally 
 on the buds of the pine, show that, as we know already 
 from the remains found in the peat, the country was at 
 one time covered with pine forests. Aquatic birds, how- 
 ever, are the most frequent, especially several species of 
 ducks and geese. The wild swan {Cygnus mmicus)^ which 
 only visits Denmark in winter, is also frequently found ; 
 but perhaps the most interesting of the birds whose 
 remains have been identified, is the Great Auk (^Alca 
 impenniSy L.), a species which is now almost, if not 
 altogether, extinct. 
 
 Of mammalia, by far the most common are — 
 
 The stag {Cervus elephus^ L.), 
 
 The roe-deer {Cervus capreolus^ L.), and 
 
 The wild boar {^^us scrofa^ L,).
 
 236 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Indeed, Professor Steenstrup estimates that these three 
 species form ninety-seven per cent, of the whole ; the 
 others are — 
 
 The urus (Bos urus^ L.) 
 
 The dog [Canis familiaris^ L.) 
 
 The fox {Cams vulpes^ L.) 
 
 The wolf {Canis lupus^ L.) 
 
 The marten {Maries sp.) 
 
 The otter {hutra vulgaris^ Exl.) 
 
 The porpoise {Delphinus phoc^ena^ L.) 
 
 The seal {Phoca sp.) 
 
 The water-rat {Hypudaus amphibius^ L., and 
 
 Hypudaus agrestis^ L.) 
 The beaver {Castor fiber., L.) 
 The lynx {felis lynx., L.) 
 The wild cat {Felis catus., L.) 
 The hedgehog {Erinaceus europaus., L.) 
 The bear {Ursus arctos^ L.) 
 The mouse {Mus flavicollis^ Mel.). 
 
 There are also traces of a smaller species of ox. The 
 Lithuanian aurochs {Bison europceus) has been found, 
 though rarely, in the peat bogs, but not yet in the 
 Kjokkenmoddings. The musk ox {Ov'ibus moscluitus) 
 and the domestic ox {Bos taurus)^ as well as the reindeer, 
 the elk, the hare, the sheep, and the domestic hog, are 
 all absent.^ 
 
 Professor Steenstrup does not agree with Professor 
 Riltimeyer that the domestic hog of ancient Europe was 
 directly derived from the wild boar, but rather that it 
 was introduced from the east ; and the skulls which he 
 showed me in support of this belief certainly exhibited 
 very great differences between the two races. The sheep, 
 the horse, and the reindeer are entirely absent ; the 
 domestic cat was not known in Europe until about the 
 
 ' It is a curious fact that, as Professor Steenstrup informs me, the bones 
 from the Kjokkenmoddings of Jutland indicate, as a general rule, larger 
 and more powerful animals than those of the islands.
 
 PREVALENCE OF CERTAIN BONES 237 
 
 ninth century ; and the bones of the urus are probably 
 those of wild specimens ; so that the dog ^ appears to have 
 been the only domestic animal of the period ; and though 
 it may fairly be asked whether the bones may not have 
 belonged to a race of wild dogs, the question admits of 
 a satisfactory answer. 
 
 Among the remains of birds, the long bones, which 
 form about one-fifth of the skeleton, are, in the Kjokken- 
 moddings, about twenty times as numerous as the others, 
 and are almost always imperfect, the shaft only remaining. 
 In the same manner it would be impossible to reconstruct 
 a perfect skeleton of the quadrupeds, certain bones and 
 parts of bones being always absent. In the case of the 
 ox, for instance, the missing parts are the heads of the 
 long bones (though while the shaft only of the femur is 
 found, in the humerus one end is generally perfect), the 
 backbone except the first two vertebrae, the spinous 
 processes, and often the ribs, and the bones of the skull 
 except the lower jaw and the portion round the eyes. It 
 occurred to Professor Steenstrup that these curious results 
 might, perhaps, be referred to dogs ; and, on trying the 
 experiment, he ascertained that the bones which are 
 absent from the Kjokkenmoddings are precisely those 
 which dogs eat, and those which are present are the parts 
 which are hard and solid and do not contain much 
 nourishment. Professor Steenstrup has since published 
 a diagram of a skeleton, tinted in such a manner as to 
 show at a glance which of the bones occur in the Kjok- 
 kenmoddings, and points out that it coincides exactly 
 with one given by M. Flourens to illustrate those portions 
 of the skeleton which are first formed. Although a 
 glance at the longitudinal section of a long bone, as, for 
 instance, of a femur, and a comparison of the open 
 cancellated tissue of the two ends with the solid, close 
 texture of the shaft, at once justifies and accounts for 
 the selection made by the dogs, it is interesting thus to 
 
 ^ From the marks of knives on the bones, it seems evident that 
 the dog was then, as it is still among several savage tribes, an article 
 of food.
 
 238 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ascertain that their predilections were the same in 
 primasval times as at present. Moreover, we may in 
 this manner explain the prevalence of some bones in 
 fossil strata. I have already mentioned that of the skull ; 
 the hard parts round the eye and the lower jaw are the 
 only parts left ; now the preponderance of lower jaws 
 in a fossil state is well known. 
 
 Dr Falconer indeed has pointed out " that in the 
 smaller mammalia, unless the bone be complete, and 
 supposing it to be a long bone, with both its articular 
 surfaces perfect, it is almost hopeless, or, at any rate, very 
 discouraging, to attempt to make out the creature that 
 yielded it ; whereas the smallest fragment of a jaw, with 
 a minute tooth in it, speaks volumes of evidence at the 
 first glance." " This," he suggests, " is one great reason 
 why we hear so much of jaw remains, and so little of 
 other bones." No doubt it is so ; but these observa- 
 tions, made by Professor Steenstrup, afford a further 
 explanation of the fact, and it is to be regretted that 
 the parts of the long bones which are most important 
 to the palaeontologist are also those which are preferred 
 by beasts of prey. 
 
 In every case the bones which contained marrow are 
 split open in the manner best adapted for its extraction ; 
 this peculiarity, which is in itself satisfactory proof of the 
 presence of man, has not yet been observed in bones 
 from the true tertiary strata. 
 
 The Kjokkenmoddings were not mere summer 
 quarters ; the ancient fishermen resided on these spots 
 for at least two-thirds, if not the whole of the year. 
 This we learn from an examination of the bones of the 
 wild animals, as it is often possible to determine, within 
 very narrow limits, the time of year at which they are 
 killed. For instance, the remains of the wild swan 
 {Cygnus muskus) are very common, and this bird is only 
 a winter visitor, leaving the Danish coast in March, and 
 returning in November. It might naturally have been 
 hoped that the remains of young birds would have 
 supplied evidence as to the spring and early summer, but
 
 HABITS OF MOUND-BUILDERS 
 
 239 
 
 unfortunately, as has been already explained, no such 
 bones are to be found. It is therefore fortunate that 
 among the mammalia two periodical phenomena occur ; 
 namely, the shedding and reproduction of stags' antlers, 
 which, with slight variations according to age, have a 
 fixed season ; and, secondly, the birth and growth of the 
 young. These and similar phenomena render it highly 
 probable that the " mound-builders " resided on the 
 Danish coast all the year round, 
 though I am disposed to think that, 
 like the Fuegians, who lead, even now, 
 a very similar life, they frequently 
 moved from spot to spot. This 
 appears to me to be indicated not 
 only by the condition of the deserted 
 hearths, but by the colour of the 
 flint flakes, etc. ; for while many of 
 these retain the usual dull bluish 
 black colour which is characteristic 
 of newly -broken flints, and which 
 remains unaltered as long as they 
 are surrounded by carbonate of lime, 
 others are whitened, as is usual with 
 those which have been exposed for 
 any length of time. Perhaps, there- 
 fore, these were lying on the surface ^IP- '95 
 during some period of desertion, and 
 covered over only when the place was again inhabited. 
 
 The flint implements found in the Kjokkenmoddings 
 resemble those which are characteristic of the " coast- 
 finds." They may be classed as flakes (figs. 86-99) > 
 " shell-mound " axes, which, as we have already observed, 
 present a peculiar form (figs. 11 7- 11 9); awls (fig. 195), 
 slingstones or net-weights, and rude lance-heads (figs. 
 196, 197). With these occur other forms, which, though 
 very rude, are evidently artificial, such as fio^. 198, which 
 appears to have been a kind of axe, and others of 
 which the sharp edges were evidently used for cutting 
 purposes. 
 
 Flint awl from 
 mark, actual size.
 
 240 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 In the two days which we spent at Meilgaard, we 
 found the following objects: — 
 
 " Shell-mound " axes 
 Flint flakes 
 Bone pins, etc. 
 Horns 
 
 Pottery, only 
 Stone hammer 
 Slingstones, about 
 
 19 
 
 139 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 pieces 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 195 
 
 Of the three " pillars " of material 
 just alluded to (p. 234), the first 
 contained seven flint flakes, two axes, 
 one worked piece of horn, three 
 worked pieces of bone, and some 
 pottery ; in the second were sixteen 
 flint flakes, one axe, and seven sling- 
 stones ; in the third, four flint flakes, 
 two flint axes, and a pointed bone. 
 In short, without appearing to be 
 richer than other Kjokkenmoddings, 
 Meilgaard and Havelse have each 
 produced already more than a 
 thousand of these rude relics, though 
 Fig. i96.-Lance-head(?) from ^^^ ^ gmall portion of the mound 
 
 Denmark, actual size. . ' i • i 
 
 has u\ either case been hitherto re- 
 moved. We need not, therefore, wonder at the number 
 of axes found in the valley of the Somme, where so 
 much larger a mass of material has been examined. 
 
 No polished axes have yet been found in the Kjokken- 
 moddings ; but a fragment of one which was discovered 
 at Havelse, and which had been worked up into a scraper, 
 may indicate that they were not altogether unknown, 
 though it would not be safe to decide from a single 
 specimen. A very few carefully formed weapons have 
 been found, but the implements generally are very rude, 
 and of the same types as those which have been already
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENTS 
 
 241 
 
 described as characteristic ot the " Coast-finds." Small 
 pieces of very coarse pottery have also been discovered, 
 and many of the bones from the 
 Kjokkenmoddings bear evident marks 
 of a sharp instrument ; several of 
 the pieces found by us were in this 
 condition, and had been fashioned 
 into rude pins. 
 
 The observations of Arctic travellers 
 prove that even 
 if human bones 
 had been found 
 in the shell- 
 mounds, this 
 would not of 
 itself be any evi- 
 dence of canni- 
 balism ; but the 
 absence of such 
 remains satisfac- 
 torily shows that 
 the primitive 
 population of 
 the North were 
 free from this 
 practice. On 
 the other hand, 
 the tumuli have 
 supplied us with 
 numerous skele- 
 tons which probably belong to the 
 Stone Age. The skulls are very 
 round, and in many respects re- 
 semble those of the Lapps, but have a more projecting 
 ridge over the eye. One curious peculiarity is, that 
 their front teeth do not overlap as ours do, but meet 
 one another, as do those of the Greenlanders of the 
 present day. This perhaps is due to the manner of 
 eating, rather than any indication of race. 
 
 16 
 
 Fig. 197.— Lance-head (?) 
 from Denmark, actual size. 
 
 Fig. 19S. — Rude flint axe 
 from Denmark, actual size.
 
 242 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Much as still remains to be made out respecting the 
 men of the Stone Period, the facts already ascertained, 
 like a few strokes by a clever draughtsman, supply us 
 with the elements of an outline sketch. Carrying our 
 imagination back into the past, we see before us on the 
 low shores of the Danish Archipelago a race of small 
 men, with heavy overhanging brows, round heads, and 
 faces probably much like those of the present Laplanders. 
 As they must evidently have had some protection from 
 the weather, it is most probable that they lived in tents 
 made of skins. The total absence of metal in the 
 Kjokkenmoddings indicates that they had not yet any 
 weapons except those made of wood, stone, horn, and 
 bone. Their principal food must have consisted of 
 shell-fish, but they were able to catch fish, and often 
 varied their diet by game caught in hunting. It is 
 evident that marrow was considered a great delicacy, 
 for every single bone which contained any was split 
 open in the manner best adapted to extract the precious 
 morsel. 
 
 We have alreaciy seen that the mound-builders were 
 regular settlers, and not mere summer visitors ; and on 
 the whole they seem to have lived in very much the same 
 manner as the Tierra del Fuegians, who dwell on the 
 coast, feed principally on shell-fish, and have the dog as 
 their only domestic animal. A good account of them is 
 given in Darwin's Journal (p. 234), from which I extract 
 the following passages, which give us a vivid and probably 
 correct idea of what might have been seen on the Danish 
 shores, long, long ago. "The inhabitants, living chiefly 
 upon shell-fish, are obliged constantly to change their 
 place of residence ; but they return at intervals to the 
 same spots, as is evident from the pile of old shells, 
 which must often amount to some tons in weight. These 
 heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the 
 bright green colour of certain plants which invariably 
 grow on them. . . . The Fuegian wigwam resembles, 
 in size and dimensions, a haycock. It merely consists of 
 a few broken branches stuck in the ground, and very
 
 THE FUEGIANS 243 
 
 imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass 
 and rushes. The whole cannot be so much as the work 
 of an hour, and it is only used for a few days. ... At 
 a subsequent period, the Beagle anchored for a couple of 
 days under Wollaston Island, which is a short way to the 
 northward. While going on shore, we pulled alongside 
 a canoe with six Fuegians. These were the most abject 
 and miserable creatures I anywhere beheld. On the east 
 coast, the natives, as we have seen, have guanoco cloaks, 
 and on the west, they possess sealskins. Amongst the 
 central tribes the men generally possess an otter-skin, or 
 some small scrap about as large as a pocket-handkerchief, 
 which is barely sufficient to cover their backs as low down 
 as their loins. It is laced across the breast by strings, 
 and according as the wind blows, it is shifted from side 
 to side. But these Fuegians in the canoe were quite 
 naked, and even one full-grown woman was absolutely so. 
 It was raining heavily, and the fresh water, together with 
 the spray, trickled down her body. . . . These poor 
 wretches were stunted in their growth, their hideous 
 faces bedaubed with white paint, their skins filthy and 
 greasy, their hair entangled, their voices discordant, 
 their gestures violent and without dignity. Viewing 
 such men, one can hardly make oneself believe they are 
 fellow-creatures and inhabitants of the same world. . . . 
 At night, five or six human beings, naked and scarcely 
 protected from the wind and rain of this tempestuous 
 climate, sleep on the wet ground coiled up like animals. 
 Whenever it is low water, they must rise to pick shell- 
 fish from the rocks ; and the women, winter and summer, 
 either dive to collect sea eggs, or sit patiently in their 
 canoes, and, with a baited hair line, jerk out small fish. 
 If a seal is killed, or the floating carcase of a putrid whale 
 discovered, it is a feast ; such miserable food is assisted 
 by a few tasteless berries and fungi. Nor are they 
 exempt from famine, and, as a consequence, cannibalism 
 accompanied by parricide." In this latter respect, however, 
 the advantage appears to be all on the side of the ancients, 
 against whom we have no evidence of cannibalism.
 
 244 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 If the absence of cereal remains justifies us, as it appears 
 to do, in concluding that they had no knowledge of 
 agriculture, they must certainly have sometimes suffered 
 from periods of great scarcity, indications of which may, 
 perhaps, be seen in the bones of the fox, wolf, and other 
 carnivora, which would hardly have been eaten from 
 choice ; on the other hand, they were blessed in the 
 ignorance of spirituous liquors, and saved thereby from 
 what is at present the greatest scourge of Northern 
 Europe. 
 
 The shell-mounds and coast-finds, according to Professor 
 Worsaae, are characterized by rough flint implements 
 (figs. 1 1 7-1 19, 195—198), and are the remains of a much 
 ruder and more barbarous people than that which con- 
 structed the large Stone Age tumuli, and made the 
 beautiful weapons, etc., found in them. He does not 
 altogether deny that a few well-worked implements, and 
 fragments of such, have been found in the Kjokkenmod- 
 dings, but he considers that some of these at least may 
 be altogether more recent than the shell-mounds in 
 which they are reported to have been found, and, at any 
 rate, that their presence is altogether exceptional. At 
 Meilgaard, for instance, the researches undertaken under 
 the superintendence of the late king in June, 1861, pro- 
 duced more than five hundred flint flakes and other rude 
 implements, but not a single specimen with a trace of 
 polishing, or in any way resembling the flint implements 
 found in the tumuli. On the other hand, these rude 
 implements are said to be wanting in the tumuli, where 
 they are replaced by instruments of a different character 
 and more skilful workmanship. Moreover, while it is 
 admitted on all hands that the shell-mound makers had 
 no domestic animal but the dog, and no knowledge of 
 agriculture. Professor Worsaae considers that during the 
 later Stone Age the inhabitants of Denmark certainly 
 possessed tame cattle and horses, and had in all probability 
 some knowledge of agriculture. 
 
 Professor Steenstrup is of an entirely different opinion, 
 and considers that the Kjokkenmoddings and Stone Age
 
 SHELL-MOUNDS AND TUMULI 245 
 
 tumuli were contemporaneous. He denies altogether 
 that remains of tame oxen or horses have been found in 
 tumuli of the Stone Age, except in a very few instances, 
 and in these he maintains that the fragments which have 
 occurred are evidently not coeval with the mounds them- 
 selves, and that in all probability they have been intro- 
 duced by foxes. He admits that the stone implements 
 from the shell-mounds and coast-finds are altogether 
 different from, and much ruder than, those from the 
 tumuli ; he considers the two classes as representing, not 
 two different degrees, but two different phases of one 
 single condition of civilization. The tumuli are the 
 burial-places of chiefs, the Kjokkenmoddings are the 
 refuse heaps of fishermen. The first contained all that 
 skill could contrive, affection offer, or wealth command ; 
 the second, those things only which art could not make 
 available, which were thrown away as useless, or accident- 
 ally lost. In order, therefore, to compare these two 
 classes of objects, we must take, not the ordinary rude 
 specimens which are so numerous in the shell-mounds, 
 but the few better-made implements which, fortunately 
 for science and for us, were lost among the oyster-shells, 
 or which had been broken, and therefore thrown away. 
 These, though few in number, are, in Professor Steen- 
 strup's opinion, quite as numerous as could have been 
 expected under the circumstances. Moreover, the long 
 flint flakes, which are so common in the Kjokkenmoddings, 
 are sufficient evidence that great skill in the treatment of 
 flint had already been attained. Some of the flakes found 
 in the Kjokkenmoddings are equal to any from the tumuli ; 
 several of those which we found at Meilgaard were more 
 than 5, and one was more than 6 inches in length ; 
 while I have in my possession a giant flake from Fannerup 
 (figs. 87-89), given to me by Professor Steenstrup, which 
 has a length of 8f inches. As regards the rude, more 
 or less triangular "axes" (figs. 117— 119) which are so 
 characteristic of the Kjokkenmoddings and coast-finds. 
 Professor Steenstrup, as we have already seen, declines to 
 compare them with the polished axes of the tumuli.
 
 246 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 because in his opinion they were not intended for the same 
 purposes. In addition to the direct evidence derived from 
 the discovery of some few well-made flint axes of the 
 tumulus type, Professor Steenstrup relies much on the 
 indirect evidence derivable from the other contents of the 
 shell-mounds. Thus the frequent remains of large and 
 full-grown animals — for instance, of the seal and the wild 
 ox — are in his opinion sufficient evidence that the shell- 
 mound builders must have had weapons more useful and 
 destructive than any which Professor Worsaae will con- 
 cede to them ; moreover, he considers that many of the 
 cuts which are so common on the bones found in the 
 shell-heaps must have been made by polished implements, 
 and are too smooth to be the marks of flint flakes, accord- 
 ing to the suggestion of Professor Worsaae. Finally, 
 Professor Steenstrup, though not attributing so much 
 weisfht as Professor Worsaae to the absence of the ruder 
 implements from the tumuli, even if this had been the 
 case, disputes the fact on the ground that these imple- 
 ments would not until recently have been recognized and 
 collected, and that they have, in fact, been found whenever 
 they were looked for. 
 
 After having carefully considered the evidence on both 
 sides, I find myself, as might naturally be expected, 
 unable altogether to agree with either. 
 
 The small rude axes seem to me even less well adapted 
 to the purpose suggested by Professor Steenstrup, than 
 to those which have generally been attributed to them. 
 There are, no doubt, some which could never have been 
 used for cutting, but these may have been failures, owing 
 to some want of skill on the part of the manufacturer, or 
 some flaw in the flint itself. Others appear to me, as to 
 Professor Worsaae, serviceable, though rude ; and well 
 adapted for some purpose (possibly for oyster dredging 
 or chopping wood) which required a strong rather than a 
 sharp edge. They also very closely resemble in form 
 some of the adzes used by the South Sea Islanders, one 
 of which I have figured for comparison (see fig. 120). 
 They seem to me, however, as to Professor Steenstrup,
 
 SHELL-MOUNDS AND TUMULI 247 
 
 to differ in character from the well-made and generally 
 polished axes, and not to be ruder implements of the 
 same type. Although the carefully formed knives, axes, 
 lance-heads, etc., would not be likely to abound in the 
 Kjokkenmoddings, any more than works of art or objects 
 of value in modern dust-heaps ; still I confess I should 
 have expected that fragments of these instruments, re- 
 cognizable to us, though useless to their original owners, 
 would have been more numerous than, in reality, they 
 appear to be. 
 
 In addition to the 500 rude implements described by 
 Professor Worsaae as having been found at Meilgaard 
 during the king's visit, I myself obtained 140 flint flakes, 
 with about 50 other implements, in the visit to this cele- 
 brated locality which I made some years ago under the 
 guidance of Professor Steenstrup. To these, again, must 
 be added many which had previously been collected by 
 M. Olsen, and the members of the Kjokkenmodding 
 Committee ; and yet among so large a number of instru- 
 ments of various kinds there is only one which in any 
 respect resembles the well-worked implements of the 
 tumuli. So, again, at Havelse only a single fragment of 
 polished axe has been found among more than a thousand 
 objects of the ruder kind. It might, however, fairly be 
 urged that in such a comparison neither the flakes nor 
 " slingstones " ought to be brought into consideration in 
 this case ; and if we were to count the axes only, the 
 numbers would be greatly diminished. 
 
 Moreover, the alleged absence of rude implements in 
 the Stone Age barrows has been satisfactorily explained by 
 Professor Steenstrup. In this country it might be argued, 
 from the statements of so intelligent an antiquary as Sir 
 R. Colt Hoare, that rude implements were never, or very 
 rarely, found in tumuli ; but the more recent researches of 
 Mr Bateman, Canon Greenwell, and other archaeologists, 
 have shown that this is very far from being the case, and 
 have made it evident that the ruder implements of stone 
 were overlooked by the earlier archaeologists. In the 
 tumuli examined by Mr Bateman, he obtained many flint
 
 248 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 flakes, etc., quite as rude as those which are found in the 
 shell-mounds. So far as I am aware, however, none of 
 the small triangular axes, which are so characteristic of the 
 shell-mounds, have yet been met with in the tumuli. 
 Nor, on the other hand, has a single specimen resembling 
 those which are characteristic of the Palaeolithic Age yet 
 been found in the shell-mounds. 
 
 Finally, we have, I think, no conclusive evidence of 
 the remains of domestic animals (other than the dog) in 
 Stone Age tumuli. 
 
 On the whole, the evidence appears to show that the 
 Danish shell-mounds represent a definite period in the 
 history of that country, and are probably referable to the 
 early part of the Neolithic Age, when the art of polishing 
 flint implements was known, but before it had reached 
 its greatest development. 
 
 It is, however, as yet, impossible to afiix even an ap- 
 proximate tiate in years to the formation of the Kjokken- 
 moddings. Their accumulation, indeed, must evidently 
 have occupied a considerable period, and it is of course 
 highly probable that some are much older than others. 
 They must all, however, be of very considerable antiquity. 
 We know that the country has long been covered by 
 beech forests, and yet it appears that during the Bronze 
 Age beeches were absent, or only represented by 
 stragglers, while the whole country was covered with 
 oaks. This change implies a great lapse of time, even 
 if we suppose that but a few generations of oaks suc- 
 ceeded one another. We know also that the oaks had 
 been preceded by pines, and that the country was in- 
 habited even then. 
 
 Again, the immense number of objects belonging to the 
 Bronze Age, which have been already found in Denmark, 
 and the great number of tumuli, appear to justify the 
 Danish archaeologists in assigning to this period a great 
 lapse of time. This argument applies with peculiar force 
 to the remains of the Stone Period : for a country, the 
 inhabitants of which live by hunting and fishing, can 
 never be thickly populated ; and, on the whole, the con-
 
 ANTIQUITY OF SHELL-MOUNDS 249 
 
 elusion is forced upon us, that the country must have 
 been inhabited for a lengthened period, although none of 
 the Danish remains yet discovered belong to a time as 
 ancient as some of those which have been found in other 
 parts of Europe, and which will be described in subse- 
 quent chapters.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 NORTH AMERICAN ARCH/EOLOGY 
 
 Our knowledge of North American archaeology is 
 derived mainly from the valuable researches of Mr Caleb 
 Atwater, contained in the first volume of the Arch^eologia 
 Americana^ and from four excellent memoirs published 
 under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution : — 
 
 ( 1 ) Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley^ comprising 
 the Results of extensive Original Surveys and Explorations^ 
 by E. G. Squier, A.M., and E. H. Davis, M.D. 
 
 (2) Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York^ com- 
 prising the Results of Original Surveys and Explorations^ with 
 an illustrative Appendix ^ by E. G. Squier, A.M. (3) The 
 Antiquities of Wisconsin^ as surveyed and described by 
 J. A. Lapham. (4) The Archa'ology of the United States^ or 
 Sketches^ Historical and Biographical^ of the Progress of 
 Information and Opinion respecting Vestiges of Antiquity in 
 the United States^ by Samuel F. Haven. Nor must I omit 
 to mention Schoolcraft's History^ Condition^ and Prospects of 
 the Indian Tribes of the United States} 
 
 The antiquities fall into two great divisions : imple- 
 ments (including ornaments) and earthworks. The 
 earthworks have been again divided by the American 
 archaeologists into six classes : — (i) Defensive enclosures ; 
 (2) Sacred and miscellaneous enclosures ; (3) Sepulchral 
 mounds ; (4) Temple mounds ; (5) "Animal" mounds ; 
 and (6) Miscellaneous mounds. These classes I shall 
 
 ' Among more recent works on the subject, I may specially refer to 
 Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific States ; Jones's Aiitiqiiiiies of the 
 Southern Indians ; Foster's Prehistoric Races of the United States ; 
 Abbott's Stone Age in Nezv fersey. 
 
 250
 
 IMPLEMENTS 
 
 251 
 
 treat separately, and we can then better consider the 
 " mound-builders " themselves. 
 
 The simple weapons of bone and stone, found in 
 America, closely resemble those which occur in other 
 countries. The flakes, hatchets, axes, arrow-heads, and 
 bone implements are, for instance, very similar to those 
 which occur in the Swiss lakes, if only we make allow- 
 ance for the differences of material. In 
 addition to the simple forms, which may 
 almost be said to be ubiquitous, there are 
 some, however, which are more compli- 
 cated. The perforated axes found in 
 Europe are generally considered to be- 
 long to the Metallic Age ; but as far as 
 America is concerned, we have not yet 
 any evidence as to the relative antiquity 
 of the perforated and imperforated types. 
 
 At the time of the discovery of America, 
 iron was absolutely unknown to the natives, 
 with the exception, perhaps, of a tribe near 
 the mouth of the La Plata, who had arrows 
 tipped with this metal, which they are 
 supposed to have obtained from masses 
 of native iron. The powerful nations of 
 Central America were, however, in an A^e Fig. 199.— Copper 
 
 r T» 1 M 1 XT 1 A • arrow or spear- 
 
 or Bronze, while the North Americans head, Cincin- 
 were in a condition of which we find in 
 Europe but scanty traces — namely, in an 
 Age of Copper. Silver is the only other metal which 
 has been found in the ancient tumuli, and that but in 
 very small quantities. It occurs sparingly in a native 
 form with the copper of Lake Superior, whence, in all 
 probability, it was derived. It does not appear to have 
 been ever smelted. From the large quantity of galena 
 which is found in the mounds, Messrs Squier and Davis 
 are disposed to think that lead must have been used to 
 a certain extent by the North American tribes ; the metal 
 itself, however, has not, I believe, yet been found. 
 
 Copper, on the other hand, both wrought and un- 
 
 nati, one-third 
 actual size.
 
 252 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 wrought, occurs frequently in the tumuH. It is interest- 
 ing to observe that the copper arrow- or spear-heads 
 (fig. 199) resemble the American type of stone arrow- 
 heads. The axes have a striking resemblance to those 
 
 simple European forms which 
 contain the minimum quantity 
 of tin, and as in them the 
 socket, when there is one, is 
 made by flattening the copper 
 and turning over the edge 
 (fig. 200) ; and some of the 
 Mexican paintings give us in- 
 
 'm 
 
 teresting evidence as to the 
 
 manner in which they were 
 handled and used. These, 
 however, were of bronze, and 
 had, therefore, been fused ; 
 but the Indian axes, which 
 are of pure metallic copper, 
 appear in all cases to have 
 been worked in a cold state, 
 which is remarkable, because, 
 as Messrs Squier and Davis 
 have pointed out, " the fires 
 upon the altar were sufllici- 
 ently intense to melt down the 
 copper implements and orna- 
 ments deposited upon them. 
 The hint thus afforded does 
 not seem to have been seized 
 upon." Mr Perkins, indeed, 
 who has devoted much atten- 
 tion to these implements, is of opinion that some of 
 them were cast ; and this view has also been adopted by 
 Mr Foster and Professor Butler. Sir John Evans has 
 also called attention to a passage in which De Champlain, 
 the founder of Quebec, tells us that in 16 10 he met a 
 party of Algonquins, one of whom met him on his barque, 
 and, after conversation, " tira d'une sac une piece de 
 
 Fig. 200. — Copper lance-head, 
 Ontonagon, one-third actual size.
 
 COPPER AND COPPER MINES 253 
 
 cuivre de la longueur d'un pied qu'il me donna, lequel 
 estoit fort beau et bien franc, me donnant a entendre 
 qu'il en avoit en quantite la ou il I'avoit pris, qui c'etoit 
 sur le bort d'une riviere proche d'une grand lac et qu'ils le 
 prenoient par morceaux, et le faisant fondre le mettoient 
 en lames, et avec des pierres le rendoient uny." ^ Mr 
 Foster gives a plate ^ showing what he considers to 
 be the mark left by the line of junction between the 
 two halves of the mould. Dr Schmidt^ has, however, 
 given strong reasons for doubting this conclusion, and 
 certainly the marks shown on the above-mentioned 
 figures have rather the appearance of weathering. On 
 the whole, though it would seem that they sometimes at 
 any rate softened the metal by heat, we have not, I think, 
 at present any sufficient evidence that the Redskins were 
 acquainted with the art of casting. This is the more 
 surprising, because, as Schoolcraft * tells us, " in almost 
 all the works lately opened there are heaps of coals and 
 ashes, showing that fire had much to do with their 
 operations." Thus, though they were acquainted with 
 metal, they did not know how to use it ; and, as Professor 
 Dana has well observed in a letter with which he has 
 favoured me, they may in one sense be said to have been 
 in an Age of Stone, since they used the copper, not as 
 metal, but as stone. This intermediate condition between 
 an Age of Stone and one of Metal is most interesting. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Lake Superior, and in some 
 other still more northern localities, copper is found 
 native in large quantities, and the Indians had therefore 
 nothing to do but to break off pieces, and hammer them 
 into the required shape. Hearne's celebrated journey to 
 the mouth of the Coppermine River, under the auspices 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company, was undertaken in order 
 to examine the locality whence the natives of that district 
 obtained the metal. In this case it occurred in lumps 
 actually on the surface, and the Indians seem to have 
 
 ^ Lcs Voyages du Sieiir dc C/ianiplai/i, Paris, 1613. 
 
 - Prehistoric Races of the United States, p. 259. 
 
 ^ Ar.fiir Anthropologic, 1878, p. 65. ■• Indian Tribes, p. 97.
 
 254 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 picked up what they could, without attempting anything 
 that could be called mining. Round Lake Superior, 
 however, the case is very different. A short account of 
 the ancient copper mines is given by Messrs Squier and 
 Davis in the work already so often cited, by Mr Squier in 
 The Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York^ by 
 Mr Lapham,^ and by Mr Schoolcraft ; ^ while the same 
 subject is treated at considerable length by Professor 
 Wilson. 
 
 The works appear to have been first discovered in 
 1847 t>y Mr Knapp, the agent of the Minnesota Mining 
 Company. His observations have " brought to light 
 ancient excavations of great extent, frequently from 
 twenty-five to thirty feet deep, and scattered over an area 
 of several miles. He counted 395 annular rings on 
 a hemlock-tree which orrew on one of the mounds of 
 earth thrown out of an ancient mine. Mr Foster also 
 notes the great size and age of a pine stump, which must 
 have grown, flourished, and died since the works were 
 deserted ; and Mr C. Whittesley not only refers to living 
 trees upwards of three hundred years old, now flourishing 
 in the gathered soil of the abandoned trenches, but adds, 
 ' On the same spot there are the decayed trunks of a 
 preceding generation or generations of trees that have 
 arrived at maturity, and fallen down from old age.' 
 According to the same writer, in a communication made 
 to the American Association, at the Montreal meeting in 
 1857, these ancient works extend over a tract from 100 
 to 1 50 miles in length, along the southern shore of the 
 lake." 
 
 Wooden implements are so perishable that we could 
 not expect many of them to have been found. Two or 
 three wooden bowls, a trough, and some shovels with 
 long handles, are all that appear to be recorded. 
 
 It has often been stated that the Indians possessed some 
 method, at present unknown, by which they were enabled 
 to harden the copper. This however, seems to be an 
 error. Some copper implements, which Mr Wilson
 
 ANCIENT POTTERY 255 
 
 submitted to Professor Crofts, were found to be no 
 harder than the native copper from Lake Superior, 
 "The structure of the metal was also highly laminated, 
 as if the instrument had been brought to its present 
 shape by hammering out a solid mass of copper," 
 
 Before the introduction of metallic vessels, the art of 
 the potter was more important even than it is at present. 
 Accordingly, the sites of all ancient habitations are 
 generally marked by numerous fragments of pottery ; 
 this is as true of the ancient Indian settlements, as of the 
 Celtic towns of England, or the lake-villages of Switzer- 
 land. These fragments, however, would generally be 
 those of rude household vessels, and it is principally 
 from the tumuli that we obtain those better-made urns 
 and cups from which the state of the art may fairly be 
 inferred. 
 
 In North America the art of the potter attained to a 
 considerable degree of perfection ; some of the vases 
 found in the tumuli are said to rival, " in elegance of 
 model, delicacy, and finish," the best Peruvian specimens. 
 The material used is a fine clay : in the more delicate 
 specimens, pure ; in the coarser ones, mixed with pounded 
 quartz. The art of glazing and the use of the potter's 
 wheel appear not to have been known, though that 
 " simple approximation to a potter's wheel may have 
 existed," which consists of " a stick of wood grasped in 
 the hand by the middle, and turned round inside a wall 
 of clay, formed by the other hand, or by another 
 workman." ^ 
 
 Among the most characteristic specimens of ancient 
 American pottery are the pipes. Some of these are 
 simple bowls, not unlike a common every-day pipe, from 
 which they differ in having generally no stem, the mouth 
 having apparently been applied direct to the bowl. 
 Many are highly ornamented, others are spirited repre- 
 sentations of monsters or of animals, such as the beaver, 
 otter, wild cat, elk, bear, wolf, panther, racoon, opossum, 
 squirrel, manatee, eagle, hawk, heron, owl, buzzard, 
 
 ^ Squier and Davis, /.c, p. 195.
 
 256 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 raven, swallow, parroquet, duck, grouse, and many others. 
 The most interesting of these, perhaps, is the manatee 
 or lamantin, of which seven representations have been 
 found in the mounds of Ohio. These are no mere rude 
 sculptures, about which there might easily be a mistake, 
 but we are assured that " the truncated head, thick 
 semicircular snout, peculiar nostrils, tumid, furrowed 
 upper lip, singular feet or fins, and remarkable moustaches, 
 are all distinctly marked, and render the recognition of 
 the animal complete." ^ This curious animal is not at 
 present found nearer than the shores of Florida, a 
 
 thousand miles away. 
 
 The ornaments which 
 have been found in the 
 mounds consist of beads, 
 shells, necklaces, pen- 
 dants, plates of mica, 
 bracelets, gorgets, etc. 
 The number of beads is 
 ^"^ _ . , . , sometimes quite surpris- 
 
 FlG. 201. ^Heron pipe, carved in porphyry. . ^_,, ^ , ^^ - 
 
 ing. 1 bus the cele- 
 brated Grave Creek mound contained between three and 
 four thousand shell-beads, besides about two hundred 
 and fifty ornaments of mica, several bracelets of copper, 
 and various articles carved in stone. The beads are 
 generally made of shell, but are sometimes cut out of 
 bone or teeth ; in form they are generally round or 
 oblonof ; sometimes the shell of the Unio is cut and 
 strung so as to " exhibit the convex surface and pearly 
 nacre of the shell." The necklaces are often made of 
 beads or shells, but sometimes of teeth. The ornaments 
 of mica are thin plates of various forms, each of which 
 has a small hole. The bracelets are of copper, and 
 generally encircle the arms of the skeletons, besides 
 being frequent on the " altars." They are simple rings 
 " hammered out with more or less skill, and so bent 
 that the ends approach, or lap over, each other." The 
 so-called "gorgets" are thin plates of copper, always 
 
 ' Squier and Davis, I.e., p. 252.
 
 EARTHWORKS 257 
 
 with two holes, and probably, therefore, worn as badges 
 of authority. 
 
 The earthworks are most abundant in the central parts 
 of the United States. They decrease in number as we 
 approach the Atlantic, and are very scarce in British 
 America and on the west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The works belonging to this class " usually occupy 
 strong natural positions," and as a fair specimen of them 
 we may take the Bourneville Enclosure in Ross County, 
 Ohio, which consists of a wall of stone, which is carried 
 round the hill a little below the brow ; but at some places 
 it rises, so as to cut off the narrow spurs, and extends 
 across the neck that connects the hill with the range 
 beyond. It must not, however, be understood that 
 anything like a true wall now exists ; the present ap- 
 pearance is rather what might have been " expected from 
 the falling outwards of a wall of stones, placed, as this 
 was, upon the declivity of a hill." Where it is most 
 distinct it is from 15 to 20 feet wide, by 3 or 4 in 
 height. The area thus enclosed is about 140 acres, and 
 the wall is 2^ miles in length. The stones themselves 
 vary much in size, and Messrs Squier and Davis suggest 
 that the wall may originally have been about 8 feet high, 
 with an equal base. At present, trees of the largest size 
 are growing upon it. On a similar work known as 
 " Fort Hill," Highland County, Ohio (fig. 202), Messrs 
 Squier and Davis found a splendid chestnut tree, which 
 they suppose to be six hundred years old. " If," they 
 say, " to this we add the probable period intervening from 
 the time of the building of this work to its abandonment, 
 and the subsequent period up to its invasion by the 
 forest, we are led irresistibly to the conclusion that it 
 has an antiquity of at least one thousand years. But 
 when we notice, all around us, the crumbling trunks of 
 trees, half hidden in the accumulating soil, we are induced 
 to fix on an antiquity still more remote." 
 
 The enclosure known as " Clark's Work," in Ross 
 County, Ohio, is one of the largest and most interesting. 
 It consists of a parallelogram, 2800 feet by 1800, and 
 
 17
 
 ^5 = 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 enclosing about 1 1 1 acres. To the right of this, the 
 principal work is a perfect square^ containing an area of 
 about 1 6 acres. Each side is 850 feet in length, and in 
 the middle of each is a gateway 30 feet wide, covered by 
 a small mound. Within the area of the great work are 
 several smaller mounds and enclosures, and it is estimated 
 that not less than three millions of cubic feet of earth 
 were used in this great undertaking. Yet from the 
 
 Fig. 202. — Fort Hill, Highland County, Ohio. 
 
 peculiarly mottled character of the earth forming these 
 mounds, it would appear to have been brought in bags or 
 small parcels. It has also been observed that water is 
 almost invariably found within or close to these enclosures. 
 
 It is remarkable that there is not a single case in which 
 counter-works occur near any of the ancient North 
 American fortifications. It is probable, therefore, that 
 the warfare of the mound-builders, like that of the more 
 modern Red Indians, consisted, not of persevering sieges, 
 but of sudden attacks and surprises. 
 
 If the purpose for which the works belonging to the 
 first class were erected is very evident, the same cannot
 
 EARTHWORKS— SACRED ENCLOSURES 259 
 
 be said for those which we have now to mention. These 
 differ from the preceding in their small size, from the 
 ditch being inside the embankment, and from their position, 
 which is often completely commanded by neighbouring 
 heights. 
 
 Dr Wilson (vol. i. p. 324) follows Sir R. C. Hoare in 
 considering the position of the ditch as being a dis- 
 tinguishing mark between military and religious works. 
 Catlin, however, tells us that in a Mandan village, which 
 he describes, the ditch was on the inner side of the 
 embankment, and the warriors were thus sheltereci while 
 they shot their arrows through the stockade. We see, 
 therefore, that in America, at least, this is no certain 
 guide. 
 
 While, however, the defensive earthworks occupy hill- 
 tops and other situations most easy to defend, the so- 
 called sacred enclosures are generally found on " the 
 broad and level river bottoms, seldom occurring upon 
 the table-lands or where the surface of the ground is 
 undulating or broken." They are usually square or 
 circular in form ; a circular enclosure being often com- 
 bined with one or two squares. Occasionally they are 
 isolated, but more frequently in groups. The greater 
 number of the circles are of small size, with a nearly 
 uniform diameter of 250 or 300 feet, and the ditch is 
 invariably inside the wall. Some of the circles, however, 
 are larger, enclosing 50 acres or more. The squares or 
 other rectangular works never have a ditch, and the 
 earth of which they are composed appears to have been 
 taken up evenly from the surface, or from large pits in 
 the neighbourhood. They vary much in size ; five or 
 six of them, however, are " exact squares, each side 
 measuring 1080 feet — a coincidence which could not 
 possibly be accidental, and which must possess some 
 significance." The circles also, in spite of their great 
 size, are so nearly round, that the American archaEolo2;ists 
 consider themselves justified in concluding that the mound- 
 builders must have had some standard of measurement, 
 and some means of determining angles.
 
 26o 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The most remarkable group is that near Newark, in the 
 Scioto Valley, which covers an area of four square miles ! 
 (fig. 203). A plan of these gigantic works is given by- 
 Messrs Squier and Davis, and another, from a later 
 survey, by Mr Wilson. They consist of an octagon, with 
 an area of 50, a square occupying 20 acres, anci two large 
 circles occupying respectively 30 and 20 acres. From 
 the octagon an avenue formed by parallel walls extends 
 southwards for 2^ miles ; there are two other avenues 
 
 Fig. 203. — Village enclosures near Newark, Ohio. 
 
 which are rather more than a mile in length, one of 
 them connecting the octagon with the square. 
 
 Besides these, there are various other embankments 
 and small circles, the greater number about 80 feet in 
 diameter, but some few much larger. The walls of these 
 small circles, as well as those of the avenues and of the 
 irregular portions of the works generally, are very slight, 
 anci for the most part about 4 feet in height. The other 
 embankments are much more considerable ; the walls 
 of the large circle are even now 12 feet high, with a 
 base of 50 feet, and an interior ditch 7 feet deep and 
 35 in width. At the gateway, however, they are still 
 more imposing; the walls being 16 feet high, and the
 
 EARTHWORKS— VILLAGE ENCLOSURES 261 
 
 ditch 13 feet deep. The whole area is covered with 
 " gigantic trees of a primitive forest " ; and, say Messrs 
 Squier and Davis, " in entering the ancient avenue for 
 the first time, the visitor does not fail to experience a 
 sensation of awe, such as he might feel in passing the 
 portals of an Egyptian temple, or gazing upon the silent 
 ruins of Petra of the Desert." 
 
 The city of Circleville takes its name from one of these 
 embankments, which, however, is no more remarkable 
 than many others. It consists of a square and a circle, 
 touching one another ; the sides of the square being 
 about 900 feet in length, and the circle a little more than 
 1000 feet in diameter. The square had eight doorways, 
 one at each angle, and one in the middle of each side, 
 every doorway being protected by a mound. The circle 
 was peculiar in having a double embankment. This 
 work, alas ! has been entirely destroyed ; and many 
 others have also disappeared, or are being gradually 
 obliterated by the plough. Under these circumstances, 
 we read with pleasure that "the Directors of the Ohio 
 Land Company, when they took possession of the country 
 at the mouth of the Muskingum River, in 1788, adopted 
 immediate measures for the preservation of these monu- 
 ments. To their credit be it said, one of their earliest 
 official acts was the passage of a resolution, which is 
 entered upon the Journal of their proceedings, reserving 
 the two truncated pyramids and the great mound, with 
 a few acres attached to each, as public squares." Such 
 enlightened conduct deserves the thanks of archaeologists. 
 
 Another group of earthworks in Wisconsin is interest- 
 ing as presenting a resemblance to a fortified town. It 
 was situated on the west branch of Rock River, discovered 
 in 1 836 by N. F. Hyer, Esq., who surveyed them roughly, 
 and published a brief description, with a figure, in the 
 Milwaukee Advertiser. The most complete description is 
 contained in Mr Lapham's Antiquities of Wisconsin} The 
 name " Aztalan " was given to this place by Mr Hyer, 
 because the Aztecs had a tradition that they originally 
 
 1 P. 41.
 
 262 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 came from a country to the north, which they called 
 Aztalan. It is said to be derived from two Mexican 
 words, Atl, "water," and An, "near." "The main 
 feature of these works is an enclosure of earth (not brick, 
 as has been erroneously stated), extending around three 
 sides of an irregular parallelogram " ; the river " forming 
 the fourth side on the east. The space thus enclosed 
 contains lyf acres. The corners are not rectangular, 
 and the embankment or ridge is not straight." " The 
 ridge forming the enclosure is 63 1 feet long at the north 
 end, 141 9 feet long on the west side, and 700 feet on 
 the south side ; making a total length of wall of 2750 
 feet. The ridge or wall is about 22 feet wide, and from 
 I to 5 feet in height. The wall of earth is enlarged on 
 the outside, at nearly regular distances, by mounds of 
 the same material. They vary from 61 to 95 feet apart, 
 the mean distance being 82 feet. Near the south-west 
 angle are two outworks, constructed in the same manner 
 as the main embankment." 
 
 In many places the earth forming the walls appears to 
 have been burnt. " Irregular masses of hard reddish 
 clay, full of cavities, bear distinct impressions of straw, or 
 rather wild hay, with which they had been mixed before 
 burning." "This is the only foundation for calling these 
 * brick walls.' The ' bricks ' were never made into any 
 regular form, and it is even cioubtful whether the burning 
 did not take place in the wall after it was built." These 
 walls must therefore present some faint resemblance to 
 the celebrated vitrified forts of Scotland. Some of the 
 mounds or buttresses, though forming part of an en- 
 closure, were also used for sepulchral purposes, as was 
 proved by their containing skeletons in a sitting posture, 
 with fragments of pottery. The highest point inside the 
 enclosure is at the south-west corner, and is " occupied 
 by a square truncated mound, which . . . presents the 
 appearance of a pyramid, rising by successive steps like 
 the gigantic structures of Mexico." " At the north-west 
 angle of the enclosure is another rectangular, truncated, 
 pyramidal elevation, of sixty-five feet level area at the top,
 
 AZTALAN—" CHUNK YARDS" 263 
 
 with remains of its graded way, or sloping ascent, at the 
 south-west corner, leading also towards a ridge that 
 extends in the direction of the river." 
 
 Within the enclosure are some rids^es about two feet 
 high, and connected with them are several rings, or 
 circles, which are supposed to be the remains of mud 
 houses. " Nearly the whole interior of the enclosure 
 appears to have been either excavated or thrown up into 
 mounds and ridges ; the pits and irregular excavations 
 being quite numerous over much of the space not 
 occupied by mounds." 
 
 The last Indian occupants of this interesting locality 
 had no tradition as to the history or the purpose of these 
 earthworks. 
 
 Among the Northern tribes of existing Indians, there 
 do not appear to be any earthworks corresponding to 
 these so-called sacred enclosures. " No sooner, however, 
 do we pass to the southward, and arrive among the 
 Creeks, Natchez, and affiliated Floridian tribes, than we 
 discover traces of structures which, if they do not entirely 
 correspond with the regular earthworks of the West, 
 nevertheless seem to be somewhat analogous to them."^ 
 These tribes, indeed, appear to have been more civilized 
 than those of the North, since they were agricultural in 
 their habits, lived in considerable towns, and had a 
 systematized religion, so that, in fact, they must have 
 occupied a position intermediate, as well economically as 
 geographically, between the powerful monarchies of 
 Central America and the hunting tribes of the North. 
 The " structures " to which Mr Squier alludes are 
 described by him, both in his Second Memoir and also 
 in the Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley (p. 120). 
 The " Chunk Yards," now or lately in use among the 
 Creeks, and which have only recently been abandoned 
 among the Cherokees, are rectangular areas, generally 
 occupying the centre of the town, closed at the sides, but 
 with an opening at each end. They are sometimes from 
 600 to 900 feet in length, being largest in the older towns. 
 ' Squier, loc. cit., p. 136.
 
 264 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The area is levelled and slightly sunk, being surrounded 
 by a low bank formed of the earth thus obtained. In 
 the centre is a low mound, on which stands the Chunk 
 Pole, to the top of which is some object which serves as 
 a mark to shoot at. Near each corner, at one end, is a 
 small pole, about twelve feet high ; these are called the 
 "slave posts," because in the "good old times" captives 
 condemned to the torture were fastened to them. The 
 name " Chunk Yard " seems to be derived from an 
 Indian game called " Chunke," which was played in 
 them. At one end of, and just outside, this area stands 
 generally a circular eminence, with a flat top, upon which 
 is elevated the Great Council House. At the other end 
 is a flat-topped, square eminence, about as high as the 
 circular one just mentioned; "upon this stands the 
 public square." 
 
 These and other accounts given by early travellers 
 among the Indians throw much light on the circular and 
 square enclosures, some of which, though classed by 
 Messrs Squier and Davies under this head, seem to me 
 to be the slight fortifications which surrounded villages, 
 and were undoubtedly crowned by stockades. We have 
 already seen that the position of the ditch is no conclusive 
 argument against this view ; nor does the position of the 
 works seem conclusive, if we suppose that they were 
 intended less to stand a regular siege than to guard 
 against a sudden attack. 
 
 The Sepulchral Mounds are very numerous in the 
 central parts of the United States. " To say that they 
 are innumerable, in the ordinary sense of the term, would 
 be no exaggeration. They may literally be numbered by 
 thousands and tens of thousands." They are usually 
 from six to eight feet in height ; generally stand outside the 
 enclosures ; are often isolated, but often also in groups ; 
 they are usually round, but sometimes elliptical or pear- 
 shaped. They cover generally a single interment, often 
 of burnt bones. Occasionally there is a stone cist, but 
 urn burial also prevailed to a considerable extent, especi- 
 ally in the South. The corpse, if not burnt, was generally
 
 SEPULCHRAL MOUNDS 265 
 
 buried in a contracted position. Implements both of 
 stone and metal occur frequently ; but while personal 
 ornaments, such as bracelets, perforated plates of copper, 
 beads of bone, shell or metal, and similar objects, are 
 very common, weapons are but rarely found ; a fact 
 'which, in the opinion of Dr Wilson, " indicates a totally 
 different condition of society and mode of thought " from 
 those of the present Indian. 
 
 No remains of the mastodon, or indeed of any extinct 
 animals, have been found in any of the American burial 
 mounds. 
 
 Some of the tumuli contain great quantities of human 
 remains. This was long supposed to be the case with 
 the great Grave Creek Mound, which indeed was 
 positively stated by Atwater ^ to be full of human remains. 
 This has turned out to be an error, but the statement is 
 not the less true as regards other mounds. In conjunc- 
 tion with them may be mentioned the " bone pits," many 
 of which are described by Mr Squier. " One of these 
 pits," he says, " discovered some years ago in the town 
 of Cambria, Niagara County, was estimated to contain 
 the bones of several thousand individuals. Another 
 which 1 visited in the town of Clarence, Erie County, 
 contained not less than four hundred skeletons." A 
 tumulus described by Mr Jefferson in his Notes on 
 Virginia was estimated to contain the skeletons of a 
 thousand individuals, but in this case the number was 
 perhaps exaggerated. 
 
 The description given by various old writers of the 
 solemn " Festival of the Dead " satisfactorily explains 
 these large collections of bones. It seems that every 
 eight or ten years the Indians used to meet at some place 
 previously chosen, that they dug up their dead, collected 
 the bones together, and laid them in one common burial- 
 place, depositing with them fine skins and other valuable 
 articles. Several of these ossuaries are described by 
 Schoolcraft.^ 
 
 Another class of mounds, called by Messrs Squier and 
 
 ' See also Lapham, loc. ciL, p. 80. " Loc. cit., p. 102.
 
 266 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Davis Temple Mounds^ are pyramidal structures, truncated, 
 and generally having graded avenues to their tops. 
 In some instances they are terraced, or have successive 
 stages. But whatever their form, whether round, 
 oval, octangular, square, or oblong, they have invariably 
 flat or level tops, of greater or lesser area. These 
 mounds much resemble the Teocallis of Mexico, and 
 had probably a similar origin. They are rare in the 
 North, though examples occur even as far as Lake 
 Superior, but become more and more numerous as we 
 pass down the Mississippi, and especially on approaching 
 the Gulf, where they constitute the most numerous and 
 important portion of the ancient remains. Some of the 
 largest, however, are situated in the North. One of the 
 most remarkable is at Cahokia, in Illinois. This gigantic 
 mound is stated to be 700 feet long, 500 feet wide at the 
 base, and 90 feet in height. Its solid contents have been 
 roughly estimated at 20,000,000 cubic feet. 
 
 Probably, however, these mounds were not used as 
 temples only, but also as sites for dwellings, especially for 
 those of the chiefs. We are told that among the Natchez 
 Indians " the temples and the dwellings of the chiefs 
 were raised upon mounds, and for every new chief a 
 new mound and dwelling were constructed." Again, 
 Garcilasso de la Vega, in his History of Florida^ quoted by 
 Mr Haven,^ says, "The town and house of the Cacique 
 of Osachile are similar to those of all other caciques 
 in Florida, and, therefore, it seems best to give one 
 description that will apply generally to all the capitals 
 and all the houses of the chiefs in Florida. I say, then, 
 that the Indians endeavour to place their towns upon 
 elevated places ; but because such situations are rare in 
 Florida, or that they finci a difficulty in procuring suitable 
 materials for building, they raise eminences in this 
 manner. They choose a place, to which they bring a 
 quantity of earth, which they elevate into a kind of 
 platform 2 or 3 pikes in height (from 18 to 25 feet), of 
 which the flat top is capable of holding ten or twelve, 
 
 ^ Loc. ci/., p. 57.
 
 TEMPLE MOUNDS— ANIMAL MOUNDS 267 
 
 fifteen or twenty houses, to lodge the cacique, his family, 
 and suite," ^ 
 
 Not the least remarkable of the American antiquities 
 are the so-called Animal Mounds^ which are principally, 
 though not exclusively, found in Wisconsin. In this 
 district " thousands of examples occur of gigantic basso- 
 relievos of men, beasts, birds, and reptiles, all wrought 
 with persevering labour on the surface of the soil," while 
 enclosures and works of defence are almost entirely 
 wanting, the " ancient city of Aztalan " being, as is 
 supposed, the only example of the former class. 
 
 The Animal Mounds were discovered by Mr Lapham 
 in 1836, and described in the newspapers of the day, 
 but the first account of them in any scientific journal 
 was that by Mr R. C. Taylor, in the American Journal of 
 Science and Art^ for April 1838. Messrs Squier and 
 Davis devoted to them a part of their work on the 
 Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley ; but the 
 seventh volume of the Smithsonian Contributions con- 
 tains the work, by Mr Lapham, which gives the most 
 complete account of these interesting remains. 
 
 Mr Lapham adds a map, showing the distribution of 
 these curious earthworks. They appear to be most 
 numerous in the southern counties of Wisconsin ; and 
 extend from the Mississippi to Lake Michigan, following 
 generally the course of the river, and being especially 
 numerous along the great Indian trail, or war-path, from 
 Lake Michigan, near Milwaukee, to the Mississippi, 
 above the Prairie du Chien. This, however, does not 
 prove any connection between the present Indians and 
 the mounds ; the same line has been adopted as the route 
 of the United States' military road, and may have been in 
 use for an indefinite period. 
 
 The mounds themselves not only represent animals, such 
 as men, buffaloes, elks, bears, otters, wolves, racoons, birds, 
 serpents, lizards, turtles, and frogs, but also some inanimate 
 objects, if at least the American archaeologists are right in 
 regarding some of them as crosses, tobacco-pipes, etc. 
 
 ' See also Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii. p. 47.
 
 268 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Many of the representations are spirited and correct, 
 but others, probably through the action of time, are less 
 definite ; one, for instance, near the village of Muscoda, 
 may be either " a bird, a bow and arrow, or the human 
 figure." Their height varies from i to 4 feet, some- 
 times, however, rising to 6 feet ; and as a " regular elevation 
 of six inches can be readily traced upon the level prairies " 
 of the West, their outlines are generally distinctly 
 defined where they occupy favourable positions. It is 
 probable, however, that many of the details have dis- 
 appeared under the action of rain and vegetation. At 
 
 i""f 
 
 
 ...>^""- % f --w.^^ 
 
 I I 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 204. — Plan ot an eagle mound, Honey Creek Mills, Wis. 
 
 present a " man " consists generally of a head and body, 
 two long arms and two short legs, no other details being 
 visible. The " birds " differ from the " men " principally 
 in the absence of legs. The so-called " lizards," which 
 are among the most common forms, have a head, two 
 legs, and a long tail ; the side view being represented, as 
 is, indeed, the case with most of the quadrupeds. One 
 mound has been supposed to represent a mastodon, but 
 the similarity is, I think, far from conclusive.^ 
 
 One remarkable group in Dale County, close to the 
 great Indian war-path, consists of a man with extended 
 arms, seven more or less elongated mounds, one tumulus, 
 and six quadrupeds. The length of the human figure is 
 
 125 feet, and it is 140 feet from the extremity of one arm 
 to that of the other. The quadrupeds vary from 90 to 
 
 126 feet in length. 
 
 ' M'Lean, The Mound-builders.
 
 ANIMAL MOUNDS 269 
 
 At Waukesha are a number of mounds, tumuli, and 
 animals, including several " lizards," a very fine " bird," 
 and a magnificent " turtle." " This, when first observed, 
 was a very fine specimen of the art of mound-building, 
 with its graceful curves, the feet projecting back and 
 forward, and the tail, with its gradual slope, so acutely 
 pointed, that it was impossible to ascertain precisely where 
 it terminated. The body was 56 feet in length, and the 
 tail 250 ; the height 6 feet." This group of mounds is 
 now, alas, covered with buildings : " A dwelling-house 
 stands on the body of 
 the turtle, and a Catholic 
 church is built upon the 
 tail." _ . ,. _ 
 
 "But," says Mr Lap- ~ ~ ?' - -"- ^^=? 
 
 ham, " the most remark- ^ '*' s ^ 
 
 able collection of lizards ^^ ''%X.v. ."J^l'^^i ^"^ 
 
 and turtles yet discovered ^^/£A/ fO^^''' .^ ^^'^ ' 
 
 is on the school section ^^z- ^^'^^ 
 
 about a mile and a half '^^Mlli\^^^ 
 
 south-east from the viL Fig. 20S.-Alligator mound, Granville, 
 
 lage of Pewaukee. This 
 
 consists of seven turtles, two lizards, four oblong mounds, 
 and one of the remarkable excavations before alluded to. 
 One of the turtle mounds, partially obliterated by the 
 road, has a length of 450 feet, being nearly double the 
 usual dimensions. Three of them are remarkable for 
 their curved tails, a feature here first observed." 
 
 In several places a curious variation occurs. The 
 animals, with the usual form and size, are represented, 
 not in relief, but intaglio ; not by a mound, but by an 
 excavation. 
 
 The Animal Mounds which have been observed out 
 of Wisconsin differ in many respects from the ordinary 
 type. Near Granville, in Ohio, on a higher spur of land, 
 is an earthwork, known in the neighbourhood as the 
 " Alligator " (fig. 205). It has a head and body, four 
 sprawling legs, and a curled tail. The total length is 
 250 feet, the breadth of the body 40 feet, and the length
 
 270 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of the legs 36 feet. " The head, shoulders, and rump are 
 more elevated than the other parts of the body, an attempt 
 having evidently been made to preserve the proportions 
 of the object copied." The average height is 4 feet, at 
 the shoulders 6 feet. Even more remarkable is the great 
 serpent in Adams County, Ohio. It is situated on a high 
 spur of land which rises 150 feet above Brush Creek. 
 " Conforming to the curve of the hill, and occupying its 
 very summit, is the serpent, its head resting near the 
 point, and its body winding back for 700 feet, in graceful 
 undulations, terminating in a triple coil at the tail. The 
 entire length, if extended, would be not less than 1000 
 feet. The work is clearly and boldly defined, the 
 embankment being upwards of 5 feet in height, by 
 30 feet base at the centre of the body, but diminishing 
 somewhat toward the head and tail. The neck of the 
 serpent is stretched out, and slightly curved, and its 
 mouth is opened wide, as if in the act of swallowing or 
 ejecting an oval figure, which rests partially within the 
 distended jaws. This oval is formed by an embankm.ent 
 of earth, without any perceptible opening, 4 feet in 
 height, and is perfectly regular in outline, its transverse 
 and conjugate diameters being 160 and 80 feet re- 
 spectively." 
 
 When, why, or by whom these remarkable works 
 were erected, as yet we know not. The Indian tribes, 
 though they look upon them with reverence, have thrown 
 no light upon their origin. Nor do the contents of the 
 mounds themselves assist us in this inquiry. Several of 
 them have been opened, and, in making the streets of 
 Milwaukie, many of the mounds have been entirely 
 removed ; but the only result has been to show that they 
 are not sepulchral, and that, excepting by accident, they 
 contain no implements or ornaments. 
 
 Under these circumstances speculation would be 
 useless ; we can but wait, and hope that time and 
 perseverance may solve the problem, and explain the 
 nature of these remarkable and mysterious monuments. 
 
 There is one class of objects which I have not yet
 
 THE DIGHTON ROCK 271 
 
 mentioned, and which yet ought not to be left entirely 
 unnoticed. 
 
 The most remarkable of these is the celebrated Dighton 
 Rock, on the east bank of the Taunton River. Its 
 history, and the various conclusions which have been 
 derived from it, are very amusingly given by Dr Wilson.^ 
 In 1783, the Rev. Ezra Stiles, D.D., President of Yale 
 College, appealed to this rock, inscribed, as he believed, 
 with Phoenician characters, for a proof that the Indians 
 were descended from Canaan, and were therefore accursed. 
 Count de Gebelin regarded the inscription as Carthag'inian. 
 In the eighth volume of the Ardueologia^ Colonel Vallency 
 endeavours to prove that it is Siberian ; v/hile certain 
 Danish antiquaries regard it as Runic, and thought that they 
 could read the name " Thorfinn," " with an exact, though 
 by no means so manifest, enumeration of the associates 
 who, according to the Saga, accompanied Karlsefne's 
 expedition to Vinland, in a.d. 1007." Finally, Mr 
 Schoolcraft submitted a copy of it to Chingwauk, an 
 intelligent Indian chief, who " interpreted it as the record 
 of an Indian triumph over some rival native tribe," but 
 without offering any opinion as to its antiquity. 
 
 In the " Grave Creek Mound " is said to have been 
 found a small oval disk of white sandstone, on which 
 were engraved twenty-two letters. I mention it because 
 it has been the subject of much discussion, but it is now 
 generally admitted to be a fraud. It is inscribed with 
 Hebrew characters, but the forger has copied the modern 
 instead of the ancient forms of the letters. 
 
 One or two other equally unsatisfactory cases are upon 
 record, but upon the whole we may safely assert that 
 there is no reason to suppose that the nations of America 
 had developed for themselves anything corresponding to 
 an alphabet. The art of picture-writing, which they 
 shared with the Aztecs and the Quipa of the Peruvians, 
 was supplemented among the North American Indians by 
 the " wampum." This curious substitute for writing 
 consisted of variously-coloured beads, generally worked 
 
 1 PreJiistonc Man, vol. ii. p. 172.
 
 272 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 upon leather. One very interesting example is the belt 
 of wampum " delivered by the Lenni Lenape Sachems to 
 the founder of Pennsylvania, at the Great Treaty, under 
 the elm-tree at Shachamox in 1682." It is still pre- 
 served in the collection of the Historical Society at 
 Philadelphia, and consists of " eighteen strings of 
 wampum formed of white and violet beads worked upon 
 leather thongs," the whole forming a belt 28 inches long 
 and 2^ broad. "On this, five patterns are worked in 
 violet beads on a white ground, and in the centre Penn 
 is represented taking the hand of the Indian Sachem." 
 The numerous beads found in some of the tumuli were 
 perhaps in a similar manner intended to commemorate 
 the actions and virtues of the dead. 
 
 Just as the wigwam of the recent Mandan consisted of 
 an outer layer of earth supported on a wooden frame- 
 work, so also, in the ancient sepulchral tumuli, the body 
 was protected only by beams and planks ; when therefore 
 these latter decayed, the earth sank in and crushed the 
 skeleton within. Partly from this cause, and partly from 
 the habit of burying in ancient tumuli, which makes it 
 sometimes difficult to distinguish the primary from 
 secondary interments, it happens that from so many 
 thousand tumuli we have very few well-preserved skulls 
 which indisputably belong to the ancient race. These 
 are decidedly brachycephalic ; but it is evident that we 
 must not attempt to build much upon so slight a basis. 
 
 No proof of a knowledge of letters, no trace of a burnt 
 brick, have yet been discovered ; and so far as we may 
 judge from their arms, ornaments, and pottery, the 
 mound-builders closely resembled the more advanced 
 of the recent Indian tribes, and the earthworks agree in 
 form with, if they differ in magnitude from those still, or 
 until lately, in use. Yet this very magnitude is sufficient to 
 show that, at some early period, the great river valleys of 
 the United States must have been more densely populated 
 than they were when first discovered by Europeans. 
 The immense number of small earthworks, and the 
 mounds, "which may be counted by thousands and tens
 
 POPULATION— AGRICULTURE 273 
 
 of thousands," might indeed be supposed to indicate 
 either a long time or a great population ; but in other 
 cases we have no such alternative. The Newark con- 
 structions ; the mound near Florence in Alabama, which 
 is 45 feet in height by 440 feet in circumference at the 
 base, with a level area at the summit of 150 feet in cir- 
 cumference ; the still greater mound on the Etowah 
 river, also in Alabama, which has a height of more than 
 75 feet, with a circumference of 1200 feet at the base, 
 and 140 at the summit ; the embankments at the mouth 
 of the Scioto river, which are estimated to be twenty miles 
 in length ; the great mound at Selserstown, Mississippi, 
 which covers six acres of ground ; and the truncated 
 pyramid at Cahokia, to which we have already alluded : 
 these works, and many others which might have been 
 quoted, indicate a population both large and stationary ; 
 for which hunting cannot have supplied enough food, as 
 it has been estimated that in a forest country each hunter 
 requires an area of not less than 50,000 acres for his 
 support ; and which must, therefore, have derived its 
 support, in a great measure, from agriculture. "There 
 is not," say Messrs Squier and Davis, " and there was 
 not in the sixteenth century, a single tribe of Indians 
 (north of the semi-civilized nations) between the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific, which had means of subsistence sufficient 
 to enable them to apply, for such purposes, the unpro- 
 ductive labour necessary for the work ; nor was there 
 any in such a social state as to compel the labour of the 
 people to be thus applied." We know also that many, 
 if not most of the Indian tribes, at that time still cultivated 
 the ground to a certain extent, and there is some evidence 
 that, even within historic times, this was more the case 
 than at present. Thus De Nonville estimates the amount 
 of Indian corn destroyed by him in four Seneca villages 
 at 1,200,000 quarters. 
 
 In many places, moreover, the ground is covered with 
 small mammillary elevations, which are known as Indian 
 corn-hills. " They are without order of arrangement, 
 being scattered over the ground with the greatest irregu- 
 
 18
 
 274 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 larity. That these hillocks were formed in the manner 
 indicated by their name, is inferred from the present 
 custom of the Indians, The corn is planted in the same 
 spot each successive year, and the soil is gradually brought 
 up to the size of a little hill by the annual additions." 
 But Mr Lapham has also found traces of an earlier and 
 more systematic cultivation. These consist " of low 
 parallel ridges, as if corn had been planted in drills. 
 They average four feet in width, twenty-five of them 
 having been counted in the space of a hundred feet ; 
 and the depth of the walk between them is about six 
 inches. These appearances, which are here denominated 
 ' ancient garden-beds,' indicate an earlier and more perfect 
 system of cultivation than that which now prevails ; for 
 the present Indians do not appear to possess the ideas of 
 taste and order necessary to enable them to arrange 
 objects in consecutive rows. Traces of this kind of 
 cultivation, though not very abundant, are found in 
 several other parts of the State (Wisconsin). The 
 garden-beds are of various sizes, covering, generally, 
 from twenty to one hundred acres, though some are 
 much larger. As a general fact, they exist in the richest 
 soil, as it is found in the prairies and bun oak plains. 
 In the latter case, trees of the largest kind are scattered 
 over them." 
 
 In the Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley^ it is 
 stated that no earthwork has ever been found on the first 
 or lowest terrace of any of the great rivers, and that 
 " this observation is confirmed by all who have given 
 attention to the subject." If true, this would indeed 
 have indicated a great antiquity, but in his subsequent 
 work Mr Squier informs us that " they occur indiscrimin- 
 ately upon the first and upon the superior terraces, as 
 also upon the islands of the lakes and rivers." Messrs 
 Squier and Davis ^ are of opinion that the decayed state 
 of the skeletons found in the mounds may enable us to 
 form " some approximate estimate of their remote anti- 
 quity," especially when we consider that the earth round 
 
 ^ Loc. cit., p. 1 68.
 
 ANTIQUITY OF EARTHWORKS 275 
 
 them " is wonderfully compact and dry, and that the 
 conditions for their preservation are exceedingly favour- 
 able." " In the barrows of the ancient Britons," they 
 add, " entire well-preserved skeletons are found, although 
 possessing an undoubted antiquity of at least eighteen 
 hundred years." Dr Wilson ^ also relies much on this 
 fact, which, in his opinion, " furnishes a stronger evidence 
 of their great antiquity than any of the proofs that have 
 been derived either from the age of a subsequent forest 
 growth, or the changes wrought on the river terraces where 
 they most abound." It is true that the bones in Stone 
 AgQ graves are often extremely well preserved ; but it is 
 equally true that those in Saxon barrows have in many 
 cases entirely perished. In fact, the condition of ancient 
 bones depends so much on the circumstances in which 
 they have been placed, that we must not attribute much 
 importance to this argument. 
 
 The evidence derived from the forests is more to be 
 relied on. Thus Captain Peck^ observed near the 
 Ontonagon river, and at a depth of twenty-five feet, 
 some stone mauls and other implements in contact with 
 a vein of copper. Above these was the fallen trunk of 
 a large cedar, and " over all grew a hemlock-tree, the 
 roots of which spread entirely above the fallen tree," 
 . . . and indicated, in his estimation, a growth of not 
 less than three centuries, to which must then be added 
 the age of the cedar, which indicates a still " longer 
 succession of centuries, subsequent to that protracted 
 period during which the deserted trench was slowly filled 
 up with accumulations of many winters." 
 
 The late President Harrison, in an address to the 
 Historical Society of Ohio, made some interesting remarks 
 on this subject, which are quoted by Messrs Squier and 
 Davis. ^ "The process," he says, "by which nature 
 restores the forest to its original state, after being once 
 cleared, is extremely slow. The rich lands of the west 
 are, indeed, soon covered again, but the character of the 
 
 ^ Loc. «■/., vol. i. p. 359. 
 
 - Wilson, /oc. cit.^ vol. i. p. 256. ^ Loc. cit.., p. 306.
 
 276 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 growth is entirely different, and continues so for a long 
 period. In several places upon the Ohio, and upon the 
 farm which I occupy, clearings were made in the first 
 settlement of the country, and subsequently abandoned 
 and suffered to grow up. Some of these new forests are 
 now of fifty years' growth, but they have made so little 
 progress towards attaining the appearance of the im- 
 mediately contiguous forest, as to induce any man of 
 reflection to determine that at least ten times fifty years 
 must elapse before their complete assimilation be effected. 
 We find in the ancient works all that variety of trees 
 which give such unrivalled beauty to our forests, in 
 natural proportions. The first growth of the same kind 
 of land, once cleared and then abandoned to nature, on 
 the contrary, is nearly homogeneous, often stinted to one 
 or two, at most three kinds of timber. If the ground 
 has been cultivated, the yellow locust will quickly spring 
 up ; if not cultivated, the black and white walnut will be 
 the prevailing growth. ... Of what immense age, then, 
 must be the works so often referred to, covered as they 
 are by at least the second growth, after the primitive 
 forest state was regained ! " ^ 
 
 We obtain another indication of antiquity in the 
 " garden-beds," which we have already described. This 
 system of cultivation has long been replaced by the 
 irregular " corn-hills " ; and yet, according to Mr Lapham,^ 
 the garden-beds are much more recent than some of the 
 mounds, across which they sometimes extend in the same 
 manner as over the adjoining grounds. If, therefore, 
 these mounds belong to the same area as those which are 
 covered with wood, we get thus indications of three 
 periods : the first, that of the mounds themselves ; the 
 second, that of the garden-beds ; and the third, that of 
 the forests. 
 
 But American agriculture was not imported from 
 abroad ; it resulted from, and in return rendered possible, 
 the gradual development of American semi-civilization. 
 This is proved by the fact that the grains of the Old 
 
 ^ See also ArcJi. Amer.^ vol. i. p. 306. ^ Lor. ctt, p. 19.
 
 ANTIQUITY OF EARTHWORKS 277 
 
 World were entirely absent, and that American agriculture 
 was founded on the maize, an American plant. Thus, 
 therefore, we appear to have indications of four long 
 periods : 
 
 (i) That in which, from an original barbarism, the 
 American tribes developed a knowledge of agriculture 
 and a power of combination. 
 
 (2) That in which for the first time mounds were 
 erected, and other great works undertaken. 
 
 (3) The age of the " garden-beds," which occupy some 
 at least of the mounds. Hence it is probable that these 
 particular "garden-beds" were not in use until after the 
 mounds had lost their sacred character in the eyes of the 
 occupants of the soil ; for it can hardly be supposed that 
 works executed with so much care would be thus desecrated 
 by their builders. 
 
 (4) The period in which man relapsed into partial bar- 
 barism, and the spots which had been first forest, then, 
 perhaps, sacred monuments, and thirdly, cultivated 
 ground, relapsed into forest once more. 
 
 But even if we attribute to these chane:es all the im- 
 portance which has ever been claimed for them, they will 
 not require an antiquity of more than three thousand 
 years. I do not, of course, deny that the period may 
 have been, and in all probability was, very much greater. 
 There are, moreover, other observations, which appear 
 to indicate a very much higher antiquity. 
 
 Dr A. C. Koch ^ records the case of a mastodon found 
 in Gasconade County, Missouri, which had apparently 
 been stoned to death by the Indians, and then partially 
 consumed by fire. 
 
 The same writer mentions a second case in which 
 several stone arrow-heads were found mingled with the 
 bones of a mastodon. These statements, however, are 
 not generally accepted by geologists, and the evidence in 
 support of them is, to say the least, very doubtful. 
 
 In the valley of the Mississippi, Dr Dickeson,of Natchez, 
 found the os innominatum of a man with some bones of 
 
 ' Tra?is. of the Academy of Science of St Louis, 1857, p. 61.
 
 278 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the Mastodon ohioticus^ which had fallen from the side of a 
 cliff undermined by a rivulet. This case, however, is 
 also open to doubt, and Sir C. Lyell was of opinion that 
 this bone mio;ht have been derived from one of the Indian 
 graves, which are very numerous in this locality. Dr 
 Usher, on the contrary,^ regards it as " an undoubted 
 fossil," belonging to the same period as the remains of 
 the mastodon with which it was discovered. Count 
 Pourtalis records the discovery of some human bones in 
 a calcareous conglomerate, estimated by Agassiz to be ten 
 thousand years old, though it must be added that this 
 calculation has been disputed by the Count himself. 
 
 The so-called " Calaveras " skull was found in the 
 county so named by Mr Mattison, who assures us that 
 he took it with his own hands from a bed of gravel 130 
 feet from the surface and under four layers of lava. The 
 antiquity of this skull has been much questioned, but 
 Mr Whitney seems to feel no doubt on the subject. He 
 maintains ^ that the chemical condition proves that it is 
 of considerable antiquity and not a mere modern skull, 
 as some have supposed. Of course if it really belonged 
 to the bed in which Mr Mattison supposes that it was 
 found, it must be of great antiquity, but we do not know 
 enough of the locality to be able to form even a vague 
 idea of its age. Dr Wright believes it to be genuine, 
 and mentions the occurrence of a stone mortar in the 
 same gravel bed. This discovery, however, suggests 
 doubt as to its great antiquity.^ 
 
 Dr Douler obtained from an excavation near New 
 Orleans some charcoal and a human skeleton, to which 
 he was inclined to attribute an antiquity of no less than 
 fifty thousand years. The plain on which the city of 
 New Orleans is built, and which rises only about ten feet 
 above the sea-level, consists of alluvial soil, which has 
 been proved by borings to have a depth of more than 
 five hundred feet, and which contains several successive 
 
 ' Dr Usher, in Nott and Gliddon's Types of AIanki?td, p. 344. 
 - Whitney, Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada, p. 271. 
 ^ Wright, Man attd tlie Glacial Period.
 
 ANCIENT MAN 279 
 
 layers of cypresses. The river banks show similar re- 
 mains of ancient forests, and Messrs Dickeson and Brown 
 have found remains of no less than ten cypress forests at 
 different levels below the present surface. These trees 
 are not unfrequently as much as ten feet in diameter, and 
 there are from 95 to 120 rings in an inch. The human 
 skeleton above referred to was found at a depth of sixteen 
 feet, and beneath the roots of a cypress-tree belonging to 
 the fourth forest level below the surface.^ Dr Andrews, 
 indeed, in a letter cited by Mr Southall,^ questions this 
 calculation. He maintains that the accretion of river 
 mud in the region of the lower Mississippi is very rapid, 
 and points out as a proof of this that trunks of trees may 
 be seen standing in the banks of the river, showing that 
 the accretion must have been rapid enough to cover them 
 before they had had time to decay. Whether, however, we 
 accept Dr Douler's calculation or not, it is obvious that, 
 if the statements are trustworthy, this skeleton certainly 
 must carry back the existence of man in America to a 
 very distant period. 
 
 In another case a piece of a wicker basket is said to 
 have been found in Louisiana,^ in association with 
 elephants' remains. Lastly, implements curiously re- 
 sembling the Palaeolithic implements of Western Europe, 
 have been found by Mr Jones at a depth of nine feet in 
 the gravel of the Chattahoochee valley,* and by Mr Abbott 
 in the drift gravels of New Jersey.^ 
 
 On the whole, then, the evidence certainly seems to 
 indicate that man has inhabited America for a considerable 
 period, and it is even probable, though there may not as 
 yet be any absolute proof, that he co-existed there with 
 the mammoth and mastodon. 
 
 ' Dr Usher, in Nott and Gliddon's Types of Mankind, p. 338. 
 
 - Recent Origin of Man, p. 472. 
 
 ^ Desnoyers, Cong. Inf. iV Anthropologie, p. 98 
 
 ■* Jones, Ant. of the Southern Indians, p. 294. 
 
 ^ Rep. of the Peabodv Museum, 1878.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 QUATERNARY MAMMALIA 
 
 In addition to those still existing, the fauna of Northern 
 Europe during the Palaeolithic Period comprised several 
 species of mammalia which have either become entirely 
 extinct, or very much restricted in their geographical 
 distribution, since the appearance of man in Europe. The 
 principal of these are — 
 
 Ursus speLeus (the cave-bear). 
 
 Ursus priscus. 
 
 Hyaena spelaa (the cave-hya:jna). 
 
 Felis spelcea (the cave-lion). 
 
 Elephas primigenius (the mammoth). 
 
 Elephas antiquus. 
 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus (the hairy rhinoceros). 
 
 Rhinoceros leptorhijius^ Cuv. 
 
 Rhinoceros hcmitctchus. 
 
 Hippopotamus major (the hippopotamus). 
 
 Ovibos moschatus (the musk ox). 
 
 Megaceros hihernicus (the Irish elk). 
 
 Equus fossilis (the wild horse). 
 
 Gulo luscus (the glutton). 
 
 Cervus tarandus (the reindeer). 
 
 Bison europctus (the aurochs). 
 
 Bos primigenius (the urus). 
 
 Besides many smaller, but very interesting, species. 
 
 The first ten of these have been regarded, until lately, 
 
 as altogether extinct, but recent researches have induced 
 
 many naturalists to regard some of them as the direct 
 
 2S0
 
 QUATERNARY MAMMALIA 
 
 281 
 
 ancestors of species still existing in other parts of the 
 world, so that the Irish elk, the elephants, and the three 
 species of rhinoceros are* perhaps the only ones which have 
 left no descendants. Most of the smaller species now 
 inhabiting Europe already existed in quaternary times, 
 from which we may conclude that the changes which 
 have taken place were due to a gradual change of circum- 
 stances, rather than to any sudden cataclysm, or general 
 destruction of life ; it is also very improbable that the 
 extinction of the different species was simultaneous ; and. 
 
 Fig. 206. — Painting on the roof of the cave ot Altamira, Santander, Spain. 
 After H. Breuil. 
 
 acting on this idea, M. Lartet has attempted ^ to construct 
 a palaeontological chronology. 
 
 He considered that we may establish four divisions, 
 namely, the age of the cave-bear, of the mammoth and 
 rhinoceros, of the reindeer, and of the aurochs. It is 
 evident, I think, that the appearance of these mammalia 
 in Europe was not simultaneous, and that their dis- 
 appearance has been successive. The evidence is very 
 strong that in Central and Western Europe the aurochs 
 survived the reindeer, and that the reindeer, on the other 
 hand, lived on to a later period than the mammoth or 
 the woolly-haired rhinoceros. But the chronological dis- 
 
 * Ann. des Set. Nat., 1 861, p. 217.
 
 282 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 tinction between these two species and the cave-bear does 
 not appear to be so well established. Admitting that 
 the cave-bear has not yet been found in the river gravels 
 of the Somme valley, we must remember that the animal 
 was essentially a cave-dweller, and that its absence is, 
 perhaps, to be attributed rather to the absence of caves 
 than to the extinction of the species. Moreover, the 
 bones found in the gravel are very much broken, and are 
 seldom in such a condition as to enable the palaeontologist 
 to distinguish the remains of U. spelceus from those of 
 other large bears. 
 
 There is as yet no evidence that the cave-bear existed 
 in Europe before the commencement of the quaternary 
 period, when it appears to have been abundant in Central 
 Europe and in the southern parts of Russia. It has not 
 yet been found in Siberia,^ it is doubtful whether it has 
 been discovereci north of the Baltic, nor has it yet been 
 found in Spain or in Ireland. In Italy, on the contrary, 
 it has been met with, and in one instance apparently in 
 association with a polished stone implement, and even 
 pottery.^ M. Regnoli has been so good as to forward 
 me a cast of the specimen on which this statement rests ; 
 it belongs to the cave-bear, but I can hardly regard it as 
 being uncioubtedly contemporaneous with the pottery 
 and stone axe which were found near it. In Northern 
 Europe no such case has yet been met with, but it is of 
 course possible that in Italy the cave-bear may have sur- 
 vived to a more recent period than in the region north 
 of the Alps. No trace of it has yet been found by Mr 
 Busk and Dr Falconer among the numerous remains 
 from Gibraltar, nor has it yet been met with in Siberia. 
 
 The late Dr Falconer referred to this species the leg 
 bones of a bear found in Brixham Cave, above a flint 
 implement. Mr Busk, however, who has carefully 
 examined these bones, and detached them more completely 
 from the matrix in which they were imbedded than was 
 
 ' Brandt, Bull, dc FAcad. Imp. de St Pt'tefsboio'g, 1870, vol. vii. pt. 3. 
 - Richerche Paleoetnologiche nelle Alpi Apuane, Nota del Dott. 
 C, Regnoli.
 
 VARIOUS SPECIES OF BEAR 283 
 
 the case when they were examined by Dr Falconer, is of 
 opinion that there is no sufficient reason for referring 
 them to Ursus speUus rather than to one of the other 
 large species of fossil bear. 
 
 It has been stated that remains of the cave-bear have 
 occurred in the river gravels at Ilford and Gray's 
 Thurrocks. In the opinion, however, both of Mr Busk 
 and Mr Boyd Dawkins, we have no clear case of the 
 remains of this species being found in river-drift gravels. 
 In fact, as materials for comparison have increased, it has 
 proved more and more difficult to separate Ursus spel^us 
 from other large species of bear. The jaws and teeth are 
 characteristic, but the other portions of the skeleton are 
 scarcely distinguishable, especially when they are so 
 much fractured, as is generally the case with those found 
 in gravel deposits. 
 
 Vogt, indeed, has expressed the opinion that every 
 gradation may be traced between this species and our 
 common brown bear (Ursus ' Arctos)^ and Brandt leans to 
 the same opinion.^ Mr Boyd Dawkins also says that 
 " those who have compared the French, German, and 
 British specimens gradually realize the fact that the fossil 
 remains of the bears form a graduated series, in which all 
 the variations that at first sight appear specific vanish 
 away." ^ Whether, however, the cave-bear will eventually 
 be regarded as belonging to the same species as the brown 
 bear or not, it will still remain a well-characterized variety, 
 and one which has never yet been certainly met with in 
 the peat mosses, in the tumuli of Western Europe, in the 
 Danish shell-mounds, the Swiss lake-villages, or, in short, 
 associated with Neolithic remains. 
 
 Mr Busk, whose views have more recently been sup- 
 ported by Dr Leith Adams and Mr Boyd Dawkins, has 
 made the interesting observation that some remains of 
 bear found in our British caves and grravels are identical 
 with the corresponding bones of U. Ferox^ or grizzly bear 
 of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 * Zoogeog7-ap]iische und PahTotitologiscJie Beitriige, 1867, p. 220. 
 ^ Pleistocene Manunalia^ Palaeontographical Soc, vol. xviii. p. xxii.
 
 284 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The cave-hycena^ like the preceding species, is in Europe 
 characteristic of the PalaeoHthic Age ; by some authorities 
 it is now regarded as scarcely distinguishable from the 
 Hyccna crocuta^ or spotted hyaena of Southern Africa. 
 
 Felis spelaa^ the cave-lion (fig. 207), attained a somewhat 
 larger size than the lion of the present day, and possessed 
 in an exaggerated degree the characters by which that 
 species is distinguishable from the tiger. It has hitherto 
 been regarded as a distinct species, but Messrs Dawkins 
 
 Fig. 207. — Lion, from a chawing in the cave of Combarelles. 
 After A. Breuil. 
 
 and Sanford now consider ^ it as only a large variety of 
 the lion. It has not yet been found in Scotland, Ireland, 
 Scandinavia, Denmark, or Prussia. It occurs, however, 
 in France, Germany, Italy, and Sicily. As long ago as 
 1672, Dr John Hains figured a bone of this species from 
 the Carpathians, an observation of considerable interest, 
 as it carries the area of the F. speUa so near to the 
 mountains of Thessaly, where, as Herodotus tells us, the 
 camels attached to the army of Xerxes were attacked by 
 lions.^ Messrs Boyd Dawkins and Sanford refer also 
 
 1 Pahtontological Soc, vol. for 1868, p. 149. 
 
 2 See also Mr Newton's interesting memoir, On ihc Zoology of Aficie/tt 
 Europe, Cam. Pliil. Soc, March, 1862.
 
 CAVE LION— MAMMOTH 285 
 
 to the same species the remains found at Natchez, in 
 Mississippi, which were described by Dr Leidy as a new 
 species under the name of Felis atrox. The characters, 
 however, which induced Dr Leidy to regard his specimens 
 as distinct, are met with in some of the bones of F. speLea 
 from the Menciip Hills. If this opinion be correct, 
 F. spelcea must have stretched eastwards across Russia and 
 Siberia, where no remains of it have yet been observed. 
 Inasmuch, however, as the mammoth, the musk ox, the 
 reindeer, the bison, the elk, the horse, the wolf, — in short, 
 many of our most characteristic quaternary mammalia — 
 occur also in America, it seems a priori rather probable 
 than otherwise that Messrs Dawkins and Sanford are 
 correct in regarding F. atrox of that continent as specifically 
 identical with the F. spelcea of Europe. 
 
 Remains of a second large species of Felis^ considered 
 to be identical with the leopard, have been ciiscovered in 
 the bone-caves of England, France, Germany, Belgium, 
 Italy, and Spain ; and the lynx has been found by Dr 
 Ransom in a Derbyshire cave. 
 
 The Mammoth^ or Elephas primigenius (figs. 208, 225), 
 had very extensive geographical range. Its remains 
 are found in North America, but not east of the Rocky 
 Mountains nor south of Columbia River ; in the old 
 continent, from the farthest extremity of Siberia to the 
 extreme west of Europe, occurring, though rarely, even 
 in Ireland ; it crossed the Alps, and established itself in 
 Italy as far southward as Rome, but it has not yet been 
 discovered in Naples, in any of the Mediterranean islands, 
 or in Scandinavia. In Spain and Denmark it occurs, but 
 is very rare. 
 
 In the extreme north, on the contrary, remains of this 
 species are remarkably abundant. Kotzebue was struck 
 by this in Escholtz Bay (N.-W. America), and his remarks 
 have been fully confirmed by Beechey.^ The islands of 
 Lachowski and New Siberia are said to contain innumer- 
 able bones of extinct animals, and particularly of the 
 mammoth ; from them and from other parts of Siberia 
 
 ^ Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, vol. i. p. 257.
 
 286 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 so much fossil ivory is obtained that it forms a regular 
 article of commerce. Nor have skeletons alone been 
 discovered. In 1799 a Tungusian hunter discovered the 
 body of a mammoth embedded in a cliff of frozen soil, 
 where it remained for several years. In 1806 it was 
 visited by Mr Adams, who found it partly devoured by 
 wolves and other wild animals, and partly removed by the 
 Yakuts, who used it as food for their dogs. Fortunately, 
 
 Fig. 20S. — Mammoth, from a drawing in the cave of Font-de-Gaume. 
 After A. Breuil. 
 
 however, a considerable portion of the animal still 
 remained. The skin was dark grey, covered with reddish 
 wool, mixed with long black bristles, somewhat thicker 
 than horsehair. Another frozen mammoth was discovered 
 in 1846, besides several other well-preserved portions, 
 and it was probably from earlier finds of a similar nature 
 that the Siberian tribes began to regard the mammoth as 
 a gigantic burrowing animal. It is hardly necessary to 
 observe that the state of preservation in which mammoths 
 have been found is no evidence of recent existence, for
 
 THE MAMMOTH 
 
 287 
 
 when once enveloped in frozen soil they might remain 
 unchanged for an indefinite period. 
 
 The best authorities consider that the mammoth and 
 the woolly- haired rhinoceros lived in Siberia before, as 
 well as during the glacial period, and though as regards 
 Europe the evidence is not so conclusive, it appears 
 probable that they also existed in Europe in pre-glacial 
 times. It is probable that during the severer portions of 
 the period they retreated south, and advanced northward 
 again during the milder inter-glacial period. Whatever 
 doubt, however, there may be as to the date at which this 
 species made its appearance in Europe, we can no longer 
 hesitate to believe that our ancestors, or at least our pre- 
 
 FlG. 209. — Molar touth of E, antiqitus, one-third actual size. 
 
 decessors, co-existed in England with the mammoth, 
 which they no doubt hunted, as the wildest tribes of 
 Africa and India do now. 
 
 The only other species of elephant which inhabited 
 Northern Europe ciuring the quaternary period was the 
 nearly allied Elephas andquus^ remains of which have been 
 found in English caves and river gravels, though, on the 
 whole, it had a more southerly range than the mammoth. 
 It is generally associated with Rhinoceros leptorhinus^ Cuv., 
 while, on the contrary, the mammoth and R. tichorJnnus 
 usually occur together. 
 
 In Southern Europe unmistakable remains of the exist- 
 ing African elephant have been met with. 
 
 Fig. 209 represents a molar tooth of E. antiquus^ and 
 fig. 210 one belonging to E. primigenius ; it will at once 
 be seen that the plates are much narrower in the latter 
 than in the former.
 
 288 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 At least three species of rhinoceros inhabited Europe 
 during the quaternary period ; on this all are agreed, but, 
 unfortunately, the nomenclature is involved in very 
 considerable confusion. R. leptorliinus was originally so 
 named by Cuvier in 1812, from a drawing of a specimen 
 found in the Val d'Arno, and in which the bony septum 
 between the nostrils was represented as deficient. In 
 1835, M. de Christol stated that he had examined the 
 specimen in question, that the drawing was incorrect, and 
 the name consequently inapplicable. Subsequently, how- 
 ever, Dr Falconer visited Italy and satisfied himself that 
 after all the original drawing was correct, and that there- 
 fore Cuvier's name must be restored. In the meantime 
 Professor Owen had unfortunately described another 
 
 Fig. 210. — Molar tooth of the mammoth, one-third actual size. 
 
 species of rhinoceros found at Clacton as R. leptorhinus^ 
 which name must of course be abandoned if Cuvier's 
 name is permitted to stand. Hence Dr Falconer proposed 
 to call this latter species R. hemiuechus. It is necessary 
 therefore to bear in mind that the R. leptorliinus of Owen 
 is not the R. leptorliinus of Cuvier, but that it is the 
 R. hemitc€chus of Falconer, while M. Lartet maintains that 
 it is identical with the R. Merkii of Kaup. On the other 
 hand, M. de Christol, in 1835, (-lescribed a rhinoceros, 
 which undoubtedly wanted the nasal septum, and believ- 
 ing himself to have proved that the figure on which 
 Cuvier based his description of R. leptorliinus was incorrect, 
 he named this species R. megarhinus. Hence Cuvier's 
 R. leptorliinus is identical with De Christol's R. megarhinus. 
 The third species is the R. tichorhinus (fig. 211) 
 of Cuv., a name which has been generally adopted,
 
 RHINOCEROS 
 
 289 
 
 although Blumenbach had previously proposed that of 
 R. antiquitatis. 
 
 o 
 
 Mr Boyd Dawkins considers that there is still some 
 doubt about the real character of the specimen on which 
 Cuvier founded his R. leptorhinus^ and consequently adopts 
 
 19
 
 290 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the following nomenclature : R. megarhinus, De Christol ; 
 R. leptorhinus^ Owen ; and R. tichorhinus^ Cuvier. M. 
 Lartet uses the names R. leptorhinus^ Cuv. ; R. Merkii, 
 Kaup ; and R. tichorhinus^ Cuvier. These differences of 
 opinion, however, relate merely to the nomenclature, and 
 do not touch the existence of the species themselves. 
 The first two belonged to the pre-glacial as well as to the 
 post-glacial period. The woolly-haired, two-horned, 
 smooth-skinned R. t'lchorhinus^ on the contrary, which 
 appears to have been the commonest in post-glacial times, 
 has not yet been proved to have existed in Europe in the 
 period before the glacial epoch. The two other species 
 also have a more southerly range, having been found in 
 Italy and Spain, while R. tichorhinus^ though it has been 
 met with from the extreme north of Siberia,^ throughout 
 Central Europe and England, does not appear to have 
 crossed either the Alps or the Pyrenees. It is somewhat 
 remarkable that no remains of rhinoceros have yet 
 been discovered in Sicily, Malta, Scotland, Ireland,^ or 
 America,^ in all of which countries the elephant has been 
 met with. On the other hand, a single tooth has, accord- 
 ing to Brandt, been found in Scandinavia, where no 
 remains of elephant have yet been discovered. 
 
 The Musk-ox, or rather Musk-sheep, is at present con- 
 fined to the northern part of Arctic America. Its remains, 
 however, occur in Siberia ; and in 1856 Mr Kingsley and 
 I were so fortunate as to obtain a portion of a skull from 
 the large gravel-pit near Maidenhead Station. Since then 
 I have met with it again at Greenstreet Green, near 
 Bromley, in Kent ; it has also been found in the gravel 
 of the Avon, near Bath, in that of the Severn, near 
 Gloucester, and at Crayford. It has since been found, 
 though rarely, in France and Germany. 
 
 The Hippopotamus, though hitherto regarded as a distinct 
 
 ' In more than one instance the actual carcase of this animal has 
 been found preserved like the mammoth, by being imbedded in frozen 
 soil. 
 
 2 Lartet, " Note sur deux tetes de Carnassiers Fossiles," Atm. d. Set. 
 Nai., Ser. 5, vol. viii. 
 
 ^ D'Archiac, Lei^ons sur le Faiaie (2ii<iief'nairc, p. 196.
 
 RHINOCEROS— IRISH ELK 291 
 
 species from the H. amphibius of Africa, was, if not 
 identical with, at any rate very closely allied to it. Some 
 palaeontologists believe that, like the mammoth and the 
 R. tichorhinus^ it was covered with hair ; we have, how- 
 ever, no distinct evidence in support of this view. It 
 may, moreover, be remarked, though too much import- 
 ance must not be attached to the observation, that our 
 ancient hippopotamus has been less frequently found in 
 association with these two species, than with E. antiquus 
 and R. hemit^chus^ Falc. [leptorhinus^ Owen), which, as 
 just mentioned, have a more southerly range. Thus, in 
 this country, it has only been found in four bone-caves, 
 those of Durdham Down, Kirkdale, Kent's Hole Cavern, 
 and Ravenscliff in Gower, and in the two former it was 
 associated with E. ayitiquus and R. hemitcechus. In the 
 river gravels its remains are found at Grays and Ilford, 
 associated with the R. tichorhinus^ R. leptorhinus^ and R. 
 hemitdechus ; at Walton and Folkestone, with Elephas 
 antiquus ; at Peckham, with E. antiquus^ and E. primi- 
 genius ; at Bedford, with E. antiquus^ the tichorhine rhino- 
 ceros, and the reindeer ; and at Barton, with the mammoth 
 and R. hemitcechus} 
 
 The magnificent Irish elk, or Megaceros hibernicus, 
 which attained a height of more than ten feet, with 
 antlers measuring eleven feet from tip to tip, may perhaps 
 have lived to a somewhat more recent period, but appears 
 to have had a much more restricted range. Its remains 
 have been found in Sweden, in Germany, in France as 
 far as the Pyrenees, and in Central Italy. It seems, 
 however, to have been most abundant in the British 
 Isles, and especially in Ireland. It is reported to have 
 been frequently found in peat-bogs, but Professor Owen 
 believes that, in reality, the bones generally occur in the 
 lacustrine shell marl, which underlies the peat or bog 
 earth. ^ 
 
 In the Niebelungen Lied of the twelfth century, a 
 
 ^ The British Pleistocene Mammalia, Palaeontological Soc, 1866, 
 p. xxviii. 
 ^ Owen, loc. cit., p. 465.
 
 :()2 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 mysterious animal is mentioned under the name of 
 schelch : 
 
 " After this he straightway slew a bison and an elk, 
 Of the strong uri four, and one fierce schelch." 
 
 It has been supposed by some writers that the schelch 
 was, in fact, the Megaceros hibernicus. There is, however, 
 no sufficient reason for this hypothesis, and we must 
 
 Fig. 212. — Deer, from a drawing in the cave of Altamira. After A. Breuil. 
 
 remember that the same poem, as Dr Buckland has 
 pointed out, contains allusions to giants, dwarfs, pigmies, 
 and fire-dragons. Neither Caesar nor Tacitus mentions 
 the Irish elk, and they would surely not have omitted 
 such a remarkable animal, if it had been known to them. 
 
 No remains of the Irish elk have yet been found in 
 association with bronze, nor indeed am I aware of any 
 which can be referred to the later Stone or Neolithic Age. 
 
 These twelve species, then, are especially characteristic 
 of the river-drift deposits. Most of them occur also in 
 the loess of the Rhine and its principal tributaries, but.
 
 HORSE AND HIND. 
 
 From a painting on the roof of the Cave 
 of Altamira, Spain. 
 
 AFTER A DRAWING BY 
 M. H BREUIL
 
 WILD HORSES 293 
 
 except perhaps the last, they have not yet been met with 
 in the peat-bogs. They never occur in the Kjokken- 
 moddings, the lake-habitations, or tumuli ; nor are there 
 any traditions in Western Europe which can be regarded 
 as indicating, even in the most obscure manner, any 
 recollection of these gigantic mammalia. 
 
 Another remarkable group of animals invaded Europe 
 soon after the glacial period, from the dry steppes of 
 Central Asia. Amongst these were the Saiga Antelope 
 (//. saiga)^ the Lagopus fusillus^ the Common Hamster 
 {Cricetus vulgaris)^ the Small Hamster (C. plheus)^ the 
 Steppe Marmot {Arctomys bobac), the Spermophilus 
 rufescens^ Alactaga jaculus^ and ArvicoJa gregaris [Kriz. 
 Mit. Anthr. Ges. JVien, 1898, p. 8). These have been 
 supposed to indicate the prevalence of a very dry period. 
 Of fourteen special " Tundra " species, twelve have been 
 found in Western Europe. Is it not possible, however, 
 that they happened to be amongst the first arrivals on the 
 return of a milder period, and were not able to maintain 
 themselves in the struggle for existence } 
 
 The Wild Horses (fig. 213 and Plate) which in ancient 
 times inhabited Europe differed somewhat from our 
 present breed, and have been described as separate races 
 by Professor Owen, under the names of Eqiius fossilis and 
 Equus speUus. The latter is the race which was largely 
 used for food by the ancient inhabitants of the Bruniquel 
 Cave in Dordogne.^ It was rather small in size, but 
 appears to have resembled the true horse more than the 
 ass. Some naturalists have, indeed, been disposed to 
 believe that Europe contained two wild species of the 
 genus Equus during quaternary times. This opinion, 
 however, seems to depend on difference of size rather 
 than of form, and we know that the varieties of the horse 
 differ considerably in magnitude. At Solutre the wild 
 horse seems to have been the principal article of food, 
 and it is estimated that the deposit must have contained 
 the remains of 100,000 animals. 
 
 ' Owen, Philosophical Transactions, 1869, p. 535. See also Riitimeyer 
 Beitriige ziir Ketintniss der fossilen Fferden.
 
 294 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Ekkehard, in the 'Benedictiones ad mensas Ekkehardi 
 monachi Sangallensis^ mentions " ferales equi " as existing 
 in the eleventh century in Switzerland. Lucas David 
 also {Reuss. Chronik.^ Bd. ii. s. 121) alludes to the wild 
 horse as existing in 1240 in Russia. Even at the begin- 
 ning of the seventeenth century, Herberstein expressly 
 says, " Feras habet Lithuania, praeter eas, qua^ in Germania 
 referuntur, bison tes, uros, alces, eguos sylvestres^' etc. 
 
 Perhaps, however, these mediaeval wild horses were 
 
 Fig. 213. — Wild horse, from a drawing in the cave of Combarelles. 
 After A. Breuil. 
 
 merely tame ones which had escaped and bred in the 
 extensive forests of Central Europe. Indeed, the history 
 of the horse in Europe seems to have been much the 
 same as in America. In the one country as in the other, 
 wild horses were at one time frequent, and their remains 
 are abundant. The Spanish conquerors, however, found 
 no trace or tradition of the horse at the time of the 
 discovery of America ; and so also in the Danish shell- 
 mounds, and at the earlier Swiss lake-villages, the horse 
 was either unknown, or at least extremely rare. Gradually 
 it seems to have become again abundant, both in a domesti- 
 cated and a wild condition ; until at length, as population
 
 REINDEER 
 
 295 
 
 increased, the wild horse finally disappeared in Europe, 
 as he seems destined ere long to do in America.^ 
 
 The Reindeer (figs. 214, 224) still exists in Northern 
 Europe, in Siberia, and in North America, where it has 
 been found as far north as man has yet penetrated. Even 
 so recently as the time of Pallas it might still be met with 
 on the wooded summits of the Oural Mountains, as far 
 south as the Caucasus. In Western Europe it is now an 
 extinct species, though it was at one time abundant in 
 
 Fig, 214. — Reindeer, from a painting in the cave ot Font-de-Gaume 
 (Dordogne). After A. Breuil. 
 
 England and France, whence, however, it is unnecessary 
 to say, it has long disappeared. M. Lartet found no traces 
 of it in any of the Spanish caves examined by him ; Ponzi 
 mentions it, though apparently with some little doubt, 
 as occurring among the animal remains collected by 
 M. Regnoli, at Cantalupo, near Rome ; but its existence 
 south of the Alps seems still doubtful." 
 
 At the present day the reindeer, like the Laplander, is 
 gradually retiring northwards, unable to resist the pressure 
 
 ' See, for further particulars, Brandt, ZoographiscJie und Palaonto- 
 logisc/ie Beitj-cige, p. 176. 
 
 ■^ Rapporto sugli Stiidi e sulle Scoperte Paleoetnologiche tiel Bacino 
 delta Ca??ipaotia Romatia, Roma, 1867.
 
 296 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of advancing civilization. Even within the last ten years 
 a few families of Lapps might still be found in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Nystuen, on the summit of the Fillefjeld, 
 and some other places in the south of Norway, but none 
 are now to be found on this side of the Namsen river. 
 The reindeer, in a wild state, indeed, even at the present 
 day, is generally distributed, though in small numbers, 
 over the highest and wildest of the Norwegian fjelds, 
 protected, however, by stringent game laws, but for which 
 it would probably have ere now ceased to exist. 
 
 On the other hand, this species must have been at one 
 time very abundant in Great Britain, no fewer than a 
 thousand horns having been found by Colonel Wood in 
 some of the Gower caves on the Welsh coast. 
 
 As far as we can judge from the present evidence, the 
 first appearance of the reindeer in Europe coincided with 
 that of the mammoth, and took place at a later period 
 than that of the cave-bear or Irish elk. It is generally 
 found wherever the mammoth and woolly-haired rhino- 
 ceros occur ; but, on the other hand, as its remains are 
 abundant in some of the bone-caves in which the gigantic 
 Pachyderms are wanting, it is probable that it survived to 
 a still later period. The reindeer has not, however, been 
 found in the Kjokkenmoddings of Denmark, nor in any 
 of the tumuli of England, France, or Germany. It is 
 also wanting in the Swiss lake-villages, although we know 
 that it was at one time an inhabitant of Switzerland, bones 
 of it having been found in a cave at L'Echelle, between 
 the Great and Little Saleve, near Geneva, where they 
 were mixed with worked flints, ashes, and remains of the 
 ox and horse. 
 
 As might naturally have been expected, remains of the 
 reindeer occur in the peat mosses of Sweden, as well as 
 in those of Scotland and England. It is not, however, 
 represented on any of the ancient British or Gallic coins. 
 Caesar, indeed, mentions it as existing in the great Her- 
 cynian forest ; but his description is both imperfect- and 
 incorrect. He seems to have heard of it only at second- 
 hand, and never to have met with anybody who had
 
 REINDEER 297 
 
 actually seen one. It does not appear to have been ever 
 exhibited in the Roman circus, 
 
 Buffon stated on the authority of Gaston, Comte de 
 Foix, that in his time (1331 to 1390) the reindeer still 
 lived in the south of France. Cuvier, however, by 
 examining an ancient manuscript, sent by Gaston himself 
 to Philippe le Hardi, showed that, though his expression 
 is a little ambiguous, he probably intended to say exactly 
 the reverse, his words being — 
 
 " J'en ay veu en Nourvegne et Xuedene et en ha oultre 
 mer, mes en Romain pays en ay je peu veu." ^ 
 
 Remains of the reindeer have been found in Scotland 
 in beds of marl and till, and also, though very rarely, in 
 peat.^ Hibbert,^ Brandt,^ Boyd Dawkins, J. A. Smith, 
 and other good authorities, consider that it survived in 
 the extreme north down to the twelfth century ; relying 
 on the statement of Torfasus, that the Norwegians used 
 to make incursions from the Orkneys into Caithness for 
 the purpose of hunting reindeer {Jireina) and other game.^ 
 
 While, however, fully admitting the high authority of 
 Torfasus, I cannot regard a casual statement of this 
 character as conclusively deciding the question, and I may 
 add that Sir G. Dasent, who was so great an authority on 
 all questions connected with Scandinavian literature, was 
 convinced that the reindeer was extinct in Scotland at the 
 period in question. It may also be remarked that several 
 attempts which have been made to introduce the reindeer 
 into Scotland have completely failed, the animals dying 
 without any very apparent reason, while, on the contrary, 
 in Iceland they have become numerous. I admit that 
 these experiments are far from conclusive ; but, on the 
 other hand, in Scandinavia the deer are said to be larger 
 in the northern districts than in the southern, while the 
 Spitzbergen specimens are the finest of all. 
 
 ^ Recherches siir les Ossenients Fossilcs, vol. \ i. p. 125. 
 ^ See Dawkins, Popular Science Kez'ieiv, Jan. 1868 : Smith, P?-oc. Soc. 
 Ant. Scot., 1869, p. 186. 
 
 ^ Edi7iburgh Jourual of Sci.^ 1831. 
 
 ■* Zoogeogr. unci Palceont. Beitrdge, 1867, pp. 62, 256. 
 
 ^ Reriim Orcadensiitvi His., i. 36.
 
 298 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 If, indeed, Torfaeus had distinctly stated that the rein- 
 deer existed in northern Scotland during the twelfth 
 century, the state of the case would have been very 
 different ; the passage referred to, however, could hardly 
 be accepted as conclusive by itself, especially as long as 
 no traces of reindeer had been found among the ancient 
 ruins which abound in that district. On the other hand, 
 Dr J. A. Smith has carefully examined the horns and 
 bones found in the ruins of the curious towers known as 
 " Brochs," or " Burghs," and has shown that some of 
 them certainly belonged to the reindeer.^ Thus fragments 
 of reindeer's horns have been collected by Mr Joass among 
 the ruins of the Cill-TroUa Broch, on the farm of Kintrad- 
 well, near Brora, on the sea-coast of Sutherlandshire. Dr 
 Smith, on carefully examining the remains of deer obtained 
 by Mr Laing at Keiss, in Caithness, finds that they do 
 not all belong, as at first supposed, to the red deer, but 
 that some of them were those of the reindeer. Lastly, 
 remains of this species have been collected by Mr Anderson 
 in the ruins of the Yarhouse Broch, in the same county. 
 It is indeed more than probable that in other cases 
 remains of the reindeer have been incorrectlv ascribed to 
 the red deer. 
 
 We do not, unfortunately, know the date at which these 
 Burghs or Brochs were first constructed, but it is on record 
 that some of them were in use down to the twelfth century 
 (see ante^ p. 62), 
 
 No doubt these observations tend to support the 
 inference derived from the statement of Torfaeus, and 
 though 1 am not entirely convinced, it must be admitted 
 that there are strong grounds for believing that the rein- 
 deer survived in northern Scotland down to a compara- 
 tively recent period, if not so late as the time mentioned 
 by Torfasus. 
 
 The true Arctic Fox has also been found in English 
 bone-caves, as well as in those of Central Europe, Indeed, 
 in the Kessorloch cave in Switzerland, out of 150 lower 
 jaws of foxes, only 2 belonged to our Common Fox, 
 
 ' Proc. Soc. Antiq., 1868, vol. viii. p. 186.
 
 GLUTTON— AUROCHS 299 
 
 66 to the Arctic Fox {Canis lagopus)^ and the remainder to 
 the Red Fox of North America.^ In the same cave the 
 Common Hare was represented by two individuals only, 
 while of the Alpine Hare not less than 250 individuals 
 were indicated by the remains. 
 
 The Glutton^ of North Europe, which is the wolverine 
 of the North American fur-hunters, has been found in 
 several of the English bone-caves, as well as in the 
 
 Fig. 215. — Bison, from a painting in the cave of Altamira. After A. Breuil.^ 
 
 Norfolk "Forest-beds,"^ and is abundant in those of 
 Belgium. 
 
 The Aurochs^ or European bison (see Frontispiece 
 and figs. 215, 216), appears to have been abundant in 
 Western Europe. It has been found in Scotland, 
 England, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, 
 and Italy, as well as in Russia. Its remains occur in 
 the river-drift gravels, the bone-caves, the lake-villages 
 of Switzerland, and in the peat-bogs, though none have 
 yet been found in the shell-mounds of Denmark, nor, so 
 
 ' Merk. Mitt, der Ant. Ges. m Zurich.^ 1875 ! Riitimeyer, Die Verdnd. 
 der Thierivelt in der Sch-iVeiz seit Anioesenheit der Menschen. 
 2 A7ithropologie, vol. xv. 
 2 Newton, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1880.
 
 300 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 far as I am aware, in any of our British peat-bogs or 
 tumuli. M. Lartet thinks that it is represented on a coin 
 of the Santones, which was shown to him by M. de Saulcy. 
 It is stated by Pliny and Seneca to have existed in their 
 time, with the urus, in the great forests of Germany. 
 Though not mentioned by Caesar, it is alluded to in the 
 Niebelungen Lied, and is said to have existed in Prussia 
 down to the year 1775. According to Nordmann and 
 Von Baer, it still survives in some parts of Western Asia. 
 The bison is also preserved by the Emperor of Russia 
 
 /■%':?: 
 
 i i 
 
 %, 
 
 Fig. 216. — Bison, from a painting in the cave of Altamira. After A. Breuil.^ 
 
 in the imperial forests of Lithuania, where, however, its 
 existence seems to be very precarious. In 1830 the 
 herd numbered 711 head, of which, during the Polish 
 revolution in 1831, 115 were killed. From that time 
 they gradually increased until 1857, when the numbers 
 were 1898, but during the late Polish rebellion they fell 
 to 874. Since 1863 no numbers have been given. 
 
 According to Rotimeyer, than whom it is impossible 
 to cite a greater authority on such a question, our ancient 
 bison (B. prisms) was specifically identical with the exist- 
 ing American bison. Every stage, however, between the 
 fossil form and the existing European aurochs can be 
 
 > Anthropologic^ vol. xv.
 
 AUROCHS— URUS 301 
 
 traced, so that it is impossible to separate the two, an 
 opinion in which Brandt also coincides. It would appear, 
 moreover, that the American form of bison is more 
 archaic than that of Europe. 
 
 Allen regards the gigantic Bos latifrons^ which had im- 
 mense horns spreading from ten to twelve feet, as the parent 
 form, passing through B.priscus into the present European, 
 and through B. bonasus into the American bison. ^ We 
 have here, therefore, a clear case in which two now dis- 
 tinct species are connected by the evidence of fossil 
 remains. 
 
 The urus, or Bos primigenius, did not extend its range 
 to America, nor, so far as I am aware, have its remains 
 yet been met with in North-Eastern Asia. They occur, 
 however, throughout Europe — in England, Scotland, 
 Denmark, and the south of Sweden, in France and 
 Germany. Across the Alps and Pyrenees, it occurs in 
 Italy and Spain, and even, according to M. Gervais, in 
 Northern Africa. In the museum at Lund is a skeleton 
 belonging to this species, in which one of the vertebrae 
 still shows traces of a wound, made, in the opinion of 
 Professor Nilsson, by a flint arrow. Bones of this species 
 have also been met with in ancient tumuli, as well as in 
 the lake-habitations, and in the Kjokkenmoddings. 
 
 Caesar particularly mentions the urus as occurring in 
 the Hercynian forest : it is alluded to in the Niebelungen 
 Lied, and, according to Hcrberstein, it existed in Germany 
 down to the sixteenth century. In England, wild bulls 
 are mentioned by Fitz-Stephen, in his Life of Becket, as 
 occurring near London as late as the twelfth century. 
 It does not seem certain, however, that these were uri. 
 The celebrated wild cattle of Chillingham, and some of 
 our domestic breeds, are generally regarded by palaeon- 
 tologists as being descended from the ancient urus, but 
 this is denied by others, who consider that the Chillingham 
 cattle are descended from the imported Shorthorn breed 
 (see ante, p. 210). 
 
 Mr Dawkins is of opinion that Machairodus latidens, 
 
 1 The Amencan Bisons, p. 35.
 
 302 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 one of the most remarkable of the Pliocene carnivora, 
 survived to post-glacial times. It was found by MacEnery 
 in Kent's Hole, but was apparently very rare, and our 
 committee only found a single tooth in the subsequent 
 examination of that interesting cavern. Nor has it 
 occurred in any other of our bone-caves or river gravels 
 with remains of post-glacial mammalia. The Norway 
 Elk^ which is identical with the American moose, was also 
 an inhabitant of this country, but has long become extinct 
 here, as, indeed, throughout Western Europe. Even in 
 Prussia it is said that there are only about 226 remaining.^ 
 The lemming has been discovered by Dr Blackmore in the 
 river gravels at Fisherton, near Salisbury ; and the lagomys, 
 or tailless hare, a genus now confined to the Himalayas, 
 Siberia, and the colder regions of North America, has 
 been identified by Professor Owen among the bones from 
 Kent's Cavern, and by Dr Falconer among those from 
 the Brixham Cave. Among other northern and eastern 
 forms may be also mentioned a species allied to Dipus, 
 Alactaga jaculus^ and a small mouse, Arvkola gregaris} 
 Another glacial genus, that of the marmots, is represented 
 by two species, one of them very closely resembling that 
 now living in Siberia. These later species, together with 
 the Saiga antelope, indicate the existence, during part of 
 the period, of a dry and cold interval with a climate 
 resembling the Siberian tundras. Lastly, it may be 
 observed that remains of the great snowy owl (Strix 
 nived) and of the willow grouse {Tetrao albus) are met 
 with in abundance in most of the caves of the south-west 
 of France. 
 
 The river gravels contain also ^d species of shell-fish, 
 of which 34 at present live in Sweden,^ and 29 in 
 Lombardy. These latter, however, are principally species 
 having a very wide range, and we shall see still more 
 clearly that the leaning of the molluscan fauna is towards 
 
 1 See Report from Her Majestfs Representatives abroad, on the Laws 
 and Rcgulatiofis relating to Gatne, presented to J^arliament, 1871. 
 - Arch./. Anthropologies 1876, p. 162. 
 3 Proc. Roy. Soc, 1862, p. 44.
 
 LINKS BETWEEN EXISTING SPECIES 303 
 
 the north, if we remember that out of 77 Finland 
 species, 31 have been found in the upper level gravels, 
 while of 193 Lombard species, only 29 have as yet 
 occurred. 
 
 A very interesting point connected with this quaternary 
 fauna is the manner in which it connects together species 
 now quite distinct. Opponents of Mr Darwin's theory 
 often ask for the links connecting any two species. In 
 fact, however, every species is a link between other allied 
 forms. Of course, indeed, as long as any varieties remain 
 undescribed there will be intervals — indicating, however, 
 gaps not in nature, but in our knowledge. Moreover, 
 it is admitted by everyone that there are variable species, 
 that is to say, species which present two or more extreme 
 forms, with intermediate gradations. Now we may fairly 
 ask those who assert that no two species are connected 
 by links, how they would separate the instances of vari- 
 able animals (which they admit to occur) from the case 
 which they say does not exist. If we were to obtain to- 
 morrow all the links between any two species which are 
 now considered distinct, no one can deny that the two 
 would at once be united, and would hereafter appear in 
 our classifications as one variable species. In fact, there- 
 fore, they first unite into one species all these forms, 
 however different, between which a complete series is 
 known, and then argue in favour of the permanence of 
 species because no two of them are united by intermediate 
 links. 
 
 Moreover, if species were in reality unconnected by 
 common ancestors, then it would necessarily follow that, 
 as our knowledge of any group increased, the separations 
 between the different species would become more and 
 more unmistakable. On the contrary, however, it is a 
 well-known fact that the difficult genera become still 
 more difficult as they are more profoundly studied. If, 
 indeed, we consider existing forms only, no doubt the 
 distinctions between the greater number of species are 
 well-marked, nor does anyone expect to find a living 
 series of links between them. The intermediate forms
 
 304 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 lived in tertiary and quaternary times. Thus directly 
 we commence to study the extinct forms, all the con- 
 venient lines of separation gradually thin out. For 
 instance, the larger species of mammalia are at present in 
 most cases well marked, but it becomes much more 
 difficult satisfactorily to distinguish them from one 
 another when we consider fossil specimens as well as 
 recent ones. To take only two cases from the group of 
 quaternary mammalia, we have seen that, according to 
 RQtimeyer, the European and American bisons, which 
 are now quite distinct, are connected by the Bison priscus, 
 while between our brown bear and the grizzly bear of 
 the Rocky Mountains a series of links has been discovered 
 among the abundant remains in the bone-caves. 
 
 Great as is the interest attaching to the existence of 
 man at a period so much more ancient than that hitherto 
 assigned to him, there is something which, to many 
 minds, will appear even more fascinating, in the presence 
 of such a fauna as that which 1 have thus briefly indicated. 
 For it must be regarded as a well-ascertained fact that, 
 even during the human period, the pleasant and sunny 
 valleys of England and of France have been inhabited 
 by the gigantic Irish elk, two species of elephant, and 
 three of rhinoceros, together with the reindeer, a large 
 bear closely resembling the grizzly bear of the Rocky 
 Mountains, a bison scarcely distinguishable from that of 
 the American Prairies, the musk-ox of Arctic America, 
 the lemming of the Siberian steppes, the lion of the 
 Tropics, the hyaena of the Cape, and a hippopotamus 
 closely resembling that of the great African rivers. 
 
 Influenced mainly by the presence of the great pachy- 
 derms, and particularly by that of the hippopotamus, 
 M. d'Archaic was disposed to consider that the climate 
 of the quaternary period was warmer than ours,^ while 
 M. Lartet^ suggests that we may have haci a climate like 
 that of Chili, where, as Mr Darwin had pointed out, 
 glaciers actually come down to the sea-level in latitudes 
 
 1 Logons sur la Fauiie Qttatcrtiaifr, pp. 15, 16. 
 
 2 Lartet, Ann. des Sc. Nai., 1867, p. ^7.
 
 CLIMATE OF QUATERNARY PERIOD 305 
 
 corresponding with that of our south coast and the 
 northern provinces of France. 
 
 In other respects, however, the fauna of the quaternary 
 deposits indicates a more severe climate. The presence 
 of the reindeer and musk ox, the lemming and the 
 marmot, corroborated, as we shall see in the next chapter, 
 by physical evidence, leaves little doubt on this subject. 
 Moreover, we must remember that the tichorhine rhino- 
 ceros and the mammoth were not only well provided 
 against cold, but in some cases were enveloped in the ice 
 and frozen mud of the Siberian rivers so soon after death 
 that the flesh had not had time to decay. Much weight 
 is also to be attributed, I think, to the presence of smaller 
 quadrupeds, as, for instance, of the lemming and lagomys. 
 
 Yet it cannot be denied that some of the species, and 
 particularly the hippopotamus, indicate a warmer climate. 
 Even if protected by fur, as Sir J. Prestwich supposes, this 
 animal could never live in a country where the rivers 
 were frozen every winter. To meet this difficulty, a 
 suggestion has been thrown out that it may have made 
 annual migrations. In the Gulf of Penas, on the west 
 coast of South America, lat. 47° S., Mr Darwin has 
 pointed out that glaciers now " descend to the sea within 
 less than nine degrees of latitude from where palms grow, 
 less than two and a half from arborescent grasses, less 
 than two from orchideous parasites, and within a single 
 degree of tree-ferns."^ The reindeer in America makes, 
 we know, very extensive annual migrations, but a heavy 
 animal like the hippopotamus could hardly do so. I am, 
 therefore, rather disposed to believe that the presence of 
 the hippopotamus, the E. antiquus^ and R. leptorhinus 
 indicates that the climate of the quaternary period was 
 not uniformly severe, but contained at least one interval 
 of exceptional mildness. 
 
 The late M. Morlot, well known as an excellent and 
 careful observer, was, I believe, the first to point out that, 
 in Switzerland, there was evidence of three periods of 
 great extension of the glaciers, separated by epochs of 
 
 ' Researches iti Geology and Natural History, p. 285. 
 
 20
 
 3o6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 comparative warmth. And in Great Britain also there is 
 strong geological evidence of the existence of several such 
 warm interglacial periods.^ 
 
 We shall also see presently that if the cold of the glacial 
 epoch was due to the astronomical causes pointed out by 
 M. Adhemar and Mr Croll, the period of extreme cold 
 must have been followed by one of unusual warmth, or 
 rather there must have been several oscillations of climate 
 from unusual heat to extreme cold. 
 
 I am disposed then, on the whole, to consider that the 
 quaternary fauna consists of two different groups, belong- 
 ing to different periods and to (at least) two different 
 conditions of climate, one warmer than the present, the 
 other colder. The whole subject, however, while of great 
 interest, is also one of extreme difficulty, and I shall return 
 to it more at length in a subsequent chapter. On many 
 points we must be contented to suspend our judgment, 
 but we may at least regard it as proved that, since the 
 appearance of man, there have been great changes in the 
 fauna of Western Europe, which then contained several 
 important species, either now altogether extinct, or exist- 
 ing only in distant parts of the world. 
 
 1 Geikie, The Great Ice A^e ; Croll, Clivtate and Time.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PRIMEVAL MAN 
 
 It would be quite impossible, within the limits of a single 
 chapter, to describe all the caves in which human remains 
 have been found in association with, and apparently 
 belonging to, the same period as those of the extinct 
 mammalia. I will only call attention to a few of those 
 which have been most thoroughly examined, and by the 
 researches in which the conclusions appear to be satis- 
 factorily established. 
 
 It is unnecessary to observe that a great number of 
 caves present evidence of having been occupied during 
 times long subsequent to those which we are now con- 
 sidering ; but for the Neolithic Age, as well as for all later 
 periods, we have, as has been already mentioned, other 
 sources of information, and more satisfactory evidence than 
 any which can be derived from the examination of caves. 
 
 Some writers, indeed, have gone so far as to question 
 altogether the value of what may be called cave evidence. 
 They have suggested that the bones of extinct animals 
 may have lain in the caves for ages before the appearance 
 of man ; that relics of the human period may have been 
 introduced subsequently ; and that remains belonging to 
 very different periods may have been mixed together. 
 This was, for instance, the conclusion arrived at by 
 M. Desnoyers, even so recently as the year 1845, in his 
 article on Bone-caves.^ Unless this argument admitted 
 
 * " Recherches G6ologiques et Historiques sur les Cavernes, particu- 
 lierement sur les cavernes a ossements," Dictionnaire Universel (f Histoire 
 Naturelle. 
 
 307
 
 3o8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of a satisfactory answer, it must be conceded that the 
 evidence derivable from cave contents would always be 
 liable to grave suspicion, I trust, however, to be able to 
 show that this is not the case. 
 
 As long ago as the year 1828, MM. Tournal and 
 Christol in the south of France had found fragments of 
 pottery and human bones and teeth intermingled with 
 remains of extinct animals ; and M. Tournal distinctly 
 expressed the opinion that these had certainly not been 
 washed in by any diluvial catastrophe, but must have been 
 introduced gradually. The presence of pottery, however, 
 throws much doubt on the supposed antiquity of these 
 remains. 
 
 A few years later, in 1833 and 1834, Dr Schmerling^ 
 published an account of his researches in some caves near 
 Liege in Belgium. In four or five of these he found 
 human bones, and in all of them rude implements, princi- 
 pally flint flakes, were discovered, scattered in such a 
 manner among the remains of the mammoth. Rhinoceros 
 tichorhinus^ cave-hyaena, and cave-bear, that Dr Schmerling 
 referred them to the same period. One feels a natural 
 surprise that such animals as these should ever have been 
 natives of England and France, ever have wandered about 
 among our woods or along our streams ; but when it was 
 also suggested that they were contemporary with man, 
 surprise was succeeded by incredulity. Yet these cave 
 researches appear to have been conducted with care, and 
 the principal results have been confirmed by more recent 
 discoveries. 
 
 The hesitation, however, with which the statements of 
 Dr Schmerling were received by scientific men arose, no 
 doubt, partly from the fact that some of the fossil remains 
 discovered by him were certainly referred to wrong species, 
 and partly because, with reference to several of the extinct 
 species, and especially to the mammoth, he expressed the 
 opinion that the remains had been brought from a distance, 
 and had very likely been washed out of some earlier bed. 
 
 ' Recherches sur Ics Osseine/iis Fossilcs dccouvcrts dans Ics Cavernes 
 de la Province de LtCi^e, par le Dr P. C. Schmerling.
 
 FRENCH AND BELGIAN CAVES 309 
 
 Even, therefore, though Dr Schmerling might be quite 
 right in his conclusion that the human remains had been 
 " enfouis dans ces cavernes a la meme epoque, et par 
 consequent par les memes causes qui y ont entraine une 
 masse d'ossements de differentes especes eteintes," still it 
 would not necessarily follow that man had lived at the 
 same period as these extinct species. 
 
 Careful explorations of the Belgian caves were subse- 
 quently made, under the auspices of the Government, by 
 M. E. Dupont.^ These caverns belong principally to the 
 so-called Reindeer Period, and the flint implements are 
 never ground. Thus out of 30,000 worked flints found 
 in the cavern of Chaleux, and 1200 in those of Furfooz, 
 not one presents a trace of grinding. Some of these flint 
 flakes, etc., appear to consist of Pressigny (Touraine) 
 flint, and, in the opinion of Dr Dupont, as well as of 
 M. de Mortillet, must have come from that distant 
 locality. In this cavern the humerus of an elephant was 
 discovered, but in M. Dupont's opinion, founded on the 
 state of the bone, it belonged to an earlier period than 
 the other remains. Human bones have been found in 
 several of these caverns. The Trou du Frontal contained 
 bones belonging to no less than thirteen individuals. 
 They had probably been buried in the cave, the entrance 
 to which seemed to have been purposely closed by a large 
 block of stone. When discovered they were in great 
 confusion, having, in the opinion of MM. Dupont and 
 Van Beneden, been disturbed and rearranged by water. 
 The form of the cavern, and the fact that the opening 
 was in great measure closed by the above-mentioned 
 stone, seem to me to speak strongly against this suggestion, 
 and I should rather regard the disturbance of the bones 
 as due to foxes and badgers. The Trou de la Naulette 
 contained a very remarkable lower jaw, of which M. 
 Dupont says that " regarde dans la face interne, elle ofire 
 une telle proclivite d'arriere en avant de la partie symphy- 
 saire qu'on est porte a y voir un prognatisme tout animal. 
 
 • Notices Prelimhtaires sur les Fouilles exdcutees sous les auspices du 
 Gouvernement Beige dans les Cavernes de la Belgique, 1867.
 
 3IO PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Les apophyses geni ne sont pas indiquees ; les fossettes 
 laterales sont tres-prononcees, et le rebord mentonnier est 
 reduit a son minimum. Les alveoles des canines, bien 
 que tres-rapprochees des alveoles des incisives, et des 
 molaires, nous rappellent la disposition qu'on observe sur 
 la machoire du singe. En effet, I'alveole qui logeait la 
 canine est fort vaste et bombee a la face externe. Ce qui 
 semble plus etrange encore, c'est que les trois alveoles des 
 grosses molaires presentent absolument I'ordre typique 
 du maxillaire simien par I'augmentation progressive des 
 alveoles de la premiere a la deuxieme et a la troisieme 
 molaire." 
 
 The celebrated cavern of Kent's Hole, near Torquay, 
 was examined by Mr MacEnery as long ago as 1825. 
 He did not, however, publish his notes on the subject, 
 and they remained in manuscript until 1859, when Mr 
 Vivian succeeded in obtaining them. Mr MacEnery 
 found human bones, flint flakes, etc., but all either 
 on the surface or in disturbed soil, so that on the 
 whole he regarded them, though apparently with 
 much doubt, as posterior to the remains of the cave-bear, 
 hyaena, etc. 
 
 In the year 1840, Mr Godwin-Austen communicated 
 to the Geological Society a memoir on the Geology of the 
 south-east of Devonshire,^ and in his description of Kent's 
 Hole he says, that " human remains and works of art, 
 such as arrow-heads and knives of flint, occur in all parts 
 of the cave, and throughout the entire thickness of the 
 clay : and no distinction founded on condition, distribution, 
 or relative position, can be observed, whereby the human 
 can be separated from the other reliquiae," which included 
 bones of the " elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, horse, bear, 
 hyaena, and a feline animal of large size." The value, he 
 truly adds, " of such a statement must rest on the care 
 with which a collector may have explored. I must there- 
 fore state that my own researches were constantly con- 
 ducted in parts of the cave which had never been dis- 
 turbed, and in every instance the bones were procured 
 
 ^ Transactions of the Gcol. Soc, Ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 433.
 
 KENT'S HOLE— BRIXHAM CAVE 311 
 
 from beneath a thick covering of stalagmite ; so far, then, 
 the bones and works of man must have been introduced 
 into the cave before the flooring of stalagmite had been 
 formed." Notwithstanding the high authority of Mr 
 Godwin-Austen, these statements attracted little attention ; 
 and the very similar assertions made by Mr Vivian, in a 
 paper read before the Geological Society, were considered 
 so improbable that the memoir containing them was not 
 published. 
 
 They have, however, been completely confirmed by the 
 systematic examination which was instituted by the British 
 Association. Worked flints were found less abundantly 
 in the lower layers than near the surface, but several 
 were discovered under circumstances which left no 
 doubt that they were deposited at the same time as the 
 bones of the large mammalia. The researches were 
 carried on by a Committee, consisting of Sir C. Lyell, 
 Mr Busk, Sir J. Evans, Professor Phillips, Mr Vivian, 
 Mr Pengelly, and myself, and the work was under the 
 more immediate superintendence of Mr Pengelly and 
 Mr Vivian. 
 
 In May 1858, Dr Falconer called the attention of 
 the Geological Society to a newly-discovered cave at 
 Brixham, near Torquay, and a Committee was appointed 
 to assist him in examining it. Grants of money were 
 obtained for the same object from the Royal Society 
 and Miss Burdett Coutts. In addition to Dr Falconer, 
 Mr Busk, Sir J. Evans, Mr Pengelly, Sir J. Prestwich, 
 and Professor Ramsay were entrusted with the in- 
 vestigations. In September 1858 a preliminary notice 
 was published by the Geological Society, but the General 
 Report is contained in the Philosophical Transactions for 
 
 The deposits in the cave were, in descending order — 
 
 (r) Stalagmite of irregular thickness. 
 
 (2) Ochreous cave-earth with limestone breccia. 
 
 (3) Ochreous cave-earth with comminuted shale. 
 
 (4) Rounded gravel.
 
 312 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The organic remains belonged chiefly to the following 
 species : — 
 
 (I 
 
 Eiephas primigenius. 
 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus. Teeth in considerable 
 
 numbers and an astragalus. 
 
 (3) Bos primigenius. 
 
 (4) Bos. 
 
 (5) Equus cah alius. 
 
 (6) Cervus tarandus. The reindeer — skull and horns. 
 
 (7) Cervus elaphus. Horns. 
 
 (8) C. capreolus. 
 
 (9) Ursus speUus — the cave-bear. Lower jaws, teeth, 
 
 etc. 
 
 (10) U.ferox. 
 
 (11) U. arctos. 
 
 (12) Hyaena speUa. Lower jaws, teeth, fragments of 
 
 skulls, and other bones. 
 
 (13) Felis spehea. 
 
 (14) Lagomys. 
 
 Several flint flakes were also found indiscriminately 
 mixed with these bones, and, according to all appearance, 
 of the same antiquity. They occurred at various depths, 
 from ten inches to eleven feet, and some of them 
 were in the gravel, below the whole of the ochreous 
 cave-earth. 
 
 Again, in the grotto of Maccagnone, in Sicily, 
 Dr Falconer found human traces, consisting of ashes and 
 rude flint implements, in a breccia containing bones of 
 the Eiephas antiquus^ of the hyaena, of a large Ursus, of a 
 Felis (probably F. spehea), and especially with large 
 numbers of bones belonging to the hippopotamus. The 
 " ceneri impastati," or concrete of ashes, had at one time 
 filled the cavern, and a large piece of bone breccia was 
 still cemented to the roof, but owing to some change in 
 the drainage the greater part had been washed out again. 
 The presence of the hippopotamus sufficiently proves that 
 the geographical conditions of the country must have 
 been very difi^erent from what they are now ; but I
 
 SICILIAN CAVE 313 
 
 cannot do better than quote Dr Falconer's own summary 
 of his observations in this case : 
 
 " The vast number of Hippopotami implied that the 
 physical condition of the country must have been greatly 
 different, at no very distant geological period, from what 
 obtains now. He considered that all deposits above the 
 bone breccia had been accumulated up to the roof by 
 materials washed in from above, through sinuous crevices 
 or flues in the limestone, and that the uppermost layer, 
 consisting of the breccia of shells, bone-splinters, siliceous 
 objects, burnt clay, bits of charcoal, and hyasna coprolites, 
 had been cemented to the roof by stalagmitic infiltration. 
 The entire condition of the large fragile Helices proved 
 that the effect had been produced by the tranquil agency 
 of water, as distinct from any tumultuous action. There 
 was nothing to indicate that the different objects in the 
 roof breccia were other than of contemporaneous origin : subse- 
 quently a great physical alteration in the contour, altering 
 the flow of superficial water and of the subterranean 
 springs, changed all the conditions previously existing, 
 and emptied out the whole of the loose incoherent contents, 
 leaving only the portions agglutinated to the roof. The 
 wreck of these ejecta was visible in the patches of ' ceneri 
 impastati,' containing fossil bones, below the mouth of 
 the cavern. That a long period must have operated in 
 the extinction of the hyaena, cave-lion, and other fossil 
 species is certain, but no index remains for its measure- 
 ment. The author would call the careful attention of 
 cautious geologists to the inferences — that the Maccagnone 
 Cave was filled up to the roof within the human period, 
 so that a thick layer of bone splinters, teeth, landshells, 
 hyaenas' coprolites, and human objects, was agglutinated 
 to the roof by the filtration of water holding lime in 
 solution ; that subsequently, and within the human 
 period, such a great amount of change took place in the 
 physical configuration of the district as to have caused 
 the cave to be washed out and emptied of its contents, 
 excepting the patches of material cemented to the roof, 
 and since coated with additional stalagmite."
 
 314 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Similar proofs of great and recent geographical changes 
 have been afforded by the examination of certain Spanish 
 caves. The Rock of Gibraltar abounds In caverns 
 containing human remains, with stone, bone, and 
 bronze Implements, mixed with those of domesticated 
 animals, such as the goat and ox. In the bone 
 breccia from the Genista Cave and fissure, Mr Busk 
 and Dr Falconer have discovered Hyana crocuta^ an 
 existing African species, the leopard, lynx, serval and 
 Barbary stag, together with Rh. hemitachus and a 
 species of Ibex. But, although It Is more than prob- 
 able, it does not appear to be proved, that man 
 co-existed with these animals on the Rock of Gibraltar. 
 Among some bones found In another cave near Madrid, 
 M. Lartet has discovered molars of the existing African 
 elephant. 
 
 M. Lartet ^ has also described with his usual ability an 
 interesting grotto, or small cave, which was discovered 
 some years ago at Aurlgnac, in the south of France. A 
 peasant named Bonnemaison, seeing a rabbit run into a 
 hole on a steep slope, put his hand In, and to his 
 surprise pulled out a human bone. Curiosity urged 
 him to explore farther, and on removing a quantity of 
 rubbish, he found a large block of stone, which almost 
 closed up the entrance to a small chamber. In which 
 were no less than seventeen human skeletons. Un- 
 fortunately for science, the Mayor of Aurlgnac, hearing 
 of these discoveries, collected the human bones, had 
 them reburled, and when M. Lartet some years 
 afterwards explored the cavern, they could not be found 
 again. 
 
 After carefully examining the locality, M. Lartet came 
 to the conclusion that this small cavern had been used 
 as a burial-place, and from the remains of bones broken 
 for marrow, and marks of fire Immediately outside 
 the cave, he Inferred that funeral feasts had been held 
 there. 
 
 The following is the list of species determined by 
 
 ' A7t7j. des Sc. Nat.^ 1861, p. 177.
 
 AURIGNAC 
 
 3^S 
 
 M. Lartet, together with the approximate number of 
 
 individuals belonging to each : — 
 
 Number of individuals. 
 
 (2 
 
 (3 
 (4 
 (5 
 (6 
 (7 
 (8 
 (9 
 (,o 
 
 (l I 
 
 (l2 
 
 (14 
 (16 
 
 (18 
 (19 
 
 Cave bear (Ursns speUus) 
 Brown bear ( U. arctos F) 
 Badger {Meles taxus) 
 Polecat {Putorius vulgaris) 
 Cave lion {Felis speUd) 
 Wild cat (F. catus) 
 Hyaena {Hycena spelaci) 
 Wolf {Canis lupus) 
 Fox (C. vulpes) . 
 Mammoth (Elephas primigenius). 
 Two molars and an astragalus. 
 Rhinoceros {^Rhinoceros tichorhinus) 
 Horse (Equus caballus) . 
 Ass ? ^ {E. asinus) . 
 Boar {^us scrofii). Two incisors. 
 Stag (^Cervus elaplius) 
 Irish elk. {Megaceros hibernicus) 
 Roe (C capreolus) 
 Reindeer (C tarandus) . 
 Aurochs {Bison europctus) 
 
 s- 
 
 s- 6 
 
 3 
 18 — 20 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 12- 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 3— 4 
 10 — 12 
 12 — 15 
 
 Some of these were found in the grotto, others outside ; 
 the latter had been gnawed by some large carnivorous 
 animal, no doubt the hyasna, coprolites of which were 
 found among the ashes. On the other hand, the bones 
 inside the cave were untouched, from which M. Lartet 
 concludes that after the funeral feasts, hyaenas came and 
 devoured all that had been left by the men, but that they 
 could not effect an entrance into the cave on account of 
 the large block of stone by which the entrance was 
 closed, and which was actually found in its place by 
 Bonnemaison. 
 
 In addition to the hyaena, the animals occurring in this 
 list, and yet no longer existing, or known historically to 
 
 ' This is, I presume, a small variety of horse, and not the true ass. 
 The query is in the original.
 
 3i6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 have existed in France, are the reindeer, cave-bear, 
 rhinoceros, cave-lion, Irish elk, and mammoth. The 
 contemporaneity of the reindeer with man is very evident ; 
 all the bones are broken for marrow, and many bear the 
 marks of knives, besides which, the greater number of 
 the bone implements are made out of the bones or horns 
 of this species. That the rhinoceros also was contempor- 
 aneous with man is inferred by M. Lartet, firstly, on 
 chemical grounds, the bones of this species, as well as 
 those of the reindeer, aurochs, etc., having retained the 
 same amount of nitrogen as the human bones from the 
 same locality ; and secondly, because the bones appear 
 to have been broken by man, and in some cases are 
 marked by knives. Moreover, he has ingeniously pointed 
 out that these bones must have belonged to an individual 
 recently killed, because, after having been broken by man, 
 they were gnawed by the hyaenas, which would not have 
 been the case if they had not been fresh and still full of 
 their natural juices. 
 
 The elephant was represented only by some detached 
 plates of molars and a calcaneum. This latter was the 
 only gnawed bone found in the interior of the grotto. 
 He is of opinion that these plates were purposely 
 separated, and the calcaneum appears to have been placed 
 in the vault at the time of the last interments ; but there 
 is no evidence that it was then in a fresh condition. 
 Indeed, the fact of its being gnawed seems rather to 
 point the other way. 
 
 Remains of the Ursus speLeus (cave-bear) were much 
 more abundant, and some of them were found in the 
 grotto. In one case a whole limb appears to have been 
 buried with the flesh on, as the different bones were all 
 found together. It is well known that food and drink 
 were in ancient times frequently buried with the dead, 
 and M. Lartet thinks that we may account in this manner 
 for the bones of quadrupeds found in the grotto at 
 Aurignac. 
 
 I have given the particulars of this case at length, 
 because, if the evidence was well established, we should
 
 WOKEY HOLE 317 
 
 here have an instance of a sepulture belonging to the 
 period at which the cave-bear, the reindeer, the Irish 
 elk, the woolly-haired rhinoceros, and probably the 
 mammoth, still lived in the south of France. It is, how- 
 ever, much to be regretted that M. Lartet was not present 
 when the place was first examined ; and, under all the 
 circumstances, we cannot, I think, feel satisfied that the 
 human remains found in this cave were coeval with those 
 of the extinct mammalia. 
 
 Another remarkable case is that of the Hyaena-den at 
 Wokey Hole, near Wells, which has been ably explored 
 and described by Mr Boyd Dawkins.^ In this instance 
 the cave was filled with debris up to the very roof, and 
 it appears that the accumulation of material was partly 
 due to the disintegration of the dolomitic conglomerate 
 forming the roof and walls of the cavern, and partly to 
 the sediment washed in gradually by rain and small 
 streams. It is evident that the bones and stones were 
 not brought into the cave by the action of water ; firstly, 
 because none of the bones are at all rolled ; secondly, 
 because, though several rude flint implements were found 
 in the cave, only one single unworked flint was met with ; 
 and thirdly, because, in some cases, fragments of the 
 same bone have been found close together, while, if they 
 had been brought from a distance, it is almost incredible 
 that they should have been again deposited close to one 
 another. Again, there are several layers — one over the 
 other — of album grcecum^ that is to say, the excrement 
 of hyaenas, each of which indicates, of course, an old floor, 
 and a separate period of occupation ; so that the presence 
 of, at least, one such floor above some of the flint imple- 
 ments, proves two things : firstly, that the hyaenas which 
 produced the album gnecum occupied the cave after the 
 savages who used the flint instruments ; and, secondly, 
 that these implements have not been disturbed by water 
 since the period of the hyaena. 
 
 During the last years of his life, Mr Christy examined 
 and described, in conjunction with M. Lartet, with great 
 1 Quart. Jouni. Gcol. Soc, May 1862, p. 115.
 
 3i8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 care a number of small caves and rock-shelters in the 
 Dordogne, some of which had already attracted the 
 attention of archaeologists.^ These caves are particularly 
 interesting, because, so far at least as we can judge from 
 the present state of the evidence, the remains found in 
 them belong to M. Lartet's Reindeer Period, and tend, 
 therefore, to connect the later Stone or Neolithic Age 
 with the period of the river-drifts and the great extinct 
 mammalia ; representing a period about which we had 
 previously very little information. Those which have 
 been most carefully examined are ten in number, viz. 
 Laugerie, La Madelaine, Les Eyzies, La Gorge d'Enfer, 
 Le Moustier, Liveyre, Pey de I'Aze, Combe-Granal, and 
 Badegoule, most of which I have myself had the advantage 
 of visiting. Some of these, as, for instance, Les Eyzies 
 and Le Moustier, are at a considerable height above the 
 stream, but others — as those at La Madelaine and 
 Laugerie — are little above the present flood-line, showing, 
 therefore, that the level of the river is now nearly the 
 same as it was at the period during which these caves 
 were inhabited. 
 
 The rivers of the Dordogne run in deep valleys cut 
 through calcareous strata ; and while the sides of the 
 valleys in chalk districts are generally sloping, in this 
 case, owing probably to the hardness of the rock, they 
 are often vertical. Small caves and grottos frequently 
 occur ; besides which, as the different strata possess un- 
 equal power of resistance against atmospheric influences, 
 the face of the rock is, as it were, scooped out in many 
 places, and thus " rock-shelters " are produced. In very 
 ancient times these caves and rock-shelters were inhabited 
 by men, who have left behind them abundant evidences 
 of their presence. But as civilization advanced, Man, no 
 longer content with the natural but inconvenient abode 
 thus offered to him, excavated chambers for himself, and 
 in places the whole face of the rock is honeycombed 
 with doors and windows leading into suites of rooms, 
 
 ' De rOrigine et de PEn/ance des Arts en Pcrigord, par M. I'Abbe 
 Audierne.
 
 FAUNA OF THE DORDOGNE CAVES 319 
 
 often in tiers one over another, so as to suggest the idea 
 of a French " Petra." Down to a comparatively recent 
 period, as, for instance, in the troublous times of the 
 Middle Ages, many of these, no doubt, served as very 
 efficient fortifications, and even now some of them are 
 still in use as storehouses, and for other purposes, as at 
 Brantome, where there is an old chapel cut in the solid 
 rock. Apart from the scientific interest, it was impossible 
 not to enjoy the beauty of the scene which passed before 
 our eyes as we dropped down the Vezere. As the river 
 visited sometimes one side of its valley, sometimes the 
 other, so we had at one moment rich meadowlands on 
 each side, or found ourselves close to the perpendicular 
 and almost overhanging cliff. Here and there we came 
 upon some picturesque old castle, and though the trees 
 were not in full leaf, the rocks were in many places green 
 with box and ivy and evergreen oak, which harmonized 
 well with the rich yellow brown of the stone itself. 
 
 But to return to the bone-caves. Remains of the 
 cave-bear have been found at the Pey de I'Aze, of the 
 cave-hyaena at Le Moustier, and separated plates of 
 elephant molars have occurred at Le Moustier and at 
 Laugerie, accompanied at the latter place by a piece of 
 a pelvis. As regards the two first species, MM. Christy 
 and Lartet regard them as probably belonging to an 
 earlier period than the human remains found in the same 
 caves. The presence of the pelvis has been regarded as 
 an evidence of the contemporaneity of the mammoth 
 with the reindeer hunters of Laugerie, and it is certainly 
 difficult to see why they should have brought a fossil- 
 bone into their cave, more especially as the bones of 
 elephants, from the looseness of their texture, are not 
 well adapted for implements. 
 
 As regards the Felts speLea^ a metacarpal bone belonging 
 probably to this species, and bearing marks of knives, 
 was found in the cave of Les Eyzies. 
 
 Still, so far as the positive zoological evidence is con- 
 cerned, the antiquity of the human remains found in 
 these grottos rests mainly on the presence of the reindeer,
 
 320 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 as regards which the evidence is conclusive. The bones 
 of this species are all broken open for the marrow ; many 
 of them bear the marks of knives, and at Les Eyzies a 
 vertebra was found which had been pierced by a flint 
 flake. MM. Christy and Lartet are quite satisfied that 
 this bone must have been fresh when it was thus trans- 
 fixed. Moreover, as we shall presently see, there is still 
 more conclusive evidence that man and the reindeer were 
 contemporaneous in this locality. 
 
 But in its negative aspect, the zoological evidence is 
 also very instructive. No remains have been found 
 which, in the opinion of MM. Christy and Lartet, can be 
 referred to domestic animals. It is true that bones of 
 the ox and horse occur, but there is no evidence that they 
 belono-ed to domesticated individuals. Remains of the 
 boar are very rare, and if these animals had been domesti- 
 cated we might have expected to find them in greater 
 abundance. The sheep and goat are entirely wanting, 
 and, what is still more remarkable, even the dog appears 
 to be absent. At the same time, the bones of the horse 
 and reindeer, especially of the latter, are very numerous ; 
 but MM. Christy and Lartet do not think that they were 
 domesticated. On the other hand, M. Riltimeyer seems 
 to be of a different opinion.^ Of the bones from the 
 cave of Veyrier he has drawn out the following list : 
 Ptarmigan 31 individuals, reindeer 18, ibex 6, horse 5, 
 stag 4, mountain hare 4, marmot 4, chamois i, wolf i, 
 bear i, ox i, fox i, stork i. He points out that this is 
 decidedly an Alpine fauna, and he asks why, if the 
 reindeer were wild, they did not retire into the high Alps 
 with the bear, the ibex, and the chamois ? The condition 
 of the bones, and especially of the horns, will enable us 
 some day to answer this question, but we have at present 
 no case in which the reindeer and the horse are held in 
 domestication together by the same race, and we must be 
 satisfied to wait for further evidence before the question 
 can be decided. 
 
 In the collections made by MM. Christy and Lartet, as 
 
 * Revue Savoisiitine, 25th April 1868.
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENTS 321 
 
 well as that of M. Le Vicomte de Lastic from Bruniquel, 
 a very large proportion of the animal remains consists of 
 teeth, lower jaws, and horns. Other bones do indeed 
 occur, but they form a small fraction of the whole. Yet 
 we cannot attribute this to the presence of dogs, partly 
 because no remains of this species have yet been dis- 
 covered, partly because the bones which remain have not 
 been gnawed, but principally because dogs eat only certain 
 bones and parts of bones, as a general rule selecting the 
 spongy portions, and rejecting the solid shafts. 
 
 Sir F. Galton has pointed out that some of the savage 
 tribes of Africa, not content with the flesh of the animals 
 which they kill, pound up also the bones in mortars, and 
 then suck out the animal juices contained in them. So 
 also, according to Leems, the Danish Laplanders used to 
 break up with a mallet all the bones which contained any 
 fat or marrow, and then boil them until all the fat was 
 extracted.^ The Esquimaux also mash up the bones 
 for the sake of the marrow contained in them.^ Some 
 of the ancient stone hammers and mortars were no doubt 
 used for this purpose, and the proportions of the differ- 
 ent bones afford us, I think, indirect evidence that a 
 similar custom prevailed among the ancient inhabitants of 
 southern France. 
 
 Passing on now to the flint implements found in these 
 caves, we must first call attention to their marvellous 
 abundance. Without any exaggeration they may be 
 said to be innumerable. Of course this adds greatly to 
 the value of the conclusions ; nor need it surprise us, 
 because flint is so brittle, that implements made of it 
 must have been easily broken, and, in that case, the 
 fragments would be thrown away as useless ; especially 
 in a chalk district where the supply of flint would, of 
 course, be practically inexhaustible. Many implements, 
 no doubt, would be left unfinished, having been rendered 
 useless, either by some misdirected blow, or some flaw 
 
 ' Accoimt of Dauish Lapland, by Leems, Copenhagen, 1767 ; trans- 
 lated in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. i. p. 396. 
 
 ^ Hall, Life with the Esquimaux., vol. ii. pp. 147, 176. 
 
 21
 
 322 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 in the flint. Moreover, we should naturally expect that, 
 in a bone-breccia of this nature, the flint implements 
 would be relatively more abundant than in a Kjokken- 
 modding. Each oyster furnishes but a single mouthful, 
 so that the edible portions evidently form a greater 
 proportion of the whole in the mammalia than in the 
 moUusca. The Kjokkenmoddings, therefore, would grow, 
 ca^teris paribus^ more rapidly than the bone-breccia ; and 
 supposing the flint implements to be equally numerous 
 in both cases, they would, of course, be more sparingly 
 distributed in the former than in the latter. 
 
 The principal objects of stone found in the bone-caves 
 which we are now considering are flakes, both simple 
 and worked, scrapers, cores, awls, lance-heads, cutters, 
 hammers, and mortar-stones. 
 
 The simple and worked flakes are, of course, very 
 numerous, but they do not call for any special observations. 
 They present the usual varieties of size and form. 
 
 Though less numerous than the flakes, the scrapers ^ 
 are still very abundant. On the whole, they seem to me 
 longer and narrower than the usual Danish type. Some 
 of them were probably intended to be used in the hand, 
 as both ends are fashioned for scraping. They may be 
 called double-scrapers. Others were apparently fixed in 
 handles, as the end opposite to the scraper is broken, 
 sometimes on one side, sometimes on both, so as to form 
 a tapering extremity, which may have been fixed in a 
 handle either of wood, bone, or horn. Many of the 
 flakes are also nipped off at one end, in the same manner. 
 Perhaps, as no trace of such a handle has yet been 
 discovered by MM. Christy and Lartet, wood was the 
 material used for this purpose. 
 
 Of course, where there was a manufactory of flint 
 flakes, the cores or nuclei, from which they were struck, 
 must also be present. I was, however, astonished at the 
 number of them in these caves ; during my short visit, I 
 myself picked out more than ninety. 
 
 Awls and saws are very much less frequent, but some 
 
 ' See ante^ pp. 94, 95.
 
 IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DORDOGNE 323 
 
 few good specimens have been found. At some of the 
 stations, curious flat implements (fig. 217) are met with. 
 From the constancy of their form, which, moreover, is 
 somewhat pecuHar, we may safely infer that they were 
 applied to some definite purpose. For hammers, the 
 reindeer hunters seem to have used round stones, a good 
 many of which occur in the caves, and which bear unmistak- 
 able marks of the purpose to which they were applied. 
 Some of them, however, may have 
 served also as heaters. The North 
 American Indians, the Esquimaux, 
 and some other savages, having no 
 pottery, but only wooden vessels, 
 which could not be put on the fire, 
 used to heat stones, and then place 
 them in the water which they wished 
 to boil. Many of the stones found 
 in these caverns appear to have been 
 used in this manner, firstly from their 
 position on the lower terraces, and 
 secondly from the character of the 
 implements. 
 
 These, the commonest sorts of flint 
 implements, are found indiscriminately 
 in all the grottos, but there are some 
 other types which appear to be less 
 P^enerally distributed. Thus, at Lau- Fig. 2i7.-Fiat stone im- 
 
 °. jTij ir r plement of uncertain use, 
 
 gene and rJadegoule, fragments or actual size, 
 leaf-shaped lance-heads, almost as well 
 worked as some of those from Denmark, are far from 
 uncommon. If, therefore, we were to attempt any classi- 
 fication of the grottos, according to the periods of their 
 occupation, we might be disposed to refer these to a 
 somewhat later period than most of the others. On the 
 contrary, to judge from the flint implements, the station 
 at Le Moustier would be the most ancient. Though 
 it would perhaps be premature to attempt any such 
 classification, there can be no doubt that Le Moustier 
 presents some types not yet found in the other
 
 324 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 caves, and resembling in certain respects those of the 
 drift. 
 
 One of these peculiar forms has one side left un- 
 chipped, and apparently intended to be held in the hand, 
 while the other has a cutting edge, produced by a number 
 of small blows. Some of these instruments are of large 
 size, and they are supposed by MM. Christy and Lartet 
 to have been used for cutting wood, and perhaps also the 
 
 large bones of mammalia. 
 Another very interesting 
 type is figured in figs. 
 2 1 8-2 20. This specimen 
 is worked on both sides, 
 but more frequently one 
 of them is left flat. 
 MM. Christy and Lartet 
 regard this type as identi- 
 cal with the " lance-head " 
 implements found in the 
 drift. I cannot altogether 
 agree with them in this 
 comparison. Not only 
 are the Le Moustier 
 specimens smaller, but 
 "tr<^,,„— |-[^g workmanship is difFer- 
 
 FiG. 2i8.-Stone implement, resembling ent, being much IcSS bold. 
 m some respects those characteristic ot ■' o 
 
 the drift gravels, actual size. Morcovcr, the flat Sur- 
 
 face (fig. 2 1 8, a) is no 
 individual peculiarity. It is very frequently, not to 
 say generally, present, and occurs also on the similar 
 implement found by Mr Boyd Dawkins in the Hyaena- 
 den at Wokey Hole, and figured by him in the 
 Geological Journal, May 1862, No. 70, p. 119. This 
 very interesting type seems rather to be derived from 
 the " cutters " above described, at the same time its re- 
 semblance to the drift forms is certainly great. MM. 
 Christy and Lartet, indeed, call the implements of this 
 type " lance-hcads " ; but it may well be doubted whether 
 they were intended for use in this manner, though there
 
 IMPLEMENTS FROM THE DORDOGNE 325 
 
 are other specimens at Le Moustier which have all the 
 
 appearance of having been intended 
 
 for this purpose. On the whole, then, 
 
 although these Le Moustier types are 
 
 of great interest, we must pause before 
 
 we regard them as belonging to the 
 
 drift forms. No polished implements 
 
 have yet been found in any of these 
 
 caverns. 
 
 The station at Moustier has not as 
 yet produced any implements made of 
 bone, but a good many have been 
 obtained from the other caves. " They 
 consist of square chisel-shaped imple- 
 ments ; round, sharply-pointed, awl- 
 like tools, some of which also may have 
 served as the spike of a fish-hook ; 
 harpoon-shaped lance-heads ; plain or 
 barbed arrow-heads with many and 
 
 double barbs, cut with wonderful 
 
 Fig. 219. — Fig. 218, 
 seen from the side. 
 
 vigour ; and lastly, eyed needles of 
 
 compact bone finely pointed, polished, and drilled with 
 
 round eyes, so small and regular that some of the -most 
 
 Fig. 220. — Fig. 218, 'seen from the other side. 
 
 assured and acute believers in all the other findingrs might 
 well doubt whether they could indeed have been drilled
 
 326 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 'wl 
 
 with stone, until their repetition by the hand of that 
 practical and conscientious observer, Monsieur Lartet, by 
 the very stone implements found with them, has dis- 
 pelled their honest doubts."^ Moreover, we must 
 remember that the New Zealanders were able with their 
 stone tools to drill holes even through glass.^ No pottery 
 has yet been found in these caves. It is 
 doubtful whether the bow was in use, but 
 it is interesting that they seem to have 
 K% invented the throwing-stick. 
 
 So far, then (with the exception, per- 
 haps, of the well-worked lance-heads of 
 Laugerie and Badegoule), all the evidence 
 we have yet obtained from these caves 
 points to a very primitive period, earlier 
 even than that of the first Swiss lake- 
 villages, or Danish shell-mounds. 
 
 But there is one class of objects in 
 
 these caves which, taken alone, might 
 
 have led us to a very different conclusion. 
 
 No representation, however rude, of any 
 
 animal has yet been found in any of the 
 
 Danish shell-mounds, or the Stone Age 
 
 Fig. 221.— Acyiin- lake-villages. Even on objects of the 
 
 dricai piece of Bronze Age they are so rare that it is doubt- 
 
 which are 'en- ^^^ whether a single well - authenticated 
 
 graved two out- instance could be produced. Yet in these 
 
 lines of fishes, one i • i r • i i 
 
 on each side. archaic bonc-cavcs, many very rair sketches 
 have been found, scratched on bone or 
 stone with a sharp point, probably of a flint implement. 
 In some cases there is even an attempt at shading. In 
 the Annales des Sciences Naturelles^ M. Lartet had already 
 made known to us some rude drawings found in the cave 
 of Savigne, and in his last memoir he has described and 
 figured some more objects of a similar character. 
 
 In the Dordogne caves also, several of these remark- 
 
 ^ Christy, Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Series, vol. iii. 
 ^ Cook's First Voyage, p. 464. 
 ^ Ann. des Sc. Nat.., 1861, vol. xv. 
 
 \m
 
 ENGRAVINGS ON BONE 
 
 327 
 
 able drawings have been discovered, under circumstances 
 which seem to guarantee their authenticity. Fig. 221 
 represents a cylindrical piece of reindeer's horn, found at 
 La Madelaine, and on 
 which are carved two 
 outlines of fishes, one 
 on each side. Fig. 
 222 is the piece of 
 the palm of a rein- 
 deer's horn, on which 
 is represented the 
 head and chest of an 
 ibex. Fig. 223 repre- 
 sents a very curious 
 
 group, consisting of Fig. 222.— Piece of the palm of a reindeer's 
 a snake, or rather eel, antler on which is engraved the head and neck 
 ' ' 01 an ibex. 
 
 a human figure, and 
 
 two horses' heads. Fig. 224 is a spirited group of rein- 
 deer, and fig. 225 is considered to represent a mammoth ; 
 it was found at La Madelaine, and the engraving was for 
 some time unnoticed, as it is rather faint and obscured by 
 numerous scratches. It is on a piece of mammoth's tusk, 
 and indications of long hair will readily be perceived. 
 
 Fig. 223. — Group of figures. 
 
 In one case there is an unmistakable representation of 
 a glove, or rather gauntlet. Another interesting specimen 
 is a poniard cut out of a reindeer's horn (fig. 226). 
 The horns are thrown back on the neck, the forelegs are 
 doubled up under the belly, and the hindlegs are stretched 
 out along the blade. Unfortunately, the poniard seems 
 to have been thrown away before it was quite finished, 
 but several of the details indicate that the animal was
 
 328 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 intended for a reindeer. Messrs Dawkins and Miall 
 have also found an engraving of a horse on a bone from 
 the Caves of Creswell Crags. Many other specimens 
 have since been discovered. In a cave at Combarelles, 
 near Tayac, MM. Capitan and Breuil found 64 figures of 
 entire animals and 43 heads (see figs. 207, 213) : equine 
 23, bovine 3, bisons 2, reindeer 3, mammoths 14, ibex 3, 
 Antilope sa'iga^ \} Besides these primitive sculptures 
 and engravings coloured pictures have been found. The 
 
 Fig. 224. — Group ot reindeer. 
 
 first were discovered by M. de Sautuola in the cave of 
 Altamira near Santander (Spain) in 1875 (^^^ %^' ^o^> 
 212, and Plates). Some years later M. Riviere found 
 others in the cave of La Mouthe, M. Daleau in the 
 Gironde, and M. Moissan in the classical locality of Les 
 Eyzies. MM. Capitan and Breuil have more recently 
 discovered a long series in the cave of Font-de-Gaume. 
 Some of the horses have drawings on them which almost 
 seem to represent coverings and halters, and to indicate 
 that they were domesticated.^ Although it is natural to 
 feel some surprise at finding these works of art, still there 
 
 1 "Gravures pal6o.de la Grotte des Qovc^ViX&Wo.'i^^ Bull. Soc. Anthr., 
 Paris, 1902. 
 
 2 Rev. de FJicole d'Ant/iropologie, 1902, p. 39.
 
 WILD BOAR. 
 
 From a painting on the roof of the Cave 
 of Altamira, Spain. 
 
 AFTER A DRAW TNG BY 
 M. H BREUIL.
 
 CAVE DRAWINGS 
 
 329
 
 330 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 are instances among recent savages of a certain skill in 
 drawing and sculpture being accompanied by an entire 
 ignorance of metallurgy. This is particularly the case 
 with the Esquimaux, some of whose drawings will be 
 reproduced in a future chapter. M. Delechette gives ^ a 
 list of twenty French and Spanish caves on the walls of 
 which drawings occur. 
 
 In considering the probable con- 
 dition of these ancient cave-men, we 
 must give them full credit for their 
 love of art, such as it was ; while, on 
 the other hand, the want of metal, of 
 polished flint implements, and even of 
 pottery,^ the ignorance of agriculture, 
 and the apparent absence of all domestic 
 animals, including even the dog, cer- 
 tainly imply a very low state of 
 civilization and a very considerable 
 antiquity. 
 
 There is also evidence that a con- 
 siderable change of climate must have 
 taken place. The reindeer is the most 
 abundant animal, and evidently formed 
 the principal article of food ; while we 
 know that this species is now confined 
 to Arctic climates, and could not exist 
 in the south of France. Again, the ibex 
 and the chamois, both of which are now 
 restricted to the snowy summits of the 
 Alps and Pyrenees, and a species of spermophilus, also 
 point to the same conclusion. The presence of the two 
 former species in some of the Swiss lake-dwellings is not 
 equally significant, because they are in the neighbourhood 
 of high mountains, while the highest hills of the Dordogne 
 do not reach to an altitude of much more than eight 
 hundred feet. 
 
 Fig. 226.— Poniard of 
 reindeer horn. 
 
 * Midi. d'Arche'ol. Prehist., p. 241. 
 
 ^ Pottery is, however, very rare in the remains of the Irish crannoges, 
 and is not by any meang abundant in the Danish shell-mounds.
 
 MEN OF THE DORDOGNE CAVES 331 
 
 Another very interestingspecies determined by M. Lartet 
 is the AntUope Sa'igo of Pallas, which now abounds on the 
 steppes of North-Eastern Europe and Western Asia, in 
 the plains of the Dnieper and the Volga, round the shores 
 of the Caspian, and as far as the Altai Mountains. Mr 
 Christy tells us that the northern plains of Poland, and 
 the valley of the Dneiper, are the southern limits of this 
 species at the present day. 
 
 Again, the accumulation of animal remains in these 
 caves is itself, as Mr Christy has ingeniously suggested, 
 a good evidence of change in the climate. We know 
 that the Esquimaux at present allow a similar deposit to 
 take place in their dwellings, but this can only be done in 
 Arctic regions ; in such a climate as that now existing in 
 the south of France, such an accumulation would, except 
 of course in the depth of winter, soon become intolerably 
 offensive. 
 
 So far, then, as the present evidence relating to the 
 Dordogne Caves is concerned, it appears to indicate a 
 race of men living almost as some of the Esquimaux do 
 now, and as the Laplanders did a few hundred years ago ; 
 and a period intermediate between that of the polished 
 stone implements and of the great extinct mammalia ; 
 apparently also somewhat more ancient than that of the 
 shell-mound builders of Denmark. The cases in which 
 the remains of cave-men have been found in associa- 
 tion with those of the cave-tiger, the cave-bear, the 
 cave-hyaena, and the mammoth, are, I think, con- 
 clusive evidence that they must be referred to the same 
 period. 
 
 As regards the earliest races of men themselves, we 
 have, unfortunately, but very little information. For, 
 although fragmentary human bones have been frequently 
 found, there are, as yet, very few cases on record in which 
 skulls have been obtained in such a condition as to allow 
 of restoration, or of which the age is incontestable. For 
 instance, remains of man, though rare in the loess, have 
 been described by Ami Boue, Faudel, Crahay, Wurm- 
 brand, Ecker, and others ; but, as the latter has himself
 
 332 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 suggested,^ from the composition of lotJss, and from the 
 habit of making underground chambers in it, which make 
 
 Fig. 227. — The Neanderthal skull, seen from the side, one-half natural size. 
 
 excellent cellars, and even dwellings— so to say, cave- 
 dwellings — it is difficult to satisfy oneself that the remains 
 are clearly contemporaneous with the deposit of the loess. 
 
 Fig. 228. — Ditto, seen from the front. 
 
 The earliest remains of man found in Northern Europe 
 belong to three well-marked types, the Neanderthal, 
 Cromagnon, and Chancelade types. A skull of the Nean- 
 
 1 Arc/till fi/r Ant/iropologie, i^-j^^T^. qg.
 
 THE NEANDERTHAL SKULL 
 
 333 
 
 derthal type was acquired in 1 700, by Duke Eberhard of 
 Wartemberg, from Cannstatt, near Stuttgart, but not 
 described until the year 1835. The skulls of this type 
 are narrow and low, with very large frontal ridges. To 
 It belongs the celebrated skull (figs. 227-229) found In a 
 limestone cave In the Neanderthal, near Hochdal, between 
 DUsseldorf and Elberfeld. This remarkable specimen was 
 
 Fig. 229. — The Neanderthal skull, seen from above, one-half natural size. 
 
 first described by Schaafhausen,^ and " under whatever 
 aspect," says Prof. Huxley,^ "we view this cranium, 
 whether we regard Its vertical depression, the enormous 
 thickness of Its supraclllary ridges. Its sloping occiput, 
 or Its long and straight squamosal suture, we meet 
 with ape-like characters, stamping It as the most pithe- 
 coid of human crania yet discovered." The shape of 
 this skull is so remarkable, that as long as It stood 
 alone considerable doubt was naturally felt whether, In the 
 
 1 Muller's Arc/iiv, 1858 ; Nat. Hist. Rev., 1861. 
 ^ Loc. cit., p. 156.
 
 334 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 words of Busk, it represented " an individual peculiarity 
 or a typical character." Subsequently, however, two 
 other skulls, almost identical in form, have been dis- 
 covered in the talus at the outside of a cave at Spy, 
 in Belgium (fig. 230). These skulls, though not entirely, 
 were more complete, and were associated with other bones, 
 indicating a short, robust, prognathous race.^ The Nean- 
 derthal race were short, not probably exceeding 5 feet 
 4 inches ; but very powerfully built, and with a brain 
 
 as large as, or even a little 
 larger than, that of an 
 average European of the 
 present day. 
 
 The second, the " Crom- 
 agnon " or " Engis " type, 
 has also narrow skulls, 
 which, however, unlike those 
 of the preceding type, are 
 high. To it belongs the 
 celebrated skull, discovered 
 by Dr Schmerling in the 
 cave of Engis, near Liege 
 (figs. 231-232). As regards form, it might have been 
 that of a modern European. " There is no mark of 
 degradation about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, 
 a fair average human skull, which might have belonged 
 to a philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless 
 brains of a savage." ^ To the same type belong the skulls 
 found at Cromagnon, in the Dordogne.^ It was a tall 
 race, in some cases attaining, or even exceeding, six feet. 
 
 Several other skulls, more or less imperfect, of this 
 type have since been discovered, amongst which may be 
 specially mentioned a woman's skull from a Gibraltar cave, 
 a skeleton found at La Chapelle in the Correze (fig. 233), 
 two in the Dordogne, and a skull from Salley Hill, near 
 Northfleet. 
 
 1 Poydt and Lohert, Aidi. Soc. Biol. Belgiquc, 1886. 
 
 2 Huxley, Man's Place in Nature, p. 156. 
 
 3 Reliquicc A(juitaniccz', ^dixi vi. 
 
 Fig. 230. — The Spy skull.
 
 ENGIS AND CHANCELADE SKULLS 335 
 The third, or Chancelade, race is represented by one 
 
 Fig. 231. — The Engis skull, seen from above. 
 
 well-preserved skull (fig. 234), described by M. Testut.^ 
 It belonged to a man about five feet high, who Prof. Sollas, 
 
 Fig. 232. — Ditto, seen from the front. 
 
 President of the Geological Society, in his annual address 
 for 1909, says "was beyond doubt an Eskimo." That 
 
 1 Bull. Soc. Aitihrop., Lyon, vol. viii., 1889.
 
 336 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the Esquimaux once extended to Western Europe I 
 quite believe. We find not only the animals with which 
 they are even now associated, but implements closely 
 resembling, it might almost be said identical with, those 
 which they still use. 
 
 1^'iG. 233. — Skull from La Chapelle aux Saints. 
 
 The remains of a fourth race have been discovered in 
 the caves at Mentone, so carefully examined by the Prince 
 of Monaco. Remains of sixteen bodies were found, two 
 of them nearly complete. The skulls are of a distinctly 
 Negroid type.^ No remains of this race have yet been 
 found in Northern Europe. 
 
 They have been described by M. Verneau, and, in 
 
 1 Verneau, Les Grottes de Gyimaldi, 1906.
 
 EARLY RACES OF MAN 337 
 
 M. Piette's opinion, belonged to a race resembling the 
 present Bushmen or Hottentots. 
 
 These four races of men, while presenting certain ape-like 
 characters, and, in the Neanderthal race at any rate, a very- 
 savage and brutal aspect, have large brains, and are un- 
 mistakably human. This cannot be said for the skull, 
 or rather skull-top, discovered about twenty years ago by 
 Dr Dubois in Java, at a depth of thirty feet, in gravel, which 
 may be either pliocene or pleistocene. The skull is so 
 low and flat as much to resemble, though much larger 
 than, that of an existing Gibbon. The brain represented 
 about 900 units, the average 
 for the Gorilla being about 
 500, for the Australian 1200, 
 and the European 1500. 
 There has been much differ- 
 ence of opinion among ana- 
 tomists as to whether it was 
 that of a man or a monkey, 
 and having had, through the 
 
 courtesy of Dr Dubois, an Fig. 234.— Skull from Chancelade 
 
 opportunity of carefully exam- (Dordogne). 
 
 ining it, I feel much doubt 
 
 whether it should be described as that of a large Gibbon, 
 or as belonging to a man of a very small and distinct race. 
 
 But the most ape-like of all, except of course the Pithe- 
 canthropus of Java (fig. 235), are the remains recently 
 discovered by Mr Dawson at Piltdown near Uckfield in 
 Sussex. The lower jaw, if found by itself, would certainly 
 have been referred to an anthropoid ape, though the teeth 
 are decidedly human. The skull is of great thickness, and 
 happily well enough preserved to permit of a cast showing 
 the brain, which is of so lowly a type that Prof. Elliot 
 Smith doubts whether the creature possessed the power 
 of articulate speech. Though more a man than a 
 monkey, both he and Dr A. S. Woodward consider it to 
 be not only a different species, but even to differ 
 generically. 
 
 All the remains which can be regarded as certainly 
 
 22
 
 33^ 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 palaeolithic are long-headed, or dolichocephalic. The 
 short-headed race has not been proved to have reached 
 Western Europe till the Neolithic Period. Some archaeolo- 
 gists, indeed, are disposed to consider that the advent of 
 this race coincides with the commencement of the Neo- 
 lithic Period. 
 
 Even, however, in Palaeolithic times, Europe appears 
 
 Fig. 235. — Bones of Pithecanthropus erecttts. 
 
 to have been already occupied by more than one race of 
 man. Under these circumstances, great as is undoubtedly 
 the antiquity of these remains, they do not in any way 
 represent the earliest men, but there must have been 
 another, and perhaps still longer period, in which these 
 varieties were gradually developed ; and Prof. Huxley 
 was of opinion that " they indicate an epoch more distant 
 from the age of the Elephas primigenius than that is 
 from us."
 
 CAVE EXPLORATIONS 339 
 
 If space permitted, I would gladly have referred to 
 other cave explorations ; to those, for instance, of Dr 
 Regnoli and others in Italy, of the Marquis de Vibraye, 
 M. Garrigou, M. Bourguignet, M. Filhol, and many 
 other archaeologists in the south of France, where these 
 researches have been prosecuted with great energy and 
 success. In our own country, Mr Boyd Dawkins has 
 published an excellent work on the subject,^ and it is 
 impossible in the limits of a single chapter to do justice 
 to these and other observers. 
 
 I trust, then, that the evidence brought forward in this 
 chapter has been sufficient to prove that the presence in 
 bone-caves of ancient implements and human remains, 
 associated with those of extinct mammalia, is no rare or 
 exceptional phenomenon. Nor, if we look at the question 
 from a scientific point of view, is there anything in this 
 that ought to excite our astonishment. Since the period 
 at which these caves were filled up, the changes which 
 have taken place have resulted rather in the extinction 
 than in the creation of species. The stag, the horse, the 
 boar, the dog, in short, all our existing forms of mammalia, 
 were already in existence ; and there would have been in 
 reality more just cause for surprise if man alone had been 
 unrepresented. 
 
 ^ Cave-Huntinz-
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 RIVER-DRIFT GRAVEL-BEDS 
 
 While we have been straining our eyes to the East, and 
 eagerly watching excavations in Egypt and Assyria, 
 suddenly a new light has arisen in the midst of us ; and 
 the oldest relics of man yet discovered have occurred, not 
 among the ruins of Nineveh or Heliopolis, not on the 
 sandy plains of the Nile or the Euphrates, but in the 
 pleasant valleys of England and France, along the banks 
 of the Seine and the Somme, the Thames and the 
 Waveney. 
 
 So unexpected were these discoveries, so irreconcilable 
 with even the greatest antiquity until lately assigned to 
 the human race, that they were long regarded with 
 neglect and suspicion. M. Boucher de Perthes, to whom 
 we are principally Indebted for this great step in the 
 history of mankind, observed, as long ago as the year 
 1 841, in some sand containing mammalian remains, at 
 Menchecourt, near Abbeville, a flint, rudely fashioned 
 into a cutting Instrument. In the following years other 
 weapons were found under similar circumstances, and 
 especially during the formation of the Champ de Mars at 
 Abbeville, where a large quantity of gravel was moved and 
 many of the so-called " hatchets " were discovered. In 
 the year 1846, M. Boucher de Perthes published his first 
 work on the subject, entitled De Y Industrie Primitive^ 
 ou les Arts et leur Origine. In this he announced that 
 he had found human implements in beds unmistakably 
 belonging to the Age of the Drift. In his Antiquites 
 Celtiques et Antediluviennes {\'^\']^^ he also gave numerous 
 
 340
 
 RIVER-DRIFT GRAVEL-BEDS 341 
 
 illustrations of these stone weapons, but unfortunately 
 the figures were rude, and did but scanty justice to the 
 originals. For seven years M. Boucher de Perthes made 
 few converts ; he was looked upon as an enthusiast, 
 almost as a madman. At length, in 1853, Dr Rigollot, 
 till then sceptical, examined for himself the drift-beds at 
 the now celebrated St Acheul near Amiens, found several 
 weapons, and believed. Still the new creed met with but 
 little favour ; prophets are proverbially without honour 
 in their own country, and M. Boucher de Perthes was 
 no exception to the rule. At last, however, the tide turned 
 in his favour. In 1859 Dr Falconer examined his collec- 
 tion, and on his return to England called the attention of 
 English geologists, and especially of Sir J, Prestwich, and 
 of Sir John Evans, to the importance of his discoveries. 
 
 My first visit to the Somme valley was made in 
 company with Sir John Evans, Mr Busk, Sir D. Galton, and 
 Sir J. Prestwich in i860, and I communicated the results 
 to the Natural History Review^ in an article " On the 
 Evidence of the Antiquity of Man afforded by the Physical 
 Structure of the Somme Valley." ^ I have seen no reason 
 to modify the general conclusions contained in that article, 
 of which, indeed, this chapter is in the main a reprint. 
 
 We examined carefully not only the flint weapons, but 
 also the beds In which they were found. For such an 
 investigation, indeed, our two countrymen were especially 
 qualified : Sir J. Prestwich, from his long study and pro- 
 found knowledge of the tertiary and quaternary strata ; 
 and Sir J. Evans, from his intimate acquaintance with the 
 stone implements belonging to what we must now consider 
 as the second, or at least the more recent. Stone Period. 
 On our return to England, Sir J. Prestwich communicated 
 the results of his visit to the Royal Society,^ while Sir 
 J. Evans described the implements themselves in the 
 Transactions of the Society oj Antiquaries.^ 
 
 1 Natural History Review, 1862, pp. 244-269. 
 
 2 "On the Occurrence of Flint Implements associated with the Remains 
 of Extinct Species, in Beds of a late Geological Period," /*////. Trans., i860. 
 
 ^ "Flint Implements in the Y>x\{i" Archcrologia, 1860-62.
 
 342 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 This important discovery is due to M. Boucher de 
 Perthes. There has, however, long been in the British 
 Museum a similar stone weapon, described as follows : — 
 "No. 246. A British weapon, /o«W w/'M elephant's toothy 
 opposite to Black Mary's, near Grayes inn lane. Conyers." 
 It has a large black flint, shaped into the figure of a 
 
 Fig. 236. — Rude flint implement from the drift 
 gravel at Hoxne, one-half actual size. 
 
 Fig. 237. — Ditto, side 
 view. 
 
 soear's point. Sir J. Evans tells us, moreover {Joe. cit.^ 
 p. 22), that a rude engraving of it illustrates a letter on 
 the " Antiquities of London," by Mr Bagford, dated 17 15, 
 printed in Hearne's edition of Leland's Collectanea^ vol. i. 
 6, p. Ixiii. From his account it seems to have been 
 found with a skeleton of an elephant, in the presence of 
 Mr Conyers. This most interesting weapon agrees exactly 
 with some of those found in the valley of the Somme.
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENTS FROM DRIFT 343 
 
 Sir J. Evans, on his return from Abbeville, observed 
 in the museum belonging to the Society of Antiquaries 
 some specimens exactly like those in the collection of 
 M. Boucher de Perthes. On examination, it proved 
 that they had been 
 presented by Mr 
 Frere, who found 
 them with bones of 
 extinct animals in a 
 gravel-pit at Hoxne 
 in Suffolk, and had 
 well described and 
 figured them in the 
 Archaologia for the 
 year 1800. This 
 communication is of 
 so much interest that 
 I have thought it 
 desirable to repro- 
 duce his figures (figs. 
 236-237,239-240). 
 
 Excavations un- 
 dertaken at Hoxne 
 under the auspices 
 of the British Asso- 
 ciation ^ have shown 
 that the brick earth 
 containing the 
 palaeolithic imple- 
 ments lie over glacial 
 boulder clay. Mr 
 Clement Reid has shown that similar relations also occur 
 in the Hitchin valley.^ 
 
 Again, in 1835, Mr Whitburn, of Godalming,^ while 
 examining the gravel pits between Guildford and 
 Godalming, remarked a peculiar flint, which he carried 
 away, and has since preserved in his collection. It 
 
 1 Report, 1896. 2 Qeoi Mag., 1897. 
 
 2 Prestwich, /^«r. Geol. Soc, August 1861. 
 
 Fig. 23S. — Stone implement, Madras.
 
 344 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 belongs to the "drift" type, but is very rude. Thus, 
 this peculiar type of flint implement has been actually 
 
 Fig. 239. — Palseolilhic implement. 
 
 Fig. 240. — The same, side view. 
 
 found in association with the bones of the mammoth on 
 various occasions during nearly a hundred and fifty 
 years ! While, however, these instances remarkably 
 corroborate the statements made by M. Boucher de
 
 FLINT IMPLEMENTS FROM DRIFT 345 
 
 Perthes, they in no way detract from the credit due to 
 that gentleman. 
 
 In addition to the above-mentioned, similar hatchets 
 have been found in various other localities, as for instance 
 by Mr Warren, at Icklingham ; by Mr Leech, near 
 Heme Bay ; by Sir John Evans himself at Abbot's 
 Langley and elsewhere ; by Mr Norman at Greenstreet 
 Green in Kent ; by Messrs Whitaker and Hughes, near 
 Dartford ; in fact, similar discoveries have been made in 
 most of our south-eastern counties. 
 
 Fu;. 241 — Reconstructed flint, Thames valley. 
 
 Mr Spurrell actually found near Crayford in Kent the 
 spot where some of these ancient men had been making 
 their implements. It was on the bank of the Thames, 
 and, probably by some flood, had been covered over with 
 loam, which had then accumulated to some depth without 
 disturbing the flakes and chips. The illustration (fig. 242) 
 shows the chalk cliff*, the brick earth and the floor on 
 which the flakes were lying. By great patience he found 
 some that fitted, and he was even able to reconstruct the 
 original flint. Fig. 241, from the Journal of the Geological 
 Society ^^ shows one of these reconstructed flints. One of 
 
 1 Gt'ol. Soc, 1880.
 
 346 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the pieces has J. L. on it. Mr Spurrell has found all the 
 rest, and the day I was with him I found this flake, 
 which completes the specimen. 
 
 In the gravel near Bedford, again, associated with the 
 remains of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, 
 horse, and deer, Mr Wyatt ^ has found flint implements 
 resembling both of the two principal types found at 
 Abbeville and Amiens. This case is interesting, because 
 it shows that the drift flint hatchets are subsequent to the 
 boulder clay ; the Bedford valley being cut through hills 
 capped by a deposit of that period. 
 
 f,--*(\r,^,JS5^*«J- 
 
 FiG. 242. — Section of Bank of Thames near Dartford, where fig. 241 was found. 
 
 Prestwich, however, tells us that " the great masses of 
 gravel in the neighbourhood of Mildenhall and Lacken- 
 heath, also containing flint implements, . . . seem to me 
 to be part of the phenomena connected with the passage 
 of the great Ice-sheet over the Eastern Counties, and on 
 that score pre-glacial." " Mr Harrison of Ightham in 
 Kent has also discovered palaeolithic implements in the 
 high level plateau gravels near Sevenoaks, which have no 
 reference to the present lines of river drainage, but must 
 have been deposited by water running several hundred 
 feet above the level of the present rivers. 
 
 The number of localities on the Continent in which 
 stone implements have been obtained from beds of the 
 quaternary period has also largely increased. 
 
 ' Flint Implements in the Drift, by J- Wyatt. Bedfordshire Archi- 
 tectural and Archaeological Society, 1862. 
 2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc, 1887, p. 406.
 
 PALEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS 
 
 347 
 
 Palaeolithic implements have not yet, so far as I am 
 aware, been found in Scandinavia, or in England north 
 of Saltley in Warwickshire (where a specimen was 
 discovered by Mr Landon) and Bridlington in Yorkshire. 
 It has been supposed, and seems probable, that this is due 
 to the glacial condi- 
 tions then prevailing 
 in the north ; but it 
 must be remembered 
 that flint is scarce in 
 the north, and the river 
 gravels have not been 
 so thoroughly searched 
 as those further south. 
 
 Stone implements, 
 more or less resembling 
 those characteristic of 
 the Palaeolithic Age, 
 have also been found 
 in other parts of the 
 world, as, for instance, 
 in Assyria, Algeria, and 
 Hindostan. I myself 
 found some in the 
 Egyptian Desert near 
 Thebes in 1872. The 
 Indian specimens were 
 first described by Mr 
 Bruce Foote ^ : they 
 were found in the 
 Madras and North 
 Arcot districts, and are of quartzite, and in several 
 cases were found by Messrs Foote and King in situ at 
 depths of from three to ten feet. The specimens figured 
 (figs. 238, 243) will show how closely they resemble our 
 European specimens, and it is interesting that, in the 
 
 * On the Occurrence of Stone Implements in Lateritic Formations in 
 Various Parts oj the Madras and North Arcot Districts^ by R. Bruce 
 Foote. 
 
 Fig. 243. — Stone implement from Madras.
 
 348 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 words of Mr Foote, " the area, over which the lateritic 
 formations were spread, has undergone, as already stated, 
 
 great changes since their 
 deposition. A great part 
 of the formation has been 
 removed by denudation, and 
 deep valleys cut into them, 
 now occupied by the allu- 
 vium of various rivers." ^ 
 Unfortunately, no bones 
 have yet been found in 
 these beds. Worked agates 
 have also been found in 
 the deposits of the Ner- 
 hudda, and in the bone- 
 beds of the upper God- 
 avery, " which are, there 
 is little doubt, the same 
 age as those of the Ner- 
 budda, which contain Ele- 
 phas insignis^ E. Namadacus^ 
 Hipp opotamus palaindicus^ 
 , , Bos palaindkus. and E. 
 
 iplement. t" , » 
 
 JSIamadicus. ^ 
 
 The implements found in the river gravel may be 
 divided into several categories : — 
 
 (i) Hammers. 
 
 (2) Flakes. Figs. 86-98. These have been de- 
 
 scribed on page 82. They commenced at the 
 earliest period and came down to Roman 
 times, so that though certain proofs of inten- 
 tion, they do not characterize any particular 
 period. 
 
 (3) Scrapers. See p. 94. Almost the same may be 
 
 said of these. 
 
 (4) Implements worked to a cutting edge at one side. 
 
 Fig. 244. — Palaeolithic tlint imj 
 
 1 LflC. cii., p. 28. 
 
 2 Blandford, Geol. Magazi7ie, February 1866.
 
 VARIOUS TYPES OF IMPLEMENTS 349 
 
 (5) Implements which, for want of a better name, we 
 
 may call axes. They are left rough at one end, 
 and are worked up to an edge at the other 
 (fig. 245) being evidently intended to be held 
 in the hand : or (fig. 244) they may be slightly 
 worked at the butt end, so as to afford a better 
 grip. 
 
 (6) Similar implements (figs. 247-249), worked 
 
 down at the butt end, evidently in order that 
 they might be invested in a handle. The free 
 end is sometimes broad (figs. 244, 245), some- 
 times brought to a point (figs. 246, 249). 
 Fig. 246 is from St Acheul ; fig. 249 repre- 
 sents a magnificent specimen from the valley 
 of the Axe kindly presented to me by Mr Rolls. 
 
 (7) Flat ovoid implements (fig. 247), worked to an 
 
 edge all round. 
 
 (8) The same with worked twist in the centre 
 
 (fig. 248). These are so numerous, and the 
 twist is so marked, that it cannot be accidental. 
 
 (9) Shaft-scrapers. These seem to have been used 
 
 in the preparation of the shafts for javelins. 
 
 The specimens found in the Somme valley are, as I 
 shall endeavour to show, connected with the present river 
 system, and the same was the case with those first dis- 
 covered in England. Further researches, however, have 
 brought to light cases in which flint implements have 
 been found in beds of p:ravel having no relation to the 
 existing river systems. Mr Flower has called attention 
 to several of these in our eastern counties, and I have 
 had the advantage of visiting them with him. The 
 Shrub Hill gravel-bed, for instance, is a low mound of 
 gravel of about fifteen feet thick, rising in the middle of 
 the fen near Ely, and surrounded on all sides by a low 
 flat district. Mr Skertchly also has found flint imple- 
 ments in beds which he considers to be pre-glacial, but 
 the evidence does not seem to be quite conclusive. 
 
 Some of the Hampshire specimens also have been 
 found in situ, in a mass of drift gravel which covers the
 
 350 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 tertiary beds, and is intersected by all the streams which 
 now run into the Southampton Water. This bed of 
 gravel, moreover, is not confined to the mainland, but 
 caps also the Foreland Cliffs on the east of the Isle of 
 Wight, where an oval flint implement has recently been 
 discovered by Mr T. Codrington. As Sir J. Evans has 
 pointed out, we seem in this discovery to have clear 
 
 evidence that man existed in this 
 country before the Southampton 
 Water was formed, or the Isle 
 of Wight was separated from 
 the mainland, and we may there- 
 fore regard these implements as 
 among the most striking proofs 
 of Man's Antiquity, which they 
 carry back to a period far more 
 ancient than that which had pre- 
 viously been assigned to him. 
 
 So great is the antiquity in- 
 dicated by these stone imple- 
 ments, so improbable did it 
 seem that man was a contem- 
 porary of the mammoth, the 
 woolly - haired rhinoceros, etc., 
 that we cannot wonder that the 
 statement by Mr Frere has been 
 distrusted for more than half a 
 century ; that the weapon found 
 by Mr Conyers has lain unnoticed 
 for more than double that time ; that the discoveries by 
 M. Boucher de Perthes have been ignored for fifteen 
 years ; that the numerous cases in which caves have con- 
 tained the remains of men together with those of extinct 
 animals have been suppressed or explained away : these 
 facts show how deeply rooted was the conviction that man 
 belonged altogether to a more recent order of things ; 
 and whatever other accusation may be brought against 
 them, geologists can at least not be said to have hastily 
 accepted the theory of the co-existence of the human 
 
 F'iG. 245. — Paloeolithic flint 
 implement.
 
 ANTIQUITY OF IMPLEMENTS 
 
 35^ 
 
 race with the now extinct Pachydermata of Western 
 Europe. 
 
 Although, however, geologists are now almost unani- 
 mous as to the great antiquity of these curious weapons, 
 still it is not necessary that 
 they should be received as 
 judges ; I only propose to 
 summon them as witnesses. 
 
 The questions to be decided 
 may be stated as follows : — 
 
 I St. Are the so-called flint 
 implements of human work- 
 manship ? 
 
 2ndly. Are the flint imple- 
 ments of the same age as the 
 beds in which they are found, 
 and the bones of the extinct 
 animals with which they occur } 
 
 3rdly. What are the condi- 
 tions under which these beds 
 were deposited ? And how 
 far are we justified in imput- 
 ing to them a great antiquity ? 
 
 To the first two of these 
 questions an affirmative answer 
 would be given by every geolo- 
 gist. " For more than twenty 
 years," says Prof. Ramsay, 
 " I have daily handled stones, 
 whether fashioned by nature 
 or art, and the flint hatchets 
 of Amiens and Abbeville seem to me as clearly works 
 of art as any Sheffield whittle." ^ But best of all, an 
 hour or two spent in examining the forms of ordinary 
 flint gravel, would, I am sure, convince any man that 
 these stones, rude though they be, were undeniably 
 fashioned by the hand of man. 
 
 The stone implements of some m^odern savages are 
 
 ^ AthcnceuDi, July i6, 1859. 
 
 Fig. 246. — Paleolithic implement. 
 One-half actual size.
 
 zs^ 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 quite as rude, and some even ruder, as, for instance, those 
 of the Tasmanians, which were only flaked on one side 
 and were held in the hand, not fixed into any handle.-^ 
 
 Still it might be supposed that they were forgeries 
 made by ingenious workmen to entrap unwary geologists. 
 They have, however, been actually found by Messrs 
 Boucher de Perthes, Henslow, Christy, Flower, Wyatt, 
 Evans, myself, and others (I might now say many others). 
 
 Figs. 247, 248. — Palaeolithic implements. One-half actual size. 
 
 under circumstances which preclude all idea of deception. 
 One seen, though not found, by himself in situ^ is thus 
 described by Sir J. Prestwich : " It was lying flat in the 
 gravel at a depth of seventeen feet from the original 
 surface and six and a half feet from the chalk. One side 
 slightly projected. The gravel around was undisturbed, 
 and presented its usual perpendicular face. I carefully 
 examined the specimen, and saw no reason to doubt that 
 it was in its natural position, for the gravel is generally 
 so loose, that a blow with a pick disturbs and brings it 
 
 ^ H. Ling Roth, The Tasinaniafts, pp. 156-8.
 
 EVIDENCE FROM FLINTS 
 
 353 
 
 down for some way round ; and the matrix is too little 
 adhesive to admit of its being built up again as before 
 with the same materials, ... I found also afterwards, on 
 taking out the flint, 
 
 
 that it was the 
 thinnest side which 
 projected, the other 
 side being less fin- 
 ished and much 
 thicker."^ But 
 evidence of this 
 nature, though in- 
 teresting, is un- 
 necessary ; the flints 
 speak for themselves. 
 Many of them are 
 more or less rolled 
 or worn at the 
 edges. Those 
 which have lain in 
 siliceous or chalky 
 sands are more or 
 less polished, and 
 have a beautiful 
 glossiness of sur- 
 face, very unlike 
 that of a newly 
 broken flint. In 
 ochreous sand, 
 especially if argil- 
 laceous, they are 
 stained yellow, 
 whilst in ferru- 
 ginous sands and 
 clays they assume 
 a brown colour, and in some beds they become white 
 and porcellaneous. In many cases, moreover, they have 
 encrustations of carbonate of lime and small dendritic 
 
 ' Phil. Trans. y i860, p. 292. 
 
 23 
 
 Fk;. 249. — Another specimen. One-half actual size.
 
 354 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 markings. The freshly-broken chalk flints, on the con- 
 trary, are of a dull black or leaden colour ; they vary a 
 little in darkness but not in colour, and do not present 
 white or yellow facings ; moreover, the new surfaces are 
 dead, and want the glossiness of those which have been 
 exposed. It is almost unnecessary to say that they 
 have no dendritic markings, nor are they encrusted by 
 carbonate of lime. 
 
 Now the forgeries — for there are forgeries — differ from 
 the genuine implements by just those characteristics which 
 distinguish newly-broken flints from those which have 
 Iain long in sand or gravel, or exposed to atmospheric 
 agencies. They are black, never white or yellow ; their 
 surfaces are not glossy, but dull and lustreless, and they 
 have no dendritic markings or encrustations. Nor would 
 it be possible for an ingenious rogue to deceive us by 
 taking a stained flint and fashioning it into a hatchet, 
 because the discoloration of the flint is quite super- 
 ficial, seldom more than a quarter of an inch in thick- 
 ness, and follows the outline of the present surface, 
 showing that the change of colour was subsequent to 
 the manufacture ; while if such a flint were tampered 
 with, the fraud would be easily detected, as each blow 
 would remove part of the outer coating, and expose the 
 black flint inside (p. 83). 
 
 Moreover, it must be remembered, that when M. 
 Boucher de Perthes' work was published, the weapons 
 therein described were totally unlike any of those familiar 
 to archaeologists. Since that time, however, not only 
 have similar implements been found in England, France, 
 and other countries, but, as already mentioned, it has 
 since come to light that similar weapons were in two 
 cases actually described and figured in England many 
 years ago, and that in both these instances they were 
 found in association with the bones of extinct animals. 
 On this point, therefore, no evidence could be more 
 conclusive. 
 
 We may, then, pass on to the second subject, and con- 
 sider whether the flint implements are as old as the beds
 
 ANTIQUITY OF IMPLEMENTS 355 
 
 in which they occur, and as the remains of extinct 
 mammalia with which they are associated. 
 
 It has been suggested by some writers, that though 
 they are really found in the mammaliferous gravel, they 
 may be comparatively recent, and belong really to the 
 Neolithic or later Stone Age, but have gradually sunk 
 down from above by their own weight, or perhaps have 
 been buried in artificial excavations. There are, however, 
 no cracks or fissures by which the hatchets could have 
 reached their present positions, and the strata are too 
 compact and immovable to admit of any such insinuation 
 from the surface. Nor could any ancient excavations 
 have been made and filled in again without leaving evident 
 traces of the change. Moreover, we may in this case also 
 appeal to the flint implements themselves, which, as we 
 have already seen, agree in colour and appearance with 
 the gravel in which they occur ; it is, therefore, only 
 reasonable to infer that they have been subjected to 
 the same influences. Moreover, if they belonged to the 
 later Stone Period, and had found their way by any 
 accident into these gravels, then they ought to correspond 
 with the other flint implements of the Stone Period. 
 But this is not the case. The flakes, indeed, ofi^er no 
 peculiarities of form. Similar splinters of flint, or 
 obsidian, have been used in the absence of metal by savage 
 tribes in almost all ages and all countries. In the south- 
 east of England the other implements, on the contrary, 
 are very characteristic. They are almost always made of 
 flint, whereas many other minerals, such, for instance, as 
 serpentine, jade, clayslate, etc., were used in the later 
 Stone Age. Their forms are also peculiar. They present 
 many differences, but may be classed, as already mentioned, 
 under a few types. Those with a heavy butt at one end, 
 and a point at the other, are regarded by Sir John Evans ^ 
 as having served as spear or lance heads. He treats as a 
 mere variety of this type those implements in which the 
 cutting end is rounded oflT but not pointed. Some of 
 these, however, were evidently intended to be held in the 
 1 Loc. cit.^ i860, p. II.
 
 356 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 hand, and probably served a different purpose ; they may, 
 I think, fairly be considered as a fourth type, though it 
 must be confessed that all these types run into one 
 another, and in any large collection many intermediate 
 forms may be found. The smaller end is, in all cases, 
 the one adapted for cutting, while the reverse is almost 
 invariably the case in the oval celts of the Neolithic Stone 
 Age (figs. 1 06 and 107). 
 
 Again, the flint implements of the drift are never 
 polished or ground, but are always left rough. Many 
 thousands have now been found in the drift gravels of 
 England and France, and of this large number there is 
 not one which shows a trace of polishing or grinding ; 
 while we know that the reverse was almost always the 
 case with the celts of the later Stone Period. It is true 
 that the latter is not an invariable rule ; thus, in Denmark 
 there are two forms of so-called "axes" which are left 
 rough — namely, the small triangular axes of the Kjokken- 
 moddings (figs. 1 17-1 19) which are invariably so, and the 
 large square-sided axes with which this is often the case. 
 But, though rough, these two forms of implements resemble 
 in no other way those which are found in the drift, and 
 could not for a moment be mistaken for them. It is not 
 going too far to say that there is not a single well-authen- 
 ticated instance of a " celt " being found in the drift, or of 
 an implement of the drift type being discovered either in a 
 tumulus or associated with remains of the later Stone Age. 
 
 It is useless to speculate upon the use made of these 
 rude yet venerable weapons. Almost as well might we 
 ask, to what use could they not be applied ? Numerous 
 and specialized as are our modern instruments, who could 
 describe the exact use of a knife } But the primitive 
 savage had no such choice of weapons ; we see before 
 us perhaps the whole contents of his workshop ; and 
 with these implements, rude as they seem to us, he cut 
 down trees, scooped them out into canoes, grubbed up 
 roots, attacked his enemies,^ killed and cut up his food, 
 
 ' Some savages even now fight with stones, which they simply lioid in 
 their hands.
 
 SCARCITY OF HUMAN BONES 357 
 
 made holes through the ice in winter, prepared fire- 
 wood, etc. 
 
 The ahnost entire absence of human bones, which has 
 appeared to some so inexplicable as to throw a doubt on 
 the whole question, is, on consideration, less extraordinary 
 than it might at first sight appear to be. If, for instance, 
 we turn to other remains of human settlements, we shall 
 find a repetition of the same phenomenon. Thus in the 
 Danish shell-mounds where worked flints are by far more 
 plentiful than in the St Acheul gravel, human bones are 
 of the greatest rarity, only one piece in fact having ever 
 been found. At that period, as in the Drift Age, man- 
 kind lived by hunting and fishing, and could not, there- 
 fore, be very numerous. In the era, however, of the 
 Swiss lake- habitations, the case was different. M. 
 Troyon estimates the population of the " Pfahlbauten " 
 during the Stone Age at about 32,000 ; in the Bronze 
 Era, 42,000. On these calculations, indeed, even their 
 ingenious author would not probably place much reliance ; 
 still the number of the lake-villages already known is 
 very considerable ; in four of the Swiss lakes only, more 
 than seventy have been discovered, and some of them 
 were of great extent : Wangen, for instance, being, 
 according to M. Lohle, supported on more than 50,000 
 piles. Yet, if we exclude a few bones of children, human 
 remains have been obtained from these settlements in six 
 cases only. The number of flint implements obtained 
 hitherto from the drift of the Somme valley probably 
 does not much exceed 5000 ^ ; the settlement at Concise 
 alone (Lake of Neufchatel) has supplied about 24,000, 
 and yet has not produced a single human skeleton. - 
 Probably this absence of bones is in part attributable to 
 the habit of burying or burning ; the instinct of man has 
 long been in most cases to bury his dead out of sight. 
 Still, so far as the drift of St Acheul is concerned, the 
 
 1 One of the tumuli in the Mississippi valley is estimated to have alone 
 contained nearly four thousand stone implements. This, however, is a 
 very exceptional case. 
 
 ^ Rapport a la Commission des M usees, October, 1861, p. 16.
 
 358 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 difficulty will altogether disappear, if we remember that 
 no trace has ever yet been found of any animal as small as a 
 man. Even of the elephant and rhinoceros, the ox, horse, 
 and stag,^ only the larger and more solid bones remain ; 
 every vestige of the smaller ones has perished. No one 
 supposes that this scanty list fairly represents the mam- 
 malian fauna of this time and place. When we find at 
 St Acheul the remains of the wolf, boar, roedeer, badger, 
 and other animals which existed during the Drift Period, 
 then, and not till then, we may perhaps begin to wonder 
 at the entire absence of human skeletons. 
 
 We must also remember that when man lived on the 
 produce of the chase, there must have been a very large 
 number of wild animals to each hunter. Among the 
 Laplanders, lOO reindeer is the smallest number on which 
 a man can subsist, and no one is considered rich who does 
 not possess at least from 300 to 500. But these are 
 domesticated, and a large supply of nourishment is 
 derived from their milk. In the case of wild animals, 
 we may safely assume that a much larger number would 
 be necessary. The Hudson's Bay territory is said to 
 comprise about 900,000,000 acres. The number of 
 Indians was estimated at 139,000. Allowing one wild 
 animal to each twenty acres, this would give about 300 
 animals to each Indian ; and, if we consider the greater 
 longevity of man, we must multiply this by six, or 
 even more. 
 
 Or, again, we may attempt to form an estimate in the 
 following manner. The number of skins received by the 
 
 1 The bones of the stag owe their preservation perhaps to another cause. 
 Professor Riitimeyer tells us that among the bones from the Pfahlbauten 
 none are in better condition than those of the stag : this is the consequence, 
 he says, of their " dichten Gefiige, ihrer Hiirte und Sprcidigkeit, so wie der 
 grossen Fettlosigkeit," peculiarities which recommended them so strongly 
 to the men of the Stone Age, that they used them in preference to all 
 others, nay, almost exclusively, in the manufacture of those instruments 
 which could be made of bone {Faima der Pfahlbautett, p. 12). How 
 common the bones of the stag are in quaternary strata geologists know, 
 and we have here perhaps an explanation of the fact. The antler of the 
 reindeer is also preferred at the present day by the Esquimaux in the 
 manufacture of their stone weapons. (Sir E. Belcher, Trans. Ethn. Soc, 
 vol. 1. p. 139.)
 
 PROPORTION OF MAN TO ANIMALS 359 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company in 1866 amounted to 1,250,000, 
 
 as roUows : — 
 
 
 
 
 Beaver .... 144,744 
 
 Fox 
 
 
 
 32,982 
 
 Lynx 
 
 
 
 68,040 
 
 Marten . 
 
 
 
 92,373 
 
 Mink 
 
 
 
 73,149 
 
 Musquash 
 
 
 
 608,396 
 
 Otter 
 
 
 
 14,376 
 
 Rabbit . 
 
 
 
 105,909 
 
 Bear 
 
 
 
 6,457 
 
 Racoon 
 
 
 
 24,860 
 
 Wolf 
 
 
 
 7,429 
 
 Sundries . 
 
 
 
 63,950 
 
 1,242,765 
 
 The number of Indians is estimated at 
 139,000, and Hearne states that every one 
 requires at least twenty deerskins for 
 clothes, without counting those required 
 for tent-cloths, bags, etc. ; this therefore 
 would give us 139,000x20 . . . 2,780,000 
 
 But the deerskins are fit for clothes only 
 during two months in the year, and as it will 
 be observed that the majority of the animals 
 enumerated above are not fit for food, 
 others must have been killed in sufficient 
 quantities to serve as food for ten months. 
 Assuming that an Indian requires one every 
 month, which is probably well within the 
 mark, we shall again require 139,000 x 10 
 (the number of months), . . . . 1,390,000 
 
 Making, therefore, a total of 
 
 5,412,765 
 
 And even if we assume that one animal only out of 
 twenty is killed by the Indians, which is probably much 
 too large a proportion, we shall have 108,000,000 to 
 139,000 Indians, or about 750 animals to each man ; 
 besides which, a further allowance must be made as before
 
 36o PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 on account of man's greater longevity. Dr Rae, who has 
 had so much experience in these matters, has been good 
 enough to look over the above calculation, which he 
 considers fairly estimated, but it has, of course, no pre- 
 tensions to accuracy. 
 
 Lastly, it may be observed that man is less likely to be 
 drowned by sudden river floods, than is the case with 
 other land mammaUa ; ^ and on the whole, therefore, it 
 is natural that the bones of animals would be far more 
 common in these gravels than those of man. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that the latter are 
 altogether absent. Without relying on the human lower 
 jaw, stated to have been found in the pit at Moulinquignon, 
 and about which there has been much discussion and 
 difference of opinion, I may instance the discovery of 
 human remains by M. Bertrand,^ at Clichy, in the valley 
 of the Seine. Among these bones, about the authenticity 
 and antiquity of which there seems to be no doubt, was 
 a skull which has been examined by M. Lartet, and which 
 is decidedly dolichocephalic. 
 
 We have as yet but partly answered the second of the 
 two questions with which we started. Even admitting 
 that the flint hatchets are coeval with the gravel in which 
 they occur, it remains to be shown that the bones of the 
 extinct animals belong also to the same period. This was 
 at first doubted by some geologists, who suggested that 
 they might have been washed out of earlier strata. 
 
 If, however, these bones belonged to a period earlier 
 than that of the gravel, where, we may ask, are the remains 
 of the animals which did exist at that time ? Moreover, 
 the bones, though sometimes much worn and broken, are 
 at others, and even, according to Sir J. Prestwich, " as a 
 general rule," either not rolled at all, or are slightly so." 
 Secondly, these species, and particularly the mammoth 
 and the woolly-haired rhinoceros, are the characteristic and 
 commonest species of these beds, not only in the valley of 
 the Somme, but in all the drift gravels of England and 
 
 ' See, for instances, Bakie, Explo7-ing Voyage up the K^vora, p. 315. 
 ^ Les Mo fides, 1869, p. 64. ^ Phil. Trans.., he. eil.., p. 300.
 
 COEXISTENCE OF MAN WITH ANIMALS 361 
 
 France ; while, if they belonged in reality to an earlier 
 period, they would not occur so constantly, and they 
 would be accompanied by other species characteristic of 
 earlier times. 
 
 Thirdly, the materials forming the drift gravels of the 
 Somme valley have all been obtained from the present 
 area of drainage, and there are in this district no older 
 beds from which the remains of these extinct mammalia 
 could possibly have been derived. There are, indeed, 
 outliers of tertiary strata, but the mammalian remains 
 found in those beds belong to other, and much more 
 ancient, species. 
 
 Fourthly, as regards the rhinoceros, we have the ex- 
 press testimony of M. Baillon, that on one occasion all 
 the bones of a hind-leg were found in their natural 
 positions at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, while the rest 
 of the skeleton was found at a little distance. In this 
 case, therefore, the animal most have been entombed 
 before the ligaments had decayed away. 
 
 M. Casciano de Prado has made a very similar discovery 
 in Spain, not far from Madrid. There the section was 
 as follows : first, vegetable soil ; then about twenty-five 
 feet of sand and pebbles, under which was a layer of 
 sandy loam, in which, during the year 1850, a complete 
 skeleton of the mammoth was discovered. Underneath 
 this stratum was about ten feet of coarse gravel, in which 
 some flint axes, very closely resembling those of Amiens, 
 have been discovered. 
 
 Finally, as regards the rhinoceros, M. Lartet assures 
 us^ that some of the bones bear the marks of flint imple- 
 ments ; nay, more than this, he has even satisfied himself, 
 " by comparative trials on homologous portions of existing 
 animals, that incisions, presenting such appearances, 
 could only be made in fresh bones, still retaining their 
 cartilage." 
 
 There is, then, no more reason for believing that the 
 bones of these extinct mammalia were washed out of 
 earlier strata into the drift gravels, than for attributina^ 
 ^ Geological J ourn.^ vol. xvi. p. 471.
 
 362 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ;* 
 
 such an origin to the implements themselves ; and we 
 
 may, I think, regard it as well 
 ^ I established, that the mammoth and 
 
 ^ Z woolly-haired rhinoceros, as well as 
 
 the other above-mentioned mam- 
 malia, co-existed with the savages 
 who used the rude " drift hatchets," 
 at the time when the gravels of the 
 Somme were being deposited. 
 
 The second of the three ques- 
 tions with which we started (p. 351) 
 may therefore be answered in the 
 affirmative. 
 
 Must we, then, carry man back 
 far into the past, or may we bring 
 the extinct animals down to com- 
 paratively recent times ? The ab- 
 sence of all tradition of the elephant 
 and rhinoceros in Europe carries 
 us back far indeed in years, but a 
 little way only, when measured by 
 geological standards, and we must 
 therefore solve this question by 
 examining the drift gravels them- 
 selves, the materials of which they 
 are composed, and the positions 
 which they so occupy, as to deter- 
 mine, if possible, the conditions 
 under which they were deposited, 
 and the lapse of time which they 
 indicate. 
 
 Fig. 250 gives a section across 
 the valley of the Somme at Abbe- 
 ville, taken from the memoir in the 
 Philosophical Transactions^ by Sir J. 
 Prestwich, who has long studied 
 the quaternary beds, and has done more than any other 
 
 We should find almost 
 
 Phil. Trafis.^ i860. 
 
 man to render them intelligible
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DRIFT BEDS 363 
 
 the same arrangement and position of the different beds 
 not only at St Acheul, but elsewhere along the valley of 
 the Somme, wherever the higher beds of gravel have not 
 been removed by subsequent action of the river. Even 
 at St Valery, at the present mouth of the river, I found 
 a bed of gravel at a considerable height above the level 
 of the sea. This would seem to show that at the period 
 of these high-level gravels, the English Channel was 
 narrower than it is at present, as indeed we know to have 
 been the case down to historical times. So early as 1605, 
 our countryman, Verstegan, pointed out that the waves 
 and tides were eating away our coasts. Sir C. Lyell ^ 
 gives much information on this subject, and it appears, 
 for instance, that, even so lately as the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, the town of Brighton occupied the site of the 
 present pier. 
 
 The difference between the height of the high-level 
 gravels and the river increases from the source to the sea. 
 For instance, in the Seine valley at the boundaries of 
 La Brie and Champagne it is nothing ; at Paris, 34 
 metres ; at the sea, 50 or 60.^ 
 
 Sir J. Prestwich has pointed out^ that a section, similar 
 to that of the Somme, is presented by various rivers — the 
 Lark, Waveney, Ouse, etc., while it is well shown also 
 along the banks of the Seine. Indeed it holds good of 
 most of our rivers, that along the sides of their valleys 
 are patches of old gravels left by the stream at various 
 heights, before they had excavated the channels to their 
 present depth. Sir J. Prestwich considers that the beds 
 of sand and gravel can generally be divided into two more 
 or less distinct series, one continuous along the bottom 
 of the valleys, and rising little above the water level — 
 these he calls the low-level gravels ; the other, which he 
 terms the upper or high-level gravels, occurring in 
 detached masses at an elevation of from fifty to two 
 hundred feet above the valley. Those of the Somme 
 seem to me, on the contrary, only the two extremes of a 
 
 ^ See Principles of Geolot^y, p. 315. 
 
 ^ Belgrand, Bassin Parisian, p. 90. ^ Phil. Trans., 1864.
 
 364 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 single series, once continuous, but now generally present- 
 ing numerous interruptions, A more magnified view of 
 the strata at St Acheul, near Amiens, is shown in 
 fig. 251. The upper layer of vegetable soil having been 
 removed, we have — 
 
 (i) A bed of brick earth (rf), from 4 to 5 feet in thick- 
 ness, and containing a few angular flints. 
 
 (2) Below this is a thin layer of angular gravel (^), i to 
 2 feet in thickness. 
 
 (3) Still lower is a bed of sandy marl (c), 5 to 6 feet 
 thick, with land and freshwater shells, which, though 
 very delicate, are in most cases perfect. 
 
 Fig. 251. — Section of St Acheul, near Amiens. 
 
 (4) At the bottom of all these, and immediately over- 
 lying the chalk, is the bed of partially rounded gravel (^) 
 in which principally the flint implements are found. 
 This layer also contains many well-rolled tertiary 
 pebbles. 
 
 In the early Christian period this spot was used as a 
 cemetery : the graves generally descend into the marly 
 sand, and their limits are very distinctly marked, as in 
 fig. 251 ; an important fact, as showing that the rest of 
 the strata have lain undisturbed for fifteen hundred years. 
 Some of the coffins were of hard chalk (fig. 251, ^), some 
 of wood, in which latter case the nails and clamps only 
 remain, every particle of wood having perished, without 
 leaving even a stain behind. Passing down the hill 
 towards the river, all these strata are seen to die out, and 
 we find ourselves on the bare chalk ; but atrain at a lower
 
 ST ACHEUL 365 
 
 level occurs another bed of gravel, resembling the first, 
 and capped also by the bed of brick earth which is known 
 as loess. This lower bed of gravel is known as the 
 lower-level gravel, a somewhat misleading term, as it is 
 of course more recent. 
 
 These strata, therefore, are our witnesses ; but of 
 what ? Are they older than the valley, or the valley than 
 they ? Are they the result of causes still in operation, or 
 the offspring of cataclysms now happily at an end ? 
 
 If we can show that the present river, somewhat swollen 
 perhaps, owing to the greater extension of forests in 
 ancient times, and by an alteration of climate, has ex- 
 cavated the present valley, and produced the strata above 
 numerated ; then " the suggestion of an antiquity for the 
 human family so remote as is here implied, in the length 
 of ages required by the gentle rivers and small streams of 
 eastern France to erode its whole plain to the depths at 
 which they now flow, acquires, it must be confessed, a 
 fascinating grandeur, when by similitude of feature and 
 geology, we extend the hypothesis to the whole north- 
 west frontiers of the continent, and assume that, from 
 the estuary of the Seine to the eastern shores of the 
 Baltic, every internal feature of valley, dale, and ravine — 
 in short, the entire intaglio of the surface — has been 
 moulded by running waters, since the advent of the 
 human race." ^ 
 
 But, on the other hand, it has been maintained that the 
 pliant facts may be read as " expressions of violent and 
 sudden mutations, only compatible with altogether briefer 
 periods," The argument of the Paroxysmist would 
 probably be something like the following : — 
 
 " Assuming the pre-existing re/ief, or excavation rather, 
 of the surface to have approximated to that now prevail- 
 ing, he will account for the gravel by supposing a sudden 
 rocking movement of the lancis and the bottom of the sea 
 of the nature of an earthquake, or a succession of them, 
 to have launched a portion of the temporarily uplifted 
 waters upon the surface of the land." 
 
 ' Blackwooifs Magazine^ October, i860.
 
 266 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Let us, then, examine the strata, and see whether the 
 evidence they give is in reality so confused and contra- 
 dictory. 
 
 Taking the section at St Acheul and commencing at 
 the bottom, we have first of all the partially rounded 
 high-level gravel, throughout which, and especially at the 
 lower part, the flint implements occur. 
 
 These beds but rarely contain vegetable remains. 
 Large pieces of the oak, yew, and fir have, however, been 
 determined at Hoxne. The mammalia, also, are but few ; 
 the mammoth, the Elephas ayitiquus^ with species of Bos^ 
 Cervus^ and Equus^ are the only ones which have yet 
 occurred at St Acheul, though beds of the same age in 
 other parts of England and France have added the 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus^ the reindeer, and several other 
 species. The moUusca are more numerous ; they have 
 been identified by Mr J. G. Jeffreys, who finds in the 
 upper-level gravel thirty-six species, all of them land or 
 freshwater forms, and all belonging to existing species. 
 It is hardly necessary to add that these shells are not 
 found in the coarse gravel, but only here and there, 
 where quieter conditions, indicated by a seam of finer 
 materials, have preserved them from destruction. Here, 
 therefore, we have a conclusive answer to the suggestion 
 that the gravel may have been heaped up to its present 
 height by a sudden irruption of the sea. In that case we 
 should find some marine remains ; but as we do not, as 
 all the fossils belong to animals which live on the land, 
 or inhabit fresh waters, it is at once evident that this 
 stratum, not being sub-aerial, must be a freshwater 
 deposit ; and as the most delicate shells are entire, it is 
 equally evident that they were deposited in tranquil water, 
 and not by a cataclysm. 
 
 But the p-ravel itself tells us even more than this : the 
 river Somme flows through a country in which there are 
 no rocks older than the chalk, and the gravel in its valley 
 consists entirely of chalk flints and tertiary debris.^ The 
 Seine, on the other hand, receives tributaries which drain 
 
 ^ Buteux, loc. cif., p. 98.
 
 ORGANIC REMAINS 367 
 
 other formations. In the valley of the Yonne we find 
 fragments of the crystalline rocks brought from the 
 Morvan.^ The Aube runs through cretaceous and 
 Jurassic strata, and the gravels along its valley are entirely 
 composed of materials derived from these formations. 
 The valley of the Oise is in this respect particularly 
 instructive : " De Maquenoise a Hirson " la vallee ne 
 presente que des fragments plus ou moins roules des 
 roches de transition que traverse le cours de la riviere. 
 En descendant a Etreaupont, on y trouve des calcaires 
 jurassiques et des silex de la craie, formations qui ont 
 succede aux roches anciennes. A Guise, le depot erratique 
 ... est compose de quartzites et de schistes de transition 
 de quelques gres plus recents, de silex de la craie, et surtout 
 de quartz laiteux, dont le volume varie depuis celui de la 
 tete jusqu'a celui de grains de sable. . . . Au dela les 
 fragments de roches anciennes diminuent graduellement 
 en volume et en nombre." At Paris the granitic debris 
 brought down by the Yonne forms a notable proportion 
 of the gravel ; and at Precy, near Creil, on the Oise, the 
 fragments of the ancient rocks are abundant ; but lower 
 down the Seine, at Mantes, they are smaller and less 
 numerous, while at Rouen and Pont de I'Arche I found 
 none, though a longer search would doubtless have shown 
 fragments of them. This case of the Oise is, however, 
 interesting, not only on account of the valuable evidence 
 contained in the above quotation, but because, though 
 the river flows, as a glance at the map will show, im- 
 mediately across and at right angles to the Somme, yet 
 none of the ancient rocks which form the valley of the 
 Oise have supplied any debris to the valley of the 
 Somme : and this, though the two rivers are at one point 
 within six miles of one another, and separated by a ridge 
 only eighty feet in height. 
 
 The same division occurs between the Seine and the 
 Loire : " Bien que la ligne de partage des eaux de la 
 Loire et de la Seine, entre St Amand (Nievre) et Artenay, 
 au nord d'Orleans, soit a peine sensible, aucun debris de 
 
 ' D'Archiac, Fro^^rcs de la Gt'ologie, p. 163. " Ibid.,loc. cit., p. 155.
 
 368 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 roches venant du centre de la France, par la vallee de la 
 Loire n'est passe dans le bassin de la Seine." ^ 
 
 In the Vivarais near Auvergne, " Les depots diluviens 
 sont composes des memes roches que celles que les rivieres 
 actuelles entrainent dans les vallees, et sont les debris des 
 seules montagnes de la Lozin, du Tanargue et du Mezene, 
 qui entourent le bassin du Vivarais."^ 
 
 Again : 
 
 " Le diluvium des vallees de I'Aisne et de I'Aire ne 
 renferme que les debris plus ou moins roules des terrains 
 que ces rivieres coupent dans leur cours."^ 
 
 The same thing holds good in various English rivers. 
 The conclusion deduced by M. D'Archiac from the con- 
 sideration of these observations, and specially from those 
 concerning the valley of the Seine, is, " Que les courants 
 diluviens ne venaient point d'une direction unique, mais 
 qu'ils convergaient des bords du bassin vers son centre, 
 suivant les depressions preexistantes, et que leur elevation 
 ou leur force de transport ne suffisait pas pour /aire passer les 
 debris quils charriaient d'une de ces vallees dans T autre'' * 
 
 Considering, however, all these facts, remembering 
 that the constituents of these river-drift gravels are, in all 
 cases, derived from beds now in situ along the valley, 
 that they have not only followed the lines of these valleys, 
 but have done so in the direction of the present waterflow, 
 and without in any case passing across from one river 
 system to another, it seems quite unnecessary to call in 
 the assistance of diluvial waves, or indeed any other 
 agency than that of the rivers themselves. 
 
 There are, however, certain facts in the case which 
 were long regarded by most geologists as fatal to this 
 hypothesis, and which prevented M. D'Archiac, as well 
 as the French geologists generally, from adopting an 
 explanation apparently so simple and so obvious. These 
 difficulties appear to have been twofold, or at least the 
 two principal were firstly, the large sandstone blocks 
 which are scattered throughout the river gravels of 
 
 1 Loc.cit., p. 164. '" Loc. cit.^ p. 160. 
 
 ^ Malbos. Bull. Geo.., vol. iii. p. 631. ^ Loc. ciL, p. 163.
 
 OBJECTIONS TO PROPOSED THEORY 369 
 
 °-'^'^^'fe^^^^^.# 
 
 o-ot;^:^' 
 
 
 '?-.oo::^.-. 
 
 
 ;-:!^^0'4^fe^f^' 
 
 northern and central France ; and secondly, the height 
 at which the upper-level gravels stand above the present 
 water-line. We will consider these two objections 
 separately. 
 
 It must be admitted that the presence of the sandstone 
 blocks in the gravels appears at first sight to be irrecon- 
 cilable with our hypothesis. In some places they occur 
 frequently, and are of considerable size ; the largest I 
 have myself seen is represented in the section, fig. 252, 
 taken close to the railway-station at Joinville. It was 
 8 ft. 6 in. in length, with a width of 2 ft. 8 in., and a 
 thickness of 3 ft. 4 in. 
 Even when we re- 
 member that at the 
 time of its deposition 
 the valley was not 
 excavated to its pre- 
 sent depth, we must 
 still feel that a body 
 of water with power 
 to move such masses 
 as these must have 
 been very different 
 from any floods now 
 occurring in those valleys, and might fairly deserve the 
 name of a cataclysm. But whence could we obtain 
 so great a quantity of water .'' We have already seen 
 that the gravel of the Oise, though so near, is entirely 
 unlike that of the Somme ; while that of the Seine, again, 
 is quite different from that of any of the neighbouring 
 rivers. These rivers, therefore, cannot have drained a 
 larger area than at present ; the river systems must have 
 been the same as now. Nor would the supposition, 
 after all, account for the phenomena. We should but 
 fall from Scylla into Charybdis. Around the blocks we 
 see no evidence of violent action ; in the section at 
 Joinville, the grey sub-angular gravel passed under the 
 large block above-mentioned, with scarcely any traces of 
 disturbance. But a flood which could bring down so 
 
 24 
 
 Fio. 252. — Section taken in a pit close to the 
 
 Joinville station. 
 d, Red angular gravel, containing a very large 
 sandstone block ; d, Grey subangular gravel.
 
 370 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 great a mass would certainly have swept away the com- 
 paratively light and movable gravel below. We cannot, 
 therefore, account for the phenomena by violent aqueous 
 action, because a flood which would deposit the sand- 
 stone blocks would remove the underlying gravel, and 
 a flood which would deposit the gravel would not move 
 the blocks. The deus ex machina has not only been 
 called in most unnecessarily, but, when examined, turns 
 out to be but an idol after all. 
 
 Driven, then, to seek some other explanation of the 
 difficulty. Sir J. Prestwich falls back on that of floating 
 ice. Here we have an agency which would satisfactorily 
 explain all the difficulties of the case. The " packing " 
 and propelling action of ice would also account for some 
 irregularities in the arrangement of the beds, which are 
 very difficult otherwise to understand. Nor is it the 
 physical evidence only which points to an arctic climate 
 during the period now under consideration ; the fauna, as 
 we have already seen, tells the same tale. 
 
 But though the presence of the sandstone blocks and 
 the occasional contortions of the strata are in perfect 
 accordance with the view that the gravels have been 
 deposited by the rivers, our second difficulty still remains 
 — namely, the height at which the upper-level gravels 
 stand above the present water-line. We cannot wonder 
 that these beds were so long attributed to violent 
 cataclysms. 
 
 M. Boucher de Perthes was always of this opinion. 
 " Ce coquillage," he says, " cet elephant, cette hache, ou 
 la main qui la fabriqua, furent done temoins du cata- 
 clysme qui donna a notre pays sa configuration pre- 
 sente." ^ 
 
 M. C. D'Orbigny, observing that the fossils found in 
 these quaternary beds are all either of land or freshwater 
 animals, wisely dismisses the theory of any marine action, 
 but he expresses himself as follows : — " En effi^t I'opinion 
 de la plupart des geologues est que les cataclysmes 
 diluviens ont eu pour causes predominantes de fortes 
 
 ' Mem. Soc. d'Em. d' Abbeville, 1861, p. 475.
 
 FRESHWATER ORIGIN OF GRAVELS 371 
 
 oscillations de I'ecorce terrestre, des soulevement de 
 montagnes au milieu de I'ocean, d'ou seraient resultees 
 de grandes erosions. Par consequent les puissants 
 courants d'eau marine, auxquels on attribue ces erosions 
 diluviennes, auraient du laisser sur les continents des 
 traces authentiques de leur passage, tels que de nombreux 
 debris de coquilles, de poissons et autres animaux marins 
 analogues a ceux qui vivent actuellement dans la mer. 
 Or, ainsi que M. Cordier I'a fait remarker depuis long- 
 temps a sons cours de geologie, rien de semblable n'a ete 
 constate. Sur tous les points du globe ou Ton a etudie 
 les depots diluviens, on a reconnu que, sauf quelques 
 fares exceptions tres contestables il n'existe dans ces 
 depots aucun fossil marin : ou bien ce sont des fossiles 
 arraches aux terrains preexistants, dont la denudation a 
 fourni les materiaux qui composent le diluvium. En 
 sorte que les depots diluviens semblent avoir eu pour 
 cause des phenomenes meteorologiques, et paraissent etre 
 le resultat d'immenses inondations d'eau douce et non 
 d'eau marine, qui, se precipitant des points eleves vers la 
 mer, auraient denude une grande partie de la surface du 
 sol, balaye la generalite des etres organises et pour ainsi 
 dire nivele, coordonne les bassins hydrographiques 
 actuels." ^ 
 
 Such cataclysms, however, as those thus suggested by 
 M. D'Orbigny, and many other French geologists, even 
 if admitted, would not account for the results before us. 
 We have seen that the transport of materials has not 
 followed any single direction, but has in all cases followed 
 the lines of the present valleys, and the direction of the 
 present water-flow ; that the rocks of one valley are never 
 transported into another ; that the condition of the loess 
 is irreconcilable with a great rush of water ; while, finally, 
 the perfect preservation of many of the most delicate 
 shells is clear proof that the phenomena are not due to 
 violent or cataclysmic action. 
 
 We must, moreover, bear in mind that the gravels and 
 
 ' C. D'Orbigny, Bull. Gco.^ 2nd series, v. xvii. p. 6. See also D'Archiac, 
 loc. cit. passim.
 
 372 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 sands are themselves both the proof and the results of an 
 immense denudation. In a chalk country, such as that 
 through which the Somme flows, each cubic foot of flint, 
 gravel, or sand represents the removal of, at the very least, 
 twenty cubic feet of chalk, all of which, as we have already 
 seen, must have been removed from the present area of 
 drainage. In considering, therefore, the formation of 
 these upper and older gravels, we must not picture to 
 ourselves the original valley as it now is, but must, in 
 imagination, restore all that immense mass of chalk which 
 has been destroyed in the formation of the gravels and 
 sands. This is no mere hypothesis, since the mass of 
 sand and gravel cannot have been produced without an 
 immense removal of the chalk. On the whole, then, we 
 may safely conclude that the upper-level gravels were 
 deposited by the existing river, before it had excavated 
 the valley to its present depth, and when consequently it 
 ran at a level considerably higher than the present. 
 
 Far, therefore, from requiring an immense flood of 
 water, two hundred feet in depth, the accumulation of 
 the gravel may have been effected by an annual volume 
 of water, differing little from that of the present river. 
 
 A given quantity of water will, however, produce very 
 different effects, according to the rapidity with which it 
 flows. " We learn from observation that a velocity of 
 three inches per second at the bottom will just begin to 
 work upon fine clay fit for pottery, and, however firm and 
 compact it may be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds are more 
 stable than clay when the velocities do not exceed this ; 
 for the water even takes away the impalpable particles of 
 the superficial clay, leaving the particles of sand sticking 
 by their lower half in the rest of the clay, which they now 
 protect, making a very permanent bottom, if the stream 
 does not bring down gravel or coarse sand, which will 
 rub off this very thin crust, and allow another layer to be 
 worn off. A velocity of 6 inches will lift fine sand, 8 
 inches will lift sand as coarse as linseed, I2 inches will 
 sweep along fine gravel, 24 inches will roll along rounded 
 pebbles an inch in diameter, and it requires 3 feet per
 
 GRADUAL EXCAVATION OF VALLEY 373 
 
 second at the bottom to sweep along shivery angular 
 stones of the size of an egg." ^ 
 
 If, therefore, we are justified in assuming a colder 
 climate than that now existing, we should much increase 
 the erosive action of the river, not only because the rains 
 would fall on a frozen surface, but because the rainfall 
 of the winter months would accumulate on the high 
 grounds in the form of ice and snow, and would every 
 spring produce floods much greater than any which now 
 occur.^ 
 
 Moreover, as Sir J. Evans has well pointed out, in 
 ancient times, and before the river valleys were excavated 
 to their present depths, the chalk might have been 
 saturated with water to a greater height than at present, 
 and this also would have rendered floods more frequent 
 and more severe than at present. 
 
 Returning to the fig. given on p. 364, we now come to 
 the light-coloured marl (fig. 251, c). Sir J. Prestwich 
 described it as follows : Of white siliceous sand and light- 
 coloured marl, mixed with fine chalk grit, a few large 
 sub-angular flints, and an occasional sandstone block, 
 irregular patches of flint gravel, bedding waved and 
 contorted, here and there layers with diagonal seams, a 
 few ochreous bands, portions concreted. Sand and fresh- 
 water shells common, some mammalian remains. 
 
 In the pits at Amiens this bed is generally distinct 
 from the underlying gravels, owing perhaps to the upper 
 portion of the gravel having been removed ; but in several 
 places (Precy, Ivry, Bicetre, etc.) this section is complete, 
 the coarser gravel below becoming finer and finer, and at 
 length passing above into siliceous sand. These sections 
 evidently indicate a gradual loss of power in the water at 
 these particular spots ; rapid enough at first to bring 
 down large pebbles, its force became less and less, until 
 at length it was only able to carry fine sand. This, 
 therefore, appears to indicate a slight change in the course 
 of the river, and gradual excavation of the valley, which, 
 
 1 Cjc. Bril., article " Rivers," p. 274. 
 
 2 See Murchison's Geology of Russia and the Ural Mountains^ p. 572.
 
 374 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 by supplying the floods with a lower bed, left the waters 
 at this height with a gradually diminishing force and 
 velocity. 
 
 The upper part of the section of St Acheul consists of 
 brick earth (fig. 251, «), passing below into angular gravel, 
 while between this and the underlying sandy marl is 
 sometimes a small layer of darker brick earth. These 
 beds, however, vary much even in adjoining sections. 
 Taken as a whole, they may be regarded as the repre- 
 sentatives of that remarkable loamy deposit which is 
 found overlying the gravels in all these valleys of northern 
 France, and which, as the celebrated " loess " of the 
 Rhine, attains in some places a thickness of three hundred 
 feet. The greatest development of it which I have seen 
 in the north of France was in a pit in the Rue de la 
 Chevalerie, near Ivry, where it was twenty-two feet thick ; 
 some of this, however, may have been reconstructed logss 
 brought down by rain from the higher ground in the 
 immediate neicyhbourhood. Assuming: that this loess is 
 composed of fine particles deposited from standing or 
 slowly-moving waters, we might be disposed to wonder 
 at not finding in it any traces of vegetable remains. We 
 know, however, from the arrangement of the nails and 
 hasps, that in some of the St Acheul tombs wooden 
 coffins were used, while the size of the nails shows that 
 the planks must have been tolerably thick ; yet every 
 trace of wood has been removed, and not even a stain 
 is left to indicate its presence. We need not, therefore, 
 wonder at the absence of vegetable remains in the drift. 
 
 Such is a general account of those gravel-pits which 
 lie at a height of from eighty to one hundred and fifty 
 feet above the present water-level of the valleys, and 
 which, along the Somme, are found in some places even 
 at a height of two hundred feet. 
 
 Sir J. Prestwich gives the following table of the 
 mammalia. To this list we may add the lemming, the 
 Myodes torquatuSy and the musk-ox, which has been found 
 at two spots in the Thames valley, as well as at Chauny 
 on the Oise.
 
 PITS AT LOWER LEVELS 
 
 375 
 
 
 Bedford. 
 
 Abbe- 
 
 Amiens. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 
 Great 
 
 ville. 
 
 
 Crenelle, 
 
 
 Northern 
 
 
 
 Ivry, 
 
 
 Railway, or 
 
 Menche- 
 
 St Roch. 
 
 Clichy, 
 
 
 Summer- 
 
 court. 
 
 
 or the Rue 
 
 
 house Hill. 
 
 
 
 de Reuily. 
 
 Elephas primigenius, Blum. 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 antiquus, Falc. . . 
 
 *5 
 
 
 * 
 
 *c 
 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cuv. 
 
 *,. 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 megarhinos, Ckrts/ol. . 
 
 *;- 
 
 
 
 *-lg 
 
 Ursus spelffius, BIudi. . 
 
 *s 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Hyaena spelsea. Gold. . 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 *,g 
 
 Felis spelsea, Gold. 
 
 ... 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 Bos primigenius, Bqj. . 
 
 * ? 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 Bison prisons, Boj. 
 
 *;- 
 
 * 
 
 
 *: 
 
 Equus (possibly two species) 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 Cervus euryceros, Aldr. 
 
 *,. 
 
 
 
 
 elaphus, Litin. 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 tarandus, Linn. . 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 *c 
 
 Hippopotamus major, Nesli 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 *g 
 
 Sus ..... 
 
 *,. 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Let us now visit some of the pits at the lower levels. 
 At about thirty feet lower, as for instance at Menchecourt, 
 near Abbeville, and at St Roch near Amiens, where the 
 gravel slopes from a height of sixty feet down to the 
 present bottom of the valley, we find almost a repetition 
 of the same succession ; coarse sub-angular gravel below, 
 finer materials above. So similar, indeed, are these beds 
 to those already described, that it will be unnecessary for 
 me to give any special description of them. 
 
 It is possible that when the fauna and flora of the 
 upper and lower level gravels shall have been more 
 thoroughly investigated, they may be found to be almost 
 identical. At present, however, the species obtained 
 from the lower-level gravels are more numerous than 
 those from the upper levels. 
 
 The mollusca are 52 in number, of which 42 now live 
 in Sweden, 37 in Finland, and 38 in Lombardy. Bearing 
 in mind that Lombardy is much richer than Finland in 
 mollusca, this assemblage has rather a northern aspect. 
 
 In such a group of species as this, the hippopotamus 
 seems singularly out of place, and in the preceding chapter 
 I have discussed the conclusions which are, I think, to be
 
 376 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 drawn from its presence : taking the fauna as a whole, 
 however, and looking more especially to such animals as 
 the musk-ox, the reindeer, the lemming, the Myodes 
 /c»r^«^///j, the Siberian mammoth, and its faithful companion, 
 the woolly-haired rhinoceros, we have clear evidence of 
 a climate unlike that now prevailing in Western Europe. 
 
 The valley was once considerably deeper than at present 
 and is partly filled up by a bed of gravel, covered by 
 silt and peat, which latter is in some places more than 
 thirty or even forty feet thick, and is extensively worked 
 for fuel. These strata have afforded to the antiquaries 
 of the neighbourhood, and especially to M. Boucher de 
 Perthes, a rich harvest of interesting relics belonging to 
 various periods. The depth at which these objects are 
 found has been carefully noted by M. Boucher de Perthes. 
 
 " Prenant," he says, "pour terme moyen du sol de la 
 vallee, une hauteur de 2 metres audessus du niveau de la 
 Somme, c'est a 30 a 40 centimetres de la surface qu'on 
 rencontre le plus abondamment les traces du moyen-age. 
 Cinquante centimetres plus bas, on commence a trouver 
 des debris romains puis gallo-romains. On continue a 
 suivre ces derniers pendant un metre, c'est a dire jusqu'au 
 niveau de la Somme. Apres eux, viennent les vestiges 
 gaulois purs qui descendent sans interruption jusqu'a 
 pres de 2 metres audessous de ce niveau, preuve de la 
 longue habitation de ces peuples dans la vallee. C'est a 
 un metre plus bas, ou a 4 metres environ audessous de 
 ce meme niveau, qu'on arrive au centre du sol que nous 
 avons nomme Celtique, celui que foulerent les Gaulois 
 primitives ou les peuples qui les precederent " ; and 
 which belonged, therefore, to the Neolithic Period. It 
 is, however, hardly necessary to add that these thicknesses 
 are only given by M. Boucher de Perthes "comme 
 terme approximatif " ; and in other localities no doubt 
 the growth was more rapid. Mr Southall ^ gives instances 
 of more rapid accumulation ; nevertheless, without attach- 
 ing too much importance to M. Boucher de Perthes' 
 calculation, it is obvious that the formation of so great 
 
 ' Recent Origin of Man, pp. 270, 467.
 
 OBJECTS FOUND IN THE PEAT 377 
 
 a mass of ^ peat must have required a considerable lapse 
 of time. 
 
 The Antiquites Celtiques was published several years 
 before the Swiss arch^ologists had made us acquainted 
 with the nature of the lake-dwellings ; but, from some 
 indications given by M. Boucher de Perthes, it would 
 appear that there must have been, at one time, lake- 
 habitations in the neighbourhood of Abbeville. He 
 found considerable platforms of wood, with large quantities 
 of bones, stone implements, and handles closely resembling 
 those which come from the Swiss lake-villages. 
 
 These weapons cannot for an instant be confounded 
 with the ruder ones from the drift-gravel. They are 
 ground to a smooth surface and a cutting edge, while 
 those of the more ancient types are merely chipped, not 
 one of the many hundreds already found having shown 
 the slightest trace of grinding. Yet though the former 
 belong to the Stone Age, to a time so remote that the 
 use of metal was apparently still unknown in Western 
 Europe, they are separated from the earlier weapons of 
 the upper-level drift by the whole period necessary for 
 the excavation of the Somme valley, to a depth of more 
 than one hundred feet and its refilling by some twenty 
 or thirty feet of peat. 
 
 If, therefore, we get no definite date for the arrival of 
 man in these countries, we can at least form a vivid idea 
 of his antiquity. He must have seen the Somme running 
 at a height of about a hundred feet above its present 
 level. It is, indeed, probable that he dates back in 
 northern France almost, if not quite, as far as some of 
 the rivers themselves. The fauna of the country was 
 unlike what it is now. Along the banks of the rivers 
 ranged a savage race of hunters and fishermen, and in the 
 forests wandered the mammoth, the two-horned woolly 
 rhinoceros, a species of lion, the musk-ox, the reindeer, 
 and the urus. 
 
 Yet the geography of France cannot have been very 
 diflferent from what it is at present. The present rivers 
 ran in their present directions, and the sea even then lay
 
 378 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 between the Somme and the Adour, though the channel 
 was not so wide as it is now. 
 
 Gradually the river deepened its valley ; ineffective, 
 or even perhaps constructive, in autumn and winter, the 
 melting of the snows turned it every spring into a roaring 
 torrent. These floods were perhaps more destructive to 
 animals even than man himself ; while, however rude they 
 may have been, our predecessors can hardly be supposed 
 to have been incapable of foreseeing and consequently 
 escaping the danger. 
 
 While the water had sufficient force to deposit coarse 
 gravel at any given level, at a still higher one it would 
 part with finer particles, and would thus form the loess, 
 which at the same time would here and there receive 
 ano-ular flints and shells brought down from the hills in a 
 more or less transverse direction by the rivulets after 
 heavy rains. 
 
 Sir J. Prestwich regards the difference of level between 
 the upper gravels and the loess as " a measure of the 
 floods of that period." If the gravel-beds were complete, 
 this would no doubt be the case ; but it seems to me that 
 the upper-level gravels are mere fragments of an originally 
 almost continuous deposit, and under such circumstances 
 the present cannot be taken as evidence of the original 
 difference. 
 
 As the valley became deeper and deeper, the gravel 
 would be deposited at lower and lower levels, the loess 
 always following it ;^ thus we must not consider the loess 
 as a ciistinct bed, but as one which was being formed during 
 the same time, though never at the same place, as the 
 beds of gravel. In fig. 253 I have given a diagram, the 
 better to illustrate my meaning ; the loess is indicated by 
 letters with a dash and is dotted, while the gravels are 
 represented as rudely stratified. In this case I suppose 
 the river to have run originally on the level (i), and to 
 have deposited the gravel (a) and the loess (a') ; after a 
 certain amount of erosion, which would reduce the level 
 
 ' See Sir J. Prestwich's paper read Ijcfore the Royal Society, June 19, 
 1862.
 
 RELATION OF LOESS TO THE GRAVEL 379 
 
 to (2), the gravel would be spread out at (b)^ and loess at 
 (b'). Similarly the loess {c') would be contemporaneous 
 with the gravel {c). 
 
 Thus, while in each pit the lower beds would of course 
 be the oldest, still the upper-level gravels as a whole 
 would be the most ancient, and the beds lying in the 
 lower parts of the valley the most modern. 
 
 For convenience, I have represented the sides of the 
 valley as forming a series of terraces ; and though this is 
 not actually the case, there are places in which such 
 terraces do occur. 
 
 CHALK 
 
 Fig. 253. — Diagram to illustrate deposit of loess and gravel. 
 Loess corresponding to and contemporaneous with the gravel a ; b'. Loess 
 corresponding to and contemporaneous with the gravel b ; c' , Loess corre- 
 sponding to and contemporaneous with the gravel c. I, Level of valley at 
 period a ; 2, Level of valley at period b • 3, Level of valley at present. 
 
 The valley of the Somme is comparatively straight, but 
 within it the river winds considerably, and when in one 
 of its curves the current crosses " its general line of 
 descent, it eats out a curve on the opposite bank, or in 
 the side of the hills bounding the valley, from which 
 curve it is turned back again at an equal angle, so that it 
 recrosses the line of descent, and gradually hollows out 
 another curve lower down in the opposite bank," till the 
 whole sides of the valley, or river-bed, " present a succes- 
 sion of salient and retiring angles." ^ During these 
 wanderings from one side of the valley to the other, the 
 river continually undermines and removes the gravels 
 which at an earlier period it had deposited. Thus the 
 upper-level gravels are now only to be found here and 
 there, as it were, in patches, while in many parts they 
 
 ' Lyell's Principles, p. 206.
 
 38o PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 have altogether disappeared ; as, for instance, on the right 
 side of the valley between Amiens and Pont Remy, where 
 hardly a trace of the high-level gravels is to be seen. 
 
 The neighbourino- shores of EnMand and France show 
 various traces of a slight and recent elevation of the land. 
 Raised beaches have been observed at an elevation of from 
 five to ten feet at various points along the coast of Sussex 
 and the Pas de Calais. Marine shells also occur at 
 Abbeville about twenty-five feet above the sea-level,^ and 
 no doubt this change of level has had an important bearing 
 on the excavation of the valley. 
 
 Mr A. Tylor,^ in a recent memoir, agrees with me 
 that the upper-level and lower-level gravels are merely 
 the extremes of a series, seldom complete, but generally 
 imperfect, sometimes in one part, sometimes in another. 
 But he also maintains that the surface of the chalk in the 
 valley of the Somme had assumed its present form prior 
 to the deposition of any of the gravel or loess now existing 
 in it. As, however, he admits that the materials forming 
 this gravel and loess are derived exclusively from the area 
 drained by the Somme and its tributaries, he involves 
 himself in a double difficulty. In the first place he main- 
 tains that the materials, by the removal of which the 
 valley was formed, were swept completely out of the 
 valley, which, considering its length, depth, and narrow- 
 ness, appears to be impossible ; and in the second place, 
 the admission that the gravel and sand consist of flint 
 debris brought down by the Somme and its tributaries is 
 fatal to his argument, since you cannot remove matter 
 from one place to another without affecting the configura- 
 tion of the surface in both. In admitting, then, that " the 
 gravel in the valley of the Somme at Amiens is partly 
 derived from debris brought down by the river Somme, 
 and by the two rivers, the Celle and the Arve, and partly 
 consists of material from the adjoining higher grounds, 
 
 ^ The higher-level gravels in some places fringe the coast at an elevation 
 of as much as one hundred feet ; this phenomenon, however, I should be 
 disposed to refer partly to an encroachment of the sea on the land, and 
 the consequent intersection of the old river-beds at a higher level. 
 
 2 Geol. Journal^ vol. xxiv. p. 105.
 
 RECAPITULATION 381 
 
 washed in by land-floods," ^ Mr Tylor virtually adopts 
 the explanation of the phenomena given in this work, 
 since the formation or removal of this gravel necessarily 
 involved an alteration of the surface and a deepening of 
 the valley. 
 
 When, finally, the excavation of the valley was com- 
 pleted, the climate had gradually become more like our 
 own, and either from this change, or rather perhaps 
 yielding to the irresistible power of man, the great Pachy- 
 dermata became extinct. Under the altered conditions 
 of level, the river, unable to carry out to sea the finer 
 particles brought down from the higher levels, deposited 
 them in the valley, and thus raised somewhat its general 
 level, checking the velocity of the stream, and producing 
 extensive marshes, in which a thick deposit of peat was 
 gradually formed. We have, unfortunately, no trust- 
 worthy means of estimating the rate of formation of this 
 substance, which indeed varies considerably, according to 
 the conditions of the case ; but on any supposition the 
 production of a mass in some places more than thirty feet 
 in thickness must have required a very considerable 
 period. Yet it is in these beds that we find the remains 
 of the Neolithic or later Stone Period. From the tombs 
 at St Acheul, from the Roman remains found in the 
 superficial layers of the peat, at about the present level 
 of the river, we know that fifteen hundred years have 
 produced scarcely any change in the configuration of the 
 valley. In the peat, and at a depth of about fifteen feet 
 in the alluvium at Abbeville, are the remains of the 
 Neolithic Period, which we have ample reason for believ- 
 ing, from the researches in Denmark, Switzerland, and 
 other countries, to be of no slight antiquity. Yet all 
 these are subsequent to the excavation of the valley. 
 What date, then, are we to ascribe to the men who lived 
 when the Somme was but beginning its great task } No 
 one can properly appreciate the lapse of time indicated, 
 who has not stood on the heights of Liercourt, Picquigny, 
 or on one of the other points overlooking the valley of 
 ^ Loc. cit., p. 105.
 
 382 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the Somme ; or I may add, on the summit of one of our 
 English Chalk hills, as for instance on Well Hill above 
 Chelsfield, or on the ridge of the escarpment in Kent, 
 overlooking the valleys of the Darent or the Medway ; 
 nor I am sure, could any geologist return from such a 
 visit without an overpowering sense of the changes 
 which have taken place, and the length of time which 
 must have elapsed since the first appearance of man in 
 Western Europe.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 ON THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN 
 
 Although the facts recorded in the preceding chapters 
 have been for the most part discovered within a com- 
 paratively recent period, it is by no means merely of late 
 years, or among archaeologists only, that the difficulties 
 in Archbishop Usher's chronology have been felt to be 
 insuperable. Historians, philologists, and physiologists 
 have alike admitted that the short period allowed could 
 hardly be reconciled with the history of some Eastern 
 nations ; that it did not leave room for the develop- 
 ment either of the different languages, or (assuming 
 the unity of the human race) for the important physical 
 peculiarities by which the various races of men are 
 distinguished. 
 
 Thus, Dr Prichard says : " Many writers who have 
 been by no means inclined to raise objections against the 
 authority of the Sacred Scriptures, and in particular 
 Michaelis, have felt themselves embarrassed by the short- 
 ness of the interval between the Noachic Deluge and the 
 period at which the records of various nations commence, 
 or the earliest date to which their historical memorials 
 lead us back. The extravagant claims to a remote and 
 almost fathomless antiquity, made by the fabulists of 
 many nations, have vanished before the touch of accurate 
 criticism ; but after abstracting all that is apparently 
 mythological from the early traditions of the Indians, 
 Egyptians, and some other nations, the probable history 
 of some of them seems still to reach up to a period too 
 remote to be reconciled with the short chronology of 
 
 383
 
 384 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Usher and Petavius. This has been so universally felt 
 by all those writers who have entered on the investiga- 
 tion of primeval history that it is superfluous to dwell 
 upon the subject." ^ 
 
 Baron Bunsen, one of the ablest among those who 
 regard the various forms of language as having had a 
 common origin, is forced to claim for the human race an 
 antiquity of at least twenty thousand years. Again, the 
 ingenious author of The Genesis of the Earth and of Man^ 
 says truly that " one of the greatest of the difficulties that 
 beset us when we endeavour to account for the commonly 
 supposed descent of all mankind from a single pair, . . . 
 lies in the fact of our finding, upon Egyptian monuments, 
 mostly of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries 
 before the Christian era, representations of individuals of 
 numerous nations, African, Asiatic, and European, diff'er- 
 ing in physical characteristics as widely as any equal 
 number of nations of the present age that could be 
 grouped together ; among these being Negroes, of the 
 true Negritian stamp, depicted with a fidelity, as to 
 colour and features, hardly to be surpassed by an ac- 
 complished modern artist. That such diversities had 
 been produced by natural means in the interval between 
 that remote age and the time of Noah, probably no one 
 versed in the sciences of anatomy and physiology will 
 consider credible " ; and he concludes, therefore, that the 
 human race cannot have been derived from a single pair. 
 For, just as the philological difficulties will not, of course, 
 affect those who accept literally the account given in our 
 English version of the miraculous creation of languages 
 at the Tower of Babel, so in the same way " the shortness 
 of the period allowed by the received chronology, for the 
 development of those physical varieties which distinguish 
 the different races of men," ^ though felt as " one of the 
 greatest difficulties connected with the opinion that all 
 mankind are descended from one primitive stock," will 
 
 ' Prichard, Researches into the Physical Hist, of Mankind., vol. v. 
 
 P- 553- 
 
 '^ Loc. cit.., p. 117. •' Prichard, toe. ctt.., p. 552.
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 385 
 
 not affect those who believe in the existence of separate 
 species of men. 
 
 The study of language, again, clearly proves the great 
 antiquity of man. Four thousand years ago the Assyrians, 
 as proved by their inscriptions, spoke a tongue in many 
 respects less archaic than that of Central Arabia is 
 now ; and when we consider that it was descended from 
 a parent source which has produced all the other Semitic 
 languages, that this again was probably related to Libyan 
 and Egyptian, and that still further back lie the ages in 
 which inarticulate cries were gradually moulded into true 
 language, we must feel that linguistic researches point 
 most strongly in the same direction.-^ 
 
 Professor Huxley has also deduced a very interesting 
 argument from the geographical distribution of the races 
 of men. He divides mankind into four groups, the 
 Australoid, Negroid, Mongoloid, and Xanthochroid. 
 The latter are the fair, light-haired, blue-eyed people 
 who occupy a large part of Europe ; the Mongoloid are 
 the Tartar, American, and Polynesian races ; the Negroid 
 are the Negroes, Hottentots, and Negritos ; and the 
 Australoid type contains all the inhabitants of Australia, 
 and the native races of the Deccan, with whom he also 
 associates the ancient Egyptians. Whatever difference of 
 opinion may exist among ethnologists about the other three 
 divisions, still as to the Negroid race most are agreed, 
 and this is the one to which I now wish to call attention. 
 The geographical distribution of the Xanthochroid and 
 Mongoloid races presents no difficulty, nor will I here 
 discuss that of the Australoid group. But I entirely 
 agree with Professor Huxley that the present position of 
 the Negro race cannot be explained excepting on the 
 hypothesis that since the appearance of that race immense 
 geographical changes have taken place, — that continent 
 has become ocean, and sea, land. The negroes are 
 essentially a non-navigating race ; they build no ships, 
 and even the canoes of the Fijians are evidently copied 
 from those of the Polynesians. Now what is the 
 
 ' See Sayce, Int. to the Sci. of Lang. ^ vol. ii. p. 319. 
 
 25
 
 386 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 geographical distribution of the race ? They occupy all 
 Africa south of the Sahara, which neither they nor the 
 rest of the true African fauna have ever crossed ; and 
 though they do not occur in Arabia, Persia, Hindostan, 
 Siam, or China, we find them in Madagascar, and in the 
 Andaman Islands, — not in Java, Sumatra, or Borneo, 
 but in the Malay peninsula, in the Philippines, New 
 Guinea, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, the Fiji 
 Islands, and in Tasmania. 
 
 This remarkable distribution is perhaps most easily 
 explicable on the hypothesis that since the Negroid race 
 came into existence, there must have been an immense 
 tract of land or a chain of islands stretching from the 
 eastern coast of Africa right across the Indian Ocean, and 
 secondly, that the sea then occupied the area of the 
 present great desert. In whatever manner, however, 
 these facts are to be explained, they certainly indicate that 
 the Negro race is of very great antiquity. 
 
 I have often been much struck, when standing at the 
 feet of glaciers, by the great size of the terminal moraines, 
 and the length of time which must have been required 
 for their formation. Let us take as an instance the 
 Nigard glacier in the Justedal, on the Sognefjord. The 
 Norwegian glaciers no doubt covered formerly a much 
 larger area than that which they now occupy. They 
 retreated as the cold diminished ; but we have already 
 seen that man was present in Western Europe when the 
 general temperature was several degrees at least lower 
 than it is at present ; and we shall probably, therefore, 
 be within the mark if we suppose that the glacier at 
 Justedal has retreated at least a mile up the valley since 
 the period of the river-drift gravels, and the entrance of 
 man into Europe. Now the terminal moraine of the 
 glacier covers the whole of this space with great blocks 
 of stones, thousands and hundreds of thousands in 
 number, and yet, although all these have probably been 
 brought down in the human period, I could only see a 
 few blocks on the lower end of the glacier itself. 
 
 As far as Denmark is concerned we must, for the
 
 EVIDENCE FROM VEGETATION 387 
 
 present, rely principally on the double change which has 
 taken place in the prevalent vegetation. Beech forests 
 are now the pride of the country, and, as far as tradition 
 goes, they have always been so. But, as is shown by the 
 peat-bogs, this is a mistake. The large peat-mosses do 
 not help us very much in this matter, but there are in 
 many of the forests small and deep depressions, filled 
 with peat, and called skov-mose. These, as might 
 naturally be expected, contain many trees which grew on 
 their edges, and at length fell into them. At the bottom 
 is usually an amorphous peat, above is a layer of pines — 
 a tree which does not now grow naturally in Denmark. 
 Higher up the pines disappear, and are replaced by oaks 
 and white birches, neither of which are now common in 
 Denmark ; while the upper layer consists principally of 
 the Betula verrucosa^ and corresponds to the present, 
 which we may call the Beech Period. Professor 
 Steenstrup has found stone implements among the stems 
 of the pines ; and as the capercailzie, which feeds on the 
 young shoots of the pine, has been found in the 
 Kjokkenmoddings, it seems likely, to say the least, that 
 these shell-mounds belong to the Pine Period, and that 
 the three great stages of civilization correspond in some 
 measure to these three periods of arborescent vegetation. 
 For one species of tree thus to displace another, and in 
 its turn to be supplanted by a third, would evidently 
 require a great, though at present we have no means of 
 measuring how great, lapse of time. 
 
 Turning now from Denmark to Switzerland, there are 
 two cases in which a more definite estimate has been 
 attempted. We must not, indeed, place too much 
 reliance on them as yet, but if many calculations made 
 on different data shall agree in the main, we may at 
 length come to some approximate conclusion. 
 
 The first of these calculations we owe to M. Morlot. 
 The torrent of the Tiniere, at the point where it falls into 
 the Lake of Geneva, near Villeneuve, has gradually built 
 up a cone of gravel and alluvium. In the formation of 
 the railway this cone has been bisected for a length of
 
 388 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 looo feet, and to a depth, in the central part, of about 
 32 feet 6 inches above the level of the railway. The 
 section of the cone thus obtained shows a ve^y regular 
 structure, which proves that its formation was gradual. 
 It is composed of the same materials (sand, gravel, and 
 large blocks) as those which are even now brought down 
 by the stream. The amount of detritus does, indeed, 
 differ considerably from year to year, but in the long-run 
 the differences compensate for one another, so that, when 
 considering long periods, and the structure of the whole 
 mass, the influences of the temporary variations, which 
 arise from meteorological causes, altogether disappear, 
 and need not, therefore, be taken into account. Docu- 
 ments preserved in the archives of Villeneuve show that 
 in the year 17 10 the stream was dammed up, and its 
 course a little altered, which makes the present cone 
 slightly irregular. That the change was not of any great 
 antiquity is also shown by the fact that on the side where 
 the cone was protected by the dykes, the vegetable soil, 
 where it has been affected by cultivation, does not exceed 
 two or three inches in thickness. On the side thus pro- 
 tected by the dykes, the railway cutting has exposed three 
 layers of vegetable soil, each of which must, at one time, 
 have formed the surface of the cone. They are regularly 
 intercalated among the gravel, and parallel to one another, 
 as well as to the present surface of the cone, which itself 
 follows a very regular curve. The first of these ancient 
 surfaces was traced on the south side of the cone, over a 
 surface of 15,000 square feet: it had a thickness of 4 
 to 6 inches, and occurred at a depth of about 4 feet (1*14 
 metres measured to the base of the layer) below the 
 present surface of the cone. This layer, which belonged 
 to the Roman period, contained tiles and a Roman coin. 
 
 The second layer was traced over a surface of 25,000 
 square feet ; it was 6 inches in thickness, and lay at a 
 depth of about 10 feet (2*97 metres) including the thick- 
 ness of the layer. In it have been found several fragments 
 of unglazed pottery, and a pair of tweezers in bronze. 
 The third layer has been followed for 3500 square feet ;
 
 CONE OF THE TINIERE 389 
 
 it was 6 or 7 inches in thickness, and lay at a depth of 
 19 feet (5*69 metres) below the present surface : in it 
 were found some fragments of very rude pottery, some 
 pieces of charcoal, some broken bones, and a human 
 skeleton with a small, round, and very thick skull. 
 Fragments of charcoal were even found a foot deeper, 
 and it is also worthy of notice that no trace of tiles was 
 found below the upper layer of earth. 
 
 Towards the centre of the cone the three layers dis- 
 appear, since at this part the torrent has most force, and 
 has deposited the coarsest materials, even some blocks as 
 much as three feet in diameter. The farther we go from 
 this central region, the smaller are the materials deposited, 
 and the more easily might a layer of earth, formed since 
 the last great inundations, be covered over by fresh 
 deposits. Thus, at a depth of ten feet, in the gravel on 
 the south of the cone, at a part where the layer of earth 
 belonging to the Bronze Age had already disappeared, 
 two unrolled bronze implements were discovered. They 
 had probably been retained by their weight, when the 
 earth which once covered them was washed away by the 
 torrent. After disappearing towards the centre of the 
 cone, the three layers reappear on the north side, at a 
 slightly greater depth, but with the same regularity and 
 the same relative position. The layer of the Stone A2;e was 
 but slightly interrupted, while that of the Bronze Era was 
 easily distinguishable by its peculiar character and colour. 
 
 It must be confessed that the starting-point of this 
 argument, viz., the so-called " Roman " layer, is far from 
 being satisfactorily determined. It is quite possible that 
 tiles were used in Switzerland before the " Roman " 
 period ; it is probable that they continued in use to a 
 later period. The coin found in the " Roman " layer 
 was so much worn as to be undeterminable ; it had, 
 therefore, probably been long in use. M. Uhlmann has 
 also argued^ that the bones found in the lower layer are 
 not such as we should expect to find in a Stone Age 
 
 * Ueber Thierreste unci Gebisstheil gefiinden in den Schuttablage- 
 rutigen der Timere, Bern, 1868.
 
 390 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 deposit, since they are not so much discoloured as those 
 from the Stone Age Pfahlbauten, and all belong to 
 domestic animals. Only fourteen determinable fragments, 
 however, were found, and of these several probably 
 belonged to a single individual. Moreover, the condition 
 of bones from a peat-moss cannot fairly be compared with 
 those which had been lying in a material such as that 
 forming the cone of the Tiniere. 
 
 M. Morlot did not disguise from himself that there 
 were certain elements of doubt in the case, but on the 
 whole it seemed to him that the phenomena were so 
 regular and so well marked that he was justified in apply- 
 ing to them a calculation with some little confidence of at 
 least approximate accuracy. Making some allowances ; 
 for instance, admitting three hundred years instead of one 
 hundred and fifty, for the period since the embankment, 
 and taking the Roman period as representing an antiquity 
 of from sixteen to eighteen centuries, he obtains for the 
 Age of Bronze an antiquity of from 2900 years to 4200 
 years, for that of the Stone Period from 4700 to 7000 
 years, and for the whole cone an age of from 7400 to 
 11,000 years. M. Morlot thought that we should be 
 most nearly correct in deducting two hundred years only 
 for the action of the dykes, and in attributing to the 
 Roman layer an antiquity of sixteen centuries, that is to 
 say, in referring it to the middle of the third century. 
 This would give an antiquity of 3800 years for the 
 Bronze Age, and 6400 years for that of Stone ; and, on 
 the whole, he is inclined to suppose for the former an 
 antiquity of from 3000 to 4000 years, and for the latter 
 of from 5000 to 7000 years. 
 
 Not less ingenious is the attempt which has been made 
 by M. Gillieron,^ Professor at the college of Neuveville, 
 to obtain a date for the lake-habitation at the Pont de 
 Thiele. This stream connects the lakes of Neufchitel 
 and Bienne. During the first part of its course the valley 
 is narrow, and the bridge, close to which the lake-dwelling 
 
 * Notice sur les Habitations Lacustres dii Pont de TJiiHe, Porrentruy, 
 1862.
 
 PONT DE THIELE 391 
 
 has been discovered, is situated at the narrowest spot. A 
 little further down the valley suddenly expands, and from 
 this point remains of the same width until it joins the 
 Lake of Bienne. It is evident that the valley, as far as 
 the bridge over the Thiele, was once occupied by the 
 lake, which has gradually been silted up by the action of 
 forces still in operation ; and if we could ascertain how 
 long it would have taken to effect this change, we should 
 then know approximately the date of the remains found 
 at the Pont de Thiele, which are evidently those of a 
 lake-dwelling. The Abbey of St Jean, which stands in 
 this valley, about 375 metres from the present shore of 
 the lake, was founded, according to ancient documents, 
 between the years 1090 and 1 106, and is therefore about 
 750 years old. It is possible that the abbey may not 
 have been built exactly on the then edge of the lake ; but 
 even if this were the case, the gain of land will only have 
 been 375 metres in 750 years. Professor Gillieron does 
 not compare with this the whole space between the 
 convent and the lake-dwelling, because in the narrower 
 part of the valley, in which the latter is situated, the gain 
 may have been more rapid ; but if we only go to the 
 point at which the basin contracts, we shall have a distance 
 of 3000 metres, which would, upon these data, indicate 
 a minimum antiquity of 6750 years. This calculation 
 assumes that the shape of the bottom of the valley was 
 originally uniform. M. Morlot agrees with Professor 
 Gillieron in believing that this was the case, and from the 
 general configuration of the valley it seems to me also to 
 be a reasonable supposition. Moreover, the soundings 
 taken by M. Hisely in the Lake of Bienne show that the 
 variations in depth are but of slight importance. We 
 must not, indeed, attach too much importance to these 
 two calculations ; but they appear to indicate that at least 
 6000 or 7000 years ago Switzerland was already inhabited 
 by men who used polished stone implements ; but how 
 long they had been there, or how many centuries elapsed 
 before the discovery of metal, we have as yet no evidence 
 to show.
 
 392 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 These figures only, however, give us a minimum, and 
 a much greater antiquity was obtained by Mr Horner as 
 the result of his Egyptian researches, which were under- 
 taken at the joint expense of the Royal Society and the 
 Egyptian Government. Every year the Nile, during its 
 periodical overflow, deposits a certain amount of fine mud, 
 and even as long ago as the time of Herodotus it was 
 inferred that Egypt had been formerly an arm of the sea, 
 filled up gradually and converted into dry land by the 
 mud brought down from the upper country. 
 
 In the great work on Egypt which we owe to the 
 French philosophers who accompanied Napoleon's expedi- 
 tion to that country, an attempt was made to estimate the 
 secular elevation thus produced, and it was assumed to be 
 five inches in a century. This general average was con- 
 sistent, however, with great differences at different parts, 
 and Mr Horner, therefore, did not consider himself 
 justified in applying this estimate to particular cases, even 
 if he had been satisfied with the evidence on which it 
 rested. He preferred to examine the accumulation which 
 had taken place round monuments of known age, and 
 selected two — namely, the obelisk at Heliopolis and the 
 statue of Rameses II. in Memphis. The obelisk was 
 " erected 2300 years b.c, and adding 1850, the year when 
 the observation was made (June 1851, i.e. before the 
 inundation of that year), we have 4150 years in which the 
 eleven feet of sediment were deposited, which is at the 
 rate of 3* 18 inches in a century."^ But Mr Horner 
 himself admits that " entire reliance cannot be placed on 
 this conclusion, principally because it is possible that the 
 site originally chosen for the temple and city of Heliopolis 
 was a portion of land somewhat raised above the level of 
 the rest of the desert." He relies, therefore, principally 
 on the evidence supplied by the colossal statue in Memphis. 
 In this case the present surface is 10 feet 6|^ inches above 
 the base of the platform on which the statue stood. 
 Assuming that the platform was sunk 14^ inches below 
 the surface of the ground at the time it was laid, we have 
 
 ' Horner, F/iil. Trans., 1858, p. J-^.
 
 THE FORMATION OF EGYPT 393 
 
 a depth of sediment from the present surface to that level 
 of 9 feet 4 inches. Rameses reigned between 1394 and 
 1328 B.C., which would give an antiquity of 3215 years, 
 and consequently a mean increase of 3|- inches in a century. 
 Having thus obtained an approximate measure of the rate 
 of deposit in that part of the Nile valley, Mr Horner dug 
 several pits to a considerable depth, and in one of them, 
 close to the statue and at the depth of 39 feet, a piece of 
 pottery was found, which upon the above data would 
 indicate an antiquity of about 13,000 years. 
 
 In many other excavations pieces of pottery and other 
 indications of man were found at even greater depths, 
 but it must be confessed that there are several reasons 
 which render the calculations somewhat doubtful. For 
 instance, it is impossible to ascertain how far the pedestal 
 of the statue was inserted into the ground ; Mr Horner 
 has allowed 14I inches, but if it was deeper, the rate of 
 deposition would be diminished and the age increased. 
 On the other hand, if the statue was on raised ground, 
 of course the reverse would be the case. 
 
 It has also been argued that the ancient Egyptians were 
 in the habit of making embankments round the areas on 
 which they erected temples, statues, etc., so as to keep 
 out the waters of the Nile. 
 
 " Whenever, then," says Sir Charles Lyell, " the waters 
 at length break into such depressions, they must at first 
 carry with them into the enclosure much mud washed 
 from the steep surrounding banks, so that a greater 
 quantity would be deposited in a few years than, perhaps, 
 in as many centuries on the great plain outside the 
 depressed area, where no such disturbing causes inter- 
 vened." This objection is, however, untenable, because 
 the rapidity of deposition will be in proportion to the 
 previous retardation, and will only tend to bring the 
 depressed area up to the general level. Supposing, for 
 instance, that the monument of Rameses, erected on the 
 flat plain of Memphis 3200 years ago, was protected by 
 embankments for the first 2000 years, and that during 
 that time the plain outside was gradually raised 5 feet
 
 394 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 lo inches, being at the rate of 3I inches in a century : 
 when the embankment gave way the space enclosed would 
 soon be filled up to the general level, and a thickness of 
 5 feet 10 inches might be deposited in a few years : still 
 this exceptionally rapid accumulation would only be the 
 complement of the exceptional want of deposit which had 
 preceded it ; and, consequently, when the level of the 
 surrounding plain had been attained, then, although the 
 mud covering the base of the statue may have been 
 altogether deposited in the last few hundred years, i.e. 
 since the embankments have been neglected, the thickness 
 of the deposit will still be a measure of the general 
 elevation which has taken place on the surrounding plain 
 since the erection of the monument. 
 
 Even if the embankments had remained intact to this 
 day, and the monument stood now in the hollow thus 
 produced, Mr Horner's argument would not be invali- 
 dated, but rather confirmed. The depth of the hollow 
 would give us a measure of the deposit which had taken 
 place since the erection of the monument, or rather since 
 the formation of the embankment. If, however, the 
 monument had been erected in an area already depressed 
 by the action of still older embankments, the calculation 
 would be vitiated, but in this case the rate of deposition 
 would appear to be more than it really is, and the true 
 age consequently would be even greater than the above 
 estimate. Much credit is due to the Egyptian Govern- 
 ment for the liberal manner in which they assisted Mr 
 Horner and the Royal Society in this investigation. 
 
 I have already mentioned the evidence on which 
 M. Morlot has endeavoured to estimate the age of the 
 Cone de la Tiniere, and which gave about 6000 years 
 for the lower layer of vegetable soil, and 10,000 years 
 for the whole of the existing cone. But above this 
 existing cone is another, which was formed when the 
 lake stood at a higher level than at present, and which 
 M. Morlot refers to the period of the river-drift gravels. 
 This drift-age cone is about twelve times as large as 
 that now forming, and would appear, therefore, on the
 
 AGE OF THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA 395 
 
 same data, to indicate an antiquity of more than 100,000 
 years. 
 
 In his Travels in North America^ Sir C. Lyell has en- 
 deavoured to estimate the age of the Mississippi delta 
 in the following manner : — " Dr Riddle," he says, " com- 
 municated to me, at New Orleans, the result of a series 
 of experiments which he had made to ascertain the 
 proportion of sediment contained in the waters of the 
 Mississippi. He concluded that the mean annual amount 
 of solid matter was to the water as y^g in weight, or 
 about ^Q(yQ in volume. Since that period he has made 
 another series of experiments, and his tables show that 
 the quantity of mud held in suspension increases regularly 
 with the increased height and velocity of the stream. 
 On the whole, comparing the flood season with that of 
 clearest water, his experiments, continued down to 1849, 
 give an average annual quantity of solid matter somewhat 
 less than his first estimate, but not varying materially 
 from it. From these observations, and those of Dr 
 Carpenter and Mr Forskey (an eminent engineer, to 
 whom I have before alluded), on the average width, 
 depth, and velocity of the Mississippi, the mean annual 
 discharge of water and sediment were deduced. I then 
 assumed 528 feet, or the tenth of a mile, as the probable 
 thickness of the deposit of mud and sand in the delta ; 
 founding my conjecture chiefly on the depth of the 
 Gulf of Mexico between the southern point of Florida 
 and the Balize, which equals on an average one hundred 
 fathoms, and partly on some borings six hundred feet 
 deep, in the delta near Lake Pontchartrain, north of 
 New Orleans, in which the bottom of the alluvial matter 
 is said not to have been reached. The area of the 
 delta being about 13,600 square statute miles, and the 
 quantity of solid matter annually brought down the river 
 3,702,758,400 cubic feet, it must have taken 67,000 
 years for the formation of the whole ; and if the 
 alluvial matter of the plain above be 264 feet deep, or 
 half that of the delta, it must have required 33,500 more 
 years for its accumulation, even if its area be estimated
 
 396 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 only as equal to that of the delta, whereas it is, in fact, 
 larger." 
 
 Moreover, as Sir Charles has himself pointed out, a 
 very large proportion of the mud brought down by the 
 river is not deposited in the delta, but is carried out 
 into the gulf. In the Antiquity of Man^ he refers to 
 the above-given calculation, and admits that the discharge 
 of water seems to have been much underrated by the 
 earlier experiments. Messrs Humphrey and Abbot, who 
 have recently surveyed the delta, also remark that " the 
 river pushes along its bottom into the gulf a certain 
 quantity of sand and gravel, which would," they suppose, 
 " augment the volume of solid matter by about one- 
 tenth." This, of course, would greatly diminish the time 
 required ; but, taking into consideration the quantity of 
 mud which is carried out to sea, and which was not 
 allowed for in the previous calculation. Sir Charles Lyell 
 still regards 100,000 years as a moderate estimate ; and 
 he considers that " the alluvium of the Somme containing 
 flint implements and the remains of the mammoth and 
 hyaena," is not less ancient. 
 
 Attempts have also been made to calculate the time 
 required to excavate the ravine between the present 
 Niagara Falls and Queenstown, which has been estimated 
 at about 35,000 years ; ^ others, however, make it 
 much less. 
 
 Again, whatever cause or causes may have produced 
 the great change which has taken place in the climate 
 of Western Europe, there can be little doubt that this 
 change indicates a very considerable lapse of time. We 
 are indebted to Mr Hopkins for a very interesting 
 memoir on this subject. Among the possible causes of 
 change he discusses — 
 
 Firstly. A variation in the intensity of solar radiation. 
 
 To this theory Mr Hopkins sees no a priori objection ; 
 but he does not feel disposed to attach much weight to 
 
 1 Appendix to third edition, p. 16. See also Geological Journal, 1869, 
 
 vol. XXV. p. I I. 
 
 - Geikie, Fhys. Geog., p. 280.
 
 CHANGE OF CLIMATE 397 
 
 it, because it is " a mere hypothesis framed to account 
 for a single and limited class of facts, and unsupported 
 by the testimony of any other class of allied but 
 independent phenomena." 
 
 It is, moreover, open to the objections stated with great 
 force by Professor Tyndall,^ who argues that the ancient 
 glaciers indicate the action of heat as much as of cold. 
 " Cold," he says, " will not produce glaciers. You may 
 have the bitterest north-east winds here in London 
 throughout the winter, without a single flake of snow. 
 Cold must have the fitting object to operate upon, and 
 this object — the aqueous vapour of the air — is the direct 
 product of heat. Let us put this glacier question in 
 another form : the latent heat of aqueous vapour, at the 
 temperature of its production in the tropics, is about 
 1000° Fahr., for the latent heat augments as the tempera- 
 ture of evaporation descends. A pound of water thus 
 vaporized at the equator, has absorbed one thousand times 
 the quantity of heat which would raise a pound of the 
 liquid one degree in temperature. ... It is perfectly 
 manifest that by weakening the sun's action, either through 
 a defect of emission, or by the steeping of the entire solar 
 system in space of a low temperature, we should be cutting 
 off the glaciers at their source." 
 
 Secondly. Admitting the proper motion of the sun, it 
 has been suggested that we may have recently passed from 
 a colder into a warmer region of space. 
 
 I must refer to Mr Hopkins' memoir for his objections 
 to this suggestion ; they certainly appear to " render the 
 theory utterly inapplicable to the explanation of the 
 changes of temperature at the more recent geological 
 epochs." 
 
 This hypothesis, moreover, is liable to the same fatal 
 objection as the first. To produce snow requires both 
 heat and cold ; the first to evaporate, the second to con- 
 dense. In fact, what we require is a greater contrast 
 between the temperature of the tropics and that of our 
 latitudes ; so that, paradoxical as it may appear, the 
 
 ^ Heat considered as a Mode of Motion^ p. 192.
 
 398 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 primary cause of the " glacial " epoch may be, after all, 
 an elevation of temperature in the tropics, causing a 
 greater amount of evaporation in the equatorial regions, 
 and consequently a greater supply of the raw material 
 of snow in the temperate regions during the winter 
 months. 
 
 Thirdly. An alteration in the earth's axis. 
 
 The possibility of such a change has been denied by 
 many astronomers. My father, the late Sir J. W. 
 Lubbock, has, on the contrary, maintained ^ that this 
 would necessarily follow from upheavals and depressions 
 of the earth's surface if only they were of sufficient 
 magnitude. The same view has recently been taken by 
 other mathematicians, and among geologists by Dr Duncan 
 and M. Carret. Sir John Evans has made the ingenious 
 suggestion that the solid external crust of the earth may 
 have slid over its fluid or semi-fluid nucleus. On the 
 other hand. Sir George Darwin, who has recently dealt 
 with the subject,^ concludes that, while theoretically such 
 a change may have taken place, the amount could not have 
 been sufficient to cause any considerable change of climate 
 in a recent geological period. The subject is one of 
 extreme difficulty ; but it is at any rate clear that this 
 suggestion, like the preceding, presupposes immense 
 geographical changes, which would therefore necessarily 
 imply an enormous lapse of time. 
 
 Fourthly. Mr Hopkins inclines to find the true solution 
 of the difficulty in the supposition that the Gulf Stream 
 did not at this period warm the shores of Europe. " A 
 depression of 2000 feet would," he says, " convert the 
 Mississippi into a great arm of the sea, of which the 
 present Gulf of Mexico would form the southern ex- 
 tremity, and which would communicate at its northern 
 extremity with the waters occupying the . . . great 
 valley now occupied by the chain of lakes." In this case 
 the Gulf Stream would no longer be deflected by the 
 American coasts, but would pass directly up this channel 
 into the Arctic Sea ; and as a very great ocean current 
 
 1 Geol.Jotirn.^ vol. v. p. 4. ^ Phil. T7ans., vol. clxvii.
 
 CHANGE IN GULF STREAM 399 
 
 must have its counter current, it is probable that there 
 would be a flow of cold water from the North between 
 the coasts of Norway and Greenland. The absence of the 
 Gulf Stream would probably lower the January tempera- 
 ture of Western Europe ten degrees, while the presence 
 of a cold current from the North might make a further 
 difference of about three or four degrees ^ — an alteration 
 of the climate which would apparently be sufficient to 
 account for all the phenomena. This theory Mr Hopkins 
 considers as no mere hypothesis, but as necessarily 
 following from the submergence of North America, 
 which has been inferred from evidence of a different 
 nature. 
 
 In this case, of course, the periods of great cold in 
 Europe and in America must have been successive, and 
 not synchronous ; and it may also be observed that in 
 this suggested deflection of the Gulf Stream, Mr Hopkins 
 was contemplating a period anterior to that of the present 
 rivers. For if we are to adopt this solution of the diffi- 
 culty, an immense time would be required. If, when the 
 gravels and loess of the Somme and the Seine were being 
 deposited, the Gulf Stream was passing up what is now 
 the valley of the Mississippi, then it follows that the 
 formation of the loess in the valley and its delta — an 
 accumulation which Sir C. Lyell has shown to require a 
 period of about 100,000 years — would be subsequent to 
 the excavation of the Somme valley, and to the presence 
 of man in Western Europe. 
 
 The deflection of the Gulf Stream from our coasts 
 might, however, be owing to another cause, namely, a 
 subsidence of the Isthmus of Panama ; in support of 
 which suggestion may be mentioned the remarkable 
 fact recently observed by Dr Gunther, that out of 173 
 tropical marine fish, no less than 57, or 30 per cent., 
 occur on both sides of the isthmus — in both the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific.^ 
 
 Mr Croll has pointed out that at present the " S.E. 
 trade winds of the Atlantic blow with greater force than 
 
 ' Hopkins, loc. ctf., p. 85. ^ Trans. Zoo!. Soc, vol. vi. p. 397.
 
 400 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the N.E. trades, and the consequence is that the S.E. 
 trades sometimes extend to io° or 15° N. lat., whereas 
 the N.E. trades seldom blow south of the equator. But 
 during the glacial epoch the very reverse must have 
 occurred. Hence the great equatorial current of the 
 Atlantic must during that period have been driven con- 
 siderably south of its present position." ^ Even at present, 
 while the greater part of the water enters the Gulf of 
 Mexico, one portion is deflected southwards, which in the 
 case mentioned above would happen to the greater 
 portion, if not the whole. 
 
 Under existing circumstances, the southern division is 
 comparatively small ; by far the larger portion of the 
 great equatorial current turns northwards, and warms the 
 northern hemisphere, so that the comparatively high 
 temperature of the Northern Atlantic is in some measure 
 due to heat derived from the southern hemisphere. In 
 a subsequent memoir,^ Mr CroU has made some interest- 
 ing calculations with reference to the great effect produced 
 by the Gulf Stream on the present climate of Europe. 
 He estimates that it conveys as much heat as is received 
 from the sun by 3,121,870 square miles of the equator : 
 nearly as much as is received from the sun by the entire 
 Arctic regions, the proportions being as 15 to 18. Our 
 present climate is 12° higher than the normal due to its 
 latitude, but Mr Croll points out that this is by no means 
 to be considered as measuring the effect of the Gulf Stream. 
 The temperature of the whole hemisphere is raised by 
 the equatorial currents, and the 12° "only represent the 
 number of degrees that the mean normal temperature of 
 our island stands above what is called the normal tempera- 
 ture of the latitude." 
 
 Professor Spencer has recently given some reasons for 
 believing in the existence of an Antillean continent at a 
 recent geological period. This would have affected our 
 climate considerably. It would not indeed necessarily 
 have directed the Gulf Stream from our shores ; but as 
 
 ' Croll, P/iilosop/iical Magazine, Aug. 1864. 
 ^ Loc. cit., Feb. and Oct. 1870.
 
 EFFECT OF OCEAN CURRENTS 401 
 
 the water could not have made its long journey round 
 the Gulf of Mexico, it could not have been so long 
 exposed to a tropical sun, and could not have attained so 
 high a temperature. 
 
 There is yet another cause to which the present mild 
 temperature of Europe is partly due, and which must 
 not be altogether neglected. At the period under con- 
 sideration, indeed, the geography of Western Europe 
 must have been very nearly what it is now. There is, 
 however, good reason for considering that the Desert of 
 Sahara then formed part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mr 
 Tristram has called attention to cliffs, ancient sea-beaches, 
 and lines of terraces along the northern margin of the 
 desert, and the common cockle is still found living in 
 some of the salt lakes. Mr Tristram also discovered a 
 species of Haligenes^ which inhabits the Gulf of Guinea, 
 in a salt lake in lat. 32° N. and long. 7° E., separated, 
 therefore, from its present marine habitat by the whole 
 extent of the great Desert. Moreover, as we have already 
 seen, the present geographical distribution of animals can 
 only be explained on the hypothesis that the existing 
 fauna, including man, occupied Africa long before the 
 Sahara became dry land. 
 
 Mr Croll has shown in the memoir already cited, that 
 currents of warm water produce a far greater effect upon 
 climate than aerial currents of equal volume and tem- 
 perature ; yet it is evident that such a change would 
 have a great effect on the climate of Europe, At present 
 we receive from the South hot dry winds, which warm 
 us both directly and also indirectly by melting the snow 
 and ice on our mountain-tops. If the Sahara was a sea, 
 the " Fohn," instead of being a burning, dry wind, which 
 strips the snow off the Alps, both by melting and evapora- 
 tion, would be a moist, damp wind, and when it reached 
 the mountains would produce dense clouds and thick 
 fogs, which would prevent the sun's rays from warming 
 the earth or melting the glaciers. So that to the barren 
 desert of the Sahara, which we are apt to look upon as a 
 useless waste, we are in reality much indebted for the 
 
 26
 
 402 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 fertility and civilization of Europe. It is true that the 
 effect of a water area in the Sahara would not be so great 
 as might at first sight be supposed, because the prevalent 
 winds would carry the pioisture mainly to Eastern Europe 
 and Western Asia. If, however, these regions thus be- 
 came damper, our east winds would be less dry and cold 
 than is now the case. 
 
 M. Adhemar^ has suggested a mode of accounting for 
 the cold of the glacial epoch, which, if the true one, would 
 give us means of calculating its antiquity. If the plane 
 of the equator coincided exactly with that of the ecliptic, 
 i.e. with that of the earth's orbit, then it is evident that 
 every day would be followed by a night of equal length. 
 In consequence, however, of the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
 there are only two days in the year when this is actually 
 the case, namely, the 2oth of March and the 23rd 
 September. Thus our year is divided into four well- 
 marked periods. "Winter" begins on the 22nd Decem- 
 ber, which is the shortest day of the year, and continues 
 until the 20th March, which is called the spring 
 equinox, because on it the day and night are of 
 equal lengths. " Spring " commences on the 20th 
 March and continues till the 21st June, during which 
 time the days continue to elongate at the expense of 
 the night. 
 
 From the 21st June, however, which is the first day 
 of " Summer," the days begin to shorten, until, on the 
 23rd of September, day and night are again equal, and we 
 have the autumn equinox. 
 
 Autumn commences on the 23rd September, and the 
 days continue to diminish till the 22nd December, which 
 is the shortest ciay, and after which they begin to 
 lencjthen. 
 
 At present, then, the northern hemisphere enjoys in 
 each year seven days more of spring and summer than 
 of autumn and winter ; while, on the other hand, the 
 southern hemisphere has seven days more of autumn 
 and winter than of spring and summer. This inequality 
 ' Revoht/iofis dc la Mer, J. Adhemar, Paris.
 
 ASTRONOMICAL EVIDENCE 403 
 
 of the seasons is due to the greater rapidity with which 
 the earth moves when it is in perihelion, or nearest the 
 sun, as is the case on the 31st December. 
 
 The perihelion has not always been, nor will it always 
 continue to be, at the same time of year as at present. 
 On the contrary, a constant though slow movement is 
 continually taking place : the time of perihelion takes 
 place in each year a little later than the preceding, so that 
 perihelion, which now happens on the 31st December, 
 will in the lapse of time fall on the ist of January, then 
 on the 2nd, and so on. The interval between the times 
 at which perihelion occurs on the same day of the year is 
 about 21,000 years. At some future day, about 5000 
 years hence, the perihelion will occur on the 20th March, 
 and in about 21,000 years it will again be on the 31st 
 December. The aphelion changes of course in the same 
 way, and consequently the northern and southern hemi- 
 spheres alternately enjoy a preponderance of summer. 
 The year 1248 a.d. was that in which the first day of 
 winter corresponded with the passage of the earth into 
 perihelion, and consequently was the period when the 
 balance of summer in favour of the northern hemisphere 
 was greatest. Up to that date the duration of summer 
 was increasing ; it is now, and has been for six hundred 
 and thirty years, gradually diminishing. 
 
 Astronomers have not, however, generally considered 
 that these changes, or even those which affect the excen- 
 tricity of our orbit, would produce any material difference 
 between the climates of the two hemispheres, because, 
 whatever the excentricity of our orbit may be, the two 
 hemispheres must receive exactly the same amounts of 
 heat, " the proximity of the sun in perigee, or its distance 
 in apogee, exactly compensating the effect of its swifter 
 or slower motion " ; in other words, the southern hemi- 
 sphere has a shorter summer than ours because it is 
 nearer the sun, and for the same reason it receives in a 
 given time more heat, so that the two differences neutralize 
 one another. 
 
 M. Adhemar points out that the temperature of each
 
 404 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 hemisphere does not depend on the quantity of heat 
 received from the sun, but on the difference between the 
 amount received and the amount radiated away into 
 space ; in other words, on the quantity retained. If, he 
 says, in illustration, you burn a given quantity of wood 
 in two identical rooms, and then open the windows in one 
 and not in the other, you will soon have a difference of 
 temperature, though the supply of the heat has been the 
 same in both.^ 
 
 Now, our northern hemisphere has 186x24 = 4464 
 hours of day in the year, and 179x24 = 4296 hours of 
 night, while the southern hemisphere has 4464 hours of 
 night, and only 4296 of day. We may admit that the 
 southern hemisphere will receive as much heat from the 
 sun in its 4296 hours of day as we do in our 4464 ; but 
 it is evident that it will retain less, because it will have 
 168 hours more of night, during which radiation will 
 be going on. Though, therefore, the heat received by 
 the two hemispheres will be equal, the temperature of 
 the two will not, M. Adhemar maintains, be by any 
 means the same ; and though at first this difference 
 may be slight, it will in its nature be to a certain extent 
 cumulative. 
 
 Mr Croll, however, was of opinion that this difference 
 can, after all, produce little or no effect on climate. 
 However this may be, it is evident that, on account of 
 the much greater accumulation of ice, the southern 
 hemisphere is colder than the northern ; and it is also 
 clear that this very fact tends to aggravate the difference 
 to which it is due. 
 
 Moreover, M. Adhemar affirms that the immense 
 cupola of ice which is known to exist round the South 
 Pole must affect the centre of gravity of the earth, and 
 consequently attract the ocean southwards. In this 
 manner, indeed, he attempts to explain the remarkable 
 preponderance of land in the north, and of sea in the 
 southern hemisphere. A glance at the map will show 
 this difference, but the following table makes it more 
 
 ' Revolutions de la Mer, p. 344.
 
 CUPOLA OF ICE AT SOUTH POLE 405 
 
 apparent. Taking each parallel as unity, the proportion 
 of sea is as follows : — 
 
 60'' North . 
 
 0-353 
 
 15° South . 
 
 0-786 
 
 50° „ . 
 
 0-407 
 
 20° „ 
 
 
 0-777 
 
 40° „ . 
 
 0-527 
 
 30° „ 
 
 
 0-791 
 
 30° „ . 
 
 0-536 
 
 40° „ 
 
 
 0-951 
 
 20° „ . 
 
 0-677 
 
 50° „ 
 
 
 0-972 
 
 10° „ . 
 
 0-710 
 
 60° „ 
 
 
 I -000 
 
 0° „ . 
 
 0-771 
 
 
 
 
 Certainly a progressive increase of sea, which is so 
 remarkably regular, can hardly be the result of accident.^ 
 
 M. Adhemar maintains that this is due to the altera- 
 tion of the centre of gravity of the earth, caused by the 
 great southern cupola of ice ; and consequently that 
 11,120 years ago (i.e. 10,500 years before 1248), when 
 the northern hemisphere was at its coldest, the northern 
 glacier consequently at its maximum, and the southern at 
 its minimum, the preponderance of water would have 
 been in the northern hemisphere, and the submersion of 
 the lower lands of Europe and America may have been 
 due to an alteration, not in the level of the land, but in 
 that of the sea. He conceives that when the increasing 
 cupola counterbalances the decreasing one, there is a 
 sudden transfer of the centre of gravity of the earth from 
 one side of the centre of the solid part to the other, and 
 consequently a rush of water, or deluge, alternately from 
 north to south and from south to north, occurring every 
 10,500 years. It seems to me, however, that the alterations 
 of the ice cupolas would be too slow, and consequently the 
 change in the centre of gravity too gradual, to cause any 
 sudden rush or deluge of water from one pole to the other. 
 
 According to this theory, the year 1248 was that in 
 which our northern hemisphere was at its period of 
 greatest heat, the southern at that of greatest cold ; and 
 as 630 years have since elapsed, we might expect to find 
 some evidence of subsequent change. 
 
 * I have elsewhere {Nature, 1887, and Journal Geogr. Socie/v, 1895) 
 attempted 10 show that this may explain the remarkable predominance of 
 land pointing southwards.
 
 4o6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 As regards the southern hemisphere, M. Adhemar 
 points out that the great southern glacier has considerably 
 retreated since the time of Captain Cook, but it is in the 
 northern hemisphere that he finds the greatest evidence of 
 alteration. He dwells much on the increase, during the 
 last few centuries, of the ice in Greenland, and points out 
 that the cultivation of the vine does not now extend so 
 far northwards as was once the case. M. Adhemar, then, 
 considers that the last epoch of greatest cold must have 
 been 11,120 years ago, since which time the climate of 
 our hemisphere gradually improved up to the year 1248, 
 when it was most genial, and after which it has, in his 
 opinion, gradually commenced again to deteriorate. Sir 
 Charles Lyell,^ however, does not think that this change, 
 "which could hardly produce more than a difference of 
 half a degree Fahrenheit between the cold of the present 
 winter and that of 1248, would be appreciable." He 
 considered that the whole effect which can be produced 
 by secular astronomical changes must "always be very 
 subordinate to the influence of geographical conditions," ^ 
 
 Sir John Herschel ^ also " was very far from supposing 
 it competent " to account for so great an alteration. More- 
 over, it is remarkable as showing how far we are from 
 possessing the data necessary for any satisfactory conclu- 
 sions, that while, as we have seen, M. Adhemar regards 
 the enormous cupola of ice at the South Pole as the 
 reason for the almost entire absence of land at that pole, 
 Sir C. Lyell, on the other hand, states as a fact that the 
 chief cause of the intense cold of high southern latitudes is 
 " the vast height and extent of the Antarctic continent," 
 the very existence of which is denied by, and is indeed 
 incompatible with, the theory of M. Adhemar, while it is 
 necessary to that of Sir C. Lyell. 
 
 Although, then, there can be no doubt that astro- 
 nomical changes would, to a certain extent, affect our 
 climate in the manner indicated by M. Adhemar, those 
 best qualified to form an opinion do not consider that the 
 
 ' Principles of Geolot^y, 1867, vol. i. p. 278. ^ Ibid., vol. i. p 243. 
 ^ Oiitlines of Astronomy, 1858, p. 235.
 
 PROBABLE EFFECT OF PRECESSION 407 
 
 cause assigned by him would by itself be sufficient to 
 account for changes so great as those which have taken 
 place. The effect produced increases, however, with the 
 exccntricity of the earth's orbit. The form of this orbit 
 is always altering ; as it approaches to a circle, the effect 
 produced by precession and change of position of peri- 
 helion diminishes, while on the other hand it increases as 
 the orbit elongates. At present the exccntricity of our 
 orbit is only o*oi68 — that is to say, the orbit is nearly 
 circular ; but there have been periods when it was much 
 more elongated, and when consequently the extremes of 
 temperature dependent on precession and the position of 
 perihelion must also have been much greater. 
 
 Mr Croll and Mr Stone have calculated the exccntricity 
 for the last million years, and Mr John Carrick Moore 
 has worked out the effect upon our climate, assuming 
 other things to remain unchanged, in the four last 
 columns of the following table, which is given by Sir C. 
 Lyell in the last edition of the Principles of Geology} 
 
 Mr CrolP does not indeed consider that an increase in 
 the exccntricity would directly alter the relative tempera- 
 ture of the two hemispheres, though it would bring 
 about a condition of things that would have this effect. 
 The mid-winter temperature of one hemisphere would be 
 greatly lowered, the consequence of which would be 
 that all the moisture would take the form of snow instead 
 of rain, which would be the more important because the 
 winter would be longer. The heat of the summer would 
 be insufficient to melt the snow, which consequently 
 would accumulate year by year. On the opposite 
 hemisphere the reverse would be the case, and com- 
 paratively little snow would fall. The difference of 
 temperature thus produced would cause the aerial 
 currents, and especially the trade winds on the colder 
 hemisphere, to be much stronger than those on the other ; 
 
 * Loc. cit., vol. i. p. 293. 
 
 2 Climate and Time, p. 228. See also Sir R. Ball, The Cause of an Ice 
 Age. I ought to add that the argument has been disputed — as, for instance, 
 by Mr Culverwell — but not I think disproved.
 
 4o8 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 they would, therefore, blow across the equator, and, by- 
 Impelling the equatorial waters towards the hemisphere 
 which was already the warmer of the two, would raise its 
 temperature still further. 
 
 Table showing the Variations in the Excentricity of the Earth's 
 Orbit for a Million Years before a.d. 1800, and some of the 
 Climatal Effects of such Variations. 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of years 
 
 before 
 
 A.D. 1800. 
 
 Excen- 
 tricity of 
 orbit. 
 
 Difference 
 
 of distance 
 
 in millions 
 
 of miles. 
 
 Number 
 
 of winter 
 
 days in 
 
 excess. 
 
 Mean of 
 hottest 
 month 
 in lat. of 
 London. 
 
 Mean of 
 
 coldest 
 
 month 
 
 in lat, of 
 
 London. 
 
 
 I, coo, 000 
 
 •0151 
 
 2| 
 
 7-3 
 
 13° F. 
 
 21° F. 
 
 D 
 
 950,000 
 
 •0517 
 
 9l 
 
 25-1 
 
 109° 
 
 3° 
 
 
 900,000 
 
 •0102 
 
 a 
 
 4-9 
 
 80° 
 
 23° 
 
 (a 
 
 850,000 
 
 •0747 
 
 n\ 
 
 36-4 
 
 126° 
 
 7 
 
 C - b 
 
 800,000 
 
 •0132 
 
 2i 
 
 6-4 
 
 82° 
 
 22° 
 
 \ c 
 
 750,000 
 
 •0575 
 
 loh 
 
 27-8 
 
 "3° 
 
 o°6 
 
 
 700,000 
 
 •0220 
 
 4 
 
 IO'2 
 
 87° 
 
 17° 
 
 
 650,000 
 
 •0226 
 
 4 
 
 II 
 
 88° 
 
 16° 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 •0417 
 
 74 
 
 20-3 
 
 ioi°9 
 
 7°9 
 
 
 550,000 
 
 •0166 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 84° 
 
 20° 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 ■0388 
 
 7 
 
 i8-8 
 
 99° 
 
 9° 
 
 
 450,000 
 
 ■0308 
 
 Sh 
 
 15 
 
 94° 
 
 13° 
 
 
 400,000 
 
 •0170 
 
 3 
 
 8-2 
 
 84° 
 
 20° 
 
 
 350,000 
 
 •0195 
 
 3h 
 
 9-5 
 
 86° 
 
 18° 
 
 
 300,000 
 
 •0424 
 
 n 
 
 20'6 
 
 102° 
 
 7° 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 •0258 
 
 4i 
 
 12-5 
 
 99° 
 
 15° 
 
 
 210,000 
 
 •0575 
 
 10^ 
 
 27-8 
 
 113° 
 
 o°7 
 
 200,000 
 
 ■0567 
 
 IO| 
 
 277 
 
 "3° 
 
 i°9 
 
 
 150,000 
 
 •0332 
 
 6 
 
 i6-i 
 
 95° 
 
 12° 
 
 A 
 
 100,000 
 
 •0473 
 
 8^ 
 
 23 
 
 105° 
 
 5° 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 •01 3 1 
 
 2i 
 
 6-3 
 
 82° 
 
 22° 
 
 
 
 
 •0168 
 
 3 
 
 8-1 
 
 84° 
 
 20° 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE. 
 
 Column i. — Division of a million years preceding 1800 into twenty equal parts. 
 
 Column 2. — Computed by Mr James CroU, by aid of Leverrier's formula, 
 gives the excentricity of the earth's orbit, in parts of a unit equal to the mean 
 distance, or half the longer diameter of the ellipse. 
 
 Column 3. — Which, together with the three following columns, has been 
 computed by Mr John Carrick Moore, gives in millions of miles the difference 
 between the greatest and least distances of the earth from the sun, during the 
 excentricities given in Column 2. 
 
 Column 4. — Gives the number of days by which winter, occurring in aphelion, 
 is longer than the summer in perihelion. 
 
 Column 5. — Gives the mean temperature of the hottest summer month in the 
 latitude of London when the summer occurs in perihelion. 
 
 Column 6. — Gives the mean temperature of the coldest winter month in the 
 latitude of London when the winter occurs in aphelion.
 
 DATE FOR THE GLACIAL EPOCH 409 
 
 The table shows that there are four periods, marked 
 A, B, C, and D, in which there has been a large excen- 
 tricity and an extreme climate. The periods marked A 
 and B, says Sir Charles Lyell, " would not, I conceive, be 
 sufficiently distant from our era to afford time for that 
 series of glacial and post-glacial events which we can 
 prove to have happened since the epoch of the greatest 
 cold. These events relate to changes in the level of the 
 land in opposite directions, as well as the excavation of 
 valleys, and variations in the range and distribution of 
 aquatic and terrestrial animals, all of which take place at 
 so slow a rate that 200,000 years would not be sufficient to 
 allow of the series of changes with which we are acquainted. 
 I cannot but think, therefore, that if the date of the most 
 intense glacial cold can be arrived at by aid of a very 
 large excentricity, it would be a more probable conjecture 
 to assign C than B as the period in question ; in other 
 words, to regard the glacial epoch as representing a 
 period 800,000 years ago." 
 
 In diffisring from such a great authority as Sir C. 
 Lyell, I do so with great diffidence, but I confess that I 
 should be disposed rather to assign the glacial era to the 
 periods A and B, than to either C or D.^ 
 
 It seems to me unlikely that the present fauna of 
 Europe should have continued to exist, almost without 
 alteration, for so long a period as 800,000 years, and the 
 " variations in the range and distribution of aquatic and 
 terrestrial animals," might, I think, have occurred in 
 even less than 200,000 years under the great changes in 
 climate which have taken place. 
 
 Professor Heim has made an interesting calculation as 
 to the annual denudation in the Reuss valley. He 
 estimates the yearly rainfall in the area drained by that 
 river at 1,070,000,000 cubic metres, and the outflow of 
 the river into the Lake of Lucerne at 750,000,000. The 
 daily discharge of sand he calculates as about 150,000 
 cubic metres, to which he adds a quarter for finely divided 
 matter. This would be equal to about 1000 was-p-on- 
 
 ^ Mr Croll has also expressed this opinion, Phil. Mag.., 1868, p. 367.
 
 4IO PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 loads a day. According to his calculation, then, the 
 average annual removal from each square kilometre of 
 surface would be 242 cubic metres. 
 
 From the amount of material removed, he calculates 
 the ages of the terraces as follows : — 
 
 The first or oldest . . 1,150,000 years. 
 
 The second , . , 330,000 „ 
 
 The third , . , , 130,000 „ 
 
 The fourth . . . 23,000 ,, 
 
 From the commencement of the excavation of the 
 valleys to the present there would, he estimates, be 
 required at the present rate of erosion a period of 
 3,750,000 years. 
 
 The Geological Magazine for June 1868 contains an 
 interesting paper by Mr (now Sir Archibald) Geikie, " On 
 Denudation now in Progress," in which he discusses the 
 general effect produced by rivers excavating valleys and 
 lowering the general level of the country. " For it is 
 clear that if a river carries so many millions of cubic feet 
 of sediment every year into the sea, the area of the 
 country drained by it must have lost the quantity of 
 solid material, and if we could restore the sediment so as 
 to spread it over the basin, the layer so laid down would 
 represent the fraction of a foot by which the basin had 
 been lowered during a year." From observations made 
 on the Mississippi, Ganges, Rhone, Danube, and other 
 great rivers, Geikie estimates the annual loss at gyV^ of 
 a foot. But he points out that this would not be uniform. 
 The plains and watersheds would lose little, the slopes 
 and valleys much. "There can be no doubt," he says, 
 " that the erosion of the slopes and water-courses is very 
 much greater than that of the more level grounds. Let 
 it be assumed that the waste is nine times greater in the 
 one case than in the other (in all likelihood it is more) : 
 in other words, that while the plains and table-lands have 
 been having one foot worn off their surface, the declivities 
 and river-courses have lost nine feet. Let it be further 
 assumed that one-tenth part of the surface of a country
 
 DENUDATION OF CONTINENTS 411 
 
 is occupied by its water-courses and glens, while the 
 remaining nine-tenths are covered by the plains, wide 
 valleys, or flat grounds. Now, according to the foregoing 
 data, the mean annual quantity of detritus carried to the 
 sea is equal to the yearly loss of -Q^y^jj of a foot from the 
 general surface of the country. The valleys, therefore, 
 are lowered by ygW °^ ^ foot, and the more open and 
 flat land by xcrroo °^ ^ foot," 
 
 Geikie calculates in this manner that Europe would 
 disappear in little more than 4,000,000 of years, I 
 cannot altogether accept this conclusion, for when a 
 river has less than a given amount of fall, it ceases to 
 excavate. Thus the effect of the Nile is to raise, not to 
 lower, the level of Egypt, and most of our large rivers 
 near their mouths act in a somewhat similar manner. 
 As regards the higher districts, however, his data are 
 perhaps not far wrong, and if we apply them to the 
 valley of the Somme, where the excavation is about 
 200 feet in depth, they would indicate an antiquity for 
 the Palaeolithic Epoch of from 100,000 to 240,000 years, 
 which, though arrived at from perfectly different data, 
 agrees with the periods A and B in the calculation made 
 by Messrs Croll and Stone. 
 
 In addition to the causes already alluded to, there is at 
 least one other astronomical phenomenon — namely, the 
 change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, which must be 
 taken into account in considering the effects which 
 cosmical causes may, or must, have exercised on climate. 
 The whole question then is one, not only of extreme 
 interest, but also of very great difficulty, and we are not, 
 I think, at present in a position to estimate with con- 
 fidence the effects on climate which may have been 
 produced by these various causes. 
 
 Several other points connected with the glacial period 
 receive a natural explanation from the suggestions of 
 M, Adhemar and Mr Croll. Thus M. M^orlot ^ some 
 years ago pointed out that there are in Switzerland 
 
 ' Bui/, de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sciences Naturclles^ March 1854 ; 
 Bibl. Universelle de Geneve^ May 1858.
 
 412 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 evidences of several periods of cold, during what is 
 called the glacial epoch, separated by an interval of 
 mildness. 
 
 Of this the most striking instance is afforded by the 
 Dilrnten beds, where a layer of coal or lignite no less 
 than twelve feet thick, lies between two glacial deposits. 
 Again, Mr Croll gives ^ particulars of 250 borings through 
 the surface deposits of the mining districts in Scotland. 
 Of these, 25 showed two distinct boulder clay beds, 
 26 three, i four, 2 five, and i as many as six, with 
 stratified beds of sand and gravel between. In England 
 it is generally stated that there are two beds of boulder 
 clay separated by one of sand and gravel. These may, 
 however, not really correspond. There may have been 
 several layers, of which, however, not more than two 
 are shown in any single section. The beds of clay 
 would indicate glacial conditions, the sand and gravel 
 being deposited during the milder interglacial periods.^ 
 
 There is still much difference of opinion whether 
 M. Adhemar is right in attributing the preponderance of 
 ocean in the southern hemisphere to the influence of the 
 great Antarctic glacier. There can, however, be no doubt 
 that an accumulation of snow and ice at one pole would, 
 by affecting the position of the centre of gravity of the 
 earth, attract the waters towards that pole. Mr Croll 
 calculates that a diminution of 470 feet in the thickness 
 of the Antarctic glacier would raise the sea-level at the 
 North Pole 26 feet 5 inches, and 25 feet at the latitude 
 of Glasgow. A mile of ice removed in the same way 
 would produce a change of 280 feet. Mr Adhemar 
 dwells on various considerations which induce him to 
 attribute a very great thickness to the great southern 
 glacier, and consequently he considers that the alterations 
 of sea-level which would result from the alternate pre- 
 ponderance of ice in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, 
 
 ' Climate and Time, p. 254. 
 
 ^ Mr Skertchly also considers that he has found a clear case, near 
 Brandon, in which paUeolithic brick earth underlies boulder clay. Other 
 geologists, however, have contested his interpretation of the fact.
 
 ALTERATION IN THE SEA-LEVEL 413 
 
 would account for the various alterations in the distribu- 
 tion of land and water. That there have been elevations 
 and depressions of the land itself is sufficiently evident 
 from other considerations ; and it is impossible to deny 
 that the cause pointed out by M. Adhemar may have 
 produced the relative elevation of the sea, as proved by 
 the various raised beaches which fringe our shores, and 
 the depression on the other hand indicated by the sub- 
 merged forests, observed at so many points. 
 
 The former would indicate the periods of cold ; the 
 latter, those of heat. The present condition of our rivers 
 will also thus be simply explained. It is obvious that 
 they have excavated their own valleys. At present, 
 however, they are most of them filling up the lower parts 
 of the excavation, as, for instance, we have seen to be 
 the case with the Somme. 
 
 Moreover, the bottom of these valleys is in most cases 
 lower than the present sea-level, which cannot have been 
 the case at the time when they were excavated. It is 
 evident, then, that the excavation must have been finished 
 at the time when the land was at a higher relative level 
 than at present. 
 
 Again, it will be remembered that side by side with 
 the remains of Arctic animals, have been found others 
 indicating a warm climate, such, for instance, as the 
 hippopotamus. This fact, which has always hitherto 
 been felt as a difficulty, is at once explained by Mr Croll's 
 suggestion ; for when the excentricity was at a high value, 
 we should have a change every ten or twelve thousand 
 years from a high to a low temperature, and vice versa. 
 But a period of ten thousand years, long as it may appear 
 to us, is very little from a geological point of view ; and 
 we can thus understand how the remains of the hippo- 
 potamus and the musk-ox come to be found together in 
 England and France. The very same astronomical con- 
 ditions which fitted our valleys for the one, would at an 
 interval of ten thousand years render them suitable for 
 the other. In this case, palaeolithic man would date 
 back to the warmer interglacial times, which perhaps may
 
 414 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 explain the absence of any human remains of this period 
 in Scandinavia and Germany. 
 
 Another consideration which tends to throw light on 
 the glacial period, is the existence of submarine river 
 valleys on the bed of the Atlantic. It has long been 
 known that the Western European rivers — and the same 
 applies to the eastern rivers of North America — can be 
 traced out to sea, and the subject has recently been 
 studied by Professor Hull. 
 
 The following figure shows the " continental shelf," 
 the submerged river channel, and the profound depths 
 
 Flc. 254. — Diagram showing present and former sea-levels, the continental shelf, 
 and the submerged river valley, as shown by the Admiralty soundings. 
 
 of the Atlantic. Professor Hull, to whom 1 have sub- 
 mitted the diagram, has passed it, but would have made 
 the elevation even greater, say 7000 to 8000 feet. 
 
 For some hundred miles west of Ireland and the west 
 of Europe the sea is very shallow, reaching a depth of 
 100 fathoms only. It then drops rapidly to the abysses 
 of the ocean, 2000 to 4000 fathoms. Now, Professor 
 Hull has shown by setting out the Admiralty Charts 
 that the valleys of the ancient rivers which drained the 
 English Channel and the Irish Sea, when they were dry 
 land, the Loire, the Gironde, the Adour, the Tagus, the 
 Congo, etc., can be traced out to sea, gradually deepening, 
 and on approaching the edge of the continental shelf 
 rapidly descending so as to form a gorge no less than 
 some 6000 feet in depth. Of course rivers cannot excav-
 
 ALTERATION IN THE SEA-LEVEL 415 
 
 Stanford's Geog'.Estnb\ London 
 
 Fig. 255. — Map of Western Europe, showing submarine courses ot the rivers. 
 Black = present land ; Grey = ancient land ; White = ocean.
 
 4i6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 ate valleys below the sea-level : the result would be to 
 make deltas ; and though this is prevented in tidal seas, 
 which accounts for the absence of deltas at the mouths of 
 the Atlantic rivers, still they tend slowly to obliterate the 
 ancient valleys, and raise the level of the sea bottom. 
 The existence of river valleys attaining such depths as 
 6000 feet implies, therefore, that Western Europe and 
 Eastern America must at that time have stood 6000 
 feet higher than they do now. This would certainly 
 involve a period of cold, but there seems no sufficient 
 reason to refer this elevation to Pliocene or Pleistocene 
 times, and I think most geologists would carry it back to 
 the Miocene or even the Oligocene Period. 
 
 Sir C. Lyell attempted ■'■ to form an estimate of the 
 duration of the glacial epoch, on the assumption that the 
 different movements of elevation and depression pro- 
 ceeded at an average rate of 2| feet in a century. As 
 the simplest " series of changes in physical geography 
 which can possibly account for the phenomena of the 
 glacial period," he gave the following : — 
 
 " First, a continental period, towards the close of which 
 the forest of Cromer flourished ; when the land was at 
 least 500 feet above its present level." 
 
 " Secondly, a period of submergence, by which the land 
 north of the Thames and Bristol Channel, and that of 
 Ireland was gradually reduced to an archipelago." 
 
 " Thirdly, a second continental period, when the bed 
 of the glacial sea, with its marine shells and erratic blocks, 
 was laid dry, and when the quantity of land equalled that 
 of the first period." 
 
 It is evident that such changes as these would require 
 a great lapse of time. Sir Charles Lyell admits that the 
 average change of 2^ feet in a century is a purely 
 arbitrary and conjectural rate, and that there are cases in 
 which a change of as much as six feet in a century appears 
 to have taken place : still, it is in his opinion probable 
 that the rate assumed in a century is, if anything, above 
 the average, and in this I believe most geologists would 
 
 ^ Antiquity of Mufi, pp. 282, 285.
 
 GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 417 
 
 be disposed to agree with him. On this hypothesis he 
 estimates that the whole series of changes would have 
 required some 220,000 years. 
 
 To most geologists these figures, large as they are, will 
 have no appearance of improbability. Prestwich indeed 
 was disposed to consider that the whole glacial period 
 need not have occupied more than 20,000 years. This 
 is also the opinion of Mr Wright.^ The facts, however, 
 mentioned above seem to me incompatible with so short 
 a period. In fact all the evidence of geology seems to 
 me to indicate an antiquity of which we are but beginning 
 to form a dim idea. Take, for instance, one single 
 formation — our well-known chalk. This consists entirely 
 of shells and fragments of shells deposited at the bottom 
 of an ancient sea, far away from any continent. Such a 
 process as this must be very slow : we should certainly 
 be well within the mark if we were to assume a rate of 
 deposition of an inch in a century. Now the chalk is 
 nearly two thousand feet in thickness, and would have 
 required therefore more than, in round numbers, 2,000,000 
 years for its formation. The fossiliferous beds of Great 
 Britain, as a whole, are more than seventy thousand feet 
 in thickness ; and many which with us measure only a 
 few inches, on the Continent expand into strata of im- 
 mense depth ; while others of great importance elsewhere 
 are wholly wanting with us ; for it is evident that during 
 all the different periods in which Great Britain has been 
 dry land, strata have been forming (as is, for example, 
 the case now) elsewhere, and not with us. Moreover, we 
 must remember that many of the strata now existing have 
 been formed at the expense of older ones ; thus all the 
 flint gravels in the south-east of England have been pro- 
 duced by the destruction of chalk. This, again, is a very 
 slow process. It has been estimated that a cliff 500 feet 
 high will be worn away at the rate of an inch in a 
 century. This may seem a low rate ; but we must bear 
 in mind that along any line of coast there are compara- 
 tively few points which are suffering at one time, and 
 
 1 Alan and the Glacial Period^ p. 364. 
 
 27
 
 41 8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 that even on those, when a fall of cliff has taken place, 
 the fragments serve as a protection to the coast until they 
 have been gradually removed by the waves. Looking at 
 the evidence as a whole, we can hardly, I think, estimate 
 at less than 100,000,000 years the time which must have 
 elapsed since the commencement of life on our planet. 
 
 There can be no doubt about the interest of these 
 calculations, and they have also the great merit of giving 
 some definiteness to our ideas. We must not, however, 
 attribute to them a value which has been distinctly dis- 
 claimed even by their authors. Moreover, we must 
 remember that these estimates are brought forward not as 
 a proof, but as a measure, of antiquity. Our belief in 
 the antiquity of man rests not on any isolated calculations, 
 but on the changes which have taken place since his 
 appearance : changes in the geography, in the fauna, and 
 in the climate of Europe. Valleys have been deepened, 
 widened, and partially filled up again ; caves through 
 which subterranean rivers once ran are now left dry ; even 
 the configuration of land has been materially altered, and 
 Africa finally separated from Europe. 
 
 Our climate has greatly changed for the better, and 
 with it the fauna has materially altered. In some cases — 
 for instance, in that of the hippopotamus and of the 
 African elephant — we may probably look to the diminu- 
 tion of food and the presence of man as the main cause 
 of their disappearance ; the extinction of the mammoth, 
 the Elephas antiquus^ and the Rhinoceros tichorhinus may 
 possibly be due to the same influences ; but the retreat 
 of the reindeer and the musk-ox are probably in great 
 measure owing to the change of climate. These and 
 similar facts, though they afford us no means of measure- 
 ment, impress us with a vague and overpowering sense 
 of antiquity. All geologists, indeed, are now prepared 
 to admit that man has existed on our earth for a much 
 longer period than was until recently supposed to have 
 been the case. 
 
 But it may be doubted whether even geologists yet 
 realize the great antiquity of our race.
 
 PALEOLITHIC PERIODS 419 
 
 " When speculations on the long series of events which 
 occurred in the glacial and post-glacial periods are indulged 
 in," says Sir C. Lyell/ " the imagination is apt to take 
 alarm at the immensity of the time required to interpret 
 the monuments of these ages, all referable to the era of 
 existing species. In order to abridge the number of 
 centuries which would otherwise be indispensable, a dis- 
 position is shown by many to magnify the rate of change 
 in prehistoric times, by investing the causes which have 
 modified the animate and the inanimate world with extra- 
 ordinary and excessive energy. . . . We of the living 
 generation, when called upon to make grants of thousands 
 of centuries, in order to explain the events of what is 
 called the modern period, shrink naturally at first from 
 making what seems so lavish an expenditure of past 
 time." 
 
 That palaeolithic implements belong to a period of 
 great cold, i.e. to the glacial period, seems indicated by 
 the fact that they have not yet been found in the areas 
 occupied by the deposits of the late glacial epoch. If a 
 map be constructed showing the regions occupied by the 
 deposits of the glacial epoch, the morainic debris, diluvial 
 gravels, and boulder clay, on the one hand, and the 
 palaeolithic implements on the other, it would be seen at 
 a glance that the former end when the latter begin. 
 
 The period thus indicated must certainly have been of 
 very long duration. Lartet, as we have seen {^ante^ p. 281), 
 suggested a division into four periods : those of the (i) 
 Cave Bear, (2) Mammoth and Rhinoceros tichorhinus^ 
 (3) the Reindeer, and (4) the Aurochs. 
 
 M. de Mortillet has suggested a division into five 
 periods, founded on the character of the implements, and 
 named after typical localities, viz : (i) Chelleenne, (2) 
 Acheuleenne, (3) Mousterienne, (4) Solutreenne, and (5) 
 Magdalenienne. The first is characterized by axes boldly 
 worked ; the second by the " Langues de Chat " of St 
 Acheul (figs. 244-248) ; those most characteristic of the 
 Mousterien are generally worked only on one side ; those 
 
 1 Address to the Brit. Ass., 1864, p. 21, Bath.
 
 420 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of Solutre are leaf-like lance-heads beautifully worked ; 
 the Masdalenienne is remarkable for the number and 
 variety of bone implements. 
 
 Messrs Penck and Brilckner consider that there were 
 four main periods of great cold separated by milder 
 intervals. As to this authorities are not altogether agreed, 
 and no doubt there were numerous changes ; but the 
 evidence seems very strong that there were four main 
 oscillations/ and Sir C. H. Read, in his excellent British 
 Museum Guide to the Stone Age^ gives the following 
 table : — 
 
 Table showing Succession of Glaciations and the Pal/Eolithic 
 Industries, according to the Authorities named. 
 
 Professors 
 Penck and 
 Briickner. 
 
 Professor James Geikie. 
 
 Professor 
 Penck and 
 Dr Rutot. 
 
 Dr Oberniaier. 
 
 Professor 
 Boulc. 
 
 Postglacial, 
 with oscilla- 
 tions. 
 
 (' Upper Turbarian '\ 
 \ Upper Forestian / 
 \ Lower Turbarian X 
 ( Lower Forestian ) 
 
 Madeleine 
 
 ( Madeleine 
 \ Solutre 
 
 Madeleine. 
 Solutre. 
 
 Wlirm (4th 
 
 Mecklenburgian 
 
 Madeleine 
 
 Moustier 
 
 Moustier. 
 
 glacial). 
 
 ( Depositing purple boulder 
 clay.) 
 
 
 
 (3rd 
 glacial.) 
 
 3rd inter- 
 
 Neudeckian 
 
 Solutre 
 
 C St Acheul \ 
 
 Chelles. 
 
 glacial. 
 
 (Beds between chalky and 
 
 
 \ (cool) ( 
 
 (2nd in- 
 
 
 purple boulder clays.) 
 
 
 1 Chelles f 
 ( (warm) ) 
 
 terglacial. ) 
 
 Riss (3rd 
 
 Polandian .... 
 
 Moustier 
 
 3rd glacial 
 
 2nd 
 
 glacial). 
 
 (Depositing the upper 
 boulder clay.) 
 
 
 
 glacial. 
 
 2nd inter- 
 
 Helvetian .... 
 
 Chelles 
 
 2nd inter- 
 
 1st inter- 
 
 glacial. 
 
 (Represented in part by 
 middle glacial beds.) 
 
 
 glacial 
 
 glacial. 
 
 Mindel (2nd 
 
 Saxonian .... 
 
 
 2nd glacial >, 
 
 
 glacial). 
 
 (Severe, Cromer till and 
 contorted beds.) 
 
 
 
 
 1st inter- 
 
 Norfolkian 
 
 
 1st inter- 
 glacial 
 
 1st glacial. 
 
 glacial. 
 
 (Cromer forest bed, pre- 
 
 
 (Pliocene.) 
 
 
 glacial in Britain.) 
 
 
 
 
 GUnz (1st 
 
 Scanian .... 
 
 Pliocene 
 
 1st glacial 
 
 
 glacial). 
 
 (Not in Britain.) 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age {British Museum), 191 1, p. II. 
 
 That man existed in Western Europe during the 
 period of the mammoth and the Rhinoceros tichorhinus no 
 
 1 M. Obermaier has come to the same conclusion as regards the 
 Pyrenees.
 
 MAN IN PLIOCENE TIMES 
 
 421 
 
 longer, I think, admits of a doubt ; and as regards Plio- 
 cene times the existence of man, or of some semi-human 
 ancestors of ours, seems also to be well established. 
 
 Fig. 256. — Section of North Downs, showing relative positions of 
 plateau and river drift. 
 
 a. Red clay drift, 5 to 20 feet thick, with unrolled flints from chalk, overlying 
 
 thin patches of lower Eocene and Pliocene beds. On the surface are found 
 eoliths, and fragments of chert and ragstone from the lower greensand 
 outcrop. /, Position of Pliocene beds. 
 
 b. High-level river gravel, about 100 ft. above the Thames. 
 
 c. Low -level river gravel and loam, sloping down to the Thames. 
 
 Ch, chalk. G, Upper greensand and gault. L.G.S., Lower greensand. 
 A A', Major valleys of glacial period. 
 BB', Later valleys. 
 
 Mr Benjamin Harrison has found on the summit of 
 the Kentish Downs near lo;htham a certain number of 
 palaeolithic implements belonging to the well-known types. 
 
 Fig. 257. — Eolith with edge-chipping, 
 Kent plateau. 
 
 Fig. 258. — Beak-shaped 
 eolith, Kent plateau.^ 
 
 and a much larger number of very rude specimens 
 
 (figs. 257 and 258), so rude indeed that their claim to 
 
 classification as worked implements has been, and is, 
 
 disputed by some high authorities. Many of them are, 
 
 1 Gtfide to the Aittiqititics of the Stone Age {British Miiseum\ 191 1, 
 pp. 14-15.
 
 422 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 however, as it seems to me, undoubtedly worked. They 
 have been termed " Eolithic " ; but if the term is intended 
 to imply antiquity, it must of course include the more 
 elaborately worked and typical palaeolithic implements 
 which occur with them. They are found in a peculiar 
 brown gravel deposited by a stream or streams which ran 
 at a much higher level than, and had no relation to, the 
 existing rivers as shown in fig. 256. Similar implements 
 have been found in Wilts and Herts by Mr Kendall, and in 
 
 several other southern counties, 
 and in Belgium by M. Rutot. 
 
 TheTasmanians used stone im- 
 plements quite as rudely worked 
 in various ways — for instance, in 
 preparing spears, and in scraping 
 the skin, especially that of the 
 feet. 
 
 Mr Worthington Smith has 
 found palaeolithic implements on 
 an old floor covered over with 
 contorted glacial drift. 
 A remarkable series of rough, but unquestionably 
 worked flint implements has recently been brought to 
 light by Mr J. Reid Moir.^ They were found near 
 Ipswich, resting on London Clay, and Messrs Whitaker 
 and Marr, after careful examination of the locality, tell us 
 that in their opinion the bed in which they occur is the un- 
 disturbed base of the Red Crag, resting on London Clay. 
 Similar specimens had been collected by Mr W. G. Clarke 
 as long ago as 1905, at the base of the Norwich Crag ; 
 but he says, " It was not till his first notes on the subject 
 appeared that the possibility of my specimens being Pre- 
 Crag occurred to me with any force." The specimens 
 are also ably described by Sir E. Ray Lankester in his 
 memoir mentioned below. The most characteristic are a 
 
 Fig. 259.— Eolithic double 
 scraper, Kent plateau. 
 
 ' See his letter to the Times, October 17, 1910 ; a paper in the Transac- 
 tions of the Prehistoric Society of East Anj^lia ; the report of a committee 
 of the same Society, 191 1 ; a report by Mr Whitaker and Dr Marr ; and a 
 paper by Sir E. Ray Lankester in the Phil. Trans, for November 191 1.
 
 EOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS 423 
 
 very peculiar "eagle's beak" or " rostro-carinate " type, 
 which had not been previously described. Besides Mr 
 Clarke's specimens, there is one in Sir John Evans' collec- 
 tion, now in Sir Arthur Evans' possession, and some 
 have been found by Mr Heron-Allen in a gravel of 
 undetermined age at Selsea Mill in Sussex. 
 
 The existence of man in Pliocene times seems there- 
 fore now to be satisfactorily established. 
 
 M. Desnoyers ^ has called attention to some marks 
 noticed by him on bones found in the Upper Pliocene 
 beds of St Prest, and belonging to the Elephas meridion- 
 alis^ Rhinoceros hptorhinus^ Hippopotamus major^ several 
 species of deer (including the gigantic Megaceros carnu- 
 torum^ Laugel), and two species of Bos^ which he considers 
 to be of human origin. 
 
 Among the bones of the deer were several crania, all of 
 which have been broken in one way, namely, by a violent 
 blow given on the skull between, and at the base of, the 
 horns, M. Steenstrup has noticed fractures of this kind 
 in other less ancient skulls of ruminants, and at the 
 present day some of the modern tribes treat the skulls of 
 ruminants in the same manner. Through the courtesy 
 of M. Desnoyers, I have had the opportunity of examin- 
 ing some of the scratched bones from St Prest. The 
 markings fully bear out the description given by him, 
 and some of them at least appear to me to be probably 
 of human origin ; at the same time, and in the present 
 state of our knowledge, I am not prepared to say that 
 there is no other manner in which they might have been 
 produced. At the same place, that indefatigable archae- 
 ologist, M. I'Abbe Bourgeois, has more recently dis- 
 covered worked flints, including flakes, awls, and scrapers ; 
 but unfortunately there is some doubt as to the strati- 
 graphical relations of the bed in which they occurred.^ 
 Moreover, some authorities consider these beds to be 
 inter-glacial. In the inter-glacial coal-beds of DUrnten 
 already alluded to {ante^ p. 412), Professor Rutimeyer 
 
 ^ Comptes Rendiis, June 8, 1863. 
 
 2 Mat. pour r Histoire de rHotnmc, 1867, p. 17 ; ditto, 1873, p. 14.
 
 424 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 has found a fragment apparently of rough basket or 
 wattle work. The interpretation in this case again has 
 been questioned, but Professor Schwendener, who has 
 recently examined the specimens with great care, is 
 decidedly of opinion that it is of human workmanship. 
 
 At the meeting in Spezzia of the " Societe Italienne des 
 Sciences Naturelles," Professor G. Ramorino exhibited 
 some bones of Pliocene Age, said to bear marks of knives.^ 
 
 M. Capellini also described certain bones supposed to 
 belong to the same geological period, which, in his 
 opinion, bear marks of flint knives. Sir J. Evans, how- 
 ever, has suggested that these marks may have been made 
 by the teeth of fishes.^ 
 
 The existence of man during the period of the Crag 
 has been supposed to be indicated by the fact that some 
 of the sharks' teeth, so abundant in these deposits, are 
 perforated in a manner which at first sight certainly 
 resembles that in which we find similar teeth pierced by 
 savages at the present day. Mr Charlesworth, while 
 carefully abstaining from the expression of any opinion, 
 exhibited several such specimens at a recent meeting of 
 the Anthropological Institute. It has, however, I think, 
 been shown that these perforations are probably the work 
 of boring parasites.^ 
 
 Dr Dubois has discovered in Java,^ in a layer apparently 
 of Pliocene Age, to judge from the other mammalian 
 remains, the upper part of the skull, a thigh bone and 
 two teeth of an animal about as large as a chimpanzee (fig. 
 235), which he regards as having been intermediate between 
 man and the anthropoid apes, and there is this strong 
 support of his view that while the remains, in the opinion 
 of some eminent authorities, are those of an anthropoid 
 ape allied to the existing Gibbons, others are equally 
 convinced that they are those of a low type of man. 
 Through the kindness of Dr Dubois I have had the 
 
 ^ Loc. cit., vol. ii. p. 41. ^ Co7tgres hit. d'Anih., '876, p. 46. 
 
 ^ Hughes, " Man in the Crag," Geol. Mag., vol. ix., June 1872. 
 * Piihecanthroptis erectus, Batavia, 1894. See also C. R., 3me Cong. 
 Int. de Zool , Leyde, 1896.
 
 MIOCENE EVIDENCE 4^5 
 
 opportunity of examining these interesting remains. It 
 is greatly to be regretted that they are not more complete, 
 but they certainly belonged either to a very large Gibbon 
 or a very small man. 
 
 Dr Noetling, of the Geological Survey of India, has 
 also recorded unquestionable flint flakes found in Burma 
 with remains of Rhinoceros perimensis^ and Hippotherium 
 (Hipparion) antelopinum^ in strata considered to belong 
 to the Pliocene Period.^ 
 
 Of course, for the believers in evolution man must 
 have had a precursor in Miocene times ; but no mammalian 
 species goes so far back in time. It is therefore extremely 
 improbable that man in the strict sense should then have 
 existed, but it would seem that his predecessors of that 
 period were sufficiently advanced to make use of rude 
 stone implements. M. Bourgeois has found in the 
 Calcaire de Beauce, near Pontlevoy, many flints which 
 have been subjected to the action of heat, and others 
 which he considers to show marks of human workman- 
 ship. On the age of the deposit there is still some 
 diflFerence of opinion, and the action of Are, though it 
 points strongly to, does not absolutely prove, the presence 
 of man. These interesting specimens were found in a 
 stratum which contains the remains of acerotherium, an 
 extinct animal allied to the rhinoceros, and beneath a bed 
 which contains the mastodon, dinotherium, and rhin- 
 oceros. I had the advantage of visiting Pontlevoy with 
 Sir J. Evans and examining the specimens. They are 
 certainly very rude, but the action of fire could not be 
 doubted. 
 
 In the Materiaux pour FHistoire de P Homme for 1 870 ^ is 
 a figure of a flint flake found by M. Tardy in the Miocene 
 beds of Aurillac (Auvergne), together with the remains 
 of Dinotherium giganteum and Machairodus latidens. I 
 have not visited' the locality, and cannot express any 
 opinion as to the age of the bed in which this interesting 
 specimen was discovered, but from the figure given 
 
 ' Records of the Geol. Survey of India, vol. xxvii., 1894. 
 2 Loc. cit.^ p. 93.
 
 426 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 there can be no reasonable doubt that it is of human 
 workmanship. This has been confirmed by M. Rames 
 and by Mr Westlake, who devoted several years to the 
 locality, and Sir E. Ray Lankester considers that the 
 age is definitely fixed, as the layer is covered by a lava 
 flow of ascertained Upper Miocene Age. M. Delaunay 
 also has called attention to a rib, found by him at Pouance 
 (Maine et Loire), and belonging to a well-known Miocene 
 species, the Ha/it/ierium fossi/e ;^ this bears certain marks 
 which closely resemble those which might have been 
 made by flint implements. M. Hamy gives a good 
 figure of this interesting specimen. 
 
 The worker of these flints would probably have difl^ered 
 so much from existing men that he would be regarded 
 as belonging to a difi^erent species, and would be one of 
 the " missing links." 
 
 No living species of land mammal has yet been found 
 in the Miocene strata. It is true that by the exercise 
 of his brains man is more able to render himself inde- 
 pendent of external conditions than other animals ; cold, 
 for instance, leading to warmer clothes in the one, to 
 more fur in the other ; still, judging from the analogy of 
 other species, I am disposed to think that in the Miocene 
 Period man was probably represented by anthropoid apes, 
 more nearly resembling us than do any of the existing 
 quadrumana. We need not, however, expect necessarily 
 to find the proofs in Europe ; our nearest relatives in 
 the animal kingdom are confined to hot, almost to 
 tropical climates ; and though we know that during 
 parts of the Miocene Period the climate of Europe was 
 warmer than at present, so that monkeys lived much 
 north of their present limits, still it is in the warmer 
 regions of the earth that we may reasonably find the 
 earliest traces of the human race. 
 
 ' Precis de Paleontologie Ht(mai?ie^ p. 58.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 MODERN SAVAGES 
 
 Although our knowledge of ancient times has of late 
 years greatly increased, it is still very imperfect, and we 
 cannot afford to neglect any possible source of information. 
 It is evident that history cannot throw much light on the 
 early condition of man, because the discovery — or, to 
 speak more correctly, the use — of metal has in all cases 
 preceded that of writing. Even as regards the Age of 
 Bronze, we derive little information from history ; and 
 although, as we have seen, the Age of Stone is vaguely 
 alluded to in the earliest European writers, their state- 
 ments have generally been looked upon as imaginative 
 rather than historical, and contain, indeed, little more 
 than the bare statement that there was a time when metal 
 was unknown. 
 
 Nor will tradition supply the place of history. At 
 best it is untrustworthy and short-lived. Thus in 1770 
 the New Zealanders had no recollection of Tasman's 
 visit. ^ Yet this took place in 1643, less than one 
 hundred and thirty years before, and must have been to 
 them an event of the greatest possible importance and 
 interest. In the same way the North American Indians 
 soon lost all tradition of De Soto's expedition, although 
 " by its striking incidents it was so well suited to impress 
 the Indian mind."^ 
 
 Even as regards events which are contemporary, or 
 
 ^ Cook's First Voyage round the World, Hawkesworth's Voyages, 
 vol. ii. p. 388. 
 
 ^ Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, vol. ii. p. 12. 
 
 427
 
 428 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 nearly so, we find that the accounts given by savages 
 become rapidly distorted. Thus Nilsson ^ quotes the 
 account given by Mackenzie, that the Esquimaux described 
 the English to him as being giants, with wings, who 
 could kill with a glance of their eye, and swallow a 
 whole beaver at a mouthful. So also Colonel Dalton 
 tells us that " though the Kols have known the English 
 for little more than half a century, they assign to them 
 a most honourable place in their genesis. The Assam 
 Abors and Garrows do the same." ^ 
 
 The Bungogees and Pankhos (hill tribes of Chittagong) 
 believe that their ancestors came out of a cave in the 
 earth under the guidance of a chief named Tlandrokpah, 
 who was so powerful that he married the daughter of 
 the Deity, to whom he presented his gun. " You can 
 still hear the gun : the thunder is the sound of it."^ In 
 this case the mention of the gun shows that the tradition 
 must be of modern origin. Again, Speke says : " I 
 found that the Wao-anda have the same absurd notion 
 
 o 
 
 here as the Wanyambo have in Karague, of Kamrisi's 
 supernatural power in being able to divide the waters 
 of the Nile in the same manner as Moses did the 
 Red Sea."* 
 
 Mansfield Parkyns relates how it is firmly believed in 
 the remote parts of Abyssinia, that the German mission- 
 aries had, " in the course of only a few days, perforated 
 a tunnel all the way (from Adowa) to Massowa, on the 
 coast of the Red Sea, a distance of above a hundred and 
 fifty miles, whence they were to obtain large supplies of 
 arms, ammunition, etc."^ 
 
 Sir S. Baker'' also, in his Nile Tributaries^ says : "The 
 conversation of the Arabs is in the exact style of the 
 
 ^ The Stone Age, English edition, p. 209. 
 
 2 Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Ser., vol. vi. p. 38. See also Lichtenstein's 
 Travels, vol. i. p. 290 ; James' Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 
 vol. iii. p. 247 ; and Campbell, Trans. Ethn. Soc, 1870, p. 335. 
 
 ^ Capt. Lewin, The Hill Tribes of Chittagotig, Calcutta, 1869, p. 95. 
 See also Lichtenstein's Travels, vol. i. p. 290. 
 
 ■• Speke, p. 438, also p. 504. ■' Life in Abyssinia, p. 151. 
 
 " Loc. cit., pp. 129, 130.
 
 ARABIAN CHARACTERISTICS 429 
 
 Old Testament. The name of God is coupled with every 
 trifling incident in life, and they believe in the continual 
 action of Divine special interference. Should a famine 
 afliict the country, it is expressed in the stern language 
 of the Bible, ' The Lord has sent a grievous famine upon 
 the land' ; or, 'The Lord called for a famine, and it 
 came upon the land.' Should their cattle fall sick, it is 
 considered to be an affliction by Divine command ; or 
 should the flocks prosper and multiply particularly 
 during one season, the prosperity is attributed to special 
 interference. Nothing can happen in the usual routine 
 of daily life without a direct connection with the hand 
 of God, in the Arab's belief. 
 
 "This striking similarity to the description of the Old 
 Testament is exceedingly interesting to a traveller when 
 residing among these curious and original people. With 
 the Bible in one hand, and these unchanged tribes before 
 the eyes, there is a thrilling illustration of the sacred 
 record : the past becomes the present, the veil of three 
 thousand years is raised, and the living picture is a wit- 
 ness to the exactness of the historical description. At the 
 same time, there is a light thrown upon many obscure 
 passages in the Old Testament by the experience of the 
 present customs and figures of speech of the Arabs, which 
 are precisely those that were practised at the periods 
 described. I do not attempt to enter upon a theological 
 treatise, therefore it is unnecessary to allude specially to 
 these particular points. The sudden and desolating ar- 
 rival of a flight of locusts, the plague, or any other un- 
 foreseen calamity, is attributed to the anger of God, and 
 is believed to be an infliction of punishment upon the 
 people thus visited, precisely as the plagues of Egypt 
 were specially inflicted upon Pharaoh and the Egyptians. 
 Should the present history of the country be written by 
 an Arab scribe, the style of the description would be 
 purely that of the Old Testament, and the various calamities 
 or the good fortunes that have in the course of nature 
 befallen both the tribes and individuals, would be re- 
 counted either as special visitations of Divine wrath, or
 
 430 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 blessings for good deeds performed. If in a dream a 
 particular course of action is suggested, the Arab believes 
 that God has spoken and directed him. The Arab scribe 
 or historian would describe the event as the ' voice of the 
 Lord ' (Kallam el Allah) having spoken unto the person ; 
 or, that God appeared to him in a dream and ' said.^ 
 Thus, much allowance would be necessary on the part of 
 a European reader for the figurative ideas and expressions 
 of the people," 
 
 Although, then, traditions and myths are of great 
 importance, and indirectly throw much light on the con- 
 dition of man in ancient times, we must not expect to 
 learn much directly from them. At any rate, as regards 
 the Stone Age in Europe both history and tradition are 
 silent, and here, as in all long-civilized countries, stone 
 weapons and arrow-heads are regarded as thunderbolts or 
 " elfin " arrows. 
 
 Deprived, therefore, as regards this period, of any 
 assistance from history, but relieved at the same time 
 from the embarrassing interference of tradition, the 
 archaeologist is free to follow the methods which have 
 
 o 
 
 been so successfully pursued in geology — the rude bone 
 and stone implements of bygone ages being to the one 
 what the remains of extinct animals are to the other. 
 The analogy may be pursued even farther than this. 
 Many mammalia which are extinct in Europe have repre- 
 sentatives still living in other countries. Much light is 
 thrown on our fossil pachyderms, for instance, by the 
 species which still inhabit some parts of Asia and Africa ; 
 the secondary marsupials are illustrated by their existing 
 representatives in Australia and South America ; and in 
 the same manner, if we wish clearly to understand the 
 antiquities of Europe, we must compare them with the 
 rude implements and weapons still, or until lately, used 
 by the savage races in other parts of the world. In 
 fact, the Van Diemaner and South American are to the 
 antiquary what the opossum and the sloth are to the 
 geologist. 
 
 A certain space, therefore, devoted to the consideration
 
 MODERN SAVAGES 431 
 
 of the modern savages will not be out of place in this 
 work ; and though it would require volumes to do justice 
 to the subject, still it may be possible to bring together 
 a certain number of facts which will throw light on the 
 ancient remains found in Europe, and on the condition of 
 the early races which inhabited our continent. In order, 
 however, to limit the subject as much as possible, I 
 propose, with one exception, to describe only the " non- 
 metallic savages " (if such an expression may be permitted), 
 and even of these, only some of the most instructive, or 
 of those which have been most carefully observed by 
 travellers. 
 
 It used to be a common opinion that savages are, as a 
 general rule, only the miserable remnants of nations once 
 more civilized ; but although there are some well- 
 established cases of national decay, there is no scientific 
 evidence which would justify us in asserting that this 
 applies to savages in general. No doubt there are instances 
 in which nations once progressive have not only ceased 
 to advance in civilization, but have even fallen back. 
 Still, if we compare the accounts of early travellers with 
 the state of things now existing, we shall find no evidence 
 of any general degradation. The Australians, Bushmen, 
 and Fuegians lived when first observed almost exactly as 
 they do now. In some savage tribes we even find traces 
 of improvement ; the Bachapins, when visited by Burchell, 
 had just introduced the art of working in iron ; the 
 largest erection in Tahiti was constructed by the generation 
 living at the time of Captain Cook's visit, and the practice 
 of cannibalism had been recently abandoned ; ^ the largest 
 Mexican temple was built only six years before the dis- 
 covery of America ; in the north of Australia, M'Gillivray 
 tells us that the rude bark canoes which were formerly in 
 general use have been quite superseded by those dug out 
 of the trunk of a tree ; again, outriggers are said to have 
 been recently adopted by the Andaman Islanders ; and if 
 certain races, as, for instance, some of the American tribes 
 
 ' Forster, Obso-ziations made during a Voyage round the World, p. 327. 
 See also Ellis, Polynesian Researches^ vol. ii. p. 29.
 
 432 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 have fallen back, this has, I think, been due less to any 
 inherent tendency than to the injurious effect of European 
 influence. Moreover, if the Cape of Good Hope, 
 Australia, New Zealand, etc., had ever been inhabited by 
 a race of men more advanced than those whom we are in 
 the habit of regarding as the aborigines, some evidence 
 of this would surely have remained ; and this not being 
 the case, none of our travellers having observed any ruins 
 or other traces of a more advanced civilization, there does 
 not appear to be any sufficient reason for supposing that 
 the present savage races are at all inferior to the ancestors 
 from whom they are descended. 
 
 The Hottentots 
 
 Speaking generally, we may say that the use of metal 
 has been long known throughout Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa ; while in America, in Australia, and in the Oceanic 
 Islands, all implements and weapons were, until within 
 the last three hundred years, made of wood, bone, stone, 
 or other similar materials. 
 
 The semi-civilized nations of Central America formed, 
 indeed, a striking exception to the rule, since they were 
 acquainted with the use of bronze. The North American 
 Indians also had copper hatchets, but these were simply 
 hammered into shape, without the assistance of heat. 
 Here, therefore, we seem to get a glimpse of the manner 
 in which our ancestors may have acquired the knowledge 
 of metal. No doubt the possession of iron generally 
 marks a great advance in civilization ; still, the process is 
 very gradual, and there are some nations, which, though 
 provided with metal implements, are nevertheless but 
 little removed from a state of barbarism. 
 
 The Hottentots, who were not only acquainted with 
 the use, but even with the manufacture of iron, and who 
 possessed large numbers of sheep and cattle, were yet 
 in many respects among the most disgusting of savages. 
 Even Kolben, who generally takes a favourable view of 
 them, admits that they are, in his opinion, the filthiest
 
 THE HOTTENTOTS 433 
 
 people in the world. ^ We might go farther and say the 
 filthiest animals ; I think no species of mammal could be 
 fairly compared with them in this respect. Animals, 
 indeed, for the most part keep themselves beautifully 
 clean. But this is not the case with man. Clothes intro- 
 duce an element of dirt, the use of grease for the skin 
 and hair accumulates dust, and the construction of 
 permanent huts leads to an accumulation of filth. Thus 
 the Hottentots were covered with grease, their clothes 
 were never washed, and their hair was loaded " from 
 day to day with such a quantity of soot and fat, and it 
 gathers so much dust and other filth which they leave to 
 clot and harden in it, for they never cleanse it, that it 
 looks like a crust or cap of black mortar."^ They wore 
 a skin over the back, fastened in front. They carried 
 this as long as they lived, and were buried in it when 
 they died. Their only other garment was a square piece 
 of skin, tied round the waist by a string, and left to hang 
 down in front. In winter, however, they sometimes used 
 a cap. For ornaments they wore rings of iron, copper, 
 ivory, or leather. The last had the advantage of serving 
 for food in bad times. 
 
 Their huts were generally oval, about fourteen feet by 
 ten in diameter, and seldom more than four or five in 
 height. They were made of sticks and mats. The sticks 
 were fastened into the ground at both ends, or, if not 
 long enough, two were placed opposite to one another, 
 and secured together at the top. One end of the hut 
 was left open to form the door. The mats were made of 
 bulrushes and flags dried in the sun, and so closely fitted 
 together that only the heaviest rain could penetrate them.^ 
 " With respect to household furniture," says Thunberg,* 
 " they have little or none. The same dress that covers 
 a part of their body by day, serves them also for bedding 
 at night." Their victuals are boiled in leathern sacks and 
 
 1 Kolben's History of the Cape of Good Hope^ vol. i. p. 47. 
 - Kolben, loc. cif., p. 188. 
 
 ^ Thunberg in Pinkerton's Travels, vol. xvi. p. 33 ; Kolben, loc. cit.^ 
 p. 221 ; Sparrman, vol. i. p. 195. 
 ^ Page 141. 
 
 28
 
 434 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 water, by means of heated stones, but sometimes in 
 earthen pots.^ Milk is kept in leathern sacs, bladders of 
 animals, and baskets made of platted rushes, perfectly 
 watertight. These, a tobacco pouch of skin, a tobacco 
 pipe of stone or wood, and their weapons, constitute the 
 whole catalogue of their effects. According to Kolben, 
 they sometimes broiled their meat, sometimes boiled it in 
 blood, to which they often added milk ; " this they look 
 on as a glorious dish." They were, however, both filthy 
 and careless about their cookery, and the meat was often 
 eaten half putrid, and more than half raw." 
 
 Their weapons consisted of bows and poisoned arrows, 
 spears, javelins or assegais, stones, and darting-sticks or 
 " kirris," about three feet long and an inch thick. With 
 these weapons they were very skilful, and feared not to 
 attack the elephant, the rhinoceros, or even the lion. 
 Large animals were also sometimes killed in pitfalls, from 
 six to eight feet deep, and about four feet in diameter. 
 They fixed a strong pointed stake in the middle. " Into 
 this hole an elephant falling with his fore-feet (it is not 
 of dimensions to receive his whole body), he is pierced 
 in the neck and breast with the stake and there held 
 securely," ^ for the more he struggled the farther he 
 penetrated. They caught fish both with hooks and in 
 nets. They also ate wild fruits and roots of various 
 kinds, which, however, they did not take the trouble to 
 cultivate. 
 
 For domestic animals the Hottentots had oxen, sheep, 
 and dogs. It might have naturally been supposed that 
 oxen were used in the same manner all over the world. 
 They seem evidently adapted either for draught or for 
 food. With the dog the case is different ; we ourselves 
 use him in various ways, and one feels therefore the less 
 surprise at the different services which he performs for 
 different races of savages. But even with regard to cattle 
 
 ' This, however, they appear to have learnt from the Europeans. 
 ^ Thunberg, p. 141 ; Kolben, p. 283; Harris, Wild Sports 0/ Africa, 
 p. 142. 
 ^ Kolben, p. 250.
 
 HOTTENTOTS 435 
 
 the same was the case : besides what we may call their 
 normal uses, the Veddahs, or wild inhabitants of Ceylon, 
 used oxen in hunting ; and the Hottentots trained some 
 to serve as what we may call sheep-oxen, or cow-oxen — 
 that is to say, to guard and manage the flocks and herds 
 — and others as war-oxen, a function which might have 
 been considered as opposed to the whole character of the 
 beast, but in which, nevertheless, they appear to have 
 been very useful. 
 
 The Hottentots of late years not only used iron 
 weapons, but even made such for themselves. The ore 
 was smelted in the following manner:^ "They make a 
 hole in a raised ground, large enough to contain a good 
 quantity of ironstones, which are found here and there 
 in plenty in the Hottentot countries. In this hole they 
 melt out the iron from the ore. About a foot and a half 
 from this hole, upon the descent, they make another, 
 something less. This is the receiver of the melted iron, 
 which runs into it by a narrow channel they cut from 
 one hole to the other. Before they put the ironstones 
 into the hole where the iron is to be smelted out of them, 
 they make a fire in the hole, quite up to the mouth of it, 
 in order to make the earth about it thoroughly hot. 
 When they suppose the earth about it is well heated, 
 they fill the hole almost up with ironstones. They then 
 make a large fire over the stones, which they supply from 
 time to time with fuel, till the iron is melted and all of it 
 is run into the receiver. As soon as the iron in the 
 receiver is cold, they take it out, and break it to pieces 
 with stones. These pieces the Hottentots, as they have 
 occasion, heat in other fires, and with stones beat 'em out 
 and shape 'em to weapons. They rarely make anything 
 else of iron." 
 
 The Hottentot customs, some of which are extremely 
 curious, are fully described by Thunberg,^ Kolben,^ 
 Cook,* Sparrman,^ and other travellers. Whether the 
 
 ^ Kolben, loc. cit.^ p. 239. - Loc. cit.^ pp. 141, 142. 
 
 3 Pp. 113, 115, 118, 121, J 53, 252. 
 
 ■* Hawkesworth's Voyages^ vol. iii. p. 791. " Vol. i. p. 357.
 
 436 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Hottentots can be said to have had any rehgion,^ depends 
 upon the exact meaning we attach to the word. Though 
 they seem to have had some notion of a Deity, even 
 Kolben admits that they had not "any institution of 
 worship." Le Vaillant expressly declares that the 
 Hottentots had no religion. Some of the older writers, 
 indeed, consider certain dances as being religious cere- 
 monies. This was stoutly denied by the natives them- 
 selves,^ in spite of which Kolben assures us that they 
 were " acts of religion," adding candidly, " let the 
 Hottentots say what they will." They are very fond of 
 smoking, and are great drunkards. It is only fair to say 
 that Kolben gives them a good character for integrity, 
 chastity, fidelity, and liberality, assuring us that they 
 " are certainly the most friendly, the most liberal, and 
 the most benevolent people to one another that ever 
 appeared upon earth." ^ Other travellers also speak of 
 them in very high terms.'* At the same time it is 
 difficult to see how these statements can be reconciled 
 with the admitted fact that, as soon as any man or 
 woman is so enfeebled by old age that he or she is 
 unable to work, and can " no longer " — I am quoting 
 from Kolben himself — " be of any manner of service in 
 anything, they are thrust out of the society and confined 
 to a solitary hut at a considerable distance from the 
 kraal, there, with a small stock of provisions placed 
 within their reach, but without any one to comfort or 
 assist 'em, to die either of age or hunger, or be devoured 
 by some wild beast." ^ This, it must be remembered, 
 was no exceptional atrocity, but a general custom, and 
 applied to the rich as well as the poor, for if an old man 
 had property it was taken away from him. Infanticide, 
 again, was very common among them, and was not 
 
 ' Thunberg, loc. cit., p. 141, etc. ; Kolben, pp. 37, 93, etc. Beeckman 
 thought they had no religion at all. Pinkerton's Voyages^ vol. ii. 
 p. 153; so also Harris, Wild Sports of Africa, p. 160; Sparrman, 
 vol. i. p. 207. 
 
 " Sparrman, vol. i. p. 212 ; Kolben, loc. cit. ^ Loc. cit.,^. 331. 
 
 * See, for instance. Philips' South Africa., pp. 4, 5, 6. 
 
 " Loc. cit.., p. 321.
 
 BUSHMEN— VEDDAHS 437 
 
 regarded as a crime. Girls were generally the victims ; 
 and, if a woman had twins, the ugliest of them was almost 
 always exposed or buried alive. This was done with the 
 consent of " the whole kraal, which generally allows it 
 without taking much pains to look into it."^ The 
 poverty and the hardships which they had to undergo 
 may perhaps plead as some excuse for these two un- 
 natural customs. 
 
 The Bushmen resembled the Hottentots in many 
 things, but were even less civilized. They had no 
 knowledge of metallurgy, no domestic animals, and no 
 canoes. They frequently stole the cattle of their more 
 advanced neighbours, but always killed and ate them as 
 quickly as possible. Their principal weapons were bows 
 and poisoned arrows. Lichtenstein asserts that they had 
 no names,^ but this was probably an error. Bleek 
 regards them as the lowest of human races, and Haeckel 
 even goes so far as to assert that they seem " to the 
 unprejudiced comparative student of nature, to manifest 
 a closer connection with the gorilla and chimpanzee than 
 with a Kant or a Goethe." ^ 
 
 The Veddahs 
 
 The Veddahs, or wild tribes who inhabit the interior 
 of Ceylon, have been described by Knox,* Tennent,^ 
 and Bailey.^ They live in huts very rudely formed 
 of boughs and bark, and cultivate small patches of 
 chena, but subsist principally on honey and the produce 
 of the chase. Their weapons consist of axes and bows 
 and arrows. With the latter they are not very skilful, 
 as they pursue only the larger game, and the art of 
 hunting consists in creeping close up to their prey 
 and taking it unawares. They are very good deer- 
 
 > Loc. cit., p. 144. '^ Travels in Southern Africa, vol. i. p. 192. 
 
 ^ On the Origin of Language^ by W. H. J. Bleek, edited by Dr E. 
 Haeckel, pp. 4, 5. 
 
 ** An Historical Relation of Ceylon, 1681. ^ Ceylon. 
 
 " Transactions of the Ethnological Society^ New Series, vol. ii. p. 278. 
 See also Davy's Ceylon.
 
 438 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 stalkers, and, besides excellent dogs, have also hunting 
 buffaloes. These are so trained that they are easily- 
 guided by a string tied round the horn, and are used 
 at night. The buffalo feeds, the man crouches behind 
 him, and thus, unseen and unsuspected, steals upon 
 his prey. 
 
 They have no pottery, and their cookery is very 
 primitive. They wear scarcely any clothes, nothing in 
 fact but a scrap of dirty rag, supported in front by a 
 string tied round the waist. Perhaps the women's cloth 
 is a trifle larger than the men's, but that appears to be 
 the only difference. They are very dirty and very 
 small ; the ordinary height of the men being from four 
 feet six to five feet one, and of the women from four feet 
 four to four feet eight. Mr Bailey thinks that it would 
 be impossible to conceive more barbarous specimens of the 
 human race. Davy even asserts that they have no names, 
 and do not bury the dead. 
 
 They have, however, one remarkable peculiarity which 
 it would be unfair to omit. They are kind, affectionate, 
 and constant to their wives ; abhor polygamy, and have a 
 proverb that " Death alone can separate husband and 
 wife." In this they are very unlike their more civilized 
 neighbours.^ An intelligent Kandyan chief, with whom 
 Mr Bailey visited these Veddahs, was " perfectly scandal- 
 ized at the utter barbarism of living only with one wife, 
 and never parting until separated by death." It was, he 
 said, "just like the wanderoos " (monkeys). Even in 
 their marriage relations, however, the Veddahs cannot 
 altogether be commended, as it is — or was until lately — 
 very usual with them for a man to marry his younger 
 sister. This is the more remarkable, as marriage with an 
 elder sister seemed to them as horrible as it does to us. 
 
 Messrs Sarasin in their work on the Veddahs regard 
 them as being certainly Dravidian, and not Aryan — i.e. 
 as a remnant of the pre-Aryan population of India. 
 
 ' It is only fair to add that the Kandyans are said to have much 
 improved in this respect of late years.
 
 ANDAMAN ISLANDERS 439 
 
 The Andaman Islanders 
 
 The Mincopies, or inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, 
 have been described by Dr Mouatt,^ Sir E. Belcher," Mr 
 Day,^ Mr Man, and Professor Owen,* who considers 
 that they " are, perhaps, the most primitive, or lowest in 
 the scale of civilization of the human race." Their huts 
 consist of four posts, the two front ones six to eight feet 
 high, the back ones only one or two feet. They are 
 open at the sides, and covered with a roof of bamboo, or a 
 few palm-leaves bound tightly together. The Mincopies 
 live chiefly on fruit, mangroves, and shell-fish. Some- 
 times, however, they kill the small pigs which run wild 
 in the jungle. 
 
 They have single-tree canoes, hollowed out with a p- 
 shaped axe, assisted probably by the action of fire. They 
 are acquainted with the use of outriggers, which, how- 
 ever, appear to have been of recent introduction, as they 
 are not alluded to by the earlier writers.^ Their arrows 
 and spears are now generally tipped with iron and glass, 
 which they obtain from wrecks, and which have to a great 
 extent replaced bone. Their harpoons, like those of so 
 many other savages, have a movable head, and a long 
 cord by which this may be held when fixed in the victim.^ 
 They are very skilful with the bow, and " make practice 
 at forty or fifty yards with unerring certainty," ^ though 
 their arrows have no feathers. Their nets are made with 
 great ingenuity and neatness. They now make some 
 rough pottery, but generally use either shells or pieces of 
 bamboo to hold water. They kill fish by harpoons, or 
 with small hand-nets take any that are left by the tide, 
 and it is even said that they are able to dive and catch 
 them with their hands. ^ 
 
 ' Adventures and Researches among the Andaman Islanders. 
 - Belcher, Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Series, vol. v. p. 40. 
 ^ Proc. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, 1870. 
 
 * Transactio7is of the Ethnological Society., New Series, vol. ii. p. 34. 
 ^ Mouatt, loc. cit., p. 317. ^ Loc. cit., p. 326. 
 
 " Belcher, Trans. Ethn. Society, New Series, vol. v. p. 49. 
 
 * Mouatt, loc. cit., pp. 310, 333.
 
 440 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 They cover themselves with mud, and also tattoo, but 
 wear no clothes. They count only up to two. According 
 to Man,^ they have " no forms of worship or religious 
 rites." They believe, however, in the existence of a 
 " spirit " whom they call Puluga. They suppose that he 
 created everything, except the evil spirits. He is regarded 
 as omniscient " while it is day." He lives in a large 
 store-house, and eats and drinks. He " has no authority 
 over the evil spirits," and under these circumstances, 
 though Mr Man speaks of him as the " Supreme Being," 
 he cannot be so termed in the usual sense. After death, 
 the corpse is buried in a sitting posture. When it is 
 supposed to be entirely decayed, the skeleton is dug up, 
 and each of the relations appropriates a bone. In the 
 case of a married man, the widow takes the skull and 
 wears it suspended by a cord round her neck.^ It forms 
 a very convenient box for small articles. Marriage, how- 
 ever, only lasts, at least in some tribes, until the child is 
 born and weaned, when, according to Lieutenant St John, 
 as quoted by Sir E. Belcher, the man and woman generally 
 separate, each seeking a new partner.^ 
 
 They have no dogs, nor indeed any domestic animals. 
 
 The Australians 
 
 Throughout the whole continent of Australia the 
 aborigines were remarkably similar in physical appearance, 
 in character, and in general habits. They were, in some 
 respects, scarcely, if at all, farther advanced than those of 
 the Andaman Islands. The " houses " observed by 
 Captain Cook " at Botany Bay, where they were best, 
 were just high enough for a man to sit upright in, but 
 not large enough for him to extend himself in his whole 
 length in any direction ; they were built with pliable rods 
 about as thick as a man's finger, in the form of an oven, 
 by sticking the two ends into the ground, and then 
 covering them with palm-leaves and broad pieces of bark ; 
 
 ' Journal Anthr. Institute, v. 12, p. 156. 
 
 ^ Loc. cit., p. 327 ; Belcher, loc. cit., p. 43. ^ Loc. cit., p. 45.
 
 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES 441 
 
 the door is nothing but a large hole at one end." Eyre 
 also gives a very similar description of those observed by 
 him.^ Further north, where the climate was warmer, the 
 dwellings were even less substantial, and being compara- 
 tively open on one side, scarcely deserve even the name 
 of huts, and were little more than a protection against the 
 wind. Finally, the natives observed by Dampier near C. 
 Leveque, on the north-west coast, seem to have had no 
 houses at all. Round their dwelling-places Captain Cook 
 observed " vast heaps of shells, the fish of which we 
 suppose had been their food." '^ Sir G. Grey also describes 
 similar shell-mounds,^ some of which covered quite half 
 an acre, and were as much as ten feet high. They seem 
 to have been first noticed by Dampier.* 
 
 The food of the Australian savages differs much in 
 different parts of the continent. Speaking generally, it 
 may be said to consist of various roots, fruits, fungi, 
 shell-fish, frogs, snakes, honey, grubs, moths, birds, birds' 
 eggs, fish, turtles, dog, kangaroo, and sometimes of seal 
 and whale. ^ The kangaroo, however, forms only an 
 occasional luxury ; nor are the natives, so far as I am 
 aware, able to kill whales for themselves, but when one 
 is washed on shore it is a real godsend to them. Fires 
 are immediately lit to give notice of the joyful event. 
 Then they rub themselves all over with blubber, and 
 anoint their favourite wives in the same way ; after which 
 they cut down through the blubber to the beef, which 
 they sometimes eat raw and sometimes broil on pointed 
 sticks. As other natives arrive, they " fairly eat their 
 way into the whale, and you see them climbing in and 
 about the stinking carcase, choosing titbits." For days 
 " they remain by the carcase, rubbed from head to foot 
 with stinking blubber, gorged to repletion with putrid 
 
 ' Discoveries in Central Australia^ vol. ii. p. 300. 
 
 "■* First Voyage^ vol. iii. p. 598. 
 
 ^ Loc. cit., vol. i. p. 110. See also King's Australia, vol. i. p. 87. 
 
 * Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 473. 
 
 " Grey's Explorations in North- West and Western Australia, p. 263 ; 
 Eyre, vol. ii. p. 251 ; M'Gillivray's Voyage of H.M.S. '■'•Rattlesnake" 
 vol. i. p. 148.
 
 442 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 meat — out of temper from indigestion, and therefore 
 engaged in constant frays — suffering from a cutaneous 
 disorder by high feeding — and altogether a disgusting 
 spectacle. There is no sight in the world," Sir G. Grey 
 adds, " more revolting than to see a young and gracefully 
 formed native girl stepping out of the carcase of a putrid 
 whale." The Australians also mash up bones and suck 
 out the fat contained in them. Like other savages, they 
 are excessively fond of fatty substances. 
 
 In a cave on the north-eastern coast, Mr Cunningham 
 observed certain " tolerable figures of sharks, porpoises, 
 turtles, lizards, trepang, starfish, clubs, canoes, water- 
 gourds, and some quadrupeds which were probably in- 
 tended to represent kangaroos and dogs." The natives 
 round Sydney also frequently drew upon the rocks 
 " various figures of fish, clubs, swords, animals, and 
 branches of trees, not contemptibly represented." ^ Most 
 of the tribes, on the contrary, were very deficient in art, 
 and, according to Mr Oldfield, are " quite unable to realize 
 the most vivid artistic representations. On being shown 
 a large coloured engraving of an aboriginal New Hollander, 
 one declared it to be a ship, another a kangaroo, and so on ; 
 not one of a dozen identifying the portrait as having any 
 connection with himself." " It is not, however, quite clear 
 to me that they were not poking fun at Mr Oldfield. 
 
 On the north-eastern coasts they use canoes made from 
 the trunks of trees, each canoe being formed from a single 
 trunk, probably hollowed by fire. " They are about 
 fourteen feet long, and being very narrow, are fitted with 
 an outrigger." ^ Farther south the canoes were nothing 
 but a piece of bark, tied together at the ends and kept 
 open in the middle by small bows of wood. The western 
 tribes had no canoes,* owing, according to King,^ to the 
 
 ' King, vol. ii. p. 26; Grey, vol. i. p. 259 ; Collins, p. 381. 
 
 - Oldfield, " On the Aborigines of Australia," Transactio}is of the EthtJO- 
 logical Society, New Series, vol. iii. 
 
 ■* Freycinet, Voyage autoiir du Mo7ide, vol. ii. p. 705 ; Jukes, Voyage 
 of H.M.S. ''Fly;' ii. 243. 
 
 ■• Cook'<t First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 643. 
 
 " Loc. cit., vol. i. pp. 38, 43, 49 ; vol. ii. pp. 66, 69.
 
 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES 443 
 
 absence of large timber.^ Instead of a boat they used a 
 log of wood, on which they sat astride, with a bit of bark 
 in each hand, which served as a paddle. Some tribes 
 fasten four or five mangrove stems together so as to make 
 a small float or raft. The natives observed by Dampier 
 were even worse off in this respect ; they had " no boats, 
 canoes, or bark logs." Yet they dwelt on the shore, 
 lived principally on fish, and swam about from islanci to 
 island. The Western Australians, according to Jukes, 
 had neither boats nor rafts, " and the islands close to the 
 mainland had never been visited by them previously to 
 the founding of our colonies." So also some of the 
 tribes near Sydney are said to have been unable to swim.^ 
 The absence of canoes is very remarkable in a people 
 whose habits were so 'littoral, and whose food was derived 
 mainly from the sea. 
 
 The implements of the Australians are very simple. 
 They have no knowledge of pottery, and carry water in 
 skins or in vessels made of bark. They are quite 
 ignorant of warm water, which strikes them with great 
 amazement.^ Some of them carry "a small bag, about the 
 size of a moderate cabbage-net, which is made by laying 
 threads loop within loop, somewhat in the manner of 
 knitting used by our ladies to make purses. This bag 
 the man carries loose upon his back by a small string, 
 which passes over his head ; it generally contains a lump 
 or two of paint and resin, some fish-hooks and lines, a 
 shell or two, out of which their hooks are made, a few 
 points of darts, and their usual ornaments, which includes 
 the whole worldly treasure of the richest man among 
 them." 
 
 A very similar inventory is given by Sir G. Grey, who 
 adds, however, a flat stone to pound roots with.* They 
 have also stone hatchets, hammers, knives, pieces of flint, 
 and sticks to dig up roots. The hammer is used for 
 
 • In his view, however, of Careening Bay, the country appears to be 
 well wooded. 
 
 - Voyao^e of the '■'■ iVoiuva" English Trans., vol. iii. p. 36. 
 
 2 D'Urville, vol. i. p. 461. ^ Loc. ciL, p. 266.
 
 444 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 killing seals or other animals, and for breaking 
 open shell-fish. The handle is from twelve to 
 fifteen inches long, pointed at one 
 end, and having on each side at the 
 other a hard stone attached to the 
 handle by a mass of gum. The 
 knives (fig. 260, which represents a 
 specimen presented to me by A. W. 
 Franks, Esq.) have a similar handle, 
 and at the end a few splinters of 
 quartz or flint, arranged in a row 
 and fastened into a slit with gum in 
 the same manner. 
 
 The natives of Botany Bay had 
 fish-hooks, but no nets : on the 
 contrary, Sir G. Grey, in describing 
 those of Western Australia, mentions 
 nets, but not hooks ; Eyre also states 
 that hooks were unknown in South 
 Australia, while nets were used in 
 hunting and as bags ; Taplin says 
 that the Narinyeri had neither nets 
 nor hooks ; the natives of the North- 
 west also, according to Dampier, had 
 " no instruments to catch great fish." 
 Those seen by King were also with 
 out hooks or nets, 
 the continent they were 
 both of slings and bows and arrows 
 On the other hand, they had spears, 
 clubs (fig. 261), shields, and two 
 very peculiar instruments, namely, 
 the throwing-stick (fig. 262), and the 
 boomerang (fig. 263). The spear is their 
 principal weapon. These are about ten feet 
 long, and very slender, macie of cane or wood, 
 tapering to a point, which is barbed. They 
 are light, and one would scarcely be inclined 
 
 ' Loc. ci/., vol. ii. p. 137. 
 
 Throughout 
 ignorant 
 
 Fig. 260. — 
 Australian 
 knife. 
 
 Fig. 261. — 
 Australian 
 club, one- 
 fifth of the 
 actual size.
 
 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES 
 
 445 
 
 to believe that they could be darted with 
 any force ; this, however, is affected by the 
 aid of the wummera, a straight flat stick, 
 three feet in length, termin- 
 ating in a socket of bone or 
 hide into which the end of 
 the spear is fixed. The 
 throwing-stick or wummera 
 is only used in three locali- 
 ties, viz. by the Australians, 
 in the country of the Corribas 
 and Purus on the Upper 
 Amazon, and the Esquimaux. 
 It is grasped in the right 
 hand by three fingers (fig. 
 262), the spear lying be- 
 tween the forefinger and the 
 thumb. Previous to throw- 
 ing it, a tremulous or vibra- 
 tory motion is given to it, 
 which is supposed to add 
 to the accuracy of the aim ; 
 in projecting the spear, the 
 wummeru is retained in 
 the hand, and the use of 
 this simple contrivance adds 
 greatly to the projectile force 
 given to the spear. They 
 are well practised in the use 
 of these weapons.^ Indeed, 
 Sir G. Grey tells us that he 
 has often seen them kill a 
 pigeon with a spear at a distance of thirty 
 yards ; and Captain Cook says that " at a 
 distance of fifty yards these Indians were 
 more sure of their mark than we could be 
 with a single bullet."^ The "wummera" 
 seems to have been used by almost all the 
 
 1 United States Explor. Exped., vol. i. p. 191. - Cook, loc. cit., p. 642. 
 
 Fig. 263. — Australian 
 boomerang, one- 
 sixth of the actual 
 size. 
 
 Fig. 262. — 
 Australian 
 spear and 
 spear -caster.
 
 446 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Australian tribes. It was, however, according to Flinders,^ 
 unknown at King George's Sound. The very long 
 Australian spears are not thrown with the wummera, 
 but by the strength of the arm alone. They are of 
 several kinds : those used for striking turtle or dugong 
 have a movable, barbed blade, which is attached by a 
 string to the butt-end of the spear ; when the turtle is 
 struck, the shaft becomes detached from the point, which 
 remains fixed in the body, while the shaft serves partly to 
 impede motions, and partly as a float to indicate the 
 position of the turtle.^ A similar weapon is used by 
 the Esquimaux, the Mincopies, the Fuegians, some 
 Brazilian Indians, anei other savages. But the most 
 extraordinary weapon, and one quite peculiar to Australia, 
 is the boomerang. This is a curved stick, generally 
 rounded on one side, flatter on the other, about three feet 
 long and two inches wide, by three-quarters of an inch 
 thick. At first sight it looks something like a very rude 
 wooden sword. It is used both in the chase and in war. 
 " It is grasped at one end in the right hand, and is 
 thrown sickle-wise, either upwards into the air, or down- 
 wards so as to strike the ground at some distance from 
 the thrower. In the first case it flies with a rotatory 
 motion, as its shape would indicate ; after ascending to a 
 great height in the air, it suddenly returns in an elliptical 
 orbit to a spot near its starting-point. On throwing it 
 downwards on the ground, it rebounds in a straight line, 
 pursuing a ricochet motion until it strikes the object at 
 which it is thrown. Birds and small animals are killed 
 with it, and it is also used in killing ducks. The most 
 singular curve described by it is when thrown into the 
 air above the angle of 45° ; its flight is always then 
 backwards, and the native who throws it stands with his 
 back, instead of his face, to the object he is desirous of 
 hitting."^ Mr Merry, a gentleman who resided for 
 
 * ^oy. to Terra Aiistralis^ vol. ii. p. 66. 
 
 '^ Havvkesworth's Voya^cs^ vol. iii. p. 636. See also Eyre, vol. ii. p. 305 ; 
 M'Gillivray, vol. i. p. 147. 
 ^ United States Explor. Kxped.^ loc. cit.
 
 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES 447 
 
 some time in Australia, informs me that on one occasion, 
 in order to test the skill with which the boomerang could 
 be thrown, he offered a reward of sixpence for every 
 time the boomerang was made to return to the spot from 
 which it was thrown. He drew a circle of five or six feet 
 on the sand, and although the boomerang was thrown 
 with much force, the native succeeded in making it fall 
 within the circle five times out of twelve. Eyre also says 
 that this weapon is particularly useful in war, " as it is 
 almost impossible, even when it is seen in the air, to tell 
 which way it will go, or where descend. I once nearly 
 had my arm broken by a wangno, whilst standing within 
 a yard of the native who threw it, and looking out 
 purposely for it." ^ Mr Oldfield,-^ on the contrary, 
 speaks much less favourably of the boomerang. It is, he 
 says, but little used in war ; nor do the natives " ever 
 attempt to kill a solitary bird or beast by means of" it. 
 On the other hand, in swampy localities, where waterfowl 
 " congregate largely, the boomerang is of essential use ; 
 for a great number of them being simultaneously hurled 
 into a large flock of waterfowl, ensures the capture of 
 considerable numbers." According to M'Gillivray, the 
 boomerang is unknown on the north coast from Cape 
 York to Port Essington.^ Mr W. D. Campbell has 
 suggested that the idea of the boomerang was given by 
 the leaf of the " Blue Gum," Eucalyptus, which is very 
 similar in form. 
 
 The Australians obtain fire by rubbing together two 
 pieces of wood. This process, however, being one of 
 considerable labour, particularly in damp weather, great 
 care is taken to prevent the fire, when once lighted, from 
 becoming extinguished. For this reason they often carry 
 with them a cone of banksia, which burns slowly, like 
 amadou.* 
 
 Mr Stuart informs me that some of the northern tribes 
 
 ^ Loc. cit.^ vol. ii. p. 30S. 
 
 2 Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Series, vol. iii. p. 264. 
 ^ Voyage of t lie ''•Rattlesnake^'' vol. i. p. 92. 
 ^ U'Urville, vol. i. p. 194.
 
 448 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 had no means of relighting their fires, but if they ever 
 became simultaneously extinguished, used to go to a 
 neighbouring tribe for a fresh light. So also, according 
 to M. Angas, some of the western tribes "have no means 
 of kindling fire. They say that it formerly came down 
 from the north," and if it happens to go out they procure 
 it again from some neighbouring encampment.^ 
 
 According to Captain Cook, the Australians had " no 
 idea of traffic, nor," he says, " could we communicate any 
 to them : they received the things which we gave them, 
 but never appeared to understand our signs when we 
 required a return. The same indifference, which pre- 
 vented them from buying what we had, prevented them 
 also from attempting to steal : if they had coveted more, 
 they would have been less honest." ^ In other parts, 
 however, they are more advanced in this respect. 
 Various kinds of pigments, feathers, shells, implements, 
 and especially flints, are the principal articles of barter. 
 
 The Australians observed by Cook, Dampier, and 
 Flinders, were entirely destitute of clothing, and their 
 principal ornament consisted of a bone, five or six inches 
 long, and half an inch thick, thrust through the cartilage 
 of the nose. They did not tattoo. On the north-west 
 coast. King observed some of the natives with a very 
 peculiar decoration. At every three inches between the 
 upper part of the chest and the navel, the body was 
 scarified in horizontal bands, the cicatrices of which were 
 at least an inch in diameter, and raised half an inch from 
 the body.^ Some of them fastened to their hair by means 
 of gum, teeth of kangaroos or of men, dogs' tails, fish- 
 bones, bits of wood, and other objects which they regarded 
 as ornamental. Sometimes they wore pieces of opossum 
 or kangaroo skin — not for decency, but for warmth, and, 
 while hunting, as a protection from thorns. According 
 to D'Urville, however, the natives of New South Wales 
 did not think it decent that young children should go 
 quite naked.* M'Gillivray also mentions a very similar 
 
 ' Savage Life and Scenes^ vol. i. p. 112. - Loc. cit., p. 635. 
 
 ^ Loc. ctt., p. 42. * Voyage de ^'- rAstralobc^' vol. i. p. 471.
 
 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES 449 
 
 idea at Moreton Bay. In many parts of Australia the 
 natives also paint themselves, red and white being the 
 favourite, or at least the commonest, colours. The red is 
 laid on in broad patches, the white generally in stripes or 
 spots, a circle often being drawn round each eye. Some 
 tribes, but not all, tattoo themselves on the back and 
 breast in rows, rings, and semicircles. Among the 
 females on the Murray, the only ceremony of importance 
 with which Eyre was acquainted, was that of scarring the 
 back. Eyre indeed calls it tattooing, but "crimping" 
 would, I think, be a more correct expression. It takes 
 place at the age of puberty, and is extremely painful. 
 The young woman kneels down and places her head 
 between the knees of a strong old woman, and the 
 operator, who is always a man, cuts the back with a piece 
 of shell or flint in rows of long, deep gashes from left to 
 right quite across the back, and completely up to the 
 shoulders. The whole scene is most revolting : the 
 blood gushes out in torrents, and saturates the ground, 
 while the cries of the poor victim gradually rise into 
 screams of agony. Still the girls submit voluntarily, as a 
 well-carved back is much admired. The lads also gener- 
 ally have to undergo a ceremony of initiation before they 
 are permitted to rank as men. This sometimes consists 
 in circumcision,^ sometimes in another almost incredible 
 ceremonial,^ or frequently in punching out one of the 
 front teeth. Other tribes have peculiar and distinctive 
 incisions, such as scars running across the chest, circles 
 on the shoulders, or various combinations of small dots. 
 
 The severe sufferings they inflict on themselves are 
 very remarkable. In the Adelaide district, according to 
 Mr Moorhouse, there are five distinct stages of initiation, 
 before the native is admitted to all the privileges of a man. 
 Their rules and ceremonies are very elaborate, and are con- 
 ducted by the elder men, but they cannot be said to have 
 any form of government, nor have any distinctions of rank, 
 or recognised chiefs, ever been found amongst them. 
 
 ' Eyre, vol. ii. p. 332. 
 
 ^ Finditur usque ad ure thrum a parte inferd penis. 
 
 29
 
 450 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The children have a game with string something like 
 our cat's-cradle, but their principal amusements consist 
 in learning to hunt, fish, etc. The elder people are fond 
 of dances, which may be divided into war-dances, hunting- 
 dances, and love-dances — the two latter being most 
 common. These generally take place when tribes meet, 
 and are held at night. Their songs are rude, with simple 
 and generally extempore words. 
 
 They have no systematized religion, nor any worship 
 or prayer ; but most of them have an indistinct dread of 
 evil beings, which, though mysterious, cannot, I think, be 
 said to be regarded as supernatural. They all have a 
 great fear of the dark, and of witchcraft. In fact, they 
 believe that no one ever dies a natural death. 
 
 Captain Wilkes^ describes an Australian funeral as 
 follows. Almost immediately after death the corpse was 
 arranged in a sitting posture, the knees bent up close to 
 the body, the head pressed forwards, and the whole body 
 closely tied up in a blanket. An oval grave was then 
 dug, about six feet long, three wide, and five deep. At 
 the bottom was a bed of leaves, covered with an opossum- 
 skin cloak, and with a stuffed bag of kangaroo-skin for a 
 pillow ; on this the body was laid with its implements 
 and weapons. Above the corpse were strewn leaves and 
 branches, and the hole was then filled up with stones. 
 Finally, the earth which had been removed was put over 
 the whole, making a mound eight or nine feet high. 
 According to D'Urville, the natives of New South Wales 
 bury the young, and burn the old.^ Other tribes dispose 
 of their dead in other ways ; but none of them were 
 addicted to cannibalism as a matter of habit or choice, 
 although they were not unfrequently driven to it by the 
 scarcity of other food, and sometimes ate portions of 
 enemies whom they had slain. 
 
 No single fact, perhaps, gives us a more vivid idea of 
 the low condition of these miserable savages than the 
 observation that they have no numerals enabling them to 
 count their own fingers — not even those of one hand. 
 
 ' Lc.^ vol. ii. p. 195 ; Fitzroy, I.e., vol. ii. p. 62S. - Vol. i p. 472.
 
 AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES 451 
 
 Mr Crawfurd ^ has examined the numerals of thirty 
 Australian languages, " and in no instance do they appear 
 to go beyond the number four." Mr Scott Nind, indeed, 
 has given an account of the Australians of King George's 
 Sound, to which a vocabulary is annexed, containing the 
 numerals, which are made to reach the number five. 
 The term for this last unit, however, turns out to be only 
 the word " many." In fact, the word " five " is used by 
 them to express the idea of a great number, just as a 
 " thousand " sometimes is by us. 
 
 Their language, moreover, contains " no generic terms, 
 as tree, fish, birds, etc., but only specific ones, as applied 
 to each particular variety." "" 
 
 Though they are apparently fond of their children, 
 even Eyre admits that there is little affection between 
 husband and wife. " After a long absence," he says, " I 
 have seen natives upon their return go to their camp, ex- 
 hibiting the most stoical indifference, never take the least 
 notice of their wives, but sit down, and act and look as if 
 they had never been out of the encampment." ^ Women, 
 in fact, are regarded as mere property. " No one," says 
 Eyre, " ever attempts to take the part of a female." * 
 Beauty only makes matters worse. " The early life," 
 says Sir G. Grey, " of a young woman at all celebrated 
 for beauty is generally one continued series of captivity 
 to different masters, of ghastly wounds, rapid flights, and 
 bad treatment from other females"^ jealous of her 
 superior attractions. Few women in Australia, it is said, 
 live to thirty. Yet with all this lawlessness and tyranny, 
 marriage is regulated by certain very curious prohibitions. 
 Thus a man may steal another man's wife if he can ; but, 
 as already mentioned, he may not under any circumstances 
 marry a woman of the same clan, even though not related 
 in the remotest degree. There are certain great families, 
 such as the Ballaroke, Tdondarup, Ngotak, Nagarnook, 
 Nogonyuk, Mongalmy, and Narrangur, which occur over 
 
 1 Transactions of Ethn. Soc.^ New Series, vol. ii. p. 84. 
 
 2 Eyre, vol. ii. p. 392. ^ Z.c, pp. 2, 215, also p. 320. 
 * L.c.^ vol. ii. p. 387. ^ L.c, vol. ii. p. 249.
 
 452 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 a great portion of the continent, and within which marriage 
 is not permitted.^ Every tribe is divided into clans, and 
 no man may marry a woman belonging to his own clan. 
 On the other hand, in one sense every man is regarded 
 as a husband of every woman belonging to any clan 
 into which he may legally marry. These " communal 
 marriages," however, as I have elsewhere proposed to call 
 them, are often more or less theoretical, and a man has 
 also his own special wife or wives, but even as regards 
 them other men have certain curiously regulated rights.^ 
 There are many other cases of prohibitions ; " indeed," 
 says Mr Lang,^ "instead of enjoying perfect personal 
 freedom, as it would at first appear, they are governed by 
 a code of rules and a set of customs which form one of 
 the most cruel tyrannies that has ever, perhaps, existed on 
 the face of the earth, subjecting not only the will, but the 
 property and life of the weak to the dominion of the 
 strong. The whole tendency of the system is to give 
 everything to the strong and old, to the prejudice of the 
 weak and young, and more particularly to the detriment 
 of the women. They have rules by which the best food, 
 the best pieces, the best animals, etc., are prohibited to 
 the women and young men, and reserved for the old. 
 The women are generally appropriated to the old and 
 powerful, some of whom possess from four to seven 
 wives ; while wives are altogether denied to young men, 
 unless they have sisters to give in exchange, and are 
 strong and courageous enough to prevent their sisters 
 from being taken without exchange." They have also 
 very long and elaborate ceremonies,* 
 
 The Tasman'mns 
 
 The inhabitants of Van Diemen's Land belonged to 
 quite a different race, but were just as wretched as those 
 
 ^ Eyre, vol. ii. p. 329. For further particulars, see my Origin of 
 Civilisation. 
 
 - Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia^ p. 62. 
 
 ^ The Aborigines of Australia, G. S. Lang, p. 7. 
 
 ■* Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 272.
 
 THE TASMANIANS 
 
 453 
 
 of Australia. According to Captain Cook's account, they 
 
 had no houses, no clothes, no canoes, no instrument 
 
 to catch large fish, no nets, no hooks ; they lived on 
 
 mussels, cockles, and periwinkles, and their 
 
 only weapon was a straight pole, sharpened 
 
 at one end.^ Mr Dove informs us that they 
 
 are entirely without any " moral views and 
 
 impressions." Indeed, he scarcely appears 
 
 to regard them as rational beings.^ Milligan 
 
 states that they believed in the existence of 
 
 a number of mischievous spirits who lived in 
 
 caverns, or the dark recesses of the forest ; 
 
 and that after death their spirits went to 
 
 England. 
 
 Dr Nixon, the first Bishop of Tasmania, 
 made careful inquiries on the subject, and 
 came to the conclusion that " No trace can 
 be found of the existence of any religious M 
 usage, or even sentiment among them." ^ 
 Like the Australians, they have no means 
 of expressing abstract ideas ; they have not 
 even a word for a "tree." Although fire 
 was well known to them, some tribes, at ||j |fljjj 
 least, appear to have been ignorant whence 
 it was originally obtained, or how, if ex- 
 tinguished, it could be relighted. " In all 
 their wanderings," says Mr Dove, " they 
 were particularly careful to bear in their 
 hands the materials for kindling a fire. 
 Their memory supplies them with no in- fig. 264.— Tas- 
 
 j- ■' .^ S . 1 • 1 1 manian fire- 
 
 stances or a period m which they were sticks, one- 
 obliged to draw on their inventive powers *^^''■^ actual 
 for the means of resuscitating an element so 
 essential to their health and comfort as flame. How 
 it came originally into their possession is unknown. 
 
 ^ Thi7-d Voyage, \ol. i. p. 100. 
 - Tasmatiianjour. of Nat. Set., vol. i. p. 249. 
 
 ^ See also Bonwick, Daily Life of the Tasmanians, p. 166 ; H. Ling 
 Roth, TJie Tastnanians, p. 66.
 
 454 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Whether it may be viewed as a gift of nature, or the 
 product of art and sagacity, they cannot recollect a period 
 when it was a desideratum. ... It was the part of the 
 females especially to carry a firebrand in their hands, 
 which was studiously refreshed from time to time as it 
 became dull and evanescent."^ Fig. 264 represents a 
 pair of Tasmanian firesticks, presented to me by Mr 
 Robinson. The Tasmanians did not use either the 
 boomerang or the throwing-stick. 
 
 2 
 
 Fiji Islanders 
 
 The islands of the Pacific contain two very distinct 
 races of men — the Negrito and the Polynesian. My 
 space does not permit me to enter into the interesting 
 question of their relationships and affinities. 
 
 The Fijians belong to the former category, though 
 probably with some infusion of Polynesian blood, and in 
 many respects resemble Negroes. They are darker than 
 the Polynesians. The jaws are larger, and the hair, 
 though not exactly woolly, is frizzled. They are a 
 powerful race, but not so graceful as the Polynesians. 
 Their language is, however, more Polynesian than Negrito. 
 Their institutions, customs, and manners were partly 
 Polynesian, partly Negrito.^ It is remarkable that they 
 did not use the consonants " b," " d," or "g," without 
 placing " m " or " n " before them, as for instance, Mbau, 
 Nduandua, Ngata. It is well known how frequent these 
 sounds are in Negro names. 
 
 The food of the Fiji Islanders consisted of fish, turtle, 
 shellfish, crabs, human flesh whenever it could be 
 obtained, taro, yams, mandrai, bananas, and cocoa-nuts ; 
 in addition to which the higher classes occasionally 
 indulged in pigs and fowls. They drank ava habitually, 
 and at all their ceremonies. 
 
 Their weapons consisted of spears, slings, clubs, bows 
 
 ' Tasmanian Journal of Nat. Set., vol. i. p. 250. 
 '^ Bonwick, Daily Life of the Tasmanians, p. 43. 
 ^ Latham, Varieties of Man, p. 226.
 
 THE FIJI ISLANDERS 455 
 
 and arrows. The spears were from ten to fifteen feet 
 long, and were generally made of cocoa-nut wood ; the 
 end was pointed and charred ; sometimes, though not 
 often, a sharp bone was used for the point. They had 
 several kinds of clubs, all made of ironwood. That most 
 esteemed was about three feet long, with a heavy knob at 
 the end. Another kind was somewhat shovel-shaped, and 
 might rather be called a short sword. The ula was a short 
 heavy club, about eighteen inches long, with a large and 
 heavy knob. It was used as a missile, and the natives 
 threw it with great accuracy and force. These were their 
 principal weapons, the bows and arrows being weak and 
 light. They were, however, used in war, as well as in 
 killing fish. The fortified towns of the Fijians had an 
 earthen " rampart, about six feet thick, faced with large 
 stones, surmounted by a reed fence of cocoa-nut trunks, 
 and surrounded by a muddy moat." ^ 
 
 Their houses were oblong, from twenty to thirty feet 
 long, and fifteen feet high. They were made of cocoa- 
 nut wood and tree fern, and were sometimes very well 
 built. They had two doorways on opposite sides, from 
 three to four feet high and four feet wide. The sides 
 were made of posts about three feet apart, and filled in 
 with wicker work. The roof had a steep pitch ; the 
 rafters were generally of palm wood, thatched with wild 
 sugar-cane, under which they placed fern leaves. A 
 mat served as a door, and a few flat stones near the 
 middle of the house served as the fireplace. The houses 
 were seldom divided by partitions, but the two ends were 
 raised about a foot, and were covered with layers of mats 
 on which the natives slept. 
 
 Their temples were pyramidal in form, and were 
 often erected on terraced mounds, like those of Central 
 America.- They also venerated certain upright stones,^ 
 resembling those which we call Druidical. " The 
 Feegeeans," says Mr Hazlewood, " consider the gods as 
 
 ^ Williams, Figi and the Fii^tans, vol. i. p. 48. 
 
 ^ B. Seemann, in the Vacation Tourist iox 1861, p. 269. 
 
 ^ Figi and the Figians, vol. i. p. 220.
 
 456 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 beings of like passions with themselves. They love and 
 hate ; they are proud and revengeful, and make war, and 
 kill and eat each other ; and are, in fact, savages and 
 cannibals like themselves." " Cruelty," says Captain 
 Erskine,^ " a craving for blood, and especially for human 
 flesh as food, are characteristic of the gods." Yet the 
 Fijians looked upon the Samoans with horror, regarding 
 them as having no religion, because they had no belief 
 in any such deities, nor any of the sanguinary rites which 
 prevailed in other islands. 
 
 The Fiji canoes were large and well constructed. They 
 were generally double, of unequal size, the smaller one 
 serving as an outrigger. The larger ones were sometimes 
 more than a hundred feet in length. The two canoes 
 were connected by a platform, generally about fifteen feet 
 wide, and projecting two or three feet beyond the sides. 
 The bottom of each consisted of a single plank ; the sides 
 were fitted by dovetailing, and closely united by lashings 
 passed through flanges left on each of the pieces. The 
 joints were closed by the gum of the bread-fruit tree. 
 The sails were large and made of mats. The mast was 
 generally about half the length of the canoe, and the yard 
 and boom usually twice as long as the mast. Their 
 principal tool was an adze, formerly of stone, but now 
 generally of iron. For boring holes they used the long 
 spines of the echina, pointed bones, and, when they 
 could get them, nails. Small teeth, such as those of rats 
 and mice, were used for carving ; and their knives were 
 made of the outside of a piece of bamboo, shaped into 
 form while green. After being dried, it was charred, 
 and thus became very hard and sharp, so that it might 
 even be used in surgical operations. They differed from 
 the Polynesians in using earthenware pots for cooking. 
 These were graceful and well made, though the potter's- 
 wheel was unknown. The pottery was all made by 
 women. Their tools were very simple, consisting of a 
 small round flat stone to fashion the inside, and a flat 
 mallet or spatula for the surface, which they made almost 
 
 ' Journal of a Cruise in the Western Pacific, p. 247.
 
 THE FIJI ISLANDERS 457 
 
 as round as if it had been turned in a lathe. Forks 
 appear to have been long in use among the Fijians ; a 
 remarkable fact, if we remember that they were unknown 
 in Northern Europe until the seventeenth century. 
 
 The Fijians have several kinds of games. They are 
 fond of swinging, and of throwing stones or fruits at a 
 mark. They have also a game resembling skittles. 
 Their dances, like those of so many other nations, are 
 anything but decorous. Their musical instruments are 
 the conch-shell, the nose-flute, pipes, a Jew's-harp made 
 of a strip of bamboo, and several sorts of drums. They 
 are also fond of poetry. 
 
 Their agricultural implements have been described by 
 Mr Williams. The digging-sticks are made of a young 
 mangrove-tree. They are about the size of an ordinary 
 hay-fork, and the lower end " is tapered ofi^ on one side, 
 after the shape of a quill toothpick. In digging, this 
 flattened side is kept downwards. When preparing a 
 piece of ground for yams, a number of men are employed, 
 divided into groups of three or four. Each man being 
 furnished with a digging-stick, they drive them into the 
 ground so as to enclose a circle of about two feet in 
 diameter. When, by repeated strokes, the sticks reach 
 the depth of eighteen inches, they are used as levers, 
 and the mass of soil between them is thus loosened and 
 raised." ^ The clods are then broken up by boys with 
 short sticks. Weeding " is accomplished by means of a 
 tool used like a Dutch hoe, the workman squatting so as 
 bring the handle nearly level with the ground. The 
 blade used formerly to be made of a bone from the back 
 of a turtle, or a plate of tortoise-shell, or the valve of a 
 large oyster, or large kind of pinna. In the Windward 
 Islands they use a large dibble, eight feet long, about 
 eighteen inches in circumference, and tapering to a point. 
 They had also pruning knives of" tortoise-shell lashed 
 to the end of a rod ten feet long. They are skilful in 
 basket-making, and have good strong nets made of 
 creepers or of sinnet. 
 
 ' Figi and the Figians^ vol. i. p. 63.
 
 458 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The women are kept in great subjection. " The men 
 frequently tie them up and flog them. Like other 
 property, wives might be sold at pleasure, and the usual 
 price is a musket. Those who purchase them may do 
 with them as they please, even to knocking them on 
 the head." Erskine, however, gives a more satisfactory 
 account of the position held by the women ; and it 
 appears that they are on the whole more chaste than 
 is the case in some of the other Pacific Islands, which 
 is saying something for them, but certainly not much. 
 Although so lax in some things, they were very strict 
 in others, and it was thought improper in some of these 
 islands for husband and wife to spend the night under 
 the same roof. 
 
 Although but scantily clothed, the Fijians were very 
 particular about their garments and their paint. They 
 were specially proud of their hair, and if it was short 
 they wore a wig as a substitute. Some of these wigs 
 were most elaborate. The men wore " tapa," which is a 
 kind of cloth obtained from the inner bark of the paper- 
 mulberry, and made into a sash, from three to one 
 hundred yards in length. Six or ten yards is, however, 
 the usual quantity, and it is passed between the legs and 
 round the waist.^ The women are not permitted to use 
 " tapa," and their dress is more scanty than that of the 
 men, consisting, indeed, only of the " liku," a kind of 
 band, made of the bark of the hibiscus, and fastened 
 round the waist. It ends in a fringe, which is worn 
 short by the girls, but longer after marriage. Neverthe- 
 less, though almost naked, the Fijians are said to have 
 been very modest, and if anyone were found entirely 
 without clothes. Captain Wilkes thinks that the offender 
 would be immediately put to death. 
 
 Tattooing is confined to the women, who are orna- 
 mented in this manner on the fingers, the corners of the 
 mouth, and, oddly enough, on those parts of the body 
 which are covered by the " liku." The process is very 
 painful, but submission to it is regarded as a religious 
 
 ' Figi and the Figians^ vol. i. p. 1 56.
 
 THE FIJI ISLANDERS 459 
 
 duty/ any neglect of which will assuredly be punished 
 after death. ^ 
 
 The graves of the common people are only marked 
 by a few stones, but over those of chiefs they build 
 small houses, from two to six feet high, or in some 
 cases erect large cairns of stone ; these also are some- 
 times " set up to mark the spot where a man has 
 died."^ The body is buried in a sitting posture. The 
 usual sign of mourning is to crop the hair or beard, 
 or both. Very often, also, they burn the skin into 
 blisters, and cut off the end-joints of the small toe and 
 little finger. 
 
 Among the Fijians, parricide is not a crime but a 
 custom. They believe that " as they die, such will be 
 their condition in the next world." Moreover, the road 
 to Mbulu is long and difficult. Hence it would be cruel 
 to allow a beloved relative to become old and infirm. 
 We are assured that so deeply rooted was this conviction, 
 that as a matter of fact parents were generally killed by 
 their children. Sometimes the aged people make up 
 their minds that it is time to die ; sometimes it is the 
 children who give notice to their parents that they are a 
 burden to them. In either case, the friends and relatives 
 are summoned, a consultation takes place, and a day is 
 fixed for the ceremony, which commences with a great 
 feast. The missionaries have often witnessed these 
 horrible tragedies. On one occasion a young man 
 invited Mr Hunt to attend his mother's funeral, which 
 was just going to take place. Mr Hunt accepted the 
 invitation ; but when the funeral procession started, he 
 was surprised to see no corpse, and accordingly made 
 inquiries, when the young savage " pointed out his 
 mother,* who was walking along with them as gay and 
 lively as any of them present, and apparently as much 
 pleased. . . . He added that it was from love for his 
 mother that he had done so ; that in consequence of the 
 
 ' Figi and tlie Ftgiaus, vol. i. p. i6o ; Wilkes, I.e., p. 355. 
 
 - A Mission to Vili, p. 112. 
 
 ■* Figi and the Figians., vol. i. p. 192. ^ Wilkes, I.e., p. 95.
 
 460 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 same love, they were now going to bury her, and that 
 none but themselves could or ought to do so sacred an 
 office. . . . She was their mother, and they were her 
 children, and they ought to put her to death." In such cases, 
 the grave is dug about four feet deep, the relatives and 
 friends begin their lamentations, take an affectionate 
 parting, and bury the poor victim alive. It is surprising 
 after this to hear that Mr Hunt regarded the Fijians as 
 being kind and affectionate to their parents ; but in fact 
 " they consider this custom so great a proof of affection, 
 that none but children could be found to perform it." 
 So general in fact was this custom, so powerful the 
 influence which it had upon them, that in one town, 
 containing several hundred inhabitants. Captain Wilkes 
 did not see one man over forty years of age ; and, on 
 asking for the old people, he was informed that they 
 were all buried. Again, during the first year of Mr 
 Hunt's residence at Somo-somo, there was only one 
 instance of natural death, all the aged and diseased 
 having been strangled or buried alive. 
 
 When a chief ciied, it was usual to " send with him " 
 some of his women and some slaves. At the death of 
 Ngavindi, Mr Calvert went to Mbau hoping "to prevent 
 the strangling of women, but was too late. Three had 
 been murdered. Thakombau proposed to strangle his 
 sister, the chief wife of the deceased, as was the usual 
 custom ; but the Lasakau people begged that she might 
 be spared, and that her child might become their chief. 
 Ngavindi's mother offered herself as a substitute, and 
 was strangled. The dead chief lay in state, with a dead 
 wife by his side, on a raised platform ; the corpse of his 
 mother on a bier at his feet, and a murdered servant on 
 a mat in the midst of the house. A large grave was dug 
 in the foundation of a house near by, in which the 
 servant was laid first, and upon her the other three 
 corpses, wrapped and wound up together."^ In these 
 cases the wives generally die voluntarily, believing that 
 thus only can they hope to go to heaven. Horrible as 
 ' Figi and the Figiatis, vol. ii. p. 301.
 
 THE FIJI ISLANDERS 461 
 
 are these facts, they at least show how strong must be 
 the belief felt in a future state of existence. 
 
 Still, though we may allow the goodness of the motive 
 to extenuate some of these atrocities, it must be allowed 
 that human life was but little regarded in Fiji. Not 
 only infanticide, but also human sacrifices, were very 
 common, and, in fact, scarcely anything was undertaken 
 without the latter. When the king launched a canoe, 
 ten or more men were slaughtered on the deck, in order 
 that it might be washed with human blood. But there 
 is even worse to be told. The Fijians were most in- 
 veterate cannibals, and so fond were they of human 
 flesh, that " the greatest praise they can bestow on any 
 delicacy is to say that it is as tender as a dead man." 
 Nay, they were even so fastidious as to dislike the taste 
 of white men,^ to prefer the flesh of women to that of 
 men, and to consider the arm above the elbow and the 
 thigh as the best joints ; and so greedy, that human flesh 
 was reserved for the men, being considered too good to 
 be wasted upon the women. When the king gave a 
 feast, human flesh always formed one of the dishes, and 
 though the bodies of enemies slain in battle were always 
 eaten, they did not aft^ord a sufficient supply, but slaves 
 were fattened up for the market. Sometimes they 
 roasted them alive and ate them at once, while at others 
 they kept bodies until they were far gone in decay. 
 Ra Undre-undre, Chief of Rakiraki, was said to have 
 eaten nine hundred persons himself, permitting no one 
 to share them with him." 
 
 It was not from any want of food that the Fijians 
 were cannibals. On one occasion they offered to the 
 God of War " ten thousand yams (weighing from six to 
 twelve pounds each), thirty turtles, forty roots of yaquona 
 (some very large), many hundreds of native puddings 
 (two tons), one hundred and fifty giant oysters, fifteen 
 water-melons, cocoa-nuts, a large number of violet land- 
 crabs, taro, and ripe bananas." ^ At a public feast Mr 
 
 ' So also did the Australians, the Tongans, and the New Zealanders. 
 ^ Figi and the Figtans, vol. i. p. 213. ^ Ibid., vol. i p. 44.
 
 462 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Williams once saw " two hundred men employed for 
 nearly six hours in collecting and piling cooked food. 
 There were six mounds of yams, taro, vakalolo, pigs, 
 and turtles : these contained about fifty tons of cooked 
 yams and taro, fifteen tons of sweet pudding, seventy 
 turtles, five cartloads of yaquona, and about two hundred 
 tons of uncooked yams. One pudding, at a Lakemba 
 feast, measured twenty-one feet in circumference." Yet 
 so habitual has cannibalism become, that they have no 
 word for a corpse which does not include the idea of 
 something edible. Human flesh is known as " puaka 
 balava," or "long pig." ^ "On contemplating the char- 
 acter of this extraordinary people," says Erskine,^ " the 
 mind is struck with wonder and awe at the mixture 
 of a complicated and carefully-conducted political system, 
 highly finished manners, and ceremonious politeness, 
 with a ferocity and practice of savage vices which is 
 probably unparalleled in any other part of the world." 
 " Murder," says Mr Williams, " is not an occasional thing 
 in Figi, but habitual, systematic, and classed among 
 ordinary transactions."^ Elsewhere he tells us that no 
 Fijian ever feels safe with a stranger at his heels,* and that 
 to be " an acknowledged murderer is the object of the 
 Figian's restless ambition." ^ On the island of Vanua 
 Levu, even among the women, there were " few who had 
 not in some way been murderers."^ To this they are 
 trained up from infancy. " One of the first lessons 
 taught the infant is to strike its mother." At Somo-somo, 
 Mr Williams saw mothers leading their children " to kick 
 and tread upon the dead bodies of enemies." ^ No wonder 
 that under these circumstances " a happy and united 
 household is most rare." Indeed, it is nearly impossible, 
 for by an arrangement which seems almost incredible, 
 
 ' Erskine, I.e., p. 260. Other mammalia, when introduced into the 
 South Sea Islands, received names indicative of their similarity to this 
 their principal cjuadruped : thus the horse was called the " man-carrying 
 pig" in Tahiti; the sheep was the "hog with teeth on its forehead'' 
 (Forster, I.e., p. 384). 
 
 2 Erskine, I.e., p. 272. ■* Figi and the Figians, vol. i. p. 134. 
 
 ^ L.c, p. 133. * L.e., p. 112. 
 
 " L.c, p. 180. "^ L.e., p. 177.
 
 THE MAORIES 463 
 
 " brothers and sisters, first cousins, fathers and sons-in- 
 law, mothers and daughters-in-law, and brothers and 
 sisters-in-law, are severally forbidden to speak to each 
 other, or to eat from the same dish." ^ Yet amid so 
 much that is horrible, there is still something in the 
 Fijian which redeems his character from utter atrocity. 
 If he hates deeply, he also loves truly ; if his revenge 
 never dies, his fidelity and loyalty are strong and endur- 
 ing. Thakombau was a thorough Fijian. Almost to the 
 last he opposed the missionaries. He was not only 
 heathen, but anti-Christian. At length being converted, 
 he called his people together, and, says Mr Calvert, 
 " What a congregation he had ! — husbands whose wives 
 he had dishonoured ! widows whose husbands he had 
 slain ! sisters whose relatives had been strangled by his 
 orders ! relatives whose friends he had eaten ! and 
 children, the descendants of those he had murdered, and 
 who had vowed to avenge the wrongs inflicted on their 
 fathers ! " ^ Yet even this man — an adulterer, a parricide, 
 and a cannibal, whose hands were stained with a hundred 
 murders — had still something noble and lovable about 
 him ; so much so, indeed, that, in spite of his crimes, he 
 secured the affection, the friendship, even the respect, of 
 a man so excellent as Mr Calvert. 
 
 The Maories 
 
 The New Zealanders are the southernmost representa- 
 tives of the great Polynesian family. Their principal food 
 consisted of fern roots, which they scorched over the fire, 
 and then beat with a stick, till the bark and dry outside 
 fell off; the remainder being a soft substance, rather 
 clammy and sweet, not unpleasant to the taste, but mixed 
 with numerous stringy fibres which are very disagreeable.^ 
 In the northern districts were large plantations of yams 
 and sweet potatoes. They also cultivated gourds, which 
 were used for vessels, as they had no pottery. Their only 
 
 ^ Figi and the Figians, vol. i., p. 136. - L.c, vol. ii. p. 357. 
 
 ^ Dieffenbach's Neiu Zealand, vol. ii. p. 11.
 
 464 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 instrument for tillage was " a long narrow stake sharpened 
 to an edge at one end, with a short piece fastened trans- 
 versely at a little distance above it, for the convenience of 
 pressing it down with the foot." Their animal food 
 consisted principally of fish and shell-fish, and Captain 
 Cook observed large shell-mounds near their houses. 
 They sometimes also, though rarely, killed rails, penguins, 
 shags, and other birds. They obtained fire from two 
 pieces of wood in the usual manner.^ A New Zealand 
 stone adze is represented in figs. 120-122. 
 
 The only quadrupeds in the islands were dogs and rats. 
 They had no hogs, and the dogs were kept entirely for 
 food. They were skilful in fishing, having excellent 
 lines, hooks made of bone and shell, and very large nets, 
 which were made of the leaves of the so-called New 
 Zealand flax, a plant allied to the Lilies, split into strips 
 of the proper breadth and tied together. In making the 
 lines the leaves are " scraped by a shell, which removes 
 the upper or green part, and leaves the strong white fibres, 
 that run longitudinally along the under side."^ This 
 kind of cordage has even been preferred to that made of 
 European hemp. 
 
 Of these leaves also they made most of their clothes, 
 for, though acquainted with the manufacture of bark-cloth, 
 it was very scarce, and worn only as an ornament. The 
 leaves were split into three or four slips, which were 
 interwoven into a kind of stuff, something between 
 netting and cloth. Dog's wool was also used for the 
 same purpose.^ The dress was alike in both sexes, and 
 consisted of two parts ; one piece of their rude cloth (if 
 so it may be called) was tied over the shoulders and 
 reached to the knees, being fastened in front by a piece of 
 string or a bone bodkin ; the other piece was wrapped 
 round the waist, and reached nearly to the ground. This 
 garment, however, was worn by the men only on parti- 
 cular occasions. 
 
 1 D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 479. 
 
 2 Fitzroy's Voyage of the " Adventure " and " Beagle^'' vol. ii. p. 599. 
 
 3 D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 500.
 
 THE MAORIES 465 
 
 For ornament they wore combs of wood or bone, 
 feathers, necklaces, bracelets, and anklets of bones and 
 shells, and earrings of jade or albatross-down. Many of 
 them had also small grotesque figures of jade, which were 
 suspended from the neck, and were regarded as very 
 precious. The New Zealanders were also tattooed with 
 great dexterity and elegance ; not only on the body, but 
 even on the face, the general effect of which was in many 
 cases far from unpleasant. The process, however, was 
 extremely painful, so much so, indeed, that it could not 
 be supported all at once, but was sometimes spread over 
 several months or even years. The lips and the corners 
 of the eyes were the part that hurt most. To have 
 shrunk from it would, however, have been a great 
 disgrace. 
 
 Their houses were from eighteen to twenty feet long, 
 eight or ten broad, and five or six high. The sides sloped 
 quite down to the ground, differing in this respect from 
 those of Tahiti, which are left open at the sides. This 
 was done, however, not for the sake of privacy, but to 
 keep out the wind and rain. The sides were made of 
 sticks, closely thatched with grass and hay, and the door 
 was at one end, just high enough to admit a man on all 
 fours. Another hole served both for window and chimney. 
 The roof was often carved, and they frequently attached 
 to the end of the ridge pole a monstrous representation 
 of the proprietor.^ 
 
 The villages were all fortified. They chose the strongest 
 natural situations, and surrounded the houses with a 
 palisade about ten feet high. The weaker sides were 
 also defended " by a double ditch, the innermost of v/hich 
 has a bank, and an additional palisade." The stakes 
 were driven obliquely into the ground, so that they pro- 
 jected over the ditch, which "from the bottom to the top 
 or crown of the bank is four-and-twenty feet. Close 
 within the innermost palisade is a stage, twenty feet high, 
 forty feet long, and six broad ; it is supported by strong 
 posts, and is intended as a station for those who defend 
 
 1 Dieffenbach, l.c.^ p. 69. 
 
 ^O
 
 466 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 the place, from which they may annoy the assailants by 
 darts and stones, heaps of which lie ready for use. 
 Another stage of the same kind commands the steep 
 avenue from the back, and stands also 
 within the palisade."^ Within the 
 palisades they had reduced the ground, 
 " not to one level, but to several, 
 rising in stages one above the other, 
 like an amphitheatre, each of which is 
 enclosed within its separate palisade." 
 These different platforms communi- 
 cated only by narrow passages, so that 
 each one was capable of separate de- 
 fence ; and they were provided with 
 large stores of dried fish, fern-roots, 
 etc. As the natives, when first dis- 
 covered, had no bows and arrows, 
 nor even slings, in fact, no " missile 
 weapon except the lance, which was 
 thrown by hand," such positions as 
 these must have been almost im- 
 pregnable. Their principal weapon 
 was the patoo-patoo (fig. 265), which 
 was fastened to the wrist by a strong 
 strap, lest it should be wrenched 
 from them. They had no defensive 
 armour, but besides their weapons the 
 chiefs carried a " staff of distinction." 
 Their canoes were well built, and 
 resembled those of the other islands. 
 Many of them, however, were broad 
 enough to sail without an outrigger. The two ends 
 were often ingeniously carved.^ 
 
 The dead were wrapped in native cloth, and either 
 buried in a contracted posture or exposed for a while 
 on small square platforms ; when the flesh had decayed 
 away, the bones were washed, and finally deposited in 
 a small covered box, which was generally elevated on a 
 
 > Cook's First Voyage^ p. 343. - Forster, l.c.^ p. 326. 
 
 Fig. 265. — New Zealand 
 patoo-patoo, one-fourth 
 of the actual size.
 
 THE MAORIES 467 
 
 column in or near the village.-^ In some districts, how- 
 ever, they were usually thrown into the sea, except indeed 
 those that were killed in battle. These were generally eaten 
 by their enemies. None of the objects used by the dead 
 during his last illness were ever employed again ; ^ they 
 were generally broken and buried with the deceased. In 
 one case a moa's egg has been found in the hands of a 
 dead Maori, who was buried in the usual sitting posture. 
 The egg was perfect,^ and may have been intended to 
 serve as food for the dead. 
 
 In the Taranaki district, according to Taylor, the natives 
 were buried in their houses, the door was tied up and 
 painted with ochre to show that it was " taboo." In 
 most of the Pahs or fortified villages half the houses 
 belonged to the dead, and these being never repaired 
 gave the village a very neglected appearance.* 
 
 Their principal musical instrument was the flute, of 
 which they had three or four varieties. D'Urville ^ also 
 observed among them a kind of lyre, with three or four 
 strings. They used large shells, too, as a kind of trumpet. 
 They were very fond of singing, of poetry, and of dances. 
 The latter were of two kinds, warlike and amorous. 
 
 In character the New Zealanders were proud, jealous, 
 irritable, cruel, and implacable ; but at the same time 
 sensible, generous, sincere, hospitable, and affectionate. 
 Like other Polynesians, the Maories were much given 
 to infanticide.^ The girls before marriage were allowed 
 great freedom. When once married, however, the 
 women were faithful and affectionate to their husbands, 
 by whom, on the other hand, they were generally treated 
 with both kindness and respect. On the whole, it must 
 be admitted that the position of the women among the 
 New Zealanders was far from unsatisfactory. The 
 Maories were perpetually at war during life, and hoped 
 to continue so after death. Heaven they regarded as a 
 
 ' Dieffenbach, /.c, p. 63 ; Fitzroy, /.c, p. 579. 
 
 2 D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 536. ^ Zoologist^ February, 1865, p. 9454. 
 
 * Taylor, New Zealand and its Inhabitants^ p. loi. 
 
 '" L.c, vol. ii. p. 501. ^ Dieffenbach, I.e., p. 16.
 
 468 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 place where there would be continual feasts of fish and 
 sweet potatoes ; where they would be always fighting, 
 and always victorious. Whether they can be said to 
 have had a religion or not depends upon the meaning 
 we attach to the worci. They believe in the survival of 
 the soul, but not in the resurrection of the body — an 
 article of faith which, as Mr Marsden tells us, the 
 missionaries could not induce them to accept. They 
 had no idea of an Almighty Deity. Speaking to Mr 
 Taylor, Te Heuheu, chief of Taupo, ridiculed the idea. 
 " Is there," he asked, "one maker of all things amongst 
 you Europeans ? Is not one a carpenter, another a 
 blacksmith, another a ship-builder, and another a house- 
 builder ? So it was in the beginning ; one God made 
 this, another that : Tane made trees, Ru mountains, 
 Tangaroa fish, and so forth. Your religion is of to-day, 
 ours from remote antiquity. Do not think, then, to 
 destroy our ancient faith with your fresh-born religion," ^ 
 Their principal deity was known as the Atoua, who 
 was a cruel cannibal like themselves. When anyone 
 was ill, Atoua was supposed to be devouring his inside, 
 and they endeavoured to frighten him away by curses 
 and threats.^ This we may regard as a kind of negative 
 worship ; but on other occasions they certainly offered 
 human and other sacrifices, in the vain hope of appeasing 
 his wrath. They did not worship idols, but many of 
 the priests seem to have really thought that they had 
 been in actual communication with the Atoua ; and some 
 of the early missionaries were inclined to believe that 
 Satan might have been permitted to practise a deception 
 upon them in order to strengthen his power ! However 
 extraordinary this may appear, the same was the case in 
 Tahiti. " In addition," says Mr Ellis, " to the firm 
 belief which many who were sorcerers, or agents of the 
 infernal powers, and others who were the victims of 
 incantation, still maintain, some of the early missionaries 
 are disposed to think this was the fact." ^ Even Mr 
 
 ' Diefifenbacli, I.e., p. 13. ^ Missiona>y Register, Nov. 1819. 
 
 •' Polynesian Researches, vol. ii. p. 226.
 
 THE MAORIES 469 
 
 Ellis himself was of the same opinion. With such low 
 ideas of the Divinity, it is perhaps not surprising that 
 some of the chiefs were looked upon as gods even during 
 life. Watches and white men also were at first regarded 
 as deities ; the latter not, perhaps, unnaturally, their 
 fire-arms being regarded as thunder and lightning. 
 
 The New Zealanders had but little regard for human 
 life. Earle relates that a young chief named Atoi, who 
 is described as having "a handsome open countenance," 
 on one occasion recognized a pretty girl of about sixteen, 
 who had been working for Mr Earle, and, claiming her 
 as a runaway slave, took her back with him to his village, 
 where he killed and ate her. The next day he showed 
 Mr Earle " the post to which she had been tied, and 
 laughed to think how he had cheated her." " For," said 
 he, " 1 told her I only intended to give her a flogging ; 
 but I fired, and shot her through the heart." " Yet," 
 adds Mr Earle, " I again affirm that he was not only a 
 handsome young man, but mild and genteel in his 
 demeanour, and a general favourite with us all." ^ 
 
 Although the New Zealanders were addicted to canni- 
 balism, it was with them a very different habit from that 
 of the Fijian. No doubt the Maori enjoyed his meals 
 of human flesh. But the cannibalism of a New Zealander, 
 though often a mere meal, was also sometimes a ceremony ; 
 in these cases the object was something very different 
 from mere sensual gratification ; it must be regarded as 
 a part of his religion, as a sort of unholy sacrament. 
 This is proved by the fact that after a battle, the bodies 
 which they preferred were not those of plump young 
 men or tender damsels, but of the most celebrated chiefs, 
 however old and dry they might be." In fact, they 
 believed that it was not only the material substance which 
 they thus appropriated, but also the spirit, the ability, 
 and the glory of him whom they devoured. The greater 
 the number of corpses they had eaten, the higher they 
 thought would be their position in the world to come. 
 The Fans of Central Africa are said to entertain a similar 
 
 ' Residences in New Zealand^ p. 117. '•* D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 547.
 
 470 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 idea. Under such a creed there is a certain dignity 
 about the habit, which is, at any rate, far removed from 
 the sensuality of ordinary cannibalism. To be eaten 
 was, on the other hand, the greatest misfortune that 
 could happen to a New Zealander, since he believed that 
 the soul was thus destroyed as well as the body. The 
 chief who could both kill and devour his enemy had 
 nothing more to fear from him either in this world or 
 the next ; on the contrary, the strength, ability, and 
 prestige against which he had had to contend were not 
 only conquered, but, by this dreadful process, incorporated 
 with and added to his own. 
 
 In other cases slaves were killed and eaten in honour 
 of the gods. The New Zealanders declared that criminals 
 alone were thus treated. The celebrated chief, E'hongui, 
 maintained that the whole analogy of nature was in favour 
 of cannibalism. He was surprised at the horror of it felt 
 by D'Urville. Big fish, he said, eat little fish ; insects 
 devour insects ; large birds feed upon small ones ; it is 
 in accordance with the whole analogy of nature that men 
 should eat their enemies,^ 
 
 TaJiiti 
 
 Tahiti, the queen of islands, has excited the wonder 
 and admiration of almost all those by whom it has been 
 visited. In some respects the Tahitians were surpassed 
 by other South Sea Islanders ; the Fijians, for instance, 
 being, as we have seen, acquainted with pottery ; but on 
 the whole they may be taken as representing the highest 
 stage in civilization to which man has in any country 
 raised himself before the discovery or introduction of 
 metallic implements. It is not, indeed, at all probable 
 that any inhabitants of the great continents were so far 
 advanced in civilization during their Stone Age. Doubt- 
 less, the Society Islanders would not have remained 
 without metal if the country had afforded them the 
 means of obtaining it. On the other hand, the ancient 
 
 ' D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 548.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 
 
 471 
 
 inhabitants of Europe were confined to the use of stone 
 weapons only until they became acquainted with the 
 superiority of, and acquired 
 the art of working in, copper, 
 bronze, or iron ; and it is 
 evident that a nation would 
 in all probability discover 
 the use of metal before at- 
 taining the highest pitch of civilization, 
 which, without such aid, it would be 
 possible for it to attain. 
 
 The tools of the Tahitians, when first 
 discovered, were made of stone, bone, 
 shell, or wood. Of metal they had no 
 idea. When they first obtained nails, 
 they mistook them for the young shoots 
 of some very hard wood, and, hoping 
 that life might not be quite extinct, 
 planted a number of them carefully in 
 their gardens.^ 
 
 In a very short time, however, the 
 earlier weapons were entirely replaced 
 by those of iron ; and in his last voyage 
 Captain Cook tells us^ that "a stone 
 hatchet is, at present, as rare a thing 
 amongst them as an iron one was eight 
 years ago ; and a chisel of bone or stone 
 is not to be seen." The stone axes 
 or rather adzes, were of various sizes ; 
 those intended for cutting down trees 
 weighed six or seven pounds, the little 
 ones, which were used for carving, only 
 a few ounces. All of them required 
 continual sharpening, and a stone was 
 
 Fig. 266. — Stone axe 
 with wooden handle, 
 one - fourth of the 
 actual size. 
 
 always kept in 
 
 readiness for this purpose. The natives were very skilful 
 in the use of their adzes (fig. 266) ; nevertheless, to fell 
 a tree was a work of several days. Some of the South 
 
 1 Ellis, Polynesian Researches^ p. 298. 
 
 - Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. ii. p. 137.
 
 472 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 -ta^B^ 
 
 Sea axes have beautifully carved handles, as in fig. 267, 
 
 representing a speci- 
 men in my own col- 
 lection. These were 
 axes of state. The 
 chisels, or gouges, were 
 of bone, generally that of a man's 
 arm between the wrist and elbow. 
 Pieces of coral were used as rasps, 
 and splinters of bamboo for knives. 
 For cultivating the ground they 
 had instruments of hard wood, 
 about five feet long, narrow, with 
 sharp edges and pointed. These 
 they used as spades or hoes.^ 
 They had fish-hooks (fig. 268) 
 made of mother-of-pearl, and 
 every fisherman made them for 
 himself. They generally served 
 for the double purpose of hook 
 and bait. "The shell ^ is first 
 cut into square pieces by the edge 
 of another shell, and wrought into 
 a form corresponding with the out- 
 line of the hook by pieces of coral, 
 which are sufficiently rough to per- 
 form the office of a file ; a hole is 
 then bored in the middle, the drill 
 being a pointed stone ; this they 
 fix into the end of a piece of 
 bamboo, and turn it between the 
 hands like a chocolate mill ; when 
 the shell is perforated and the hole 
 sufficiently wide, a small file of 
 coral is introduced, by the appli- 
 
 FlG. 267. — South Sea axe 
 of ceremony. 
 
 ^ Wilson, Missionary Voyage to the South 
 Pacific^ p. 245. 
 
 - Cook's Voyage round the Worlii., vol. i. 
 p. 483 ; vol. ii. p. 218.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 
 
 473 
 
 cation of which the hook is in a short time completed, 
 few costing the artificer more time than a quarter of 
 an hour. From the bark of the Poerou, a species of 
 Hibiscus, they made ropes and Hnes, from the thickness 
 of an inch to the size of a small pack-thread ; with 
 these they make nets for fishing." They had also a 
 kind of seine net, made " of a coarse 
 broad grass, the blades of which are 
 like flags : these they twist and tie 
 together in a loose manner, till the 
 net, which is about as wide as a large 
 sack, is from sixty to eighty fathoms 
 long ; this they haul in shoal-smooth 
 water, and its own weight keeps it so 
 close to the ground that scarcely a 
 single fish can escape." They also 
 use certain leaves and fruit which, 
 when thrown into the water, inebriate 
 the fish to such a degree that they 
 might be caught by the hands. ^ Thei r 
 fishing-lines were made of the bark 
 of the Erowa, a kind of nettle which 
 grows in the mountains, and were 
 described as " the best fishing-lines 
 in the world," better even than our 
 strongest silk lines. They also used 
 the fibres of the cocoa-nut for mak- 
 ing threads, with which they fastened 
 together the various parts of their 
 canoes. They were very dexterous in making basket 
 and wicker work, " of a thousand different patterns, 
 many of them exceedingly neat " ; they also made many 
 sorts of mats from rushes, grass, and bark, which were 
 woven with great neatness and regularity, although en- 
 tirely by hand and without any loom or machinery." 
 But their principal manufacture was a kind of cloth, 
 
 * Forster, Observatiotis jnade dtcring a Voyage round the World, 
 p. 463 ; Ellis, vol. ii. p. 288. 
 ^ Ellis, vol. ii. pp. 179, 180. 
 
 Fig. 268. — South Sea fish- 
 hook, one-half of the 
 actual size.
 
 474 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 made from bark, and of which there were three varieties, 
 obtained either from the paper-mulberry, which was the 
 best, the bread-fruit tree, or a kind of fig. This last, 
 though less ornamental, was more useful than either 
 of the others, because it resisted water, which they did 
 not. All three kinds of cloth were made in the same 
 way, the difference between them being only in the 
 material. When the trees were of a proper size, that is 
 to say, about six or eight feet high, and somewhat thicker 
 than a man's thumb, they were pulled up and the roots 
 and branches were cut off. The bark being slit up 
 longitudinally, it peeled off readily, and was then soaked 
 for some time in running water. After this, the green 
 outside bark was carefully scraped off with a shell, and 
 the strips were laid out in the evening to dry, being 
 placed one by the side of another " till they are about a 
 foot broad, and two or three layers are also laid one upon 
 the other." By the morning a great part of the water 
 had drained off or evaporated, and " the several fibres 
 adhere together, so as that th^ whole may be raised from 
 the ground in one piece." It was then placed on the 
 smooth side of a long piece of wood, and beaten by the 
 women-servants with a wooden instrument, shaped like a 
 square razor-strap, and about a foot long. The four 
 sides of this instrument were " marked lengthways with 
 small grooves or furrows, of different degrees of fineness ; 
 those on one side being of a width and depth sufficient to 
 receive a small pack-thread, and the others finer in a 
 regular gradation, so that the last are not more than equal 
 to sewing silk." They beat the cloth first with the 
 coarsest side, and afterwards with the others, ending with 
 the finest : under this treatment it expanded greatly, and 
 might be made almost as thin as a muslin. The different 
 pieces of bark by this treatment were so closely fastened 
 together that the cloth might be washed and wrung out 
 without any fear of tearing ; but even if it were accidentally 
 broken, it was repaired without difficulty, by pasting on a 
 patch with a gluten prepared from the root of the pea : 
 this was done so nicely that it could not be discovered.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 475 
 
 This cloth was cool and agreeable to the touch, being 
 even softer than our broadcloth. It is hardly necessary 
 to say that the fineness was regulated according to the 
 purpose for which it was intended. The first two kinds 
 were easily bleached, and then dyed of various colours, 
 generally red and yellow. Both of these were vegetable 
 colours, and not very fast. 
 
 They had various strange and complicated dresses for 
 great occasions, but their ordinary clothes were very 
 simple, and consisted of two parts. One of them was a 
 piece of cloth with a hole " in the middle to put the head 
 through," and long enough to reach from the shoulder to 
 the knee. The other was wrapped round the waist so as 
 to hang down like a petticoat as low as the knee ; this was 
 called the Parou. Frequently also they wore a piece of 
 cloth tied round the head like a turban. The dress of 
 the Queen is thus described by Ellis ^ : " She was attired 
 in a light, loose, and flowing dress of beautifully white 
 native cloth, tastefully fastened on the left shoulder, and 
 reaching to the ankle ; her hair was rather lighter than 
 that of the natives in general ; and on her head she wore 
 a light and elegant native bonnet, of green and yellow 
 cocoa-nut leaves ; each ear was perforated, and in the 
 perforation two or three flowers of the fragrant Cape 
 jessamine were inserted." The dress of the men was 
 very similar, but instead of the petticoat they brought the 
 cloth between the legs ; this was called the Maro. In 
 hot weather,- and at noon, both sexes went almost naked, 
 wearing only the cloth round the waist. Besides the 
 turbans and head-dresses of leaves, they sometimes wore 
 long plaits of human hair, which they wound about the 
 head in such a manner as to produce a very pretty effect. 
 They were very clean both in their persons and their 
 clothes ; washing, as a rule, three times a day. Orna- 
 ments were worn by the men as much as by the women, 
 and consisted of feathers, flowers, pieces of shells, and 
 
 ^ L.c.^ p. 148. 
 
 2 The Sandwich Islanders had small square fans of mat or wicker-work, 
 with handles of the same or of wood.
 
 476 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 pearls. Tattooing also was almost universal ; and a 
 person not properly tattooed would " be as much 
 reproached and shunned, as if with us he should go about 
 the streets naked." ^ They anointed their heads frequently 
 with perfumed cocoa-nut oil, but had no combs, which in 
 so hot a country must have been much wanted. Not- 
 withstanding this, the hair of the grown-up people was 
 very neatly dressed. 
 
 Their houses were used principally as dormitories. 
 They were made of wood, and were generally about 
 twenty-four feet long, eleven wide, and nine feet high. 
 They had no side walls, but the roof reached to within 
 about three feet and a half of the ground. Palm leaves 
 took the place of thatch, and the floor was generally 
 covered with soft hay. 
 
 The canoes resembled those of the Fijians, but are said 
 to have been scarcely so well built. " To prepare the 
 planks was no easy task, but the great difficulty was to 
 fasten them together. This was effected by strong thongs 
 of plaiting which are passed several times through holes 
 that are bored with a gouge or auger of bone." ^ The 
 length of the canoes varied from ten up to ninety feet, 
 " but the breadth is by no means in proportion ; for those 
 of ten feet are about a foot wide, and those of more than 
 seventy are scarcely two." ^ These larger ones were not, 
 however, used singly, but were fastened together side by 
 side, in the manner already described. A canoe without 
 an outrigger seemed to them an impossibility.* The 
 labour of constructing these canoes must have been 
 immense ; nevertheless, the South Sea Islanders possessed 
 large numbers of them. On one occasion Captain Cook 
 saw more than three hundred in one place ; and, without 
 counting the smaller vessels, he estimated the whole 
 naval force of the Society Islands at 1700 war canoes, 
 manned by 68,000 men.^ 
 
 1 Wilson, /.f., p. 355. 
 
 2 Cook's Fi7-st Vojczi^-e, p. 225 ; Forster, /.c, p. 459. 
 
 ^ Cook's Firsi Voyat^a-, p. 221. ' Ellis, I.e., vol. ii. p. 55. 
 
 ^ Cook's Second I'ojcii^e, vol. i. p. 349.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 477 
 
 Their principal musical instrument was the drum ; it 
 was made from a piece of solid wood, hollowed out, 
 and covered over with shark's skin. They had also a 
 kind of trumpet made of a large shell, with a hole at 
 the small end, into which they fastened a bamboo cane 
 about three feet long. Their flutes were of bamboo, 
 and were blown with the nose. They had various kinds 
 of games, some of which appear to have resembled 
 our hockey and football. They were also very fond of 
 dancing. 
 
 They were quite ignorant of pottery, but had large 
 dishes made of polished wood. The shells of cocoa-nuts 
 were used as water-bottles and cups. They were scraped 
 thin, polished, often very ingeniously carved, and kept 
 extremely clean. Generally the natives of Tahiti sat 
 cross-legged on mats spread on the floor ; but the chiefs 
 had often four-legged stools. Chairs and tables were 
 unknown. They slept also on mats and used a wooden 
 pillow, very much resembling a small stool. The upper 
 side was carved like the seat of the stool, to admit the 
 neck. Each house also contained a light post, planted in 
 the floor, and with several projections, from which the 
 various dishes, calabashes of water, baskets of food, etc., 
 were hung.^ 
 
 Their weapons were formidable, though simple. They 
 consisted of slings, pikes headed with stone, and long 
 clubs made of hard, heavy wood. With the first they 
 were very skilful. Their slingstones were of two kinds, 
 " either smooth, being polished by friction in the bed of 
 a river, or sharp, angular, and rugged ; these were called 
 ofai ara — faced or edged stones." ^ We have already 
 mentioned (p. 99) that two sorts of slingstones, closely 
 corresponding to these, were used by the ancient in- 
 habitants of Europe. It would be interesting to know the 
 relative advantage of the two classes, which surely cannot 
 have been used for exactly the same purposes. They 
 had also bows and arrows, which, however, were not 
 sufficiently strong to be used in warfare. The bow- 
 ^ Ellis, l.c.^ vol. ii. p. 184. 2 Ji)ij_^ vol. ii. p. 49.
 
 478 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 strings were made of Roava bark.^ The Society Islanders 
 are said to have been cruel in war, but, according to 
 Captain Cook, " they are seldom disturbed by either 
 foreign or domestic troubles." Though not cowards, 
 they regard it as " much less disgraceful to run away 
 from an enemy with whole bones, than to fight and be 
 wounded."^ 
 
 " Of tame animals they had only hogs, dogs, and 
 poultry ; ^ neither was there a wild animal in the island, 
 except ducks, pigeons, parroquets, with a few other birds, 
 and rats, there being no other quadruped, nor any serpent." * 
 The dogs were kept entirely for food, and Captain Cook 
 assures us that " a South Sea dog was little inferior to an 
 English lamb ; their excellence is probably owing to their 
 being kept up and fed wholly on vegetables." The 
 natives prefer dog to pork. From the sea they obtained 
 excellent fish and shell-fish. They had also bread-fruit, 
 bananas, plantains, yams, cocoa-nuts, potatoes, the sugar- 
 cane, a fruit not unlike an apple, and several other plants 
 which served for fruit, and required very little culture. 
 The bread-fruit tree supplied them with abundance of 
 fresh fruit for eight months, and during the other four 
 they used " mahie," which is a kind of sour paste, prepared 
 from the fermented ripe fruit. It is probable that nine- 
 tenths of their diet consisted of vegetable food ; and the 
 common people scarcely ever tasted either pork or dog, 
 although the hogs appear to have been very abundant. 
 
 They obtained fire by friction. When the wood was 
 quite dry, the process did not take longer than two minutes, 
 but in wet weather it was very tedious. Having no 
 pottery, they did not boil their food. " It is impossible," 
 says Wallis, " to describe the astonishment they expressed 
 when they saw the gunner, who, while he kept the market, 
 used to dine on shore, dress his pork and poultry by 
 boiling them in a pot ; having, as I have before observed, 
 
 ^ Wilson, /.£■., p. 368. ^ Wilson, p. 363. 
 
 ^ Wallis's Voyage round the World; Hawkesworth's Voyages, vol. i. 
 p. 482. 
 
 ^ Cook's Voyage round the World, p. 1 87.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 479 
 
 no vessel that would bear the fire, they had no idea of 
 hot water." ^ Captain Cook also expressly states that 
 " they had but two ways of applying fire to dress their 
 food, broiling and baking," - Mr Tylor, however, has 
 pointed out ^ that they were acquainted with the use of 
 boiling stones, and that they could not therefore have 
 been entirely ignorant of hot water. In order to bake a 
 hog, they made a small pit in the ground, which they 
 paved with large stones, over which they then lighted a 
 fire. When the stones were hot enough, they took out 
 the embers, raked away the ashes, and covered the stones 
 with green cocoa-nut leaves. The animal which was to 
 be dressed, having been cleaned and prepared, was wrapped 
 up in plantain leaves, and covered with the hot embers, 
 on which again they placed bread-fruit and yams, which 
 also were wrapped up in plantain leaves. Over these they 
 spread the rest of the embers, and some hot stones, finally 
 covering the whole with earth. The meat thus cooked is 
 described as being tender and full of gravy ; in fact, both 
 Wallis and Cook considered that it was " better in every 
 respect than when it is dressed in any other way." For 
 sauce they used salt water, without which no meal was 
 ever eaten, and a kind of thick paste made from the 
 kernels of cocoa-nuts. At their meals they drank either 
 water or cocoa-nut juice. The Sandwich Islanders were 
 very fond of salt meat, and had regular salt pans on the 
 sea-shore.* 
 
 The only intoxicating liquor was the ava, an infusion 
 made from the root, stalks, and leaves of a kind of pepper, 
 which, however, fortunately for them, was entirely for- 
 bidden to the women, and seldom permitted to the lower 
 classes. In some of the other islands this liquid is pre- 
 pared in a disgusting manner. The roots were broken 
 in pieces, cleaned, chewed, and then placed in a wooden 
 bowl, mixed with a certain quantity of water, and stirred 
 up with the hands. In Tahiti, however, the chewing was 
 
 * Z.C., vol. i. p. 484. - Second Voyage^ vol. ii. p. 197. 
 ^ Early Histo>y of Mankind, p. 266. 
 
 * Cook's Third Voyage, vol. iii. p. 151.
 
 48o PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 dispensed with. The wooden bowls out of which the 
 chiefs drank their ava were often very fair specimens of 
 carving. In the Sandwich Islands they are described as 
 having been " usually about eight or ten inches in 
 diameter, perfectly round, and beautifully poHshed. 
 They are supported by three, and sometimes four, small 
 human figures, in various attitudes. Some of them rest 
 on the hands of their supporters, extended over the 
 head ; others on the head and hands ; and some on 
 the shoulders." These figures are said to have been 
 " accurately proportioned and neatly finished, and even 
 the anatomy of the muscles, in supporting the weight, 
 well expressed." ^ 
 
 Sir J. Banks ^ gives an interesting description of the 
 manner in which the chiefs dined. They had no table, 
 and each person ate alone and in silence. Some leaves 
 were spread on the ground to serve as a table-cloth, and 
 a basket was set by the chief containing his provision, 
 which, if fish or flesh, was ready dressed and wrapped in 
 leaves. Two cocoa-nut shells were put by the side, one 
 containing salt water and the other fresh. He first 
 washed his hands and mouth thoroughly with the fresh 
 water, and this he repeated almost continually through 
 the meal. He then took part of his provision out of the 
 basket, which generally consisted of a small fish or two, 
 two or three bread-fruits, fourteen or fifteen ripe bananas, 
 or six or seven apples. He began by eating some bread- 
 fruit, at the same time breaking one of the fishes into the 
 salt water. He then took up the bits of fish in his 
 fingers, in such a manner as to get with it as much salt 
 water as possible, and very frequently he took a mouthful 
 of the salt water, either out of the cocoa-nut or in his 
 hand. Sometimes, also, he drank the juice of a cocoa- 
 nut. When he had finished his bread-fruit and fish, he 
 began his plantains or apples, after which he ate some 
 more bread-fruit, beaten into a sort of paste, and generally 
 flavoured with banana or some other fruit. For a knife 
 
 1 Third Voyage, vol. iii. p. 148. 
 
 2 Cook's First Voyage, vol. ii. p. 200 ; Journal, p. 139.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 481 
 
 he used either a shell or a piece of split bamboo, and in 
 conclusion he again washed his hands and mouth. They 
 were quite unacquainted with forks, and Captain Wallis ^ 
 tells us that, during his visit, one of the natives who 
 "tried to feed himself with that instrument, could not 
 guide it, but by the mere force of habit his hand came to 
 his mouth and the victuals at the end of the fork went 
 away to his ear." Nor did they use plates. Poulaho, 
 chief of the Friendly Islands, dining one day on board 
 the ship, was so much struck by the pewter plates that 
 Captain Cook gave him one. He did not, however, 
 intend to employ it in the usual manner, but said that 
 " whenever he should have occasion to visit any of 
 the other islands, he would leave this plate behind 
 him at Tongataboo, as a sort of representative in his 
 absence." - 
 
 Captain Cook was much surprised to find that a people 
 who were so sociable, and who enjoyed so much the 
 society of women, never made their meals together. 
 Even brothers and sisters had each their own basket, and 
 when they wished to eat would go out, " sit down upon 
 the ground, at two or three yards' distance from each 
 other, and, turning their faces different ways, take their 
 repast without interchanging a single word." They ate 
 alone, they said, " because it was right," but why it was 
 right they were unable to explain. We must, however, 
 remember that these islanders were together much more 
 than we are. We enjoy a sociable meal, because the 
 nature of our occupations keeps us apart so much at 
 other times ; but among a people whose wants were 
 supplied with so little exertion on their part, who were 
 all day long together, and had no rooms into which they 
 could retire and be alone, it must have been a great thing 
 to have some way of escaping from their friends and 
 being quiet without giving offence. As there were no 
 stated times for meals, a man who wished to be alone 
 need only to take out his basket of provisions, and he 
 might be sure that he would not be disturbed. This 
 ^ Voyage round the IVorld, p. 482. - Third Voyage^ vol. i. p. 326. 
 
 31
 
 482 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 custom, therefore, seems to have been both ingenious and 
 convenient.^ 
 
 Although they usually went to bed soon after dark, 
 still the natives of Tahiti were not entirely without 
 candles, for which they used the " kernels of a kind of 
 oily nut, which they stick one over another upon a 
 skewer that is thrust through the middle of them." 
 These candles burn a considerable time, and are said to 
 have given a pretty good light. The Society Islanders 
 had no knowledge of medicine as distinct from witchcraft ; 
 but some wonderful stories are told of their skill in 
 surgery. 
 
 The nostrils of the female infants were often pressed 
 or spread out during infancy, because they looked on a 
 flat nose as a mark of beauty. In the same way the boys 
 sometimes had their forehead and the back of their head 
 pressed upwards, so that the upper part of the skull 
 appeared in the shape of a wedge. This was supposed to 
 make them look more formidable in war.^ 
 
 The dead were not buried at once, but were placed on 
 a platform raised several feet above the ground, and 
 neatly railed in with bamboo. The body was covered 
 with a cloth, and sheltered by a roof. By the side were 
 deposited the weapons of the deceased, and a supply of 
 food and water. When the body had entirely decayed, 
 the bones were collected, carefully cleaned and buried, 
 according to the rank of the deceased, either within or 
 without a " morai." ^ The largest morai seen by Captain 
 Cook was the one prepared for Oamo and Oberea, who 
 were the then reigning sovereigns. This was indeed the 
 principal piece of architecture in the island, and is re- 
 markable as showing what considerable works may be 
 
 ' Since the above was written, I have met with the following passage in 
 Burchell : " I had sufficient reason for admiring one of the customs of the 
 Bachapins ; that, notwithstanding they never at any other time left me 
 alone, they always retired the moment my dinner or breakfast was 
 brought to me. This gave me a few moments' relief from the fatigue of 
 incessant conversation." — Travels in Southern Aj'fica, vol. ii. p. 408. 
 
 2 L.C., vol. i. p. 343. 
 
 3 In some cases the head is not buried with the other bones, but is 
 deposited in a kind of box
 
 THE TAHITIANS 483 
 
 undertaken by a people ignorant of the use of metal. 
 " It was a pile of stonework, raised pyramidically upon 
 an oblong base, or square, two hundred and sixty-seven feet 
 long, and eighty-seven wide. It was built like the small 
 pyramidal mounts upon which we sometimes fix the pillar 
 of a sun-dial, where each side is a flight of steps ; the 
 steps, however, at the sides, were broader than those at 
 the ends, so that it terminated not in a square of the 
 same figure with the base, but in a ridge, like the roof of 
 a house : there were eleven of these steps, each of which 
 was four feet high, so that the height of the pile was forty- 
 four feet ; each step was formed of one course of white 
 coral stone, which was neatly squared and polished ; the 
 rest of the mass, for there was no hollow within, consisted 
 of round pebbles, which, from the regularity of their 
 figure, seemed to have been wrought."^ A very similar 
 account of this structure has been more recently given by 
 Wilson,^ who makes the size and height a little greater ; 
 and when it is considered that this was raised without the 
 assistance of iron tools to shape the stones, or of mortar 
 to fasten them together, it is impossible not to be struck 
 with admiration at the magnitude of the enterprise, and 
 the skill with which it appears to have been carried out. 
 It is, perhaps, the most important monument which is 
 positively known to have been constructed with stone 
 tools only, and renders it the less unlikely that some of 
 the large tumuli and other ancient monuments of Europe 
 may belong to the Stone Age. When a chief died, his 
 relations and attendants cut and mangled themselves in a 
 dreadful manner. They ran spears through their thighs, 
 arms, and cheeks, and beat themselves about the head 
 with clubs " till the blood ran down in streams." They 
 also frequently cut off the little finger on these occasions ; 
 
 1 Cook's Voya^'-e round the World, vol. ii. p. i66. Similar but some- 
 what smaller morals were observed in the Sandwich Islands {Tliird 
 Voyage, vol. iii. p. 6). In the Friendly Islands, D'Urville saw a similar 
 mausoleum built with blocks of stone, some of which were twenty feet long, 
 six or eight broad, and two in height. They were neatly squared. Z.c, 
 vol. iv. p. 1 06. 
 
 2 L.c, p. 207.
 
 484 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 a curious custom, which is common also in the Friendly 
 Islands. 
 
 In Tiarrabou, Captain Cook saw a rude figure of a 
 man, made of basket-work, and about seven feet high. 
 This was intended as a representation of one of the 
 inferior gods, but was said to be the only one on the 
 island ; for the natives, when first discovered, though 
 they worshipped numerous deities, to whom also human 
 sacrifices were sometimes offered, yet were not idolators. 
 At a later period, however, Ellis saw among them many 
 rude idols. ^ Captain Cook found their religion, " like 
 that of most other countries, involved in mystery, and 
 perplexed with apparent inconsistencies." ^ They believed 
 in the survival of the soul, and in " two situations of 
 different degrees of happiness, somewhat analogous to 
 our heaven and hell " ; but, far from regarding them as 
 places of reward and punishment, thought that the 
 happiest lot was of course intended for the chiefs and 
 superior classes, the other for the people of inferior rank.^ 
 Indeed, they did not suppose that their actions here in 
 the least influenced their future state ; so that their 
 religion did not act upon them by promises or threats, 
 and their " expressions of adoration and reverence, 
 whether by words or actions, arise only from a humble 
 sense of their own inferiority, and the ineffable excellence 
 of divine perfection." However mistaken they may have 
 been on many points, however wrong many of their 
 customs doubtless appear to us, surely under such a creed 
 as this, good actions become doubly virtuous, and virtue 
 itself shines the brighter. 
 
 They had no laws, nor courts of justice. Personal 
 security and the rights of private property were but 
 little regarded among them. The chiefs and priests 
 exercised an authority founded on fear and supersti- 
 tion. They were, in fact, governed by custom rather 
 than by law, for which, indeed, they had no word In the 
 
 ' Ellis, /.f., vol. i. p. 526 ; Wilson, l.c.^ p. 242. 
 
 2 See also Forster, I.e., p. 539. 
 
 2 Cook's First Voyage., vol. ii. p. 239 ; Ellis, vol. i. p. 518.
 
 THE TAHITI ANS 485 
 
 language.^ It is only fair to the chiefs to add that they 
 were above being idle, and thought it a disgrace if they 
 did not excel in all departments of labour.^ In char- 
 acter the inhabitants of Tahiti, according to Captain Cook, 
 " were liberal, brave, open, and candid, without either sus- 
 picion or treachery, cruelty, or revenge." ^ They were 
 very anxious for education. The women were affectionate, 
 tender, and obedient ; the men mild, generous, slow to 
 take offence, and easily satisfied. Both sexes were very 
 healthy. " I never saw anyone," says Forster,* " of a 
 morose, peevish, discontented disposition in the whole 
 nation ; they all join to their cheerful temper a politeness 
 and elegance which is happily blended with the most 
 innocent simplicity of manners." Murders were very 
 rare among them ; and though much licence was per- 
 mitted to the young women before marriage, the married 
 women, according to Captain Cook,^ were as well behaved 
 " as in any other country whatever." They were very 
 thievish ; but we must consider the immense temptations 
 to which they were subjected, and the, to them, inestimable 
 value of the articles which they stole. Like other savages, 
 they resembled children in many respects : their sorrows 
 were transient, their passions suddenly and strongly 
 expressed. On one occasion, Oberea, the queen, who 
 was then about forty years old, took a particular fancy to 
 a large doll, which was accordingly presented to her. 
 Shortly afterwards they met Tootahah, one of the 
 principal chiefs, who became so jealous of Oberea's doll 
 that they were obliged to give him one also. 
 
 There are scarcely any nations, whether barbarous or 
 civilized, in which the relations of the two sexes are on 
 the whole satisfactory. Savages, almost without excep- 
 tion, treat their women as slaves, and civilized nations 
 too often avoid this error only to fall into others. 
 
 The inhabitants of Tahiti are said to have been 
 absolutely without any ideas of decency, or rather, as 
 
 ' Ellis, I.e., vol. ii. p. 437. - Ibid.., vol. ii. p. 178. 
 
 2 First Voyage., vol. ii. p. 188. ^ L.c, p. 582. 
 
 ^ Voyage to the South Pole., vol. i. p. 187.
 
 486 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Captain Cook puts it, perhaps more correctly, " of in- 
 decency " — that is, at least, in our sense of the term. 
 This no doubt arose in part from their large open houses, 
 which were not divided into separate rooms. However 
 this may be, where there was no sin they saw no shame, 
 and it must be confessed that in many points their idea 
 of sin was very different from ours. Before, however, 
 we condemn them, let us remember that a dinner-party 
 would have seemed as wrong to them as many of their 
 customs do to us. If the freedom, both in language and 
 in action, which they permitted to themselves seems to 
 us in many respects objectionable, we must not forget 
 that our ideas of delicacy shut out from general con- 
 versation numerous subjects of great interest and im- 
 portance, and throw round many matters of the utmost 
 importance an air of mystery which is not without serious 
 disadvantages. 
 
 A considerable number of the principal people of both 
 sexes in Tahiti were formed into an association called the 
 " Arreoy," all the members of which were regarded as 
 being married to one another. If any of the women of 
 the society had a child, it was almost invariably killed ; 
 but if it was allowed to live, the father and mother were 
 regarded as having definitely engaged themselves to one 
 another, and were ejected from the association — the 
 woman being known from that time as a " bearer of 
 children," which was among this extraordinary people a 
 term of reproach. The existence of such a society shows 
 how fundamentally the idea of virtue may differ in 
 different countries. Yet the married women were faith- 
 ful to their husbands, and beautifully modest. It is 
 impossible, indeed, to acquit even them of the charge of 
 infanticide, for which we may find a cause, though not 
 an excuse. I do not allude to the curious custom that 
 a child, as soon as it was born, inherited the titles, rank, 
 and property of its father, so that a man who was yester- 
 day a chief might be thus at once reduced to the con- 
 dition of a private person ; nor to the fact that any 
 Arreoy who spared her infant was at once excluded from
 
 THE TAHITIANS 487 
 
 that society. We cannot suppose that such customs 
 were without their effect ; but a more powerful reason 
 may perhaps be found in the fact that their numbers 
 were already large, the means of subsistence limited, and 
 that, as but few were carried off either by disease or in 
 war, the population would soon have outgrown their 
 supplies if some means were not taken to check the 
 natural increase of numbers.^ However this may be, 
 infanticide appears to have been dreadfully prevalent 
 amongst them. It has been estimated that two-thirds of 
 the children were destroyed by their own parents," and 
 both Nott and Ellis agree that, during the whole of 
 their residence in the island, until the adoption of 
 Christianity, they did not know a single case of a mother 
 who had not been guilty of this crime. 
 
 According to Wilson,'^ their language contained no 
 word for " thanks," and even Cook admits that they had 
 no respect for old age. Fitzroy goes still farther, and 
 assures us that " they scrupled not to destroy their aged 
 or sick — yes, even their parents, if disabled by age or 
 sickness." * No such accusation is, however, brought 
 against them by earlier writers, so that such actions are 
 probably very rare, and the result, perhaps, as among the 
 Fijians, of misdirected affection rather than of deliberate 
 cruelty. 
 
 They had no money ; and though it was easy to 
 obtain the necessaries of life, to accumulate property 
 was almost impossible. Again, the absence of spirituous 
 liquors and the relations between the sexes (however 
 unsatisfactory in some respects) took away from them 
 some of the principal incentives to crime. On the whole, 
 then, if we judge them by a South Sea standard, the 
 natives of the Society Islands appear to have been very 
 free from crime. 
 
 In spite of the differences which sometimes arose in 
 consequence of their thievish disposition, and also perhaps 
 
 1 See, for instance, Kolzebue's New Voyage^ vol. i. p. 308. 
 
 2 Ellis, vol. i. pp. 334, 336. 3 L.c, p. 365. 
 ■* Z.C., vol. ii. p. 551.
 
 488 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 in great measure from their not being able perfectly to 
 understand each other, Captain Cook and his officers 
 lived with the natives " in the most cordial friendship," 
 and took leave of them with great regret. Mr Ellis, on 
 the contrary, assures us that " no portion of the human 
 race was ever perhaps sunk lower in brutal licentiousness 
 and moral degradation than this isolated people."^ Such 
 a statement is surely quite inconsistent with the account 
 he gives of their anxiety to possess copies of the Bible 
 when it was translated into their own language. " They 
 were," he says, "deemed by them more precious than 
 gold — yea, than much fine gold," and " became at once 
 the constant companion of their possessors, and the 
 source of their highest enjoyment." ^ 
 
 The inhabitants of the Friendly, or Tonga, and of the 
 Sandwich Islands, are also very well described by Captain 
 Cook, but they belonged to the same race as those of 
 Tahiti and New Zealand, and resembled them in religion, 
 language, canoes, houses, weapons, food, habits, etc. It 
 is somewhat remarkable that the Sandwich Islanders, in 
 many respects — as, for instance, in their dances, houses, 
 tattooing, etc. — resembled the New Zealanders even more 
 than their nearer neighbours in the Society and Friendly 
 Islands. In the Friendly Islands Captain Cook observed 
 a very singular luxury in which the chiefs indulged them- 
 selves. When one of them wished to go to sleep, two 
 women came and sat by him " beating briskly on his 
 body and legs with both fists, as on a drum, till he fell 
 asleep, and continuing it the whole night, with some 
 short intervals." When the chief is sound asleep they 
 sometimes rest themselves a little, " but resume it if they 
 observe any appearance of his waking." ^ A similar state- 
 ment is made by Wilson in his Missionaty Voyage} In 
 all the islands the chiefs appear to have been treated with 
 respect, none the less profound because shown in ways 
 which seem to us peculiar. One of them was to uncover 
 the body from the waist, and it seems to have been a 
 
 ' Ellis, I.e., vol. ii. p. 25. - Ellis, vol. i. pp. 393-408. 
 
 ■' TJiird Voyage, vol. i. p. 323. •• L.c, p. 237.
 
 THE TAHITIANS 489 
 
 matter of indifference, or rather of convenience, whether 
 this was done upwards or downwards.^ In the Friendly 
 Islands it was accounted a striking mark of rudeness to 
 speak to the king while standing up. 
 
 There was also a certain amount of commerce between 
 the different islands. Bora-bora and Otahaw produced 
 abundance of cocoanut oil, which was exchanged at 
 Tahiti for cloth. The Low Islands, again, could not 
 successfully grow the paper-mulberry ; but they had a 
 breed of dogs with long silky hair, which was much 
 prized in the other islands. 
 
 ' Cook's First Voyage^ vol. ii. p. 125.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 MODERN SAVAGES COHtinUed 
 
 Esquimaux 
 
 The Esquimaux, and the Esquimaux alone among savage 
 races, occupy both the Old and the New World. They 
 inhabit the shores of the Arctic Ocean from Siberia to 
 Greenland ; and throughout this great extent of country 
 the language, appearance, habits, occupations, and weapons 
 of the natives are very similar, and it must be added that 
 the latter are most ingenious. The language of the 
 Innuit, or Esquimaux, is akin to that of the North 
 American Indians in structure, while their appearance has 
 a decided likeness, particularly about the eyes, to the 
 Chinese and Tartars. 
 
 Their dwellings are of two kinds. The summer 
 they pass in tents or wigwams, with the entrance to the 
 south or south-east. In those observed by Captain 
 Parry, the tent-poles were, in the absence of wood, 
 formed of stags' horns, or bones lashed together. The 
 lower borders of the skins were held down by large 
 stones. These were sometimes built up into regular 
 circles, eight or nine feet in diameter, and four or five 
 feet high.^ These circles were at first supposed to 
 be the remains of winter-houses ; but it was subse- 
 quently ascertained that they were exclusively used for 
 extending the skins of the summer-tents. Near these 
 "hut circles" long rows of standing-stones were several 
 times observed.^ The winter-houses in the southern 
 
 ' Parry's Voyu^^e, 1821-23, pp. 17, 51. - L.c, pp. 62, 285, 363. 
 
 490
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 491 
 
 districts are constructed of earth or drift-timber, which is 
 very abundant in some places. In the north, however, 
 wood becomes extremely rare. The Esquimaux at the 
 northern end of Baffin's Bay,' who had no wood, except- 
 ing twigs of a dwarfish heath, were so little acquainted 
 with the nature of timber, that several of them succes- 
 sively seized on the spare top-mast of the Isabella 
 evidently with the intention of stealing it, and quite un- 
 conscious of its weight. In the absence of wood, their 
 houses were built of ice and snow ; those of ice are 
 beautiful, and almost transparent, so that even at some 
 little distance it is possible to see everything that takes 
 place in them. They are, however, much colder than 
 those of snow, which therefore are generally preferred. 
 West of the Rocky Mountains the winter-houses were 
 usually underground. They much resemble the tumuli 
 of Northern Europe (see ante^ p. 114). A Kamskatka- 
 dale "yourt" is thus described by Captain Cook- : "An 
 oblong square, of dimensions proportionate to the number 
 of persons for whom it is intended (for it is proper to 
 observe that several families live together in the same 
 jourt), is dug into the earth to the depth of about six feet. 
 Within this space strong posts, or wooden pillars, are 
 fastened to the ground, at proper distances from each 
 other, on which are extended the beams for the support 
 of the roof, which is formed by joists resting on the 
 ground with one end, and on the beams with the other. 
 The interstices between the joists are filled up with a 
 strong wicker-work, and the whole covered with turf ; so 
 that a jourt has externally the appearance of a low round 
 hillock. A hole is left in the centre, which serves for 
 chimney, window, and entrance, and the inhabitants pass 
 in and out by means of a strong pole (instead of a ladder) 
 notched deep enough to afford a little holding for the 
 toe," as in fig. 152 (p. 115). More often, however, the 
 entrance consisted of a sunken passage, as also shown in 
 fig. 152 or fig. 153 (pp. 115, 116). 
 
 1 Ross, Buffings Bay, p. 122. 
 
 2 Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. iii. p. 374. See also vol. iii. p. 450.
 
 492 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 As a general rule, we may say that the western yourts 
 are subterranean, while those of the tribes who live east 
 of the Rocky Mountains are generally above-ground. 
 The manner in which the Esquimaux construct their 
 snow igloos has been well described by Captain Parry. 
 They choose ^ a drift of hard and compact snow, and from 
 this they cut oblong slabs six or seven inches thick and 
 about two feet in length. With these they build a 
 circular wall, inclining inwards so as to form a dome, 
 which is sometimes as much as nine or ten feet high, and 
 from eieht to fifteen feet in diameter. A small door is 
 then cut on the south side. It is about three feet high, 
 two and a half wide at the bottom, and leads into a passage 
 about ten feet long, and with a step in the middle, the half 
 next the hut being lower than either the floor of the hut 
 or the outer passage. For the admission of light a round 
 hole is cut on one side of the roof, and a circular plate of 
 ice, three or four inches thick and two feet in diameter, 
 is let into it. If several families intend to live together, 
 other chambers are constructed which open into the first, 
 and then, after a quantity of snow has been shovelled up 
 on the outside, the shell of the building is regarded as 
 finished. The next thing is to raise a bank of snow two 
 and a half feet high all round the interior of the building, 
 except on the side next the door. This bank forms the 
 bed. Over it is laid some gravel, upon that again 
 paddles, tent-poles, pieces of whalebone, twigs of birch 
 and of andromeda, etc., and finally a number of deer- 
 skins, which form a soft and luxurious couch. They 
 have no fireplace, properly so called, that is to say, no 
 hearth, but each family has a separate lamp or shallow 
 vessel generally made of lapis ollaris in which they burn 
 seal's oil, with a wick made of dry moss. 
 
 Although they had no knowledge of pottery. Captain 
 Cook saw at Oonalashka vessels " of a flat stone, with 
 sides of clay, not unlike a standing pie."^ We here 
 obtain an idea of the manner in which the knowledge of 
 
 ' Parry, I.e., p. 500. 
 
 - Voyas[e to the Pad fie Ocea?t, vol. ii. p. 510.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 493 
 
 pottery may have been developed. After using clay to 
 raise the sides of their stone vessels, it would naturally 
 occur to them that the same substance would serve for 
 the bottom also, and thus the use of stone might be 
 replaced by a more convenient material. 
 
 The natives of the Lower Murray cook, their food in a 
 hollow in the ground, which they line with clay, and in 
 other cases gourds and wooden vessels are coated with 
 clay in order to enable them to stand heat. Thus we 
 see three ways in which pottery may have been invented. 
 
 The snow-houses melt away every spring ; but in 
 some places the Esquimaux construct their dwellings on 
 a similar plan, but with the bones of whales and walruses 
 on a foundation of stones, and with a covering of earth. 
 The snow-houses are of course pretty clean at first, but 
 they gradually become very filthy. The bone huts are 
 even dirtier, because more durable. " In every direction 
 round the huts," says Captain Parry, " were lying in- 
 numerable bones of walruses and seals, together with 
 skulls of dogs, bears, and foxes, on many of which a part 
 of the putrid flesh still remaining sent forth the most 
 ofi^ensive eflluvia." ^ He even observed a number of 
 human bones lying about among the rest.' The inside 
 of the huts, " from their extreme closeness and accumu- 
 lated filth, emitted an almost insupportable stench, to 
 which an abundant supply of raw and half-putrid walrus 
 flesh in no small degree contributed."^ 
 
 On the north-western coast of America the natives find 
 plenty of driftwood, and the floors of their yourts are, 
 according to Belcher, made of split timber, nicely smoothed 
 and carefully caulked with moss. Underneath is often a 
 large store-room, for in summer they kill many reindeer, 
 whales, walrus, seals, swans, ducks, etc., the greater part 
 of which are laid by for winter use. One of these winter 
 stores is thus expressively, though somewhat hastily, 
 described by Sir E. Belcher : * "It was frozen into a 
 
 1 Parry, l.c.^ p. 2S0. 
 
 2 See also Lyon's Journal, p. 236. ^ Parry, I.e., p. 358. 
 * Trans. Etiin. Soc, New Series, vol. i. p. 132.
 
 494 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 solid mass beneath, but loose from those on the surface, 
 and seemed to be incorporated, by some unexplained 
 process, into a gelatinous snow^ which they scraped up 
 easily with the hand and ate with satisfaction — fish oil 
 predominating. It was not offensive nor putrid. How 
 many years the lower mass may have remained there, I 
 could not determine." He estimates the quantity of 
 solid meat in this storehouse alone at 71,424 pounds. 
 Sir John Ross also mentions ^ the large stores of food 
 laid up by the Esquimaux of Boothia Felix during the 
 summer for winter use. The habit does not, however, 
 appear to be general among the Esquimaux, though they 
 all of them make " caches " of meat under stone cairns. 
 
 Charlevoix derives the name " Esquimaux " from the 
 Indian word Eskimantsik^ which means " eaters of raw 
 food," many of these northern tribes being in the habit 
 of eating their meat uncooked. We must injustice to 
 them remember that several of our Arctic expeditions 
 have adopted the same custom, which seems indeed in 
 those latitudes highly conducive to health.^ 
 
 Their food, if cooked at all, is broiled or boiled. Their 
 vessels being of stone or wood cannot, indeed, be put on 
 the fire, but heated stones are thrown in until the water 
 becomes hot enough, and the food is cooked. Of course, 
 the result is a mess of soot, dirt, and ashes, which would, 
 according to our ideas, be almost intolerable ; but if the 
 stench of their houses does not take away a man's 
 appetite nothing else would be likely to do so. They 
 never wash their pots or kettles ; the dogs save them 
 this trouble. Those who have arrived at a dim conscious- 
 ness of their dirtiness do generally, but make matters 
 worse, for if they wish to treat a guest " genteelly, they 
 first lick the piece of meat he is to eat clean from the 
 blood and scum it has contracted in the kettle, with their 
 tongue ; and should anyone not kindly accept it, he 
 
 ^ Narrative of a Second Voyat^e^ p. 251 ; and Appendix, p. 21. See 
 also Hall's Life -with the Esquimaux, vol. ii. p. 311 ; Kane's Arctic Ex- 
 plorations, vol. ii. p. 133. 
 
 2 See, for instance, Kane's Arctic Explorations, vol. ii. p. 14.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 495 
 
 would be looked upon as an unmannerly man for despis- 
 ing their civility." ^ The Esquimaux observed by 
 Dr Rae at Repulse Bay were, however, much cleaner 
 in their habits. 
 
 Their food consists principally of reindeer, musk-ox, 
 walrus, seals, birds, and salmon. They will, however, 
 eat any kind of animal food. They are very fond of fat 
 and marrow, to get at which they pound the bones with 
 a stone. The southern tribes get a few berries in 
 summer, but those who live in the north have scarcely 
 any vegetable food except that which they obtain in a 
 half-digested form from the stomach of the reindeer, and 
 this they regard as a great delicacy ; " the northernmost 
 of all, being unable to kill reindeer, are entirely deprived 
 of vegetable food. 
 
 A feast among some of the more civilized Esquimaux 
 of Greenland is thus described by Crantz:^ "A factor 
 being invited to a great entertainment with several topping 
 Greenlanders, counted the following dishes : (i) Dried 
 herrings ; (2) Dried seal's flesh ; (3) Boiled ditto ; (4) 
 Half-raw and rotten ditto, called Mikiak ; (5) Boiled 
 willocks ; (6) A piece of a half-rotten whale's tail : this 
 was the dainty dish or haunch of venison to which the 
 guests were properly invited ; (7) Dried salmon ; (8) 
 Dried reindeer venison ; (9) A dessert of crowberries 
 mixed with the chyle out of the maw of a reindeer ; 
 (10) The same, enriched with train oil. 
 
 Their drink consists of blood or water : during the 
 greater part of the year they have considerable difficulty 
 in obtaining sufficient water to satisfy their thirst, and it 
 is much too precious to be used for washing. It may 
 seem surprising that people who are surrounded by 
 snow and ice should suffi^r from want of water, but the 
 amount of heat required to melt snow is so great that a 
 man without the means of obtaining fire might die of 
 thirst in these Arctic regions as easily as in the sandy 
 
 1 Crantz, p. i6S ; Parry, Second Voyui^e, p. 293 ; hyoxi's Journal, p. 142. 
 ^ Ross, Narrative oj a Second Voyage, p. 352. 
 ^ History of Greenland^ vol. i. p. 172.
 
 496 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 deserts of Africa. Any direct " resort to snow," says 
 Kane, " for the purpose of allaying thirst, was followed 
 by bloody lips and tongue ; it burnt like caustic." ^ 
 When the Esquimaux visited Captain Parry, they were 
 always anxious for water, which they drank in such 
 quantities " that it was impossible to furnish them with 
 half as much as they desired." " In the extreme north, 
 one of the principal duties of the women in the winter is 
 to thaw snow over their lamps, feeding the wick with oil 
 if it does not rise well of its own accord ;^ the natural heat 
 of the room is not sufficient to melt snow, as the temper- 
 ature of the huts is always kept, if possible, below the 
 freezing-point. In South Greenland, however, the huts 
 are built of turf, etc., and are very warm.* But we must 
 remember that coolness, rather than heat, is required by 
 the Esquimaux who live in snow dwellings, because if 
 the temperature rises to thirty-two degrees, the continual 
 dripping from the roof produces extreme inconvenience, 
 and, in fact, the most unhealthy season is the spring, 
 when the weather is too warm for snow huts and too cold 
 for tents. Thus, therefore, the Esquimaux, though liv- 
 ing in a climate so extremely rigorous, would be debarred 
 from the use of fires by the very nature of their dwellings, 
 even if they were enabled to obtain the necessary materials. 
 They never, says Simpson, " seem to think of fire as a 
 means of imparting warmth " ; ^ their lamps are used for 
 cooking, for light, and for melting snow and drying 
 clothes, rather than to warm the air,^ and as, nevertheless, 
 the body temperature of the Esquimaux is almost the 
 same as ours, it is evident that they must require a large 
 amount of animal food. The quantity of meat which 
 they consume is indeed astonishing ; and it is worthy of 
 remark that, from the scarcity of wood in the far north, 
 they use the same substance for food and fuel ; the 
 calorific material being the same — namely, blubber — 
 
 ' Arctic Explorations^ vol. i. p. 190. - Z.f., p. 188. 
 
 3 Oshorn^s Arctic Journal, p. 17. ^ Egede, I.e., p. 116. 
 
 ^ Discoveries in North America, p. 346. 
 
 ^ Kane, I.e., vol. ii. p. 202.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 
 
 497 
 
 {' 
 
 %l. 
 
 whether the heat is to be obtained by digestion or com- 
 bustion ; whether the material is to be placed in a lamp 
 and burnt, or to be eaten. In summer, however, when 
 it is less necessary" to keep down the general temperature, 
 they sometimes burn bones well 
 saturated with oil. For obtaining .friSsn-. 
 
 fire the Esquimaux generally use fj ' , A 
 
 lumps of iron pyrites and quartz, 
 from which they strike sparks on 
 to moss which has been well dried 
 and rubbed between the hands. ^ 
 They are also acquainted with the 
 method of obtaining it by fric- 
 tion,^ which is a slower and more 
 laborious process. It appears, how- 
 ever, to be the one generally pur- 
 sued by the Greenland Esquimaux.^ 
 
 It has been generally assumed 
 that man could scarcely live in 
 temperate climates, and certainly 
 not in the Arctic regions, without 
 the advantage of fire. From the 
 above facts, however, as well as 
 from others which will presently 
 be recorded, it may be doubted 
 whether this is really the case. 
 Esquimaux do not use fire to warm 
 their dwellings, and cookery is with 
 them a refinement. In fact, those 
 Esquimaux who live on reindeer 
 more than on seal, having little Fig. 269.— Esquimaux knife, 
 blubber, make hardly any use of fire. 
 
 In the south the men have bows and arrows, harpoons, 
 spears, lines, fish-hooks, knives, snow-knives, ice-chisels, 
 snow-shovels, groovers, drill-bows, drills, etc. The women 
 have lamps and stone kettles, lamp moss, pieces of iron 
 pyrites, bone needles, pieces of sinew, scrapers (figs. 1 14- 
 
 * Kane, /.c, vol. i. p. 379 ; Parry, /.c, p. 504 ; Ross, /.c, p. 513. 
 - Lyon's Jour/ia/, p. 290. ^ Egede, /.c, p. 138. 
 
 32
 
 498 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 1 1 6), horn spoons, sealskin vessels, pointed bones, marrow- 
 spoons, and knives (figs. 269, 270). They have generally 
 also, according to Dr Rae, a small piece of stone, bone, or 
 ivory, about six inches long and half an inch thick ; this 
 is used for arranging the wicks of the lamps. 
 
 Kane gives the following inventory of an Esquimaux 
 hut visited by him : a sealskin cup, for gathering and 
 holding water ; the shoulder-blade of a walrus, to serve 
 
 as a lamp ; a large flat 
 stone to support it ; another 
 large, thin flat stone to 
 support the melting snow ; 
 a lance-head, with a long 
 coil of walrus line ; a stand 
 for clothes ; and the clothes 
 themselves completed the 
 whole worldly goods of 
 this poor family.^ On 
 their travelling expedi- 
 tions, even less than this 
 is necessary ; raw meat and 
 a fur bag are all they 
 require. 
 
 The implements of the 
 Esquimaux are very in- 
 genious. Besides knives 
 resembling figs. 269, 270, 
 the women use others of 
 a semicircular form, and very similar to the curious 
 semi-lunar knives which are so common in Denmark. 
 They are, however, now made of metal, which the 
 southern Esquimaux have been enabled to obtain, 
 though in small quantities, from the Europeans. Some 
 few of them also break ofi^ bits of meteoric iron, which 
 they hammer to an end, and then fix in a handle of horn or 
 bone. The arrow-heads are of several kinds and shapes. 
 Those of stone (fig. 271) are made, not by blows, but by 
 pressure, for which purpose they use the point of a rein- 
 
 ' Kane s Arctic Explorations^ vol. i. p. 381. 
 
 Fig. 270 a, b. — Ebquimaux knife.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 499 
 
 deer's horn, set in bone ; bone itself would not be tough 
 enough. Other arrow-heads are of horn ; these often 
 bear "owners' marks," as may be seen by fig. 2 (p. 13). 
 The shafts of the arrows are short, straightened by steam, 
 and provided with feathers at the butt end. These are 
 fastened on by deer sinews. The bows are generally of 
 wood, either made of one piece steamed into the right 
 form, or of three parts most ingeniously fastened together, 
 and strengthened by pieces of bone or sinew. When 
 wood cannot be obtained, they use 
 bone or horn. They do not appear 
 to be particularly good shots : but 
 Captain Parry ^ thinks that they would 
 generally hit a deer from forty to 
 forty-five yards, if the animal stood 
 still.^ Moreover, against large game 
 they are, after all, not very efi^ective. 
 Sir J. C. Ross gives an interesting 
 account of a musk-sheep hunt which ^^^, ^ iwj 
 
 he witnessed. At length becoming: „ ^ "^ 
 
 ^. o iHiG. 271. — Esquimaux 
 
 impatient, as the Esquimaux " con- arrow-head, actual size, 
 tinued to shoot without apparent 
 effect, finding his opportunities for an aim with much 
 difficulty, and losing much time afterwards in recover- 
 ing his arrows. Sir James fired, and broke the animal's 
 shoulder-blade, to the immense astonishment of his 
 companion."^ 
 
 The spears (fig. 272) are made like the arrows, but are 
 larger ; the heads also are frequently barbed, and in many 
 cases fit loosely into the shaft, but are securely fastened 
 to a long leathern thong, which is tied to the butt end of 
 the spear. For throwing the harpoon they use a short 
 handle or throwing-stick, about two feet long, narrow 
 below, four inches wide above, and with a notch on each 
 
 1 L.C., p. 511. 
 
 - The Esquimaux of Greenland have long abandoned the bow and 
 arrow, using guns obtained from the Danes. In many other respects also 
 their ancient habits have been modified, and their condition greatly im- 
 proved, by this intercourse. 
 
 3 Sir J. Ross's Arctic Expedition, 1829-33, p. 350.
 
 500 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 side for the thumb and forefinger. With these weapons 
 they attack not only seals and walruses, but even whales. 
 They strike the whale, if possible at the same time, with 
 many harpoons, " to which bladders are hung, made of 
 great sealskins, several of which so 
 encumber and stop the whale, that it 
 cannot sink deep. When he is tired 
 out, they despatch him quite with 
 their little lances." Kane gives the 
 figure of a lance, the blade of which 
 closely resembles one of the longer 
 " axes " from the Danish shell-mounds.^ 
 The Esquimaux have three principal 
 ways of killing seals. The commonest 
 is with the harpoon and bladder. 
 ; MJ When an Esquimaux in his kayak 
 " spies a seal, he tries to surprise it 
 unawares, with the wind and sun in 
 his back, that he may not be heard 
 or seen by it. He tries to conceal 
 himself behind a wave, and makes 
 hastily but softly up to it till he comes 
 within four, five, or six fathoms of 
 it ; meanwhile he takes the utmost 
 care that the harpoon, line, and bladder 
 lie in proper order." ^ As soon as the 
 seal is struck, the point of the spear 
 detaches itself from the shaft, and 
 at the same moment the Esquimaux 
 throws the large air-bladder on to the 
 Fig. 272.-Esquimaux ^^tcr. This is often dragged under 
 
 spear- head, actual size. . °° 
 
 water a little way, but it is so great 
 an impediment, that the seal is soon obliged to come 
 up. "The Greenlander hastens to the spot where he 
 sees the bladder rise up, and smites the seal as soon as 
 it appears" with the great lance or "angovigak." This 
 is not barbed, and does not therefore remain in the seal's 
 body, but can be used again and again until the animal is 
 
 1 Arctic Explorations^ vol. ii. p. 129. - Crantz, p. 154.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 
 
 501 
 
 exhausted. The second way is the " clapper-hunt." If 
 the Esquimaux find, or can drive any seals into the creeks 
 or inlets, they frighten them by shouting, clapping, and 
 throwing stones every time they come up to 
 breathe, until at last they are exhausted and 
 easily killed. In winter, when the sea is 
 frozen, the seals, which are obliged to come 
 up from time to time for the sake of air, 
 keep open certain breathing-holes for this 
 purpose, and the Esquimaux, when he has 
 found one of these, waits patiently till the 
 seal makes its appearance, when he kills it 
 instantly with his harpoon. 
 
 Fig. 274 represents a modern chert Esqui- 
 maux harpoon head found in the body of a 
 whale. "While the 
 Dundee whaling 
 steamship Eclipse^ 
 commanded by Cap- 
 tain Milne, was fish- 
 ing in Coutt's Inlet, 
 Davis Straits, a large 
 bone'"'ha,'^ whalc was harpooncd 
 poon, one- and killed. While 
 the animal was in 
 process of dissection, 
 one of the knives came in con- 
 tact with some hard substance, 
 betokening the presence of some 
 foreign body, which proved to 
 be the lance-head of chert, em- 
 bedded in the blubber at a depth 
 of about three inches from the 
 surface. It measures 3-^ inches 
 long, 2^ inches greatest breadth of blade, i-jL inches 
 greatest width of haft, and in thickness about half an inch." 
 The form of the implement is that of the " tobang " or 
 harpoon formerly used by the Esquimaux of North-East 
 America. At the present day, however, the harpoons 
 
 Fig. 
 
 one- 
 third of the 
 actual size. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 274. — Modern Esquimaux'' 
 chert harpoon.
 
 502 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 are tipped with bone, and the use of chert has been 
 abandoned. As the Esquimaux, however, only attack 
 whales when young, this weapon may have been in the 
 animal for many years. ^ 
 
 The Esquimaux are excellent deer-stalkers, and are 
 much assisted by the skill with which they can imitate 
 the cry of the reindeer. Fish are caught sometimes with 
 the hook and line, sometimes by means of small nets 
 when they come to the shore in shoals to spawn, or 
 finally with the spear. The nets are made of " small 
 hoops or rings of whalebone, firmly lashed together with 
 rings of the same material." ^ The fishing-lines are also 
 made of whalebone.^ Salmon are sometimes so abundant 
 that in Boothia Felix Sir John Ross bought a ton weight 
 for a single knife. For killing birds they use an instru- 
 ment in some respects like the "bolas" of South America : 
 a number of stones or walrus teeth being fastened to 
 short pieces of string, and all the strings then tied together 
 at the other end.* The spears, which are intended to be 
 thrown at birds or other small animals, have a double 
 fork at the extremity, and three other barbed points near 
 the middle. These diverge in different directions, so 
 that if the end pair should miss, one of the central trio 
 might strike the victim. Aquatic birds are also caught 
 in whalebone nooses ; but the " moulting season is the 
 great bird-harvest, as a few persons wading into the 
 shallow lakes can soon tire out the birds and catch them 
 by hand." ^ 
 
 The so-called " Arctic Highlanders," however, are said 
 to have no means of killing the reindeer, though it abounds 
 in their country ; nor have they the art of fishing, although, 
 curiously enough, they catch large numbers of birds in 
 small hand-nets. Seals, bears, walrus, and birds constitute 
 almost the whole of their diet.° Neither the American 
 
 ' Proceedings of the Soc. Antiq. of Scot. ^ vol. xxxi., 1896-7, p. 279. 
 
 2 Parry, I.e., p. 100. •' Egede, I.e., p. 107. 
 
 * Simpson, I.e., p. 156. '"' Lyon's /<7«;7/«/, p. 338. 
 
 " Kane, Arctic Explorations., vol. ii. pp. 208, 210. See also Richardson's 
 Arctic Expedition, vol. ii. p. 25 ; Simpson's Discoveries ifi North 
 America, p. 347 ; Ross, I.e., p. 585.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 503 
 
 nor Greenland Esquimaux have succeeded In taming the 
 reindeer. Dogs are their only domestic animals, and are 
 sometimes used In hunting, but principally to draw the 
 sledges. 
 
 The sledges vary much both In materials and form : 
 according to Captain Lyon, the best are made of the jaw- 
 bones of the whale, sawn to about two Inches In thickness, 
 and from six Inches to a foot In depth. These are the 
 runners, and are shod with a thin plank of the same 
 material. The sides are connected by pieces of bone, 
 horn, or wood, firmly lashed together. In Boothia 
 Sir John Ross saw sledges in which the runners were 
 made of salmon, packed Into a cylinder, rolled up In 
 skins, and frozen together. In spring the skins are 
 made Into bags, and the fish are eaten. ^ Altogether 
 these sledges are well constructed, when It is considered 
 with what simple tools they are made. 
 
 The dogs by which these sledges are drawn are by no 
 means easy to manage. Each has a separate trace 
 attached to the front of the sledge, passing between the 
 legs, and fastened in front to a collar. The dogs there- 
 fore are nearly abreast, and the traces are very liable to 
 become entangled. The team Is guided by throwing the 
 lash of the whip on one side or the other, and repeating 
 certain words. " Wooa," as among our carters, means 
 " Stop." 2 
 
 Their boats are also very ingeniously built, and are of 
 two kinds : the kajak or men's boat, and the umiak or 
 women's boat. The kajak Is from eighteen to twenty feet 
 long, eighteen inches broad In the middle, tapering to both 
 ends, and scarcely a foot deep. It has no outriggers, and 
 is therefore very difficult to sit in. It is quite covered 
 over at the top, with the exception of a hole in the middle. 
 Into which the Esquimaux puts his legs. The boat 
 therefore cannot fill with water, and even if it upsets, can 
 be righted again by a sudden jerk of the oar, or rather 
 
 ' Z.f., Appendix, p. 24. 
 
 ^ Parry's Three Voyages for the Discovoy of a N. IV. Passage, vol. iv. 
 p. 310.
 
 504 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 paddle. Indeed, a skilful Esquimaux will even turn 
 somersaults in the water in his boat. In spite of this, 
 they are frequently drowned : and, indeed, so dangerous 
 is the navigation that they generally go in pairs, so as to 
 assist one another on an emergency, for the skin sides of 
 the kajak are very thin, and if they come in contact with 
 any of the floating ice or drift-timber which abound in 
 the Greenland seas, are liable to be torn open, in which 
 case the unfortunate Esquimaux has little chance of 
 saving himself. The umiak is much larger and has a 
 flat bottom. It is made of slender laths, fastened together 
 with whalebone, and covered over with sealskins. The 
 Esquimaux observed by Ross, at the northern end of 
 Baffin's Bay, were entirely without canoes, and were 
 "ignorant, even traditionally, of the existence of a boat."^ 
 It is, as he justly observes, an extraordinary thing to find 
 " a maritime and a fishing tribe unacquainted with any 
 means of floating on the water" ; but we must remember 
 that they had no wood, and that there were only a few 
 weeks in the year when the sea was unfrozen. No 
 wonder that Ross's ships were mistaken for living 
 creatures,^ and that his boats excited the most unbounded 
 astonishment and admiration. Kane also^ confirms the 
 absence of boats, but he adds "that the kayak was known 
 to them traditionally." 
 
 In the preparation of skins the Esquimaux use certain 
 stone instruments (figs. 1 14-1 16), which have frequently 
 been overlooked on account of their simplicity, but 
 which yet are interesting because they are exactly similar 
 to certain ancient implements which are very common in 
 various parts of Europe, and have been already described 
 in page 94. The collection bequeathed by my lamented 
 friend, Mr Christy, to the nation, and which is now in 
 the British Museum, contains four of these skin-scrapers, 
 three of which were obtained from the Esquimaux north 
 of Behring Straits. These are set in fossil ivory. The 
 fourth was found in a Greenland grave, probably not 
 
 ' Ross, Boffins Bay^ p. 170. 
 
 2 L.c, p. 118. •' Arctic Explorations, vol. ii. pp. 135, 210.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 505 
 
 older than the fifteenth century, and belonging to the 
 Stone Period which supervened when the intercourse 
 with Norway was suspended. Some archaeologists had 
 considered that the " scrapers " were " probably knives, 
 the prolonged thick ends of which were intended for 
 handles, to be held between the finger and thumb, or 
 possibly for attachment to a short wooden shaft." ^ The 
 true nature and use of the ancient skin-scrapers has, 
 however, been entirely explained by these modern 
 specimens, with which they are absolutely identical. 
 The method of preparing skins is curious and ingenious, 
 but very disgusting. 
 
 The clothes of the Esquimaux are made from the skins 
 of reindeer, seals, and birds, sewn 
 together with sinews. For needles 
 they use bones either of birds or 
 fishes ; yet with these simple instru- 
 ments they sew very strongly and well. 
 The outer dress of the men resembles ^'i:- 275-— Esquimaux 
 
 cheek-stud of stone. 
 
 a short great-coat, with a hood that can 
 be pulled over the head if necessary, and which serves 
 as a substitute for a hat or cap. Their under-garments 
 or shirts are made of bird-skins with the feathers inwards ; 
 or of skins with the hair inside ; sometimes, however, 
 they wear in addition another shirt made of seal's entrails. 
 Their breeches, " of which in winter they also wear two 
 pair, and similarly disposed as to the f ur," ^ are either 
 of seal-skin or reindeer-skin, and their stockings of skins 
 from very young animals. The boots are of smooth 
 black dressed seal's leather, and sometimes when at sea 
 they wear a great overcoat of the same material. Their 
 clothes are generally very greasy and dirty, and swarm 
 with lice. The dress of the women does not differ much 
 from that of the men. 
 
 Among the western tribes the principal ornaments are 
 cheek-studs (fig. 275) or pieces of polished stone or bone, 
 which are worn in the lower lip or cheeks. The hole is 
 made in early infancy, and gradually enlarged by a series 
 
 ' See Archcpologia, vol. xxxviii. p. 415. ^ Parry, /.r., p. 495.
 
 5o6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of "guides."^ These " labrets," however, are not worn 
 by the eastern tribes. According to Richardson, they 
 are in use from Behring Straits to the Mackenzie River.'^ 
 They are worn exclusively by the men. The women 
 paint their eyebrows ; and tattoo the face, and especially 
 the chin, in blue lines.^ The other ornaments consist of 
 strips of variously coloured fur, and fringes of pierced 
 teeth, generally those of the fox or wolf. Among the 
 Esquimaux visited by Captain Lyon, the ornaments were 
 all appropriated by the men.* Some of the families are 
 in the habit of tattooincr themselves. 
 
 o 
 
 The men hunt and fish. They make the weapons and 
 implements, and prepare the woodwork of the boats. 
 The women ^ are the cooks, prepare the skins, and make 
 the clothes. They also repair the houses, tents, and 
 boats, the men doing only carpenter's work. Though 
 they do not appear to be harshly treated, still the women 
 have certainly "a hard and almost slavish life of it," 
 although perhaps, after all, not more so than the men. 
 
 The Esquimaux are not altogether without music. They 
 have a kind of drum, and sing both alone and in chorus. 
 They are acquainted with several kinds of games,^ both 
 of strength and skill, and are fond of dances, which are 
 often very indecent. One of their games resembled our 
 cat's-cradle,^ and Kane saw the children in Smith's Sound 
 playing hockey on the ice. The Esquimaux have also a 
 great natural ability for drawing. In many cases they 
 have made rude maps for our officers, which have turned 
 out to be substantially correct. Many of their bone 
 implements are covered with sketches. Figs. 276-278 
 represent three bone drill-bows presented to the Ash- 
 molean Museum by Captain Beechey, and which I pre- 
 sume to be some of those which he obtained in Hotham 
 Inlet, Kotzebue Sound, and described in his Voyage to 
 
 ' Vancouver's Voyai^e, vol. ii. p. 280 ; see also p. 408 ; Belcher, /.r., 
 
 p. 141- 
 
 2 Arctic Expedition^ vol. i. p. 355. 
 
 •' Beechey's Voyage^ vol. i. p. 280. 
 
 ' \^yoriS Journal^ P- 3'4- ^ Crantz, p. 164. 
 
 ^ Egede, I.e., p. 162. ' Hall, I.e., vol. ii. p. 316.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 
 
 507 
 
 the Pacific. In fig. 278 we see yourts, or winter-houses, 
 in two cases, with dogs standing on them ; men armed 
 with bows and arrows, and others 
 dragging seals home over the ice, 
 and one man about to spear a rein- 
 deer with a movable-headed harpoon. 
 In fig. 277 are reindeer, geese, a 
 baidar, or flat-bottomed boat, a tent, 
 round which various articles of 
 clothing are hung up to dry, a 
 woman, apparently engaged in the 
 preparation of food, and a hunting 
 scene. A decoy, roughly represent- 
 ing the head and antlers of a rein- 
 deer, has been put up ; and a real 
 reindeer, while unsuspiciously brows- 
 ing close by, is about to be shot by 
 an Esquimaux hunter. In fig. 276 
 are represented two animals, ap- 
 parently intended for crocodiles ; 
 the draughtsman must, I think, 
 have seen drawings of this animal 
 in some European vessel. 
 
 According to Crantz, the Green- 
 land Esquimaux " have neither a 
 religious nor an idolatrous worship, 
 nor so much as any ceremonies to 
 be perceived tending towards it." ^ 
 This statement has been confirmed 
 by many other observers." Their 
 burial ceremonies have, however, 
 been supposed by some to indicate 
 a belief in the resurrection. They 
 generally bend the body into a sit- 
 ting posture, bringing the knees up 
 under the chin, and then wrap the corpse in one of 
 
 • L.c, p. 197. 
 
 2 Graah's Voyao^e to Greenland, p. 123 ; Ross, Baffi7i^s Bay, vol. i. 
 p. 175 ; Voyage of Discovery, p. 128; Parry, I.e., p. 551 ; Richardson's 
 Arctic E.vpediiioti, vol. ii. p. 44 ; Egede, I.e., p. 183. 
 
 Fig. 276. — Drawings on 
 Esquimaux bone implement.
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 i\ 
 
 CE 
 
 ^ 
 
 <^ 
 
 •^ 
 
 W 
 
 Fig. 277. — Drawings 
 on Esquimaux bone 
 implement. 
 
 their best skins. For the grave they 
 choose some high place, and over the 
 corpse they make a heap of stones. 
 Near the body some of them place the 
 implements of the deceased, and even 
 sometimes, if he was a man, his kajak ; 
 believing, as it has been said, that they 
 will be of use to him in the new world. 
 Egede,^ however, expressly denies that 
 it is done with any such idea. This 
 view is also confirmed by Hall, accord- 
 ing to whom the Esquimaux have a 
 superstitious objection to use, or even 
 touch, anything which has been in a 
 house containing a dead body.^ It is, 
 perhaps, the same idea which induces 
 them to remove a corpse, not through 
 the ordinary entrance, but by way of 
 the window.^ In other cases, when a 
 person is evidently dying, they place by 
 him everything which can soothe and 
 comfort his last moments, and then 
 leave the igloo, or house, which they 
 close up, thus converting it into a tomb.* 
 Crantz tells us that they " lay a dog's 
 head by the grave of a child, for the 
 soul of a dog can find its way anywhere, 
 and will show the ignorant babe the 
 way to the land of souls," and this is 
 admitted by Egede. Moreover, the 
 custom of occasionally burying models 
 of implements, instead of the imple- 
 ments themselves, tends to the same 
 conclusion. 
 
 Captain Cook saw burial-mounds of 
 
 1 L.c, p. 151. 
 
 2 L.c, vol. i. p. 201, vol. ii. p. 221. 
 
 ^ Graah, I.e., p. 128; Ross, A?ctic Expeditiojt, 
 1829-33, p. 290. 
 
 •> Graah, I.e., p. 126.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 
 
 509 
 
 ;i^ 
 
 earth or stone at Oonalashka. One of the latter was 
 near the village, and he observed that, 
 in accordance with a custom which seems 
 to prevail all over the world, everyone 
 who passed threw a stone on it.^ Infants, 
 if unfortunate enough to lose their 
 mothers, are always buried with them ; 
 and sickly aged people are sometimes 
 buried alive, as it is considered a kindness 
 to spare them the pain of a lingering 
 death. The Esquimaux observed by 
 Captain Parry had a superstitious idea 
 that any weight pressing upon the corpse 
 would give pain to the deceased." Such 
 a belief would naturally give rise, in a 
 more favoured country, to vaulted tumuli ; 
 but in the extreme north, the only result 
 is that the dead bodies are but slightly 
 covered up, in consequence of which the 
 foxes and dogs frequently dig them up 
 and eat them. This the natives regard 
 with the utmost indifference ; they leave 
 the human bones lying about near the 
 huts, among those of animals which have 
 served for food : another reason for doubt- 
 ing whether their burial customs can be 
 regarded as satisfactory evidence of any 
 very definite and general belief in a resur- 
 rection, or whether the objects which 
 they bury with their friends are really 
 supposed to be of actual use to them. 
 On the whole, the burial customs of the 
 Esquimaux are very like those of which 
 we find evidence in the ancient tumuli of 
 Northern and Western Europe. 
 
 In character the Esquimaux are a 
 quiet, peaceable people. Those observed 
 
 •k 
 
 1 Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, vol. ii. p. 519. 
 - Z..C., pp. 395, 417, 550. 
 
 Fig. 278. — Drawings 
 on Esquimaux bone 
 implement.
 
 5IO PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 by Ross, in Baffin's Bay, " could not be made to under- 
 stand what was meant by war, nor had they any warlike 
 weapons."^ Like other savages, they resemble children 
 in a great many respects. They are such bad arithme- 
 ticians that the " enumeration of ten is a labour, and of 
 fifteen an impossibility with many of them." ^ Dr Rae, 
 who was much attached to the Esquimaux, assures us 
 that if a man is asked the number of his children, he 
 is generally much puzzled. After counting some time 
 on his fingers, he will probably consult his wife, and the 
 two often differ, even though they may not have more 
 than four or five.^ 
 
 Amongst the Esquimaux both polygamy and polyandry 
 appear to occur. A strong or skilful man has often more 
 than one wife, a beautiful or clever woman in some cases 
 more than one husband.* Again, the temporary loan of 
 a wife is considered a mark of peculiar friendship ; in 
 which, however, the advantage is not all on one side, 
 as a large family, far from being any incumbrance, is 
 among the Esquimaux a great advantage.^ Apart, more- 
 over, from these recognized customs, it does not appear 
 that the Esquimaux set any very high value on the 
 virtue of chastity. 
 
 They are excessively dirty. Considering the difficulty 
 in obtaining enough water even to drink during the 
 greater part of the year, we cannot, perhaps, wonder that 
 they never dream of washing. Their word for dirt, eberk^ 
 conveys no idea of anything disagreeable or offensive ; ^ 
 but, in justice to them, we must remember that the 
 extreme cold, by preventing putrefaction, removes one 
 of our principal inducements to cleanliness, and at the 
 same time induces so great a scarcity of liquid water as 
 to render washing almost an impossibility. Indeed, they 
 often have difficulty in procuring enough even for drink- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 ^ L.c, p. 1 86. '-^ Parry, I.e., p. 251. 
 
 ^ See, for a curious instance of this, Graah, I.e., p. 131. 
 ^ Ross, I.e., p. 273. ■■ lb., I.e., p. 515. 
 
 ** Kane, Arctic Explorations, vol. ii. p. 1 16.
 
 THE ESQUIMAUX 511 
 
 As a general rule, it is impossible to put any dependence 
 on their promises, not so much that they are intentionally 
 deceitful as on account of the wavering and inconstant 
 disposition which they possess in common with so many 
 other savages. Among themselves a successful huntsman 
 or fisherman is always ready to share his seal or walrus 
 with his less fortunate neighbours ; but he expects, as a 
 matter of course, that sufficient return will be made to 
 him when an opportunity occurs. They give away no- 
 thing themselves without expecting to receive as much 
 again, and, being unable to imagine any other line of 
 conduct, are naturally very deficient in gratitude. Sir John 
 Ross, however, and Dr Rae consider that the Esquimaux 
 encountered by them were neither ungrateful nor particu- 
 larly selfish. In other respects also these appear to have 
 been very favourable specimens of the race. Though 
 not cruel, the Esquimaux seem to be a somewhat heartless 
 people. They do not, indeed, feel any actual pleasure 
 in the infliction of pain, but they will take little trouble 
 to remove or relieve suffering. They are also great 
 thieves ; but, as Captain Parry truly observes,^ we must 
 " make due allowance for the degree of temptation to 
 which they were daily exposed, amidst the boundless stores 
 of wealth which our ships appear to them to furnish." 
 According to Hall," moreover, they are strictly honest 
 among themselves, kind, generous, and trustworthy. 
 
 Parry thus describes them : " In the few opportunities 
 we had of putting their hospitality to the test, we had 
 every reason to be pleased with them. Both as to food 
 and accommodation, the best they had were always at 
 our service ; and their attention, both in kind and degree, 
 was everything that hospitality and even good breeding 
 could dictate. The kindly offices of drying and mending 
 our clothes, cooking our provisions, and thawing snow 
 for our drink, were performed by the women with an 
 obliging cheerfulness which we shall not easily forget, 
 and which commanded its due share of our admiration 
 and esteem. While thus their guest, I have passed an 
 * L.c.^ p. 522. - Z.r., vol. ii. p. 312.
 
 512 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 evening not only with comfort, but with extreme gratifica- 
 tion ; for, with the women working and singing, their 
 husbands quietly mending their lines, the children playing 
 before the door, and the pot boiling over the blaze of 
 a cheerful lamp, one might well forget for the time that 
 an Esquimaux hut was the scene of this domestic comfort 
 and tranquillity ; and I can safely affirm with Cartwright 
 that, while thus lodged beneath their roof, I know no 
 people whom I would more confidently trust, as respects 
 either my person or my property, than the Esquimaux." ^ 
 Dr Rae has also a very high opinion of them, and 
 they seem from all accounts to present the remarkable 
 phenomenon of a really high state of morality without 
 anything which can be called religion. 
 
 The North American Indians 
 
 The aboriginal, or at least the pre-Columbian, inhabitants 
 of North America, fall naturally into three divisions : the 
 Esquimaux in the extreme north, the Indian tribes in 
 the centre, and the comparatively civilized Mexicans in 
 the south. The central tribes, which occupied by far 
 the greater extent of the continent, were again divided by 
 the Rocky Mountains into two great groups, that on 
 the western side being in much the most abject condition. 
 Though no doubt there was and is an immense diflference 
 between different tribes — and particularly between the 
 semi-agricultural nations of the west and the filthy 
 barbarians of northern California — still, as Mr Schoolcraft, 
 to whom we are indebted for an excellent work on the 
 History^ Condition^ and Prospects of the Indian Tribes^ truly 
 says, " their manners and customs, their opinions and 
 mental habits, had, wherever they were inquired into, at 
 the earliest dates, much in common. Their modes of 
 war and worship, hunting and amusements were very 
 similar. In the sacrifice of prisoners taken in war ; in 
 
 ^ Parry's I'hr-ee Voyages for the Discovery of a North- West Passage^ 
 vol. V. p. 13. 
 
 - Published by authority of Congress, Philadelphia, 1853 ; see also 
 Bancroft, Tlie Native Races of the Pacific States.
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 513 
 
 the laws of retaliation ; in the sacred character attached 
 to public transactions solemnized by smoking the pipe ; 
 in the adoption of persons taken in war, in families ; in 
 the exhibition of dances on almost every occasion that 
 can enlist human sympathy ; in the meagre and inartificial 
 style of music ; in the totemic tie that binds relationships 
 together, and in the system of symbols and figures cut 
 and marked on their grave-posts, on trees, and sometimes 
 on rocks, there is a perfect identity of principles, arts, 
 and opinions. The mere act of wandering and petty 
 warfare kept them in a savage state, though they had 
 the element of civilization with them in the maize." ^ 
 
 As regards dress, many of the Indian chiefs had 
 magnificent dresses of skins and feathers. Some of the 
 tribes, indeed, wore no clothes ; but this was rarely the 
 case with the women, and even the men had generally 
 at least a loin-cloth. The amount of clothing, however, 
 depended very much on the temperature. In the plains 
 and forests of the tropical and southern latitudes, " the 
 Indian wears little or no clothing during a large part 
 of the year " ; but it is very different on the mountains 
 and in the north, where the common dress was the 
 breech-cloth and moccasins, with a buffalo-skin thrown 
 over the shoulders. The inhabitants of Vancouver's 
 Island had mats, made either of dog's-wool alone, or of 
 dog's -wool and goose -down together, or of threads 
 obtained from cedar-bark. They often wore " necklaces 
 of shells, claws, or wampum ; feathers on the head and 
 armlets, as well as ear and nose jewels.'""^ Many of 
 the Indian tribes are clean in their person, and frequently 
 use both the sweat-house and cold bath ; others are 
 described as repulsive in countenance and filthy both in 
 person and habit. 
 
 Among the western tribes tattooing is very general 
 with the women, though not carried to any great extent. 
 
 The eastern tribes do not generally disfigure themselves 
 artificially, except indeed by the use of paint ; but it is 
 very different in the west. The Sachet Indians of De 
 
 1 Z,.f., vol. ii. p. 47. - Schoolcraft, vol. iii. p. 6=;. 
 
 33
 
 514 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Fuca's Straits wear pieces of bone or wood passed through 
 the cartilage of the nose ; the Classet Indians cut their 
 noses when they capture a whale ; among the Babines, 
 who live north of Columbia River, the size of the under- 
 lip is the standard of female beauty/ A hole is made in 
 the under-lip of the infant, in which a small bone is 
 inserted ; from time to time the bone is replaced by a 
 larger one, until at last a piece of wood three inches long 
 and an inch and a half wide is inserted in the orifice, 
 which makes the lip protrude to a frightful extent. The 
 process appears to be very painful. 
 
 Owing to the almost universal custom of fastening 
 babies to a cradle-board, the American skulls are charac- 
 terized by a flattened occiput. This peculiarity does not 
 now occur in European heads, but it is found in many 
 ancient skulls from various parts of the old continents, 
 and indicates, as pointed out by Vesalius, Gosse, and 
 Wilson, that the cradle-board, though long abandoned, 
 was at one time used in Western Europe, as it is even 
 now amons the Indians of North America. The extra- 
 ordinary practice of moulding the form of the head was 
 common to several of the Indian tribes. It prevailed in 
 Mexico and Peru, in the Carib Islands, and among the 
 savage tribes of Oregon. Among the Natchez the de- 
 formity is described by the historian of De Soto's expedi- 
 tion as consisting of an upward elongation of the cranium, 
 until it terminated in a point or edge. The Choctaws, 
 though enemies of the Natchez, " improved " their heads 
 in the same way. Their children were placed upon a 
 board, and a bag of sand was laid upon the forehead, 
 " which, by continual gentle compressure, gives the 
 forehead somewhat the form of a brick from the temples 
 upwards, and by these means they have high and lofty 
 foreheads sloping off backwards." ^ The Waxsaws, 
 Muscogees or Crees, Catawbas, and Altacapas, are 
 described as having had a similar custom. It was, how- 
 
 • Kean's Indiafis of North America, p. 242 ; Vancouver, I.e., vol. ii, 
 pp. 280, 408. 
 
 - Schoolcraft, I.e., vol. ii. p. 324.
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 515 
 
 ever, only the male infants which were treated in this 
 manner. Among the Nootka-Columbians the practice 
 of flattening the head was universal. The child was 
 placed in a box or cradle lined with moss. The Newatees, 
 a tribe residing on the north end of Vancouver's Island, 
 forced the head into a conical shape by means of a cord 
 of deer-skin padded with the inner bark of the cedar-tree. 
 The cord, which is about as thick as a man's thumb, is 
 wound round the infant's head, and gradually forces it to 
 take the shape of a tapering cone.^ Among the Peruvians 
 the forehead was pressed downwards and backwards by 
 tight bandages, of which there seem to have been generally 
 two, leaving a space between them, and thus producing a 
 well-marked ridge running transversely across the skull. 
 Thus, while the forehead was prevented from rising and 
 the sides of the head from expanding, the occipital region 
 was allowed full freedom of growth, and the development 
 of the brain was forced to take an unnatural direction. 
 It is very remarkable that this unnatural process does not 
 appear to have any prejudicial effect on the minds of the 
 sufferers.'^ 
 
 Hearne states that the Northern Indians had no religion ; 
 even the celebrated " five nations " of Canada, according 
 to Colden, had no religion, nor any word for God. 
 Burnet ^ never found any semblance of worship among 
 the Comanches. In the central parts of North America, 
 however, the Indian tribes generally believed in the 
 existence of a Great Spirit, and the survival of the soul ; 
 but they seem to have had scarcely any religious observ- 
 ances, still less any edifices for sacred purposes. The 
 Dacotahs never pray to the Creator ; if they wish for 
 fine weather, they pray to the weather itself. They are 
 said to have believed that the Great Spirit made all 
 things except thunder and rice, but we are not told the 
 reason for these two curious exceptions. 
 
 1 Wilson on Physical Ethnology, Smithsonian Report, 1862, p. 288. 
 
 - Beecher's Voyage round the IVo/d, vol. i. p. 308 ; Wilson, Smithsonian 
 Report, 1862, p. 287. 
 
 •* Schoolcraft, vol. i. p. 237. See also Richardson's Arctic Expedition., 
 vol. ii. p. 21.
 
 5i6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The social position of the women seems to have been 
 very degraded among the aboriginal tribes of North 
 America. "Their wives, or dogs, as some of the Indians 
 term them," were indeed well treated as long as they did 
 all the work and there was plenty to eat ; but through- 
 out the Continent, as indeed among all savages, the 
 domestic drudgery falls to their lot, while the men hunt 
 and make war ; though in justice to them we must 
 remember that the former at least of these two occupa- 
 tions was of the greatest possible importance, and that 
 upon it depended their principal means of subsistence. 
 Polygamy generally prevailed ; the husband had absolute 
 power over his wives, and the marriage lasted only as 
 long as he pleased. Among some of the North Californian 
 Indians it is not thought right to beat the wives, but the 
 men " allow themselves the privilege of shooting such as 
 they tired of."^ Among the Dogribs and other northern 
 tribes, the women are the property of the strongest. 
 Everyone is considered to have both a legal and moral 
 right to take the wife of any man weaker than he is. In 
 fact, the men fight for the possession of the women, just 
 like stags and the males of other wild beasts.^ Lending 
 wives is a frequent custom.^ 
 
 " Imperturbability,* in all situations, is one of the most 
 striking and general traits of the Indian character. To 
 still his muscles to resist the expression of all emotion 
 seems to be his great ambition ; and this is particularly 
 observed on public occasions. Neither fear nor joy are 
 permitted to break this trained equanimity." Even 
 among relations " it is not customary to indulge in warm 
 greetings. The pride and stoicism of the hunter and 
 warrior forbid it. The pride of the wife, who has been 
 made the creature of rough endurance, also forbids it." 
 
 But perhaps the most remarkable evidence of this is 
 the fact that some of the American languages, and even 
 
 1 Colonel M'Kee in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes^ vol. iii. p. 127. 
 
 2 See Hearne's/t'/z/v/rj' to the Cop/>cr-Mi?ic River ^ p. 104. 
 
 ^ Heaine, I.e., p. 128 ; Carver's Travels, p. 131 ; James' Expedition to 
 the Rocky Mountains, vol. i. p. 212. 
 ^ Schoolcraft, vol. iii. p. 58.
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 517 
 
 the Algonquin, although one of the richest, contained no 
 word for " to love " ; and when Eliot translated the 
 Bible for them in 1661 he was obliged to coin one. He 
 introduced the word "woman" to supply the want. 
 Again, the Tinne language^ contains no word to express 
 " dear " or " beloved." It is only fair to add that Kane 
 found the Cree Indians swearing in French, having no 
 oaths in their own language.- Mr Schoolcraft records, 
 as an indication that they are in reality of affectionate 
 disposition, that he " once saw a Fox Indian on the banks 
 of the Mississippi, near whose wigwam I had, unnoticed 
 to him, wandered, take up his male infant in his arms, 
 and several times kiss it." ^ The special mention of this 
 fact conveys a different impression from that which was 
 intended. Nevertheless, among the better tribes many 
 no doubt are capable of feeling strong affection, and there 
 are even cases on record in which the father has redeemed 
 his son from the stake, and actually been burnt in his 
 stead. 
 
 Partly no doubt from the hatred produced by almost 
 incessant wars, partly perhaps encouraged by the stoical 
 disregard of pain which it was their pride to affect, the 
 North American Indians were very cruel to captives taken 
 in war. Scalping seems to have been an universal practice, 
 and it is even said that the Sioux sometimes ate the hearts 
 of their enemies, every one of the war-party getting a 
 mouthful, if possible. 
 
 Infanticide was common in the north, but does not 
 seem to have prevailed among the southern tribes to any 
 great extent ; and until the advent of Europeans they do 
 not appear to have had any fermented liquors. The 
 Sioux, Assiniboines and other tribes on the Missouri are 
 said to have habitually abandoned those who from age or 
 infirmities were unable to follow the hunting-camps. 
 The same was frequently the case among the northern 
 tribes. 
 
 Copper is found native in the northern districts, and 
 
 1 Richardson's y4;r//<: Expedition, vol. ii. p. 24. 
 
 2 L.c, p. 339. 3 j^^^ ^.q1 iij p g^
 
 5i8 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 even before the advent of the Europeans was used for 
 hatchets, bracelets, etc Nevertheless, it was used rather 
 as a stone than as a metal ; that is to say, the Indians did 
 not heat it and run it into moulds, or work it when hot, 
 but simply took advantage of its malleability and hammered 
 it into form, without the assistance of heat. Metallic 
 vessels were quite unknown to the aborigines of North 
 America. 
 
 The implements of the Shoshonees, or Snake Indians, 
 are described by Wyeth. Their possessions were confined 
 to " the pot, bow and arrow, knives, graining tools, awls, 
 root-digger, fish-spears, nets, a kind of boat or raft, the 
 pipe, mats for shelter, and implements to produce fire," ^ 
 
 The pot was made of " long tough roots, wound in 
 plies around a centre, shortening the circumference of the 
 outer plies so as to form a vessel in the shape of an in- 
 verted beehive." They were so well made as to be quite 
 water-tight, and though, of course, they could not be put 
 on the fire, still they were used for boiling, in the manner 
 already described as practised by other savages. The 
 Dacotahs are said to have sometimes boiled animals in 
 their own skins, taking the skin off whole, suspending it 
 at the four corners, and making use of boiling stones as 
 usual. They had also stone vessels, but these were rare, 
 and probably used only as mortars. 
 
 Their bows are skilfully made of the horns of the 
 mountain sheep and elk, or sometimes of wood. " The 
 string is of twisted sinew, and is used loose, and those 
 using this bow require a guard to protect the hand which 
 holds it." The arrow is driven with such force that it 
 will pass right through the body of a horse or buffalo.^ 
 Although on the whole far inferior to the rifle, still, in 
 hunting, the bow has the one great advantage of silence. 
 Among several of the tribes, arrow-making was a distinct 
 profession. The arrow-heads are of obsidian, about three- 
 
 1 Schoolcraft, vol. i. p. 212. 
 
 2 Ibid., I c, vol. iii. pp. 35, 46 ; Kane's North American fndi/if7s, p. 141 ; 
 Catlin, I.e., vol. i. p. 31, vol. ii. p. 212 ; M'Kean and Hall's Jndian Tribes, 
 vol. ii. p. 4.
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 519 
 
 fourths of an inch long and half an inch wide, and quite 
 thin. The base is expanded and is inserted into the split 
 end of the shaft, being kept in its place by sinews. The 
 shaft is about two feet and a half long ; when intended 
 for hunting it is expanded at the end, so that when it 
 is drawn out of the wound the arrow-head is extracted 
 also ; but the shafts of war-arrows taper to the end, 
 so that when they are drawn out the head remains 
 behind. The sling does not appear to have been much 
 used. 
 
 The knives are rudely made of obsidian, and are some- 
 times fastened in handles of wood or horn. The graining 
 tools for preparing skins are sometimes of bone, some- 
 times of obsidian. Mr Wyeth does not describe their 
 form. Awls were made of bone, large thorns also being 
 sometimes used for the purpose. Root-diggers are either 
 made of horns, or of crooked sticks pointed and hardened 
 by fire. " The fish-spear is a very simple and ingenious 
 implement. The head is of bone, to which a small strong 
 line is attached near the middle, connecting it with the 
 shaft about two feet from the point. Near the forward 
 end of this head there is a small hole, which enters it, 
 ranging acutely towards the point of the head ; it is quite 
 shallow. In this hole the front end of the shaft is placed." 
 The shaft is of light willow, and about ten feet long. 
 When the fish is struck, the shaft is withdrawn, and the 
 string at once pulls the bone end into a transverse posi- 
 tion. The fish-nets are made of bark, which gives a 
 very strong line, and are of two kinds, the scoop and the 
 seine. They are, however, unknown among the northern 
 tribes west of the Mackenzie.^ The boats of the Sho- 
 shonees hardly deserve the name, and seem to be used 
 only for crossing rivers. They are about eight feet long, 
 and made of reeds, but there is no attempt to make them 
 water-tight. Other tribes, however, have much better 
 canoes, made either of bark or of a log hollowed out. 
 The pipes are large, and the bowl is generally of fuller's- 
 earth, or of soapstone. The mats are about four feet 
 
 ^ Richardson's Arctic Expedition^ vol. ii. p. 25.
 
 520 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Fig. 279. — Dacotah fire drill bow. 
 
 long, are made of rushes, and are used either as beds, or 
 
 in the construction of wigwams. 
 
 They obtain fire by rubbing a piece of wood in a hole. 
 
 The Chippeways and 
 Natchez tribes had an 
 institution for keeping 
 up a perpetual fire, certain 
 persons being set aside 
 and devoted to this occu- 
 pation. 
 
 The Dacotahs used a 
 drill bow (fig. 279) for 
 the purpose of obtaining 
 fire. This instrument, 
 as shown in the accom- 
 panying figure, is a small 
 
 stiff bow, the string of which forms a loop round the 
 
 upright stick, and thus, when the bow is moved back- 
 wards and forwards, gives it a rotatory movement. The 
 
 Iroquois had effected a still 
 
 further improvement, and 
 
 worked with an instrument 
 
 (fig. 280) closely resembling 
 
 that used in Western Europe, 
 
 in Samoa,^ and Ceylon,^ to drill 
 
 holes in earthenware and metal. 
 The use of the bow drill is 
 
 very ancient. Ulysses used 
 
 one to put out the eye of the 
 
 unfortunate Cyclops. I myself, 
 
 he says, twirled it round, while 
 
 my companions pulled the 
 
 "thong," and it requires no „ „ , . ^ , .,, 
 
 o' p , . T . . Fig. 280. — Iroquois fire pump drill. 
 
 great stretch of the imagination 
 
 to see the strap drill working until " the very roots of 
 the eye hissed in the fire." The bow drill was used 
 still earlier by the Egyptians — even in the fourth dynasty. 
 
 ' Turner, Niiictcen Years in Polynesia^ p. 274. 
 , 2 Davy's Ceylon, p. 263.
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 521 
 
 The huts or wigwams of the North American Indians 
 are of two kinds, one for summer and the other for 
 winter. The winter wigwam of the Dacotahs is thus 
 described by Schoolcraft : " To erect one of them it is 
 only necessary to cut a few saplings about fifteen feet in 
 length, place the large ends on the ground in a circle, 
 letting the tops meet, thus forming a cone. The buffalo 
 skins, sewed together in the form of a cap, are then 
 thrown over them and fastened together with a few 
 splints. The fire is made on the ground in the centre of 
 the wigwam, and the smoke escapes through an aperture 
 at the top. These wigwams are warm and comfortable. 
 The other kind of hut is made of bark, usually that of 
 the elm." ^ The huts of the Mandans," Minatarees, etc., 
 were circular in form, and from forty to sixty feet in 
 diameter. The earth was removed to a depth of about 
 two feet. The framework was of timber, covered with 
 willow boughs, but leaving a space in the middle to 
 serve both as chimney and window. Over the woodwork 
 was placed a thick layer of earth, and at the top of all 
 some tough clay, which was impervious to water, and in 
 time became quite hard, as in fine weather the tops of 
 the huts were the common lounging-place for the whole 
 tribe. Though these dwellings were sometimes kept 
 very clean and tidy,^ this was not always the case. 
 Speaking of the Nootka Sound Indians, Captain Cook"* 
 says : " The nastiness and stench of their houses are, 
 however, at least equal to the confusion. For, as they dry 
 their fish within doors, they also gut them there, which, 
 with their bones and frac^ments thrown down at meals, and 
 the addition of other sorts of filth, lie everywhere in heaps, 
 and are, I believe, never carried away till it becomes 
 troublesome, from their size, to walk over them. In a 
 word, their houses are as filthy as hog-sties : everything in 
 and about them stinking of fish, train-oil, and smoke." 
 
 ' L.C., vol. ii. p. 191. 
 
 '^ This tribe, one of the most interesting, has been entirely swept away 
 by the smallpox. 
 
 "^ Catlin's America)} Indians, vol. i. p. 82. 
 * Third Voyage^ vol. ii. p. 316.
 
 522 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 The Wallawalla Indians ^ of Columbia dig a circular 
 hole in the ground about ten or twelve feet deep, and 
 from forty to fifty feet in circumference, and cover it 
 over with driftwood and mud. A hole is left on one 
 side for a door, and a notched pole serves as a ladder. 
 Here twelve or fifteen persons burrow through the 
 winter, requiring very little fire, as they generally eat 
 their salmon raw, and the place is warm from the numbers 
 collected together and the absence of ventilation. In 
 summer they use lodges made of rushes or mats spread 
 on poles. This tribe lives principally on salmon, pre- 
 ferring it putrid. 
 
 South of the Gulf of St Lawrence and west of the 
 Rocky Mountains almost all the tribes seem to have 
 grown more or less maize. In the Carolinas and Virginia 
 the Indians raised large quantities, and "all relied on it as 
 one of their fixed means of subsistence." ^ The Delawares 
 had extensive maize-fields at the time of the discovery of 
 America. In 1527, De Vaca saw it in small quantities in 
 Florida, and De Soto, twelve years later, found it 
 abundant among the Muscogees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
 and Cherokees. On one occasion his army marched 
 through fields of it for a distance of two leagues. It is 
 known to have been cultivated by the Iroquois in 16 10, 
 and, though only in small quantities, " by the hunter com- 
 munities of the Ohio, the Wabagh, the Miami, and the 
 Illinois," as well as by the natives along both banks of the 
 Mississippi. The evidences of ancient agriculture have 
 been already alluded to in the chapter on North American 
 Archaeology ; the maize appears to have been the only 
 plant actually under cultivation ; but some of the tribes 
 depended for their subsistence very much on roots, etc. 
 The principal implement of agriculture seems to have 
 been the hoe, for which they often used the shoulder- 
 blade of the bison fixed into a handle of wood. Wild 
 
 1 Kane's North American Indians, p. 272 ; U7iited States Exploring 
 Expedition^ vol. iv. p. 452. 
 
 - Schoolcraft, I.e., vol. i. p. 6. See also Richardson's Arctic Expedition, 
 vol. ii. p. 51.
 
 NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS 523 
 
 rice also grew abundantly in the shallow lakes and streams 
 of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, as well as in 
 the upper valleys of the Mississippi and Missouri. It 
 was gathered by the women, and formed one of their 
 principal articles of food. They went into the rice-fields 
 in canoes, and, bending the stalks in handfuls over the 
 sides of the canoe, beat out the grain with paddles. 
 
 The North American Indians, however, depended 
 mainly on the animal kingdom for their subsistence. 
 They were essentially hunters and fishermen ; the buffalo, 
 the deer, and the salmon supplying them with their 
 principal articles of food. The buffaloes were sometimes 
 driven into pounds, sometimes shot on the open prairie with 
 bows and arrows. Fish were speared, caught in weirs, 
 etc., or shot with the bow. The Macaws and Clallums on 
 the Pacific coast sometimes even killed whales. For this 
 purpose they use large barbed harpoons of bone, with a 
 string, and a strong sealskin bag filled with air. This 
 apparatus was used in the same manner as among the 
 Esquimaux {ante^ p. 500). Like all carnivorous animals, 
 the Indians alternate between seasons of great plenty and 
 extreme want. Usually game is abundant, and Noka, 
 one of their most celebrated hunters, is said to have 
 killed in one day sixteen elks, four buffaloes, five deer, 
 three bears, a porcupine, and a lynx. This of course was 
 a very exceptional case. Still there is generally some 
 season of the year when they kill more game than is 
 required for immediate consumption. In this case the 
 surplus is dried and made into pemmican. In winter, 
 however, they are often very short of provisions. Back 
 gives a terrible picture of their sufferings in famine 
 times ;^ and Wyeth tells us that the Shoshonees "nearly 
 starve to death annually, and in winter and spring are 
 emaciated to the last degree ; the trappers used to think 
 they all eventually died from starvation, as they became 
 old and feeble." ^ 
 
 1 Arctic Land Expedition, Y>V. 194-226. See also Richardson's ^r<://f 
 Expedition, vol. ii. p. 96. 
 
 2 Schoolcraft, vol. i. p. 216.
 
 524 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 As might naturally be expected, the mode of burial 
 varies much in different parts of North America. In 
 Columbia, and among many of the Prairie tribes, the 
 dead are generally sewn up in a skin or blanket, and 
 placed either on the boughs of a tree or on a scaffold ; 
 the personal property of each deceased individual being 
 placed near the body.^ In some cases the bodies were 
 placed in canoes, and deposited among the branches of 
 trees. Many of the Eastern races, as already mentioned 
 {ante^ p. 265), buried their dead under tumuli. Among 
 the Clear Lake Indians, the Carriers, etc., it was usual to 
 burn them, while in Florida they were interred in a 
 sitting posture. Among other tribes the bones of the 
 dead were collected every eight or ten years, and laid in 
 one common burial-place. Here, therefore, we see that 
 even among nearly allied races the burial customs differed 
 considerably. 
 
 The Redskins are not altogether deficient in art, being 
 able to make rude carvings, and to trace equally rude 
 drawings on their wigwams, robes, etc. ; but about por- 
 traits they have some curious ideas. They think that an 
 artist acquires some mysterious power over anyone 
 whose likeness he may have taken ; and on one occasion, 
 when annoyed by some Indians, Mr Kane got rid of 
 them at once by threatening to draw anyone who 
 remained. Not one ventured to do so. If the likeness 
 is good, so much the worse ; it is, they fancy, half alive 
 — at the expense of the sitter. So much life, they argue, 
 could only be put in the picture by taking it away from 
 the original. Again, they fancy that if the picture were 
 injured, by some mysterious connection the original 
 would suffer also. But perhaps the oddest notion of all 
 is recorded by Catlin. He excited great commotion 
 among the Sioux by drawing one of their great chiefs in 
 profile. " Why was half his face left out ? " they asked ; 
 " Mahtocheega was never ashamed to look a white man 
 in the face." Mahtocheega himself does not seem to 
 have taken any offence, but Shonka, The Dog, took 
 
 * United States Exploring Expedition^ vol. iv. p. 389.
 
 PARAGUAY INDIANS 525 
 
 advantage of the idea to taunt him. " The Englishman 
 knows," he said, " that you are but half a man ; he has 
 painted but one half of your face, and knows that the 
 rest is good for nothing." This view of the case led 
 to a fight, in which poor Mahtocheega was shot ; and 
 as ill-luck would have it, the bullet by which he was 
 killed tore away just that part of the face which had been 
 omitted in the drawing. This was very unfortunate for 
 Mr Catlin, who had great difficulty in making his escape, 
 and lived some months after in fear for his life ; nor 
 was the matter settled until both Shonka and his brother 
 had been killed in revenge for the death of Mahtocheega. 
 Like so many other savage races, the North Americans 
 are rapidly disappearing. Left to themselves they would 
 perhaps have developed an indigenous civilization, but 
 for ours they are unfit. Unable to compete with 
 Europeans as equals, and too proud to work as inferiors, 
 they have profited by intercourse with the superior race 
 only where the paternal government of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company has protected them both from the settlers 
 and from themselves, has encouraged hunting, put an 
 end to war, prevented the sale of spirits, and, in times 
 of scarcity, provided food. Ere long almost the only 
 remains of the Indian blood will, perhaps, be found in 
 the territories of the Hudson's Bay Company. 
 
 The Paraguay Indians 
 
 The Indians of Paraguay have been described by 
 Dobritzhoffer ^ and by Don Felix de Azara,^ who lived a 
 long time among them. He found them divided into 
 several different nations or tribes, with at least forty 
 distinct languages, and with different customs. Some of 
 them lived by fishing, but the greater number depended 
 for their subsistence on the wild horses and cattle, and 
 must therefore have had different habits before the 
 discovery of America by the Europeans. Their principal 
 
 ^ Dobritzhoffer, History of the Abipones. 
 
 ^ Voyages dans I Aincrique Mcridionale, 1809.
 
 526 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 arms were long spears, clubs, and bows and arrows. 
 Some tribes, however, as, for instance, those of the 
 Pampas, do not use bows and arrows, but prefer the 
 bolas. In war, the Indians of Paraguay gave no quarter 
 to men, but spared only the women and children. 
 
 Their houses, if we can call them so, were of the 
 simplest character ; they cut three or four boughs, stuck 
 the two ends into the ground, and threw over them a 
 cow-skin. Their bed consisted of another skin ; they 
 had no chairs or tables, or any kind of furniture. The 
 men seldom wore any clothes ; the dress of the women 
 consisted usually of a poncho, although among some of 
 the tribes, as the Nalicuegas, even this was dispensed 
 with. The art of washing seems to have been entirely 
 unknown, though Azara admits that in very hot weather 
 they used sometimes to bathe, rather, however, as it 
 would appear, for coolness than for cleanliness. It is 
 unnecessary, therefore, to say that they were excessively 
 filthy. They had no domestic animals, nor any idea of 
 agriculture. Their doctors had but one remedy, which 
 they applied in all cases, and which had at least the 
 great merit of being harmless — since it consisted in 
 applying their lips to the seat of any pain, and sucking 
 with all their force, in order to extract the evil. 
 
 Many of the tribes painted their bodies in various 
 ways, and it was usual to pierce the under-lip and insert 
 a piece of wood, about four or five inches long, which 
 they never removed. 
 
 They had no regular form of government, nor, accord- 
 ing to Azara, any ideas of religion. He makes this 
 latter statement generally for all the Indians, and repeats 
 it particularly for the following tribes — namely, the 
 Charruas, Minuanas, Aucas, Guaranys, Guayanas, 
 Nalicuegas, Guasarapos, Guatos, Ninaquiguilas, Guanas, 
 Lenguas, Aguilots, Mocobys, Abipones, and Paraguas ; 
 yet it appears from other passages that some at least of 
 these tribes were believers in witchcraft and in mysterious 
 evil beings. 
 
 Azara describes the language of the Guaranys as being
 
 THE PATAGONIANS 527 
 
 the most copious, and yet it was in many respects very 
 deficient ; for instance, they could only count up to four, 
 and had no words for the higher numbers, not even for 
 five or six. The marriage tie was little regarded among 
 them ; they married when they liked, and separated again 
 when they pleased. 
 
 Infanticide was, in several of the tribes, the rule, 
 rather than the exception ; the women brought up but 
 one child each, and as they spared only the one which 
 they thought likely to be the last, it often happened that 
 they were left without any at all. 
 
 The Patagonians 
 
 The inhabitants of the southern parts of South 
 America, although they are divided into numerous 
 different tribes, may be considered as falling into two great 
 groups : the Patagonians, or Horse Indians, on the east, 
 who have horses but no canoes ; and the Chonos and 
 Fuegians, or Canoe Indians, who have canoes but no 
 horses, and who inhabit the tempestuous islands on the 
 south and west. 
 
 The Yacana-kunny, who inhabit the north-eastern part 
 of Tierra del Fuego, are, properly speaking, not Fuegians, 
 but Patagonians, and resemble them in colour, stature, 
 and clothing, except the peculiar boots. They live now 
 pretty much as the mainlanders probably did before the 
 introduction of horses, and feed principally on guanacoes, 
 ostriches, birds, and seals, which they kill with dogs, 
 bows and arrows, bolas, slings, lances, and clubs. -^ The 
 habits of the Patagonians must have been much altered 
 by the introduction of the horse, but we can only deal 
 with them as they now are. 
 
 The Horse and Canoe Indians offer a great contrast in 
 point of size ; while the latter are short, ill-looking, and 
 badly-proportioned, the former are considerably above 
 the average height, and are described by early travellers 
 as being truly gigantic. They were first visited in 15 19 
 ^ Fitzroy, I.e., vol. ii. p. 137.
 
 528 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 by Magellan, who assures us that many of them were 
 above seven feet (French) in height. In 1525 they were 
 seen by Garcia de Loaisa, who mentions their great 
 stature, but does not seem to have measured them. 
 Similar statements were made by Cavendish, Knevett, 
 Sibald de Veert, Van Noort, Spilbergen, and Lemaire ; 
 in fact, out of the fifteen first voyagers who passed 
 through the Magellanic Straits, not fewer than nine attest 
 the fact of the gigantic size of the Patagonians ; in which 
 they are confirmed by the testimony of several subsequent 
 travellers, and especially of Falkner, who assures us that 
 he saw many men who were over seven feet in height. 
 
 It is difficult altogether to reject these statements, and 
 as they are certainly not applicable to the present race, it 
 is possible that there may have been a change of size 
 owing to the introduction and general use of the horse. 
 
 The huts, or " toldos," of the Patagonians are "rect- 
 angular in form, about ten or twelve feet long, ten deep, 
 seven feet high in front, and six feet in the rear. The 
 frame of the building is formed by poles stuck in the 
 ground, having forked tops to hold cross pieces, on 
 which are laid poles for rafters, to support the covering, 
 which is made of skins of animals sewn together, so as to 
 be almost impervious to rain or wind. The posts and 
 rafters, which are not easily procured, are carried from 
 place to place in all their travelling excursions. Having 
 reached their bivouac, and marked out a place with due 
 regard to shelter from the wind, they dig holes with a 
 piece of pointed hard wood, to receive the posts : and all 
 the frame and cover being ready, it takes but a short 
 time to erect a dwelling."^ 
 
 They have no pottery, and for carrying water the only 
 vessels they use are bladders. Their dress consists 
 principally of skins, sewn together with ostrich sinews, 
 and often curiously painted on one side ; but, according 
 to Falkner,^ some of the tribes " make or weave fine 
 mantles of woollen yarn, beautifully dyed with many 
 colours. They have also a small triangular apron, two 
 
 1 Fitzroy, /.t"., vol. i. p. 93. - Falkner's Patagonia, p. 128.
 
 THE PATAGONIANS 529 
 
 corners of which are tied round the waist, while the third 
 passes between the legs and is fastened behind. When 
 on horseback they use a kind of poncho or mantle, with 
 a slit in the middle, through which they put their head. 
 For boots they wear the " skin of the thighs and legs of 
 mares and colts" ; they clean the skins, and then, after 
 drying, soften with grease, and so put them on without 
 either shaping or sewing.^ They make brushes of grass, 
 twigs, and rushes, and use the jaw of a porpoise for a 
 comb.^ The women wear a mantle, fastened across the 
 breast by a wooden skewer, or pin, and tied round the 
 waist. They have also a kind of apron which reaches 
 down to their knees, but which only covers them in 
 front. Their boots are made in the same way as those of 
 the men. Like other savages, they are fond of beads, 
 feathers, and other ornaments. They also paint themselves 
 with red, black, and white, which, however, to European 
 eyes is anything but an improvement. Their defensive 
 armour consists of a helmet and a shield, both made of 
 thick hide, and strong enough to resist either arrows or 
 lances. 
 
 Bows and arrows have been abandoned by most of the 
 Patagonian tribes. Where used, the bows are small, and 
 the arrows, which are pointed with stone or bone, are said 
 to be sometimes poisoned. They have also clubs and 
 long cane lances, most of which are now tipped with iron. 
 But the weapons which are most characteristic of the 
 Patagonians, and which are indeed almost peculiar to 
 them, are the bolas,^ of which there are two or three 
 sorts. That used in war is a single rounded stone or ball 
 of hardened clay, weighing about a pound, and fastened 
 to a short rope or sinew of skin. This they sometimes 
 throw at their adversary, rope and all, but generally they 
 prefer to strike at his head with it. For hunting they 
 use two similar stones fastened together by a rope, which 
 
 ^ When first visited they used the skin of the guanaco for this purpose, 
 and it was on account of these shoes that Magellan called them 
 " Patagonians." 
 
 ^ Fitzroy, vol. i. p. 75. -^ Falkner, I.e., p. 130.
 
 530 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 is generally three or four yards long. One of the stones 
 they take in their hand, and then whirling the other 
 round their head, throw both at the object they wish to 
 entangle. Sometimes several balls are used, but two 
 appears to be the usual number. They do not try to 
 strike their victim with the balls themselves, but with the 
 rope, "and then of course the balls swing round in 
 different directions, and the thongs become so ' laid up,' 
 or twisted, that struggling only makes the captive more 
 secure." ^ It is said that a man on horseback can use 
 the " bolas " effectually at a distance of eighty yards.^ 
 They also use the lasso. 
 
 On the coast their food consists principally of fish, 
 which they kill either by diving or striking them with 
 their darts. Guanacoes and ostriches they catch with the 
 bolas, and they also eat the horse, as well as various sorts 
 of small game, and at least two kinds of wild roots. 
 They have no fermented liquor, and the only prepared 
 drink which they use is a decoction of chains and the 
 juice of berberries mixed with water. 
 
 The death of a native is attended with peculiar cere- 
 monies. The bones, having been as much as possible 
 freed from the flesh, are hung " on high, upon canes or 
 twigs woven together, to dry and whiten with the sun 
 and rain." One of the most distinguished women is 
 chosen to perform the disgusting office of making the 
 skeleton, and, during the process, " the Indians, covered 
 with long mantles of skins, and their faces blackened with 
 soot, walk round the tent with long poles or lances in 
 their hands, singing in a mournful tone of voice and 
 striking the ground, to frighten away the Valichus or evil 
 beings. . . . The horses of the dead are killed, that 
 he may have wherewithal to ride upon in the Alhue 
 Mapu, or Country of the Dead." In about a year the 
 bones are " packed together in a hide, and placed upon 
 one of the deceased's favourite horses, kept alive for that 
 purpose," and in this manner the natives bear the relics, 
 sometimes to a very great distance, until they arrive at 
 
 ' Fitzroy, /.c, vol. ii. p. 148. '^ Duvwrn's Journal^ p. 129.
 
 THE FUEGIANS 531 
 
 the proper burial-place, where the ancestors of the dead 
 man are lying. The bones are arranged in their proper 
 positions, and fastened by string. The skeleton is then 
 placed, with others, in a square pit, clothed in the best 
 robes, and adorned with beads, feathers, etc. The arms 
 of the deceased are buried with him, and round the grave 
 are ranged several dead horses, raised on their feet^ and 
 supported with sticks.^ Sometimes a cairn of stones is 
 raised over the grave. ^ 
 
 Falkner regarded the Patagonians as Polytheists, but 
 we do not know much about their religion. According 
 to the missionaries, neither the Patagonians nor the 
 Araucanians had any ideas of prayer, or " any vestige of 
 religious worship."^ 
 
 The Fuegians 
 
 The inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego are even more 
 
 degraded than those of the mainland : in fact, they have 
 
 been regarded by many travellers as being the lowest of 
 
 mankind.* Adolph Decker, who visited Polynesia and 
 
 Australasia under Jaques le Hermite in 1624, describes 
 
 them as " rather beasts than men ; for they tear human 
 
 bodies to pieces, and eat the flesh raw and bloody as it is. 
 
 There is not the least spark of religion or policy to be 
 
 observed among them : on the contrary, they are in every 
 
 respect brutal " — of which he proceeds to give evidence 
 
 so convincing, that I refrain from quoting it.^ "The 
 
 men go altogether naked, and the women have only a bit 
 
 of skin about their middles. . . . Their huts are made 
 
 of trees, in the shape of tents, with a hole at the top to 
 
 let out the smoke. Within they are sunk two or three 
 
 feet under the earth ; and the mould is thrown upon the 
 
 outside. Their fishing-tackle is very curious, and their 
 
 stone hooks very nearly the same shape as ours. They 
 
 \ ?,^''"rf '^ Patagonia, pp. ii8, 119. 2 pitzroy, vol. ii. p. 158. 
 
 ^ The Voice of Pity, \o\.\\.}^'^. yj.i^z^. ^ 
 
 J Byron's Voyage Round the IVor/d, p. So ; Wallis's Voyai^c Round /he 
 IVor/d p. 392 ; Cook's Voyage to the South Pole, vol. ii. p. 187 ; Darwin's 
 journal, p. 235. 
 
 ^ Callander's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 307.
 
 532 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 are differently armed, some having bows, and arrows 
 headed with stone ; others have long javelins, pointed 
 with bone ; some, again, have great wooden clubs ; and 
 some have slings, with stone-knives, which are very 
 sharp." Their arrows are of hard wood, straight and well 
 polished. They are about two feet long, and are tipped 
 with a piece of agate, obsidian, or glass. The bows are 
 from three to four feet long, and quite plain. The 
 string is made of twisted sinews. 
 
 Forster ^ found them " remarkably stupid, being in- 
 capable of understanding any of our signs, which, however, 
 were very intelligible to the nations of the South Sea." 
 Wallis, in his Voyage Round the World^ describes them as 
 follows : " They were covered with seal-skins, which 
 stunk abominably, and some of them were eating the 
 rotten flesh and blubber raw, with a keen appetite and 
 great seeming satisfaction." And again he says : " Some 
 of our people, who were fishing with a hook and line, 
 gave one of them a fish, somewhat bigger than a herring, 
 alive, just as it came out of the water. The Indian took 
 it hastily, as a dog would take a bone, and instantly 
 killed it, by giving it a bite near the gills ; he then pro- 
 ceeded to eat it, beginning with the head, and going on 
 to the tail, without rejecting either the bones, fins, scales, 
 or entrails." ^ Their cookery is, if possible, still more 
 disgusting. Fitzroy tells us that it was " too offensive " 
 for description ; and the account given by Byron ■* entirely 
 confirms this statement. 
 
 The men, says Fitzroy,^ " are low in stature, ill- 
 looking, and badly proportioned. Their colour is that of 
 very old mahogany — or rather between dark copper and 
 bronze. The trunk of the body is large, in proportion 
 to their cramped or rather crooked limbs. Their rough, 
 coarse, and extremely dirty black hair half hides, yet 
 heightens, a villainous expression of the worst description 
 
 1 Z.^., p. 251. 
 
 - Hawkesworth's Voyages^ I.e., p. 403. ^ L.c, p. 403. 
 
 ^ Byron's Loss of the " Meager" p. 152. 
 
 ° Voyages of the " Adventure''' and " Beagle^'' vol. ii. p. 137.
 
 THE FUEGIANS 
 
 533 
 
 of savage features. The hair of the women is longer, 
 less coarse, and certainly cleaner than that of the men. 
 It is combed with the jaw of a porpoise, but neither 
 plaited nor tied ; and none is cut away, excepting from 
 over their eyes. They are short, with bodies largely out 
 of proportion to their height ; their features, especially 
 those of the old, are scarcely less disagreeable than the 
 repulsive ones of the men. About four feet and some 
 inches is the stature of these she-Fuegians — by courtesy 
 called women. They never walk upright ; a stooping 
 posture and awkward movement is their natural gait. 
 They may be fit mates for such uncouth men, but to 
 civilized people their appearance is disgusting. . . 
 The smoke of wood fires confined in small wigwams 
 hurts their eyes so much that they are red and watery : 
 the effects of their oiling or greasing themselves, and 
 then rubbing ochre, clay, or charcoal over their bodies ; 
 of their often feeding upon the most offensive substances 
 sometimes in a state of putridity ; and of other vile 
 habits, may readily be imagined."^ Their incisors are 
 worn flat,^ like those of the Esquimaux and of many 
 ancient races. 
 
 " The men procure food of the larger kind, such as 
 seal, otter, porpoise, etc. ; they break or cut wood and 
 bark for fuel, as well as for building the wigwams or 
 canoes. They go out at night to get birds ; they train 
 the dogs, and of course undertake all hunting or warlike 
 excursions. The women nurse their children, attend the 
 fire (feeding it with dead wood rather than green, on 
 account of the smoke), make baskets and water-buckets, 
 fishing-lines and necklaces, go out to catch small fish in 
 their canoes, gather shell-fish, dive for sea-eggs, take care 
 of their canoes, upon ordinary occasions paddle their 
 masters about while they sit idle, and do any other 
 drudgery." ^ 
 
 "When there is time, the natives roast their shell-fish, 
 and half-roast any other food that is of a solid nature • 
 but when in haste, they eat fish, as well as meat, in a raw 
 
 ' L.c, p. 139. 2 Fitzroy, Appendix, p. 144. 3 /^^-^^^ ^^ ^ jg^
 
 534 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 state. . . . Both seals and porpoises are speared by them 
 from their canoes. When struck, the fish usually run 
 into the kelp, with the spear floating on the water, being 
 attached by a short line to a movable barb : and then 
 the men follow with their canoe, seize the spear, and tow 
 by it till the fish is dead. To them the taking of a seal 
 or a porpoise is a matter of as much consequence as the 
 capture of a whale is to our countrymen. On moonlight 
 nights birds are caught when roosting, not only by the 
 men, but by their dogs, which are sent out to seize them 
 while asleep upon the rocks or beach ; and so well are 
 these dogs trained, that they bring all they catch safely to 
 their masters, without making any noise, and then return 
 for another mouthful. Birds are also frequently killed 
 with arrows or by stones slung at them with unerring 
 aim. Eggs are largely sought for by the natives ; indeed, 
 I may say that they eat anything and everything that is 
 eatable, without being particular as to its state of fresh- 
 ness, or as to its having been near the fire."^ 
 
 According to Byron, the dogs of the Chonos Indians 
 assist in killing fish as well as birds. They are, he says, 
 "cur-like looking animals, but very sagacious, and easily 
 trained to this business. . . . The net is held by two 
 Indians, who get into the water ; then the dogs, taking 
 a large compass, dive after the fish, and drive them into 
 the net ; but it is only in particular places that the fish 
 are taken in this manner." He adds, that the dogs 
 "enjoy it much, and express their eagerness by barking 
 every time they raise their heads above the water to 
 breathe."^ 
 
 " In the winter, when the snow lies deep, the Tekeenica 
 hunt the guanaco, which then comes down from the 
 high lands to seek for pasture near the sea. The long 
 legs of the animal stick deeply into the snow and soft 
 boggy ground, disabling him from escape, while the 
 Fuegians and their dogs hem him in on every side, and 
 
 1 Fitzroy, /.f., p. 184. 
 
 - Byron's Iu)ss of the " Wager^'' in Kerr's Voyages and Travels, vol. 
 xvii. pp. 339, 368, 463.
 
 THE FUEGIANS 
 
 535 
 
 Xrii 
 
 quickly make him their prey. ... At other times of the 
 year they sometimes get them by lying in 
 wait, and shooting them with arrows, or by 
 getting into a tree near their track, and spear- 
 ing them as they pass beneath the branches. 
 Fig. 281 represents the head of a Fuegian 
 harpoon, which closely resembles the ancient 
 Danish specimen figured in fig. 141. 
 
 Of vegetable food they have very little : a 
 few berries, cranberries, those which grow on 
 the arbutus, and a kind of fungus which is 
 found on the beech, being the only sorts used. 
 The unfortunate Fuegians often suffer greatly 
 from famine. Their principal food consists 
 of limpets, mussels, and other shell-fish. 
 
 Admiral Fitzroy entertained no doubt that 
 the Fuegians are cannibals. " Almost ^ always 
 at war with adjoining tribes, they seldom 
 meet but a hostile encounter is the result ; 
 and then those who are vanquished and taken, 
 if not already dead, are killed and eaten by the 
 conquerors. Again, in severe winters, when 
 they can obtain no other food, they take " the 
 oldest woman of their party, hold her head 
 over a thick smoke, made by burning green 
 wood, and, pinching her throat, choke her. 
 They then devour every particle of the flesh. 
 When asked why they did not rather kill 
 their dogs, they said, "Dog catch iappo," i.e. 
 otters. 
 
 Like Decker, Admiral Fitzroy " never 
 witnessed or heard of any act of a decidedly 
 religious nature." ^ Still, it is said that some 
 of the natives suppose that there is a power- 
 ful and mysterious being who resides in the 
 woods. When a person dies, they carry the 
 
 Fig. 281. — 
 Fuegian har- 
 poon, one- 
 half of the 
 actual size. 
 
 1 L.c, p. 183. 
 
 2 See also Weddell, Vom^-e fo South Pole, p. 179 ; The Voice of Pity^ 
 vol. vi. p. 92, etc.
 
 536 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 body far Into the woods,^ " place it upon some broken 
 boughs, or pieces of solid wood, and then pile a great 
 quantity of branches over the corpse." 
 
 Their canoes are large pieces of bark sewn together. 
 In the bottom they make a fireplace of clay, for they 
 always keep fires alight, though with the help of iron 
 pyrites they soon obtain sparks if any accident happens. 
 The Chonos Indians, who in most respects resemble the 
 Fuegians, have much better canoes. These are formed 
 of planks, which are generally five in number, two on 
 each side and one at the bottom. Along the edges of 
 each are small holes about an inch apart. The planks 
 are sewn together with woodbine, the holes being filled 
 with a kind of bark beaten up until it resembles oakum. 
 Byron truly observes that in the absence of metal, " the 
 labour must be great of hacking a single plank out of a 
 large tree with shells and flints, even though with the 
 help of fire." 
 
 The Fuegians have no pottery, but, like the North 
 American Indians, use vessels made of birch, or rather of 
 beech-bark. On the east coast many of the natives 
 possess guanaco-skins, and on the west some of them 
 wear seal-skins. " Amongst the central tribes the men 
 generally possess an otter-skin, or some small scrap about 
 as large as a pocket-handkerchief, which is barely suflficient 
 to cover their backs as low down as their loins. It is 
 laced across the breast by strings, and according as the 
 wind blows, it is shifted from side to side." ^ Many, 
 however, even of the women, go absolutely without 
 clothes. Yet, as Captain Cook quaintly expresses it, 
 " although they are content to be naked, they are very 
 ambitious to be fine," for which purpose they adorn 
 themselves with streaks of red, black, and white ; and 
 the men as well as the women wear bracelets and anklets 
 of shell and bone. Sir J. D. Hooker informs us that at 
 the extreme south of Tierra del Fuego, and in mid-winter, 
 he has often seen the men lying asleep in their wigwams, 
 
 1 L.c.^ p. i8i. 
 
 '^ Darwin's Researches in Geology and Natural History^ p. 234.
 
 THE FUEGIANS 537 
 
 without a scrap of clothing, and the women standing 
 naked, and some with children at their breasts, in the 
 water up to their middles, gathering limpets and other 
 shell-fish, while the snow fell thickly on them and on 
 their equally naked babies. It is remarkable that the 
 Fuegians, like the Esquimaux, make so little use of fire ; 
 they do not employ it to warm the air of their huts as we 
 do, though sometimes as a luxury they take advantage of 
 it to toast their hands or feet. Doubtless, however, if 
 deprived of this source of warmth, they would die of 
 starvation rather oftener than is now the case. 
 
 If not the lowest, the Fuegians certainly appear to be 
 among the most miserable specimens of the human race. 
 The conditions of their existence are very unfavourable, 
 and their habits are of special interest from their similarity 
 to those of the ancient Danish shell-mound builders, who, 
 however, were in some respects rather more advanced, 
 being acquainted with the art of making pottery.
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 MODERN SAVAGES COHcluded 
 
 In reading almost any account of savages, it is impossible 
 not to admire the skill with which they use their weapons 
 and implements, their ingenuity in hunting and fishing, 
 and their close and accurate powers of observation. 
 Some savages even recognize individuals by their foot- 
 steps. Thus Mr Laing mentions ^ that one day while 
 travelling near Moreton Bay, in Australia, he pointed to 
 a footstep, and asked whose it was. The guide " glanced 
 at it, without stopping his horse, and at once answered, 
 'White fellow call him Tiger.'" This turned out to be 
 correct, which was the more remarkable as the two men 
 belonged to different tribes, and had not met for two 
 years. Among the Arabs, Burckhardt asserts^ that some 
 men know every individual in the tribe by his footstep. 
 " Besides this, every Arab knows the printed footsteps of 
 his own camels, and of those belonging to his immediate 
 neighbours. He knows by the depth or slightness of the 
 impression whether a camel was pasturing, and therefore 
 not carrying any load, or mounted by one person only, 
 or heavily loaded." 
 
 Skyring ^ saw a Fuegian who " threw stones from each 
 hand with astonishing force and precision. His first 
 stone struck the master with much force, broke a powder- 
 horn which hung round his neck, and nearly knocked 
 him backwards." In his description of the Hottentots, 
 Kolben says* that their dexterity in throwing the " hassa- 
 
 ^ Aborigines of Aust7'alia, p. 24. ^ Fitzroy, l.c.^ vol. i. p. 398. 
 
 3 Bedouins and IVa/iabys, p. 374. * Kolben, I.e., vol. i. p. 243. 
 
 53S
 
 DEXTERITY OF SAVAGES 539 
 
 gaye and rackum-stick strikes every witness of it with 
 the highest admiration. ... If a Hottentot, in the chase 
 of a hare, deer, or wild goat, comes but within thirty or 
 forty yards of the creature, away flies the rackum-stick 
 and down falls the creature, generally pierced quite 
 through the body." The death of Goliath is a well- 
 known instance of skill in the use of the sling ; and 
 we are told also that in the tribe of Benjamin there was 
 a corps of " seven hundred chosen men left-handed ; 
 every one could sling stones at an hair-breadth, and not 
 miss. 
 
 Having few weapons, and those in constant use, 
 savages acquire a skill which seems almost marvellous. 
 1 have seen the boomerang thrown with a force and skill 
 which I should have thought quite impossible. The 
 North American Indian will send an arrow right through 
 a horse or even a buffalo. The African savage will kill 
 the elephant, and the Chinook fears not to attack even 
 the whale. Sir G. Grey tells us that he has often seen 
 the Australians kill a pigeon with a spear at a distance of 
 thirty paces.^ Speaking of the Chamisso Island Esqui- 
 maux, Beechey says that one day a Diver was swimming 
 at a distance of thirty yards from the beach, and a native was 
 offered a reward if he could shoot it. He immediately 
 frightened it so that it dived, and directly it reappeared, 
 he transfixed both eyes with an arrow. ^ Speaking of the 
 Australians, Mr Stanbridge asserts that " it is a favourite 
 feat on the Murray to dive into the river, spear in hand, 
 and come up with a fish upon it." * Woodes Rogers says 
 that the Californian Indians used to dive, and strike 
 the fish under water with wooden spears,^ and Falkner^ 
 tells us that some of the Patagonian tribes live chiefly on 
 fish, " which they catch either' by divings or striking them 
 with their darts." Tertre again says the same of the 
 
 ^ Judges XX. 16. 2 Grey, I.e., vol. ii. p. 285. 
 
 ^ Beechey's Narrative, vol. ii. p. 574. 
 
 * " On the Aborigines of Victoria," EiJm. Trans., New Series, vol. i. 
 
 P- 293- 
 
 * Callander's Voyages, vo\. iii. p. 331. 
 ** Patagonia, p. in.
 
 540 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Caribs/ and Wallace of the Brazilian Indians.^ The 
 South Sea Islanders are particularly active in the water. 
 They dive after fish, which " takes refuge under the 
 coral rock ; thither the diver pursues him, and brings him 
 up with a finger in each eye." ^ They are even more 
 than a match for the shark, which they attack fearlessly 
 with a knife. If they are unarmed, " they all surround 
 him and force him ashore, if they can but once get him 
 into the surf ; but even if he escapes they continue their 
 bathing without the least fear.* Ellis more cautiously 
 says only, that " when armed they have sometimes been 
 known to attack a shark in the water." ^ 
 
 The Andaman Islanders also are said to dive and catch 
 fish under water ;*' and Rutherford makes a similar state- 
 ment as regards the New Zealanders. Dobritzhoffer tells 
 us that the Payajuas and Vilelas live principally on fish, 
 using a small net with which they dive, " and if they 
 spy any fish at the bottom, swim after it, catch it in the 
 net," and so bring it to shore.'^ The Esquimaux in his 
 kayak can actually turn somersaults in the water. 
 
 The Brazilian Indians kill turtles with bows and arrows ; 
 but if they aimed direct at the animal, the arrow would 
 glance oflF the smooth, hard shell ; therefore they shoot 
 up into the air, so that the arrow falls nearly vertically on 
 the shell, which it is thus enabled to penetrate.^ What 
 an amount of practice must be required to obtain such 
 skill as this ! How true also must the weapons be ! 
 Indeed, it is very evident that each distinct type of flint 
 implement must have been designed for some distinct 
 purpose. Thus the different forms of arrow-head, of 
 harpoon, or of stone axe, cannot have been intended to be 
 used in the same manner. Among the North American 
 Indians the arrows used in hunting were so made that 
 when the shaft was drawn out of the wound the head 
 came out also ; while in the war-arrows the shaft tapered 
 
 1 History of the Carriby Islands, p. 305. 
 
 2 Travels on the Amazon, p. 488. ^ Wilson, i.e., p. 385. 
 
 4 l^x., p. 368. ^ Polynesian Researches, vol. i. p. 178. 
 
 •5 Mouatt, I.e., pp. 310, 2)'S1>- ' History of the Abipones, vol. i. p. 343. 
 Wallace's Amazon, p. 466.
 
 USE OF STONE WEAPONS 541 
 
 to the end, so that even when it was withdrawn the head 
 of the arrow remained in the wound. Again, the different 
 forms of harpoons are illustrated by the barbed and 
 unbarbed lances of the Esquimaux [ante^ figs. 272, 273). 
 Unfortunately, however, we have but few details of this 
 kind ; travellers have generally thought it unnecessary to 
 observe or record these apparently unimportant details ; 
 and that our knowledge of flint implements is most 
 rudimentary, is well shown by the discussion between 
 Professors Steenstrup and Worsaae, whether the so-called 
 " axes " of the shell-mounds were really axes, or whether 
 they were not rather used in fishing. 
 
 We may hope, however, that in future those who have 
 the opportunity of observing stone implements among 
 modern savages will give us more detailed information 
 both as to the exact manner in which they are used, and 
 also about the way in which they are made ; that they 
 will collect not only the well-made weapons, but, also, 
 and even more carefully, the ruder implements of every- 
 day life. 
 
 Some archaeologists have argued that the shell-mound 
 builders of Denmark must have possessed more formid- 
 able weapons than any that have yet been found, because 
 it was considered impossible that they could have killed 
 large game, as, for instance, the bull and seal, with the 
 simple weapons of bone and stone which alone have 
 hitherto been discovered. Professor Worsaae ^ even went 
 so far as to say : " Against birds and other small creatures 
 these stone arrows might prove effectual, but against 
 larger animals, such as the aurochs, the elk, the reindeer, 
 the stag, and the wild boar, they were evidently in- 
 sufficient ; particularly since these animals often become 
 furious as soon as they are struck." I can, however, by 
 no means agree with Professor Worsaae in this supposi- 
 tion ; we know, on the contrary, that modern savages 
 are able to kill even the largest game with arrows 
 and spears tipped with stone. Knives, again, of stone, 
 are much more effective than might at first be expected, 
 
 1 Page 18.
 
 542 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and many savage tribes readily cut flesh with pieces of 
 shell or of hard wood. 
 
 The neatness with which the Hottentots, Esquimaux, 
 North American Indians, etc., are able to sew, is very 
 remarkable, althouPfh awls and sinews would in our hands 
 be but poor substitutes for needles and thread. As 
 already mentioned in p. 325, some cautious archaeologists 
 hesitated to refer the reindeer caves of the Dordogne to 
 the Stone Age, on account of the bone needles and the 
 works of art which are found in them. The eyes of the 
 needles especially, they thought, could only be made with 
 metallic implements. Professor Lartet ingeniously 
 removed these doubts by making a similar needle for 
 himself with the help of a flint ; but he might have 
 referred to the fact stated by Cook ^ in his first 
 voyage, that the New Zealanders succeeded in drilling 
 a hole through a piece of glass which he had given 
 them, using for this purpose, as he supposed, a piece of 
 jasper. 
 
 The Brazilians also use ornaments of imperfectly 
 crystallized quartz, from four to eight inches long and 
 about an inch in diameter. Hard as it is, they contrive 
 to drill a hole at each end, using for that purpose the 
 pointed leaf-shoot of the large wild plantain, with sand 
 and water. The hole is generally transverse, but the 
 ornaments of the chiefs are actually pierced lengthways. 
 This, Mr Wallace thinks, must be a work of years.^ 
 
 The works of art found in the Dordogne caves are 
 little ruder than those of the Esquimaux or the North 
 American Indians. In fact, the appreciation of art is to 
 be regarded rather as an ethnological characteristic than 
 as an indication of any particular stage in civilization. 
 We see, again, that in many cases a certain knowledge of 
 agriculture has preceded the use of metals ; and the 
 - fortifications of New Zealand, as well as the large morais 
 of the South Sea Islands, are arguments in favour of the 
 theory which ascribes some of our camps, our great 
 tumuli, and other Druidical remains, to the later part of 
 
 ' Vol. iii. p. 464. ^ Travels on the Amazon, p. 278.
 
 STAGE OF EARLY CIVILIZATION 543 
 
 the Stone Age. The great morai of Oberea, in Tahiti, 
 has been already described (p. 482). Again, the cele- 
 brated statues of Easter Island are really colossal. One 
 of them, which has fallen down, measures twenty-seven 
 feet long, and others appear to be even larger. The 
 houses of the Ladrone Islanders, also, are remarkable. 
 The larger ones were supported on strong pyramids of 
 stone. They were found in large numbers ; in one case 
 they formed a stone row four hundred yards long. 
 They were first described by Anson, who saw many 
 which were thirteen feet in height ; while one of those 
 seen by Freycinet measured as much as twenty feet. 
 They were square at the base, and rested on the ground. 
 On each pillar was a hemisphere, with the flat side 
 upwards. The South Sea Islanders afford, indeed, 
 wonderful instances of what can be accomplished with 
 stone implements. Their houses are large and often well 
 built, and their canoes have excited the wonder of all who 
 have seen them. 
 
 Although, then, the use of stone as the principal 
 material of implements and weapons may be regarded 
 as characterizing an early stage in the development of 
 civilization, still it is evident that this stage is itself 
 susceptible of much subdivision. The Mincopie, or the 
 Australian, for instance, is not to be compared for an 
 instant with the semi-civilized native of the Society 
 Islands. So also in the ancient Stone Age of Europe we 
 find evidences of great difference. The savage inhabitants 
 of the South French caves had, according to MM. 
 Christy and Lartet, no domestic animals, and no know- 
 ledge of pottery or agriculture. The shell-mound 
 builders of Denmark had the dog ; the Swiss lake- 
 dwellers also possessed this animal, together with the ox, 
 sheep, and pig, perhaps even the horse ; they had a 
 certain knowledge of agriculture, and were acquainted 
 with the art of weaving. Thus, then, even when we 
 have satisfied ourselves that any given remains belong to 
 the Stone Age, we are still but on the threshold of our 
 inquiry.
 
 544 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Travellers and naturalists have differed a good deal 
 in opinion as to the race of savages which is entitled 
 to the unenviable reputation of being the lowest in 
 the scale of civilization. Cook, Darwin, Fitzroy, and 
 Wallis were decidedly in favour, if I may so say, 
 of the Fuegian ; Burchell maintained that the Bush- 
 men are the lowest ; D'Urville voted for the Australians 
 and Tasmanians ; Dampier thought the Australians 
 " the miserablest people in the world " ; Forster said 
 that the people of Mallicollo " bordered the nearest 
 upon the tribe of monkeys " ; Owen inclined to the 
 Andamaners ; others have supported the North 
 American root - diggers ; and one French writer 
 even insinuates that monkeys are more human than 
 Laplanders. 
 
 The civilization, moreover, of the Stone Age differs, 
 not only in degree, but also in kind, varying according to 
 the climate, vegetation, food, etc., from which it becomes 
 evident — at least to all those who believe in the unity of 
 the human race — that the present habits of savage races, 
 while throwing, no doubt, much light on those of our 
 earliest ancestors, are not to be regarded as representing 
 them exactly, because they have been to some extent 
 V modified by external conditions, influenced by national 
 character, which, however, is after all but the result of 
 the external conditions which have acted on previous 
 generations. 
 
 If we take a few of the things which are most generally 
 useful in savage life, and at the same time most easily 
 obtainable, such, for instance, as slings, spear-casters, 
 pottery, bows and arrows, boomerangs. Solas, nets, 
 domestic animals, or a knowledge of agriculture, we 
 might, perhaps, have expected a priori that the acquisition 
 of them would have followed some regular succession. 
 That this, however, was not the case is shown by the 
 annexed table, which will, I think, be found interesting. 
 It gives some idea of the progress made by various 
 savage tribes at the time when they were first visited by 
 Europeans.
 
 COMPARATIVE STATISTICS 
 
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 546 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Some, no doubt, of the differences exhibited in this 
 table may be easily accounted for. The frozen soil and 
 arctic climate of the Esquimaux would not encourage, 
 would not even permit, any agriculture. So, again, the 
 absence of hogs in New Zealand, of dogs in the Friendly 
 Isles, and of all mammalia in Easter Island, is probably 
 due to the fact that the original colonists did not possess 
 these animals, and that their isolated position prevented 
 them afterwards from obtaining any. Moreover, we 
 must remember that as a general rule the lowest savage 
 can only use one or two weapons. He is limited to 
 those which he can carry about with him, and naturally 
 prefers those which are of most general utility.^ We 
 cannot, however, in this manner account for all the facts. 
 In Columbia, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 elsewhere, agriculture was unknown before the advent of 
 Europeans. Easter Island, on the contrary, contained 
 large plantations of sweet potatoes, yams, plantains, 
 sugar-canes, etc. Yet the Chinooks of Columbia had 
 bows and arrows, fish-hooks, and nets ; the Australians 
 had throwing-sticks, boomerangs, fish-hooks, and nets ; 
 the Hottentots had bows and arrows, nets, fish-hooks, 
 pottery, and at last even a certain knowledge of iron ; all 
 of which seem to have been unknown to the Easter 
 Islanders, though they would have been very useful, and, 
 excepting the iron, might have been invented and used 
 by them. 
 
 If the case of Easter Island stood alone, the absence of 
 bows and arrows might, perhaps, be plausibly accounted 
 for by the absence of game, the scarcity of birds, and the 
 isolation of the little island, which rendered war almost 
 impossible. But such an argument cannot be applied to 
 other cases which are indicated in the table. Let us 
 compare, for instance, the Atlantic tribes of North 
 American Indians, the Australians, Bushmen, Kaffirs, 
 New Zealanders, and Society Islanders. All these were 
 constantly at war, and the three first lived very much on 
 
 ' Weapons of war de])ending very much on the caprice of chiefs, are 
 probably more liable to change than those used in hunting.
 
 VARIOUS SAVAGES COMPARED 547 
 
 the produce of the chase. They at least had therefore 
 similar wants. Yet spears, and perhaps clubs, were the 
 only weapons which they had in common ; the North 
 Americans had good bows and arrows, the Society 
 Islanders and Bushmen had bad ones — in fact, those of 
 the former were so weak as to be useless in war ; the 
 Australians, Kaffirs, and New Zealanders had none. On 
 the other hand, the Australians had the throwing-stick 
 and the boomerang ; the Society Islanders used slings ; 
 and the New Zealanders, besides very effective clubs, had 
 numerous and extensive fortifications. It is certainly 
 most remarkable that tribes so warlike, and in many 
 respects so advanced, as the New Zealanders and Kaffirs, 
 should have been ignorant of bows and arrows, which 
 were used by many very low races, such as the Fuegians, 
 the Chinooks, the Andamaners, and Bushmen ; particularly 
 as it is impossible to doubt that the New Zealanders at 
 least would have found bows of great use, and that any 
 of their tribes, having invented them, would have had an 
 immense advantage in the " struggle for existence." 
 Other similar contrasts will strike anyone who examines 
 the table ; but perhaps it may be said that some of these 
 cases may be explained by the influence of more civilized 
 neighbours ; that the comparison above made, for 
 instance, might be regarded as unfair, because the New 
 Zealanders were an isolated race, while the Chinooks 
 might have derived their knowledge of bows and arrows 
 from the eastern tribes, and these again might have 
 acquired the art of making pottery from the semi- 
 civilized nations of the south. No one can deny that 
 this may be true in some instances, because we know 
 that at the present day most savages possess hatchets, 
 knives, beads, etc., which they have received from 
 traders, and which they cannot yet manufacture for 
 themselves. 
 
 It is certainly possible that the Chinooks may have 
 derived their knowledge of the bow from their northern 
 neighbours ; but we can hardly suppose that they did so 
 from the Red Indian tribes to the east, because in that
 
 548 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 case it is difficult to understand why they should not also 
 have learnt from these the much simpler, and almost 
 equally useful, art of making pottery. Moreover, there 
 are some cases in which any such idea is absolutely out 
 of the question ; thus, the spear-caster is used by the 
 Esquimaux, the Australians, the New Caledonians, and 
 some Brazilian tribes ; the bolas by the Esquimaux and 
 the Patagonians ; the boomerang is peculiar to the 
 Australians.^ The "sumpitan," or blow-pipe of the 
 Malays, occurs again in the valley of the Amazon. 
 Again, different races of savages have but little peaceful 
 intercourse with one another. They are almost always at 
 war. If their habits are similar, they are deadly rivals, 
 fighting for the best hunting-grounds or fisheries ; if 
 their wants are different, they fight for slaves, for women, 
 for ornaments ; or if they do not care about any of these, 
 for the mere love of fighting, for scalps, heads, or some 
 other recognized emblems of glory. In this condition of 
 society, each tribe lives in a state either of isolation from, 
 or enmity with, its neighbours. Delenda est Carthago is 
 the universal motto, and savages can only live in peace 
 when they have a little world of their own. Sometimes 
 a broad sea or a high range of mountains, at others a wide 
 " march " or neutral territory, supplies the necessary con- 
 ditions and keeps them apart. They meet only to fight, 
 and are therefore not likely to learn much from one 
 another. Moreover, there are cases in which some tribes 
 have weapons which are quite unknown to their neigh- 
 bours. Thus, among the Brazilian tribes we find the 
 bow and arrow, the blow-pipe, the lasso, and the throwing- 
 stick. The first is the most general ; but the Barbados 
 use only the blow-pipe, the Moxos have abandoned the 
 bow and arrow for the lasso, and the Purupurus are dis- 
 tinguished from all their neighbours by using, not bows 
 and arrows, but the " palheta," or throwing-stick. Again, 
 the Kaffirs have not generally adopted the bows and 
 
 ' The ancient Egyptians had, and the Negroes of Niam Niam have, 
 iron crescents resembhng boomerangs, which are thrown in war. But 
 these do not appear to possess the peculiar properties of the boomerang.
 
 INDEPENDENT INVENTIONS 549 
 
 arrows of the Bushmen ; the Esquimaux have not acquired 
 the art of making pottery from the North American 
 Indians, nor the southern Columbian tribes from the 
 northern Mexicans. 
 
 Many, again, of the ruder arts, as, for instance, the 
 manufacture of pottery and of bows, are so useful, and at 
 the same time, however ingenious in idea, so simple in 
 execution, as to render it highly improbable that they 
 would ever be lost when they had once been acquired. 
 Yet we have seen that the New Zealanders and Kaffirs 
 had no bows, and that none of the Polynesians had any 
 knowledge of pottery ; though it is evident from their 
 skill in other manufactures, and their general state of 
 civilization, that they would have found no difficulty in 
 the matter if the manner had once occurred to them. 
 Again, " bolas " are a most effectual weapon, and there 
 is certainly no difficulty in making them, yet the know- 
 ledge of them appears to be confined to the Patagonians 
 and the Esquimaux. The art of pottery, on the contrary, 
 sometimes has been, I believe, communicated by one race 
 to another. Nevertheless, there are cases, even among 
 existing races,^ in which we seem to find indications of an 
 independent discovery ; at any rate, in which the art is in 
 a rudimentary stage. 
 
 On the whole, then, from a review of these and other 
 similar facts which might have been mentioned, it seems 
 to me most probable that many of the simpler weapons, 
 implements, etc., have been invented independently by 
 various savage tribes, although there are no doubt also cases 
 in which they have been borrowed by one tribe from 
 another. 
 
 The contrary opinion has been adopted by many 
 writers on account of the undeniable similarity existing 
 between the weapons used by savages in very different 
 parts of the world. But however paradoxical it may 
 sound, though the implements and weapons of savages 
 are remarkably similar, they are at the same time curiously 
 different. No doubt the necessaries of life are simple and 
 ' See, for instance, p. 493.
 
 Sso PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 similar all over the world. The materials also with which 
 man has to deal are very much alike ; wood, bone, and 
 to a certain extent stone, have everywhere the same 
 properties. The obsidian flakes of the Aztecs resemble 
 the flint flakes of our ancestors, not so much because the 
 ancient Briton resembled the Aztec, as because the frac- 
 ture of flint is like that of obsidian. So also the pointed 
 bones used as awls are necessarily similar all over the 
 world. Similarity exists, in fact, rather in the raw 
 material than in the manufactured article, and some even 
 of the simplest implements of stone are very diff'erent 
 among different races. The adze-like hatchets of the 
 South Sea Islanders are unlike those of the Australians 
 or ancient Britons ; the latter again difi^er very much 
 from the type which is characteristic of the Drift or 
 Palaeolithic Period. 
 
 Again, the habits and customs of savages, while pre- 
 senting many remarkable similarities, which, as it seems 
 to me, go far to prove the unity of the human race, still 
 differ greatly, and thus give strong evidence of inde- 
 pendent development. Many, indeed, of those difi^er- 
 ences which must have struck anyone in reading the 
 preceding part of the chapter, follow evidently and 
 directly from the external conditions in which difi^erent 
 races are placed. The habits of an Esquimaux and a 
 Hottentot could not possibly be similar. But let us take 
 some act which is common to many races, and is suscep- 
 tible of being accomplished in several ways. For instance, 
 most savages live in part on the flesh of birds ; how is 
 this obtained .'' Generally with bows and arrows ; but 
 while the Australians catch birds with the hand, or kill 
 them with the simple spear or the boomerang, the 
 Fuegians have both the sling and the bow, while the 
 Esquimaux use a complex spear with several points, or a 
 projectile which consists of a number of walrus-teeth 
 fastened together by short pieces of string, and thus 
 forming a kind of bolas. The northern tribes visited by 
 Kane practised a different method. They caught large 
 numbers of birds, especially little auks, in small nets,
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS— FIRE 551 
 
 resembling landing-nets, with long ivory handles. Yet 
 this very people were entirely ignorant of fishing.^ 
 
 Take, again, the use made of the dog. At first, 
 probably, the dog and the man hunted together,- the 
 cunning of the one supplemented the speed of the other, 
 and they shared the produce of their joint exertions. 
 Gradually mind asserted its pre-eminence over matter, 
 and the man became master. Then the dog was em- 
 ployed in other ways, less congenial to his nature. The 
 Esquimaux forced him to draw the sledge ; the Chinook 
 kept him for the sake of his wool ; the South Sea 
 Islanders, having no game, bred the dog for food ; the 
 Chonos Indians taught him to fish ; where tribes became 
 shepherds, their dogs became shepherds also ; finally, it is 
 recorded by Pliny that in ancient times troops of dogs 
 were trained to serve in war. Even the ox, though less 
 versatile than the dog, has been used for the first and the 
 last two of these purposes. 
 
 Again, in obtaining fire, two principal methods are 
 followed ; some savages, as for instance the Aleutians 
 and Fuegians, using percussion, while others, as the 
 South Sea Islanders, rub one piece of wood against 
 another. The Aleutians rub two pieces of quartz with 
 sulphur, and then strike them together, catching the 
 sparks on dry grass. ^ Opinions are divided whether we 
 have any trustworthy record of a people without the 
 means of obtaining fire. It has been already mentioned 
 (pp. 448, 453) that some of the Australians and 
 Tasmanians, though acquainted with fire, did not know 
 how to obtain it. In his history of the Ladrone Islands, 
 Father Gobien asserts that fire, " an element of such 
 universal use, was utterly unknown to them, till Magellan, 
 provoked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their 
 villages. When they saw their wooden houses blazing, 
 they first thought the fire a beast which fed upon wood, 
 
 1 Kane, Arctic Explomtiofis, vol. ii. pp. 203, 243. 
 
 - The low American Wood Indians, however, used the dog rather as a 
 watch-dog than as a hound. 
 
 ' Bancroft, Nat. Races of the Pacific States^ vol. i. p. 91.
 
 552 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and some of them who came too near being burnt, the 
 rest stood afar off, lest they should be devoured, or 
 poisoned, by the violent breathings of this terrible animal." 
 The fact is not mentioned in the original account of 
 Magellan's Voyage. Freycinet believes that the assertion 
 of Father Gobien is entirely without foundation. The 
 language, he says, of the inhabitants contains words for 
 fire, burning charcoal, oven, grilling, boiling, etc. ; and 
 even before the advent of the Europeans, pottery^ was 
 well known. It is difficult, however, to get over the 
 distinct assertion made by Gobien, which moreover derives 
 some support from similar statements made by other 
 travellers. Thus Alvaro de Saavedra states that the 
 inhabitants of certain small islands in the Pacific, which 
 he called "Los Jardines," but which cannot now be satis- 
 factorily determined, stood in terror of fire, because they 
 had never seen it.^ Again, Wilkes tells us ^ that on the 
 island of Fakaafo, which he calls " Bowditch," " there was 
 no sign of places for cooking, nor any appearance of fire." 
 The natives also were very much alarmed when they saw 
 sparks struck from flint and steel. Here, at least, we 
 might have thought was a case beyond question or sus- 
 picion ; the presence of fire could hardly have escaped 
 observation ; the marks it leaves are very conspicuous. 
 If we cannot depend on such a statement as this, made 
 by an officer in the United States Navy, in the official 
 report of an expedition sent out especially for scientific 
 purposes, we may well be disheartened, and lose confi- 
 dence in ethnological investigations. Yet the assertions 
 of Wilkes are questioned, and with much appearance of 
 justice, by Mr Tylor.* In the Ethnography of the 
 United States Exploring Expedition^ Hale gives a list 
 of Fakaafo words, in which we find aji for " fire." This 
 is evidently the same word as the New Zealand ahi ; but 
 as it denotes light and heat, as well as fire, we might 
 suppose that it thus found its way into the Fakaafo 
 
 ' L.c, vol. ii. p. 1 66. ^ Hakliiyi Soc, 1862, p. 178. 
 
 ■* United States Expl. Exped.^ vol. v. p. 18. 
 ■^ Early Histoty 0/ ATankind, p. 230.
 
 FIRE— BURIAL 553 
 
 vocabulary. I should not, therefore, attribute to this 
 argument quite so much force as does Mr Tylor. It is, 
 however, evident that Captain Wilkes did not perceive 
 the importance of the observation, or he would certainly 
 have taken steps to determine the question ; and as Hale, 
 in his special work on the Ethnology of the Expedition, 
 does not say a word on the subject, it is clear he had no 
 idea that the inhabitants of Fakaafo exhibited such an 
 interesting peculiarity. The fact, if established, would 
 be most important ; but it cannot be said to be satis- 
 factorily proved that there is at present, or has been 
 within historical times, any race of men entirely ignorant 
 of fire. It is at least certain that as far back as the earliest 
 Swiss lake-villages and Danish shell-mounds the use of 
 fire was well known in Europe. 
 
 On the other hand, as already mentioned, some of the 
 Tasmanian and Australian tribes, and of the Andaman 
 Islanders, though well acquainted with the use of fire, 
 know no way of kindling it. Consequently, they take 
 great pains to keep it always burning, and, if by any 
 mischance it should be extinguished, are obliged to get a 
 fresh light from some neighbouring tribe. 
 
 There is, again, scarcely any conceivable way in which 
 the dead could be disposed of which has not been adopted 
 in some part of the world. Among some races the corpse 
 is simply buried ; by others it is burned. Some of the 
 North American Indians expose their dead on scaffolds 
 in the branches of trees. Some tribes deposit them in 
 sacred rivers ; others in the sea. Among the Sea Dyaks, 
 the dead chief is placed in his war canoe, with his 
 favourite weapons and principal property, and is thus 
 turned adrift. Other tribes gave their dead to be food for 
 wild beasts ; and others preferred to eat them themselves. 
 Some Brazilian tribes drink the dead.^ The Tarianas 
 and Tucanos, and some other tribes, about a month after 
 the funeral, disinter the corpse, which is then much 
 decomposed, and put it in a great pan or oven over the 
 fire, till all the volatile parts are driven off with a most 
 ' Wallace, Travels on the Aiiiaaon, p. 498.
 
 554 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 horrible odour, leaving only a black carbonaceous mass, 
 which is pounded into a fine powder, and mixed in 
 several large conches of caxiri ; this is drunk by the 
 assembled company, under the full belief that the virtues 
 of the deceased will thus be transmitted to the drinkers. 
 The Cobeus also drink the ashes of the dead in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Indeed, if there are two possible ways of doing a thing, 
 we may be sure that some tribes will prefer one, and 
 some the other. It seems natural to us that descent 
 should go in the male line ; but there are very many 
 races in which it is traced from the mother, not the father. 
 The husband or father seems to us to be the natural head 
 of the family ; in Tahiti the reverse is the case, and the 
 son enters at once into the property and titles of his 
 father, who then holds them only as a guardian or trustee ; 
 so that among this extraordinary people, not the father, 
 but the son, is in reality the head of the family. So also 
 in Australia, the father is called after the son, not the 
 son after the father. At Cape York and in the neigh- 
 bouring islands the youngest son has a double share. ^ 
 Among the New Zealanders, and various other races, 
 including some districts in our own country, the youngest 
 son succeeds to the property of the father.^ Among the 
 Wanyameuzi, property descends not to the legitimate, 
 but to the illegitimate children.^ There are many races 
 in which those holding certain relationships are forbidden 
 to talk to one another, an extraordinary superstition 
 which, as we have seen (p. 463), reaches its climax among 
 the Fijians. 
 
 It seems natural to us that after child-birth the woman 
 should keep her bed, and that as far as possible the 
 husband should relieve her for a time from the labours 
 and cares of life. In this, at least, one might have thought 
 that all nations would be alike. Yet it is not so. Among 
 the Caribs the father, on the birth of a child, took to his 
 
 1 M'Gillivray, Voyaoe of H. M.S. '' Rat//esfmke," vol. ii. p. 28. 
 -' New Zealand anil its Aborigines, p. 26. 
 •' Burton's Lake Regions of Africa, p. 198.
 
 FAMILY RELATIONS— DEATH SS5 
 
 hammock, and placed himself in the hands of the doctor, 
 the mother meanwhile going about her work as usual. 
 A similar custom has been observed on the mainland 
 of South America, among the Abipones, Mundrucus, 
 Fuegians, etc. ; among the Arawaks of Surinam ; in the 
 Chinese province of West Yunnan ; among the Dyaks 
 of Borneo, and the Esquimaux of Greenland. It is 
 mentioned by Xenophon as occurring in Asia Minor, and 
 by Strabo among the Iberians ; is found even in the 
 present day among the Basques, among whom we are 
 told that in some of the valleys the " women rise immedi- 
 ately after child-birth, and attend to the duties of the 
 household, while the husband goes to bed, taking the 
 baby with him, and thus receives the neighbours' compli- 
 ments," The same habit has been noticed also in the 
 south of France ; according to Diodorus Siculus, it 
 prevailed at his time in Corsica ; and finally, it " is said 
 still to exist in some cantons of Beam, where it is called 
 /aire la couvadeT 
 
 Again, the love of life — the dread of death — are among 
 the strongest of our feelings. " Everything that a man 
 hath he will give in exchange for his life." This is 
 true, but by no means universally so. According to 
 Azara, the Indians of Paraguay have a great indifference 
 to death ; and we have already seen that this is the 
 case with the Fijians ; while Burton makes a similar 
 statement as regards the Negroes of Dahomey. Amono- 
 the Chinese it is said that a man condemned to death, 
 if permitted to do so, may always secure a substitute 
 on payment of a moderate sum of money ; and a coffin 
 is regarded as a most appropriate present for an aged 
 relative. 
 
 Again, the sounds of which language is constituted 
 differ extremely in different parts of the world. The clicks 
 of the Hottentots are a striking illustration of this. The 
 Hurons did not use the labials ; the Indians of Port au 
 Fran9ais in Columbia, acccording to M. de Lamanon,^ 
 make no use of the consonants b^/ x^j^ <^, />, or v. The 
 
 1 yoj'age de la " Perouse" vol. ii. p. 2 1 1.
 
 ^^6 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Peruvian language wanted the letters l>, ^,/, g^ J, and x} 
 The Australians did not use the sound conveyed by our 
 letter s.^ Many of the Negroes have no r. The Fijians 
 do not use the letter c, the Somo-Somo dialect has no k, 
 that of Rakiraki and other parts no /.^ The Society 
 Islanders and Australians exclude both s and c* In re- 
 presenting the New Zealand language, the missionaries 
 found themselves able to discard no less than thirteen 
 letters, namely /^, f, c/, /, g, y, /, ^, J, v, x, y, and z.^ 
 Schaaffhausen observes that the labials are especially 
 difficult to prognathous races. 
 
 Shortland asserts that whistling was unknown in New 
 Zealand.^ Even the symbols by which the feelings are 
 expressed are very different in different races. Kissing 
 appears to us the natural expression of affection. " 'Tis 
 certain," says Steele, " nature was its author, and it began 
 with the first courtship." On the contrary, it was entirely 
 unknown to the Tahitians, the New Zealanders,'' the 
 Papuans,^ and the aborigines of Australia ; nor was it in 
 use among the Somals,^ or the Esquimaux.^" The hill 
 tribes of Chittagong do not say " Kiss me," but " Smell 
 me." ^^ The Malays,^^ Fijians,^^ Tongans, and many other 
 Polynesians, always sit down when speaking to a superior ; 
 the inhabitants of Mallicollo testify " admiration by hissing 
 like a goose," ^* the sound being perhaps like our " hush," 
 a call for silence, and hence a mark of interest ; the mode 
 of showing respect among the Todas of the Neilgherry 
 hills is by raising the open right hand to the face, resting 
 
 ' Garcilasso de la Vega, Markham's Translation, Author's Preface, 
 p. X. 
 
 '^ Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 757 ; D'Urville, vol. i. pp. 188, 199, 481. 
 
 ^ Williams, Figi and the Figtans, vol. i. p. v. 257. 
 
 * Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i. p. jj. 
 
 ^ Brown, Ne2i' Zealand and its Aborigities, p. 100. 
 
 ^ Traditiofts of the Nezu Zealanders,\). 134. 
 
 '' D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 561 ; Voyage of the '■'■ Novara" vol. iii. p. 106. 
 
 ^ Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 56. 
 
 ^ Burton's First Footsteps in Africa, p. 123. 
 
 ^" hyoViS Journal, p. 353. 
 
 " Lewin, Hill Tribes of Chittagong, p. 46. 
 
 12 Marsden, Memoirs of a Malayan Family, p. yj. 
 
 '^ Williams, Figi and the Figians, vol. i. p. 38. 
 
 " Cook's Second Voyage, vol. ii. p. 36.
 
 RESPECT— CLOTHING— VIRTUE 557 
 
 the thumb on the bridge of the nose ; at Vatavulu ^ it is 
 respectful to turn one's back on a superior, especially in 
 addressing him. The same custom occurs" in Congo; 
 Denham found it ^ in Central Africa ; and Speke * among 
 the Wahuma in the east. The people of Iddah shake 
 their clenched fist,^ while on the White Nile and in 
 Ashantee they spit on you as a compliment. According 
 to Freycinet, tears were regarded in the Sandwich Islands 
 as a sign of happiness ; ^ and some of the Esquimaux pull 
 noses as a token of respect.'^ Spix and Martius assure us 
 that blushing was unknown among the Brazilian Indians ; 
 and that only after long intercourse with Europeans does 
 a change of colour become in them any indication of 
 mental emotion.^ 
 
 Again, we find the most striking differences of feeling 
 in the matter of clothing. The Turk thinks it highly 
 improper for a woman to show her face. The sculptures 
 on early Indian temples show that a race may attain to a 
 considerable degree of civilization without perceiving any 
 necessity whatever for clothing. This is the case with 
 the women listening to Buddha while preaching, and even 
 Buddha's wife, and Maya his mother,^ are habitually so 
 represented ; indeed, Mr Fergusson does not hesitate to 
 say that " before the Mahomedan conquest nudity in 
 India conveyed no sense of indecency." 
 
 The ideas of virtue also differ extremely. Neither 
 faith, hope, nor charity enters into the virtues of a 
 savage. The Sichuana language contains no expression 
 for thanks ; the Algonquin had no word for love ; the 
 Tinne no word for beloved ; mercy was with the North 
 American Indians a mistake, and peace an evil ; theft, 
 says Catlin, they "call capturing" ; humility is an idea 
 
 1 Figi afid tlie Figians^ vol. i. p. 1 54. 
 
 2 Astley's Voyage and Travels^ vol. iii. p. 72. 
 
 3 Travels andDiscoveties in Africa, vol. ii. p. 27, vol. iii. p. 15. 
 
 4 Discovery of the Source of the Nile, p. 206. 
 
 6 Allan and Thompson, Expedition to the Niger, vol. i. p. 290. 
 « L.c, vol. ii. pp. 542, 589. ^ Ross, Baffin's Bay, p. 118. 
 
 * Vol. i. p. 376. 
 
 ^ See, for instance, Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship. PI. Ixxiv. 
 and passim.
 
 558 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 which they could not comprehend. Among the Koupouees 
 the greatest misconduct, says Major M'CuUoch, " is to 
 forgive an enemy, the first virtue is revenge." ^ 
 
 Among the ancient Greeks, we see in Homer that the 
 deceitful cunning of Ulysses was looked upon with 
 approval. 
 
 "Is a man to starve," said an African, indignantly, to 
 Capt. Burton, " while his sister has children whom she 
 might sell .'' " This sentiment reads at first like the acme 
 of selfishness, but this impression would perhaps be 
 unjust. Marsden records a Sumatran Malay as saying, 
 in admiration of an European watch, " Is it not fitting 
 that such as we should be slaves to people who have the 
 ingenuity to invent, and the skill to construct, so wonderful 
 a machine ?'' ^ 
 
 Chastity before marriage was not reckoned as a virtue 
 by the New Zealanders,^ the hill tribes of North Aracan,* 
 or by many of the ruder inhabitants of Northern and 
 Central America ; ^ it was disapproved of, though for 
 very different reasons, by some of the Brazilian tribes, by 
 the inhabitants of the Ladrones, and by the Andamaners. 
 According to Ulloa,*^ the Brazilians do not approve of 
 chastity in an unmarried woman, regarding it as a proof 
 that she can have nothing attractive about her. The 
 inhabitants of the Ladrones,^ and of the Andaman 
 Islands,^ come to the same conclusion ; in the latter case, 
 however, for a different reason, regarding it as a proof of 
 selfishness and pride. On the other hand, many races 
 absolutely prohibit a man from marrying a woman of his 
 own family name ; the Abipones thought it a sin for a 
 man to pronounce his own name ; the Tahitians thought 
 
 ^ Selection from tJie Records of the Goveniinent of hidia, by Major W. 
 M'CuUoch, p. 75. 
 
 - History of Sitmatra, p. 205. 
 
 ■^ Brown, Nnu Zeahuid andits Aborigines^ P- 35- 
 
 ^ St ]o\\x\^Joiir. Anthr. Inst. 1872, p. 239. 
 
 '" YxM-^Xwi'i Journeys to the Polar Seas, vol. i. p. 132 ; Dunn's Oregon 
 Territoty, p. 92 ; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. i. pp. 
 123, 242. 
 
 ® Pinkerton, vol. xiv. p. 521. '' Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 370. 
 
 * Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Ser., vol. ii. p. 35.
 
 CHASTITY— MARRIAGE 559 
 
 it very wrong to eat in company, and were horrified at an 
 English sailor, who carried some food in a basket on his 
 head. This prejudice was also shared by the New 
 Zealanders,^ while the Fijians, who were habitual cannibals, 
 who regarded mercy as a weakness, and cruelty as a 
 virtue, fully believed that a woman who was not tattooed 
 in an orthodox manner during life, could not possibly 
 hope for happiness after death. This curious idea is also 
 found among the Esquimaux. Hall tells us that they 
 tattoo " from principle, the theory being that the lines 
 thus made will be regarded in the next world as a sign 
 of goodness." ^ It seems to the Veddahs the most natural 
 thing in the world that a man should marry his younger 
 sister, but marriage with an elder one is as repugnant to 
 them as to us. Among the Friendly Islanders the chief 
 priest was considered too holy to be married ; but he had 
 the right to take as many concubines as he pleased ; and 
 even the chiefs dared not refuse their daughters to him. 
 In Western Africa the women of the reigning families 
 might have as many lovers as they wished, but were 
 forbidden to degrade themselves by marriage. Among 
 the natives of New South Wales, though the women 
 wore no clothes, it was thought indecent for young girls 
 to go naked. ^ 
 
 Many savage races think it wrong for a woman to have 
 twins ; among the Ibos of Eastern Africa, for instance, 
 in such a case the children were exposed to wild beasts, 
 and the mother was driven out of society.^ There also 
 it is thought unlucky to cut the upper teeth before the 
 lower ones,'' and " You cut your top teeth first," is the 
 bitterest of insults. I cannot indeed but think that the 
 differences observable in savage tribes are even more 
 remarkable than the similarities. 
 
 1 D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 533. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Life with the Esquimaux^ vol. ii. p. 315. 
 
 D'Urville, vol. i. p. 471 ; Voyai^e of the " Rattlesnake" vol. i. p. 49. 
 * Burton's Lake Regions of Africa, p. 90. See, for other instances of 
 this, my Origin of Civilization^ 2nd ed., p. 25. 
 
 ^ This idea is, I find to my surprise, also prevalent among our own
 
 560 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 In endeavouring to estimate the moral character of 
 savages, we must remember not only that their standard 
 of right and wrong was, and is, in many cases, very 
 different from ours, but also that, according to the 
 statements of travellers, some of them can hardly be 
 regarded as responsible beings, and have not attained 
 to any notions, however faulty and undefined, of moral 
 rectitude.^ But where such notions do exist, they differ 
 widely, as we have seen, from our own ; and it would 
 open up too large a question to inquire whether, in all 
 cases, our standard is the correct one. 
 
 In considering the character of women belonging to 
 savage or semi-savage races, we must also remember that 
 savages often regard the white men as beings of a 
 superior order. Thus M. du Chaillu tells us that some 
 of the African savages looked upon him as a superior 
 being ; and the South Sea Islanders worshipped Captain 
 Cook as a deity. Even when they had killed him, and 
 cut him into small pieces, the inhabitants of Owhyhee 
 fully expected him to reappear, and frequently asked 
 " what he would do to them on his return." ^ However 
 absurd and extravagant such a belief may at first sight 
 appear, it must be admitted that it is in many respects 
 very natural. Savages can only raise their minds to the 
 conception of a being a few degrees superior to themselves, 
 and Captain Cook was more powerful, wiser, and, we 
 may add, more virtuous than most of their so-called 
 " Deities." Under these circumstances, although it must 
 be admitted that the chastity of the women is not, as a 
 general rule, much regarded among savages, we must not 
 too severely condemn them on this account. It is not 
 surprising that any connection with white men is regarded 
 rather as an honour than as a disgrace : the Europeans 
 hold, in fact, almost the same position in public estimation 
 as did the amorous deities of ancient mythology. 
 
 Again, with savages, as with children, time appears 
 
 1 See, for instance, Burchell, vol. i. p. 461. 
 
 " Cook's Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, by Capt. King, F.R.S., vol. iii. 
 p. 69.
 
 MARRIAGE— MORALS 561 
 
 longer than it does to us, and a temporary marriage as 
 natural and honourable as one that is permanent. 
 Hospitality, again, is frequently carried so far that it is 
 thought wrong to withhold from a guest anything that 
 might contribute to his comfort, and unless therefore he 
 was provided with a temporary wife, hospitality would be 
 regarded as incomplete. This custom is found through- 
 out North America and the South Sea Islands, among 
 the Abyssinians, Bedouins, Kaffirs, Patagonians, and 
 other races. Among the Esquimaux it is considered a 
 great mark of friendship for two men to exchange wives 
 for a day or two. It has been already mentioned that a 
 Kandyan chief, described by Mr Bailey, was quite 
 scandalized at the idea of having only one wife. It was, 
 he said, "just like monkeys." When Captain Cook was 
 in New Zealand, his companions contracted many tem- 
 porary marriages with the Maori women ; these were 
 arranged in a formal and decent manner, and were 
 regarded, by the New Zealanders at any rate, as perfectly 
 regular and innocent.^ Regnard^ assures us that the 
 Lapps preferred to marry a girl that had had a child by 
 a white man, thinking "that because a man whom they 
 believe to be possessed of a better taste than themselves 
 has been anxious to give marks of his love for a girl of 
 their country, she must therefore be possessed of some 
 secret merit." Even in recent years. Lady Duff Gordon 
 told us, in her paper on the Cape,^ that " there are no 
 so-called ' morals ' among the coloured people, and how 
 or why should there ? It is an honour to one of these 
 girls to have a child by a white man." Taking all these 
 facts into consideration, the intercourse which has taken 
 place between Europeans and women of lower tribes 
 must not, I think, be too severely condemned, or rather 
 the blame ought to fall on us and not on them. But, 
 even among savages themselves, we must admit that 
 female virtue is, in many cases, but slightly regarded ; as, 
 
 ' Cook's /'Y/'j/ Voyui^t', vol. iii. p. 450. 
 
 ^ ymkevton, /our/iejy to Lapland^ vol. i. p. 166. 
 
 ^ Vacation Tourists^ 1 863, p. 1 78.
 
 562 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 indeed, is but natural when women themselves are looked 
 upon as little better than domestic animals. Among 
 many tribes, for instance the South Sea Islanders and the 
 Esquimaux, indecent dances are not only common, but 
 are countenanced by women of the highest rank, to whom 
 it does not appear to occur that there is any harm or 
 impropriety in them. Judged by our standards, these 
 facts are very dreadful ; but we must remember they did 
 not entail on savages the same fatal consequences as with 
 us ; and before we condemn them too severely, let us 
 remember our own literature and our own morality, even 
 in the eighteenth century. 
 
 The harsh, not to say cruel treatment of women, which 
 is almost universal among savages, is one of the deepest 
 stains upon their character. They regard the weaker sex 
 as beings of an inferior order, as mere domestic drudges. 
 Nor are the labours and sufferings of the women sweetened 
 by any great affection on the part of those for whom they 
 toil. We have already seen that the Algonquins had no 
 word for " love " in their language, and that the Tinne 
 Indians had no equivalent for "dear" or "beloved." 
 Captain Lefroy ^ says : " I endeavoured to put this 
 intelligibly to Nannette, by supposing such an expression 
 as ' ma chere femme ; ma chere fille.' When at length 
 she understood it, her reply was (with great emphasis), 
 ' r disent jamais 9a ; i' disent ma femme, ma fille.' " 
 Spix and Martius ^ tell us that among the Brazilian tribes 
 the father has scarcely any, the mother only an instinctive, 
 affection for the child. There can be no doubt that, as 
 an almost universal rule, savages are cruel ; but we must 
 remember that they are less sensitive to pain than those 
 who spend much of their time indoors, and that in 
 many cases they inflict upon themselves also the most 
 horrible tortures. 
 
 Savages may be likened to children, and the comparison 
 is not only correct, but also highly instructive. Many 
 naturalists consider that the early condition of the in- 
 
 1 Richardson's Arctic Expedition^ vol. ii. p. 24. 
 ^ Rcise, vol. i. p. 381.
 
 AFFECTION— CHILDISHNESS s^i 
 
 dividual indicates that of the race, — that the best test of 
 the affinities of a species are the stages through which it 
 passes. So also it is in the case of man ; the life of each 
 individual is an epitome of the history of the race, and 
 the gradual development of the child illustrates that of 
 the species. Hence the importance of the similarity 
 between savages and children. Savages, like children, ; 
 have no steadiness of purpose. Speaking of the Dogrib 
 Indians, we found, says Richardson,^ "by experience, 
 that however high the reward they expected to receive 
 on reaching their destination, they could not be depended 
 on to carry letters. A slight difficulty, the prospect of a 
 banquet on venison, or a sudden impulse to visit some 
 friend, were sufficient to turn them aside for an in- 
 definite length of time." Even among the comparatively 
 civilized South Sea Islanders this childishness was very 
 apparent. " Their tears indeed,'^ like those of children, 
 were always ready to express any passion that was strongly 
 excited, and like those of children they also appear to be 
 forgotten as soon as shed." D'Urville also mentions 
 that Tai-wanga, a New Zealand chief, cried like a child 
 because the sailors spoilt his favourite cloak by powdering 
 it with flour.^ " It is not," says Cook, " indeed strange 
 that the sorrows of these artless people should be transient, 
 any more than that their passions should be suddenly 
 and strongly expressed ; what they feel they have never 
 been taught either to disguise or suppress ; and having , 
 no habits of thinking which perpetually recall the past ■ 
 and anticipate the future, they are affected by all the 
 changes of the passing hour, and reflect the colour of the 
 time, however frequently it may vary ; they have no 
 project which is to be pursued from day to day, the 
 subject of unremitted anxiety and soHcitude, that first 
 rushes into the mind when they awake in the morning, 
 and is last dismissed when they sleep at night. Yet if 
 
 ^ Arctic Expedition, vol. ii. p. 23. 
 ■•^ Cook's First Voyage, p. 103. 
 
 ^ D'Urville, vol. ii. p. 398. See also Burton's Lake Regions of Central 
 Africa, p. 332.
 
 564 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 we admit that they are upon the whole happier than we, we 
 must admit that the child is happier than the man, and that 
 we are losers by the perfection of our nature, the increase 
 of our knowledge, and the enlargement of our views." 
 
 We all know the difficulty which children find in pro- 
 nouncing certain sounds : r and /, for instance, they 
 ") constantly confound. This is the case also among the 
 Sandwich Islanders and in the Ladrones, according to 
 Freycinet ; ^ in Vanikoro,^ among the Dammaras ; ' and 
 in the Tonga Islands/ 
 
 Mr Darwin observed that the Fuegians had great 
 difficulty in comprehending an alternative. 
 
 Savages, again, have a great tendency to form words 
 by re-duplication, which also is characteristic of childhood 
 among civilized races. 
 
 Again, some of the most brutal acts which have been 
 recorded against them are to be regarded less as instances 
 jr of deliberate cruelty, than of a childish thoughtlessness 
 and impulsiveness. A striking instance of this is recorded 
 by Byron in his narrative of the Loss of the " Wager." 
 A cacique of the Chonos, who was nominally a Christian, 
 had been out with his wife to fish for sea-eggs, and, having 
 had little success, returned in a bad humour. " A little 
 boy of theirs, about three years old, whom they appeared 
 to be doatingly fond of, watching for his father and 
 mother's return, ran into the surf to meet them ; the 
 father handed a basket of eggs to the child, which being 
 too heavy for him to carry, he let it fall, upon which the 
 father jumped out of the canoe, and, catching the boy up 
 in his arms, dashed him with the utmost violence against 
 the stones. The poor little creature lay motionless and 
 bleeding, and in that condition was taken up by the 
 mother, but died soon aFter."^ 
 
 In fact, we may fairly sum up this part of the question 
 in a few words by saying, as the most general conclusion 
 
 ' Vol. ii. pp. 260, 519. - Vol. V. p. 218. 
 
 ^ Galton, Tropical South Africa, p. 181. 
 
 •• Mariner's Tonga Islands, vol. i. p. 30. 
 
 ^ Byron's Loss of the " IVagcr" ; Kerr's yojagcs, vol. xvii. p. 374.
 
 INTELLECTUAL CHARACTERISTICS s^S 
 
 which can be arrived at, that savages have the character 
 of children with the passions and strength of men. No 
 doubt different races of savages differ very much in 
 character. An Esquimaux and a Fijian, for instance, 
 have little in common. But after making every possible 
 allowance for savages, it must I think be admitted that 
 they are inferior, morally as well as in other respects, to 
 the more civilized races. There is indeed no atrocious 
 crime, no vice recorded by any traveller, which might not 
 be paralleled in Europe. But that which is with us the 
 exception, is with them the rule ; that which with us is 
 condemned by the general verdict of society, and is 
 confined to the uneducated and vicious, is among savages 
 passed over almost without condemnation, and treated as 
 a mere matter of course. In Tahiti, for instance, the 
 missionaries considered that " not less than two-thirds of 
 the children were murdered by their parents." 
 
 If we now turn to the mental differences between 
 civilized and uncivilized races, we shall find them very 
 strongly marked. Speaking of a Bushman tribe, Burchell 
 observes that "whether capable of reflection or not, these 
 individuals never exerted it." ^ The Rev. T, Dove de- 
 scribes the Tasmanians as distinguished " by the absence 
 of all moral views and impressions. Every idea bearing 
 on our origin and destination as rational beings seems to 
 have been erased from their breasts." ^ It would be easy 
 to fill a volume with the evidence of excessive stupidity 
 recorded by different travellers. It may be perhaps 
 thought that these were rather instances of individual 
 dulness, than any indication of a national characteristic ; 
 but in the nature and capacity of a language we find a 
 test and measure of the higher minds in a nation. Un- 
 fortunately, however, travellers have found it difficult 
 enough to obtain vocabularies of the words in use ; and 
 it is far less easy to collect information as to those which 
 they do not possess. Yet there are not a few cases in 
 which this has been done. I have already mentioned the 
 
 ' L.C., vol. i. p. 461. 
 
 ^ Tastnanian Journal of I\/atural Science^ vol. i. p. 249.
 
 S66 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 deficiency of some North American languages in terms 
 of endearment ; this fact suggests a melancholy condition 
 of the domestic relations, but it may here be referred to 
 again as an evidence of a low mental, as well as moral, 
 condition. What Spix and Martius tell us about the 
 Brazilian tribes ^ appears also to be true of many, if not 
 of most, savage races. Their vocabulary is rich, and 
 they have separate names for the different parts of the 
 body, for all the different animals and plants with which 
 they are acquainted ; for everything, in fact, which they 
 can see and handle. Yet they are entirely deficient in 
 words for abstract ideas ; they have no expressions for 
 colour, tone, sex, genus, spirit, etc. 
 
 The Abipones have no such words as man, body, place, 
 time, never, ever, everywhere, etc. ; nor such a verb as 
 " to be." They cannot say, " I am an Abipon," but only, 
 "I Abipon."" The Malay language, also, according to 
 Crawfurd, is very deficient in abstract terms. It contains 
 a word for each colour, but no term for colour itself. 
 The St Petersburg Bible Society endeavoured some years 
 ago to translate the Lord's Prayer and the Ten Com- 
 mandments into the language of the Tschuktschi, but 
 " partly from the language being entirely deficient in 
 words to express new and abstract ideas, and partly for 
 want of letters to convey the variety of strange and 
 uncouth sounds of which the language itself consists, the 
 translation was wholly unintelligible," ^ 
 
 So, again, the Tasmanians had no worci for a tree, 
 though they had a name for each species ; nor could they 
 express " qualities, such as hard, soft, warm, cold, long, 
 short, round, etc. ; for ' hard ' they would say ' like a 
 stone ' ; for ' tall ' they would say ' long legs,' etc. ; and 
 for ' round ' they said ' like a ball,' ' like the moon,' and 
 so on."* According to the missionaries,^ Fuegians have 
 " no abstract terms for expressing the truths of our 
 
 ' /\a'se in Brasilicn, vol. i. p. 385. ' Dobritzhoffcr, vol. ii. p. 183. 
 
 ^ Wrangell's Siberia attd Polar Sea, p. 121. 
 
 ^ Milligan, I^?-pc. Roy. Society, Tasmania, vol. iii. p. 281. 
 
 '•> The Voice of Pity, vol. x. p. 152.
 
 LANGUAGE 567 
 
 religion " ; and among the North American languages, 
 " a term sufficiently general to denote an ' oak-tree ' is 
 exceptional," ^ Even the comparatively civilized inhabi- 
 tants of Tahiti had, according to Forster, " no proper 
 words for expressing abstract ideas." ^ 
 
 The names for numbers are, perhaps, the best, or, at 
 least, the most easily applicable test of mental condition 
 among the lower races of man. We have seen that the 
 Esquimaux can only with difficulty count up to ten, and 
 that some individuals cannot go beyond five. The 
 Abipones ^ can only express three numbers in proper 
 words. The Dammaras " in practice, whatever they may 
 possess in their language, certainly use no numeral 
 greater than three. When they wish to express four, 
 they take to their fingers, which are to them as formidable 
 instruments of calculation as a sliding rule is to an English 
 schoolboy. They puzzle very much after five, because 
 no spare hand remains to grasp and secure the fingers 
 that are required for units." * Mr Crawfurd, to whom 
 we are indebted for an interesting paper on this subject,^ 
 has examined no less than thirty Australian languages, 
 and it appears that none of the tribes in that vast conti- 
 nent count beyond four. According to Mr Scott Nind, 
 indeed, the numerals used by the natives of King George's 
 Sound reach up to five ; but the last is merely the word 
 " many." The Cape Yorkers (Australia) can hardly be 
 said to go beyond two ; their numerals are as follows : 
 
 One ..... Netat. 
 
 Two 
 Three 
 Four 
 Five 
 
 Six 
 
 Naes. 
 
 Naes-netat. 
 
 Naes-naes. 
 
 Naes-naes-netat, 
 
 Naes-naes-naes. 
 
 The Brazilian Indians also count only up to three ; for 
 any higher number they use the word " many." ^ 
 
 ^ Latham, Varieties of Man, p. 375. - L.c, p. 403. 
 
 ^ Dobritzhoffer, vol. ii. p. 169. ^ Gallon's Tropical Africa, p. -i,Z- 
 
 ^ Ethnolos;ical Society's Transactions, New Series, vol. ii. p. 84. 
 ^ Spix and Martius, vol. i. p. 387.
 
 568 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Again, in the state of their religious conceptions, still 
 more in the absence of religious conceptions, we get 
 another proof of extreme mental inferiority. The 
 question has been frequently discussed whether there is 
 any race of men so degraded as to be entirely without a 
 religion — without some idea of a deity.^ The conclusion 
 to be arrived at depends, as it seems to me, very much 
 on the meaning which we ascribe to the term of " religion." 
 If a mere fear of the unknown, if a more or less vague 
 belief in witchcraft, is to be regarded as a religion, it 
 would, I think, be difficult to refute this assertion. But 
 if any higher estimate of religion is adopted, then, so far 
 from this being true, the very reverse is the case. Many, 
 we might almost say all, of the most savage races are, 
 according to the nearly universal testimony of travellers, 
 in this condition.^ 
 
 According to Spix and Martius,^ Bates and Wallace, 
 some of the Brazilian Indians were entirely without 
 religion, Burmeister confirms this statement, and, in the 
 list of the principal tribes of the valley of the Amazons, 
 published by the Hakluyt Society, the Chunchos are 
 stated " to have no religion whatever," and we are told 
 that the Curetus " have no idea of a Supreme Being." 
 The same is said of the Toupinambas. Bates* tells us 
 " that none of the tribes on the Upper Amazons have an 
 idea of a Supreme Being, and consequently have no word 
 to express it in their languages." Azara also makes the 
 same statement as regards many of the South American 
 tribes visited by him.^ The South American Indians of 
 the Gran Chaco are said by the missionaries to have " no 
 religious or idolatrous belief or worship whatever ; neither 
 
 ' I have discussed this question at greater length in my Mariiagc, 
 Toietnisni, and Religion : an A?tstuer to Ciiiics^ Longmans, 191 1. 
 
 - Mr Lang has attempted to show {The Making of Religion) that even 
 the lowest races of men believe in an '' omnipotent, moral, and eternal 
 Father and Judge." Mr Hartland in Folk Lore for Dec. 1898 has, 
 I think, completely replied to his arguments. 
 
 •'' Reise in Brasilien, vol. i. p. 379. 
 
 ■* Life in the A7nazons^ vol. ii. p. 162. 
 
 •'■ Voyages dans fAina: JVIerid., vol. ii. pp. 3, 14, '})2)^ 51, 60, 76, 80, 81, 
 84, 90, 138, 160, 164, 166.
 
 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 569 
 
 do they possess any idea of God or of a Supreme Being. 
 They make no distinction between right and wrong, and 
 have, therefore, neither fear nor hope of any present or 
 future punishment or reward, nor any mysterious terror 
 of some supernatural power, whom they might seek to 
 assauge by sacrifices or superstitious rites." ^ 
 
 Father Baegert, who lived as a missionary among the 
 Indians of California for seventeen years, affirms that 
 " idols, temples, religious worship, or ceremonies were 
 unknown to them, and they neither believed in the true 
 and only God, nor adored false deities " ; ^ and M. de la 
 Perouse also says that they " had no knowledge of a 
 God, or of a future state." Golden, who had ample 
 means of judging, assures us that the celebrated "five 
 nations " of Canada " had no public worship nor any word 
 for God " ; and Hearne, who lived amongst the Northern 
 American Indians for years, and was perfectly acquainted 
 with their habits and language, says the same of some 
 tribes on Hudson's Bay. 
 
 In the Voyage of'-'- F Astrolabe^'' it is stated that the natives 
 of the Samoan and Solomon Islands, in the Pacific, had no 
 religion, and in the J'^oyage of the '-''Novara^'' the same is said 
 of the Caroline Islanders. The Samoans " have neither 
 morals, nor temples, nor altars, nor offerings, and conse- 
 quently none of the sanguinary rites, observed at the 
 other groups. In consequence of this the Samoans were 
 considered an impious race by their neighbours ; and their 
 impiety became proverbial with the people of Rarotonga, 
 for, when upbraiding a person who neglected the worship 
 of the gods, they would call him "a godless Samoan."^ 
 On Damood Island, between Australia and New Guinea, 
 Jukes could find no " traces of any religious belief or 
 observance." * Duradawan, a sepoy who lived some time 
 with the Andaman Islanders, maintained that they had no 
 religion, and Dr Mouatt believes his statements to be 
 
 * Voice oj Piiyi vol. ix. p. 220. 
 
 ^ See Mr Rau's translation, Sj7tit/tso?nan Contrib. 1863-64, p. 390. 
 ^ Missionaty Enterpfises, p. 464. 
 
 * Juke's Voyage of the '■''Fly" vol. i. p. 164.
 
 570 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 correct.^ Portman, who lived so long with them, and 
 studied them so lovingly, makes the same statement as 
 regards the native of the Lesser Andamans.^ Some of 
 the Australian tribes also are said to have no religion. In 
 the Pellew Islands, Wilson found no religious buildings, 
 nor any sign of religion. 
 
 Mr Wallace, who had excellent opportunities for 
 judging, and whose merits as an observer no one can 
 question, tells us that among the people of Wanumbai, in 
 the Aru Islands, he could find no trace of a religion ;* 
 adding, however, that he was but a short time among 
 them. 
 
 The Yenadies and the Villees, according to Dr Shortt, 
 are entirely without any belief in a future state ;^ and 
 again. Hooker tells us that the Lepchas of Northern 
 India have no religion. Captain Grant could find " no 
 distinct form of religion " in some of the comparatively 
 civilized tribes visited by him.*' According to Burchell, the 
 Bachapins (Kaffirs) had no form of worship or religion.'' 
 They thought " that everything made itself, and that trees 
 and herbage grew by their own will." They had no 
 belief in a good deity, but some vague idea of an evil 
 being. Indeed, the first idea of a god is almost always as 
 an evil spirit. 
 
 Speaking of the Foulahs of Wassoulo, in Central 
 Africa, Caillie states : " I tried to discover whether they 
 had any religion of their own ; whether they worshipped 
 fetishes, or the sun, moon, or stars ; but I could never 
 perceive any religious ceremony amongst them." ^ Again, 
 he says of the Bainbaras that, " like the people of Wassoulo, 
 they have no religion," ^ adding, however, that they have 
 great faith in charms. 
 
 ' Trans. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 45. 
 -/• Geog. Soc, Sep. 1888. 
 
 2 Collins' English Colony in New South Wales, p. 354. 
 * The Malaya7i Archipelago, vol. ii. p. 280. 
 
 " Proceedings of Madras Government, Revenue Department. May 
 1864. 
 ^ A Walk across Africa, p. 145. 
 "' Travels in South Africa, vol. ii. p. 550. 
 ** Travels to Timbuctoo, vol. i. p. 303. ^ L.c, p. 375.
 
 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 571 
 
 Burton also states that some of the tribes in the lake 
 districts of Central Africa " admit neither God, nor angel, 
 nor devil." ^ Speaking of Hottentots, Le Vaillant says : - 
 " Je n'y ai vu aucune trace de religion, rien qui approche 
 m6me de I'idee d'un etre vengeur et remunerateur. J'ai 
 vecu assez longtemps avec eux, chez eux aux sein de leurs 
 deserts paisibles ; j'ai fait, avec ces braves humains, des 
 voyages dans des regions fort eloignees ; nulle part je n'ai 
 rencontre rien qui ressemble a la religion." Livingstone 
 mentions that on one occasion, after talking to a Bushman 
 for some time, as he supposed, about the Deity, he found 
 that the savage thought he was speaking about Sekomi, 
 the principal chief of the district. 
 
 Speaking of the Esquimaux, Ross says : " Ervick, being 
 the senior of the first party that came on board, was judged 
 to be the most proper person to question on the subject 
 of religion. I directed Sacheuse to ask him if he had any 
 knowledge of a Supreme Being ; but after trying every 
 word used in his own language to express it, he could 
 not make him understand what he meant. It was dis- 
 tinctly ascertained that he did not worship the sun, moon, 
 stars, or any image or living creature. When asked what 
 the sun or moon was for, he said to give light. He had 
 no knowledge or idea how he came into being, or of a 
 future state ; but said that when he died he would be put 
 into the ground. Having fully ascertained that he had 
 no idea of a beneficent Supreme Being, I proceeded, 
 through Sacheuse, to inquire if he believed in an evil 
 spirit ; but he could not be made to understand what it 
 meant. . . . He was positive that in this incantation he 
 did not receive assistance from anything, nor could he be 
 made to understand what a good or an evil spirit meant." ^ 
 In some cases travellers have arrived at these views 
 very much to their own astonishment. Thus Father 
 DobritzhofFer says : " Theologians agree in denying that 
 any man in possession of his reason can, without a crime, 
 
 ' Trans. EtJin. Soc, New Sen, vol. i. p. 323. 
 
 - VoyaoTS dans I'A/rique, vol. i. p. 93. 
 
 3 Ross's Voyage of Discovery to the Arctic Regions, p. 127.
 
 572 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 remain ignorant of God for any length of time. This 
 opinion I warmly defended in the University of Cordoba, 
 where I finished the four years' course of theology begun 
 at Gratz, in Styria. But what was my astonishment 
 when, on removing from thence to a colony of Abipones, 
 I found that the whole language of these savages does 
 not contain a single word which expresses God or a 
 divinity. To instruct them in religion it was necessary 
 to borrow the Spanish word for God, and insert into the 
 catechism ' Dios ecnam caogerik,' ' God, the creator of 
 things.' " ^ 
 
 Canon Callaway, in his Religious System of the Amazulu 
 Kaffirs^ agrees " with Casalis, Arbousset, Vanderkemp, and 
 MofFat, that they have " scarcely any notion of a Deity, 
 if any," 
 
 We have already observed a case of this kind in 
 Kolben, who, in spite of the assertions of the natives 
 themselves, felt quite sure that certain dances must be of 
 a religious character, "let the Hottentots say what -they 
 will," Again, Mr Matthews, who went out to act as a 
 missionary among the Fuegians, but was soon obliged to 
 abandon the hopeless task, observed only one act " which 
 could be supposed devotional." He sometimes, we are 
 told, " heard a great howling or lamentation about sunrise 
 in the morning ; and upon asking Jemmy Button what 
 occasioned the outcry, he could obtain no satisfactory 
 answer ; the boy only saying, ' People very sad, cry very 
 much,' " This appears so natural and sufficient an ex- 
 planation, that why the outcry should be " supposed 
 devotional," I must confess myself unable to see. Once 
 more. Sir J. D. Hooker states that the Khasias, an Indian 
 tribe, had no religion. Col. Yule,^ on the contrary, says 
 that they have ; but he admits that breaking hens' eggs 
 is " the principal part of their religious practice." But 
 if most travellers have expected to find a religion every- 
 where, and have been convinced, almost against their 
 
 * Z-.c"., vol. ii. p. 57. See also p. 64. 
 
 - Callaway, Religions System of the Ainaznlt/, p. 124. 
 
 ^ Yule, On the KJiasia Hills and People, p. 18.
 
 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 573 
 
 will, that the reverse is the case, it is quite possible that 
 there may have been others who have too hastily denied 
 the existence of a religion among the tribes they visited. 
 However this may be, those who assert that even the 
 lowest savages believe in a Supreme Deity, affirm that 
 which is entirely contrary to the evidence. The direct 
 testimony of travellers on this point is indirectly corro- 
 borated by their other statements. How, for instance, 
 can a people who are unable to count their own fingers, 
 possibly raise their mind so far as to realize the difficult 
 problems of religion ?^ This view becomes less im- 
 probable when we consider those races who present us 
 with what may be called the Dawn of Religion. Fetich 
 worship, which is so widely prevalent in Africa, can 
 hardly be called a religion ; and even the South Sea 
 Islanders, who were in many respects so highly civilized, 
 are said to have been seriously offended with their deity 
 if they thought that he treated them with undue severity, 
 or without proper consideration. According to Kotzebue, 
 the Kamschatkans adored their deities " when their wishes 
 were fulfilled, and insulted them when their affairs went 
 amiss." -^ When the missionaries introduced a printing- 
 press into Fiji, " the heathen at once declared it to be 
 a goci." ^ 
 
 The natives of the Nicobar Islands put up scarecrows 
 to frighten away the deity,* and Burton once heard an old 
 Eesa woman, who was suffering from toothache, offer up 
 the following prayer : " Oh Allah, may thy teeth ache 
 like mine ! Oh Allah, may thy gums be as sore as mine 
 are now ! " 
 
 Savages very generally believe in witchcraft. Con- 
 fusing together subjective and objective relations, he is a 
 prey to constant fears. 
 
 Perhaps the lowest form of religion may be considered 
 to be that presented by the Australians, which consists 
 
 ' See, for instance, Greg's Creed of C/instendom, p. 212. 
 - Nezu Voyage Round the Worlds vol. ii. p. 13. 
 ^ Figi and the Figians^ vol. ii. p. 222. 
 * Voyage of the " Novaraf vol. ii. p. 66.
 
 574 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of a mere unreasoning belief in the existence of mysterious 
 beings. The native who has a nightmare, or a dream, 
 does not doubt the reality of that which passes, and as 
 the beings by whom he is visited in his sleep are unseen 
 by his friends and relations, he regards them as invisible. 
 
 In Fetichism this feeling is more methodized. The 
 negro endeavours to make a slave of his deity. Thus 
 Fetichism is almost the opposite of Religion ; it stands 
 towards it in the same relation as Alchemy to Chemistry, 
 or Astrology to Astronomy. 
 
 A further stage is that in which the superiority of the 
 higher deities is more fully recognized. Everything is 
 worshipped indiscriminately — animals, plants, and even 
 inanimate objects. In endeavouring to account for the 
 worship of animals, we must remember that names are 
 very frequently taken from them. The children and 
 followers of a man called the Bear or the Lion would 
 make that a tribal name. Hence the animal itself would 
 be first respected, at last worshipped. 
 
 "The Totem," says Schoolcraft, "is a symbol of the 
 name of the progenitor — generally some quadruped or 
 bird, or other object in the animal kingdom, which 
 stands, if we may so express it, as the surname of the 
 family. Its significant importance is derived from the 
 fact that individuals unhesitatingly trace their lineage 
 from it." Totemism, however, is by no means confined 
 to America, but occurs also in India, Africa, and in fact 
 almost everywhere,^ often in connection with marriage 
 prohibitions. 
 
 Mr Fergusson has recently attempted to show the 
 special prevalence of Tree and Serpent worship. He 
 might, I believe, have made out as strong a case for 
 many other objects. It must be remembered that the 
 savage accounts for all action and movement by life ; 
 inanimate objects, therefore, have spirits as well as men ; 
 hence when the wives and slaves are slain, the weapons 
 also are broken in the grave, so that the spirits of the 
 
 * Trans. Ethnol. Soc.^ N.S., vol. vi. p. 36 ; Lafitau, Alccurs dcs Sauv. 
 Atne'r., vol. i. p. 464.
 
 ANIMAL WORSHIP— IDOLATRY 575 
 
 latter, as well as of the former, may accompany their 
 master to the other world. 
 
 The gradually increasing power of chiefs and priests 
 led to Anthropomorphism and idolatry, which must by 
 no means be regarded as the lowest state of religion. 
 Solomon,^ indeed, long ago pointed out its connection 
 with monarchical power. 
 
 It is important to observe that each stage of religion 
 is superimposed on the preceding, and that bygone beliefs 
 linger on among the children and the ignorant. Thus 
 witchcraft is still believed in by the ignorant, and fairy- 
 tales flourish in the nursery. 
 
 As regards pictures, the most curious fancies exist 
 among savage races. They have a very general dislike 
 to be represented, thinking that the artist thereby acquires 
 some mysterious power over them. Kane on one occasion 
 freed himself from some importunate Indians by threaten- 
 ing to draw them if they did not go away. I have 
 already mentioned (p. 524) the danger in which Catlin 
 found himself from sketching a chief in a profile, and 
 thereby, as it was supposed, depriving him of half his 
 face. So, again, a mysterious connection is supposed to 
 exist between a cut lock of hair and the person to whom 
 it belonged. In various parts of the world the sorcerer 
 gets clippings of the hair of his enemy, parings of his 
 nails, or leavings of his food, convinced that whatever 
 evil is done to these will react on their former owner. 
 Even a piece of clothing, or the ground on which a 
 person has trodden, will answer the purpose, and among 
 some tribes the mere knowledge of a person's name is 
 supposed to give a mysterious power. The Indians of 
 British Columbia have a great horror of telling their 
 names. Among the Algonquins a person's real name is 
 communicated only to his nearest relations and dearest 
 friends : the outer world address him by a kind of nick- 
 name. Thus the true name of La Belle Sauvage was 
 not Pocahontas, but Matokes, which they were afraid to 
 communicate to the English. In some tribes these name- 
 
 1 Wisd. xiv. 17.
 
 576 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 fancies take a different form. According to Ward, it is 
 an unpardonable sin for a Hindoo woman to mention the 
 name of her husband. The Kaffirs have a similar custom, 
 and so have some East African tribes. In many parts 
 of the world the names of the dead are avoided with 
 superstitious horror. This is the case in great parts of 
 North and South America, in Siberia, among the Papuans 
 and Australians, and even in Shetland, where it is said 
 that widows are very reluctant to mention their departed 
 husbands. 
 
 Throughout Australia, among some of the Brazilian 
 tribes, in parts of Africa, and in various other countries, 
 natural death is regarded as an impossibility. In the 
 New Hebrides, " when a man fell ill, he knew that some 
 sorcerer was burning his rubbish ; and shell-trumpets, 
 which could be heard for miles, were blown to signal to 
 the sorcerers to stop, and wait for the presents which 
 would be sent next morning. Night after night, Mr 
 Turner used to hear the melancholy too-tooing of the 
 shells, entreating the wizards to stop plaguing their 
 victims." ^ Savages never know but what they may be 
 placing themselves in the power of these terrible enemies ;^ 
 and it is not too much to say that the horrible dread of 
 unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, 
 and embitters every pleasure. 
 
 Nor is the belief in sorcery easily shaken off even by 
 the most civilized nations. James the First was under 
 the impression that by melting little images of wax, 
 " the persons that they bear the name of may be con- 
 tinually melted or dried away by continual sickness." 
 The belief in witchcraft is not indeed even yet extinct 
 among us. 
 
 The mental sufferings which they thus undergo, the 
 horrible tortures which they sometimes inflict on them- 
 selves, and the crimes which they are led to commit, are 
 melancholy in the extreme. It must not be supposed 
 that in the preceding chapter I have selected from various 
 
 ^ Tylor, l.c.^ p. 129 ; Turner's Polynesia, pp. 18, 89, 424. 
 ^ See Brown, New Zealand and its Aborigines, p. 80.
 
 WITCHCRAFT— SORCERY 577 
 
 works all the passages most unfavourable to savages, and 
 that the picture I have drawn of them is unfair. In 
 reality, the very reverse is the case. Their real condition 
 is even worse and more abject than that which I have 
 endeavoured to depict. I have been careful to quote 
 only from trustworthy authorities, but there are many 
 things stated by them which I have not ventured to 
 repeat ; and there are other facts which the travellers tell 
 us they could not bring themselves to publish. 
 
 17
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS 
 
 1 HAVE already expressed my belief that the simple arts 
 and implements have been independently invented by 
 various tribes, at different times, and in different parts of 
 the world. Even at the present day, we may, 1 think, 
 obtain glimpses of the manner in which they were, or 
 may have been, invented. Elephants break off boughs 
 to use as fans and scrapers. Monkeys use clubs, and 
 throw sticks and stones at those who intrude upon them. 
 Rengger saw a monkey take a stick and use it to open 
 the lid of a box, and this has since been confirmed by other 
 observers. They also use round stones for cracking nuts, 
 and surely a very small step would lead from that to the 
 application of a sharp stone for cutting. When the edge 
 became blunt, it would be thrown away, and another 
 chosen ; but after awhile, accident, if not reflection, would 
 show that a round stone would crack other stones as well 
 as nuts, and thus the savage would learn to make sharp- 
 edged stones for himself. At first, as we see in the drift 
 specimens, these would be coarse and rough, but 
 gradually the pieces chipped off would become smaller, 
 the blows would be more cautiously and thoughtfully 
 given, and at length it would be found that better work 
 might be done by pressure than by blows. From 
 pressure to polishing would again be but a small step. 
 In making flint implements, sparks would be produced ; 
 in polishing them, it would not fail to be observed 
 that they became hot, and in this way it is easy to 
 
 578
 
 FIRE— DWELLINGS— POTTERY 579 
 
 see how the two methods of obtaining fire may have 
 originated.^ 
 
 The chimpanzee builds himself a house or resting- 
 place quite equal to that of some savages. Our earliest 
 ancestors therefore may have had this art ; but even if 
 not, when they became hunters, and, as we find to be the 
 case with all hunting tribes, supplemented the inefficiency 
 of their weapons by an intimate acquaintance with the 
 manners and customs of the animals on which they 
 preyed, they could not fail to observe, and perhaps to 
 copy, the houses which various species of animals 
 construct for themselves. 
 
 The Esquimaux have no pottery ; they use cup-shaped 
 stones as a substitute ; but we have seen how they some- 
 times improve upon these by a rim of clay. To extend 
 this rim, diminish, and at last replace, the stone, is an 
 obvious process. In hotter countries, vessels of wood, or 
 the shells of fruit, such as cocoa-nuts and gourds, are used 
 for holding liquids. These will not stand fire, but in 
 some cases by plastering them on the outside with clay 
 they are enabled to do so. There is some evidence that 
 this obvious improvement has been made by several 
 separate tribes even in modern times. Other similar 
 cases might be mentioned, in which by a very simple and 
 apparently obvious process, an important improvement 
 is secured. It seems very improbable that any such 
 advantage should ever be lost again. There is no 
 evidence, says Mr Tylor,^ " of any tribe giving up the 
 use of the spindle to twist their thread by hand, or 
 having been in the habit of working the fire-drill with a 
 thong, and going back to the clumsier practice of working 
 it without, and it is even hard to fancy such a thing 
 happening." What follows from this argument ? Evi- 
 dently that the lowest races of existing savages must, 
 always assuming the common origin of the human race, 
 
 ^ The idea of using fire would also have been suggested by volcanoes, by 
 trees set on fire by lightning, and by the natural fires which occur in hot 
 summers. 
 
 ■^ L.C., p. 364.
 
 58o PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 be at least as far advanced as were our ancestors when 
 they spread over the earth's surface. 
 
 What, then, must have been their condition ? They 
 were ignorant of pottery, for the Esquimaux, the 
 Polynesians, the Australians, some North and South 
 American tribes, and many other savage races, have none 
 even now, or at least had none until quite lately. They 
 had no bows and arrows, for these weapons were unknown 
 to the Australians and New Zealanders ; their boats for 
 the same reason must have been of the rudest possible 
 character ; they were naked, and ignorant of the art of 
 spinning ; they had no knowledge of agriculture, and 
 probably no domestic animal but the dog, though here 
 the argument is weaker, inasmuch as experience is more 
 portable than property. It is, however, probable that the 
 dog was long the only domesticated animal. Of the 
 more unusual weapons, such as the boomerang, blow-pipe, 
 bolas, etc., they were certainly ignorant. The sling and 
 the throwing-stick were doubtless unknown, and even 
 the shield, as it is only used in war, had probably not 
 been invented. The spear, which is but a development 
 of the knife-point, and the club, which is but a long 
 hammer, are the only things left by this line of argument. 
 They seem to be the only natural and universal weapons 
 of man. 
 
 We might be disposed to wonder how man was at first 
 able to kill game ; but we must remember that if man 
 was unskilful, animals were unsuspicious. The tameness 
 of the birds on uninhabited islands is well known ; the 
 wariness of animals and the skill of man must have 
 increased almost pari passu. 
 
 The same argument may be applied to the mental 
 condition of savages. Our earliest ancestors certainly 
 could not have counted to ten, considering that so many 
 races now in existence cannot get beyond four. It is 
 probable that man originated in a warm climate, and so 
 long as he was confined to the tropics he may have found 
 a succession of fruits, and have lived as the monkeys do 
 now. Indeed, according to Bates, this is still the case
 
 OUR EARLY ANCESTORS 581 
 
 with some of the Brazilian Indians. "The monkeys," 
 he says, " lead in fact a life similar to that of the Pararauate 
 Indians." Directly, however, men spread into temperate 
 climates, this mode of life would become impossible, and 
 they would be compelled to seek their nourishment, in 
 part at least, from the animal kingdom. Then, if not 
 before, the knife and the hammer would develop into the 
 spear and the club. 
 
 It is too often supposed that the world was peopled by 
 a series of " migrations." But migrations, properly so- 
 called, are compatible only with a comparatively high 
 state of organization. Moreover, it has been observed 
 that the geographical distribution of the various races of 
 man curiously coincides with that of other races of 
 animals : and there can be no doubt that he originally 
 crept over the earth's surface little by little, year by 
 year, just, for instance, as the weeds of Europe are 
 now gradually but surely creeping over the surface of 
 Australia. 
 
 The preceding argument assumes, of course, the unity 
 of the human race. It would, however, be impossible for 
 me to end this volume without saying a few words on 
 this great question. It must be admitted that the prin- 
 cipal varieties of mankind are of great antiquity. We 
 find on some of the earliest Egyptian monuments, dating 
 back to 4000 B.C., three distinct types : the Semitic on the 
 east and west of Egypt, the Negro on the south, and 
 the Egyptian type occupying a middle place between the 
 two. The representations of the monuments, although 
 somewhat conventional, are extremely characteristic. The 
 statue of Kephren, the third king of the fourth dynasty, 
 who erected the second of the great pyramids of Gizeh, 
 and is supposed to have reigned about 3900 B.C., is a 
 real masterpiece. These distinct types still predominate 
 in Egypt and the neighbouring countries. Thus, then, 
 says Mr Poole, in this immense interval we do not find 
 " the least change in the Negro or the Arab ; and even 
 the type which seems to be intermediate between them 
 is virtually as unaltered. Those who consider that length
 
 582 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of time can change a type of man, will do well to consider 
 the fact that three thousand years give no ratio on which 
 a calculation could be founded." ^ I am, however, not 
 aware that it is supposed by any school of ethnologists 
 that " time " alone, without a change of external con- 
 ditions, will produce an alteration of type. Let us now 
 turn to the instances relied on by Mr Crawfurd.^ " The 
 millions," he says, " of African Negroes that have during 
 three centuries been transported to the New World and 
 its islands, are the same in colour as the present in- 
 habitants of the parent country of their forefathers. The 
 Creole Spaniards, who have for at least as long a time 
 been settled in tropical America, are as fair as the people 
 of Arragon and Andalusia, with the same variety of 
 colour in the hair and eye as their progenitors. The 
 pure Dutch Creole colonists of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 after dwelling two centuries among black Kaffirs and 
 yellow Hottentots, do not differ in colour from the 
 people of Holland." Here, on the contrary, we have 
 great change of circumstances, but a very insufficient 
 lapse of time, and in fact there is no well-authenticated 
 case in which these two requisites are united. But Mr 
 Crawfurd went, I think, too far, when he denied altogether 
 any change of type. In spite of the comparatively short 
 time which has elapsed, and of the immense immigra- 
 tion which has been kept up, there is already a marked 
 difference between the English of Europe and those of 
 America ; and it would be desirable to inquire whether, 
 in their own eyes, the Negroes of the New World exactly 
 resemble those of Africa. 
 
 But there are some reasons which make it probable 
 that changes of external condition, or rather of country, 
 produce less effect now than was formerly the case. At 
 present, when men migrate they carry with them the 
 manners and appliances of civilized life. They build 
 houses more or less like those to which they have been 
 accustomed, carry with them flocks and herds, and intro- 
 
 ' Poole, Trans, lithti. Soc.^ New Ser., vol. ii. p. 261. 
 ^ Crawfurd, Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Ser., vol. ii. p. 252.
 
 CHANGE OF TYPE 583 
 
 duce into their new country the principal plants which 
 served them for food in the old. If their new abode is 
 cold, they increase their clothing ; if warm, they diminish 
 it. In these and a hundred other ways the effect which 
 would otherwise be produced is greatly diminished. 
 
 But, as we have seen, this has not always been the case. 
 When man first spread over the earth, he had no domestic 
 animals, perhaps not even the dog ; no knowledge of 
 agriculture : his weapons were of the rudest character, 
 and his houses scarcely worthy of the name. His food, 
 habits, and whole manner of life must then have varied 
 as he passed from one country to another ; he must have 
 been far more subject to the influence of external circum- 
 stances, and in all probability more susceptible of change. 
 Moreover, his form, which is now stereotyped by long 
 ages of repetition, may reasonably be supposed to have 
 been itself more plastic than is now the case. 
 
 If there is any truth in this view of the subject, it will 
 necessarily follow that the principal varieties of man are 
 of great antiquity, and in fact go back almost to the very 
 origin of the human race. We may then cease to wonder 
 that the earliest paintings on Egyptian tombs represent 
 so accurately several varieties still existing in those 
 regions, and that the Engis skull, one of the most 
 ancient yet found in Europe, so closely resembles many 
 that may be seen even at the present day. 
 
 Slow and gradual changes, however, still take place, 
 although his " mere bodily structure " long ago became 
 of less importance to man than " that subtle force we 
 term mind." This, as Mr Wallace eloquently says, 
 " with a naked and unprotected body, this gave him 
 clothing against the varying inclemencies of the seasons. 
 Though unable to compete with the deer in swiftness, or 
 with the wild bull in strength, this gave him weapons 
 wherewith to capture or overcome both. Though less 
 capable than most other animals of living on the herbs 
 and the fruits that unaided nature supplies, this wonderful 
 faculty taught him to govern and direct nature to his own 
 benefit, and make her produce food for him when and
 
 584 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 where he pleased. From the moment when the first skin 
 was used as a covering, when the first rude spear was 
 formed to assist in the chase, the first seed sown or shoot 
 planted, a grand revolution was effected in nature, a 
 revolution which in all the previous ages of the world's 
 history had had no parallel, for a being had arisen who 
 was no longer necessarily subject to change with the 
 changing universe, — a being who was in some degree 
 superior to nature, inasmuch as he knew how to control 
 and regulate her action, and could keep himself in 
 harmony with her, not by a change in body, but by an 
 advance in mind. 
 
 " Here, then, we see the true grandeur and dignity of 
 man. On this view of his special attributes, we may 
 admit that even those who claim for him a position and 
 an order, a class, or a sub-kingdom by himself, have some 
 reason on their side. He is, indeed, a being apart, since 
 he is not influenced by the great laws which irresistibly 
 modify all other organic beings. Nay, more : this victory 
 which he has gained for himself gives him- a directing 
 influence over other existences. Man has not only 
 escaped ' natural selection ' himself, but he is actually 
 able to take away some of that power from nature which, 
 before his appearance, she universally exercised. We can 
 anticipate the time when the earth will produce only 
 cultivated plants and domestic animals ; when man's 
 selection shall have supplanted ' natural selection ' ; and 
 when the ocean will be the only domain in which that 
 power can be exerted, which for countless cycles of ages 
 ruled supreme over the earth." 
 
 Thus, then, the great principle of Natural Selection, 
 which is to biology what the law of gravitation is for 
 astronomy, not only throws an unexpected light on the 
 past, but illuminates the future with hope ; nor can I but 
 feel surprised that a theory which thus teaches us humility 
 for the past, faith in the present, and hope for the future, 
 should have been regarded as opposed to the principles of 
 true religion. 
 
 I say of hope because we are, I think, justified in
 
 IMPROVING CONDITIONS 585 
 
 believing that the happiness of man is on the increase. 
 It is generally admitted that if any animal increases in 
 numbers, it must be because the conditions are becoming 
 more favourable to it — in other words, because it is 
 happier and more comfortable. Now how will this test 
 apply to man ? 
 
 Schoolcraft estimates^ that in a population which lives 
 on the produce of the chase, each hunter requires on an 
 average 50,000 acres, or 78 square miles, for his support. 
 Again, he tells us - that, excluding Michigan territory, 
 west of Lake Michigan, and north of Illinois, there were 
 in the United States in 1825 about 97,000 Indians, 
 occupying 77,000,000 of acres, or 120,312 square miles. 
 This gives one inhabitant to every i^l;^ square miles. In 
 this case, however, the Indians lived partly on the subsidies 
 granted them by Government in exchange for land, and 
 the population was therefore greater than would have 
 been the case if they had lived entirely on the produce of 
 the chase. The same reason affects, though to a smaller 
 extent, the Indians in the Hudson's Bay territory. These 
 tribes were estimated by Sir George Simpson, late 
 Governor of the territories belonging to the Hudson's 
 Bay Company, in his evidence given before the Com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons in 1857, at 139,000, 
 and the extent is supposed to be more than 1,400,000 
 square miles, to which we must add 13,000 more for 
 Vancouver's Island, making a total of more than 
 900,000,000 of acres ; about 6500 acres, or 10 square 
 miles, to each individual. Again, the inhabitants of 
 Patagonia, south of 40°, and exclusive of Chiloe and Tierra 
 del Fuego, are estimated by Admiral Fitzroy at less than 
 4000, and the number of acres is 176,640,000, giving 
 more than 44,000 acres, or 68 square miles, for each 
 person. A writer in the Voice of Pity ^ however, thinks that 
 their numbers may perhaps amount to 14,000 or 15,000.^ 
 It would be difficult to form any census of the aborigines 
 in Australia ; Mr Oldfield estimates that there is one 
 
 ^ Indian Tribes, vol. i. p. 433. ^ L.c, vol. iii. p. 575. 
 
 ^ L.c, vol. ii. p. 93.
 
 586 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 native to every 50 square miles ;^ and it is at least 
 evident, that since the introduction of civilization, the 
 total population of that continent has greatly increased. 
 
 Population, indeed, as a general rule, increases with 
 civilization. Paraguay, with 100,000 square miles, has 
 from 300,000 to 500,000 inhabitants, or about four to a 
 square mile. The uncivilized parts of Mexico contained 
 374,000 inhabitants in 675,000 square miles ; while 
 Mexico proper, with 833,600 square miles, had 6,691,000 
 inhabitants. Naples had more than 183 inhabitants to 
 each square mile, Venetia more than 200, Lombardy 280, 
 England 280, Belgium as many as 320. 
 
 Finally, we cannot but observe that, under civilization, 
 the means of subsistence have increaseci even more rapidly 
 than the population. Far from suffering for want of 
 food, the more densely peopled countries are exactly those 
 in which it is, not only absolutely, but even relatively, 
 most abundant. It is said that anyone who makes two 
 blades of grass grow where one grew before, is a benefactor 
 to the human race ; what, then, shall we say of that which 
 enables a thousand men to live in plenty where one 
 savage could scarcely find a scanty and precarious sub- 
 sistence ? 
 
 There are, indeed, many who doubt whether happiness 
 is increased by civilization, and whO talk of the free and 
 noble savage. But the true savage is neither free nor 
 noble ; he is a slave to his own wants, his own passions ; 
 imperfectly protected from the weather, he suffers from 
 the cold by night and the heat of the sun by day ; 
 ignorant of agriculture, living by the chase, and improvi- 
 dent in success, hunger always stares him in the face, and 
 often drives him to the dreadful alternative of cannibalism 
 or death. 
 
 Wild animals are always in danger. Sir F. Galton, 
 who is so well qualified to form an opinion, believes that 
 the life of all beasts in their wild state is an exceedingly 
 anxious one ; that " every antelope in South Africa has 
 literally to run for its life once in every one or two days 
 ' Trans. Ethn. Soc.^ New Sen, vol. iii. p. 220.
 
 LIFE OF THE SAVAGE 587 
 
 upon an average, and that he starts or gallops under the 
 influence of a false alarm many times in a day." ^ So it is 
 with the savage, he is always suspicious, always in danger, 
 always on the watch. He can depend on no one, and no 
 one can depend upon him. He expects nothing from his 
 neighbour, and does unto others as he believes that they 
 would do unto him. Thus his life is one prolonged scene 
 of selfishness and fear. Even in his religion, if he has 
 any, he creates for himself a new source of terror, and 
 peoples the world with invisible enemies. The position 
 of the female savage is even more wretched than that of 
 her master. She not only shares his sufferings, but has 
 to bear his ill-humour and ill-usage. She may truly be 
 said to be " little better than his dog, little dearer than his 
 horse." in Australia Mr Oldfield never saw a woman's 
 grave, and does not think that the natives took the trouble 
 to bury them. But, indeed, he believes that few of them 
 are so fortunate as to die a natural death, " they being 
 generally despatched ere they become old and emaciated, 
 that so much good food may not be lost. ... In fine, 
 so little importance is attached to them, either before or 
 after death, that it may be doubted whether the man does 
 not value his dog, when alive, quite as much as he does 
 his woman, and think of both quite as often and lovingly 
 after he has eaten them."" 
 
 Not content, moreover, with those incident to their 
 mode of life, savages appear to take a melancholy pleasure 
 in self-inflicted sufferings. Besides the very general 
 practice of tattooing, the most extraordinary methods of 
 disfigurement and self-torture are adopted ; some cut off 
 the little finger, some make an immense hole in the 
 underlip, or pierce the cartilage of the nose. The Easter 
 Islanders enlarge their ears till they come down to their 
 shoulders ; the Chinooks, and many other American tribes, 
 alter the shape of their heads. Some of the African 
 tribes chip their teeth in various manners, each community 
 having a fashion of its own. The Nyambanas, a division 
 
 ' Trans. Ethti. Soc, New Sen, vol. iii. p. 133. 
 2 Trans. Ethn. Soc, New Ser., vol. iii. p. 248.
 
 588 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 of the Kaffirs, are characterized by a row of artificial 
 pimples or warts, about the size of a pea, and extending 
 from the upper part of the forehead to the tip of the nose. 
 Of these they are very proud. ^ Among the Bachapins, 
 those who have distinguished themselves in battle are 
 allowed the privilege of marking " their thigh with a long 
 scar, which is rendered indelible and of a bluish colour by 
 means of wood ashes rubbed into the fresh wound." ^ In 
 Australia, Captain King saw a native ornamented with 
 horizontal scars which extended across the upper part of 
 the chest. They were at least an inch in diameter, and 
 protruded half an inch from the body.^ In some parts of 
 Australia, and in Tasmania, all the men have a tooth 
 knocked out in a very clumsy and painful manner.* 
 " The inhabitants of Tana have on their arms and bellies 
 elevated scars, representing plants, flowers, stars, and various 
 other figures. They are made by first cutting the skin with 
 a sharp bamboo reed, and then applying a certain plant to 
 the wound, which raises the scar above the rest of the 
 skin. The inhabitants of Tazavan, or Formosa, by a 
 very painful operation, impress on their naked skins various 
 figures of trees, flowers, and animals. The great men in 
 Guinea have their skin flowered like damask ; and in the 
 Deccan the women likewise have flowers cut into their 
 flesh, on the forehead, the arms, and the breast, and the 
 elevated scars are painted in colours, and exhibit the 
 appearance of flowered damask." ^ The native women in 
 New South Wales used to tie a string tightly round the 
 little finger, and wear it until the finger rotted off. Few 
 of them escaped the painful experience.^ The American 
 Indians also inflicted the most horrible tortures upon them- 
 selves.^ In many cases the boys, on arriving at maturity, 
 are subjected to ordeals which must involve great suffering. 
 
 ' United States Explormo Expedition, vol. i. p. 63. 
 
 2 Burchell, I.e., vol. ii. pp. 478, 535. 
 
 2 Narrative of a Sumey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts o) 
 Atistralia, p. 42. See also Eyre's account, quoted in p. 449. 
 
 '' Freycinet, vol. ii. p. 705. ^ Forster, I.e., p. 588. 
 
 •^ D'Urville, vol. i. p. 406. 
 
 ' See, for instance, Catlin's North American Indians, \o\. i. p. 170; 
 Azara, vol. ii. p. 136.
 
 EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION 589 
 
 These and many other curious practices are none the less 
 painful because they are voluntary. 
 
 If we turn to the bright side of the question, the whole 
 analogy of nature justifies us in concluding that the 
 pleasures of civilized man are greater than those of the 
 savage. As we descend in the scale of organization, we 
 find that animals become more and more vegetative in their 
 characteristics ; with less susceptibility to pain, and conse- 
 quently less capacity for happiness. It may, indeed, be 
 doubted whether some of those beings, which from their 
 anatomy we are compelled to class as animals, have much 
 more consciousness of enjoyment, or even of existence, than 
 a tree or a sea-weed. But even to animals which possess 
 a clearly defined nervous system, we must ascribe very 
 diflTerent degrees of sensibility. The study of the sensory 
 organs in the lower animals offers great difficulties ; but 
 at least we know that they are, in many cases, few in 
 number, and capable of conveying only general impressions. 
 Everyone will admit that the possession of a new sense, 
 or the improvement of an old one, is a fresh source of 
 possible happiness ; but how, it may be asked, does this 
 affect the present question ? There are no just grounds 
 for expecting man to be ever endued with a sixth sense ; 
 so far from being able to improve the organization of the 
 eye or the ear, we cannot make one hair black or white, 
 nor add one cubit to our stature. But, on the other hand, 
 the invention of the telescope and microscope is equivalent 
 in its results to an immense improvement of the eye, and 
 opens up to us new worlds, fresh sources of interest and 
 happiness. Again, we cannot alter the physical structure 
 of the ear : but we can train it, we can invent new musical 
 instruments, compose new melodies. The music of 
 savages is rude and melancholy in comparison with ours ; 
 and thus, though the ear of man may not have appreciably 
 altered, the pleasure which we may derive from it has 
 been immensely increased. Moreover, the savage is like 
 a child who sees and hears only that which is brought 
 directly before him, but the civilized man questions nature, 
 and by the various processes of chemistry, by electricity.
 
 590 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and magnetism, by a thousand ingenious contrivances, 
 he forces nature to throw light upon herself, discovers 
 hidden uses and unsuspected beauties, almost as if he 
 were endowed with some entirely new organ of sense. 
 
 The love of travel is deeply implanted in the human 
 breast ; it is an immense pleasure to visit other countries, 
 and see new races of men. Again, the discovery of 
 printing brings all who choose into communion with the 
 greatest minds. The thoughts of a Shakespeare or a 
 Tennyson, the discoveries of a Newton or a Darwin, 
 become thus the common property of mankind. Already 
 the results of this all-important though simple process 
 have been equivalent to an immense improvement of our 
 mental faculties ; and day by day, as books become 
 cheaper, schools are established, and education is im- 
 proved, a greater and greater effect will be produced. 
 
 The well-known proverb against looking a gift-horse 
 in the mouth does not apply to the gifts of nature ; they 
 will bear the closest inspection, and the more we examine, 
 the more we shall find to admire. Nor are these new 
 sources of happiness accompanied by any new liability 
 to suffering ; on the contrary, while our pleasures are 
 increased, our pains are lessened ; in a thousand ways we 
 can avoid or diminish evils which to our ancestors were 
 great and inevitable. How much misery, for instance, 
 has been spared to the human race by the single discovery 
 of chloroform ? The capacity for pain, so far as it can 
 serve as a warning, remains in full force, but the necessity 
 for endurance has been greatly diminished. With in- 
 creased knowledge of, and attention to, the laws of 
 health, disease will become less and less frequent. Those 
 tendencies thereto which we have derived from our 
 ancestors will gradually die out ; and if fresh seeds are 
 not sown, our race may one day enjoy the inestimable 
 advantages of health. 
 
 Thus, then, with the increasing influence of science, 
 we may confidently look to a great improvement in the 
 condition of man. But it may be said that our present 
 suff^erings and sorrows arise principally from sin, and that
 
 SCIENCE AND RELIGION 591 
 
 any moral improvement must be due to religion, not to 
 science. This separation of the two mighty agents of 
 improvement is the great misfortune of humanity, and 
 has done more than anything else to retard the progress 
 of civilization. But even if for the moment we admit 
 that science will not render us more virtuous, it must 
 certainly make us more innocent. Out of 164,000 persons 
 committed to prison in England and Wales, only 4000 
 could read and write well. In fact, our criminal popula- 
 tion are mere savages, and most of their crimes are but 
 injudicious and desperate attempts to live as a savage in 
 the midst, and at the expense, of a civilized community. 
 
 Men do not sin for the sake of sinning ; they yield 
 to temptation. Most of our sufferings arise from a mis- 
 taken pursuit of pleasure ; from a misapprehension of 
 that which constitutes true happiness. Men do wrong 
 either from ignorance or in the hope, unexpressed perhaps 
 even to themselves, that they may enjoy the pleasure, 
 and yet avoid the penalty, of sin. In this respect there 
 can be no doubt that religious teaching is much mis- 
 apprehended. Repentance is too often regarded as a 
 substitute for punishment. Sin, it is thought, is followed 
 either by the one or the other. So far, however, as our 
 world is concerned, this is not the case ; repentance may 
 enable a man to avoid sin in future, but has no effect on 
 the consequences of the past. The laws of nature are 
 just and salutary, but they are also inexorable. All men 
 admit that " the wages of sin is death " ; but they seem 
 to think that this is a general rule to which there may be 
 many exceptions — that some sins may possibly tend to 
 happiness — that some thorns may grow grapes, some 
 thistles produce figs. That suffering is the inevitable 
 consequence of sin, as surely as night follows day, is, 
 however, the stern yet salutary teaching of science. And 
 surely if this lesson were thoroughly impressed upon our 
 minds, if we really believed in the certainty of punishment, 
 and that sin could not conduce to happiness, temptation, 
 which is at the very root of crime, would be cut away, 
 and mankind must necessarily become more innocent.
 
 592 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 May we not, however, go even farther than this, and 
 say that science will also render man more virtuous ? 
 'To pass our time," says Lord Brougham,^ "in the 
 study of the sciences, in learning what others have dis- 
 covered, and in extending the bounds of human knowledge, 
 has, in all aees, been reckoned the most dignified and 
 happy of human occupations. . . . No man until he has 
 studied philosophy can have a just idea of the great 
 things for which Providence has fitted his understanding, 
 the extraordinary disproportion which there is between 
 his natural strength and the powers of his mind, and the 
 force he derives from them." Finally he concludes that 
 science would not only " make our lives more agreeable, 
 but better ; and that a rational being is bound, by every 
 motive of interest and duty, to direct his mind towards 
 pursuits which are found to be the sure path of virtue as 
 well as of happiness." 
 
 We are in reality but on the threshold of civilization. 
 Far from showing any indication of having come to an 
 end, the tendency to improvement seems latterly to have 
 proceeded with augmented impetus and accelerated 
 rapidity. Why, then, should we suppose that it must 
 now cease ? Man has surely not reached the limits of 
 his intellectual development, and it is certain that he has 
 not exhausted the infinite capabilities of nature. There 
 are many things which are not as yet dreamt of in our 
 philosophy ; many discoveries which will immortalize 
 those who make them, and confer upon the human race 
 advantages which as yet, perhaps, we are not in a con- 
 dition to appreciate. We may still say with our great 
 countryman, Sir Isaac Newton, that we have been but 
 like children playing on the seashore, and picking up 
 here and there a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than 
 ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lies all undis- 
 covered before us. 
 
 Thus, then, the most sanguine hopes for the future 
 are justified by the whole experience of the past. It is 
 surely unreasonable to suppose that a process which has 
 
 ' Objects, Advantages, and Pleasures of Science, p. 39.
 
 PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION 593 
 
 been going on for so many thousand years should have 
 now suddenly ceased ; and he must be blind indeed who 
 imagines that our civilization is unsusceptible of im- 
 provement, or that we ourselves are in the highest state 
 attainable by man. 
 
 If we turn from experience to theory, the same con- 
 clusion forces itself upon us. The great principle of 
 natural selection which in animals affects the body and 
 seems to have little influence on the mind, in man affects "^ 
 the mind and has little influence on the body. In the 
 first, it tends mainly to the preservation of life ; in the 
 second, to the improvement of the mind, and consequently 
 to the increase of happiness. It ensures, in the words of 
 Mr Herbert Spencer, "a constant progress towards a 
 higher degree of skill, intelligence, and self-regulation — 
 a better co-ordination of actions — a more complete life." ^ 
 Even those, however, who are dissatisfied with the reason- 
 ing of Mr Darwin, and believe that neither our mental 
 nor our material organization is susceptible of any con- 
 siderable change, may still look forward to the future 
 with hope. The tendency of recent improvements and 
 discoveries is less to effect any rapid change in man 
 himself than to bring him into harmony with nature ; 
 less to confer upon him new powers than to teach him 
 how to apply the old. 
 
 It will, I think, be admitted that of the evils under 
 which we suffer, nearly all may be attributed either to 
 ignorance or sin. That ignorance will be diminished by 
 the progress of science is, of course, self-evident ; that 
 the same will be the case with sin, seems little less so. 
 Thus, then, both theory and experience point to the same 
 conclusion. The future happiness of our race, which 
 poets hardly ventured to hope for, science boldly predicts. 
 Utopia, which we have long looked upon as synonymous 
 with an evident impossibility which we have ungratefully 
 regarded as " too good to be true," turns out, on the 
 contrary, to be the necessary consequence of natural laws, 
 
 ' Herbert Spencer, A Theory of Population deduced from the General 
 Law of Animal Fertility, p. 34. 
 
 38
 
 594 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 and once more we find that the simple truth exceeds the 
 most brlUiant flights of the imagination. 
 
 Even in our own time we may hope to see some im- 
 provement ; but the unselfish mind will find its highest 
 gratification in the belief that, whatever may be the case 
 with ourselves, our descendants will understand many 
 things which are hidden from us now, will better appreciate 
 the beautiful world in which we live, avoid much of that 
 sufi^ering to which we are subject, enjoy many blessings 
 of which we are not yet worthy, and escape many of 
 those temptations which we deplore but cannot wholly 
 resist.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 RUNES {Page 14) 
 
 We do not yet know at what time the use of Runes commenced. 
 The examples found at Thorsbjerg and Nydam carry them back 
 to the second or third century, but they may have begun much 
 earlier. They remained partially in use in out-of-the-way 
 districts of Scandinavia down to the close of the last century. 
 Runic monuments occur in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, England, 
 and, though rarely, in Ireland ; but are more abundant in Sweden 
 than anywhere else. Professor Stephens ^ states that there are 
 three times as many in Sweden as in all other northern countries 
 together, and he estimates the total number in Sweden at not less 
 than two thousand. 
 
 The Runic Alphabet, or Futhorc, is as follows : 
 
 ^' i\. i>- J. 1^. V. *. K- 1. A. '• 4. I. r. V. I. 
 
 F U th C) R K H N I A S T B L M (CE, Y) 
 
 There are, however, several varieties ; thus ^, sometimes 
 stands for <?, \^ for «, Ij^ for j, ^^ for /, 4. for ^/, and { for e. There 
 is also a class of letters known as tree-runes, which are entirely 
 unlike the rest. The letters given above are those generally used 
 in the engravings on stones in the great tumulus known as 
 Maeshowe, near the Stones of Stennis, in the Orkneys,'- and are 
 supposed to have been the work of a party of Northmen who 
 broke into the Howe in the ninth century. The numerous 
 variations in the forms of the letters, and the fact that they are 
 sometimes read from left to right, sometimes from right to left, 
 make them at times somewhat difficult to decipher ; but it 
 fortunately happens that we possess no less than sixty-one Runic 
 Futhorcs, so that any inscription which is at all perfect, and not 
 too much abbreviated, can be read with tolerable certainty. 
 
 ^ T/tc Old- Northern Runic Mofiinnenfs of Scandinavia^ p. 134. 
 2 Maeshowe, by J. Farrar, Esq., M.P. 
 
 595
 
 596 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 OGHAMS 
 
 The origin of the Ogham alphabet is as uncertain as that of 
 the Runic. While, however, the Runes occur principally in 
 Scandinavia, and but rarely in Great Britain, Oghams, on the 
 
 \\ 
 
 ^.:J 
 
 m^ 
 
 
 Figs. 282, 283. — Ogham stones. 
 
 other hand, have their headquarters in Ireland, though some few 
 have been discovered in Scotland, and even in Shetland. They 
 are generally intended to be read from below upwards, and the 
 letters consist of mere straight strokes, arranged in groups along 
 a line. This line is very often the edge of the stone, but some- 
 times a line is cut. In other cases, an imaginary line is supposed
 
 OGHAMS— STAIGUE FORT 597 
 
 to run through the inscription. Short lines, or notches, stand for 
 the vowels, <?, <?, u^ e^ /, one notch denoting «, two 0, three u^ and 
 so on. Lines on the left of the base line stand for b^ l^f^ 5, and «, 
 according as they are i, 2, 3, 4, or 5 in number; lines on the 
 right of the base line stand in the same manner for /?, d^ t^ f, and q ; 
 while those crossing the line denote w, g^ ng^ st, or z, and r. 
 There are some few other characters, which, however, seldom 
 occur. 
 
 Almost all the Ogham inscriptions which have yet been read 
 are mere patronymics, containing the name of the person in 
 whose honour the stone was erected. Thus the above figure 
 (fig. 282) of an Ogham stone found in Kerry reads thus : Nocati 
 maqi maqi ret(ti), i.e. (The Stone) of Nocat, the son of Macreith ; 
 the inscription on fig. 283 is, Maqi Mucoi Uddami, i.e. (The 
 Stone) of Uddam Mac Mucoi. 
 
 Page 51 
 
 Staigue Fort, in the county of Kerry, is "an enclosure, nearly 
 circular, 114 feet in diameter, 88 feet from east to west, and 87 
 from north to south. The stones are put together without any 
 description of mortar or cement ; the wall is 13 feet thick at the 
 bottom, and 5 feet 2 inches broad at top at the highest part, 
 where some of the old coping-stones still remain, and which is 
 there 17 feet 6 inches high upon the inside. It has one square 
 doorway in the S.S.W. side, 5 feet 9 inches high, with sloping 
 sides, 4 feet 2 inches wide at top, and 5 feet at bottom. In the 
 substance of this massive wall, and opening inwards, are two small 
 chambers ; the one on the west side is 1 2 feet long, 4 feet 
 7 inches wide, and 6 feet 6 inches high ; the northern chamber 
 is 7 feet 4 inches long, 4 feet 9 inches wide, and 7 feet high. 
 They formed a part of the original plan, and were not, like other 
 apertures in some similar structures, filled-up gateways. Around 
 the interior of the wall are arranged ten sets of stairs, . . . the 
 highest reaching very nearly to the full height of the wall, and 
 the secondary flights being about half that much ; each step is 
 2 feet wide ; and the lower flights project within the circle of 
 the higher. They lead to narrow platforms, from 8 to 43 feet 
 in length, on which its wardens or defenders stood." (Cata/ocrue 
 of the Royal Irish Academy^ p. I 20.)
 
 INDEX 
 
 Aarhuus, 55, 105. 
 
 Abbeville, 21, 22, 182, 340, 343, 346, 
 351, 361, 362, 375, 380. 
 
 Abbot's Langley, 345. 
 
 Abbott, Dr, 279, 396. 
 
 Abercromby, Hon. J,, 71, 169. 
 
 Abermaier, Dr, 420. 
 
 Abipones, 526, 555, 558, 566, 567, 572. 
 
 Abury, vide Avebury. 
 
 Abydos, tombs of, 7. 
 
 Abyssinia, 428, 561. 
 
 Acerotherium, 425. 
 
 Acheuleenne period, 419 ; vide also St 
 Acheul. 
 
 Adam's County, Ohio, 270. 
 
 Adams, Dr, 283 ; Mr A. L. , 286. 
 
 Adhemar, M. , 306, 402, 403, 404, 405, 
 406, 411, 412, 413. 
 
 Adour, 37S, 414. 
 
 Adowa, 428. 
 
 Adze, flint, 80, 246, 456, 471 ; New 
 Zealand, 96, 464. 
 
 yEgean Sea, 71. 
 
 Aeppli, M., 180. 
 
 ^thelwolde's Beorgh, 124. 
 
 Africa, 3, 6, 28, 62, 86, 106, 109, 131, 
 143, 207, 321, 386, 430, 539, 560, 
 573j 574> 5765 5^^; Central, 117, 
 557. 570, 571 ; East, 559, 576; 
 North, 301 ; South, 432, 586, vide 
 also Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 African, axe, 29, 90 ; bracelet, 48, 53 ; 
 natives, vide Bushmen, Hottentot, 
 Kaffir. 
 
 Agassiz, 278. 
 
 Agates, 348. 
 
 Agriculture, 542, 544 ff. , 580, 583 ; of 
 American Indians, 263, 273 ff. ; of 
 cave-dwellers, 330, 543 ; of Fijians, 
 457 ; of shell-mound builders, 233, 
 244 ; of lake-villagers, 217, 219 ; of 
 Paraguay, 526 ; of Tahiti, 526. 
 
 Aguilots, 526. 
 
 Alabama, 273. 
 
 Alactagajacuhis, 293, 302. 
 
 Albano, 58. 
 
 Albertus Magnus, 212. 
 
 AIca inipennis, 235. 
 
 Aldus M'Galdus, 92. 
 
 Aleutian Islands, 115, 551. 
 
 Alfrede's Beorh, 124. 
 
 Algeria, 106, 138, 347. 
 
 Algonquins, 252, 517, 557, 562, 575. 
 
 Alleghany Mountains, 78. 
 
 Allen, Mr, 301. 
 
 Allerston Warren, 153. 
 
 Alligator animal mound, 269. 
 
 Alloys, 4, 23. 
 
 Alphabets, Ogham. 596 ; Runic, 595 ; 
 none in N. America, 271, 272. 
 
 Alps, 202. 
 
 Altacapas, 514. 
 
 Altai Mountains, 331. 
 
 Altamira cave, 281, 292, 299, 300, 328. 
 
 Amasis, 56. 
 
 Amazon, 117, 568. 
 
 Amber, 25, 27, 54, 69, TJ, 153, 196. 
 
 America, Central, 78, 251, 263, 455, 
 558. North, 77, 78, 85, 94, loi, 
 106, 250 «■., 302, 558, 574, 576: 
 animals, 212, 290, 294, 295 ; burial, 
 117, 264, 265; fortifications, 257, 
 258 ; Indians, vide Indian, N. Ameri- 
 can ; mammoth in, 285 ; submersion 
 of, 399, 405. South, 305, 430, 527, 
 568, 576 ; lake-dwellings in, 183. 
 
 Amiens, 341, 346, 351, 364, 373, 375, 
 380. 
 
 Amravati, 137. 
 
 Anas /'ose/ias, 205 ; qiterqiiediiia, 205. 
 
 Andaman Islanders, 3, 386, 431, 439 ff., 
 540, 544 ff., 553, 558, 569, 570. 
 
 Anderson, Mr J., 298. 
 
 Andrews, Dr, 279. 
 
 Angas, G. F. , 448. 
 
 Angerstein, Mr, 78. 
 
 Anglesea, 60. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, interments, 161 ; period, 
 171. 
 
 Anholt, 104. 
 
 Animal, domesticated, 174, 178 ; ex- 
 cavations, 269 ; mounds, 267 ; qua- 
 
 598
 
 INDEX 
 
 599 
 
 ternary, 280 ff. ; remains at lake- 
 villages, 199 ff. ; in Kjokkenmod- 
 dings, 234 ff. ; tumuli, I74ff. ; sacri- 
 ficed, I74ff. 
 
 Anser segetum, 205. 
 
 Anson, G. A., 543. 
 
 Antarctic glaciers, 405 f.^ 412. 
 
 Afitilope saiga, 293, 328, 331 ; rupi- 
 cap?-a, 203. 
 
 Antillean continent, 400. 
 
 Antiquity, of Bronze Age, 390 ; of 
 man, 350, 383 ff. : evidence of ethno- 
 logy. 385 ; of geology, 391 ff., 417 ; 
 of Miocene beds, 425 ; of vegetation, 
 
 387- 
 
 Antoninus, wall of, 21. 
 
 Anvils, bronze, 18. 
 
 Apples found in lake-dwellings, 217, 
 218. 
 
 Aqtiilafulva, 204 ; halalus, 204. 
 
 Arabia, 121, 386. 
 
 Arabs, 204, 429, 538, 581, 
 
 Araucanians, 531. 
 
 Arbor Low, finds at, 119, 149, 150, 
 170. 
 
 Arbors, 428. 
 
 Arboussel, 572. 
 
 Arcelin, M., 37. 
 
 Archaeology, link between geology and 
 history, 2. 
 
 Archiac, M., 304, 367, 368. 
 
 Architecture, Bronze Age, 58 ; Buddhist, 
 ^2>7> 138 ; early, 62 ff. ; lake-dwell- 
 ings, 185. 
 
 Arctic, dwellings, 114; Ocean, 398. 
 
 Arciomys bobac, 293. 
 
 Ardakillin, 184. 
 
 Ardea cinerea, 205. 
 
 Ardoch, 21. 
 
 Argyllshire, 172. 
 
 Armlets, 70, 156. 
 
 Armour, 10, 14, 529. 
 
 Arms, 3, 9, 10, II, 12, 142; vide also 
 Arrows, Axe, Dagger, Lance, Sword. 
 
 Arreton Down, 31. 70. 
 
 Arrows, 11, 13, 148, 544, 545, 546; 
 bone, 325; bronze, 18, 36, 47 ; horn, 
 499; iron, 150, 251 ; owners' marks 
 on, 13, 499; stone, 15, 16, 17, 
 74, 82, 84, 88, 92, 100 ft'., 130, 144, 
 147, 150 ff., 158, 178, 193 ft"., 251, 
 252, 277, 310, 430, 498, 499, 518, 
 540. 
 
 Aru Islands, 570. 
 
 Arve, 380. 
 
 Arvicola gregaris , 293, 302. 
 
 Ascherleben, hut-urn at, 59. 
 
 Ashantee, 557. 
 
 Ashby, Mr, 157. 
 
 Asia, 3, 106, 207, 212, 430; Central, 
 7 ; megalithic monuments in, 108 ; 
 North-East, 115. 
 
 Ass, 315; in Bible, 206; in lake- 
 dwellings, 205. 
 
 Assiniboines, 517. 
 
 Assyria, 27, 55, 340,347,385; burial 
 mound, 123 ; iron in, 8 ; stone im- 
 plements found in, 106. 
 
 Atlantic, submarine river beds in, 414. 
 
 Atwater, Dr C, 250, 265. 
 
 Aube, 367. 
 
 Aucas, 526. 
 
 Auchnabreach rock sculptures, 172. 
 
 Auk, Great, 235. 
 
 Aurignac, caves at, 314 ff. 
 
 Aurillac, relics from, 425. 
 
 Aurochs, 209 ff., 236, 280 f., 299 ff., 
 315 f., 541 ; distribution, 301 ; genea- 
 logy, 301 ; period, 419. 
 
 Australia, 432, 546 ; language, 556, 
 567; natives, 430 f. , 440 ff., 461, 
 
 539, 543 ff-, 550 f-, 553 f-, 573, 576, 
 580, 585, 587, 588 ; stone imple- 
 ments, 86, 87, 106, 
 
 Austria, 26. 
 
 Auvergne, 368. 
 
 Auvernier, 47, 220. 
 
 Avebury, 64, 109, 114, 119, 123, I26ff,, 
 
 134. 179- 
 
 Avena sativa, 218. 
 
 Avenues of earth, 26 ; of stone, 135. 
 
 Avon, 290. 
 
 Awl, II, 542; bone, 15, 103, 196,325, 
 519; bronze, 47, 48, 54, 152, 153, 
 15s ; flint, 82, 98, 104, 105, 162, 
 239, 322, 423 ; horn, 15. 
 
 Axe, 3, II, 15, 547 ; African, 29, 90 ; 
 bronze, 16 ff., 28 ff, 68 ff., 220, 224 ; 
 copper, 4, 9, 68, 252, 432, 518 ; iron, 
 10, II, 12, 14, 16, 224; jade, 77; 
 nephrite, 77 ; saussurite, 77 ; stone, 
 15 ff., TT,^, 80, 88 ff, 104 f., 126, 
 158, 162 f., 167, 173, 190 f., 193, 
 195, 211, 224, 230, 239 ff, 245 ff., 
 251 f., 340, 345 f., 349, 354 ff , 361 f., 
 419, 442, 471, 500, 540 f., 550: 
 perforated, 18, 74, 93, 155 f., 178, 
 251. 
 
 Axe handles or sockets, 15, 29, 89, 90, 
 194, 196. 
 
 Azara, Don Felix de, 525 f., 555, 568. 
 
 Aztalan in Wisconsin, 261 f., 267. 
 
 Aztecs, 86, 261, 271, 550. 
 
 Babines, 514. 
 
 Bachapins, 431, 482, 570, 588. 
 Back, Sir G., 523. 
 Badegoule, 318, 323, 326.
 
 6oo 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Badger, 213, 315, 358; in lake-dwell- 
 ings, 202, 215. 
 Baegert, Father, 569. 
 Baer, von, 212, 300. 
 Baffin's Bay, 491, 504, 510. 
 Bagford, Mr, 342. 
 Bailey, 437 f., 561. 
 Baillon, M., 361. 
 Bainbaras, 570. 
 Baker, Sir S., 428. 
 Baiize, 395. 
 Ball, of flint, 92. 
 Ball, Sir Robert, 407. 
 Ballidon Moor, 152. 
 Baltic Sea, 173, 196, 233. 
 Banks, Sir J., 480. 
 Barbadoes, 548. 
 Barley, 129; found in lake-villages, 216, 
 
 218, 233. 
 Barrow, 124, 132, 159, 227, vide also 
 tumulus ; long, 143 ff., 177 f. ; me- 
 morial, 177 ; round, 144 ff. , 177 f. 
 Barth, Mr, 121. 
 Barton, 291. 
 Basalt, 77, 80, 91. 
 Basket-work, 424, 457, 473, 484. 
 Basques, 555. 
 Bassett Wood, 150. 
 Bate, Mr Spence, 232. 
 Bateman, Mr, 57, 75, 143 f., 147 ff., 
 
 159 f., 169, 171, 175, 247. 
 Bates, 580. 
 Bath, 290. 
 
 Beads, 10, 48, 150 ft., 166, 256, 271, 
 547 ; agate, 167 ; amber, 77, 163 ff. ; 
 bone, 265 ; Callais, 77, 166 f. ; glass, 
 41, 150, 156 ; jasper, 167 ; jet, 156; 
 metal, 265; pottery, 152 f., quartz, 
 167 ; shell, 256, 265. 
 Bean, the, 217. 
 
 Bear, brown, 304, 315 ; cave, 2, 280 ff., 
 296, 308, 310, 312, 315 ff., 3i9f., 
 33 ^> 377 • in Kjokkenmoddings, 
 236: lake-dwellings, 202, 212 ft". ; 
 grizzly, 283, 304, 359; mounds, 267; 
 pipe, 255. 
 Beam, 555. 
 
 Beaver, 213 ff., 359 ; in Kjokkenmod- 
 dings, 236 ; lake-dwellings, 202 ff ; 
 pipe, 255. 
 Beckhampton, 126. 
 Beckwith, Lieut., 88. 
 Bedford, 291, 346. 
 Bedouins, 561. 
 
 Beech-trees in Denmark, 248, 387. 
 Beechey, Capt., 285, 506, 539. 
 Beehive houses of Scotland, 61, 62. 
 Bee Low, 150. 
 Behring Sea, 506. 
 
 Belcher, Sir E. , 439, 493. 
 
 Belgium, 80 f., 299, 334, 422, 586; 
 bone-caves in, 308 ff. 
 
 Bellary, 140. 
 
 Beneden, M. van, 309. 
 
 Benihassan, 56. 
 
 Benty Grange, 153. 
 
 Berne, 40, 224. 
 
 Bertrand, M., 126, 360. 
 
 Betiila ver7-ucosa, 387. 
 
 Bevaix, 189. 
 
 Beyer, Dr, 59. 
 
 Bible, 428, vide also Leviticus, Penta- 
 teuch ; animals, 205, 206 ; cereals, 
 219; chronology, 383 ; stone circles, 
 122 ; tumuli, 141. 
 
 Bicetre, 373. 
 
 Biel, 220. 
 
 Bienne, 15, 18, 36, 39, 47, 185, 203, 
 220, 223 f., 390 f. 
 
 Bilidt, shell-mound at, 229, 233. 
 
 Birch-tree, 387. 
 
 Bird mounds, 267 ff. 
 
 Birds in Kjokkenmoddings, 234, 237 ; 
 in lake-villages, 199, 204 f 
 
 Bison, 208, 285, 292 ; American, 301, 
 304; European, 209 ff., 236, 304, 
 328; EiuopcTus, 280, 299 ff., 315; 
 in lake-villages, 202 ff., 209, 215; 
 Priscus, 375. 
 
 Bits for horses, bronze, 70 ; iron, 10, 
 152. 
 
 Blackberry, 217. 
 
 Blackmore, Dr, 102, 302. 
 
 Blake Low, 151. 
 
 "Blancfond," 188, 192. 
 
 Bleek, W. H. J., 437. 
 
 Blore, 152. 
 
 Boar, wild, 155, 202 ff., 207, 211 ff., 
 235, 3I5> 339, 358, 541 ; videalsoYxg. 
 
 Boats, II, 22, 173, 503, vide also 
 Canoe, Ship ; of lake-dwellers, 187. 
 
 Bohemia, 112. 
 
 Bolas, 529, 544 f., 548 f., 580. 
 
 Bole Hill, 152. 
 
 Bologna, 68. 
 
 Bone-beds, Indian, 348 ; caves, 76, 
 298 f., 304, 307 ff. , 322 ; implements, 
 18, 74, 76, 102 f., 147, 150 ff., 189, 
 196, 242, 265, 325, 420, vide also 
 Awl, Chisel ; knife handles, 37 ; pits, 
 265 ; shovels, 129; sword handles, 35. 
 
 Bones, comparison of wild and domestic 
 animals, 208 ; eaten, 321 ; human, in 
 caves, 307 ff. ; prevalent in Kjokken- 
 moddings, 237. 
 
 Bonwick, Mr, 453. 
 
 Boomerang, 97, 444 ff., 539, 544 ff., 580. 
 
 Booth Low, 151.
 
 INDEX 
 
 60 1 
 
 Boothia Felix, 502. 
 
 Borlase, 6, 108. 
 
 Borneo, 183, 188, 386, 555. 
 
 Bornou, 1 17. 
 
 Boroughbridge, 112. 
 
 Borreby tumulus, 146. 
 
 Borthor Low, 15 1. 
 
 Bos, 366, 423 ; Bison, 203, 209 ; bona- 
 sus, 301 ; brachiceros, 203, 210 ; 
 frontosus, 203, 209 ff. ; mdiais, 210 ; 
 latifro7ts, 301 ; longifrvns, 210 f ; 
 nomadicHS, 348 ; palaindicus, 348 ; 
 priniigenius , 203, 209 f., 236, 280, 
 301, 312, 375 ; priscus, 300 f., 304, 
 375 ; trochocei-os, 207, 209 ; urns, 236. 
 
 Boscawen, 119. 
 
 Bostorn, 150. 
 
 Boucher de Perthes, 182, 211, 340 ff., 
 354 ff., 370 f. 
 
 Boue, M. A., 331. 
 
 Boule, Prof., 420. 
 
 Boulder clay, 412. 
 
 Bourgeois, Ablae, 423, 425. 
 
 Bourguignet, M., 339. 
 
 Bourneville enclosure, Ross Co., 257. 
 
 Bowl of wood, 55, 254. 
 
 Box, bronze, 150. 
 
 Boye, M., 162, 164. 
 
 Boyne, 172. 
 
 Bracelets, 4, 221 ; bronze, 18, 39, 45, 
 47 f') 55) 69 ^-j 220, 222 ; copper, 
 256, 265, 518; gold, 70; from lake- 
 villages, 1S9. 
 
 Brachycephalic skull, 145, 272. 
 
 Brandon, 78 f., 85, 415. 
 
 Brandt, 283, 290, 297, 301. 
 
 Brassington Moor, 150. 
 
 Brazilian Indians, 540, 542, 548, 553, 
 557 f-, 562, 566, 568, 576, 581. 
 
 Bread found in lake-villages, 216, 233. 
 
 Breastplate, 10, 14. 
 
 Brennanstown Dolmen, no. 
 
 Brennus, 9. 
 
 Breuil, Abbe H., 28 1, 286, 2S9, 294 f , 
 299 f., 328. 
 
 Brewis, 30. 
 
 Briart, M., 80. 
 
 Bridlington, Yorkshire, 347. 
 
 Brie, 363. 
 
 Bristol Channel, 113. 
 
 Britons, 204, 550. 
 
 Brittany, 77, 114, 125 f., 135, 139, 
 166, 172. 
 
 Brixham cave, 2S2, 302, 310, 31 1. 
 
 Broch, or Burgh, 62, 298. 
 
 Bronze, 4, 5, 7, 24, 27 ff., 167, 170, 
 292, 432 ; found with remains of 
 horse, 175 ; implements, 72, 75, 314, 
 388 f. : classes of, 67 : in tumuli, 
 
 133, 147 f-> 150 ff-, 159 ff-; intro- 
 duced into Europe, 36, 66 ; plated 
 with silver, 14; used in Egypt, 8: 
 in lake-dwellings, 17 f., 185, 189: in 
 Mycenae, 9 : by Romans, 23 f. : by 
 savages 471 ; weapons, vide Axe, 
 Celt, Lance, Sword, etc. : discon- 
 tinued, 14: not Roman, 21 ff. ; will 
 not cut stone, 126, 
 
 Bronze Age, 3, 15, 17 ff, 22 ff. , 27 ff., 
 59, 65 ff., 93, 130, 132, 142, 159, 
 161 ff, 171, 175, 178, 186, 196, 326, 
 357) 389, 390, 427 ; animals of, 209 
 ff. ; American, 251 ff. ; architecture 
 of, 58 ; chronology, 49 ; epochs of, 
 68, 390; flora of, 217 ff. ; funeral 
 customs, 57 ; Iron Age, differentia- 
 tion, 19 : transition, 26 ; in lake- 
 dwellings, 185 ff. ; life in, pastoral, 
 57 ; ornamentation, 19 ; races of, 
 177 ; skulls of, 145 f. ; theories re, 65. 
 
 Brooches, amber, 153 ; bronze, 10 f., 
 14, 39, 41, 44, 50, 54 ; Roman, 128. 
 
 Brooke, Mr, 116. 
 
 Broom, birch, 11. 
 
 Brougham, Lord, 592. 
 
 Brown, Mr, 279, 556. 
 
 Browne, SirThos. , loS. 
 
 Bruckner, Dr, 420. 
 
 Bruncliffe, 150. 
 
 Bruniquil cave in Dordogne, 293, 321 
 
 Brush field, 152. 
 
 Buccimitn itndatiiDi, 234. 
 
 Buckland, Dr, 292. 
 
 Buckles, 10, 14, 48. 
 
 Buddha, 557. 
 
 Buddhist architecture, 137 f. 
 
 Buffalo, 267. 
 
 Buffon, 297. 
 
 Bulleid, Dr, iSi. 
 
 Bunbury, Sir C, 181. 
 
 Bungogees, 428. 
 
 Bunsen, Baron, 3S4. 
 
 Burchell, 431, 482, 544, 565, 570, 588. 
 
 Burckhardt, 538. 
 
 Burghs, see Broch. 
 
 Burial, 587; contracted, 56 f., 144, 
 149 ff., 159 ff., 165, 265, 440, 459, 
 466, 507, 524; extended, 56 f. , 144, 
 I49ff.,i59ff. ; feasts, 314; megalithic, 
 113; mounds, 76, 109, 264, 265, 
 vide also tumulus : primary, 149 ft". ; 
 by burning, 25, 48, 56 f., 132, 149 ff., 
 159 ff-) 223, 264, 524, 553; during 
 Iron Age, 56 ; in caves, 309 ff. ; in 
 dwellings, 116 ff., 163, 460, 467, 
 508 ; in tumuli, 54 ff. , 113, 135, 141, 
 143, 264 ; of Bronze Age above Stone 
 Age, 168 ; of cave men, 357 ; of
 
 6o2 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 modern savages, 438, 440, 459 f. , 
 466, 482, 507, 524, 530, 536, 553 ; 
 of food and drink, 316, 467 ; of 
 objects with the dead, 67, 147. 
 
 Burma, 425. 
 
 Burmeister, 568. 
 
 Burnet, 515. 
 
 Burton, Capt., 204, 554 f., 558, 571, 
 
 573- 
 Bushmen, 177, 337, 431, 437, 544, 
 
 546 f., 565, 571. 
 Bushmills, 32. 
 Busk, Prof., 106, 229, 282 f., 311, 314, 
 
 334, 341. 
 Butter, Prof., 252. 
 Butterwick, 156. 
 Buttons, bronze, 40, 47, 54 ; jet, 156 ; 
 
 stone, 156 ; tin, 54. 
 Buxton, 151. 
 
 Buzzard, N. American, 255. 
 Bygas, 102. 
 Byron, 532, 534, 536, 564. 
 
 Caesar, 132, 211 f. , 292, 296, 300 f. 
 
 Cahirs, 64. 
 
 Cahokia, 111., 266, 273. 
 
 Caillie, M., 570. 
 
 Caithness, 63, 297 f. 
 
 Calaveras skull, 278. 
 
 Caledonian swords of iron, 9. 
 
 California, 539, 569. 
 
 Callais beads, 77. 
 
 Callander, 539. 
 
 Callaway, Canon, 572. 
 
 Calton Moor, 153. 
 
 Calvert, Mr, 460, 463. 
 
 Cambria, Niagara Co., 265. 
 
 Camel, 206. 
 
 Campagna, 49. 
 
 Campbell, W. D., 447. 
 
 Camps, 57 f., 76, 107, no. 
 
 Canada, 569. 
 
 Candolle, M. de, 216. 
 
 Caneto, M. de, 84. 
 
 Canis Janiiliaris {t^ahtstn's), 203, 236 ; 
 
 lagopus, 299; hipiis, 203, 236, 315 ; 
 
 vulpes, 203, 236, 315. 
 Cannibalism, 431, 553, 586 ; Austral- 
 ians, 450; Fijians, 454, 456, 461 ; 
 
 Fuegians, 243, 535 ; Maories, 467, 
 
 469 ; Stone Age, 241 f. 
 Canoe Indians, 527, 
 Canoes, 90, 190, 357, 385, 431, 439, 
 
 442, 453, 456, 466, 473, 476, 518 f., 
 
 533, 536, 545. 553, S^^o- 
 Canstatt, 333. 
 Cantalupo, 295, 
 Cap from tumulus, 52, 53, 55 f. 
 Cape of Good Hope, 86, 106, 546, 561. 
 
 Capercailzie, 235, 387. 
 
 Capitan, M., 328. 
 
 Capra hircits, 203 ; ibex, 203. 
 
 Caracalla, 21. 
 
 Cardium ediile, 233 f. 
 
 Carib Islands, 514, 540, 554. 
 
 Carnac, Mr Rivett, 173 ; in Brittany, 
 114, 135 f., 166. 
 
 Carocolla lapicida, 234. 
 
 Caroline Islands, 183, 569. 
 
 Carpathians, 284. 
 
 Carpenter, Dr, 395. 
 
 Carret, M., 398. 
 
 Carrier Indians, 524. 
 
 Cartailhac, M., 166. 
 
 Carthage, 66. 
 
 Cartwright, Capt., 512. 
 
 Casalis, 572. 
 
 Casciano de Prado, 361. 
 
 Cashels, 64. 
 
 Caspian Sea, 331. 
 
 eastern, 150, 151, 153, 
 
 Casting, in moulds, 4, 41 f. , 44, 67, 
 253 ; in sand, 42 ; with wax, 42. 
 
 Castle Carrock, 157 ; Howard, 154. 
 
 Castle, prehistoric, 76. 
 
 Castor fiber, 203, 236. 
 
 Cat, domestic, 205, 236 ; wild, 213 ff., 
 236, 255, 315. 
 
 Catawba Indians, 514. 
 
 Catlin, 195, 259, 518, 521, 524 f., 557, 
 575, 588. 
 
 Cattle, 209, 210 f., 244; wild, Chil- 
 lingham, 209 f. : Lyme Park, 209 : 
 Tankerville Park, 211. 
 
 Caucasus, 140, 295. 
 
 Cave, burial, 309; drawings, 328 ff. , 
 442; dwellings, 318, 332; explora- 
 tion, 339 ; see Bear, Hysena, Lion, 
 Man. 
 
 Cavendish, 528. 
 
 Caves, 103 ; Aurignac, 316 ff. ; bone, 
 307 ff., 322 ; Dordogne, 318 ff, ; 
 Gironde, 328; Spanish, 314, 328. 
 
 Cawthorn camps, 153. 
 
 Celebes, 182 f. 
 
 Celle, 380. 
 
 Celts, basalt, 77 ; bronze, 18, 28 ff., 
 47 f', 55, 66, 150 ft"., 224: handles 
 for, 29 ; moulds for, 29, 49 ; jade, 
 166 ; iron, 28 ; socketed, 11 ; stone, 
 74, 76, 88 ft"., 150 ff., 166, 356. 
 
 Centaurea cyanus, 218. 
 
 Ceram, 183. 
 
 Cereals, vide Barley, Corn, Oats, Rye. 
 
 Ceti'tis, 366 ; alces, 203 ; capreohis, 
 203, 235, 312, 315; elaphus, 203, 
 235, 312, 315, 375 ; enryceros, 375; 
 tarandus, 280, 312, 315, 375.
 
 INDEX 
 
 603 
 
 Ceylon, 6, 435, 437, 520. 
 
 Chaillu, M. du, 560. 
 
 Chaleux cave, 309. 
 
 Chalk, 79, 417, 
 
 Chamois, 320, 330. 
 
 Champagne, 363. 
 
 Champlain, 252. 
 
 Chancelade, 332, 335, 337. 
 
 Chantre, M., 18, 68, 
 
 Chapelle, la, aux Saints, 334, 336. 
 
 Charente, 137, 
 
 Chariots, 10, 224. 
 
 Charlesworth, 424. 
 
 Charlevoix, M., 494. 
 
 Charrua Indians, 526. 
 
 Chattahoochie Valley, 279. 
 
 Chatton, 157. 
 
 Chauny, 374. 
 
 Chavannes, 205. 
 
 Chelleenne (Chelles) period, 419 f. 
 
 Chelmorton, 151 f. 
 
 Chelsfield, 382. 
 
 Cherokees, 117, 263, 522. 
 
 Cherry, 217. 
 
 Chert, 82, 87. 
 
 Chiavenna, 212. 
 
 Chichasaw Indians, 117, 522. 
 
 Chili, 304. 
 
 Chillingham, wild cattle, 209 f,, 301. 
 
 China, 3, 9, 113, 158, 204, 207, 386, 555. 
 
 Chinooks, 539, 546 f., 551, 587, 
 
 Chippeways, 520. 
 
 Chisels, bone, 15, 103, 196, 324, 471 
 
 f, ; bronze, 18, 28, 70; horn, 15; 
 
 stone, 73 f., 89 f., 97, 150 ff., 162 ff., 
 
 471. 
 Chittagong, 42S, 556. 
 Chloromelanite, 77- 
 Choctaw Indians, 514, 522. 
 Chollerton, 157. 
 Chonos Indians, 527, 534, 536, 551, 
 
 564. 
 Christol, M. de, 288, 308. 
 Christy, Mr, 317, 319 f., 322, 324, 331, 
 
 352, 504, 543. 
 Chronology of Bronze Age, 49 ; palse- 
 
 ontological, 281. 
 Chunchos, 568. 
 Chunk Pole, 264. 
 Chunkyards described, 263 f. 
 Cicero, 221. 
 Ciconia alba, 205. 
 Cincinnati, 251. 
 Cinchis aqiiatictis, 205. 
 Circle mounds, 260 If. ; ornamentation, 
 
 19 ; stone, vide Cromlechs. 
 Circleville, Ohio, 261. 
 Cissan Beorh, 124 
 Cists, 141 ff., 150 ff., 162 ft'., 264. 
 
 Civilization, co-existence of different 
 states, 17 ; early stages of, 543 ; 
 effects of, 589 ; growth of, 585, 593 ; 
 in lake-villages, 225. 
 
 Clacton, 2SS. 
 
 Clallum Indians, 523. 
 
 Clarence, Erie Co., 265. 
 
 Clark's Work, Ohio, 75, 257. 
 
 Clarke, W. G., 422 f. 
 
 Clasps, 1 4. 
 
 Classet Indians, 514. 
 
 Clayslate, 355, 
 
 Clear Lake Indians, 524. 
 
 Clichy, 360. 
 
 Climate, change of, 330, 397 ff. ; effect 
 of eccentricity of orbit on, 407 : of 
 obliquity of ecliptic on, 411 : of ocean 
 currents on, 400 f. : of sea-level on, 
 413 : of South Polar ice on, 405 ; 
 European, 401. 
 
 Cloak from tumulus, 52 f., 55 f. 
 
 " Cloghauns," 76, 
 
 Clonmacnoise, 51. 
 
 Clothes, 10, 557 ; from lake-dwellings, 
 190, 196, 198 f. ; from tumuli, 52 ff., 
 178 ; of American Indians, 513 ; of 
 Australian natives, 448 ; of Esqui- 
 maux, 505 ; of Fijians, 458 ; of 
 Fuegians, 532, 536 ; of Hottentots, 
 433 ; of Maories, 464 ; of Paraguay 
 Iiidians, 526; of Patagonians, 528 f. ; 
 of Tahitians, 474 f. ; of Tasmanians, 
 453 ; of Veddahs, 438. 
 
 Chipea harengzts, 235. 
 
 Coast-finds in Denmark, 95, 104, 106, 
 241 ff. 
 
 Cobeu Indians, 554. 
 
 Cockles, 211, 233. 
 
 Codex Diplomaticus, 124. 
 
 Codrington, Mr T. , 350, 
 
 Coffins, 142, 555 ; of chalk, 364 ; of 
 stone, 92, 132 ; wooden, 51 ft,, 55 ff., 
 
 364, 374- 
 Coins, 16, 19, 23, 27, 72, 224, 300 ; 
 
 absent from bronze finds, 10 ; brass, 
 
 151 ; British, 296; bronze, 10; 
 
 Gallic, 224, 296 ; Massaliote, 224 ; 
 
 Roman, 12, 14 f., 20 ft"., 224, 388 f. ; 
 
 silver, 10. 
 Cold Eaton, 153. 
 Colden, 515, 569. 
 Collar, gold, 69. 
 Collegio romano, 49. 
 Cohiniba pa/umbus, 205. 
 Columbia, 524, 546, 549, 555. 
 Comanches, 515, 
 Comb, 53, 57, 152, 476, 529. 
 Combarelles cave, 294, 32S. 
 Combe-Granal cave, ?i8.
 
 6o4 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Commerce, 9, 50, 196 ; of Australian 
 natives, 448 ; of Etruscans, 65 ; of 
 lake-villagers, 225. 
 Concise, 37, S9, 92, 193, 196, 203 ff., 
 
 207, 214, 217, 357. 
 Confolens, 137. 
 Congo, 414, 557. 
 Constance (Lake of), 15, 185, 193 ff., 
 
 220. 
 Con well, 172. 
 Conyers, 342, 350. 
 
 Cook, Capt., 114, 406, 427, 431, 435. 
 440, 442, 445, 448, 453. 466, 471 f-. 
 476, 478 f., 481 ff., 491 f., 508, 521, 
 536. 542, 544, 556, 560 f., 563- 
 Cookery, American Indian, 518 ; Esqui- 
 maux, 494 ; Hottentots, 434 ; Tahi- 
 lians, 478 ; Veddahs, 438. 
 Copenhagen, 6, 36, 46, 73, 93, 146, 
 
 226, 228. 
 Copper, 3, 4, 7, 23, 68, 72, 77, 251 ff., 
 517 ; Age, 68 ; in America, 251 fif. , 
 275 ; mines, 253 f. ; ore, 267 ; use 
 of, in China, 9: in Egypt, 71: in 
 India, 9: by modern savages, 471, 
 518. 
 Coppermme River, 253. 
 Coral found at Concise, 196. 
 Corcelettes, 16 f., 47. 
 Cordier, M., 371. 
 
 Corn, hills, 273 ; Indian, 273 ; not 
 found in shell-mounds, 244 ; of lake- 
 men, 216 f. 
 Corn-crushers, 16 f., 195. 
 Cornet, M., 80. 
 Cornwall, 6, 9, 49, 80, 119. 
 Correze, 334. 
 Corribas tribe, 445. 
 Corsica, 555. 
 
 Cortaillod, 16, 17, 45, 47, 189, 222. 
 Corvus coiax, 205 ; corone, 205. 
 Coteau des Prairies, 195. 
 Cotton, 56. 
 
 Cow Low tumulus, 149, 151. 
 Cows, 57, 74, 202, 208 ; vide also Ox. 
 Crabs in Kjokkenmoddings, 234. 
 Cradle board, 514. 
 Crag, the, 424 ; Norwich, 422 ; Red, 
 
 422. 
 Crahay, Mr, 331. 
 
 Crannoges in Ireland, 183, 187, 330. 
 Crantz, 204, 495, 506 ff. 
 Crawfurd, Mr, 45 1, 566 f., 582. 
 Crayford, 290, 345. 
 Creek Indians, 263, 514, 517. 
 Creil, 367. 
 Cremation, 25, 48, 56 f., 264 ; vide also 
 
 Burial. 
 Creswell Crags, 328. 
 
 Cricetus phaiis, 293 ; vulgaris, 293. 
 
 Crofts, Professor, 225. 
 
 Croll, Mr, 306, 399, 400 f., 404, 407 ff., 
 
 411 ff. 
 Croniagnon skulls, 332, 334. 
 Cromer, forest-bed, 416, 420 ; till, 420. 
 Cromlech, 107 ff., 119 ff., 135, 157, 
 
 172 ; in Bible, 122 : Denmark, 108 
 
 ff. : France, 108 : Homer, 122 : 
 
 India, 138. 
 Cronkstone Hill, 149, 153. 
 Crooke, W., 174 
 Cross Low, 150. 
 Crustacea in shell-mounds, 234. 
 Culverwell, Mr, 407. 
 Cumberland, 157. 
 Cunningham, Mr, 442. 
 Cup-markings, 174. 
 Cureto Indians, 568. 
 Cutters, stone, 326. 
 Cuvier, M. , 297. 
 Cwichelme's Illoew, 124. 
 Cygnus nmsicus, 235, 238 ; olor, 235. 
 Cyprus, 7. 
 
 Dab, the, 235. 
 
 Dacotahs, 515, 518, 520 f. 
 
 Daggers, 15, 66; bronze, 18, 30, 36, 
 
 40 f,, 47 f., 55, 68 ff., 92, 98, 142, 
 
 150 ff. ; copper, 7, 68 ; horn, 327 ; 
 
 stone, 98 ff, 151 ff. 
 Dahomans, 117, 555. 
 Dale, Mr, 106. 
 
 Dale County, animal mounds, 268. 
 Daleau, M., 328. 
 Dall, Mr, 115. 
 Dalton, Col., 138, 428. 
 Dammaras, 564, 567. 
 Damood Island, 569. 
 Dampier, 183, 232, 441, 443, 448, 544. 
 Damson, 217. 
 Dana, Professor, 253. 
 Dances, 450, 457, 467, 562. 
 Danube, 410. 
 Darent, 382. 
 Dartford, 345 f. 
 Dartmoor, remains on, 60. 
 Darwin, Mr C, 207, 210, 232, 242, 
 
 303 f., 544, 564, 593; Sir George, 
 
 398. 
 Dasent, Sir G. W. , 41, 297. 
 David, Lucas, 294. 
 Davis, Mr E. H., 77, 250 ff. 
 Davis Strait, 501. 
 Davy, 438. 
 Dawkins, Boyd, 206, 210, 283 f., 297, 
 
 301, 317, 324, 328, 339. 
 Dawson, Mr, 337. 
 l^ay, 439.
 
 INDEX 
 
 605 
 
 Deccan, 119, 140, 588. 
 
 Decker, Adolph, 531, 535. 
 
 Dee, river, 113. 
 
 Deepdale, 152. 
 
 Deer, red, 147, 174, 203, 211 ft'., 215, 
 235. 239, 29S, 312, 315, 339, 346, 
 358, 423. 541 : in cave finds, 314 f. : 
 in Kjokkenmoddings, 235 : in lake- 
 dwellings, 200 ff. ; Barbary, 314 ; 
 horn picks, 79 f. 
 
 Defensive enclosures, 250. 
 
 De Fuca Straits, 514. 
 
 Delaunay, M., 426. 
 
 Delaware Indians, 522. 
 
 Delechette, M., 73, 108, 114, 330. 
 
 Delphimis phooEua, 236. 
 
 Denhani, Mr, 117, 557. 
 
 Denmark, 40, 60, 62, 67, 194, 226 ff. , 
 284 f., 299, 301, 323, 3S1, 3S7, 498, 
 595 ; bronze celts in, 30 ; bronze 
 swords in, 35 ff. ; chambered tumuli, 
 163 ff. ; cremation in, 57 ; intersected 
 by fjords, 231 ; Romans never in, 23 ; 
 skulls from, 146, 164 ; stone imple- 
 ments, 73 ff., 83 fir., 88 ff. , 94 ; vide 
 also Kjokkenmoddings. 
 
 Denudation of continents, 409. 
 
 Derbyshire, 144, 159, 170, 2S5. 
 
 Desnoyers, M,, 307, 423. 
 
 Desor, Prof., 219 ^'i. 
 
 Devil's Dyke, 113. 
 
 Devon, 310. 
 
 Dickeson, 277, 279. 
 
 Dieffenbach, 463, 467 f 
 
 Dighton Rock carvings, 271. 
 
 Dinotheritiin gigaiitcum, 425. 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, 123, 555. 
 
 Diorite, 194. 
 
 Disks of flint, 75. 
 
 Ditches, 58. 
 
 Dnieper, 331. 
 
 Dobritzhoffer, 525, 540, 566 f , 571. 
 
 Dodge, Mr, 102. 
 
 I^og, 57, 147, 321, 339, 550, 583 ; do- 
 mesticated, 175, 242, 244, 248, 434, 
 438, 440, 464, 478, 503, 527, 534, 
 540, 545' 550. 580; sacrificed, 175; 
 in cave finds, 330 ; in Kjokkenmod- 
 dings, 236 f., 543 ; in lake-villages, 
 199 ff , 214 f. 
 
 Dogrib Indians, 516, 563. 
 
 Dolichocephalic skull, 145, 360. 
 
 Doll ikon, 180. 
 
 Dolmens, 107 ff., 135, 141 f, 172: 
 African, 143 ; as shrines, 141 ; in 
 Caucasus, 140 ; in Denmark, 108 ff. ; 
 in France, 108, 137. 
 
 Domestic animals, 178, 390, 544, 551, 
 580, 583 ; in Bible, 206 ; in cave 
 
 finds, 320, 330, 543 ; in lake-villages, 
 199, 207, 209 f. , 215 ; in Stone Age 
 tumuli, 248 ; of Esquimaux, 503 ; of 
 Hottentots, 432, 434; of Paraguay 
 Indians, 526 ; of Tahitians, 478. 
 
 Dordogne, 293, 295, 318, 334, ^42. 
 
 Dornadilla, Dun of, 64. 
 
 Dorpfeld, 71. 
 
 Dorse, the, 235. 
 
 Douler, Dr, 278. 
 
 Dove, Rev. T., 453, 565. 
 
 Dovedale, 151. 
 
 Dowel, 151. 
 
 Dow Low, 151. 
 
 Dowris Hoard, 32. 
 
 Drawings, Esquimaux, 506 ; in caves, 
 326 ff. ; of savages, 330, 524, 542. 
 
 Dress, buried with the dead, 142 ; in 
 ancient Egypt, 56 ; in Bronze Age, 
 50 ff. ; of chief from tumulus, 52 ff. ; 
 of woman from tumulus, 55 ; vide 
 also Clothes. 
 
 Drift Age, 2, 73 ff., 340 ff , 550 : early 
 British, 342 ft. ; gravels, 79, 206, 
 213, 283, 292, 299, 302, 318, 324, 
 340 ff., 370 ft'., 386, 578: character- 
 istics of, 363 ft". : fauna of, 358 ft'., 
 375: freshwater origin of, 371 : im- 
 plements from, 348 f., 352 ft'. : in 
 France, 342 ff., 346, 351, 363 ff. : in 
 Herefordshire, 343, 345 : in India, 
 347 : in Isle of "Wight, 350 : in Kent, 
 345 f. : in New Jersey, 279 : in Suf- 
 folk, 343 : in Surrey, 343 : in War- 
 wickshire, 347. 
 
 Drills, 48, 156. 
 
 Drinking-cups, 69, 147, 150 ft'., 169 ft'. 
 
 Druidical monuments, so-called, 58, 96, 
 126, 135, 137,455. 542. 
 
 Dublin Museum, 23, 28 ff., 74. 
 
 Dubois, Dr, 337 f., 424. 
 
 Ducks, 235, 256. 
 
 Duggleby, 155. 
 
 Duncan, Dr, 398. 
 
 Duns, 64. 
 
 Dunshaughlin, 184. 
 
 Dupont, Dr, 309. 
 
 Durdham Down, 291. 
 
 Dlirnten, interglacial coal-beds at, 
 412, 423. 
 
 Dwellings, burial in, 116, 163, 460, 
 467, 508 ; cave, 318, 332 ; North 
 American mud, 263, 272 ; subter- 
 ranean, in Bronze Age, 60 ; tumuli 
 possibly, 117 ; of Aleutian Islanders, 
 115 ; of Andaman Islanders, 439 ; of 
 Arctic nations, 114, 490; of Aus- 
 tralian natives, 440 ; of Esquimaux, 
 490 ff. ; of Fijians, 455 ; of Fuegians,
 
 6o6 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 531 ; of Hottentots, 433 ; of Lap- 
 landers, 116; of Maories, 465; of 
 monkeys, 579 ; of North American 
 Indians, 521 f . ; of Paraguay Indians, 
 526 ; of Patagonians, 528 ; of Tahi- 
 tians, 476 ; of Tasmanians, 453 ; of 
 Veddahs, 437. 
 
 Dyaks, 183, 553, 555- 
 
 Dykes, 76, 107, 112. 
 
 Eagle, golden, 204 ; North American, 
 
 255- 
 Earle, Mr, 332, 468. 
 Earrings, bronze, 18, 47 ; silver. 
 
 Earth, excentricity of orbit, 408, 413. 
 Earthenware, 194 ; vide also Pottery. 
 Earthworks, American, 250, 257 ff. : 
 
 antiquity of, 275 : periods of, 277 ; 
 
 ancient, 76 ; Roman, 23. 
 Easter Island, 543, 545 f., 587. 
 Eccard, 6. 
 Echelle cave, 296, 
 Ecker, Mr, 331. 
 Ecton, 151, 153. 
 Edington Burtle, 70. 
 Eel, 235, 237. 
 Egede, 506, 508. 
 Egton Moor, 154. 
 Egypt, 27, 149, 158, 206, 340, 347, 
 
 383, 411, 548, 581, 583 ; barley in, 
 
 216 ; copper and bronze in, 7 f-, 37 ; 
 
 dress, 56 ; iron in, 8 ; stone arrows, 
 
 loi ; stone axes, 97, 106. 
 Egyptians, 55, 385, 520. 
 Ekkehard, 294. 
 El Amreh, 7. 
 Elephant, 211, 279, 2S1, 287, 304, 314, 
 
 316, 358, 362, 418, 434, 539 ; tooth, 
 
 342- 
 Elephas atiiiqnns, 280, 2S7, 291, 305, 
 
 312, 366, 375, 419; tiisio„is. 348; 
 
 meridionalis, 423 ; namadacus, 348 ; 
 
 primigenius, 2S0, 285 fif., 291, 312, 
 
 3I5> 338, 375- 
 
 Eliot, 517. 
 
 Elk, 285, 292, 302, 541 ; in lake- 
 villages, 202, 211 ff. ; Irish, 280 f., 
 291 ff. , 296, 304, 315 ff. ; mounds, 
 267 ; North America, 255. 
 
 Elk Low, 150. 
 
 Elkstone, 153. 
 
 Ellis, Mr, 468 f., 471, 475, 484, 487, 
 488, 540, 556. 
 
 Embankments, 76. 
 
 Enil)roidery, 55. 
 
 End Low, 151. 
 
 Engelhardt, 10, 11, 125. 
 
 Engis, skull from, 334 f. , 583. 
 
 England, 412, 586, 595 ; aurochs in, 
 212, 299 ff. ; burial in, 57 ; bronze 
 weapons in, 49, 67 ; cremation in, 
 57 ; elk in, 304 ; quaternary mam- 
 malia, 280 ff. , 304 ; reindeer, 296. 
 
 Engraving on rock, 172 ff. 
 
 Knthorpe, 157. 
 
 Eoliths, 421 f. 
 
 Eijuiis, 366, 375 ; asimis, 203, 315; 
 caballus, 203, 206, 312, 315 ; fosstlis, 
 206, 280, 293 ; silvestris, 294 ; 
 s/>a/irtts, 206, 293. 
 
 Erinaceus eiiropaus, 203, 236. 
 
 Erling, 64. 
 
 Erman, 114. 
 
 Erskine, Capt., 456, 458, 462. 
 
 Erviiin lens, 218. 
 
 Escholtz Bay, 285. 
 
 Esquimaux, 7, 13, 95, 116, 323, 330 f., 
 336, 35S, 428, 445. 446, 490 ff , 537, 
 539 f-. 542, 545 f-, 548 ff-, 555 f-, 
 559. 561 f- 565. 567, 571, 579 f- ; 
 boats of, 503 f. ; burial, 118, 158, 
 508 ; characteristics, 511 ; clothes, 
 505; cookery, 494; drawings, 506 f. ; 
 dwellings, 114, liS, 490 ff. ; food, 
 200, 204, 321, 493, 495 ; implements 
 of flint, 87, 94, 98, 497 ff., 504; 
 infanticide, 176 ; jaw, 177 ; marriage, 
 510 ; ornaments, 505 f. ; religion, 
 507 ; skull, 335 ; stone circles, 121 ; 
 weapons, 499 f. 
 
 Estavayer, 15 ff, 37, 39, 47, 49. 
 
 Etowah, 273. 
 
 Etreaupont, 367. 
 
 Etruscan, 65, 123, 158. 
 
 Europe, bronze introduced, 36, 66 ; 
 civilization in, 3 ; iron introduced, 9 ; 
 man's first appearance in, i ; stone 
 implements, 94 ff. ; submersion of, 
 405, 413 ff. ; tumuli, 114. 
 
 Evans, Sir Arthur, 423 ; Sir John, lO, 
 26, 68, 71, 88, 232, 252, 311, 341 ft., 
 
 345. 350, 355, 373. 398, 423 f. 
 Excavations for flint, 78 f. 
 Excentricity of earth's orbit, 408, 413. 
 Eyre, 441, 444, 447, 449- 
 Eyzies, Les, cave, 318 ff., 328. 
 
 Faba 7'ulgaris, 218. 
 
 Fabrics, impressed on pottery, 172 ; in 
 
 lake-villages, 17, 103, 198 f., 218; 
 
 in tumuli, 50. 
 P"akaafo, 552. 
 Falco Biiteo, 204 ; mihiis, 204 ; nisus, 
 
 204 ; palu>iibanus, 204. 
 Falconer, Dr, 238, 282, 288, 302, 311 ff., 
 
 341. 
 Falkner, 528, 539.
 
 INDEX 
 
 607 
 
 Fan tribe, 469, 
 
 Fannerup, 82 f., 229, 231. 
 
 Fantees, 117. 
 
 Faudel, Mr, 331. 
 
 Faustina, junior, 14. 
 
 Felis atrox, 285 ; catus {ferns), 203, 
 236, 315; iynji , 236 ; spelcea, 280, 
 284 f., 312, 315, 375. 
 
 Felspar, 76. 
 
 Felstone, 76. 
 
 Fergusson, 108, 129, 137, 141, 557, 574. 
 
 Ferrybridge, 157. 
 
 Festival of the Dead, 265. 
 
 Fetichism, 573 f. 
 
 Fijians, customs, 385 f. , 454 ff., 469, 
 545.. 555 f . 559, 570, 573 ; human 
 sacrifice, 176 ; neck-rests, 223 ; 
 tumuli, no. 
 
 Filhol, M., 339. 
 
 FiUefjeld, 296. 
 
 Finns, 146, 
 
 Fire, 551 f., 579; among Esquimaux, 
 496 f. : Fuegians, 536 : lake-dwel- 
 lings, 197 : North American Indians, 
 520 : Tahitians, 478 ; Tasmanians, 
 453 : obtaining, 447 : sticks or drills, 
 453 f-, 520, 579- 
 
 Fischer, M., 77. 
 
 Fish, catching, 531, 540 f. ; drawings 
 of, 327 ; in Kjokkenmoddings, 235, 
 242; in lake-dwellings, 181, 199, 
 205, 217. 
 
 Fish-hooks, bronze, 16 f., 36, 47, 220, 
 545 f. ; of Australians, 443 f., 545 ; 
 of Esquimaux, 497, 502, 545 ; of 
 Fijians, 545; of Friendly Islands, 545 ; 
 of Fuegians, 531, 545 ; of Hottentots, 
 434, 545 ; of Maories, 464, 545 ; of 
 North American Indians, 545 f. ; 
 Society Islands, 545 ; Tahitian"^, 
 472 ; Tasmanians, 453. 
 
 Fisherton, 302. 
 
 Fishing-line weights, 95, 195. 
 
 Fitzroy, 464, 467, 487, 532, 535, 544, 
 
 585. 
 
 Fitz-Stephen, 301. 
 
 Flax, 17, 103, 199, 218, 219. 
 
 Flaxdale Barrow, 151, 170. 
 
 Flensborg, 10, 38, 74. 
 
 Flinders, 446. 
 
 Flint, 2, 76 ff,, 128, 130, 166 f., 194 f. ; 
 arms and implements, 73 flf., 82, 93 
 (T., 104, 144, 149, 158, 162, 171, 227, 
 296, 311, 317, 321 ff., 540, vide also 
 Arrow, Axe, Dagger, Lance, Sword : 
 evolution of, 578: of drift gravels, 341 
 ff. , 348 ff. : of shell-mounds, 241 ff. , 
 244 ; disks, 75 ; finds, 106 ; flakes, 
 15 ff., 74, 81 ff., 104 f., 730, 148, 
 
 150 ff., 161 f., 164 ff., 193 f., 232, 
 239, 244 ff., 251, 308 f., 312, 322, 
 348, 423, 425, 549 : method of 
 making, 85 f. ; fracture of, 83 ff., 87, 
 354 ' g""> 79 ' javelin head, 54 ; 
 nuclei, 15, 81, 166, 322 ; will cut 
 stone, 126; workshop, 104, 345. 
 
 Florence, 23 ; in Alabama, 273. 
 
 Florida, 256, 263, 266, 395, 524. 
 
 Flourens, Mr, 237. 
 
 Flower, Mr, 349, 352. 
 
 Foix, Comte Gaston de, 297. 
 
 Folkestone, 291. 
 
 Font de Gaumecave, 286, 289, 295, 328. 
 
 Food, buried with dead, 316, 467 ; 
 of Andaman Islanders, 439 ; of 
 Australians, 441 ; of Esquimaux, 
 493 ff. ; of Fijians, 454; of Fuegians, 
 532 ff. ; of Hottentots, 433 ; of 
 Maories, 463 ; of North American 
 Indians, 523 ; of Patagonians, 530 ; 
 vessels, 69, 147, 150 ff., 169 f. 
 
 Foote, Mr Bruce, 347 f. 
 
 Forchhammer, Prof., 228, 233. 
 
 Ford, 157. 
 
 Forel, M., 17. 
 
 Foreland Cliffs, 350. 
 
 Foremark, 152. 
 
 Forestian, 420. 
 
 Formosa, 588. 
 
 Forskey, M., 395. 
 
 Forster, 466, 473, 485, 532, 544, 567. 
 
 Forsyth, Mr, 102. 
 
 Fort Hill, Ohio, fortification at, 257 f. 
 
 Fortifications, 76, 107, no, 172, 545, 
 547 ; Fijian, 455 ; islands, 184 ; 
 Maories, 465 ; North American 
 Indian, 250, 257 ^. 
 
 Foster, Mr, 252 ft". 
 
 Foulahs, 570. 
 
 Founders' stocks of bronze, 19. 
 
 Foundry bronze, 49. 
 
 Fowl, domestic, 205, 235. 
 
 Fowler, Sir W., 79. 
 
 Fox, 298 f. , 315, 320, 359 ; Arctic, 
 298; in Kjokkenmoddings, 236, 244 ; 
 in lake-villages, 200 ft'., 212 f. 
 
 Fox Indians, 517- 
 
 France, 284, 290 f., 296, 299, 301, 304, 
 317, 330; antiquities in, 20, 48; 
 bronze celts in, 28: finds in, iS, 23 ; 
 cave finds in, 308 ft. ; flint quarries 
 in, 195 ; megalithic monuments in, 
 108 ft. ; stone implements in, 77, 81, 
 94, 97, loi ; vitrified forts in, 112. 
 
 Franklin, 201. 
 
 Franks, Mr A. W., 158, 232, 444. 
 
 Fredericksund, 229. 
 
 Frederickville, 75.
 
 6o8 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Frere, Mr, 342, 350. 
 Freshwater origin of gravels, 371. 
 Freycinet, M., 543, 556 ft"., 564, 588. 
 " Friar's Heel," Stonehenge, 133 
 Friendly Islanders, 48 1, 488, 545 f., 
 
 559- 
 Friesland, 209. 
 Froelund, coast-find at, 105. 
 Frog-mounds, 267. 
 Frontal, Trou du, 309. 
 Fruit, 190. 
 Fuegians, 3, 239, 242 ft"., 431, 446, 527, 
 
 531. 537 f., 544 f., 547. 55° f., 555, 
 
 563, 566, 572, 5S5 ; burial, 536 ; 
 
 cannibalism, 535 ; clothes, 532, 536 ; 
 
 dwellings, 531; food, 533, 535; 
 
 hunting, 534 ; ornaments, 536. 
 Ftilka aira, 205. 
 Funeral rites, of Bronze Age, 57 ; of 
 
 Khasias, 138 ; see also Burial. 
 Furfooz cave, 309. 
 Furniture of Hottentots, 433. 
 
 Gadtis callarias, 235. 
 
 Galles, M., 166. 
 
 Gallus doniesticus, 235. 
 
 Galton, Sir F., 321, 586 ; Sir D., 34. 
 
 Games, 457. 
 
 Ganges, 410, 
 
 Ganggraben, 114, 117, 144. 
 
 Ganton Wold, 155. 
 
 Garda Lake, 181. 
 
 Garden-beds of Wisconsin, 274, 276. 
 
 Gardham, 157. 
 
 Garrigou, M., 329. 
 
 Garrows, 428. 
 
 Gasconade Co., 277- 
 
 Gastaldi, M., 181. 
 
 Gauls, 10, 185, 221. 
 
 Gebelin, Count de, 271. 
 
 Geikie, Sir A., 306, 410 f. ; Professor 
 
 James, 420. 
 Geneva, Lake of, 185 f., 188, 190, 220, 
 
 387. 
 
 Genista cave, 314. 
 
 Geology, its principles, 2. 
 
 German Ocean, 233. 
 
 Germany, 40, 58, 60, 284, 290 f., 296, 
 299, 300 f., 414; lake worship in, 
 221; stone implements in, 77 ; tumuli 
 in, 123 ; vitrified forts in, 112. 
 
 Gervais, M., 301. 
 
 Gesner's, 212. 
 
 Ghats, smelting among, 6. 
 
 Giant's Dance, 131. 
 
 Gib Hill tumulus, 150, 153. 
 
 Gibraltar cave, 282, 314, 334. 
 
 Gilgal, stones of, 122. 
 
 Gillieron, M., 198, 391. 
 
 Gindle Tap, 153. 
 
 Giraldus Cambrensis, 130. 
 
 Girdle ornament, 14. 
 
 Gironde, 414. 
 
 Gizeh, 8. 
 
 Glacial periods, 287, 305 f., 396 ft"., 
 420 ; astronomical explanation of, 
 402 ft". ; date of, 409 ; geographical 
 changes in, 416 ; reasons for, 397 f. 
 
 Glaciations and Palaeolithic industries, 
 420. 
 
 Glaciers, Antarctic, 404 f., 412; origin 
 of, 397 ; rate of formation, 386. 
 
 Glass, 25, 27, 224, 542; beads, 41, 
 150, 156; brooch, 153 ; vessels, 41. 
 
 Glastonbury lake-dwelling, 181, 186. 
 
 Glove, 327. 
 
 Gloucester, 144, 290. 
 
 Glutton or wolverine, 280, 299. 
 
 Goat, 174, 314; in Bible, 206 ; in lake- 
 villages, 199 ft"., 215, 
 
 Gobien, Father, 551 f. 
 
 Godalming, 343. 
 
 Godavery, 348. 
 
 Godhavn, 114. 
 
 Godwin-Austen, 310 f. 
 
 Goguet, 6. 
 
 Gold, 2, 3, 9, 45, 51, 69; ornaments, 
 
 52, 53- 
 Gold Coast, 183. 
 Goose, 235. 
 
 Gordon, Dr, 231 ; Lady Duff, 561. 
 Gorge d'Enfer cave, 318. 
 Gorget, copper, 256. 
 Gorilla skull, 337. 
 Gosse, Mr, 514. 
 Gotum, 151, 
 Gouge, bronze, 18, 40, 70; stone, 
 
 88. 
 Gowland, 6, 7. 
 Gower caves, 296. 
 Grain, in lake-villages, 17, 190, 216, 
 
 218 ; crushers, 233. 
 Grant, Captain, 570. 
 Granville, 269 
 Gratton Hill, 150. 
 Grave Creek mound, 256, 265, 271. 
 Gravel, river drift, see Drift ; carried by 
 
 water, 372. 
 Graves of chiefs, 92 ; copied from 
 
 dwelling, 1 18; passage, 114; vide 
 
 also Barrow, Burial, Tumulus. 
 Gray, Mr St George, 128 ; Dr, 210. 
 Gray's Thurrock, 283, 291. 
 Greek, 56, 123, 216, 558. 
 Greenland, 114, 146, 399, 490, 495. 
 Green Low, 150. 
 Greenstone, 92. 
 Greenstreet Green, 290, 345.
 
 INDEX 
 
 609 
 
 Greenwell, Canon, 30, 57, 78 ft'., 108, 
 142, 145, 147, 149, 154. 160, 174 f., 
 247, 
 
 Greey, Mr, 138. 
 
 Gregory of Tours, 124, 221. 
 
 Grenaa, 230. 
 
 Grey, Sir George, 441 ff., 451, 539. 
 
 Grimes' Graves, 78, 80, 91, 106. 
 
 Grimston Moor, 154. 
 
 Grind tones, 15. 
 
 Grisoni, 212. 
 
 Gristhorpe, 142. 
 
 Grouse, 256, 302. 
 
 Grunty Fen, 70. 
 
 Grus cinerea, 205. 
 
 Guana Indians, 526. 
 
 Guarany Indians, 526. 
 
 Guasarapo Indians, 526. 
 
 Guato Indians, 526. 
 
 Guinea, Gulf of, 401. 
 
 Guise, 367, 
 
 Gulf Stream, deflection of, 399 ; effect 
 on climate, 400. 
 
 Gulo lusctis, 2S0. 
 
 Gun flints, 79, 83, 85. 
 
 Gunther, Dr, 399. 
 
 Haddon Field, 152. 
 
 Haeckel on Bushmen, 437. 
 
 Hagiar Kem, 172. 
 
 Haigh, Dr, 14. 
 
 Hains, Dr, 284. 
 
 Hairpins, bronze, 40, 223. 
 
 Halberd, 69. 
 
 Hale, 552 f. 
 
 Haligenes, 401. 
 
 Haliiherhiin fossile, 426. 
 
 Hall, 494, 506, 508, 511, 559. 
 
 Hallstadt, 25 ft"., 45. 
 
 Hambleton, 154. 
 
 Hammers, 580 ; bronze, 18, 40, 47, 70 ; 
 
 horn, 80, 150; stone, 15, 74, lOO, 
 
 102, 193 ff., 240, 321 ft"., 348, 442. 
 Hampshire, 349 f. 
 Hamster, 393. 
 Hamy, M., 426, 
 Hanuman, 141. 
 Hare, 204, 236, 299 ; Alpine, 299, 320; 
 
 tailless, 302. 
 Harness (horse), 11, 14. 
 Harpoon, 439, 499 f. ; bone, 103, 105, 
 
 501, 523. 535. 541 ; horn, 15 ; stone, 
 
 102, 501. 
 Harrison, Mr, 346, 421 ; Pres., 275. 
 Harthill Moor, 150. 
 Hatchet, see Axe. 
 Haughton, Rev. S., 76. 
 Havelse, 229, 234 f., 240, 247. 
 Haven, S. F., 250, 266. 
 
 Hawk, 255. 
 
 Hawkesworth, 227, 532. 
 
 Hazel nut, 217. 
 
 Hazelwood, 455. 
 
 Hearne, 515 f, 569. 
 
 Hebrews, 206. 
 
 Hebrides, 142. 
 
 Hecataeus, 132. 
 
 Hector's barrow, 123. 
 
 Hedgehog, 202, 236. 
 
 Heer, Prof., 216, 219. 
 
 Heilly, 21. 
 
 Heim, Prof, 409. 
 
 Helanus Mount, 221. 
 
 Heliopolis, 392. 
 
 Helix nemoralis, 234 ; strigella, 234. 
 
 Helmets, 10. 
 
 Hemp, 218 f. 
 
 Henslow, Prof., 352. 
 
 Herberstein, 21 1, 294, 301. 
 
 Herbst, K., 51, 73 f., 229. 
 
 Hercynian Forest, 212, 296, 301. 
 
 Hermance, 189. 
 
 Hermite, Jaques le, 531. 
 
 Hernandez, 86. 
 
 Heme Bay, 345. 
 
 Herodotus, 56, 176, 180, 183, 191, 
 
 284, 392. 
 Heron, 255. 
 Heron- Allen, Mr, 423. 
 Herring, 235. 
 Herschel, Sir J., 406. 
 Hesiod, 5, 205. 
 Heslerton Wold, 155. 
 Hibbert, Dr, 297. 
 Hill Head, 152. 
 Himalayas, 302. 
 Hindoo, 576. 
 Hindustan, 108. 
 Hippopotamus, 280, 290, 304 f. , 312 f., 
 
 346, 413, 418 ; aiiiphibius, 29; ; 
 
 7na]or, 280, 375, 423 ; palceindicns 
 
 348- 
 Hippothermm antelopimini, 425. 
 
 Hirson, M. de, 367. 
 
 Hirundo riistica, 235 ; nrbica, 235. 
 
 His, Prof, 220. 
 
 Hisely, M., 391. 
 
 Hitchin, 343. 
 
 Hoards, 19, 31, 32, 48, 67 f., 70. 
 
 Hoare, Sir R. C, 6, 39, 47, 57, 132, 
 
 147. '59 f-. 170, 247, 259. 
 Hobhurst's House, 152. 
 Hoe, 28. 
 
 Hog, domestic, vide Pig. 
 Holstein, 209. 
 
 Homer, 5, 122, 125, 205, 219, 558. 
 Hook, bronze, 18 ; vide also Fishhook. 
 Hooker, Sir J. D., 139, 536, 570, 572. 
 
 39
 
 6io 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Hopkins, 396 ff. 
 
 Hordeum distichum, 218; hcxastichon 
 denstmi, 218: sauctum, 216, 218; 
 vulgar e, 216. 
 
 Horn, hammers, 8, 196 ; implements, 
 75 f., 102, 189, 196, 24off. , .«'£ also 
 Awl, Chisel, Harpoon ; knifehandles, 
 37 ; picks, 79, 129, 142 ; sockets, 90. 
 
 Hornblende, 77. 
 
 Horner, Mr, 392 ff. 
 
 Horns, of deer, 180, 239 ; buried with 
 the dead, 147. 
 
 Horse, 57, 280, 285, 293 f., 296, 310, 
 312, 315, 327 f., 339; domesticated, 
 174 ff., 244, 294 ; found in lake- 
 dwellings, 181, 199 ff., 2i4f., 543; 
 remains of, in barrows, I74f., 245: 
 in drift gravels, 346, 358, 366 : in 
 Kjcikkenmoddings, 236 ; sacrificed, 
 
 175- 
 Horse Indians, 527. 
 Horus Temple, 8. 
 Hottentots, 204, 337, 385, 432 ff., 539, 
 
 542, 545 f., 550,. 555, 571 f., 582. 
 Houses, see Dwellings. 
 Houzeau, M., 80. 
 Hovas, 135. 
 Hoxne, 343, 366, 
 Hudson's Bay Company, 358, 359, 569, 
 
 585. 
 Hughes, Prof., 210 ; Mr, 345. 
 Hull, Prof., 414. 
 Humphrey, 396. 
 Hungary, 33, 212. 
 Hunt, Mr, 459 f. 
 Hurdlow, 151. 
 Hurons, 555. 
 Hut-circles, 60, 76, 490. 
 Hut-urns, 58 ff. 
 Huxley, Prof,, 333, 385. 
 Hyaena, cave, 213, 280, 284, 304, 308, 
 
 310, 3i2f., 3i6f., 319, 331 ; spotted, 
 
 284; crocuta, 284, 314; spelaa, 280, 
 
 312, 315. 375- 
 Hyer, Mr, 261, 
 Hypudmis agrestis, 236 ; aniphibius, 
 
 lib. 
 
 Ibbetson, Mr, 174. 
 
 Ibex, 212 ff, 314, 327 f., 330. 
 
 Ibos, 559. 
 
 Ice Age, vide Glacial Periods. 
 
 Ice-carrying rocks, 370. 
 
 Iceland, 297. 
 
 Icklingham, 345. 
 
 Iddah, 557. 
 
 Ightham, 346, 421. 
 
 Igloo, 492, 508. 
 
 Ham, 150, 
 
 Ilford, 283, 291. 
 
 Illinois, 522, 585. 
 
 Immortality, belief in, suggested, 147, 
 461, 507, 515. 
 
 Incense cup, 150, 169 f. 
 
 India, 6, 1 18, 386, 557, 574; copper 
 axes in, 9; dolmens, 139 ff. , 143; 
 lake-dwellings in, 183 ; megalithic 
 monument, 137 ff. ; rock sculptures, 
 173; stone arrow-heads, 102, 106: 
 implements from, 343, 347 f. 
 
 Indians, North American, 4, 7, 88, 142, 
 25^ ff-, 323. 358, 385. 427, 512 ff, 
 536, 539, 542, 545 ff-, 549, 553, 557, 
 566, 569, 580, 58s, 588 ; agriculture, 
 522; burials, 117, 140, 524; char- 
 acteristics, 516 f. ; corn, 273, 522 ; 
 dwellings, 521; dress, 513; fire- 
 drills, 520 ; food, 523 ; implements, 
 523; marriage, 516; religion, 515; 
 stone circle, 1 19, 121. 
 
 Indo-European origin of Bronze Age, 
 
 65- 
 
 Infanticide, 176, 437, 461, 467, 486 f., 
 
 517, 527- 
 
 Inishmurray, 61. 
 
 Initiation ceremonies, 449. 
 
 Inkwyl, 185, 187, 193. 
 
 Inman, Dr, 138. 
 
 Innuit, see Esquimaux. 
 
 Inscriptions, on celt, 49 ; on shield, 14. 
 
 Interglacial Periods, 287, 306. 
 
 Interment, see Burial. 
 
 Iowa, 523. 
 
 Ipswich, 422. 
 
 Ireland, 131, 282, 284 f., 290 f., 595 f. ; 
 bronze celts from, 28 ff. , 66: imple- 
 ments, 49: sword from, 23; flakes 
 from, 86 f. ; lake-dwellings, 183 f. : 
 worship, 222 : quaternary mammalia, 
 280 ff. ; Romans never in, 23 ; rock 
 sculptures, 172 ; stone implements, 
 
 74, 94 
 
 Iron, 3ff., 23, 27, 59, 75, 159 f., 431 f., 
 546 ; found with remains of horse, 
 175 ; implements from Hallstadt, 25 
 ff. : Switzerland, 10, 17 : tumuli, 
 132, 147, 150 ff, 161 : introduced 
 into North Europe, 9, 27 ; pyrites, 
 149 f ; smelting by Hottentots, 435; 
 synonymous with sword, 5, 23 ; use 
 in North America, 251 : Assyria, 8: 
 Egypt, 8 : North Europe, 12 ff. : 
 Scotland, 9. 
 
 Iron Age, 3, 10, 12, 15, 19, 25, 55, 59, 
 159, 161 ; difference from Bronze 
 Age, 19; lake - dwellings of, 185, 
 224 ; ornamentation in, 19 ; skull of, 
 146 ; transition from Bronze, 26.
 
 INDEX 
 
 6ii 
 
 Iroquois, 520, 522. 
 Isefjord, 229, 234. 
 Italy, 23, 58, 1S2, 282, 284 {., 290 f., 
 
 299. 301. 339. 
 Ivory, 27. 
 Ivry, 373 f- 
 Izdubar, 123. 
 
 Jade, 77, 166, 194, 355, 465. 
 Jadeite, 77, 78. 
 Jahn, 10. 
 James, 142. 
 Japan, 97, 106, 158. 
 Jasper, 542. 
 Java, 337 f., 386, 424. 
 Javelins, flint, 54, 101, 155 ff. ; ob- 
 sidian, 86, 88. 
 Jefferson, 265. 
 Jeffreys, Mr, 366. 
 Jelalabad, 108. 
 Jellinge, 124. 
 Jensen, M., 162. 
 Jet, 69, 151, 156. 
 Jewellery in Etruscan tombs, 158. 
 Jewitt, 108. 
 Jews, 204. 
 Joass, Mr, 298. 
 Joinville, 369. 
 Jones, Mr, 279. 
 Jordan, 122. 
 Jukes, 443, 569. 
 Jura, 212 f. 
 Justedal, 386. 
 Justin, 221. 
 Jutland, 51, 82, 88, 104 f., 209, 233. 
 
 Kaffirs, 62, 546 ff., 561, 572, 576, 582, 
 
 588. 
 Kajak, 158, 503 f., 508. 
 Kamschatka, 115, 573. 
 Kane, 494, 496 f., 500, 502, 504, 506, 
 
 517, 522, 524, 551, 575. 
 Karague, 428. 
 Karnak, 8, 41. 
 Kattegat, 233 f. 
 Keiss, 298. 
 Keller, Dr, 47, 181 f., 187, 197, 220, 
 
 222 f. 
 Kendall, 422. 
 Kennet, 126. 
 
 Kent, 41, 72, 345, 3S2, 421. 
 Kent's Hole cave, 291, 301 f., 310. 
 Kerry, 64, 597. 
 Kessorloch, 298. 
 Keston, 132. 
 Khabb, 121. 
 
 Khasias, 118, 138 f., 572. 
 Khonds, 39. 
 Kiel, 74. 
 
 Kildare, 131. 
 
 Kimmeridge shale, 150, 166. 
 
 King, Capt., 347, 442, 444, 588. 
 
 Kingsley, Mr, 290. 
 
 Kirby Stephen, 157; Underdale, 154. 
 
 Kirkcudbrightshire, 92. 
 
 Kirkdale, 291. 
 
 Kistvaen, 143. 
 
 Kit's Coty House, 113. 
 
 Kivik, 173- . 
 
 Kjokkenmciddings, 74, 76, 82, 95 f., 
 103, 204 f., 211, 226 ff., 283, 293 f., 
 296, 299, 301, 322, 326, 330 f., 356 
 f.,_387, 500, 537, 541, 543, 553; 
 builders of, 239 f. , 242 ; date com- 
 pared with tumuli, 244 ff. ; fauna of, 
 233 ff. ; formation of, 228 ff. ; imple- 
 ments from, 96, 229, 239 ff. ; origin 
 of name, 228. 
 
 Knapp, Mr, 254. 
 
 Knevett, 528. 
 
 Knives, 3, 7, 66, 200, 228, 547 ; bronze, 
 16, iS, 30, 36 f., 41, 46ff., 54f., 70, 
 72, 162, 220; flint, 82 ff., 98, 129, 
 i5off., 194, 310, 424, 442, 497 f, 
 541; iron, lof., 16, 24, 37, i5of., 
 224; obsidian, 75, 519. 
 
 Knossos, 71. 
 
 Knox, 437. 
 
 Koch, Dr, 277. 
 
 Kohen, 121. 
 
 Kolben on Hottentots, 432 ff., 538, 572, 
 
 Kolindsund, 231. 
 
 Kols, 428. 
 
 Komagfjord, 116. 
 
 Korsor, I04f. 
 
 Kotzebue, 285, 573 ; Sound, 506. 
 
 Koupouees, 558. 
 
 Labuan, 183. 
 
 Lachowski Islands, 285. 
 
 Lackenheath, 346. 
 
 Ladrone Islanders, 543, 551, 558, 564. 
 
 Lady Low, 152. 
 
 Lafitau, M., 121. 
 
 Lagomys, or tailless hare, 302, 305, 313. 
 
 Lagopusfusilliis, 293. 
 
 Laing, Mr, 298, 538. 
 
 Lake - dwellings, of Abbeville, 182 ; 
 of Celebes, 182 f. ; of Denmark, 104 ; 
 of East Indies, 183, 188; of Garda 
 Lake, 181 ; of Glastonbury, 181 ; of 
 India, 183 ; of Ireland, 183 f. ; of 
 Mecklenburg, 1S2 ; of modern races, 
 183; of North Italy, 182; ofSalonica, 
 182 ; of Scotland, 181 ; of Somme 
 valley, 182; of South America, 183 ; 
 Thetford, 181 ; Swiss, 10, 15, i6ft"., 
 19, 39. 41, 50, 58 f., 76, 103, i8off,
 
 6l2 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 233. 251, 283, 293 f., 296, 299, 301, 
 
 326, 330, 358, 377, 543. 553 : age 
 of, 391 : bronze hairpins from. 40, 
 193 ff. : bronze knives from, 36, 193 
 ff. : civilization in, 225 : commerce in, 
 225 : construction of, 187, 191 ; fauna 
 of, 1 99 ff , 2 1 o ff. : flora of, 217 ff. : 
 implements from, 16, 90, 193 ff. : men 
 of, 219, 223 ff. : periods of different, 
 189, 225 : piles, arrangement of, 192 ; 
 population estimated, 357 : pottery 
 from, 196 ff., 222. 
 
 Lakes, hiding objects in, 12 ; worship 
 of, 12, 221. 
 
 Lamanon, M., 555. 
 
 Lamantan, 256. 
 
 Lances, 11, 580; bone, 103, i5off. , 
 325; bronze, 16, 18, 30 ff., 47, 67, 
 70, 72, 133, 220 ; copper, 252 ; iron, 
 10 ff., 14, 16, 24, 224 ; stone, 15, 74, 
 98, loi, 150 ff., 162 ff., 239f., 322 ff., 
 326, 342, 355, 420, 499 f. 
 
 Lang, Mr, 452, 56S. 
 
 Langton Wold, 155. 
 
 Language of savages, 555 f. 
 
 Lankester, Sir E. K., 422, 426. 
 
 La Perouse. M. de, 569. 
 
 Lapham, 250, 254, 261, 267, 269, 274 f. 
 
 Laplanders, 204, 295 f., 321, 331, 358, 
 544, 561 ; hut, 116, 146: skulls, 146, 
 241 f. 
 
 La Plata, 251. 
 
 Lark River, 363. 
 
 Lark's Low, 150. 
 
 Larnand, 16 f., 19, 45. 
 
 Lartet, M., 281, 288, 295, 304, 314 f., 
 317, 319 f-, 320, 322, 324, 326, 360, 
 361,419, 542 f. 
 
 Larus, 205. 
 
 Lastic, Vicomte de, 321. 
 
 La Tene, 10. 
 
 Latins, 123. 
 
 Laugerie, 318, 319, 323. 326. 
 
 Lead, 19, 23 f , 27, 41. 
 
 Leather, in lake dwelling, 219 ; in 
 tumulus, 54. 
 
 Leech, Mr, 345. 
 
 Leems, 321 
 
 Lefebvre, M., 167. 
 
 Lefroy, M., 562. 
 
 Leggings from tumulus, 54, 59. 
 
 Leidy, Dr, 285. 
 
 Lemaire, M., 528. 
 
 Lemming, 302, 304 f., 376, 
 
 Lengua Indians, 526. 
 
 Leopard, 285, 314. 
 
 Lepchas, 570. 
 
 Lepsius, 41. 
 
 Lepus tinndiis, 203. 
 
 Le Vaillant, 436, 571. 
 
 Leveille, Dr, 81. 
 
 Leveque Cape, 441. 
 
 Leviticus, 55. 
 
 Lichtenstein, 437. 
 
 Lid Low, 151. 
 
 Liege, 308, 334, 
 
 Liercourt, 381. 
 
 Liffs Low, 150. 
 
 Linen, 50, 55. 
 
 Lingam worship, 173. 
 
 Linum aiigustifolium, 218. 
 
 Lion, the cave, 280, 284, 312, 315 f., 
 
 375. 377- 
 Lisch, Dr, 59 f.. 182. 
 Lithuania, 300. 
 Littorina littorea, 233 f. ; obliisaia, 
 
 .234 
 Liveyre, 318. 
 Livingstone, Dr, 57 1- 
 " Livres de beurre," 81. 
 Lizard-mounds, 267 ff. 
 Loaisa, G, de. 528 
 Lockyer, Sir N., 133 f. 
 Locray, 195. 
 Loess, 292, 332, 365, 371, 378 f., 3:^:0, 
 
 399- 
 Lohle, M., 15, 191, 357. 
 Loire, 367 f., 414. 
 Lombardy, 302, 375. 
 Long Barrow, 164 f. 
 Long Island, 62. 
 Longlow, Mr Watton, 144. 
 Louisiana, 279. 
 Lovaine, Lord, 181. 
 Lovehayne, 70. 
 
 Low, Bent, 151 ; Islands, 489. 
 Lubbock, Sir J. W., 398. 
 Lucerne, 191, 213, 409. 
 Lucretius, 5. 
 Luissel, 185, 220. 
 Lukis, 141. 
 Lund, 301. 
 Lunulas, 69. 
 Luira vulgaris, 236. 
 Lyell, Sir C, 278, 311, 363, 393, 395, 
 
 396, 399, 406 f., 409. 416, 419. 
 Lynx, 236, 285, 314, 359. 
 Lyon, Capt., 200, 502 f., 506, 556. 
 
 Macaw Indians, 523. 
 Maccagnone cave, 312 f. 
 M'Culloch Major, 558. 
 MacEnery, Mr, 301, 310. 
 M'Gillivray, 431, 447 f., 554. 
 Alac/iairodiis la/tdens, 301, 425. 
 Mackenzie, 428; River, 519. 
 Madagascar, 118, 135, 386. 
 Madelaine, La, cave, 318, 327.
 
 INDEX 
 
 613 
 
 Madras, 343, 347. 
 
 Madrid, 361, 
 
 Maeshowe tumulus, 595. 
 
 Magdalenienne period, 419 f. 
 
 Magellan, 528 f., 551 f. 
 
 Maidenhead, 290. 
 
 Maidstone, 113. 
 
 Maize, 277, 513, 522. 
 
 Malaise, M., 80. 
 
 Malays, 386, 548, 556, 558, 566. 
 
 Malayalies, 141. 
 
 Mallet, Mr, 11. 
 
 Mallicollo, 544, 556. 
 
 Malta, 172, 290. 
 
 Mammalia, Palaeolithic period, 279 ff. 
 
 Mammoth, 2, 213, 279 f. , 2S5 ff, 296, 
 305, 30S, 310, 315 f., 327 f., 344, 
 346, 350, 361 f., 377, 420. 
 
 Man, antiquity of, 350, 383 ff; cave, 
 307 ff-, 331. 350; change of type, 
 583 ; co-existent with quaternary 
 mammalia, 350, 361 ; migrations of, 
 581 ; prehistoric, 177, 307 ff., 332 ff., 
 581 : art of, 327 ff : in lake-dwellings, 
 357 : in N. America, 279 ; races of, 
 
 385- 
 
 Man, Mr, 439 f. 
 
 Manatee, 78, 256. 
 
 Mandan, 259, 272, 521. 
 
 Manne-er-H'roek tumulus, 167. 
 
 Mans, 138. 
 
 Mantes, 367. 
 
 Manufactures, prehistoric, 51. 
 
 Maories, 461, 463 ff., 540, 542, 545 ff., 
 549; 554, 558 f., 561,, 563- 5S0; 
 burial, 467 ; cannibalism, 469 ; 
 clothes, 464 ; dwellings, 465 ; food, 
 463 ; language, 556 ; marriage, 467 ; 
 ornaments, 465 ; religion, 468 ; 
 weapons, 466. 
 
 Maquenoise, 367. 
 
 Marathon, 123. 
 
 Marehill, 152. 
 
 Marin, 16. 
 
 Marmots, 293, 305, 320. 
 
 Marr, Dr, 422. 
 
 Marriage, 558 f., 574 ; among Andaman 
 islanders, 440 ; among Australian 
 natives, 451 f . ; among Esquimaux, 
 510; among Maories, 467; among 
 N. American Indians, 516; among 
 Paraguay Indians, 527 ; among Tahi- 
 tians, 485 ; among Veddahs, 438. 
 
 Marsden, Mr, 468, 556, 558. 
 
 Marseilles, 10, 65. 
 
 Marten, 200, 215, 236, 359. 
 
 Martes s/>. , 236. 
 
 Martius, 557, 562, 566, 568. 
 
 Maspero, 8. 
 
 Masson, 108. 
 
 Massowa, 428. 
 
 Mastodon, 265, 277, 278, 279, 425. 
 
 Matthews, Mr, no, 112, 573. 
 
 Mattison, Mr, 278. 
 
 .Maul, stone, 275 
 
 Maurice, Mr, 135. 
 
 Mausmai, 139. 
 
 Maxentius, 22. 
 
 Measurements, 259. 
 
 Meath, 172. 
 
 Mecklenburg, 50, 67, 182. 
 
 Mediterranean, 196. 
 
 Mcdum, 7. 
 
 Medway, 382. 
 
 Megacertts (anmtorw)i, 423 ; hiberni- 
 CHS, 280, 291 ff. 
 
 Megalithic monuments, 107 ff. , 172, 
 
 Meilen, 196, 200, 203, 216, 220. 
 
 Meilgaard, 229 f. , 240, 244 f , 247. 
 
 Melanesians, 177. 
 
 Meles taxtis, 315 ; vulgaris, 203. 
 
 Memphis, 392 f. 
 
 Menchecourt, 340, 361, 375. 
 
 Mendip Hills, 285. 
 
 Menhirs, 107, no, 112 ff., 135, 172; 
 in France, 108, 138; in Homer, 
 125 ; in India, 138. 
 
 Mentone, 336. 
 
 Jllergus merganser, 205. 
 
 Merry, Mr, 446. 
 
 Mesopotamia, 71. 
 
 Metal, 432 ; alloys, 4 ; introduction 
 into Europe, 36, 66, 139 : in bone 
 caves, 330; not in Kjdkkenmoddings, 
 242 : tumuli, 126, 166 ff., 177 ; smelt- 
 ing, 6, 432. 
 
 Metallurgy, of bronze, 41, 50 ; of Bronze 
 and Iron Ages compared, 19 ; know- 
 ledge of, 62, 66, 330, 437. 
 
 Meteoric iron, 7. 
 
 Mexico, 78, 82, 86, 431, 514, 5S6 ; 
 Gulf of, 78, 266, 395, 400 f. ; in- 
 habitants of, 75, 512, 549; paintings 
 of, 252 ; pyramids of, 262 ; Teocallis, 
 266. 
 
 Miall, 328. 
 
 Miami Indians, 522. 
 
 Mica, 77, 256. 
 
 Michigan Lake, 267, 523, 585. 
 
 Middleton, 151 ; Moor, 150 f. 
 
 Milden Hall, 346. 
 
 Milk, use in lake-dwellings, 217. 
 
 Millet, 216. 
 
 Milligan, 453, 566. 
 
 Milne, Capt., 501. 
 
 Milwaukie, 267, 270. 
 
 Minatarees, 521. 
 
 Mincopies, 439, 446, 543.
 
 6i4 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Mindanao, 183. 
 
 Mining difficulties in early times, 75. 
 
 Minimi, 20. 
 
 Mink, 359. 
 
 Minnesota, 523. 
 
 Minning Low, 151. 
 
 Minuana Indians, 526. 
 
 Miocene period, 416, 425. 
 
 Mississippi, 277, 279, 395, 399, 410, 
 
 517, 522 f. ; tumuli, 77, 266 f. 
 Missouri, 277, 517, 523. 
 Moab, 135. 
 Mocoby Indians, 526. 
 Models buried with the dead, 158. 
 Moen, tumulus at, 162. 
 Mcerigen, 47. 
 Moffat, 572. 
 iMoir, J. Reid, 422. 
 Moissan, M., 328. 
 Mollusca, quaternary, 366, 375. 
 Monaco, Prince of, 336. 
 Monaghan, 89, 91, 184. 
 Moneystones, 151. 
 Mongez, M., 21. 
 Montelier, 218. 
 Montelius, Dr, 68, 71 f., 174. 
 Montperieux, 140. 
 Mont St Michel tumulus, 166. 
 Monuments over tombs, no, 118. 
 Monyash, 151. 
 Monzie, in Perthshire, 61, 
 Moor Divock, 157. 
 Moore, Mr, 407 f. 
 Moorhouse, Mr, 449. 
 Moose, 302 ; vide also Elk. 
 Moosseedorf, 15 f. , 185, 193, 200 ff. , 
 
 213 f., 216. 
 Moot Low, 150. 
 Morat, 185, 220. 
 Moray Firth, 231. 
 Moreton Bay, 449, 538. 
 Morgan, M. de, 71. 
 Morgan's Hill, 130. 
 Morges, finds at, 16 f., 36 f., 49, 186, 
 
 205. 
 Morlot, M., 27, 41, 43, 187, 228, 305, 
 
 387. 390 f., 394.411- 
 Mortars, stone, 278, 321 f., 518. 
 Mortillet, M., 126, 309, 419. 
 Morvan, 367. 
 
 Mouatt, Dr, 439, 540, 569. 
 Moulds, bronze, 18, 42, 44, 67 ; for 
 
 bronze celts, 29 f. , 49 ; for copper, 
 
 253- 
 Moulinquignon, 360. 
 Mound, animal, 267 ; builders of N. 
 
 America, 251 ; burial, vide Tumulus ; 
 
 shell, vide Kjokkenmodding. 
 Mouse, 205, 236. 
 
 Mouse Low, 152. 
 
 Moussa, Burgh of, 62 f. 
 
 Moustier, 318 f., 323 ff. 
 
 Mouthe, La, 328. 
 
 Moxos, 548. 
 
 MUller, Dr Sophus, 71. 
 
 Mundrucus, 555. 
 
 Munich, 59. 
 
 Mu7-(zna anguil/a, 235. 
 
 Mils flavicollis, 236 : sylvalicus, 203. 
 
 Muscoda, 268. 
 
 Muscogee Indians, 514, 522. 
 
 Music, Esquimaux, 506 ; Maori, 467 ; 
 
 Tahiti, 477. 
 Muskingum River, 261, 
 Musk, ox, 213, 236, 280, 285, 290, 
 
 304 f., 374, 377, 413, 418, 495 ; 
 
 sheep, 290, 499. 
 Musquash, 359. 
 Mussel, 233. 
 Mustela enninea, 203 ; foina, 203 ; 
 
 lutra, 203 ; niartes, 203 ; putorius, 
 
 203. 
 Mycenae, 9, 'iiii 36- 
 Myodes torquatus, 374, 376. 
 Mysore, 141. 
 Mytilius ediilis, 233. 
 
 Naas Castle, 131. 
 
 Nagada, 7. 
 
 Nalicuegas, 526. 
 
 Namaquas, 204. 
 
 Narrowdale Hill, 151. 
 
 Nassa reticulata, 234. 
 
 Natchez Indians, 263, 266, 514, 520. 
 
 Nathusius, 207. 
 
 Naulette, Trou de la, 309. 
 
 Neagh, Loch, 86 f. 
 
 Neanderthal skull, 332 ff., 337. 
 
 Necklet, of amber, 153; bronze, 54, 70; 
 
 gold, 69 f. ; jet, 156; shell, 256; 
 
 teeth, 256. 
 Needles, of bone, 219, 325, 505 ; of 
 
 bronze, 18, 40, 47. 
 Negritos, 102, 454. 
 Negro, ornaments, 39 ; tribes, 384 ff., 
 
 454, 548, 556, 574, 581 f. 
 
 Negroid, races, 386 ; skull, 336. 
 
 Neilgherry Hills, 119, 556. 
 
 Neolithic Age, 2, 73 ff., 76, 158, 161, 
 169, 174, 176 f., 248, 283, 292, 318, 
 338, 355 f. , 376 ; animals of, 210 f. ; 
 skull of, 145. 
 
 Nephrite, 77, 194. 
 
 Nerbudda, 348. 
 
 Net, fishing, 544 f. ; of Andaman Is- 
 landers, 439, 545 ; of Australian 
 natives, 545 ; of Esquimaux, 502, 
 545 ; of Fijians, 457, 545 ; of Fue-
 
 INDEX 
 
 6ij 
 
 gians, 534 ; of Hottentots, 434, 545 ; 
 of lake-dwellers, 198 f. ; of Maories, 
 464, 545 ; of North American Indians, 
 518 f., 545; of Tahilians, 473; of 
 Tasmanians, 453 ; sink stones for, 
 99 f., 104, 239 f., 545 f., 550. 
 
 Nether Low, 151. 
 
 Net Low, 150. 
 
 Netting rule, 152. 
 
 Neufchatel, Lake, 10, 15, 18, 37, 39 f., 
 47, 90, 185 ff., 193, 217, 220, 223 f., 
 
 357, 389- 
 Neudeckian, 420. 
 Neuveville, 390. 
 Newark, Ohio, 260, 273. 
 Newatee Indians, 515. 
 New Caledonia, 86, 88, 386. 
 Newcastle, 181. 
 New Grange, 172. 
 New Guinea, 183, 386, 569. 
 New Hebrides, 386, 576. 
 New Inns, 150. 
 New Jersey, 279. 
 New Orleans, 27S, 395. 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, 592. 
 New Zealand, 96 f., 326, 426, 432, 
 
 488; adze, 96, 246; house-burial, 
 
 117. 
 New Zealanders, see Maories. 
 Niagara, 396. 
 Nickel, 24. 
 
 Nicobar Islanders, 573. 
 Nidau, 15 f., 36, 39, 47, 206, 213 f., 
 
 220. 
 Niebelungenlied,2i2, 291, 300 f. 
 Niederwyl, 191, 193. 
 Nigard glacier, 386. 
 Nile, 8, 106, 340, 392 f. , 410, 42S, 557. 
 Nilsson, Prof., 55, 65, 211, 301,428. 
 Ninaquiguila Indians, 526. 
 Nind, Mr S., 451, 567. 
 Nixon, Dr, 453. 
 Noetling, Dr, 425. 
 Nonville, M. de, 273. 
 Noort, Van, 528. 
 Nootka Indians, 515, 521. 
 Nordmann, 212, 300. 
 Norfolk forest-beds, 299. 
 Norman, Mr H. J., 345. 
 Northfleet, 334. 
 Northumberland, 157. 
 Norway, 62, 296, 398, 595. 
 Nott, Mr, 4S7. 
 Noville, 205. 
 Nuclei of flints, 15. 
 Numbers and numerals, 567. 
 Nussdorf, 16. 
 Nuts in lake-villages, 190. 
 Nyambanas, 587. 
 
 Nydam, 10, I2ff., 595. 
 Nystuen, 296. 
 
 Oak-tree, 248, 366, 387. 
 
 Oats, 216, 218 f. 
 
 Oberea's mound in Tahiti, 167, 543. 
 
 Obermeilen, 180. 
 
 Obsidian, 75, ^^ f., 82, 84, 86 f., 355, 
 
 5iSf., 550. 
 Ocean currents, effect on climate, 401. 
 Offa's Dyke, 76, 112. 
 Ogham alphabet, 596. 
 Ohio, ancient works in, 256 f. , 269 f!"., 
 
 276, 522. 
 Oise valley, 367, 369, 374. 
 Old Bewick, 157. 
 Oldfield, Mr, 442, 447, 585, 587. 
 Oligocene period, 416. 
 Oliver, Lieut., 135. 
 Olsen, M, , 230, 247. 
 Ontonagon, 252, 275. 
 ' ' Ooloo '* of Esquimaux, 98. 
 Oonalaska, 492, 509. 
 Opossum, 255, 430. 
 Orbigny, M. C. d', 370 f. 
 Oregon, 514. 
 Orissa, 39. 
 Orkney, 62 f., 202, 297 ; stone circles 
 
 in, 121 ; tumuli, 108, 595. 
 ( )rleans, 367. 
 Ornamentation, 19; of Bronze Age, 19, 
 
 23, 44, 46. 
 Ornaments, American, 250 fif., 272; 
 
 bronze, 3, 16, 25, 38 f., 47, 222; 
 
 gold, 25, 45; iron, 16, 25, 53; of 
 
 Brazilians, 543 ; of Esquimaux, 505 ; 
 
 of Hottentots, 433 ; of Maories, 465 ; 
 
 of Patagonians, 529 ; of Tahitians, 
 
 475; tumuli, 114, 142, 148. 
 Orthocephalic skulls, 145. 
 Ostrea ednlis, 233. 
 Oswolde's Hloew, 124. 
 Otaheite, 167. 
 Otter, 213, 236, 255, 359. 
 Oural Mountains, 108, 295. 
 Ouse, 363. 
 Over Haddon, 151. 
 Ovibus 7)ioschattiS , 236, 280. 
 Ovifak iron, 7. 
 Ovis an'es, 203. 
 Owen, Prof., 206, 288, 291, 293, 302, 
 
 439. 544- 
 
 Owl, 255, 302. 
 
 Owners' marks, 13. 
 
 Ox, 57, 17S, 208, 296, 310, 312, 314, 
 320 ; domesticated with modern 
 savages, 434, 551 ; races of, 209 ff. ; 
 sacrifice of. 175; in Bible, 206; in 
 drift gravels, 346, 358 ; in Kjokken-
 
 6i6 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 modelings, 236, 246 ; in lake-villages, 
 199 fif., 215, 543; in tumuli, 174, 
 
 245- 
 Oysters, 211, 233 f., 245, 322. 
 
 Paalstab or Paalstave, 29. 
 
 " Packwerkbauten," 187. 
 
 PiTionians, 180, 191. 
 
 Paint as personal adornment, 449. 
 
 Palaeolithic Age, 2, 73 ff , 76, 15S, 
 
 177 f-, 338, 550; antiquity of, 41 1 ; 
 
 fauna, 280 fif , 374 ff. ; implements, 
 
 79, 146, 279, 346 ff., 419, 421 f . : 
 
 Indian, 343, 347 f. ; industries, 420. 
 Palestine, 106. 
 Palgrave, i. 
 Pallas, 207. 
 Palmer, 121. 
 Panama, 399. 
 Paiiicum miliaceitm, 218. 
 Pankhos, 428, 
 Pannonia, 50. 
 Panther, 255. 
 Papuans, 576. 
 
 Paraguay Indians, 525 fT , 555, 586. 
 Pararauate Indians, 581. 
 Parcelly Hay, 151. 
 Parchim, 59. 
 Parkyns, 428. 
 Parma, 218. 
 
 Parricide, 243, 459, 487. 
 Parry, Capt., 490, 492 f., 496, 499, 
 
 502 f., 505, 511. 
 Pass, Mr, 130. 
 Pastinaca sativa, 218. 
 Pastoral life in Bronze Age, 57. 
 Patagonians, 527 ff., 539, 548 f. , 561, 
 
 585 ; burial, 530 ; dress, 528 f. ; 
 
 dwellings, 528 ; food, 530 ; religion, 
 
 531 ; weapons, 527, 529. 
 Patoo-patoo, 466. 
 Pauilhaic, 84. 
 Pausanias, 123. 
 Payajuas, 540. 
 Peas, 217. 
 Peat mosses, 10 ff., 99, 190, 227, 283, 
 
 291, 293, 299, 376 f., 387. 
 Peck, Captain, 275. 
 Peckham, 291. 
 Pedlars, 48. 
 Pellew Islands, 570. 
 Pemmican, 523. 
 Penck, 420. 
 Pendants, 14. 
 Pengelly, Mr, 232, 311. 
 Penpits, 76. 
 Pentateuch, 5. 
 Percy, Dr, 6. 
 Periwinkle, 233. 
 
 Perkins, Mr, 252. 
 
 Persia, 386. 
 
 Perte du Rhone, 194. 
 
 Peschiera, 181. 
 
 Peter's Island, 218. 
 
 Petrie, Mr G. , 121. 
 
 Pey de I'Aze, 318 f. 
 
 Pfahlbauten, vide Lake-villages. 
 
 Pfefhkon lake, 185, 217. 
 
 Philippines, 102, 386. 
 
 Phillips, Prof., 311. 
 
 Phoca sp., 236. 
 
 Phoenician, 65, 271 
 
 Pickering, 153. 
 
 Picquigny, 22, 381. 
 
 Pick, deer-horn, 79 f. 
 
 Picts' houses, 61, 76, 143. 
 
 Picture-writing, 271. 
 
 Piette, M., 337. 
 
 Pig> 57. 174. 178, 478, 545 f. , vide also 
 Boar ; genealogy of, 206 f. ; in lake- 
 villages, 199 fif., 214 f., 543 ; not in 
 Kjokkenmoddings, 236. 
 
 Pigorini, Prof., 59, 182 
 
 Piles for lake-dwellings, 180 fT, 
 
 Pillows of earthenware, 222 f. 
 
 Piltdown skull, 337. 
 
 Pincers, bronze, 162. 
 
 Pine-tree in Denmark, 248, 366, 387. 
 
 Pins, bone, 103, 149 ff., 166, 240; 
 bronze, 17 f., 39 f., 42, 47 f., 133, 
 150 ff., 162, 220, 223, 231 f ; double- 
 pointed, 47 ; gold, 69; iron, 152. 
 
 Pipes, Hottentot, 435; North Ameri- 
 can, 255, 267, 519. 
 
 Pisum sativum, 218. 
 
 Pithecanihropos crectus, 337 f. 
 
 Pleistocene period, 416. 
 
 Pleuronectes limada, 235. 
 
 Pliny, 56, 66, 221, 300, 551. 
 
 Pliocene period, 416, 420 f., 423. 
 
 Plum, 217. 
 
 Plutarch, 24. 
 
 Plymstock, 70. 
 
 Pocohontas, 575. 
 
 Podiceps minor, 205. 
 
 Poitiers, 81. 
 
 Poland, 299, 331. 
 
 Polar ice-cap, 404 ff. 
 
 Polecat, 215, 315. 
 
 Polished stone imjilements, 89. 
 
 Polisher, sandstone, 150. 
 
 Polygamy, 516 ; vide Marriage. 
 
 Polynesia, 106, 385, 454 ff. 
 
 Pompeii, 23. 
 
 Pont de Thiele, 17 f., 198, 390 f. 
 
 Pont de I'Arche, 367, 
 
 Pont de Remy, 380. 
 
 Pontlevoy, 425.
 
 INDEX 
 
 617 
 
 Ponzi, 295. 
 Poole, Mr, 581. 
 Porcelain, 153. 
 Porphyry, 77 f. 
 Porpoise, 236. 
 Portman, 570. 
 Portugal, 166. 
 
 Potter Brompton Wold, 155. 
 Potter's wheel, 18, 171, 223, 255, 456. 
 Pottery, 9, 11, 15, 18 f., 25, 58 f., 69, 
 71, 103, 128, 189, 193, 282, 323, 
 326, 389 f., 544; domestic, 171 ; 
 forms of, 169 ff. ; of Bronze Age, 
 222 ; of cave men, 380, 330, 543 ; 
 of Egyptians, 393 ; of lake-dwellings, 
 193 f-> 197 ff- ; of modern savages, 
 438 f., 443. 456, 463, 477 f-> 492 f., 
 528, 536, 546 ff., 552, 579 f., 545; 
 of shell-mounds, 232, 240 ff. ; of 
 tumuli, 147 f., 150 ff'., 163 ff"., 
 177 ff . ; ornamentation, 19, 169 ff. ; 
 pipes, 255 f. 
 Pouance, 426. 
 Pourtalis, Count, 278. 
 Prairie du Chien, 267. 
 Precy, 367, 373. 
 
 Prehistoric divisions of archaeology, 2 f. 
 PreseiTation of ancient monuments, 
 
 179. 
 Pressigny le Grand, 77, 81, 106, 309. 
 Prestwich, Sir J., 233, 305, 341, 352, 
 
 360, 362 f., 370, 373 f., 378, 417. 
 Prichard, Dr, 383. 
 Prong with ring, 48. 
 Prunus padtis, 217. 
 Prussia, 212, 284. 
 Ptarmigan, 320. 
 Punic War, 22. 
 Purupuru Indians, 445, 548. 
 Putorius vulgaris, 315. 
 Pyramids, Egyptian, 8, 71, 109, 581 ; 
 Mexican, 262 ; North American, 
 262 ; Tahitian, 483, 543. 
 Pyrus tna/us, 218. 
 
 Quartzite, 347. 
 Quatrefages, M., 2IO. 
 Quern, 74. 
 Quipa of the Peruvians, 271. 
 
 Rabbit, 359. 
 
 Racoon, 255, 267, 359. 
 
 Rae, Dr, 360, 495, 498, 510 ff. 
 
 Rakes, 11. 
 
 Rakiraki, 556. 
 
 Rames, M., 426. 
 
 Rameses II., 392. 
 
 Ramesseum, 56. 
 
 Ramorino, Prof,, 424. 
 
 Ramsauer, M. , 29. 
 
 Ramsay, Prof., 31 1, 351. 
 
 Ransom, Dr, 285. 
 
 Rapier, 3c. 
 
 Raratonga, 569. 
 
 Raspberry, 217. 
 
 Rat, 205, 236. 
 
 Raths, 64. 
 
 Raven, 256. 
 
 Ravenscliff" in Gower, 291, 
 
 Razor, bronze, 18, 70; knives, 37 ft., 
 
 43 f-> 46, 53. 55 ; obsidian, 75. 
 Read, Sir C. H., 71, 420. 
 Realion, 16, 17, 19. 
 Regnoli, M., 282, 295, 339. 
 Reid, Mr Clement, 343. 
 Reindeer, 145, 174, 177, 211, 236, 280, 
 285, 291, 295 ff"., 305, 312, 315 ff'., 
 319 f., 327 f., 330, 358, 366, 375 ff-., 
 418, 495, 497, 502, 541 ; distribution 
 of, 29, 62, 97; period, 103, 281, 
 309, 318, 419. 
 Religion and science, 591 ; of Anda- 
 man Islanders, 440 ; of American 
 mound- builders, 263 ; of Australian 
 natives, 450 ; of Esquimaux, 507 ; of 
 Fijians, 455, 458 ; of Fuegians, 531, 
 535 ; of Hottentots, 436; of Maories, 
 468 ; of North American Indians, 515; 
 of Paraguayans, 526 ; of Patagonians, 
 531 ; of savages, 568 ff. ; of Tahitians, 
 474; of Tasmanians, 453. 
 Rengger, 578. 
 Reptiles, 199, 205. 
 Resort, Loch, 62. 
 Reuss valley, 409. 
 Rhine, 292, 374. 
 
 Rhinoceros antiijuitatis, 2S9 ; henii- 
 tcechus, 280, 288, 291, 314 ; lepto- 
 rhintis, 280, 287 ff. , 305, 423; 
 Megarhinus, 288, 290, 375 ; Merkii, 
 288, 290; periinenus, 425 ; ticho- 
 rhiitus, 280, 287, 290 f., 308, 312, 
 315, 366, 375, 418 ff. ; woolly-haired, 
 2, 211 ff., 280 f., 287 ff., 296, 304 f., 
 310, 316 f., 346, 350, 358, 360 ff, 
 376 f., 425, 434. 
 Rhone, 188, 213, 410. 
 Ribden Low, 152. 
 Ribe, 51. 
 Rice, 523. 
 
 Richardson, 506, 519, 523, 563. 
 Richborough, 20. 
 Riddle, Dr, 395. 
 Rigollot, Dr, 341. 
 
 Rings, bronze, 17 f., 39, 47, 220, 433 ; 
 copper, 433 ; earthenware, 17, 197, 
 222 ; gold, 52 ; ivory, 433 ; of Iron 
 Age, 224 ; silver, 153,
 
 6i8 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Rivers, Gen. Pitt, 57, 97, 108. 
 
 Rivers, submarine valleys, 414 ff. 
 
 Rivets, 31, 45, 48. 
 
 Riviere, M., 328. 
 
 Robenhausen, 50, 191, 198 ff., 213 fl'., 
 216. 
 
 Robinson, Mr, 454. 
 
 Rochebrune, M. , 137. 
 
 Rock, crystals, 194 ; drawings, 442 ; 
 dwellings, 318 ; river, 261 ; sculp- 
 tures in India, 173 f. : in Scotland, 
 172 f. ; shelters, 318. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, 257. 
 
 Roddinge, 107. 
 
 Roedeer, 213, 315, 358 ; in Kjokken- 
 moddings, 235 ; in lake-villages, 
 200 ff., 215. 
 
 Rogers, W , 539. 
 
 Rolleston, Dr, 108, 145, 177. 
 
 Rollrich stones, 119. 
 
 Rolls, Mr, 349. 
 
 Roman, barley, 216; coins, 12, 14 f., 
 20 ; influence on Bronze Age, 65 ; 
 inscriptions, 14; lake - dwellings, 
 185 ; museums, 23, 49 ; pottery, 171 ; 
 relics, 15, 20, 58, 128; road at Ave- 
 bury, 129 f. ; swords, 9, 22 ; wall, 
 
 "3-. 132. 
 Rosehill, Lord, 61. 
 Ross, Admiral Sir John, 494 f. , 497, 
 
 502 ff., 508, 5iof., 557, 571 ; County, 
 
 75; Sir J. C, 499. 
 Rostrevor Down, 32. 
 Roth, H. L.. 352, 453. 
 Rouen, 367. 
 Rougemont, M., 58. 
 Round Towers, 58. 
 Rudston, 156. 
 Runes, 11, 14, 271, 595. 
 Rusden Low, 151. 
 
 Russia, loS, 212, 282, 2S5, 294, 299. 
 Rutherford, 540. 
 Riitimeyer, Dr, 174, 199 ff., 236, 293, 
 
 300, 304, 320, 358, 423. 
 Rutot, Dr, 420, 422. 
 Rutupiae, 20. 
 Rye, 216, 218 f. 
 
 Saavedra, 552. 
 
 Sacken, M. von, 168, 
 
 Sacred enclosures of America, 250, 
 
 259 f. 
 Sacrifice, dog, 175 ; horse, 175 ; human 
 
 176, 460 f., 468; oxen, 175 ; weapons, 
 
 etc., 176. 
 Safety-pin, 38. 
 Sagas, 124. 
 Sahara, 386, 401 f. 
 Saiga antelope, 293, 302. 
 
 Saintaft, 153, 
 
 St Acheul, 341, 349, 357 f., 363 f., 366, 
 
 374, 381, 419- 
 St Amand, 367. 
 St John, Lieut., 440. 
 St Lawrence, Gulf of, 522. 
 St Prest, 423. 
 St Roch, 375. 
 St Valery, 232, 363. 
 Salisbury Plain, 131 f., 160. 
 Salley Hill skull, 334. 
 Salonica, 182. 
 Salt, 233. 
 Saltley, 347. 
 Salzburg, 26, 
 Samoans, 456, 520, 569. 
 Sanchee, 137. 
 Sand, casting in, 42. 
 Sandals, 10, 14. 
 Sandwich, 20. 
 
 Sandwich Islanders, 557, 564. 
 Sanford, M., 284 f. 
 Santander, 281, 32S. 
 Santones, 300. 
 Sarasin, 182, 438. 
 Sarcens, 131, 133. 
 Sardinian, 64, 
 Saulcy, M. de, 135, 300. 
 Saussurite, 77. 
 Sautuola, M. de, 32S. 
 Savages of modern times, 427 ff. ; their 
 
 skill, 539. 
 Savigne, 328. 
 Savonia, 212. 
 Saws, bronze, 18, 40, 47 ; flint, 15, 82, 
 
 97 f-. 102, 158, 194, 322. 
 Saxons, 20, 24, 150 ff. 
 Saxony, 49, 212. 
 Scandinavia, 40, 62, 66, 72, 173, 177, 
 
 212, 284 f., 290, 347, 414, 595 f. ; 
 
 vide also Denmark, Norway, Sweden. 
 Scania, 173. 
 Scarborough, 142. 
 Scars as adornment, vide Tattooing. 
 
 Schaafhausen, 
 
 556. 
 
 Schelch, 292. 
 Schlegel, 204. 
 Schliemann, 71- 
 Schmerling, Dr, 308 f. , 334. 
 Schoolcraft, 140, 142, 250, 253 f. , 265, 
 
 271, 427, 512 ff., 521 ff , 574, 585. 
 Schiitz, M., 207. 
 Schwab, Col., 17, t,6 ff., 220 ff. 
 Schwendener, Prof., 424. 
 Schwerin, 44. 
 Scioto river, 260, 273. 
 Seiiirits eiiro/'<ctis, 203. 
 Scotland, 284, 290, 296 ff., 301, 412, 
 
 596 ; ancient dwellings in, 61 : forti-
 
 INDEX 
 
 619 
 
 fications in, no, 262; bronze 
 weapons in, 49, 66 ; cairns, 142 ; 
 iron swords in, 9 ; lake-dwellings in, 
 181 ; lake worship in, 222 ; quater- 
 nary fauna, 280 ff. ; rock engravings 
 in, 126. 
 
 Scrapers, bone, 196 ; stone, 45, 74, 
 93 ff-, 104 f., 129, 148 f., 155, 158, 
 166, 322, 34S f., 422 f., 497, 505. 
 
 Screws, crutch-headed, 48. 
 
 Scrip Low, 152. 
 
 Scythians, 123. 
 
 Sea-cow, 78. 
 
 Seal, 211, 236, 243, 246. 
 
 Sea-level, change of, 412 f. 
 
 Secale cereale, 218. 
 
 Seeland, 88 f. 
 
 Seemann, B., 455. 
 
 c1"^' If.' 3^°' 363, 365 ff., 369, 399. 
 i^elsea Mill, 423. 
 
 Selsertown mound, 273. 
 
 Semiramis, 56. 
 
 Senipach, 185, 220. 
 
 Seneca, 300. 
 
 Sepulchral feasts, 175 ; mounds, see 
 
 Tumulus ; vide also Burial. 
 Serpent-mounds, 267, 270. 
 Serpentine, 355. 
 Serval, 314. 
 Setaria Kalica, 218. 
 Sevenoaks, 346. 
 Sharpe Low, 151. 
 Shawl, 53, 55, 58. 
 
 Sheep, 57, 174 ; in Bible, 206 ; of Kjok- 
 kenmdddings, 236 ; of lake-villages, 
 199 ff., 214 f, 543; of modern 
 savages, 434. 
 Sheldon, 150. 
 
 Shellfish, 242, 302 ; vide also Oyster. 
 Shell-mounds, of Andaman Islanders, 
 232 ; of Australians, 232, 441 ; of 
 Cornwall, 232 ; of Denmark, vide 
 Kjokkenmoddings ; of France, 232 ; 
 of Japan, 97, 232 : of Malay Pen- 
 insula, 232 ; of New Zealand, 465 ; 
 of Scotland, 231 ; of South Africa, 
 232 ; of South America, 232 ; of 
 Tasmania, 232. 
 Sherburn Wold, 155. 
 Shetland Isles, 62 f., 202, 576, 596. 
 Shield. ID, II. 
 Ship or boat, 11. 
 Shirley, 184. 
 Shirt, 53 ff. 
 Shortland, 556. 
 Shortt, Dr, 570. 
 Shoshonees, 518 f., 523. 
 Shovel, wood, 254. 
 Shrub Hill gravel, 349. 
 
 Shuttle, 56. 
 
 Shuttlestone, 151. 
 
 Siam, 207, 386. 
 
 Siberia, 28, 108, 212, 282, 2S5, 287, 
 
 .290, 295, 302, 490, 576. 
 Siberian yourts, 114. 
 Sichuana language, 557. 
 Sicily, 284, 290, 312. 
 Sickles, bronze, 16, 18, 36, 47, 69, 220, 
 
 222 ; iron, 224. 
 Silbury Hill, 109, I14, 123, 126 ff. 
 Silene cretica, 217 f. 
 Silesia, 77. 
 Silver, 3, 14, 19, 23, 27, 41, 251 ; 
 
 needle, 150; ornaments, 14. 
 Simpson, Mr, 496. 
 Simpson, Sir G. , 5S5. 
 Simpson, Sir J. Y., 12^), 172. 
 Sinai, copper-mine, 7, 71 ; stone circle, 
 
 121 f. 
 Sinde, 183. 
 
 Sink stones for lines, 95 ; for nets, 99. 
 Sioux, 517, 524. 
 
 Skeleton, of horse, 21 ; of man, 21, 92, 
 114, 150 ff., 162 ff., 219, 223, 241, 
 274, 278, 314. 
 Skertchly, Mr, 349, 412. 
 Skov-mose, 387. 
 
 Skull, of Australians, 337 ; brachy- 
 cephalic, 145 ff., 163 f., 272 ; Calaveras, 
 27S ; Chancellade, 332, 335 ; Cromag- 
 non, 332, 334 ; dolichocephalic, 
 145 ff-, IZ^, 360; Engis, 334, 335, 
 583 ; European, 337 ; Gibraltar, 
 334 ; gorilla, 337 ; kumbecephalic, 
 144 ; La Chapelle, 334, 336; lake- 
 dwellings, 220; long, 144, 177, 338; 
 of long-barrows, 144 f. , 177 f . ; 
 Monaco, 336; Neanderthal, 332 ff,, 
 337 ; North American Indians, 514 ; 
 orthocephalic, 145 ff. ; Piltdown, 
 337 ; Pithecanthropus erectus, 337 ; 
 round, 144, 177, 241, 389 ; of round- 
 barrows, 144, 177; Salley Hill, 
 334; Spy, 334; Stone Age, 146, 
 241. 
 Skyring, 53S. 
 Slate, 77. 
 Slesvick, 10. 
 
 Slingstones, 74, 99, 104, 149, 193 ff., 
 ^ 229, 239 f., 247, 477, 544 f., 580. 
 alip Low, 151. 
 Sliper Low, 150. 
 Sloth, 430. 
 Smelting, 6, 435. 
 Smerrill, 152 
 Smith, Prof. Elliot, 337. 
 Smith, Mr Worthington, 422. 
 Smith, J. A., 297 {.
 
 620 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Snake Indians, 518. 
 
 Society Islands, 470, 482, 487, 545 ft"., 
 
 556. 
 Sognefjord, 386. 
 Soldering, 43, 45. 
 Sollas, Prof., 335. 
 Solo, 183. 
 
 Solomon Islands, 569. 
 Solutre, 293, 419, 420. 
 Solway Moor, 89. 
 Somals, 556. 
 Somaliland, 106. 
 Sonime valley, 182, 240, 282, 340, 342, 
 
 349, 357, 360 f., iOi, 366, 372, 376, 
 
 378 ft , 396, 399, 411. 
 Somo Somo, 556. 
 Sorcery, vide Witchcraft. 
 Southall, Mr, 279, 376. 
 South Sea Islanders, 540, 549 ff., 560 fif., 
 
 573, 580. 
 Spain, 50, 28 1 f , 285, 290, 295, 301, 
 
 313 f-, 361. 
 Sparrman, M., 433, 435 f. 
 Sparrow, 235, 
 Spatula, 43. 
 
 Spear-heads, vide Lance. 
 Speke, 428, 557, 
 Spencer, Herbert, 593. 
 Spencer, Prof., 400, 452. 
 Spermophilus 7-itfesrens, 293, 330. 
 Spiennes, 80. 
 Spilbergen, 528. 
 Spinning, 579 f. 
 
 Spinning whorls, 17, 194 f., 199. 
 Spitzbergen, 297. 
 Spix, 557, 562, 566, 568. 
 Spurrell, Mr, 345 f. 
 
 Spy, 334- 
 Spynie loch, 231. 
 Squier, Mr E. G., 77, 121, 250 ft". 
 Squirrel, 225. 
 Staffordshire, 159. 
 Stag, vide Deer. 
 Staigue Fort, Kerry, 64, 597. 
 Stakor, 152. 
 Stanbridge, 539. 
 Standing-stones, vide Menhirs. 
 Stanley, Hon. W. O., 60, 121. 
 Stanton, 153. 
 Stanton Drew, 119, 131. 
 Statue, bronze, 24. 
 Steele, 556. 
 
 Steenstrup, Prof., 95, 99, 105, 174, 
 227 ft"., 234 ft"., 244 ft"., 387, 423, 541. 
 Steinbergs, 187. 
 Stennis, 119, 131, 595. 
 Stephens, Prof., 595. 
 Stiles, Rev. Dr, 271. 
 Stockholm, 36, 74. 
 
 Stocks of bronze, 68. 
 
 Stokestown, 184. 
 
 Stoliczka, Dr, 232. 
 
 Stone Age, 2, 3, 18 f., 51, 62, 73 ft., 
 93, 125, 130, 144, 146, 159, 177 f., 
 186, 195 f., 340 ft"., 354 ft"., 389, 427, 
 430, 470, 505, 542 ft. ; animals of, 
 209 ff"., 280 ft". ; antiquity of, 390 ; 
 burial in, 161 ft'., 168 ; flora of, 217 f. ; 
 lake-dwellings of, 185, 187 ft". ; men 
 of, 242 ; in North America, 251 ft". 
 
 Stone, avenues, 135 ; chambers, vide 
 Dolmens ; circles, I'ide Cromlechs ; 
 heaters, 323, 434, 494, 518 ; imple- 
 ments, 5, 18, 25, 68, 72 ft"., 103, 
 240 ft., 322: materials for, 76 f- : 
 polished, 73 ff". , 282, 331 : similarity 
 of, 66 : from tumuli, 145, 147, 150 ft"., 
 159 ft".; moving large, 139; rows, 
 135 ; use of, 73 ft. ; in various lan- 
 guages 139; weapons, 15, 73 ft"., 
 240 ft". 
 
 Stonehenge, 64, 69, 114, 120 f,, 126, 
 130, 132 ft"., 137 f., 160; date of, 
 131 ; derivation of name, 131. 
 
 Stork, 235, 320. 
 
 Strabo, 66, 221, 555. 
 
 Straw, 199. 
 
 Strawberry, 217. 
 
 Strix aluco, 205 ; bubo, 205 ; nivea, 
 302 ; otus, 205. 
 
 Strobel, M., 182. 
 
 Stuart, Mr, 21, 447. 
 
 Studs or buttons of bronze, 40, 54. 
 
 Stukely, 126, 130. 
 
 Sturnus vulgaris, 205. 
 
 Submersion, of America, 399, 405 ; 
 of Europe, 405, 413 ft". 
 
 Suft"olk, 343. 
 
 Sumatra, 386, 558. 
 
 Superior, Lake, 4, 75, 77, 251, 253, 255, 
 266. 
 
 Surnam, 555. 
 
 Sus, indie a, 207 ; palustris, 203, 207 f. ; 
 scrofa doinesiicus, 203 ; serqfa ferns, 
 203, 235, 315 : viitatus, 207. 
 
 Sussex, 380, 423. 
 
 Suter, Col., 187, 191, 193. 
 
 Sutherland, 298. 
 
 Suttee, 176. 
 
 Sutz, 220. 
 
 Swallow, 235, 256. 
 
 Swan, 205, 235, 238. 
 
 Swansea, Lord, 7- 
 
 Sweden, 23, 36, 41, 62, 211, 291, 296, 
 
 299, 301, 375, 595- 
 Switzerland, 387 ; animals in, 174 ft., 
 178, 294; antiquities in, 10, 14 f., 
 19 f-i IHi 40, 76, 180 ft"., 298, vide
 
 INDEX 
 
 621 
 
 also Lake-dwellings ; bronze weapons 
 in, 49 ff. ; fabrics in, 50 ; Glacial 
 periods in, 411 f. ; man in, 176 f. ; 
 stone implements, 77, 94. 
 
 Sword, belt, 10 ; bronze, 18, 21 ff., 35 
 ff. , 47, 54 f,, 66 f., 70, 72, 162, 220 ; 
 hilt, 14, 35> 39; iron, 3, 9 ff., 24, 
 27, 30, 35, 152, 224 ; Roman, 22 ; 
 sheath, 10, 14, 54 f. ; two-handed, 
 10 ; wooden, 158. 
 
 Sydney, N.S.W., 442. 
 
 Syria, "]. 
 
 Tables, 198. 
 
 Taboo, 117, 467. 
 
 Tacitus, 9, 124, 221, 292. 
 
 Taddingtcn, 152. 
 
 Tagus, 414. 
 
 Tahiti, 431, 465, 468, 470 ff., 543, 554, 
 556, 558, 566 ; burial, 483 ; canoes, 
 476 ; clothes, 474 f. ; cookini^, 479 ; 
 food, 478 ; houses, 476 ; implements, 
 471 ; marriage, 485 ; ornaments, 
 475 ; pottery, 477 ; religion, 484 ; 
 weapons, 477. 
 
 Tana, 588. 
 
 Tankerville Park wild cattle, 211. 
 
 Taplin, Mr, 444. 
 
 Taplow, 124. 
 
 Tapu, vide Taboo. 
 
 Tardy, M., 425. 
 
 Tarianas, 553. 
 
 Tasman, 427. 
 
 Tasmanians, 177, 352, 386, 422, 452 ff., 
 
 544, 55', 553, 5^5 f-, 5S8. 
 Tate, 172. 
 Tattooing, 440, 448 f., 458, 465, 476, 
 
 506, 513, 559, 587 f. 
 Taylor, Meadows, 139 f. ; R. C, 267 ; 
 
 S., 117 ; R., 96, 467 f. 
 Tcherkask, 183. 
 Tekeenica, 534. 
 Temesvar, 50. 
 Temple mounds, 250, 266. 
 Temples developed from tomb, 118. 
 Tennant, Sir J. E., 437. 
 Tents, 242 ; vide also Dwelling. 
 Tertre, 539. 
 Testut, M.,335. 
 Tetrao alhiis, 302 ; bonasius, 205 ; 
 
 lagopus, 205 ; urog-alltts, 235. 
 Textile fabrics, vide Fabrics. 
 Thames, 340, 345 f., 374, 416. 
 Thebes, 37, 56. 
 The Low, 150. 
 Thetford, 181. 
 
 Thomsen, Prof., 6, 227, 229. 
 Thonon, 190. 
 Thorncliff, 152. 
 
 Thorsbjerg find, 14, 595. 
 
 Throwing-stick, 326, 444 f., 499, 545, 
 547 f., 580. 
 
 Throwley, 152. 
 
 Thunberg, 433, 435 f. 
 
 Thurnam, Dr, 47, 144 f, 
 
 Tibeto-Burman tribes, 1 17. 
 
 Tiefenau, 10, 224. 
 
 Tierra del Fuego, loi, 527, 531. 
 
 Tilhuggersteens, 99. 
 
 Tin, 3 f., 7, 23, 27, 45, 49, 69, 252 ; 
 button. 54 ; distribution, 9, 49 f. ; 
 implements, 4 ; nails, 55. 
 
 Tinder, 197, 
 
 Tiniere, cone of, 387 ff., 394. 
 
 Tinne Indians, 517, 557, 562. 
 
 Tissues, vide Fabrics. 
 
 Todas, 119, 556. 
 
 Tomahawk, 91 ff. 
 
 Tombs, vide Burial, Tumuli. 
 
 Tombstones, vide Menhirs. 
 
 Tonga Islanders, 461, 488, 556, 564. 
 
 Tool-stones, 99. 
 
 Torfseus, 64, 297 f. 
 
 Torque, bronze, 54, 70 ; gold, 51, 69. 
 
 Torquemada, 86. 
 
 Torres Straits, 1 17. 
 
 Totem, 574. 
 
 Toupinambas, 568. 
 
 Tournal, 308. 
 
 Tours, 81. 
 
 Transition period from bronze to iron, 
 5, 26. 
 
 Trapa natans, 217 f, 
 
 "Treasure" finds, 19, 68. 
 
 Treenhoi, 51 
 
 Trigor.ella plana, 234. 
 
 Tripoli, 121. 
 
 Tristram, 401. 
 
 Triticum dicoccum, 218; monococaim, 
 218; spelt a, 218; tin-gidiini, 216, 
 218 ; vtilgare antiquortitn, 218 ; 
 vitlgare co)npactit)H m7tticti?ii, 218. 
 
 Trojan War, 5, 123. 
 
 Troyon, 183, 1S6, 189, 193, 197, 
 222 ff. 
 
 Trumpets, bronze, 70. 
 
 Tschuktschi, 114, 566. 
 
 Tucanos, 553. 
 
 Tumulus, 61, 75 ff., 103, 107 ff., 117 
 ff., 132, 135, 141 ff., 148 f., 226, 283, 
 293, 296, 300, 356, 508 ; Algeria, 
 138 ; Bronze Age, 55 ; burial in, 54, 
 '13, 135, 141, '77 ; chambered, 163 ; 
 dwellings in, 117, 163; Esquimaux, 
 508 ; Indian, 137 ; mammalia of, 
 145 ; North American, 264 ff. , 272, 
 357, 525 ; "f Odin, Thor, and Freya, 
 109, III ; periods of, 15S f., 161 ;
 
 622 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 Stone Age, 125 f., 144, 244 ; Tahiti, 
 483; Treenhoi, 51 ; Wiltshire, 47, 
 132. 
 
 Tundra species, 293, 302. 
 
 Turbarian, Upper and Lower, 420. 
 
 Turk, 557. 
 
 Turner, 576. 
 
 Turtle mounds, 267, 269. 
 
 Tweezers, 10, 14, 54, 389. 
 
 Twine found, 218. 
 
 Tylor, Mr, 380 f., 479, 552 f., 579. 
 
 Tyndall, Prof , 130, 397. 
 
 Tyre, 121. 
 
 Tyrol, 212. 
 
 Uckfield, 337. 
 
 Uhlmann, M., 389. 
 
 Uig, 62. 
 
 Ulloa, 558. 
 
 Umiak, 503 f. 
 
 Upsala, 109. 
 
 Urn-burial, 57, 58, 60, 147, 150 ff., 
 162 ff., 169, 222. 
 
 UrsHS, 312 ; arctos, 203, 236, 283, 312, 
 315 ; ferox, 283, 312 ; priscus, 280 ; 
 spelistts, 280, 282 f., 312, 315 f., 375. 
 
 Urus, 280, 292, 300 ff., 377 ; domesti- 
 cated, 210 f ; in Kjokkenmoddings, 
 236 f. ; in lake-dwellings, 202, 209 
 ff., 215. 
 
 Urville, Dumont d', 183, 448, 450, 464, 
 467, 470, 483, 544, 556, 559, 563, 
 588. 
 
 Usher, Dr, 278, 383. 
 
 Utica, 66. 
 
 Vaca, De, 522. 
 
 Valais, 212 f. 
 
 Val d'Arno, 288. 
 
 Val de Travers, 194. 
 
 Vallency, Colonel, 271. 
 
 Valley, bed strata, 366, 376 ; erosion, 
 
 365, 373, 410 ; submarine river, 414 ff. 
 Vancouver Island, 513, 515, 585. 
 Vandcrkamp, 572. 
 Van Diemensland, vide Tasmanians. 
 Vanikoro, 564. 
 Vase, 149, 150 ff. ; American, 255 ; 
 
 wood, 55 ; vide also Food Vases. 
 Vatavula, 557. 
 Veddahs, 435. 437 ff-, 55^. 
 Veert, S. de, 528. 
 Vega, G. de la, 266. 
 Vegetation, rotation of, 387. 
 Venezuela, 183. 
 Venice, 183. 
 
 Vemis aurea, 234 ; pullastra, 234. 
 Verneau, 336. 
 Verstegan, 363. 
 
 Vesaiius, 514. 
 
 Veyrier, 320. 
 
 Vibraye, Marquis de, 339. 
 
 Vilelas, 540. 
 
 Villees, 570. 
 
 Villeneuve, 387 f 
 
 Vimose, 14. 
 
 Vincent Knoll, 151 f. 
 
 Vine, the, 217. 
 
 Vinland, 271. 
 
 Virchow, 146. 
 
 Vigil, 123, 221. 
 
 Virginia, 121. 
 
 Vivarais, 368. 
 
 Vivian, Mr, 310 f. ; Sir H. H., 7. 
 
 Volga, 331. 
 
 Waganda, 428. 
 
 Wahuma, 557. 
 
 Wales, 113, 139, 202, 296. 
 
 Walhouse, Mr, 141. 
 
 Wall, Roman, 113, 132. 
 
 Wallace, 540, 542, 553, 568, 570, 583. 
 
 Wallis, Captain, 478 f., 481, 532, 544. 
 
 Walnut, 217. 
 
 Walton, 291. 
 
 Wampum, 271. 
 
 Wangen, 15 f., 191, 193 f., 196 ff., 
 214 ff, 357. 
 
 Wansdyke, 76, 112. 
 
 Wanunibai, 570. 
 
 Wanyambo, 428. 
 
 Wanyameuzi, 554. 
 
 Warcop, 157, 
 
 Ward, 576. 
 
 Warne, 108. 
 
 Warren, Mr, 345. 
 
 Warslow, 152. 
 
 Water, gravel carried by, 372. 
 
 Watton, 144. 
 
 Waukesha, 269. 
 
 Wauwyl, 16 f., 187, 191 ff., 200 ff., 
 213 ff. 
 
 Waveney, 340, 363. 
 
 Wax, casting with, 43. 
 
 Waxsaw Indians, 514. 
 
 Weapons, of Andaman Islanders, 439 ; 
 of Australian nati%'es, 443 ff. ; of 
 bone, 541 ; of bronze, 65 ff. ; of 
 Esquimaux, 499, 510; of Fijians, 
 454 f. ; ofFuegians, 532; of Hotten- 
 tots, 434 ; of iron, 75 ; of Maories, 
 466 ; of North Americans, 251, 
 518; of Patagonians, 527, 529; of 
 savages, 541, 544 f., 547. 549. 5^0; 
 of stone, 73 ff., 498 f , 540 f. ; of 
 Tahitians, 477; of tumuli, 114; of 
 Veddahs, 437 ; vide also Arrow, 
 Axe, Dagger, Lance, Sword.
 
 INDEX 
 
 623 
 
 Weasel, 213. 
 
 Weaverthorpe, 156. 
 
 Weaving, 56, 195, 543. 
 
 Wedges, flint, 73, 88 ft"., 162 f. 
 
 Weenis, 61, 76, 143. 
 
 Weights for fishing-lines, 94 ; for nets, 
 99 f. , 104. 
 
 Weissgrund, 192. 
 
 Wells (Somerset), 317. 
 
 Welton, 150. 
 
 West Buckland, 70. 
 
 West Kennet, 164 f. 
 
 Westlake, Mr, 426. 
 
 Westmoreland, 157- 
 
 Welton, 150, 152. 
 
 Wheat, 219; Egyptian, 218; in lake- 
 villages, 216, 218, 233. 
 
 Wheels, 10 f. 
 
 Whelk, 211. 
 
 Whetstone, i :, 16 f., 74, 166, 193 fit". 
 
 Whitaker, Mr, 345, 422. 
 
 Whitburn, Mr, 343. 
 
 Whitney, Mr, 278. 
 
 Whittesley, Mr C, 254. 
 
 Wibel, 7. 
 
 Wiberg, 65. 
 
 Wilde, Sir W. R., 76. 
 
 Wilkes, Capt., 450, 458 ft"., 552 f. 
 
 Wilkinson, SirG., 37. 
 
 Willerby Wold, 155. 
 
 Williams, T., no. 
 
 Williams, T., 176, 455, 457, 462, 556. 
 
 Williamson, Prof., 142. 
 
 Wilson, Dr, 132, 144; Prof., 254, 259 f., 
 265, 271, 275, 514 ; Mr, 483, 487 f., 
 570. 
 
 Wiltshire, 47, 97, 108, 144, 159, 164 f., 
 422. 
 
 Windward Islanders, 457. 
 
 Wire, 47. 
 
 Wisconsin, 261 ft"., 274, 523. 
 
 Witchcraft, 575 f. 
 
 Woden's barrow, 124. 
 
 Wodne Beorgh, 124. 
 
 Wokey Hole, 317, 324. 
 
 Wolf, 213, 267, 285, 315, 320, 358 f. ; 
 
 in Kjcikkenmnddings, 236, 244 ; 
 
 in lake-villages, 202 ; in North 
 
 America, 255. 
 Wollaston Island, 243. 
 Wolverine, or glutton, 299. 
 Woodward, A. S., 337. 
 Wool, 56, 103. 
 Woollen garments found in Jutland, 
 
 52. 
 Worsaae, Prof., 51, 75, 228, 244 ft"., 
 
 541. 
 Wrangell, Mr, 566. 
 Wrexham, 70. 
 
 Wright, Mr, 20, 23, 66, 75, 278, 417. 
 " Wummera," 445. 
 Wurmbrand, Mr, 331. 
 Wyaston, 153. 
 Wyatt, 346, 352. 
 Wyeth, M., 518 f., 523. 
 Wykeham Mow, 154. 
 Wyman, H., 232. 
 
 Xenophon, 123, 555. 
 
 Yacana-kunny, 527. 
 
 Yarhouse Broch, 298. 
 
 Yenadies, 570. 
 
 Yew, 366. 
 
 Yonne valley, 367. 
 
 Yorkshire, 154 ft"., 159. 
 
 Yorubans, 117. 
 
 Yourt, or yurt, 491 f., 507. 
 
 Yule, Colonel, 139, 572. 
 
 Zanoni, M., 68. 
 
 Zinc, 27, 41. 
 
 Zippe, Prof., 1 10. 
 
 Zofingen, 191. 
 
 Zostera 7narina, 233. 
 
 Zurich, Lake of, 180, 185, 196. 
 
 PRINTED BY NEILL AND CO., LTD., EDINBURGH.
 
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