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THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 OF DESIGN. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/designtheoryOOjackrich 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 OF DESIGN. 
 
 AN ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK ON DECORATIVE ART. 
 
 BEING A SEQUEL TO THE AUTHOR'S 
 
 "LESSONS ON DECORATIVE DESIGN." 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK G. JACKSON, 
 
 LECTURER ON 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF ORNAMENT, ADVANCED DESIGN, AND TEACHER OF TECHNICAL ART 
 
 PROCESSES, ETC., IN THE BIRMINGHAM MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF ART. 
 
 Seven Hundred Illustrations. 
 
 LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, Ld 
 
 1894. 
 [All rights reserved,'] 
 
HKisw 
 
 73 
 
 F. 
 
 M. EVANS AND CO., LIMITED, 
 
 
 PRINTERS, 
 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, S.E. 
 
MR 
 
 TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE 
 
 F. W. MOODY 
 
 THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE GRATEFULLY DEDICATED. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The kind way in which a former book of mine, 
 " Lessons on Decorative Design," was received by 
 critics, teachers, and students, has led me to yield to 
 a widely expressed desire that I should write a more 
 advanced work on the same subject. Hence the present 
 volume, which, I trust, may be of service to those for 
 whom it is specially designed. Like the previous 
 volume, it does not pretend to be a book of designs, 
 but a book on design — not a picture book, but a 
 school text-book. 
 
 The illustrations and diagrams have been selected 
 and designed with the view of explaining principles 
 and directing practice. Many of them are reproductions 
 of impromptu sketches drawn on the blackboard while 
 lecturing to my classes. Throughout the work I have 
 insisted on the observance of principles, regard for 
 construction, and the law of development. These are 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 necessary aids in the infant stage of a student's edu- 
 cation. They will not seem so important to him as 
 years advance. With the increase of knowledge and 
 experience he will come to see how far rule and precept 
 may be wisely relaxed, and will enter on the enjoyment 
 of that true freedom which is the heritage of the well- 
 grounded student. 
 
 FRANK G. JACKSON. 
 
 March, 1894. 
 
CTlTIYEHSIT-5 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introductory i 
 
 Object of the book — Tendency of modern Decorative Art — The prin- 
 ciples of irregularity and order, p. 2 — Importance of first principles 
 — Fitness to purpose illustrated,/. 3. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Elementary Forms and Methods of Arrangement 6 
 
 The evolution of lines and figures used in ornament, p. 7 — Simple 
 methods of laying out ornament : diapering, chequering, spotting, 
 powdering, striping, banding, panelling, p, 10— The development of 
 the diaper,/. 13 — The difference between spotting and powdering 
 explained — Imbrication and vermiculation,/. 19 — Some applications 
 of the foregoing — Natural examples of decoration by spotting and 
 striping, p. 20. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Application of Ornament 22 
 
 Suitability of decoration to particular purposes considered — The 
 characteristics of the surfaces of a wall and a textile — The nature 
 of patterns applicable to curtains, p. 23 — The division of the wall 
 surfaces of rooms and the distribution of ornament,/. 24 — Plinth, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 dado, wall-vail, frieze, cornice, pilasters, and panels : their relative 
 structural value— Various proportional divisions and their effects 
 upon the appearance of rooms,/. 27 — Practical considerations in 
 designing wall-papers,/. 28 — " Level" and "drop" repeats explained, 
 p. 30 — Some methods of verifying " repeats," p. 31 — The colouring of 
 wall-papers — The nature of patterns best suited to the process of 
 block printing, p. 33 — The frieze : its structure and ornamental 
 treatment, p. 35 — Borders : their uses ; their relation to panels ; 
 and general treatment,^, yi — The setting out of ornamental borders 
 on structural lines considered, p. 46 — Pilasters : their structural 
 value and their decoration, p. 50 — The different methods of setting 
 out ornament on pilasters compared — The proportional, spacing 
 out, and the distribution of elements employed illustrated,/. 52 — 
 The cornice and mouldings : their composition and decoration, p. 53 
 — The horizontal surfaces of a room, ceiling and floor, p. 55 — The 
 function of ceilings and their suitable decoration : different 
 methods of setting out, p. 56 — Arched, domed, and coffered ceilings, 
 p. 59 — The characteristics of the floor surface — Decoration by 
 parquetry and carpets, p. 60— Lines and tones considered in 
 reference to the expression of even flatness — Superiority of 
 Oriental carpet designs over European ones — The difference 
 pointed out, p. 63 — Harmony between the walls and floor of a 
 room, p. 64. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Methods of Expression 66 
 
 Expression by line, by surface massing or spacing, and by relief- 
 Outline for the expression of form, painting for expression of 
 surface quantities, modelling and carving for the expression of bulk 
 —The importance of good outline, p. 67 — Mr. Ruskin on the proper 
 use of outline — The right and wrong use of thick and thin lines 
 in outline drawing,/. 68— Brush expression : neglect of it in Art 
 Schools — Japanese power of drawing developed by the early use of 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 the brush — Quotation from Mr. Ruskin on the use of the brush, 
 p. 72 — Different methods in brush work — Uniform, graduated, 
 juxtaposed, and superposed tones, p. 75 — Modelled and carved 
 work : two distinctive kinds, p. 76 — Different degrees of relief — 
 The effect of lighting on relief work, p. 77 — Relief work in relation 
 to material : terra-cotta, light and dark woods, bronze, iron, gold 
 and silver, p. 80 — Relief work heightened by colour, p. 82 — Relief 
 work with the ground perforated, p. 83 — Pierced work : principles 
 of, and its influence on other forms of decoration, p. 84 — Stencilling, 
 sgraffito, and gesso decoration,^. 85. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Elements of Ornament 87 
 
 The elements of ' ornament classified — Geometrical elements, frets, 
 etc., p. 88. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Architectural Elements 90 
 
 Definition of Architecture — The influence of Architecture on Orna- 
 mental Art, p. 91 — The modification of architectural details to suit 
 special purposes illustrated by a comparison of the Greek and 
 Roman Doric columns, p. 92 — The importance of studying Archi- 
 tecture — Principles derived from Architecture, p. 94 — Ornamental 
 details derived from the same source — The volute scroll : its origin 
 and its modifications in ornament — Architectural forms in iron- 
 work : the baluster, broken pediment, etc., p. 96 — Cartouches, 
 their origin and use in ornament, p. 99 — The development of the 
 cartouche from cut paper — Historical examples of the modification 
 of the cartouche — Combination of the cartouche with strap work, 
 p, 100. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Industrial Elements 101 
 
 The difference between architectural and industrial elements is one of 
 degree rather than principle, p. 102 — The ornamental employment 
 of industrial objects classified : aesthetic, mnemonic, and symbolic 
 — Terms explained, examples given and described — The difference 
 between a monogram and a cipher explained, p. 108 — The use of 
 draperies, knots, and ribbons in grouping tools and musical instru- 
 ments—The flying ends of ribbons : their treatment,/. 1 10— Historic 
 examples of the decorative grouping of armour, tools, etc., described. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Vegetable Elements 112 
 
 Plants should not have a literal interpretation — Quotation from Sir 
 Gardiner Wilkinson — The necessity of studying the ideal forms of 
 leaves and the life-history of plants, p. 113— Personal research in 
 the natural world for motives and suggestions essential,/. 114— 
 Natural ornamental "start-points" versus artificial ones— Different 
 forms of roots and their ornamental treatment — The principle of 
 natural growth and its application to ornament, p. 116 — The 
 importance of studying the growth of plants, branches, stems, etc. 
 — Abstracted lines from trees, leaves, and flowers, and ornaments 
 built up upon them,/. 118— Patterns based upon lines abstracted 
 from cloud and wave forms, p. 121 — Bud forms in spring : lilac, 
 sycamore, ash, and horse-chestnut, p. 122 — The principle of flower- 
 growth : the suggestiveness of the different forms of inflorescence 
 and their application to ornament, p. 124 — The decorative quality 
 of seed vessels, p. 126— Sea- weeds and shells : their ornamental 
 character, p. 129 — The decorative value of fungi and mosses — A 
 lesson from the study of ferns under the microscope, in the enrich- 
 ment of surface by the superposition of detail,/. 131 — Ornamental 
 lines in cut wood,/. 132 — The revival and decadence of "acanthus" 
 foliage : characteristics of Renaissance, Louis Quatorze, " Rococo," 
 and Louis Seize foliage,/. 134— The festoon : its origin, principles, 
 and various treatments : historical examples described,/. 137. 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Animal Elements 142 
 
 The early use of animal forms in decoration : their symbolic employ- 
 ment, p. 143 — Animals in Egyptian and Assyrian Art — Fabulous 
 animal creations in Art explained : Griffin, Chimsera, Dragon, 
 Phoenix, Pegasus, Sea-Horse, Winged Sea-Horse, etc., p. 144 — 
 The difficulty of using animals in ornament — The necessity of 
 analysing animal forms for the ornamental lines existing in their 
 composition, p. 148 — The amalgamation of animal forms with 
 ornament — Birds in ornament : their decorative value — Examples 
 of the ornamental treatment of quadrupeds and birds described, 
 p. 150 — Wings : their structure and feather arrangement — Com- 
 parison of the wings of a bird and bat, p. 152 — Historic examples 
 of the application of wings to human figures and animals, and of 
 their ornamental treatment, p. 154 — Decoration on the plumage 
 of birds suggesting the setting out of ornament ; examples given 
 and described, p. 1 56 — The decorative value of insects, butterflies, 
 moths, etc., p. 158 — Fishes as decorative material: typical forms, 
 arrangement of fins, and the ornamental treatment of fishes,^. 160 
 — Snakes and lizards : their use in ornament,^. 161. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Human Figure 162 
 
 The influence of the figure element in Ornamental Art — Method of 
 studying the figure for ornamental purposes and for composition of 
 line,^. 163 — The necessity of analysis : mistakes in drawing pointed 
 out, p. 164— Application of the figure to the filling of spaces,/. 167 
 — Demi-figures terminating in foliage, reasons for, and probable 
 origin,^. 170 — Composition of figures with and without ornament, 
 p. 172— Figures used as architectural supports : Caryatides, Tela- 
 mones, Termini,^. 174 — Application of wings to the human form ; 
 the Egyptian and Assyrian methods, p. 176— Fabulous creatures, 
 partly human and partly animal : their symbolic meanings explained, 
 p. 177. 
 
 ,- '- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Evolution of Industrial Objects— Cups, Vases, Etc. ... 182 
 
 The origin of vessels of capacity : cups and vases,/. 183 — Modification 
 of an elementary form for receiving water from a spring, to the 
 purposes of easy transit, p. 184 — Early stages in the development 
 of the beaker from a natural type, p. 185 — The reasons for the 
 further enrichment of their forms by alteration of outline, etc., 
 p. 186 — Various forms of beakers described,/. 188 — Hanaps : their 
 characteristics and development ; the stem, knop, cover, and finial, 
 p. 189 — Methods of enrichment arising out of the nature of the 
 material in which these vessels were wrought, p. 190— Description of 
 various forms of hanaps belonging to different periods, p. 193 — 
 Vases : how developed and their characteristics — Enrichment of 
 the contour of vases by subdivision — The effect of mouldings, 
 p. 194— Illustrations of various forms of vases described — The 
 development of carafes and bottle shapes, p. 196— The chalice 
 developed from the primitive bowl form— Reasons for the raised 
 stem, introduction of the knop, the extension of the base, and the 
 shaping of its plan, p. 197— The enrichment of the various parts of 
 the chalice — Description of examples,/. 200 — How jugs and ewers 
 appear to have been developed— The development of the lip into 
 a spout form, /. 201 — The application of handles to pouring vessels, 
 /. 202 — Different forms of jugs and ewers described, p. 204 — 
 Tankards and flagons developed from covered beakers — Their 
 characteristics, /. 205 — Various forms of tankards, and a flagon 
 described, /. 206 — Classification of handles belonging to hollow 
 vessels, for lifting, pouring, and carrying purposes— The essential 
 parts of handles from which decoration is developed, /. 208— The 
 object of tracing the development of the foregoing varieties of cups, 
 etc. — To the designer Nature should be the source of inspiration — 
 How natural forms should be used, p. 210— Varieties of form 
 obtained by adopting the natural methods of lateral, vertical, and 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 partial expansion, and the use of controlling shapes to regulate the 
 details of a complex form, p. 212 — Proportion, stability, variety, 
 and contrast necessary to pleasant proportion, repose, and unity-— 
 Proportion in laying out decoration, p. 214 — Four different ways of 
 setting out surface decoration on vases — Stability, true and false — 
 On the use of figures as supports in industrial objects,^. 215. 
 
INIVERSIT 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 i.— Diagrams of Diapering, Chequering, Striping, 
 
 Panelling, Spotting, and Powdering n 
 
 ii.— Varieties of Formal Diapers 12 
 
 in.— The Development of Free Diapers 15 
 
 iii#. — Method of arranging the Pattern of a Free Diaper 16 
 
 iv.— Historic Diapers, and their Construction 17 
 
 v.— Designs illustrating the application of Chequering, 
 Spotting, Striping, and Panelling to defined 
 
 spaces 18 
 
 vi.— Stripe Patterns applied to Curtains 25 
 
 vii. — Horizontal and Vertical Divisions of the Wall 
 
 Surface of Rooms 26 
 
 viii. ~ Historic Examples of Friezes and Pilasters ... 39 
 
 ix.— Designs showing the relation of Borders to Panels 43 
 
 X « 55 53 3> 3) 44 
 
 XL— Classification of Borders according to treatment 48 
 
 xil— Decoration of Ceilings 57 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 xiii. — Diagrams showing the right and wrong Decorative 
 
 Treatments of Floors, Parquetry, and Carpets 6i 
 
 xiv.— Illustrations of Line, Brush, and Relief Expression, 
 and the right and wrong treatments of pierced 
 Work 71 
 
 xv.— Examples of Ornament expressed by the direct 
 
 use of the Brush 75 
 
 xvi.— Effect of Lighting on Relief-work 79 
 
 xvii. — Examples of Architectural Details, and of Orna- 
 ments DERIVED FROM THEM, ETC 93 
 
 xviil— Examples of Ribbons, Knots, and the development 
 
 of Cartouches from Cut Paper 97 
 
 xix.— Historic Examples of Cartouches 9 8 
 
 xx. — Symbols and Mnemonic Signs, Monograms, and 
 
 Ciphers 105 
 
 xxi. — Historic Examples of the use of Industrial Objects 
 
 in Decoration 109 
 
 xxii. — Diagrams of Roots, and their O rnamental Treatment i i 5 
 
 xxiii. — Drawings of Trees, Clouds, and Waves, and of 
 
 Ornaments derived from them, etc 117 
 
 xxiv. — Ornamental Lines abstracted from Leaves and 
 
 Flowers, and their Ornamental Use 119 
 
 xxv.— Sketches from Nature, from which the lines on 
 
 THE PRECEDING PLATE WERE TAKEN 120 
 
 xxvi.— Spring Leaf-buds of the Lilac, Horse Chestnut, 
 
 Sycamore, and Ash Trees 123 
 
 xxvii. — Diagrams of the Inflorescence of Plants, and of 
 
 their application to ornament 125 
 
 xxvi ii. —Various Fruit-forms suitable for Ornament ... 127 
 
LIST OF PLATES. xix 
 
 xxix.— Sketches of Sea-weeds and Shells 129 
 
 xxx.— Drawings of Fungi and Mosses from Gerard's 
 
 "Herbal" 130 
 
 xxxl— Drawings from Ferns under the Microscope, in 
 illustration of Natural Decoration by Spotting, 
 Striping, etc. 133 
 
 xxxii.— Sketches of Historic Ornament, illustrating the 
 
 Development and Decadence of Acanthus Foliage 135 
 
 xxxiii. — Examples of Festoons, Greek, Roman, and Italian 140 
 
 xxxiv.— Fabulous Animals, etc 145 
 
 xxxv.— Examples of the Composition of Quadrupeds and 
 
 Birds with Ornament ... 151 
 
 xxxvi.— Wings and Wing Structure 153 
 
 xxxvil— Historic Examples of the Application of Wings 
 
 to Human and Animal Forms 155 
 
 xxxviii.— Drawings of a Snake, Lizard, and Insect— The 
 Markings on a Butterfly's Wing and the Plumage 
 of Birds, with their Ornamental Application... 157 
 
 xxxix.— Fishes, with their Ornamental Treatment ... 159 
 
 xl.— Analytic Lines of the Human Figure 165 
 
 xli. — Examples of the Adaptation of Figures to 
 
 variously shaped spaces 1 69 
 
 xLii.— Examples of the Composition of the Human Figure 
 with and without ornament, and of figures 
 as Structural Supports 173 
 
 xli 11. — Sketches of fabulous Human Creatures 179 
 
 xliv.— Illustrations of the Development of the Beaker 187 
 
 xlv.— hanaps of different periods 19 1 
 
 xlvi. — Vases of different Periods and Countries 195 
 
xx LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE PAGE 
 
 xlvii. — Chalices, with Diagrams of Development 199 
 
 xlviil— Ewers and Jugs of various shapes; Diagrams of 
 
 Lips and Lines of Composition 203 
 
 xlix.— Tankards and Flagon : Illustrations of Orna- 
 mental Handles 207 
 
 l.— Examples of Vases, etc., derived from Nature — 
 Diagrams illustrating Proportion and the 
 methods of setting out Ornament on Vases ... 213 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 IN a former work, " Lessons on Decorative Design," 
 I endeavoured to show the origin of decorative 
 art, that it mainly arose out of construction, and that 
 subsequent developments were the result of the en- 
 deavours to combine with inventive forms other details 
 borrowed from Nature by the active co-operation of 
 man's imitative and inventive powers. The book being 
 an elementary one, the student's attention was only 
 invited to the consideration of ornamental elements, 
 either composed of simple constructive forms of a 
 geometrical character, or derived from the vegetable 
 world. In the following pages I propose to treat 
 further of these, and also of others not previously 
 considered. Some of the latter claim a higher rank 
 in decorative art ; the principles advocated in the 
 
 B 
 
 ff 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 earlier book will also be applied and more fully 
 elucidated. 
 
 The history of ornament shows that, while it is in the 
 main based upon construction, it has been largely and 
 splendidly developed by the addition of a vast number 
 of elements derived from every part of the natural world. 
 Modern decorative art has, however, been made so to 
 depend upon natural objects for its material that it is in 
 constant peril of losing its essential characteristics. This 
 danger arises, not so much from the fact of the employ- 
 ment of natural forms, as from the temptation to indulge 
 in realism — a temptation due to the great advance made 
 in imitative art. The principle of irregularity, the chief 
 characteristic of the picturesque, has thus been unduly 
 emphasized to the almost complete neglect of the principle 
 of order, which is the basis of decorative art inherited 
 from construction. Giving way to the imitative tempta- 
 tion in ornamental art leads to various bad results. 
 Observe, for instance, the decoration of many modern 
 rooms, the walls, ceilings, doors, etc., covered, in childish 
 wilfulness, with a variety of realistic " patterns." While 
 the effect produced may be regarded as a "new depar- 
 ture," it will suggest, to the mind of any one who really 
 possesses but an elementary knowledge of ornamental 
 art, that the pictorial treasures of the household have 
 deserted their proper boundaries, and settled down in a 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 haphazard fashion in utter disregard of that useful maxim, 
 " A place for everything, and everything in its place." 
 
 A careful study of the development of art, particularly 
 in its earliest stages, will correct many a false notion 
 respecting this matter, and will tend, more than anything 
 else, towards the formation of style. Another good to 
 be obtained by such study will be a clearer perception of 
 first principles, i.e. the causes which have led to certain 
 forms in art. Industrial designers are so accustomed to 
 the elaborate decorative objects which are current, that 
 the reasons for the particular forms they have assumed are 
 rarely sought after; and, if a new design is wanted for an 
 old purpose, a mere alteration or rearrangement of parts 
 is held to be sufficient to effect a new pattern. Take an 
 illustration from the time of the transition of the old oil 
 lamp to the modern gasalier. This 
 transition occurred about forty years 
 ago, when gas was gradually sup- 
 planting oil as an illuminant in private 
 houses. The constituents of the oil 
 lamp were : a body with projecting 
 arms and chains for suspending from r~ 
 the ceiling, in the centre a reservoir to 
 hold the supply of oil, with outlets to 
 feed the burners by gentle and regular percolation (see a). 
 Here the conditions attached to the use of oil were well 
 
 B 2 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 met. But, when gas had to be used, the designers failed 
 to grasp the nature of the new conditions, and simply 
 adapted the old and current form of lamp, retaining parts 
 that were wholly unnecessary. They introduced a tube 
 down the centre, through the obsolete 
 oil reservoir, with a gas box under- 
 neath ; from this gas box smaller tubes 
 were laid in the arms, whilst the taps, 
 for turning on the gas, were awkwardly 
 placed at the top (see b). Now, if a 
 AC ) designer had considered the pecu- 
 liarities of gas and the mode of sup- 
 plying it, he would have seen that all 
 that was absolutely necessary were (i) a tube which 
 would serve the double purpose of suspending the 
 lamp and conveying the gas, (2) projecting arms, not 
 necessarily horizontal as was required in the oil lamp, 
 and (3) a tap to turn on and regulate the light. There 
 would be no reason either for chains or vase, or for 
 retaining the form of "spout," as the arm was technically 
 called. Doubtless economic reasons had something to 
 do with the retention of these useless forms, as manu- 
 facturers would naturally be desirous of utilising old 
 u patterns." But this does not explain all, for we find 
 that, when new patterns were made, they ran upon the 
 old lines of the oil lamp, and that the useless parts were 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 repeated in a more or less objectionable form. The 
 chain, for instance, whose real office was gone, was 
 made of flimsy stamped metal, and was hung in the place 
 as before — a convicted sham, unable to support any 
 moderate weight. Although many of the parts came to 
 be regarded as superfluous, it is astonishing how slowly 
 they were given up. Even to this hour many gasaliers 
 show the survival of the vase-shaped reservoir — a sur- 
 vival, not of the fittest, but of the reverse. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 ELEMENTARY FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 WHILE it is proposed in the present treatise to 
 direct the student's attention to advanced 
 studies in decorative art, it will be necessary to revert 
 to an elementary stage in order to make the course 
 of lessons now entered upon as complete as possible, 
 and to emphasize, more fully than the limits of the 
 former elementary work allowed, certain particulars 
 connected with this part of the subject. 
 
 In Chapter II. of " Lessons on Decorative Design" 
 was shown the method of evolving patterns from a basis 
 of crossed lines ; and attention was directed to the 
 development of forms for enclosing ornament, to the 
 analysis of those forms, and to the lines involved for 
 the purposes of rearrangement. From this part of our 
 
FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 subject we propose to start. The simple forms generated 
 on a network of lines crossing each other at different 
 inclinations may be enumerated as follows : first, those 
 which result from tracing along the lines placed at right 
 angles to one another and at 
 equal distances, the square and 
 the diamond or lozenge, aa ; 
 secondly, the inclusion of two 
 or more squares of the net- 
 work, oblongs, bb ; thirdly, figures 
 produced by the use of oblique lines —^= 
 cutting across the squares and oblongs, 
 
 TRIANGLES. 
 
 ^25D 
 
 
 Lines placed at an angle of 30°, and crossed by 
 
 vertical ones, thus ^ 
 
 yield the hexagon. 
 
 Lines placed at 45 , crossed by vertical and horizontal 
 
 ones, give the octagon 
 
 Next come 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 certain rectilinear ornamental lines, deducible from the 
 
 network — such as the embattled -4-1 
 
 D 
 
 U th< 
 
 CHEVRON Or ZIGZAG v Sr^ 
 
 ZIGZAG 
 
 and the fret 
 
 the INTER 
 LAC 
 
 the BLUNTED 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The softening of the 
 
 preceding figures and lines gives us a curved series. 
 The octagon becomes a circle | J the oblong 
 and some proportions of the lozenge are transformed 
 
 intO ELLIPTICAL SHAPES 
 
 F~ 
 
 3 
 
 while the combination of the ellipse and the circle 
 gives the l 1 oval. The ' embattled and zigzag 
 
 are changed into the wave 
 
 MEANDER 
 
 xnru 
 
 and scallop 
 
FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 The scallop, placed in series, produces the scale pattern 
 
 to which the term imbrication- 
 
 is applied. The fret becomes 
 
 which, according to the method of arrangement, gives the 
 
 WAVE /c)/?)/?) ° r RUNNING SCROLL - /c)VQ/c) 
 
 The interlacing is altered into a double wave or 
 
 meander ^XTZZ>CZZ>C By working upon a basis of 
 
 circles and ellipses, instead of upon the basis of a recti- 
 linear network, similar results will be obtained ; but, 
 in addition, other ornamental elements will be more 
 
 directly evolved — such as the chain C3JZSZ5 — t ^ ie 
 
 CABLE 
 
 GUILLOCHE 
 
 etc. 
 
 Here, then, we have, in brief, most of the elemental 
 forms and lines which are found to be constant in all 
 styles of ornamental art, and upon which elaborate details 
 are supported. Illustrations of this will be found on 
 Plate X. Again, the method adopted for developing 
 lines and forms from a network can also be used to 
 
io THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 demonstrate some of the methods of laying out orna- 
 ment. By simply filling in each square mesh we 
 obtain, by simple repetition, an arrangement known 
 as diapering (see Figs, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, Plate I.). By 
 omitting alternate squares we get chequering (see 
 Figs. 6 and 7) ; Figs, 8, 9, 10, show the principle of 
 chequering and diapering combined. In allowing 
 larger intervals between the fillings we obtain two 
 further, but similar, modes of arrangement, known as 
 spotting and powdering (see Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22). If 
 we fill in the spaces in rows, leaving rows of voids, we 
 get striping (Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 14), narrower and 
 broader varieties being distinguished by the terms lining 
 and banding. The character of lining will be better 
 illustrated by simply emphasizing only one set of the 
 cross lines of the network. When this is done in two 
 directions we have the plaid (Fig. 18). The use of 
 striping and banding leads to another method of laying 
 out, namely, panelling (see Figs. 15, 16, 17). 
 
 We will now detail some of these systems of ar- 
 ranging patterns. First, the Diaper, This consists of 
 a repeated pattern, closely fitting and covering a surface 
 without intervals : it is an " all-over " arrangement of 
 formal character ; its severer forms consist in the details 
 of the pattern being confined to the allotted spaces, and 
 not overrunning their boundaries. The fundamental 
 
Plate I. 
 
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 CJNIVERSIT' 
 PALI FOFtNlA- 
 
Plate II. 
 
FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 13 
 
 forms may be of any shape, and two alternating 
 forms can be used in the same diaper, but should be 
 as closely fitting as possible (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, Plate 
 II.). These may be accented or not, as occasion may 
 require, or may be abolished altogether. In the latter 
 case care should be exercised to keep the pattern 
 compact. 
 
 The diaper, like many other ornaments, has been 
 the subject of alteration and development. One of 
 the first modifications of it consists in running out of 
 one space into another the pattern composing it. This 
 departure from the more exact diaper was gradually 
 extended, and ended at last in the development of a kind 
 of pattern known as the " free-all-over." The various 
 changes are as follow: first, the formal diaper con- 
 sisting of ornaments contained within a rigid geometrical 
 form (Plate II., Figs. 1, 2, 3) ; secondly, diapers in 
 which the pattern runs out of one figure into another 
 (Figs. 4 and 5) ; thirdly, when the boundaries of the 
 structural figures are ornamented as well as the enclosed 
 space (Figs. 6 and 7). In other forms of diaper the 
 fundamental forms are placed at intervals, and the 
 pattern runs out of them into the interspaces (Plate III., 
 Fig. 1). When, however, the formal shapes are abolished, 
 we have a type of surface decoration called the " free- 
 all-over," in contradistinction to the formal "all-over" or 
 
14 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 strict diaper (Plate III., Figs. 3 and 4). Here it will be 
 well to observe that, although in this kind of pattern 
 work the geometric forms are ultimately eliminated, yet 
 their employment in designing is necessary to proper 
 construction, and is an important aid to accurate 
 repetition. 
 
 These geometric forms need not, however, control 
 the direction of the lines of the filling, as in cases 
 where the figures are retained, because they will not 
 appear as elements in the completed design. Neverthe- 
 less, as has been shown, in the elementary lessons, it is 
 often well to adopt a sympathetic relation of lines to the 
 figures used. On Plate IV. are given historic examples 
 of diapers and their construction. Striping or banding 
 need not be limited to mere lines ; what is required for 
 this arrangement is that the " repeat" shall take a hori- 
 zontal, vertical or oblique direction. The pattern com- 
 prising it need not be continuous, it may be interrupted. 
 The intervals, however, should be small, lest the dominant 
 idea of the arrangement should be lost. The main dif- 
 ference between spotting and powdering lies 
 in scale — i.e., in the proportion of ground to 
 r*«i . pattern. The detail of the spot should be 
 large and important, and have more interest 
 than the unit of the powdering, which should be small 
 and of simple character. Powdering is very often used 
 
Plate III. 
 
 t % T t^^^mi/^ iJZNii^j 
 
 ^oT 
 
Plate IIIa. 
 
 v.o.3 
 

 Plate IV. 
 
Plate V. 
 
 
 
 
 *5ftS?/^ 
 
 Kl'Sfetii 
 
 as Si 
 
 i 
 
 ^m^i 
 
 
 £sSs 
 
 , 
 
 
 li* r P -q: ,y 
 
 lit 
 
 — —w 
 
 FlGs 1 9_ 
 
 .:- Pi 
 
FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 19 
 
 in conjunction with the spot (as in Plate I., Figs. 21 
 and 22), where their relative values are illustrated. 
 This background method of using powdering calls to 
 mind other plans often substituted for it, namely, imbri- 
 cation (seen in Plate V., Fig. 6) and vermiculation. 
 Vermiculation consists of a minute running 
 pattern, sometimes developed into fine scroll 
 work, and is at others -brightened by the 
 addition of small spots. Without further extending this 
 part of the subject, it will be obvious that all the 
 methods of arrangement already named are capable 
 of various combinations, and of being used together 
 in one and the same design {see Plate V.). Fig. 1 
 shows the application of " spotting " and " powdering " 
 to a defined space like a panel. It will be seen 
 that the outer spots are united by a line so as to 
 " compose " them with the boundaries. Fig. 2 on 
 Plate Y. is an example of decoration by a large 
 central spot ; vertical and horizontal lines are included 
 for the purpose of securing unity. Fig. 3 is a long 
 narrow space decorated by three spots united by lines. 
 This treatment is sometimes found on panels . of 
 pilasters. In Fig. 4 is given an illustration of the 
 application of the stripe and spot to the decoration of 
 a rectangular figure. The two extremities of the stripe 
 are blended into the border to give completeness to the 
 
 c 2 
 
2o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 pattern and to prevent its appearing as if cut out of a 
 longer piece. In Fig. 7 we have another treatment of 
 the stripe and spot, and in Fig. n an arrangement of 
 oblique stripes for the decoration of a panel. Figs. 5 
 and 8 illustrate the application of the " chequer" to 
 panels of different proportions. In Fig: 5 the chequer 
 is somewhat modified in order to centralise the interest 
 without destroying the essential character of the chequer. 
 Fig. 6 shows a combination of the spot and imbricated 
 ornament within a circle. Figs. 9, 10, and 12 illustrate 
 panelling resulting from striping variously applied and 
 in accordance with the proportion of the spaces 
 decorated. Fig. 9 is from the use of oblique stripes, 
 Fig. 10 is mainly from vertical stripes, while Fig. 12 
 is formed from vertical and horizontal stripes equally 
 disposed. Examples of decoration by striping and 
 spotting may be seen on many natural objects, such 
 as plants, butterflies, feathers, shells, and in the graining 
 of wood, etc. (see Plate XXXVIII. and headpiece to 
 Chapter II., page 22). 
 
 In the study of the historic styles of ornament, it will 
 be observed that all these methods, as well as the 
 elementary lines which were engendered in the earliest 
 stages of art, occur again and again throughout all 
 subsequent developments of decoration, whatever the 
 age or country. However dissimilar the styles may 
 
FORMS AND METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 21 
 
 at first sight appear, careful analysis will show that 
 the fundamental lines and principles are the same, 
 and that even modern art, with all its boasted 
 originality, still shapes itself on lines no newer than 
 those of prehistoric times ! 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 HAVING in the previous chapter briefly re- 
 viewed and classified most of the lines and 
 methods common to ornament, we will now direct the 
 student's attention to some practical applications of 
 them. Suitability or fitness of a method of laying 
 out decoration for any special purpose must first 
 engage his attention. A little consideration will soon 
 convince him that the method of decorating a textile, 
 while being very appropriate for this purpose, may 
 be altogether inappropriate when applied to the 
 surface of a wall. For instance, a wall and a curtain 
 both possess distinct characteristics — the one stiffness 
 and uniform flatness, the other flexibility and un- 
 evenness of surface when in use. These qualities 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 23 
 
 should be taken into account when applying ornament ; 
 to decorate both in the same way would be to sin 
 against the natural law of "fitness" and suitability. 
 Hence it must appear that those methods that will 
 accent the qualities of stability and flatness will be the 
 most appropriate for wall decorations ; and any method 
 that will accent the quality of flexibility, or emphasize 
 the folds of the material, will be best adapted to the 
 enrichment of curtains. As a general rule, therefore, 
 in patterns for walls no particular direction should be 
 expressed — i.e., such patterns should not exhibit any 
 tendency to develop horizontal, vertical, or oblique 
 stripes, and hence the methods of decoration will 
 comprise diapering, powdering, " free-all-overing," and 
 panelling. While modifications of some of these are 
 allowable for curtains, patterns having certain decided 
 directions, such as may be included under the heads 
 of horizontal and oblique striping, are more distinctly 
 suitable. 
 
 These kinds of patterns, by crossing the folds 
 of the material, bring out, so to speak, the modelling 
 of the surface, developing curves of exceeding beauty, 
 such as were not preconceived by the designer {see Plate 
 VI.). Vertical stripe patterns are less suitable, as their 
 application tends to confuse, instead of emphasizing, the 
 folds {see Plate VI., a, Fig. 4). Again, the scale of the 
 
24 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 ornament used is an important matter. The patterns 
 should be designed for and adjusted to the size of the 
 folds into which the material naturally falls. 
 
 As the large folds of heavy textiles require bold 
 patterns, and the narrow folds of lighter ones smaller 
 details, the question becomes one of the right propor- 
 tioning of ornament to surface ; and this principle admits 
 of a wide application to all kinds of surface decoration. 
 For instance, in the case of wall decoration, presently 
 to be considered, the surfaces of important rooms should 
 have patterns comprising large masses, while the orna- 
 ment of small rooms should be less in scale. Besides 
 the scale of patterns, there is order of distribution to 
 be observed ; for, as soon as we begin to divide a surface 
 into distinct compartments, with the object of giving 
 additional interest to any scheme of decoration, we have 
 to consider the nature and relative value of each part, 
 and to apply the decoration consistently therewith. For 
 example, it is usual to divide the wall of a room into 
 plinth, dado, wall-vail, frieze, and cornice, with inter- 
 vening mouldings and borders (see Plate VII., Fig. i). 
 This arrangement of parts suggests different structural 
 values ; and their relations to one another require due 
 recognition when distributing the various classes of 
 ornament at our command. The parts having the 
 greatest structural value should receive the most severe 
 
Plate VI. 
 
Plate VII. 
 
 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 27 
 
 and formal ornamentation ; while those that are of the 
 least structural importance the freest and most pic- 
 turesque. The dado being the support of the wall is, 
 from an architectural point of view, the most essential, 
 and, therefore, to it should be apportioned the severest 
 decoration. To the upper portion a freer and less rigid 
 pattern may be given. Sometimes to the above hori- 
 zontal divisions are added vertical ones — such as pilasters, 
 etc. (see Plate VII., Fig. 3). When these are added the 
 wall-vail loses its uniform value ; the spaces between the 
 upright members become less essential than before, and 
 may therefore with propriety be decorated with orna- 
 mentation more or less inclining to the pictorial ; while 
 the structural uprights and pilasters should be more 
 stiffly treated; Some people may object to this assump- 
 tion of a possible construction, other than the actual 
 one, in laying out the wall space ; but as long as 
 divisions are required in order to avoid monotony, no 
 better method can be devised than that of adopting the 
 lines of some structural arrangement suitable to the 
 case ; and certainly this method is in harmony with 
 the principle of constructive order, which is the founda- 
 tion of decorative art. 
 
 Here it will be well to call attention to the effect that 
 these methods of wall divisions have upon the appearance 
 of rooms. While the use of horizontal divisions imparts 
 
28 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 a sense of cosiness to an apartment, they also tend to 
 reduce the apparent height of it, and if the upper and 
 lower divisions are developed at the expense of the 
 intermediate one, as in Fig. 4, this effect is still more 
 marked. Vertical divisions by upright panelling, as in 
 Fig. 2, give the appearance of increased height, and 
 this effect is further accented in Fig. 3 by the use of 
 pilasters. 
 
 In practical pattern making, suitable to the paper- 
 stainer, weaver, textile printer, and ornamental tile- 
 makers, there are technical matters peculiar to each 
 industry, and which have to be considered, in addition to 
 the mere laying out of the ornament ; and the conditions 
 attached to each must be well understood if the artistic 
 element is to be practically expressed. While within 
 the limits of the present work it will be impossible to 
 treat of all the varied requirements which have arisen 
 with the development of the several trades, it wil. 
 be well to take one of them as a sample to illustrate 
 the limitations of the designer's work. Take wall- 
 paper, for example. In this country wall-paper is gene- 
 rally made 1 ft. io"in. wide, and in runs of twelve yards. 
 It is usually printed from blocks having raised patterns 
 upon them 1 ft. 9 in. in width ; the depth is determined by 
 circumstances — sometimes it is less than the width, rarely 
 greater ; but a square block is found to be the most 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 29 
 
 convenient. The block may contain one or more 
 "repeats," or even a section of a repeat, according to 
 the scale of pattern required. The extension of the 
 repeats in a vertical direction is obtained by successive 
 printings of the block ; the lateral extension by the paper- 
 hanger when he places the lengths of paper side by side. 
 The necessary dimensions of the block will, therefore, 
 control to a great extent the size and proportion of the 
 pattern ; whether it takes several repeats, or a portion 
 of one, the pattern must be so adjusted as to ensure 
 accurate repetition in the two directions. For instance, 
 suppose we adopt a diamond form as the basis of a 
 
 
 
 If- 
 
 <x 
 
 A. 
 
 00 
 
 
 K Z 
 
 B$ 
 
 
 \X 
 
 
 FlO- V? 
 
 FiG \ 
 
 
 Tig 3r 
 
 
 FiG HI 
 
 
 V»G TV 
 
 r *»o -V- 
 
 
 repeat (as in Fig. I.) : finding, however, that the use 
 of one only will yield a pattern too large in scale, we put 
 in one and a half (as in Fig. II.) ; but this, while it 
 affects the scale, also alters the proportion of the 
 fundamental figure. Arrange two within the same space, 
 and the difference between the height and width of the 
 figures is increased (Fig. III.). If it is desirable that the 
 proportion of the example in Fig. I. be kept, then we 
 shall have either to shorten the block (as in Fig. VI.), 
 or to adopt the arrangement (as in Fig. V.) which gives 
 smaller repeats. Here, then, it will be seen that in 
 
30 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 adopting any form whereon to construct the repeat, to 
 a block of a given size, any variation of the number 
 apportioned to it will lead to alteration in proportion 
 or to reduction in scale. % If the size of the pattern 
 indicated by Fig. II. be satisfactory, and if the alteration 
 in the proportion be immaterial, it will be found that 
 the mode of lateral repetition differs from that applicable 
 to I., III., and V. — i.e., it will not repeat by being placed 
 
 side by side on the same level 
 
 ; and, there- 
 
 fore, the lateral repetition will have to be effected by 
 lowering the pattern when fitting two sections together. 
 
 thus 
 
 A/ 
 
 
 % 
 
 A/ 
 
 
 A/ 
 
 Patterns arranged for this way of 
 
 hanging are technically known as " Drop patterns," be- 
 cause the decorator has to " drop " the paper when pasting 
 it on the wall. The chief object served in adopting the 
 " drop " principle is the avoidance of too small a scale of 
 pattern ; this will be seen in the diagrams. The largest 
 possible scale next to Fig. I. is Fig. II. Fig. IV., although 
 it would repeat laterally by dropping, would not repeat in 
 a vertical direction, and so would be unworkable. 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 3r 
 
 The construction of wall-paper patterns on a basis 
 of geometrical figures, such as are here given with a 
 diagram of repeats, 
 
 rwv? 7 
 
 is not the only method used by designers. Some 
 adopt the plan of cutting into equal sections the 
 paper on which the drawing is made, and trans- 
 posing the pieces during the progress of the design. 
 The former method is most generally employed ; but 
 answers better for patterns which are of a formal 
 
32 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 character. The latter method, however, is undoubtedly 
 the more suitable for designs of a freer treatment, such 
 as the example (Plate III., Fig. 2). By this method the 
 artist can work with greater freedom, and at the same 
 time secure with but little trouble accuracy in his repeats. 
 Plate IIIa. explains the working of this method. The 
 initial portion of the design is drawn in the centre of 
 the paper, or cardboard, 21 in. by 21 in. (see A, the corners 
 of which are marked £ L $;) ; this is then cut exactly into 
 halves, and then reversed (as at B), the figures reading 
 1?' il* The space between the upper and lower parts 
 of the pattern is now to be filled in (as at C). The card 
 or paper is then to be cut down vertically, dividing it 
 into four equal sections, and then transposed (as at D), 
 figures standing Jj? ^ This, again, leaves a central 
 space, which has to be filled (as at E), and which will 
 complete the main lines of the design. F shows 
 another disposition of the pieces to further test repeats. 
 The transposition and re-transposition of the parts of 
 the pattern will be necessary when adding details or 
 making alterations near to the edges of them. 
 
 As regards the colouring of wall-papers, the number 
 of colours to be used should be regulated by the scale of 
 the pattern. If the pattern be small, several colours 
 may be employed, inasmuch as the smallness of the 
 details and the number of the masses composing it 
 
APPLICATION OF OPMgftMlbY&nsZTY ) 
 
 will cause the colours to be so interwoven and distributed 
 that there will be no interference with the repose which 
 should characterise a wall covering, whose subordinate 
 office is always to serve as a background to the general 
 appointments of a room. If, however, the pattern be 
 large, it will be well to have either fewer colours and 
 reduced in hue, or, better still, to limit the colouring to 
 two or three tones of one colour. It may be possible 
 to successfully employ several colours in large patterns, 
 by either reducing the hue or distributing the colour in 
 lines and among the smallest details ; but, how r ever this 
 result may be achieved, it will be in obedience to the 
 general principle that no large masses of different colours 
 should be used. Now as to the character of patterns 
 suitable for printed wall-papers. The natural law of 
 fitness again comes to our aid. The process of printing, 
 by which paper-hangings are produced, has to do with 
 repetition, and not with growth, or development, neither 
 of which it can truly represent. Growth is concerned 
 for the most part with variety, as repetition is greatly 
 modified by it. If this is so, patterns which are obviously 
 made up of repeats of a conventional type are best 
 adapted to block printing. Patterns having the appear- 
 ance of natural grow r th are ill adapted to the process ; 
 because, in printing, the identical masses and lines must 
 occur again and again throughout the decorated space ; 
 
34 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 and variety, an attribute of natural growth, is thus 
 ignored. For, although it is true that a plant develops 
 similar flowers and masses of leaves throughout its 
 entire growth, yet these are modified by variety, and 
 the stems vary in thickness and direction. A process 
 like the one in question is not fitted to render these 
 characteristics. They are only to be expressed by some 
 process favouring the principle of variety. In hand 
 painting we find the most suitable method, for the 
 obvious reason that by hand work variety is more easily 
 expressed than exact repetition. Hence the observance 
 of fitness of methods to the realisation of results will 
 justify us in formulating the rule, that conventional 
 patterns are best suited to the mechanically repeating 
 process of printing, and naturalistic ones to the freer 
 method of execution by painting. By using conventional 
 patterns for wall-papers, there need be no offence against 
 the law of fitness ; but by adopting naturalistic ones 
 there is danger of great offence. One of the reasons 
 why these latter patterns are so popular is that the 
 majority of people, and many who call themselves lovers 
 of nature, only extend their admiration to the flowers 
 and leaves of a plant, often to the former only, and never 
 turn their attention to the equally beautiful growths with 
 their ever-varying lines and exquisite gradations. If 
 these matters received the attention they deserve, 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 35 
 
 " pretty floral " papers, with monstrous growths, would 
 not be tolerated, and would soon be discarded as 
 violations of 'nature and as sins against the natural and 
 eternal law of fitness. 
 
 We have now to consider the treatment of the frieze, 
 or chief upper division, which decoratively bears about 
 the same relation to the wall as the capital does to a 
 column ; and just as the capital is more pronounced than 
 the shaft of the column, so the frieze should have more 
 distinct emphasis than the wall. Its decoration should 
 possess more interest, not only for the sake of contrast 
 with the lower space, but because from its position it is 
 not likely to be interfered with by the furniture of the 
 room. Its position requires, also, that the decoration 
 should be simple and free from complex motives, so as to 
 be easily read. 
 
 This long horizontal division may be dealt with in 
 four different ways : (1) by filling in a continuous 
 
 -m^m% 3Si£l agag 
 
 running pattern, or (2) by a series of vertical ornaments ; 
 or (3) by a union of alternate vertical and horizontal 
 details, or (4) by an arrangement of panels. The first 
 
 D 2 
 
36 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 method is the least satisfactory and likely to produce a 
 weak effect ; the second is better, but still defective, as 
 the arrangement of the parts is unnecessarily stiff and 
 monotonous, and does not sufficiently harmonise with 
 the long lines of the enclosed space. The third treat- 
 ment is, perhaps, best for general purposes, because, 
 while it combines the freedom and playfulness of the 
 first and the firmness of the second, it ensures the 
 harmonic relation that should exist between the 
 boundaries of the space and the filling. Again, the 
 third and fourth treatments are in sympathy with the 
 principle of construction, fas seen in the arrange- 
 ment of the timbers above the architrave in Grecian 
 
 3 IB IP w" 
 
 architecture (thus, __^_________ =s= __ ), and give solid 
 
 ~n — IT 
 
 uprights and interspaces to be afterwards filled in. 
 Taking this structural arrangement as the basis for 
 decoration, it is evident that the use of vertical stops 
 with lateral developments of ornamentation is desirable, 
 because the treatment most in accordance with con- 
 struction offers the best w T ay of securing the fittest 
 results. 
 
 Whether we lay out our frieze by simple stops 
 (as in No. 2), or by an arrangement of panels (as 
 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 37 
 
 in No. 4), it is open to us to accent more or less 
 the structural lines. The degree to which this may be 
 done will depend on the general scheme of decoration 
 adopted ; if it be severe and dignified, then the structural 
 divisions should be pronounced ; but if light and fanciful, 
 then they may be treated less vigorously. Some historic 
 examples of friezes will be found on Plate VIII., Figs. 1, 
 2, 3, 4. Borders, again, which are used to separate the 
 frieze and dado from the " filling," and for other purposes, 
 such as panels, should be treated according to their 
 importance. The primary office of borders is to prevent 
 the patterns of contiguous surfaces from impinging one 
 upon another. For this reason, if a border is rich in 
 character, it also requires bordering with plain lines on 
 each side, in order to prevent its mingling with the 
 patterns which it is intended to separate. ' That the 
 separation may be made distinct between the decorated 
 spaces, it often is desirable for the pattern of the border 
 to contrast in form, tone, and colour with the pattern on 
 either side of it — i.e., if vertical lines predominate in the 
 surroundings, the border should be arranged on horizontal 
 lines, and vice versa ; and so on in the matters of tone 
 and colour. Another use of the border, especially in the 
 case of panels, is to confine attention to the subject or 
 design enclosed, in order to prevent its having the 
 appearance of overrunning its proper limits, and be- 
 
38 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 coming confused with surrounding objects. In the case 
 of pictures, the application of the border or frame for 
 this purpose is well understood. At times, however, 
 some painters indulge in the novelty of extending on to 
 the frame the interest of the picture ; but the practice 
 carries its own condemnation, and may, therefore, be 
 regarded as a freak of fashion, rather than as indicating 
 any enduring and guiding principle. Again, in ornamental 
 compositions, the border will be found of great service in 
 " tidying up," so to speak, any irregular decoration, and 
 in rendering compact what without it would be loose 
 and untidy. Take any piece of freely drawn ornament, 
 and surround it with a border composed even only of 
 straight lines, and the effect will be as evident as that 
 exerted by a frame on a picture. The character of a 
 border should be in proportion to the interest of the 
 subject enclosed. If the enclosed space contains a design 
 of little interest, then the border may possess attractive 
 features ; if, on the contrary, it is occupied with a subject 
 of great interest, then a border of a more conventional or 
 commonplace type will be appropriate. 
 
 From an artistic point of view, the border of a written 
 or printed page may be richer and even more naturalistic 
 in its treatment than the border of a picture. The first 
 encloses conventional forms less interesting in appearance 
 than those contained in the latter. Borders are also 
 
Plate VIII. 
 
 'it a- 
 
40 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 used not only to define spaces, but to emphasize con- 
 struction — as on the edges of plates, and bands on 
 vases, etc. Determining the scale of interest that a 
 border should possess in relation to its enclosure, and 
 giving right proportion and value, require artistic judg- 
 ment and careful consideration ; for many a design is 
 found to be incomplete for want of due attention to 
 its framing. The ineffectiveness of the whole design 
 often arises from the inappropriateness, the bad 
 proportion, or the want of weight in the border. 
 
 We may here observe that, though for economic 
 reasons borders for wall - paper decoration are made 
 straight, it is not essential that they should always be 
 so ; for other purposes and for other modes of production 
 they can take various forms. There is no reason why 
 the boundaries of borders should be parallel, any more 
 than that the enclosed spaces, with which they are 
 associated, should be rectangular in shape. A border 
 may surround any irregularly shaped space, and, while 
 its inner margin is identical therewith, its outer edge 
 may be rectangular (see Plate IX., Fig. 4) ; or if 
 one encloses a rectangular form, although its inner 
 margin coincides with the edge of the space, its outer 
 one may present a complex and irregular outline. Then, 
 again, the pattern of a border need not be continuous 
 throughout, but may be interrupted ; and for that 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 41 
 
 purpose a construction may be assumed, and various 
 degrees of interest apportioned to the parts. When the 
 subject of the decorated space does not allow of 
 sufficient margin for a proportionate border, a useful 
 method of meeting the difficulty is to draw lines parallel 
 to the edge within the filling (see Plate IX., Fig. 5). 
 This method of supplying the want of a proper border 
 should be used sparingly, and only employed when some 
 other reason exists to warrant its adoption than the 
 baneful one of novelty ; otherwise its frequent use 
 may lead to irregular and disorderly composition. 
 Not that irregularity is always to be avoided ; 
 on the contrary, a little may sometimes add piquancy 
 to a design, but this should not be too freely in- 
 dulged in : it should be used as we use condiments 
 with our food — namely, as a stimulant. A too liberal 
 supply tends to vitiate the taste ; and as a well-ordered 
 diet and a healthy constitution require but little of these 
 additions, so also irregularity should be but little in 
 request in good ornamental composition. 
 
 This mode of making up for the want of sufficient 
 border must not be confused with another expedient 
 which is often adopted as a matter of composition of 
 line : for instance, when the filling is of a free kind,, 
 and contains more curves than is compatible with fitness 
 to space, the introduction of right lines by panelling 
 
42 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 part of the field will, while correcting the monotony 
 of the pattern, bring the whole composition into harmony 
 -^ (see Figs. A and B). The 
 
 ZZ4 
 
 results are somewhat similar, 
 although proceeding from 
 different, causes. 
 
 On Plates IX. and X. 
 are given examples of 
 panels with the application of borders. In Plate IX., 
 Fig. i, it will be seen that a broad line of similar 
 tone to the pattern of the centre gives balance and 
 produces unity of effect, while Fig. 2 is wanting in this 
 respect. Compare, also, the relative values of the 
 borders to the enclosed pattern, in Fig. 3 ; here the right- 
 hand border is insufficient. It is too meagre, and wants 
 weight. The left-hand border is more satisfactory, both 
 as to weight and quantity. Fig. 4 is an example of 
 a border whose inner edge follows the shape of a panel, 
 of which the outline is not rectangular. The continuity 
 of the border is in contrast with the spot treatment 
 of the panel. This, though small in quantity as com- 
 pared with the mass of the border, is compensated 
 for by adopting more interesting material for its com- 
 position. The border is subordinated to it by being 
 more commonplace. Turning to Plate X., Fig. 1, we 
 have an example of the wrong and right application 
 
Plate IX. 
 
 TIG > 
 
 fig; 3 
 
 FIG 7 
 
 T=&3 
 
Plate X. 
 
 T=tct-zt 
 
 BG3 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 45 
 
 of the border. The ornamental border A is composed 
 of details having the same amount of interest as in 
 the filling of the panel ; consequently, the attention 
 is divided between both. Besides, the want of a broader 
 separation between the two patterns makes them appear 
 to run together, and the confusion is thus increased that 
 resulted from using such similar material in both border 
 and panel. In the border B, while we still have foliated 
 ornament, it is reduced in quality, and rendered more 
 formal. The slight similarity between the material of 
 the border and that of the panel is adopted for the 
 purpose of securing unity in the whole composition ; 
 while the difference of treatment is employed to 
 concentrate or localise interest. 
 
 In Fig, 2 the panel is occupied with a figure 
 composition ; the border is composed of elements of 
 a lower*grade conventionally treated, and is in point 
 of interest subordinated to the centre, while it harmonises 
 with the foliage which is accessory to the group of 
 figures. In Fig. 3 we start with, perhaps, the least 
 interesting ornamental elements — namely, geometrical 
 forms — for the panel. In order to give interest, and to 
 maintain unity in the design, we adopt, for the contiguous 
 border, curved lines, which are higher in the class 
 of abstract elements, as those lines possess more interest 
 than right lines. The centre filling will be subordinate 
 
46 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 thereto. In order to further accent unity of effect, 
 and to give firmness to the design, there is added an 
 outer border of elements, similar as regards their recti- 
 linear character. In the panel (Fig. 4) we have a 
 conventional rendering of the spring buds of the 
 sycamore. To confine the interest and to direct the 
 attention to the central subject, a border of geometrical 
 character is attached ; in it are included some severe 
 forms of leaves, in order to correct any excessive contrast 
 that might arise from the employment of geometrical 
 lines alone, and to bring it into unity with the centre 
 by echoing in a slight degree the same class of 
 elements. 
 
 •kj setting out ornamental borders that entirely 
 surround panels, it will be found advisable to consider 
 the structure of frames — i.e., of the joining and mitring 
 of the parts composing them. Frames are formed in 
 
 several ways, by an oblique (1), 
 — ■ square (2), or joggled (3) mitre, 
 each of which methods of joining 
 may form the basis of patterns. 
 The object of regarding construction is to enable one 
 to provide decoration that shall harmonise with it ; 
 neither accenting nor concealing it. The joint is 
 apparently the weakest part of the structure ; there- 
 fore, any ornament added should appear to strengthen 
 
 **2, 
 
 _, 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 47 
 
 this part of the frame. For this reason, it is ad- 
 visable to attack the corner first, and to apply ornament 
 in such a way that it will look as though it grasped and 
 held together the vertical and horizontal pieces {see 
 5, 6, and 7). This being done, the rest of the decoration 
 
 may be more freely treated on the same lines, which 
 may be simply repeated or reversed as the case may 
 require, and with large and small intervals according 
 to the necessities of scale and proportion. Besides 
 borders which surround spaces having bound edges, 
 there are others which are 
 not so restricted, such as are 
 seen on the edges of china 
 plates, and used as stripes 
 on draperies, laces, etc. Of 
 
 
 S5\ 
 
 these there are two kinds, (a) those having one bound 
 and one free edge, (b) those in which both edges have 
 free terminations. 
 
 Ornamental borders may be broadly divided into two 
 
 1 
 
Plate XI. 
 s pot 
 
 VeRTICAU, HORIZONTAL . OBUOU6 
 
 ^^m 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 SiESl 
 
 lllfflMllt'lllMlllllW 
 
 I 
 
 HSU 
 
 Wm 
 
 IB 
 
 5 
 
 fi 
 
 rara 
 
 Ml 
 
 lUOffllllll! 
 
 „,„„niiim!iiininiL, m „„, u „„ 
 
 ■utnrmmrc 
 
 
 HHMHHHimn 
 
 
 i mauuif '.■,.■'!. 
 
 ^^^A^ 
 
 vmmsm 
 
 m : 
 
 
 m 
 
 WMSW 
 
 
 I.B^JI, 
 
 ^^» 
 
 ^ 
 ^ ^ l 
 
 liiiifinf 
 
 liMfi fc 
 
 v.&j 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 49 
 
 classes — the interrupted and the continuous ; these are 
 subdivided according to particular methods of laying 
 out, as the spot, vertical, horizontal, and oblique treat- 
 ment {see Plate XL). Additional varieties are formed 
 by combining the above methods; the upright and 
 horizontal, the horizontal and oblique, and so on. 
 Some of the lines for laying out borders are, it will 
 be seen, similar to those used for friezes ; but the 
 application of them must be regulated by the less im- 
 portant function exercised by a border. The somewhat 
 severe treatment required for a frieze may be relaxed in 
 the case of a border ; the regular outline of the one may 
 be, as already explained, departed from in the other. 
 
 Besides horizontal borders, there are vertical ones. 
 Under this head may be included pilasters and other 
 upright divisions of surface. Vertical borders are for the 
 most part identical with horizontal ones ; the same lines 
 can often be used in both. Decorated pilasters and 
 narrow panels,' resulting from their use, are not, strictly 
 speaking, borders ; notwithstanding that we shall consider 
 them under this head, and that their proportion gives 
 them somewhat that character. There is just this 
 difference between the two ; a border consists of a 
 regular repetition of parts, and may be extended without 
 alteration of pattern. The ornament on a pilaster is not 
 so arranged ; there is less repetition ; the parts are dis- 
 
 E 
 
 
5o 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 posed evenly but not equally. The proportion and 
 extent of the panel being determined at the outset, the 
 limit of the pattern is thus fixed, and the pattern becomes 
 a complete organic whole. While many of the lines 
 used for horizontal and other borders are, and have been, 
 used for the decoration of pilasters, subject to certain 
 modifications arising from the needs of adaptation, there 
 are four systems which appear to have been more 
 
 generally adopted ; namely, 
 (i) when the elements of the 
 design are built up in stages 
 and symmetrically disposed 
 around a central stalk ; (2) 
 when they are tied together 
 in bunches and suspended by 
 a cord or ribbon ; (3) when arranged upon a succession of 
 spirals ; and (4) when based upon " wave " lines crossing 
 and recrossing a central stem. These arrangements are 
 more or less satisfactory ; and a moment's reflection will 
 enable us to determine their relative and artistic values. 
 The law of suitability requires that the use to which an 
 object is put should be taken into account when applying 
 ornament to it. The office of pilasters is to strengthen 
 masses or support weights ; therefore, any decoration 
 applied to them should harmonise with these functions., 
 
 It will at once be seen that the leading lines upon which 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 51 
 
 2 and 3 are constructed render them less suited to the 
 decoration of a support than Nos. 1 and 4. Again, 
 No. 1, being decidedly structural in arrangement, will 
 require a conventional treatment of the details. In 
 setting out a design for a pilaster on this principle, 
 care must be taken to have the axis strong ; and for this 
 purpose architectural elements are admirably suited. 
 Horizontal lines should be so disposed at intervals as to 
 harmonise with the short boundaries of the space, to 
 serve as start-points and as ties, and to further empha- 
 size the quality of strength, which a composition of this 
 kind should possess. The foliage that may be used to 
 decorate these main structural lines should be firm and 
 should have a certain rigidity of character. The secondary 
 structural lines should be firm and graceful. They should 
 compose well with the boundaries and with one another, 
 but may carry foliage less severe in character; the 
 smaller filling, having nothing to do with the con- 
 struction, can be free and playful, and even naturalistic 
 elements may be introduced into the still less essential 
 parts. By observing some such rule as is here indicated 
 for the distribution of the different qualities of ornament, 
 we are enabled to import into our work, by an orderly 
 method, variety of treatment and, therefore, interest. 
 Again, the proportion of the panel of the pilaster should 
 be regarded in the spacing out of the ornaments ; tall 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 
 
 Fig. b. Fig. a. 
 
 divisions should prevail, as in Fig. a. In Fig. b the 
 divisions are decidedly inharmonious. A tall starting- 
 point is essential as the key-note of 
 the composition (^ Plate VI 1 1., Figs. 
 
 Mf iM 5. 6, 7. 8, and 9). 
 
 kWI- The second method, in which the 
 
 materials of the design are suspended, 
 is less structural, and consequently de- 
 mands a less symmetrical treatment 
 The masses will be proportionally 
 larger ; and there will be less variety 
 in the lines on which the details are 
 arranged. The distribution of the elements of a design 
 on either plan will be similar — i.e., whatever element is 
 used at the start, should be repeated, in some degree, 
 throughout the composition and at the extremity. If 
 taking the first plan we start at the base with a vase 
 or other architectural member, other details of a like 
 character should be repeated in the process of building 
 up ; and a cup or tazza will fitly crown the whole ; the 
 same rule applies to vegetable, animal, and human forms. 
 This rule also applies to tone and colour. The long, 
 narrow panels occurring between pilasters may be treated 
 in a freer manner, as they have a less structural value # ; 
 
 * For this reason, the hanging arrangement (No. 2) is more suitable 
 for spaces between pilasters than for the pilasters themselves. 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 53 
 
 their ornamentation may incline towards the pictorial, 
 and, if in relief, should in parts melt into the background ; 
 while the caved ornament of a pilaster should be clearly 
 and sharply defined on a firm and even ground. The 
 different uses of pilasters give them varying structural 
 values, the general decoration of which will be modified 
 accordingly. The severity necessary to a pilaster which 
 has to carry actual weight may 
 be judiciously relaxed in the 
 case of one which is used either 
 as an ornamental adjunct or for 
 the mere division of a surface. 
 Take, for instance, the pilaster 
 of a doorway and that of a 
 casket. The cornice is the 
 crowning member of the wall, 
 and, in its relation to the frieze, 
 may be regarded as a develop- 
 ment of a moulded abacus ; it 
 corbels out from the line of the 
 wall on to the horizontal surface of the ceiling, with 
 which it should compose. Generally, it is made up of a 
 suite of contrasted mouldings — flat, concave, convex, and 
 ogee — and is usually treated as a mass ; its decoration is 
 subordinated to that of the frieze. Bearing in mind the 
 position and office of the cornice, as a whole, individual 
 
54 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 mouldings may be relieved by raised or painted de- 
 coration ; and, for this purpose, some of the lines in the 
 borders already given will be found suitable. But regard 
 should be paid to the principle upon which the selection 
 is to be made. This principle applies to all decorated 
 mouldings for whatever purpose they may be used. As 
 a rule, the leading lines of the ornament should in a 
 measure repeat the profile of the moulding to be deco- 
 rated, so as to ensure harmony between the decoration 
 and the object to which it is applied. If the profile is 
 concave in form, then patterns based simply on these 
 lines, or re- 
 
 versed, as *\ .fgggr. V^WWTW 
 
 will be appro- t£ ■ * * tM <* » »™ * » , ' -* »« "" - ■■iiiv — M 
 
 priate. If the moulding has an ogee outline, then the 
 pattern may *%&. .. — 
 
 thus : * ^ 
 
 or, if convex, so : ^- rrw7r~W^c — ^ ^ at ' stra ig nt - nne d 
 patterns will be " applicable, and so on. 
 
 While the profiles may generally be the guide in 
 apportioning suitable patterns, it does not follow that 
 the profile or simple vertical section need in all cases 
 determine the choice of lines to be employed ; for 
 circumstances may arise when for variety's sake other 
 lines may be necessary to the general effect of the group 
 
APPLICATION OF O/hMMIj^* 55 
 
 of mouldings forming the cornice. Transverse and 
 oblique sections will be found to yield lines differing 
 from those of the profiles ; and, though at first sight 
 they may appear to controvert the general principle laid 
 down, their use will result in a real though subtle 
 harmony. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of the horizontal 
 surfaces of a room — namely, the ceiling and floor. First, 
 the ceiling : this is generally the least decorated part of 
 a room. Why it is so it is hard to understand, for 
 economic reasons do not explain it. The traditional 
 white ceiling has a cold, cheerless, and unfinished look, 
 which is often intensified by the rich covering of the 
 walls. Too often the only relief accorded to the cheer- 
 less space is the addition of some cheap centre ornament, 
 from which depends the gasalier. Of all surfaces • in 
 a room the ceiling is the one which offers to the 
 decorator the best chance to display his art ; for here 
 his whole scheme can be seen without any interruption 
 whatever. In decorating a ceiling, it should be re- 
 membered that it is a source of reflected light, and, 
 therefore, that it should be treated in a lighter and 
 more airy manner than the walls, particularly if the 
 ceiling be low, for heavy decorations would have a 
 depressing effect and lessen its reflective power. A 
 loftier ceiling may have stronger tones and more power- 
 
56 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 ful ornament, but still be less pronounced, as a whole, 
 than the vertical surfaces. The ceiling should to some 
 extent echo the colour treatment of the cornice and 
 frieze in order to preserve a general harmony or unity 
 in the whole decoration of the apartment. The laying- 
 out may be, in a simple scheme, limited to borders 
 with corner ornaments, or may in a richer scheme be 
 arranged on some structural lines covering the whole 
 surface, and, as a rule, the whole ornamentation should 
 be definite and approach the commonplace. On Plate 
 XII. are given a few examples showing some of the 
 methods used in decorating flat ceilings. Fig. i is a 
 structural arrangement resulting in panels of unequal 
 sizes and shapes, and filled in with ornaments ; the 
 several parts are treated according to their " values." 
 This example is in the French manner which prevailed 
 in the latter part of the eighteenth century. Fig. 2 
 is an " all-over " treatment, consisting of panels, of certain 
 sizes and shapes, repeated over the entire surface, and 
 containing conventional ornaments. In Fig. 3 is given 
 a Jacobean example of raised tracery relieved with " spot " 
 patterns. Fig. 4 is a design for a printed ceiling-paper, 
 arranged on a multi-symmetrical basis ; Fig. 5 shows 
 an arrangement for decoration by means of stencilling 
 and painting ; while Fig. 6 shows a method of dealing 
 with the surface of a ceiling whereof one side is 
 
Plate XII. 
 
58 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 broken up by the projection of the chimney breast. 
 In laying-out a ceiling as in Figs, i, 5, and 6, 
 the proportion of the space should be considered, 
 and the leading division, at least, should agree with 
 it — i.e., a similar proportion should be repeated for 
 the sake of unity. Thus 
 
 
 //A 
 
 not 
 
 
 This principle, it will be 
 seen, has been observed in 
 the illustrations given in Plate XII. 
 
 Details calling for continued examination should be 
 excluded, as the positions occupied by them are not 
 favourable for minute observation ; the operation of 
 puzzling out a complicated design, or reading an interest- 
 ing subject, would at the best result in cricking the neck. 
 Therefore, the design should be of a pleasant character, 
 easily seen at a glance, and readily understood^ ; and in 
 that respect should differ from a wall, whose decoration 
 may be composed of more interesting material, and 
 be more intricately arranged. 
 
 Subject to these considerations, the same principles 
 that have been advocated for other surfaces apply to 
 ceilings, as regards laying-out, distribution of elements, 
 composition of line, and mass. 
 
 * The ceilings of large halls and rooms can be reasonably decorated 
 with more interesting subjects than smaller ones, because of the number 
 of points of view from which they can be examined. 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 59 
 
 Besides flat ceilings, there are others of different 
 forms that should be mentioned, such as the coffered, 
 arched, and domed. The first is a horizontal ceiling, 
 having sunk panels lying between longitudinal and 
 transverse beams ; its decorative treatment does not in 
 principle differ materially from that required for other 
 panelled arrangements — severe ornament on the struc- 
 tural beams, and freer ornament in the panels. The 
 deep recession of these, however, often calls for more 
 definition of the decorative details than is accorded to 
 panels of shallower depths. Arched and domed ceilings, 
 applied respectively to rooms of oblong or circular plan, 
 graduate from the vertical walls of the rooms to the 
 crown, and thus afford opportunities for a more varied 
 decorative treatment by the introduction of elements 
 not fitted for a horizontal surface. The decoration of 
 these curved surfaces may fitly combine the treatment 
 of vertical and horizontal ones. Vertical ornaments, 
 figures, etc., at the lower part ; horizontal ones at the 
 top ; the whole being graduated together. 
 
 In decorating the floor of a house, whether by 
 carpets or otherwise, the prime condition to be met 
 is the essential flatness of its surface ; and, therefore, 
 any decoration that tends in appearance to interfere 
 with this quality is wrong. This wrongfulness is 
 second only to that of making the floor actually un- 
 
60 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 even. The general practice of decorating by the use of 
 carpets leads to more artistic sins than the use of other 
 methods — such as encaustic tiles or parquetry. Carpets 
 are too frequently designed with a view to produce effect 
 when displayed in shop windows, and to catch the eye of 
 the purchaser, who for the time may be so forgetful of the 
 suitability of his purchase to the apartment which it is 
 destined to adorn, as to allow mere prettiness of pattern 
 to rule his choice. In order to design patterns for floor- 
 covering, the expression of even flatness and firmness 
 should be the aim of the designer. To effect this, he 
 will have to consider the class of forms and lines to be 
 employed, and the relation of tones and colours. 
 Patterns of a rectilinear character will better express than 
 curvilinear ones the qualities of solidity and firmness, 
 while tones closely related will convey an idea of flatness 
 better than those not closely related. While firmness 
 may be expressed by the use of geometric elements 
 composed of right lines, it is quite possible to interfere 
 with the sense of flatness in more ways than one, either 
 by the selection of tones, or by giving the pattern the 
 appearance of lying in more than one plane, as in inter- 
 laced work (see Plate XIII.). The passing over and under 
 of bands, as in Fig. i, indicates an uneven surface, and, 
 therefore, unfits it for a floor. The adoption of a pattern 
 of this kind suggests that it is a border — borrowed from 
 
Plate XI TT. 
 
 ftrn: 
 
 ^SE r L,BR^ 
 
 TTKIVKRsiTT 
 
62 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 decoration used for another purpose — and not adapted, 
 but adopted. An interlacing pattern of this kind may 
 fairly be applied to a wall, where the unevenness of the 
 surface is not of such paramount importance. Tones 
 wrongly applied lead to similarly faulty results (see Figs. 3 
 and 5). In Fig. 3 the effect produced by the injudicious 
 arrangement and application of widely dissimilar tones 
 is that of unevenness ; this has the appearance of a 
 collection of cubes set anglewise, and suggests a most 
 uncomfortable walking surface ; Fig. 5 is equally un- 
 pleasant. These defects may be easily cured by only 
 slight modifications. In the first case, if the bands, 
 instead of interlacing, are made to intersect each other 
 (as in Fig. 2), the quality of flatness will be secured ; and, 
 in the second, if the tones be rearranged and in nearer 
 relation to one another (as in Figs. 4 and 6), the same 
 result will accrue. 
 
 In carpets the patterns may take less rigid forms than 
 those used for parquetry, mosaics, etc., because, in 
 addition to the expression of firmness and flatness, 
 regard must be paid to the nature of the material, which 
 may be more or less flexible in character. Apart from 
 the essentials pertaining to all floor-coverings, there is a 
 quality belonging to carpets, and more particularly charac- 
 teristic of some kinds than of others, which requires con- 
 sideration—namely, a soft and slightly yielding surface. 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 63 
 
 Hence it will be well that patterns for this purpose should 
 combine curved lines, which express softness and flexi- 
 bility, with straight lines and angular forms, which 
 symbolise firmness and strength. It is just this happy 
 combination of qualities which gives such pre-eminence 
 to Oriental carpets, and renders them so superior in 
 design to most European productions. Throughout 
 these works, there is a general regard for essential con- 
 ditions and a ready acceptance of means to the ends 
 sought after. While recognising the suitability of flow- 
 ing lines to represent flexibility, there is no omission of 
 rigid ones as expressive of firmness ; and so we find that 
 Oriental artists are quick to avail themselves of the 
 peculiarities of the loom by accepting the angular 
 forms which result. In England the contrary too 
 often rules ; and, instead of frankly accepting the 
 natural results of the process, designers are apt to regard 
 them as difficulties to be combated and struggled with. 
 Again, although we may have patterns which are all 
 right as far as lines are concerned, they may become 
 all wrong by the injudicious application of tones which 
 may give harshness and unevenness to the designs. 
 Take, for example, the illustrations on Plate XIII. In 
 Fig. 7 there is an uneven effect and hardness of outline 
 resulting from tones of great intervals. Fig. 8 is flatter 
 in effect ; but there is still some harshness, because of the 
 
64 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 great difference between the tone of the ground and that 
 of the outline of the pattern. In Fig. 9 the tones are 
 brought nearer together, and result in even flatness 
 and softness ; the outline of the pattern melts, so to 
 speak, into the ground. In Fig. 10 is given an example 
 of a mode of applying tones which is too often seen, but 
 which should be avoided; the "lumpiness " of effect 
 resulting from such a distribution of tones is most un- 
 pleasant. When first devised, this "lumpiness" may 
 have secured praise as a "novelty"; but could not 
 expect to endure the test of just criticism, which requires 
 that a novelty to be acceptable must come within the limits 
 of artistic requirements. 
 
 The decoration of floors, by whatever means, should 
 be so designed and used as to be in sympathy with 
 the sense of repose and in harmony with the natural 
 desire for cheerfulness--^-the one calling for unity of 
 effect, the other for variety and contrast. The degree 
 in which these mental desires should be met will depend 
 on circumstances. As a general rule, the floor ought, 
 in the treatment of tone and colour, to so harmonise 
 with the dado that the walls of the apartment may 
 be united thereby. Although the floor is to harmonise 
 with the dado, this harmony does not preclude the 
 introduction of a certain amount of variety and contrast : 
 this amount will, to some extent, be regulated by the 
 
APPLICATION OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 65 
 
 character of the dado. Contrast and variety are not 
 to be excluded, but kept in subordination to unity of 
 effect. The use of a bordered carpet, with a margin 
 of actual flooring between it and the skirting board, 
 admits of more variety and gradation in the decoration 
 of the floor than was formerly the case when the entire 
 surface was covered. What has already been said about 
 borders generally applies to these special ones, subject, 
 of course, to the conditions belonging to carpets. 
 Borders have a structural value, and require to be duly 
 proportioned to the enclosed centre of the carpet, and 
 also some considerable thought in suitably arranging. 
 
 In reference to this matter, the study of Oriental 
 carpets and rugs will well repay the student, as it 
 will afford him many a silent and valuable lesson in 
 the proportionate adjustment and grouping of borders 
 with proper regard to the general effect to be produced. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 IN this chapter it is proposed to consider some 
 of the modes by which ornament is expressed, 
 and the purposes to which those modes may be applied. 
 There are three ordinary methods of expression: (i) 
 surface lines, as in outline drawing ; (2) surface massing, 
 as in painting', and (3) relief massing, as in modelling 
 and carving. 
 
 The first and second are appreciable by sight only, 
 the third by touch as well as by sight. Modifications 
 of these methods occur ; so that ornament, in 
 outline or in painted masses, is often recognised by 
 touch as well as by sight. For instance, when lines 
 are incised or raised, as in the decoration of ancient 
 pottery and metal work, and when forms are painted 
 
METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 67 
 
 with "slip," as in Oriental and other ceramics, gesso 
 work, etc. ; but this arises, as will be seen later, from 
 the fact that these modes of decoration appropriate, 
 in a slight degree, characteristics which belong to 
 modelling or relief expression. Take first the simple 
 linear method, which may be seen in the decoration of pre- 
 historic pottery, etching, engraving, etc. Expression 
 by line is the one very generally used, and in modern 
 education the one mostly encouraged ; it is the outcome 
 of the readiest means of execution — the stylus, pencil, 
 and pen. Good outline is of the greatest importance 
 to the artist, to whatever branch of art he may ultimately 
 devote himself. We are told by some people that there 
 is no such thing as an outline in nature. Theoretically, 
 this is true ; but, while there is no outline, there are 
 definite limits to objects and natural forms, and these 
 have to be defined in the linear method by a decided 
 line accurately following those limits. Admitting the 
 practical necessity of an outline for depicting forms 
 and expressing ornament, the next thing we have to 
 do is to determine the quality of line to be used. In 
 outline drawing, as a general rule, the lines should be 
 intentionally of a uniform strength ; but when it is 
 found necessary to depart from this uniformity, by 
 employing lines of different thicknesses, it should be done 
 for the purpose of expressing some additional facts 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 connected with the subject of representation, and not 
 solely for " effect/' To strengthen the outline for the 
 purpose of representing shade as seen in a piece of 
 relief ornament, is altogether wrong, not only because 
 it attempts to express badly an accident of lighting, 
 which does not belong to the original, but because it 
 results in a false representation of form. As Mr. Ruskin 
 puts it : " A circle represents a sphere in outline ; but 
 if you thicken it in some part with the idea of repre- 
 senting shade, the shape is no longer that of a true 
 sphere. If thickened on the outside it becomes too 
 wide : if on the inside the space within is not circular, 
 and at the same time shade is not expressed." But 
 this does not preclude the use of light and dark lines ; 
 it is simply an argument against using 
 them in a wrong way. Light and dark 
 lines can, without any sacrifice of truth, 
 be used to express form. These two 
 drawings of the same form both express 
 the same facts, and are as true in the 
 one case as the other. The choice of line will depend 
 upon the amount of distinctness or force we require for 
 our work. If, for instance, we wish to express the bold 
 and distinct relief of a piece of sculptured ornament, a 
 strong line will be the better to use ; if, however, our 
 subject be a delicate low relief, then a light line will 
 
METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 69 
 
 be the more suitable. In the first case, we use lines 
 strongly contrasting with the surface on which they are 
 drawn ; in the second, lines that assimilate with the tone 
 of the ground. 
 
 When we desire to represent a piece of work in 
 which are combined both bold and delicate relief, such 
 as a group of objects, or a plant, portions of which are 
 near and remote, the lines may be varied so as to 
 represent the different degrees of relief, and may be so 
 thoughtfully carried out that an outline drawing would 
 convey a fairly accurate idea of the projection and 
 recession of the various parts composing the subject. 
 By varying the lines in this manner, we are enabled to 
 express more than the shapes presented to us, and while 
 the drawing is rendered more interesting and effective 
 by the use of lines of unequal thickness, there will be no 
 sacrifice of truth in the representations. See Plate XIV. 
 Figs. 1, 2, and 3 show different outline treatments of 
 similar pieces of ornament. Fig. 1 is from a relief of 
 uniform height from the ground on which it was 
 modelled ; consequently, a line of equal strength is 
 sufficient for the purpose of its representation, as form 
 lying in one plane only had to be defined. In Fig. 2 
 some parts have a higher relief than the rest — i.e., the 
 pattern lies in two planes, one above the other — the 
 higher portions being the central bud form, with the 
 
7o THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 rosette at its base, and the upper side of the two large 
 side leaves. The differences in the relief are expressed 
 by the use of strong contrasting lines for the higher parts 
 and of lighter ones for the lower; and, as all the parts lie 
 in only two planes, the sets of lines used are each of 
 uniform strength. In Fig. 3 the relief is more varied, and 
 is graduated from the lowest to the highest plane ; and, 
 therefore, the lines required for its expression are such as 
 vary in thickness or strength throughout their courses. 
 Figs. 4 and 5 show the application of lines of varying 
 strengths to decorative work. 
 
 Outline, besides being used for the purposes indicated, 
 can be employed to express various qualities, such as 
 softness, rigidity, flexibility, grace, etc. 
 
 But, although the point or stylus may be used for the 
 production of line work expressing a great variety of 
 forms and qualities, its capabilities are limited ; and 
 masses and quantities should be expressed by the aid 
 of the superior powers of the brush. 
 
 It is very remarkable that in the prevailing methods 
 of art instruction drawing with the brush has received 
 little or no attention. While our national scheme gives, 
 perhaps, too much encouragement to line drawing, it 
 gives no stimulus to space or mass drawing by the brush. 
 This omission is to be regretted, as practice of this 
 kind bears so directly on many artistic industries.- The 
 
Plate XIV. 
 
72 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 use of the brush is capable of developing powers of 
 drawing beyond all other means ; and, while it will assist 
 the student to more rapidly appreciate the value of 
 quantities by directing his attention to spacing and to 
 the solidity of the forms used, the freedom of hand 
 acquired by the employment of the brush will affect his 
 line work and raise its quality. Whatever may be 
 thought of the Japanese as decorative designers, there 
 can be but one opinion as to their merits as draughts- 
 men, and their skill in drawing is largely due to their 
 being accustomed from their youth upwards to the use of 
 the brush as a writing and drawing implement. The 
 power of drawing seen in their line drawing, which for 
 vitality is much superior to the generality of European 
 work of a similar nature, has been developed from 
 the restricted use of a hard point. In his Oxford lecture 
 on " Line," Mr. Ruskin, after speaking of the practice of 
 the Old Masters, says : " The fact is that, while we have 
 always learned, or tried to learn, to paint by drawing, 
 the ancients learned to draw by painting. The brush 
 was put into their hands when they were children, and 
 they were forced to draw with that until, if they used the 
 pen or crayon, they used them with the lightness of a 
 brush or the decision of a graver." 
 
 By substituting the brush for the pencil-point, we 
 have a direct means for expressing mass and space as 
 
METHODS OF EXP 
 
 well as line. Linear ornamental elements translated by 
 the brush become enriched and gain special character- 
 istics by the process ; lines so changed, and forms which 
 are the natural outcome of the implement, not only 
 largely increase our range of ornamental material, but 
 also augment our methods of expression. With the 
 brush we are able to readily render ornament (i) by 
 accented lines, as at a ; (2) by simple 
 flat tints of uniform strength in 
 masses (c) ; (3) by graduated tones (b) \ 
 
 (4) by the superposition of tones (d) ; 
 
 (5) by an arrangement of tones side ^r^ mk 
 by side, in imitation of relief work (e). ^k^mA* ^e 
 Simple brush work may be used in a &**•% Jki4 
 
 positive or negative way — i.e., by ^^Sgjr 
 
 painting in either the pattern, as at<£, ifcij p) 
 or the ground, as at f. By juxta- 
 posing different tones and colours (g) very rich effects 
 can be obtained, and still richer by superposition. 
 These methods of applying brush work not only serve 
 to enrich our patterns, but also enable us to adapt 
 them to particular grounds, light or dark, so as to 
 secure distinctness or softness of effect, as cases may 
 require. On Plate XIV. are given several examples 
 of brush work showing the different modes of applying 
 tones. The upper left-hand corner of Fig. 6 shows the 
 
74 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 laying of uniform tones ; the right-hand corner of the 
 same pattern is enriched by a line of the same tone 
 laid around it. In the lower part of the same design 
 the flowers are composed of forms in different tones 
 juxtaposed. In Fig. 7 are shown other arrangements of 
 juxtaposed tones. Fig. 8 consists of a group of examples 
 illustrating the superposition of tones, and b is an example 
 of this principle seen on a clover-leaf, where it takes the 
 form of a connected pattern covering the three leaflets. 
 c shows the application of the foregoing to an 
 ornamental pattern. In Fig. 9 is given the method of 
 superposing tones after the manner of 'relief work. The 
 employment of tones in this way brings us to a form 
 of decorative painting which comes very near to imi- 
 tative work — imitative to the extent that it suggests 
 relief sufficiently to take it out of the category of mere 
 flat decoration. How far this imitative quality should 
 be carried is a question of taste ; it should, however, 
 never be indulged in to the extent of producing deceptive 
 relief either by imitating strong cast shadows on the 
 ground or by adding anything that will tend to give to 
 it a fictitious realism. The aim should be to increase the 
 interest of the work, and not to cheat the vision. The 
 amount of relief given to the work should be regulated 
 by the conscious knowledge of the character of the 
 surface upon which the pattern is produced. It will be 
 
Plate XV. 
 
76 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 obvious that all these simple methods of treating surface 
 decoration, indicated at a, b y c, d, e, f, g, are, with the 
 exception of e, suitable for application to movable objects, 
 such as textile hangings, pottery, etc., while e is better 
 fitted for designs made to occupy some fixed or per- 
 manent position. Fig. 10 is an example of ornamental 
 brush lines. 
 
 On Plate XV. are given illustrations of direct brush 
 work. Figs. I, 2, 4 and 5 are taken from old Damascus 
 tiles ; Fig. 3 is taken from Chinese pottery ; Fig. 6 
 from a Flemish earthenware plate of the seventeenth 
 century ; and Fig. 7 was drawn from an old Persian 
 plate — an example of pure brush work in colour, ex- 
 pressed by line and mass. 
 
 Modelling and carving, unlike the other modes of 
 giving expression to ornament, are not restricted to one 
 plane for their development ; but lie in many planes, and 
 are concerned with actual light and shade. Our 
 appreciation of sculptured and modelled work depends 
 very largely upon its being designed for holding shade 
 and shadow. Whether it be made for graduated shade, 
 or for the exhibition of strong contrasts of shadow, will 
 depend on circumstances of position and of lighting. 
 
 There are two distinctive kinds of relief work, 
 namely (1) sunk relief, or cavo-relievo, in which the out- 
 line of the work is deeply incised, and the spaces between 
 
METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 77 
 
 caved, the design being slightly below the ground (see 
 Plate XIV., Fig. 11) ; and (2) raised relief, wherein the 
 ground surrounding the design is lowered, leaving the 
 work projecting from it (see Fig. 12). Of raised relief 
 there are many varieties, to which names have been 
 applied to indicate various degrees of relief. The terms 
 used are flat relief, or stiacciato ; low relief, or basso- 
 relievo ; half relief, or mezzo-relievo ; and full relief, or 
 alto-relievo. In the first, the work is in but slight relief 
 from the ground, and the forms have very little pro- 
 jection, as on our coins. In the second, the relief is 
 greater, the modelling of the design has more variety, 
 and the forms are rounded, as in Assyrian sculpture. 
 In the third, we have the subject still more raised, but no 
 parts are detached from the ground. The fourth kind 
 shows the greatest amount of relief possible, with portions 
 entirely free from the slab upon which the work was 
 wrought, as in the metopes of the Parthenon. A 
 development of alto-relievo results in entire relief, or 
 sculpture in the round, as seen in statuary. 
 
 Low relief requires clear, bright light for its elucida- 
 tion, while high relief with bold undercutting is better 
 for cloud or diffused 
 light. The rounded 
 form of relief is best 
 seen in a direct side 
 light, as in this sketch : 
 
78 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 The same relief, seen in shadow by reflected light 
 only, becomes ineffective, as the surface modelling is 
 lost, and only the ^^ 
 deep cutting and 
 definite edges are i|l| 
 visible ; thus : 
 
 A square-edged treatment, with strong incisive lines, is 
 therefore better adapted for dimly-lighted situations. 
 Again, objects which are movable and for close in- 
 spection, may be appropriately decorated with modelled 
 work in low relief ; for, while they can be always 
 placed in a light that will bring out the beauty of the 
 modelled surfaces, the relief will in no way interfere 
 with their use or their outlines. If the decoration is 
 to occupy some permanent position, then the nature of 
 the relief will have to be specially considered ; whether 
 it will be Viewed in open daylight or in shadow, or 
 whether it will be seen near to the eye or at a dis- 
 tance. As regards lighting, a comparison of Classic 
 sculpture of the sunny South with Northern Gothic 
 will serve to make clear the broad general principle upon 
 which the selection of relief should be based. On Plate 
 XVI. is shown two treatments of relief work, and the 
 effect that different ways of lighting have upon them. 
 The two distinct ways in which relief may be executed 
 
Plate XVI. 
 EFFECT OF LIGHTING ON RELIEF WORK. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. No. 4. 
 
 (A) Square edged relief, flat surface, side lighted. 
 
 (B) Rounded relief, undulating surface, side lighted. 
 (No. ia) Seen in dull light. 
 
 (No. 2b) Seen in similar light, surface modelling lost. 
 
 (No. 3A) Light directly in front, flatness accented. 
 
 (No. 4B) In extreme side light, rounded relief intensified, 
 
 F.G.J. 
 
 ^sTUb^ 
 
 OFTHF 
 
 XTKIVERSITT 
 
80 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 are by carving and modelling ; and as both the methods 
 of execution and the materials employed vary, so the 
 results should exhibit distinct characteristics. In carved 
 work you have, so to speak, to dig out your design from 
 a hard material ; in modelling you build up your forms 
 with a soft and pliable material ; for these reasons, if for 
 no other, terra-cotta should be easily distinguishable 
 from stone carving. The finishing of terra-cotta should 
 not be carried on in the direction of imitating carved 
 work, but in conformity with the plastic nature of the 
 clay ; so that, when converted into hardness by the 
 process of firing, the characteristics of the material and 
 the method of work should be still preserved. 
 
 Relief work may be either direct or indirect — direct 
 when the material in which it is wrought, carved, or 
 modelled, remains as the final medium for its expression ; 
 indirect when the pattern is first modelled or carved in 
 some soft material with a view to its translation into 
 some other material, such as bronze, iron, or the precious 
 metals. In the case of direct work, such as is applied 
 to furniture, a consideration of the woods employed is of 
 importance. Dark and heavy-looking woods require 
 bold and broad treatment, while light-coloured woods 
 require delicate execution. When relief work is used 
 indirectly, a consideration of the material in which it is 
 to be finally expressed is essential ; bronze and iron, for 
 
METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 81 
 
 instance, requiring a larger and bolder treatment than 
 is necessary for silver and gold. This is determined 
 as much by the colour of the metal used as by its 
 intrinsic value. While these general principles are 
 observed, the question of scale must not be over- 
 looked ; for obviously the size or minuteness of an 
 object will have to be taken into account in ad- 
 justing relief decoration, or, in fact, decoration of 
 any kind. 
 
 Again, in modelling or carving for reproduction in 
 different materials, certain ways of carrying it out will 
 be dictated by circumstances. When the cost of 
 reproduction is of secondary importance, the artist is 
 left fairly free in his rendering of the relief; but, if 
 it becomes necessary to consider economy, as in the 
 case of cheap metal castings, or plaster ornaments 
 for repetition, this freedom will be checked by 
 practical considerations. In the first case, high 
 relief with undercutting may be indulged in, because 
 the more costly mode of producing a mould for 
 casting can be used — such moulds being composed 
 of any number of pieces requisite for producing an 
 accurate copy of the original. In the second, a 
 less varied relief and an avoidance of all under- 
 cutting will be essential, so that a simpler kind of 
 moulding may be employed. The annexed simple 
 
82 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 diagrams will further explain. No. I. shows the section 
 of a piece of relief ornament. The dotted lines 
 indicate the pieces into which it is 
 J ||w^ necessary to divide the mould, in 
 • order to reproduce the undercutting, 
 ^^ and the formation of which entails 
 
 considerable labour and, therefore, expense. No. II. 
 shows the necessary alterations in the modelling of a 
 similar ornament to adapt it to a one-piece mould. 
 
 The effect of relief is often aided and heightened by 
 the use of colour : for instance, in the plaster decorations 
 of the Moors, it appears to have been adopted in order 
 to give distinctness to the relief ornaments which adorned 
 their dimly-lighted interiors, and also to prevent the con- 
 fusion which was likely to arise from their practice of 
 superposing one pattern upon another, in their richer 
 schemes of decoration. The want of light in Gothic 
 churches no doubt primarily led to the use of colour in 
 connection with carved work, to help its effect instead of 
 increasing the depth of the cutting. A variety of relief 
 decoration is to be found in pierced or perforated work, 
 i.e., work in which the ground or pattern is entirely re- 
 moved. This method of treating ornament is applicable 
 to various materials, such as wood, stone, ivory, and 
 metal, and is invaluable in combining richness of effect 
 with actual lightness of material. In pierced relief work, 
 
METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 83 
 
 the effect chiefly lies in the ordered spaces and inter- 
 spaces ; therefore any carving or modelling of the spaces, 
 or masses of the pattern, should be subordinated, so 
 that low relief and soft hollows should be preferred to 
 high relief or deeply - cut incisions upon the surface 
 of the work. Compare Fig. 13 with Fig. 14 on 
 Plate XIV. Pierced work may have an even pattern, 
 untouched by carving of any kind ; and is often so 
 treated with good results. Whatever form is used, or in 
 whatever material it is expressed, the principles that 
 regulate piercing are constant. Thus, the pattern should 
 be as distinct and clear as possible ; and to this end all 
 oblique crossings and complicated details, which tend to 
 confusion, should be carefully avoided. (See Figs. 15 
 and 16, same Plate.) The peculiarity of the material in 
 which decoration of this kind is wrought, requires atten- 
 tion, and should influence treatment. Brittle materials 
 — e.g., some woods, stone, and pottery — require broader 
 treatment and stronger attachments than are necessary 
 in the case of iron or brass. If work of this kind is to 
 be executed with the fret-saw, long simple lines in the 
 pattern are best ; intricate details and sudden turns 
 impede the action of the saw and prevent easy execution. 
 When, however, such work is to be executed with 
 punches or chisels, these more complex details may be 
 introduced into the design, consistently with clearness. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 Whether the ground or pattern is cut away will 
 depend upon the circumstance of application. If 
 the former is desirable, the pattern will have to 
 be connected at certain points by "ties," that it 
 may hold together, the interspaces or ground being 
 interrupted ; if the latter, then the ground will have 
 to be connected by " ties " crossing the pattern, which 
 becomes interrupted and the ground continuous (see 
 annexed stencil patterns). The use of pierced work 
 
 has influenced and generated other forms of decoration. 
 Much Arabian and English Elizabethan relief ornament 
 is evidently derived from pierced work superposed upon 
 even surfaces ; while marquetry, though properly be- 
 longing to surface decoration, is practically an adaptation 
 of the same work, consisting as it does of the interchange 
 of pieces of fretwork in different coloured materials — 
 tortoiseshell, brass, white metal, etc. Stencilling, again, 
 
METHODS OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 85 
 
 is only the application of open work to the easy 
 production of surface decoration, and is effected in the 
 following manner : A pattern is cut out in paper or 
 zinc and laid upon the surface to be ornamented ; 
 colour is then brushed over the openings, and, on 
 the removal of the paper or zinc, there remains a 
 pattern corresponding with the pattern of the stencil 
 plate. Sgraffito is another mode of decoration which 
 it will be well to notice here : it is used for wall 
 decoration, and is exceedingly effective in its various 
 treatments, which range from simple incised line work 
 to low relief in mass. This kind of decoration is thus 
 produced : A thin layer of light - coloured plaster or 
 cement is superposed on a dark one, either black or 
 coloured ; and then the A design, previously pre- 
 
 
 pared on paper, is 
 face. The pattern is 
 through the light, or 
 to the under, or 
 of plaster, re 
 pattern on a 
 which may 
 mass ac- 
 taste. If 
 uppe r 
 plaster 
 
 — 2.A" 
 
 transferred to the sur- 
 
 next cut with a knife 
 
 upper, layer down 
 
 dark, substratum 
 
 vealing a light 
 
 dark ground, 
 
 be in line or 
 
 cording to 
 
 a thicker 
 
 layer of 
 
 be em- 
 
86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 ployed, it may then be carved ; the effect being a low- 
 relief on a coloured ground, rather like that of Wedg- 
 wood ware. Gesso, again, is a variety of relief work 
 executed with the brush, and, therefore, may be properly 
 called relief painting. A mixture of plaster of Paris and 
 diluted glue is made of about the consistency of cream, 
 and this is painted on the surface to be decorated : first, 
 thinly ; afterwards, by successive touches, the gesso is 
 piled up until the limits of low relief are attained ; by 
 the addition of cotton wool or tow a high relief can, 
 however, be secured, and when it sets hard, as it will 
 do in a little time, the work may be carved, tinted, and 
 coloured. A harder and a finer variety is composed of 
 mie part resin, four parts of linseed oil, and six parts 
 of melted glue ; a small portion of whitening, soaked 
 in water, being added to give substance and opacity. 
 This takes longer to dry ; but, when set, it becomes 
 very hard and can be highly polished. Latterly, some 
 patent materials used by house decorators have been 
 successfully employed for gesso work — such as " Ala- 
 bastine" and " Denoline." The former is the more 
 easily manipulated. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 THE character of ornamental art depends greatly 
 on the details employed, as well as upon mod» 
 of arrangement. Although good ornament is possible 
 with simple materials, yet, undoubtedly, the higher forms 
 of decorative art must include the noblest elements. 
 While we are naturally drawn to those compositions 
 which include the highest organic forms, we should not 
 discard the use of those composed of less interesting 
 materials, because they hold a place and fulfil a useful 
 though humble function in the decorative systems. The 
 elements of ornament are drawn from many sources, and 
 may be broadly classified under two heads : the arti- 
 ficial and the natural. These, for convenience, may 
 be subdivided into (i) Geometrical, (2) Architectural, 
 
88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 (3) Industrial, (4) Vegetable, (5) Animal, and (6) the 
 Human Figure. Under the first come frets, interfacings, 
 traceries, geometrical diapers, etc. Under the second, 
 columns, entablatures, pediments, pilasters, labels, car- 
 touches, etc. Under the third, tools, musical instruments, 
 draperies, ribbons, candelabra, vases, arms, etc. The 
 fourth will include, plants, leaves, flowers, fruits and 
 roots, festoons, acanthus foliage, rosettes ; and the fifth, 
 fishes, birds, quadrupeds', insects, reptiles, griffins, 
 dolphins, shells, etc. The sixth division will comprise, 
 adult figures, amorini, caryatfdes, telamones, terminals, 
 etc. To consider fully all the elements which might 
 come under the several heads would be quite impossible 
 within the limits of this work ; and we will, therefore, 
 content ourselves with the consideration of some of the 
 more important in each class, commencing with those 
 included under the first sub-division. (1) Geometrical 
 Elements : The simplest elements are the right-lined 
 ornaments, the frets, which are useful for ornamenting 
 flat surfaces, and which occur in all historic styles. 
 They are chiefly employed for borders, for which 
 their firmness of expression eminently fits them ; 
 but many diapers formed of them are to be found, 
 especially in Japanese and Egyptian art. Frets, as 
 borders, may be variously set out, according to the 
 purpose for which they are required. Usually the 
 
ELEMENTS OF OKN^MENT. 89 
 
 pattern and the ground are equally spaced, as in Fig. a ; 
 but this need not always be the case, for a more plea- 
 sing effect can be obtained by unequal 
 spacing, as in Fig. b. Then, again, cv I nj H J | p 
 they need not always be based upon the ~Z" ■ ■ ,, 
 square, but may be based upon the *lllu~l°iSlBrr 
 
 oblong, as shown in Fig. c. This form c 1 n r _ , . , i 1 
 
 will be better for the expression of hori- — 
 zontality, but many frets are to be met q ~l /< — / ^3v 
 with, chiefly Oriental, in which oblique 
 lines are introduced, as in Fig. d\ and these are very 
 suitable for flat inclined surfaces. Interlacings and 
 traceries, composed of oblique, vertical, and horizontal 
 lines, serve for similar purposes, and possess more 
 interest from the variety infused into their composition. 
 The use of curves, either in conjunction with right 
 lines or by themselves, leads on to a richer series. 
 Interlaced patterns, based wholly on the circle, will give 
 such patterns as the Guilloche and the Money border 
 (see Plate XL). 
 
 Geometrical figures and spacings are valuable 
 elements, and lie at the base of those elaborate and 
 intricate patterns in which the Oriental artists and the 
 mosaic workers of the Middle Ages so freely indulged. 
 The use of these figures in the construction of diapers 
 has already been pointed out in Chapter I. 
 
p^/gggagggg 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 NEXT in order come architectural elements. Archi- 
 tecture, rightly understood, is the art of aesthetic 
 construction — not construction merely, but construction 
 allied with beauty — not made beautiful by superadded 
 decoration, but by beauty inherent in its construction. 
 In good architecture we recognise the fullest expression 
 of the inventive and constructive faculties, together with 
 a regard for beauty ; and, as it is based upon order, fit- 
 ness, proportion, stability, and grace, elements drawn 
 from such a source necessarily possess qualities so high 
 as to command the attention of the ornamentist. The 
 chief concern of decorative art is with beauty of line, 
 form, and colour, and it has less to do with constructive 
 necessities than architecture. The freedom it enjoys 
 
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 91 
 
 from that restraint which attends aesthetic construction, 
 is, without some counteracting influence, a dangerous 
 liberty, liable to run riot ; but the employment of archi- 
 tectural elements offers a means for minimising such a 
 tendency. In all the best periods of ornamental art the 
 influence of architecture is distinctly seen. It is traceable 
 in pottery, stained and painted glass, iron-work, jewellery, 
 the decoration of panels, pilaster shafts, etc. Archi- 
 tectural forms, pure and simple, are often incorporated 
 in decorative designs, but are oftener modified by the 
 imagination, so as to bring them into harmony with 
 other and freer details, with which they become 
 associated. Hence, while some forms are distinctly 
 architectural, others are but suggestive (see Plate XVII., 
 Fig. 13, a capital by Holbein). Now, in adapting 
 architectural forms in a design, it is not essential that 
 the rigidity necessary in pure architecture should always 
 be maintained, because the same structural conditions 
 have not to be dealt with. In the case of architecture, 
 actual physical weight has to be provided for ; in 
 decoration, the appearances of weight only ; and so long 
 as the eye is satisfied with the semblance of stability, 
 freedom of treatment can be indulged in. The reason 
 given above for modifying the severe forms of archi- 
 tecture — namely, that they may be brought into harmonious 
 relation with more ornate elements — justifies such treat- 
 
92 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 ment ; and the history of architecture itself furnishes 
 instances in which forms, taken from a severe style to be 
 used in a richer one, underwent considerable change to 
 fit them for their new position. Take one example from 
 Roman art. In adopting the Grecian Doric column a, it 
 was necessary to so soften and tone down its 
 severe features as to bring it into harmony with 
 the richer ornamental system associated with 
 the Corinthian order. This was the Roman 
 practice. The original column would have 
 been discordant and disturbing to the general 
 unity of the work in which it was employed ; 
 it was, therefore, so to speak, revised (as Fig. b). 
 It was made taller and more slender, had a 
 moulded abacus, a distinct necking was given 
 to it, and a base added. Whatever modifi- 
 cations are indulged in, care must be taken 
 
 ,fe£ ; that the variations are upon architectural lines 
 and principles. To do this, it follows that a 
 knowledge of pure architecture is of vital importance, if 
 the elements from such a source are to be intelligently 
 used. The study of architecture will not only furnish 
 ornamental material, but will bring to light principles of 
 high decorative importance. For instance, in regard to 
 the crowning of supporting members like columns, the 
 higher the column in proportion to width, the taller the 
 
Plate XVII. 
 
 M7NIVERSITY 
 
94 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 capital, and vice versa. This principle, it will be seen, is 
 also recognised in the relative pitch of the roofs of classic 
 buildings and those of northern Gothic. 
 Apart from climatic and other con- 
 ditions, the horizontality of the former 
 rig. i. ~ artistically requires a lower gable or 
 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 pediment (Fig. i). The vertical tendency of Gothic 
 buildings calls for a higher pitch (Fig. 2). 
 Reverse these and the importance of the 
 principle is seen at once. . 
 
 The value of this principle would appear 
 to be attested in the development of Gothic windows, 
 in which we have the long narrow ones of the lancet 
 /^fffh^v period surmounted by an acutely 
 pointed arch ; while in the later 
 phases of the style these apertures 
 widen, and the crowning arch be- 
 Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. comes depressed (Figs. 3, 4, and 5). 
 This general principle is a guide in proportioning the 
 superadornment of rectangular spaces, whether of frontis- 
 pieces of books, or a pair of park gates in wrought iron ; 
 in fact, many historic examples show that this proportion 
 has been observed by their designers (Plate XVII., Figs. 
 4, 5, 10, 14, and 15). Each of these five figures on 
 Plate XVII. appears to be controlled, in its general lines, 
 by the proportion of the classic pediment, which may be 
 
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 95 
 
 roughly determined as shown at Fig. 3. Place one leg 
 of the compasses on the point where the vertical central 
 line crosses the horizontal cornice, and extend the other 
 to the extremity of the latter, and then describe a 
 quadrant, cutting the vertical line below. Taking the 
 intersection thus made as a centre, and with the chord 
 of the arc as a radius, describe a semicircle upwards, 
 cutting the vertical line, which will determine the slant 
 of the raking cornice. Again, mouldings usually have 
 a projection, from the body of the work to which they 
 belong, equal to their depth ; and, when decorated, the 
 lines of the pattern agree with the section. Such prin- 
 ciples have influenced all good decorative work, subject, 
 of course, to modifications by material ; for instance, the 
 tenacity of metal over that of stone will allow the pro- 
 jection of metal mouldings to exceed what is the safe 
 limit for stone architecture. 
 
 Having pointed out some principles, we will now 
 pass on to notice a few ornamental details derived 
 from architecture. Perhaps no detail is so frequently 
 used, more or less modified, as the volute scroll. 
 It was designed originally to occupy the space left 
 between the bell of the capital and the soffit of the 
 angular abacus ; as in the Corinthian capitals of 
 columns and pilasters (Plate XVII., Fig. 6), where 
 it assumes the function of support for the over- 
 
96 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 hanging portion of the latter. Its gracefulness and 
 strength render it particularly suitable for setting out 
 friezes and other ornamental arrangements where these 
 qualities are desirable (see Fig. n). Figs. 16, 17, 18, 
 19, and 20 show the development this element has 
 undergone. On the same Plate, Figs. 1 and 2 show 
 forms often seen in old iron-work, which are derivatives 
 from architectural details. Fig. 1 is from a baluster or 
 dwarf column, as shown at a ; Fig. 2 is abstracted from 
 a "broken pediment," as at b\ Figs. 7 and 8 are door 
 hinges, and obviously their form is influenced by the 
 round arch used in architecture of the Norman period. 
 The hinge, Fig. 9, belongs to the period when the 
 pointed arch came into use, the influence of which is 
 seen in the change of form and in the way the scrolls 
 spring from the central strap. Fig. 12 shows the 
 decoration of a narrow upright panel with an ornamentally 
 treated architectural support. 
 
 Cartouches, which we include in this section, appear to 
 owe their origin, as the meaning of the word indicates, 
 to the ancient use of paper or parchment labels for 
 holding inscriptions and badges ; when the latter were 
 used, the cartouche took the form of shields. The edges 
 of these labels or shields, when fancifully cut, naturally 
 curled into scroll forms of an ornamental character. 
 This, attracting attention, led to a systematic develop- 
 
Plate XVIII. 
 
 (JlHI'Mi • M,, »'MI!|||||| 
 
Plate XIX 
 
 ^^^ - 
 
 tig- ^ hi «y\b m^mm^W^ iral < 
 1 ; ^^iM^rmJ^ 
 
 * 
 
 fo^rlT^ 
 
 WtttttJ 
 
 
 F.G.J 
 
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS. 99 
 
 ment, and ultimately, in conjunction with interlaced 
 ornament, resulted in that particular kind of decorative 
 detail known as cartouche work. As an element it 
 is valuable in design, both in its capacity as a foil to 
 set off more interesting ornament, and as a tonic to 
 give strength to a composition. On Plate XVIII. are 
 shown some sketches from cut paper, with the edges 
 rolled in various ways, to illustrate the probable be- 
 ginnings of the cartouche : Fig. 12, cut as at a, with the 
 projections rolled backwards ; Fig. 13, cut on the lines 
 of b> the parts rolled backwards and forwards ; Fig. 14 
 is a variation of the same, all the parts being curved 
 forwards ; Fig. 15 shows a richer form, cut as at c; and 
 Figs. 16, 17, 18, and 19 are obtained in the same way, 
 the diagrams attached, d } e, f t and g t being their forms 
 in the flat. Plate XIX. is devoted to examples showing 
 the further development of the cartouche at different 
 periods. After the ornamental elaboration of the edges 
 they become thickened, a result no doubt obtained from 
 their reproduction in carving. The thickness was some- 
 times uniform, but more often graduated, a refinement 
 which added greatly to the character of this ornamental 
 element (see Figs. 1, 4, and 6 from French and Flemish 
 examples of the sixteenth century). Then we have the 
 borders of the cartouche foliated and adorned with masks 
 and other details based on natural objects (see Fig. 2, 
 
 H 2 
 
IOO 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 after Holbein, Fig. 3, from a German design of the six- 
 teenth century, and Fig. 10, from late French Renais- 
 sance). Another way of treating the edge was by the 
 application of distinct architectural features, more or less 
 severe, as in Fig. 8, which is an illustration taken from 
 Italian art of the sixteenth century. Figs. 9 and 1 1 show 
 the modelling of the edge into rounded forms, a treat- 
 ment peculiar to the style known as " Louis Treize." 
 Some cartouches have their surfaces pierced, as in Figs. 
 4 and 5, and in very rich examples we have a combina- 
 tion of two, or even three, cartouches superposed, 
 portions of the upper one interpenetrating the lower, 
 as in Fig. 4. Again, the surface is often seen panelled, 
 as in the Jacobean example, Fig. 7, whilst Fig. 12 
 illustrates the application of the idea of the cartouche 
 to strap work, which largely dominated the English 
 Renaissance. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 WE now pass on to consider the industrial elements 
 comprised in our third division. Although for 
 convenience we have assumed for these objects a distinct 
 class, yet it might be fairly regarded as a sub- division of 
 the architectural group. Theoretically and practically 
 the distinction is but slight. If our definition of archi- 
 tecture be right, that it is the art of aesthetic construc- 
 tion, and at the same time we accept the dictum that 
 every article fashioned for useful purposes should be fitly 
 formed and made pleasing to the eye, it follows that 
 industrial art and architecture have much in common. 
 Although industrial objects have to serve the minor 
 purposes of life, they are nevertheless architectural in 
 character — the difference between a cup rightly designed, 
 
102 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 and a building truly planned for a specific purpose, is 
 rather a matter of degree than of principle. The ani- 
 mating principles of architecture and industrial art being 
 identical in spirit, the results are often similar; and so 
 distinctly is this the case, that occasions arise when it is 
 very difficult to classify them. The classification adopted 
 in the present instance is therefore an arbitrary one, used 
 for convenience only. 
 
 Industrial objects, such as tools, musical instruments, 
 vases, armour, etc., are used in a variety of ways, often 
 in a purely aesthetic manner, but more generally for 
 mnemonic and symbolic purposes. By the aesthetic use 
 of objects is to be understood the inclusion of details, 
 such as those just named, without any other aim than 
 pleasing the sense of vision ; and, therefore, the objects 
 are selected for the beauty of their forms, and as a 
 means for infusing variety and interest into a compo- 
 sition — the mnemonic, as the word implies, is their adop- 
 tion for the purpose of aiding the memory in recalling 
 facts and events ; and the symbolic their employment to 
 set forth some idea to indicate a virtue or an office. 
 These different uses of industrial and other elements 
 divide ornamental art into three classes : the aesthetic, the 
 mnemonic, and the symbolic ; the two latter, while being 
 very distinct in character from the first, are nearly allied 
 to one another. A symbol may be used to aid the 
 
INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. 103 
 
 memory as well as to set forth an idea. Thus a cross 
 may serve to recall the circumstance of the death of our 
 Lord, and at the same time stand for the symbol of the 
 Christian faith ; or a lyre be used to bring to recollec- 
 tion the ancient use of that instrument or to typify the 
 general idea of music. While the symbolic and the 
 mnemonic have much in common, they have distinctions. 
 For instance, written inscriptions ornamentally treated 
 are mnemonic, and in no sense of the term can they 
 be regarded as symbolic. On Plate XX. are given 
 examples of symbolic details. Fig. 1 is a prehistoric 
 emblem of Deity. The form of a circle points to early 
 sun worship. The survival of this form is seen in the 
 halo or nimbus of the Middle Ages. In Fig. 2 we have 
 the Egyptian symbol of divinity, but in a more complex 
 form. The circle is retained, and on either side are 
 asps, symbols of wisdom ; while the outstretched wings 
 indicate sovereignty and ubiquity, attributes of the 
 
 Deity. Fig. 3 is a similar emblem % 
 
 used by the Assyrians. Above the t 
 
 central disc is a form shaped as a 
 
 bow unstrung. Being a race given $l]~fi$ 
 
 to the pursuit of hunting, their conception of a god 
 
 was as a King mighty in the chase. A variety of this 
 
 symbol shows a King in the act of drawing the bow. 
 
 In Fig. 4 is given the Egyptian scarabczus, or beetle, 
 
io4 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 symbol of creation, the idea of which is thus explained : 
 The creature deposits its eggs in a mass of earthy refuse, 
 which it rolls up into a ball, and which, by its hind legs, 
 it drags into some spot exposed to the full power of the 
 sun's rays ; these, acting upon it, hatch the eggs. When 
 this is accomplished, the earthy matter breaks up, and 
 the larvae issue forth. To the mind of the Egyptians 
 this typified the mysteries of creation, and even the 
 rebirth of the Resurrection. The idea is supported 
 by the frequent use of this symbol on mummy cloths 
 and other things connected with the burial of the dead. 
 In Fig. 12 we have the Christian symbol of the glory of 
 the head, the nimbus; and in Fig. 18 the aureole, or 
 glory of the body. Fig. 1 3 shows the symbol of Christ : 
 a monogram composed of the two Greek letters of His 
 name, Chi and Rho, with Alpha and Omega added to 
 indicate His eternal character. Fig. 14 is the cross, 
 symbol of Christianity, and a remembrance of the 
 Saviour's sacrifice. This is the Latin form of cross. 
 Fig. 15 shows the Greek form, and Fig. 16 the 
 Maltese, whilst Fig. 17 is the Cross of St. Andrew. 
 Fig. 6 is a classic symbol, the caduceus, or winged staff 
 of Hermes, the god who, it was said, presided over 
 commerce and industry. The story runs that Apollo, 
 when giving a golden wand to Hermes, told him that 
 it had the power of uniting in love all beings divided by 
 
Plate XX. 
 
 MGt 2- 
 
 VMO 3 
 
 TIG 36 ^»^ 37 
 
io6 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 hate. Hermes, to test it, threw it down between two 
 snakes which he found fiercely fighting. The combat 
 ceased ; they twined about each other in loving embrace, 
 and, curling round the staff, became permanently at- 
 tached thereto. From its association with Hermes, 
 the caduceus has been accepted as the symbol of 
 commerce and the industrial arts. The parts composing 
 it each have separate symbolic meanings, thus: the staff 
 power, the wings despatch, and the serpents wisdom. 
 Fig. 1 1 is a modern symbol of handicraft — i.e., of hand 
 work directed by the intelligence. Two forms of the 
 thyrsus, a symbol of festivity and gaiety, are shown in 
 Figs. 9 and 10. Its origin is attributed to the ancient 
 practice of crowning a spear-head or a staff with bunches 
 of vine-leaves or fir-cones, for use in the dance at 
 Bacchanalian revels. The vine-leaves had reference to 
 the wine used on those occasions, and the fir-cones and 
 leaves to fire, — because, as the revels were held at night, 
 or in dark retreats, torches were used, and these were 
 generally made of the wood of fir-trees. Figs. 19, 23, 
 and 24, show the different ways in which torches can be 
 employed to symbolise various ideas. Fig. 19, in its 
 upright position, is a symbol of life. Its reversed 
 position, as in Fig. 23, signifies death. By representing 
 the flame ascending, as it naturally would do when the 
 torch was inverted {see Fig. 24), it will serve as an 
 
INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. 107 
 
 emblem of death and resurrection. Progress of civilisa- 
 tion, etc., is symbolised by a winged wheel (Fig. 29). 
 Figs. 32 and 33, the trident and rudder, are nautical 
 emblems, and are associated with the sea-god Poseidon, 
 or Neptune. The lyre and sistrum (Figs. 27 and 34) 
 are musical emblems, and, as before pointed out, can also 
 be used as mnemonic signs. Figs. 30 and 31 are 
 symbols of the drama — tragedy and comedy. These 
 were derived from the ancient Greek practice of using 
 special masks to indicate the characters of the play 
 during its representation on the stage. Fig. 26 is from 
 Assyrian art, and represents the sacred tree of life. 
 Fig. 20 is a symbol of the course of human life, and is 
 of frequent occurrence in Renaissance decoration. The 
 upright position of the symbol indicates the beginning or 
 start in life, and leads on to the point where the roads 
 diverge to right and left — to good and evil. Figs. 22 and 
 25 are examples of mnemonic ornament — inscription 
 ornamentally treated ; and Fig. 22 from the Moresque, 
 which abounds in this class of ornament. Fig. 25 is 
 modern ; the letters of the quotation are interwoven and 
 treated as ornamental elements. With this inscription 
 symbols are combined to indicate the flight of time — 
 wings at each end, and a winged hour-glass in the 
 centre. 
 
 The objects grouped in Fi g . 28 are used to symbolise 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 .California 
 
108 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 learning and literature. Monograms are often used in 
 decorative designs, and consist of letters interlaced, as 
 shown at Fig. 36. When, however, the letters are 
 reversed and more intricately combined so as to be less 
 easily read, they are called ciphers (see Figs. 35 and $j). 
 In grouping tools, musical instruments, or other 
 elements together, either as centre ornaments or for 
 filling panels, other industrial products, such as draperies, 
 ribbons, and cords, occur and are of very great use, — 
 draperies for giving flexible masses ; ribbons for tying 
 together, for filling awkward spaces which often occur 
 in practice, and also for relieving the heaviness of 
 effect likely to result from the use of massive detail. 
 The employment and development of ribbon material 
 comes naturally in some arrangements. In the decoration 
 of an upright panel, when the objects are strung together 
 and suspended, it is desirable not to hide, but to show, 
 the means of suspension, and to present them in as 
 pleasant a form as possible. The inevitable knots, 
 bows, and ends connected with this mode of treatment 
 should be carefully studied for the lines of exquisite 
 beauty which they reveal, not only in historic examples, 
 but, primarily, in actual ones formed of different materials. 
 Their value is mostly to be appreciated in conjunction 
 with other elements, but even used by themselves they 
 furnish very fair ornament (see headpiece, page 10 1). 
 
Plate XXI. 
 
no THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 The flying ends of ribbons assume a variety of curves, 
 the movements of which have been taken advantage of 
 in historic art. Sometimes we have a simple flowing 
 movement (a), at other times the smooth- 
 ness of flow is relieved by a rippling of 
 the surface, which adds materially to the 
 richness of effect (b). On Plate XVIII. 
 are given examples of ribbons, narrow draperies, and 
 knots sketched from actual material, to show the 
 origin of these details which so frequently occur in 
 the ornament of different periods (see Figs, i to n). 
 Further illustrations of the treatment and use of 
 ribbons will be found on Plate XXL, which is devoted 
 to historic examples of the ornamental grouping of 
 armour, tools, etc. Fig. i is a group of musical 
 instruments strung together by drapery, an example of 
 French decoration of the eighteenth century. Fig. 2 
 is a cluster of instruments consisting of a tambourine, 
 trumpets and flutes, with which are entwined wreaths of 
 olive-leaves. The whole group is suspended by a 
 ribbon, the flying ends of which have a rippled surface. 
 Fig. 3 is a modern example of a decorative arrangement 
 of tools by the late Alfred Stevens, and shows a very 
 skilful adjustment of unpromising ornamental material. 
 Fig. 4 is a panel decoration, composed of shields tied 
 together with ribbons. Fig. 5 is taken from a piece of 
 
INDUSTRIAL ELEMENTS. in 
 
 sixteenth century Italian pottery. In this example the 
 ribbons play an important part, and are ingeniously used 
 to fill up the somewhat awkward spaces between the 
 groups of arms, labels, etc.; although the result is not 
 altogether satisfactory, for the redundancy and fluttered 
 character of this element conveys a feeling of unrest and 
 want of repose. Fig. 6 is a modern design composed of 
 musical instruments and art objects, with foliage appro- 
 priate to the idea of the composition. On comparing 
 the foregoing examples it will be seen that where the 
 elements are" so different in form and the groups are 
 suspended, the arrangements are upon the principle of 
 Balance ; but where the forms are selected for their 
 similarity of shape, and the groups are merely superposed 
 on a ground, to which they adhere for support, they 
 approach more or less to a Symmetrical order. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 
 
 WE have now to consider those classes of elements 
 which are derived directly from nature, taking 
 the first subdivision, namely, vegetable forms. Here the 
 material presented to the ornamentist is both varied and 
 abundant, capable of easy adaptation to his requirements. 
 The history of decorative art shows the constant employ- 
 ment of such material, and exhibits also great variety of 
 treatment, from the realistic to the severely conventional ; 
 at times dangerously near to too literal transcription 
 to be consistent with good ornament, at other times 
 only suggesting the originals. When plants are re- 
 produced realistically, they cannot be regarded as orna- 
 ment : because they show no attempt at idealism or 
 adaptation, principles which lie at the root of all good 
 
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 113 
 
 ornament. Therefore, except for symbolic or mnemonic 
 purposes, plants should not have a literal interpretation ; 
 for, as Sir Gardiner Wilkinson points out : " The imita- 
 tion of natural objects, for mere ornamental purposes, 
 usually disagrees both with the material used and the 
 place where they are introduced ; it is also an indication 
 of poverty of invention, and a deficiency of taste in 
 design." So-called decorative art, whose Alpha and 
 Omega consist in the copying of natural details, is the 
 refuge of the ignorant, who, in their narrow view of 
 nature-worship, often grossly violate her laws and 
 principles. In the study of plants for decorative pur- 
 poses, it is necessary that one should become acquainted 
 not only with the ideal forms of leaves and flowers, as set 
 forth in Chapter IV., "Lessons on Decorative Design," but 
 also with their life's history from the cradle to the grave, 
 their habits, the conditions under which they thrive, 
 and the nature of the curves that their varied growths 
 suggest. Rose and tree should be infinitely more to an 
 artist than they are to a mere cultivator of flowers. 
 The latter may revel in the symmetry of his plants 
 and the doubleness of his blooms ; but the former 
 should discover other beauties than those which con- 
 sist in a " well-shaped shrub " or in the complexity 
 of a " doubled flower." Suggestiveness of line and 
 simplicity of form are of more importance to the 
 
114 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 decorator than the peculiarities of the latest product of 
 the scientific cultivator. 
 
 Consider plants in their entirety : roots, stems, leaves, 
 flowers, and fruits, and what a boundless store of sug- 
 gestions are presented to us ! Yet how little some 
 designers avail themselves of them, being satisfied to 
 repeat old conventional forms, or to take the most 
 ordinary ready-to-hand treatments of natural forms, or 
 culling from the pages of some "herbal," and never 
 troubling themselves by personal research for those 
 inspiring motives with which nature has surrounded 
 them. For instance, how often do we see in so-called 
 naturalistic panel decoration pots and vases used as 
 start-points, till one is sick of their wearisome repetition. 
 Not that pots in themselves are bad as start-points, — on 
 the contrary, they are reasonable ones ; but it is their 
 constant repetition, to the neglect of those furnished by 
 nature in the varied roots from which plants spring. 
 The many different forms roots assume afford admirable 
 suggestions, and much more might be done with them 
 than has been attempted. On Plate XXII. are given 
 some types of roots, and Figs. 1-9 show their simple 
 ornamental rendering. Figs. 10-13 show the adaptation 
 of plants, with their natural start-points. In Fig. 10 is 
 given the adaptation of the white lily to a somewhat 
 fancifully shaped space, the earth line entering into com- 
 
Plate XXII. 
 
 TGJ 
 
 I 2 
 
u6 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 position with the bulb and root. Fig. 12 is a study 
 
 from the couch grass, and shows a further ornamental 
 
 treatment of the ground through which the underground 
 
 stem of the plant runs ; Fig. 1 1, the top view of a plant, 
 
 showing the fibrous root developed into tracery, and 
 
 accented so as to form a contrast with the foliage. Fig. 
 
 13 is the conventional treatment and adaptation of the 
 
 root and foliage of the parsnip to a vertical border, the 
 
 tones introduced between the tracery of the rootlets 
 
 being suggested by the element in which it naturally 
 
 grows. These examples illustrate an important law of 
 
 growth, which is too often neglected in ornamental 
 
 work — that reversed growths have distinct points 
 
 of departure, the ascending axis of a plant throwing 
 
 off its leaves in one direction, the appendages of 
 
 the descending axis in an opposite one ; but the 
 
 departure is marked either by a' thickening of the 
 
 intervening portion, or by the line of the earth in 
 
 which it grows. In all good ornament of a flowing 
 
 kind, however conventional it may be, this law has been 
 
 observed, thus : ^a^"J/^ 
 
 ' Z^~ ) 5^*-\ never so 
 
 and, if even < <cr^ ;i> ^' 
 
 more than one start-point is used, a stop is introduced 
 
 to arrest the flow, as at and this, it 
 
 will be seen, is in harmony fh^LdM^fe!? with the 
 
 law pertaining to plant >'; ^P^^ life. 
 
Plate XXIII. 
 
n8 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 In all naturalistic treatments, the direction of stems 
 and their general composition should be closely studied 
 for the ornamental lines that may be abstracted from them 
 for decorative purposes. It follows that the lines so 
 obtained from any plant will be better suited for build- 
 ing up a design founded on that plant than those of a 
 purely inventive character ; there will be a sympathy 
 between the detail and the general construction in the 
 first case that will be wanting in the latter. On Plate 
 XXIII. are given some sketches of trees, and abstractions 
 therefrom, for decorative purposes. Fig. i, drawn from 
 a young hawthorn, is ornamentally treated in Fig. 2. 
 Fig. 3 is an ornamental rendering of a pine-tree shown in 
 the realistic sketch, Fig. 6. The ornamental frieze 
 pattern, Fig. 4, is based upon the lines derived from an 
 espalier cherry-tree. Figs. 5, 7, and 8 are decorative 
 tree forms, the lines of which are abstracted from nature, 
 taken from Italian textiles. Other forms of a similar 
 kind will be found on Plate XV., Figs. 1 and 2. On 
 Plate XXIV. are given some further illustrations of the 
 abstraction of lines from nature for the purpose of 
 getting fresh ornamental elements. The drawings from 
 which they were taken will be found on Plate XXV. 
 Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, Plate XXIV. are simple 
 analytic lines taken from the corresponding figures on 
 Plate XXV. Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 12, Plate XXIV., 
 
Plate XXIV. 
 
 university) 
 
 FGJ 
 
Plate XXV. 
 
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 121 
 
 show abstracted lines and forms from Figs. 9, 12, 13, 
 16, and 17, Plate XXV., which, with others, were 
 drawn from the same tulip flower in the various stages 
 of its growth. Figs. 13 to 20, Plate XXIV., demonstrate 
 the method of dealing with abstracted forms in building 
 up new ornamental details; Figs. 13 to 17 by simple 
 serration of edges, and in Figs. 18, 19, and 20 by the 
 superposition of tones and lines, resulting in the pro- 
 duction of varied elements suitable for use in designs of 
 a conventional type. 
 
 The lower part of Plate XXIII. is occupied with 
 examples of patterns based upon lines abstracted from 
 cloud and wave forms. Fig. 9 shows a sketch from 
 nature, and Fig. 10 its ornamental interpretation. Fig. 
 1 3 is a drawing from nature of waves breaking upon the 
 shore, and Figs. 11 and 12 give ornamental treatments 
 of the same. In Pig. 14 are shown cloud forms from a 
 Japanese book. 
 
 Again, leaves in their various stages of development, 
 from the bud state to their final expansion, together with 
 their surface decoration by veining, superposition of tone 
 and colour, and the shapes of their margins, offer 
 to the ornamentist abundant hints and suggestions. 
 The purity of form and line observable in early plant 
 life, the graceful lines of the tender branches, and the 
 exquisite shapes of leaf-buds, should command attention 
 
122 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 and careful study. A patient investigation of bud forms 
 alone, in early Spring-time, would amply repay the student, 
 for many a hidden delight would be revealed to him. On 
 Plate XXVI. are given a few studies of early leaf-buds. 
 Fig. i is the lilac. Fig. 2 is from the sycamore, and in 
 it are shown different stages in the growth of the buds ; 
 the graceful way in which the lower one leaves the 
 stem, and the composition of line it displays, is worthy of 
 particular notice. Further developments of the buds of 
 the sycamore are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11. 
 Attention should be given in Fig. 9 to the termination 
 of the upper scale of the bud envelope, which is foliated, 
 resembling a sculptured finial. Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are 
 buds of the horse-chestnut in various degrees of develop- 
 ment. They are characterised by a sturdy and vigorous 
 growth, and the forms composing the envelope have 
 very pronounced shapes. Figs. 12, 13, 14, and 15 were 
 sketched from the buds of the ash-tree. 
 
 While leaves, and the forms of leaf-buds, may have 
 been less regarded than their quiet beauty justifies, the 
 same cannot be said of flowers. Their -brilliancy has 
 caused them to be universally admired, and as a con- 
 sequence they are largely used as an element in orna- 
 mental art of all styles. They are more pronounced in 
 styles of a naturalistic character, but modified in what are 
 usually considered conventional styles, such, for instance, 
 
Plate XXVI. 
 
124 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 as the Greek and Roman. In these styles but little use 
 has been made of positive forms of flowers, and the 
 reason is not far to seek. Anything approaching a natura- 
 listic rendering of them would ill accord with the con- 
 ventional lines prevailing in classic ornament ; and so we. 
 find that the terminations to scrolls consist for the most 
 part of groups of leaves disposed in a multi-symmetrical 
 or bi-symmetrical manner, on the principles observed in 
 flowers. In modern practice the results of the classic 
 method have been adopted, and few attempts appear 
 to have been made to further develop the application 
 of similar principles to those which animated the work of 
 ancient times, although the book of nature is still 
 open as of yore. Glance down the pages of any 
 illustrated book on elementary botany, and note the 
 various orders of inflorescence ; and it must strike any 
 thoughtful student in search of ideas and principles 
 how many suggestions are here presented, all of which, 
 if utilised in the same way as was done by the old 
 masters, would lead to good results. For example, 
 take the simplest form of inflorescence, the spike (see 
 small diagrams on Plate XXVII.), and adapt it. Taking 
 its principle of growth, and not any individual specimen, 
 we have a termination perfectly consistent with the 
 scroll, while it harmonises well with the longitudinal 
 character of the border pattern (see Fig. i, same 
 
Plate XXVII. 
 
 warn 
 
126 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 plate). On again taking the capitulum and merely 
 adopting the principle, which is the placing of a 
 number of flowers on a disc or head, as diagram b, 
 it will admirably compose with the spiral lines of the 
 scroll (Plate XXVII., Fig. 2). Fig. 3 shows the 
 application of the principle of an unfolding leaf-bud to 
 the finish of a scroll ; Fig. 4, the ornamental ex- 
 pression of the principle of the glomerule (diagram f) ; 
 Fig. 5, the application of the principle of the scorpioid 
 (diagram d) to a wave line pattern. In Fig. 6 is shown 
 a scroll termination based upon the umbel (diagram c). 
 Fig. 7 is a diaper arranged on the lines of the umbel and 
 scorpioid. Flowers being the crowning glory of plants, 
 and as they are mostly made conspicuous by their 
 distinct colouring, it is essential that they should have 
 some emphasis, whether expressed by line, space, or 
 mass. The purpose of plant life is the production of 
 fruit and seeds, whereby they are propagated. The 
 forms which carry the seeds assume a variety of shapes, 
 and are suitable to the needs of the decorator. Very 
 many require but little adaptation, as their forms are 
 more set and regular than is the case with flowers and 
 leaves. On Plate XXVIII. are given examples. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2 are the seed vessels of the nasturtium, 
 and Figs. 3, 4, and 5 give the different forms assumed 
 by that interesting plant, "love-in-a-mist." Fig. 6 
 
Plate XXVIII. 
 
128 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 presents front forms of the wild rose. Figs. 7, 15, and 
 16 show the seed vessels and appendages of the fox- 
 glove. Fig. 8 is the seed receptacle of the common 
 garden marigold, which is at once a quaint and sug- 
 gestive form. In Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12 are given the 
 <c heads " of different kinds of poppies, and Fig. 14 shows 
 the fruit of the tomato— a useful form for bold deco- 
 ration. In Fig. 17 are given sketches of the fruit of the 
 sweet pea. The ornamental lines, which the envelopes 
 present when they liberate the seeds, are generally 
 of a very attractive character ; and the study of them 
 will furnish many a decorative hint. Fig. 18 shows 
 the cone of the fir-tree — a bold form richly ornamented. 
 It is a natural example of decoration by oblique striping, 
 and in this respect offers a contrast to the vertical 
 divisions seen in such forms as the tomato, poppy, " love- 
 in-a-mist," etc. 
 
 Algae, or sea-weeds, furnish abundant ornamental 
 material; and should not be neglected, for an investiga- 
 tion of their varieties will well repay the trouble of 
 search and research. For designs of a nautical character 
 their use is obvious enough, but their employment need 
 not be restricted to any special purpose any more than 
 other forms of vegetable life. See Plate XXIX., on 
 which are drawn some sea-weeds having decorative 
 possibilities of decided character. At the bottom of the 
 

 
 Plate XXIX. 
 
Plate XXX. 
 
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 131 
 
 same plate are sketched a few selected examples of shells 
 as suggestive forms for ornament. Fungi and mosses 
 should be studied, as they also have great decorative 
 value. On Plate XXX. are shown some varieties, 
 principally drawn from examples appearing in Gerard's 
 " Herbal." The infinite variety of line in the natural 
 grouping and in the shapes of fungi, render them 
 attractive to the eye of the decorator ; while the rich 
 convolutions and continuity of the repetitions in mosses 
 are of nearly equal interest, and their suitability to serve 
 the purposes of backgrounds to plants of higher 
 organisation is at once obvious and suggestive. Again, 
 regarding ferns, it is quite worth the student's while to 
 carefully examine the spores and the way they are 
 disposed on the undersides of the fronds, not only on 
 account of the many beautiful forms examination will 
 disclose, but for the lessons he will receive in surface 
 enrichment by superposition of detail and the varied 
 distribution of masses. On Plate XXXI. are given some 
 drawings made from ferns while under the microscope, 
 showing the various orders in which these curious seed 
 vessels are arranged in spots, groups, and stripes. 
 Lower down on the plate some sketches are given as 
 hints of the way these arrangements may be utilised. 
 The veining seen in the cut timber of trees may 
 
 profitably arrest the attention of the student of design, 
 
 k 2 
 
132 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 not for the purposes of imitation, like house decorators' 
 " graining," but for the sake of the beauty of individual 
 lines and their harmonious arrangement. Illustrations of 
 this kind of natural decoration are here given. No. i 
 
 T4<M 
 
 is from a plank of pitch-pine. No. 2 is a finial from 
 a piece of carpenter's work, in the 
 same wood, in which the lines of the 
 grain fall in with the form, and result 
 in a quaint kind of decoration, re- 
 minding one somewhat of savage orna- 
 mentation. No. 3 is taken from a moulding occurring 
 
 on a piece of furniture made of birchwood. Here the 
 lines flow from the concave to the convex, as if designed 
 specially for the purpose. The headpiece to Chapter II. 
 is a design based upon wood-graining. Plants may be 
 
Plate XXXI. 
 
 FGJ 
 
134 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 used in any of the modes indicated in Chapter I. — i.e., 
 either by "chequering," "diapering," or ''striping," 
 etc., or in any other geometrical order. To adapt 
 them, however, to such lines as the wave, spiral, 
 festoon, or scroll, harmony between the details and the 
 basis of the ornament must be preserved ; and this may 
 be secured in two different ways — either by a careful 
 selection of those plants whose natural growths will 
 easily conform to them, or by a process of abstraction, 
 using them for the creation of detail, so that in combining 
 the natural with the conventional there may be no 
 appearance of copied nature allied with unnatural lines. 
 By the latter method has the so-called acanthus scroll 
 and foliage been generated. 
 
 In the " Lessons on Decorative Design," the develop- 
 ment of this class of foliage, as far as the Gothic period, 
 has been dealt with; and it will only be necessary here to 
 point out that the Renaissance style which followed, re- 
 vived the classic forms, infused into them renewed vigour, 
 but in turn suffered decadence. On Plate XXXII. 
 will be found a few selected examples of historic art 
 which illustrate this. Fig. i, from Italian carved work of 
 the sixteenth century, shows distinctly a revival of 
 the antique — not a mere reproduction, but a develop- 
 ment on classic lines and methods. The leading lines of 
 this design flow with grace and in melodious order ; the 
 
Plate XXXII. 
 
 ^WM<»v»u i MMwnU'tfrrnniMMiiii-m^ ffiw«W3 HMitw> i iM itinT t i 'FIGr (S 
 
 HjllllllliJillllMin 
 
 T=vo.7 
 
 lifllHlllllllllllllllM 
 
136 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 details clothing them are carefully thought out, and so 
 disposed as to relieve any monotony of direction by 
 arresting the attention with various pleasing forms. The 
 foliage from which the ornament starts is strong and 
 vigorous, and the free terminations of the scrolls have a 
 delicate grace. Notwithstanding the so-called conven- 
 tionality of the composition, it forcibly brings to our 
 remembrance the lovely leaf- edges and beautiful bud 
 forms which abound in natural growths. The whole 
 effect of this example is beautiful because of the truth on 
 which it is based, and its consistency throughout is equal 
 to its beauty. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, 
 however, from various causes, chiefly dexterity of hand 
 and less frequent reference to nature, signs of decadence 
 began to show themselves ; the crispness and other 
 characteristics of natural foliage were less and less ex- 
 pressed, and the points of the leaves ran into weak-looking 
 curves, and the vigour, which was such a marked feature 
 of cinque-cento work, was ultimately lost. In the seven- 
 teenth and eighteenth centuries the degradation of a 
 noble detail is still more apparent, and it, in common 
 with other ornamental elements, suffered in a marked 
 degree. The squareness of treatment was given up, the 
 points of the leaves became attenuated and twisted, 
 while the general design betrayed carelessness in compo- 
 sition. On reference to Figs. 2 and 6 it will be seen 
 
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 137 
 
 that effect, rather than beauty, was the aim of the artists 
 of these periods, and such effect as could be obtained by 
 the use of violent contrasts of line, form, and light and 
 shade. To such an extent was this carried, that in the 
 last phase of the style, the " Rococo," the foliage lost all 
 character, and consisted of mere bundles of unmeaning 
 curves (see Fig. 7). Fortunately, at a still later period, 
 a revulsion took place in favour of a better form of art ; 
 a revulsion brought about by the discoveries of ancient 
 Greco-Roman decoration at Pompeii. This led to the 
 formation of the style known in France by the name of 
 " Louis Seize "(Figs. 4 and 5), and in this country as the 
 " Adams style." Although this was an attempt to bring 
 forward a more classic style of design, yet it was classic 
 with a difference, for the previous styles were not 
 forgotten, and their remembrance influenced the practice 
 of the newer form of art. One result is to be seen 
 in the thin and somewhat attenuated foliage, as in 
 Fig. 4. This change for the better did not check the 
 employment of the over-free and rollicking style of the 
 "Rococo," which long survived ; and the great Exhibition 
 of 1 85 1 demonstrated its existence as a favourite style 
 for all classes of industrial art. 
 
 The festoon, which consists of the decoration of 
 the catenary, or swag, with floral details, has been 
 largely used in decorative art, and is useful for obtaining 
 
138 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN.. 
 
 contrasting lines or for the purpose of securing unity 
 in a design. The fully developed festoons are composed 
 of two start-points, from which they hang, and of sheaths, 
 out of which issue the fruit, flowers, and leaves ; these 
 generally increasing in bulk towards the central or lowest 
 part, thus : Sjk Jjj Their treatment should vary 
 
 according ^^U--^ to the character of the design 
 or composition into which they enter, whether light, 
 fanciful, dignified, or severe. 
 
 The historic records of art show that the swag, or fes- 
 toon, is based upon three simple types, more or less invol- 
 ving the catenary curve. 
 
 The first is like a simple ! N.J.^ \j a p ^ ^^JL^ 
 hanging cord or chain, 
 
 having the same weight throughout its entire course ; 
 the second is like a necklace, the details being arranged 
 in bunches ; the third, thicker in the middle and gradu- 
 ating upwards, somewhat resembles a piece of hanging 
 drapery. The order of development, from the simplest 
 form of festoon to the richest, appears to have been : 
 first the elaboration of the parts near the points of 
 suspension by the addition of some purely inventive 
 shapes, and by the arrangement of the ribbons on 
 which the details of the swag are strung ; and then 
 the marking of the central and lower part of the 
 curve by some pronounced feature. Festoons arranged 
 
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 139 
 
 strictly according to the first type can never be quite 
 satisfactory in themselves, because of the want of gra- 
 dation, though they may serve special purposes. It will 
 be found that when they are based on the third type, 
 whether made continuous or interrupted — i.e., when 
 the details are composed in graduated quantities — 
 their design will be of a brighter quality. The festoon 
 is undoubtedly of festal origin. The stringing together 
 of fruits and flowers with ribbons and draperies for the 
 adornment of buildings on joyous occasions, whether 
 secular or religious, would be the readiest and most 
 natural form of decoration for the purpose, and appears 
 to have been indulged in from very early times. 
 
 The beauty of the lines into which these extempo- 
 raneous decorations naturally fell struck the eyes of artistic 
 folk; who, taking advantage of the suggestions presented, 
 were led to construct ornaments from them, but in a 
 more enduring form, in painting and carving. On Plate 
 XXXIII. is given a variety of examples, showing various 
 treatments of this ornament from the simplest form to 
 the most ornate. Fig. 9, from the Greco-Roman, is a 
 simple one, based upon the first type previously alluded 
 to, in which the elements composing it are repeated in 
 one direction and without gradation. Fig. 10, belonging 
 to the same style, is a festoon of more complete form ; 
 the details graduating from the points of suspension 
 
Plate XXXIII 
 
VEGETABLE ELEMENTS. 141 
 
 towards the centre, which is well marked. Fig. 3, also 
 Greco-Roman, is a compact and severe form. Fig. 14, 
 a Roman sculptured example, is heavy and compact in 
 construction ; the ribbon with which the leaves and fruits 
 are tied together becomes a feature in the design ; bows 
 of ribbon form the start-points, and the middle of the 
 festoon is accented by the crossing of this material. 
 Fig. 7 is an early Italian specimen, in which the details 
 graduate in one direction only. Fig. 1 is also an Italian 
 example, possessing all the essentials of a festoon, but very 
 simple in form. Fig. 2 is a richer example of Italian 
 work of the sixteenth century. Fig. 4, another from the 
 same source, is made still richer by the use of a greater 
 variety of detail and a further elaboration of the ribbon 
 Fig. 5 is a somewhat later example, and is arranged upon 
 the second type ; the ends of the ribbon being prolonged 
 and made to play a greater part in the composition. 
 Figs. 11 and 12 are simple forms based on the same 
 type, the one incorporating naturalistic details, the other 
 conventional ones. Figs. 15 and 16 are taken from late 
 French Renaissance, and show the use of drapery with 
 natural group of fruit and leaves. Figs. 13, 17, 18, 19, 
 20, and 21, mostly Italian, are given to show the varied 
 treatment of the parts next to the points of suspension, 
 by the use of ribbon, floral, and architectural forms. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 IN the second sub-division of natural elements we 
 have those derived from animate nature, such as 
 quadrupeds, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. These have 
 always been largely used in ornamental art in a more or 
 less naturalistic manner. The fact that animate forms are 
 more difficult to treat ornamentally than inanimate ones, 
 did not deter the old artists from their use ; on the 
 contrary, they grappled with the difficulties because they 
 were fully alive to the increased interest that animal 
 forms would give to their compositions. In prehistoric 
 art instances occur of their employment in connection 
 with the interlaced ornaments peculiar to those re- 
 mote periods. In point of fact, the art workers of 
 those times appear to have restricted themselves in 
 
ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 143 
 
 their choice of materials from nature to the use of 
 animals only as ornamental elements, rarely using vege- 
 table forms. The reason for this is to be found in the 
 fact that man in his early condition had an intense 
 interest in those animals which aided him in his 
 struggle for existence, such as the horse, dog, reindeer, 
 etc. His interest is recorded by the addition of their 
 representation to his other ornamental details, and arose 
 from his admiration of their usefulness rather than from 
 any appreciation of their beauty of form. Man's chief 
 business in life then being the provision for natural 
 wants and for his own protection, the liking for any 
 particular object, natural or otherwise, was inspired by 
 fitness of purpose rather than by aesthetic considerations. 
 The hard conditions of his life did not conduce to the 
 awakening of his dormant sense of beauty, and so it is 
 only in the later periods, when an easier state was 
 reached, that he became alive to the beauty prevailing 
 throughout the whole natural world. There is little 
 doubt that symbolism in the early days of historic art 
 led to many of the animal details found in the later 
 epochs, such, for instance, as griffins, dragons, and other 
 grotesques. 
 
 In the history of art, it is seen that the formation 
 of any " style " owes much to a preceding one, however 
 much may differ the ruling principles which animate 
 
144 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 them. Hence, in the development of an aesthetic 
 ornamental system, details were often borrowed from 
 a symbolic one on account of their artistic merits, and 
 as offering a vehicle for graceful expression. There 
 being no need or intention to set forth any mystical 
 meaning in adopting such forms, the sole attention was 
 directed to emphasizing and refining characteristics 
 which would harmonise with other details of the style. 
 
 In Egyptian and Assyrian art, we find the use of 
 composite animals, for conveying to the beholder distinct 
 ideas. To put a human head on the body of a lion 
 or bull is, from a matter-of-fact point of view, a 
 monstrous proceeding, but, regarded from a symbolic 
 standpoint, it is perfectly justifiable. To convey the 
 idea of strength and intelligence combined, what better 
 plan could have been adopted than to select a creature 
 having great physical power, and then to give it a 
 human head, which is the symbol of the highest intel- 
 lectual force in nature ? Other forms of composite 
 animals owe their origin to the exercise of the same 
 principle — i.e., by taking the forms of certain creatures, 
 for the sake of their chief characteristics, and combining 
 them with other forms for the expression of a concrete 
 idea. On Plate XXXIV. are given examples of 
 these fabulous animals, creations of art in early times, 
 and upon which the grotesques of later times have 
 
Plate XXXIV. 
 
 SPHINX 
 
 N-WTUR.AU USOUOHIK 
 
146 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 been founded. Some of these may be thus explained : 
 The griffin, composed of the body of a lion, head of a 
 bird, and wings, is regarded as a symbol of watchfulness. 
 The qualities which contribute to this idea of watchful- 
 ness, are strength, alertness, and swiftness. Alertness 
 is accented by the forward position of the ears, as if to 
 catch the slightest sound of approaching danger. The 
 griffin was often used by the Greeks for adorning the 
 acroteria of the pediment of their temples, and is 
 appropriately used in modern times to crown the piers 
 of gateways to mansions and public buildings. The 
 wyvern is a winged serpent, with bird's head and legs, 
 and has the same symbolic meaning, although other 
 qualities are added ; such as subtlety and wisdom, indi- 
 cated by the serpent body, and alertness in hours of 
 darkness, by the bat-like form of the wings. 
 
 The chimaera is a monster combining the forms of 
 lion, goat, and serpent, from whose mouth issue flames, 
 typifying a volcanic mountain in Greece. The reason 
 for the combination of the creatures is thus given : the 
 top of the mountain was the resort of lions ; the middle, 
 of goats ; while the foot of it was infested with veno- 
 mous snakes. Hence it became the symbol of terror 
 and devastation. The dragon, a winged reptile, was an 
 earlv emblem of the evil forces of the natural and moral 
 world. It combines in its formation the terror-inspiring 
 
ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 character of the lizard and serpent, and the swiftness 
 of action which belongs to creatures possessing wings. 
 To intensify its potency for evil, it is often represented 
 as belching forth flames of fire. By some writers it 
 is thought that the root from which the name is derived 
 points to the probability of the term having been applied 
 to meteors or shooting stars, which, in early times, were 
 regarded as potents of disaster and evil. A sketch is 
 given of the natural dragon, so named from its resem- 
 blance to the fabulous creature. The phcenix, a female 
 bird of very beautiful plumage, is supposed, after a life 
 of some hundreds of years, to have built for herself 
 a funeral pile, which with her wings she fanned into 
 flames and was consumed, but afterwards rose from the 
 ashes in all the freshness of youth. This is the accepted 
 symbol of resurrection and immortality. Pegasus, or 
 winged horse, is the adopted symbol of poetical aspiration, 
 from the supposition that it had been in the service of 
 the Muses. Besides this winged horse of the land, we 
 have sea-horses, with and without wings, used as emblems 
 of the watery element, which are generally associated 
 with Poseidon, or Neptune, and the Nereids. The sea- 
 horse, partly horse and partly fish, has fishy appendages 
 affixed to the forepart, at the elbow, and at the 
 extremities of the limbs; and the wings, when added, 
 become fin-like in character, and may be regarded as 
 
 L 2 
 
148 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 developments of the pectoral fins of fishes. The 
 name hippocampus is applied to the sea-horse ; the 
 same term is used to designate a curious little creature, 
 of which a sketch is given. Below the latter examples 
 are drawings of the dolphin in nature and art, to show 
 the points of difference and agreement between them. 
 Fig. i on the same Plate is a prehistoric example of the 
 use of a bird form appropriately applied to indicate the 
 progress of the sun through the heavens. Fig. 2 is an 
 early Celtic illustration of the termination of tracery or 
 interlacing with animal forms. The free and varied 
 growths of plants, with their multitudinous repetition of 
 parts, enable the ornamentist to easily adapt them to his 
 requirements without violence to their nature. 
 
 But in the case of animal forms it is different ; 
 the prescribed number of parts belonging to their 
 organisation must be regarded, and thus a narrower 
 limit accompanies their employment, presenting diffi- 
 culties in the way of successful adaptation that are 
 not met with in dealing with vegetable nature ; 
 difficulties which are greater or less, according to their 
 biological rank. 
 
 To successfully combine natural forms with purely 
 ornamental lines it is necessary that we should analyse 
 them, in order to ascertain the general flow of line that 
 exists in their composition, and thus to secure harmony 
 
ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 149 
 
 in the combination. If this is necessary in adapting 
 plants, how much more important it must be when using 
 animal forms! It is quite possible to carefully and 
 accurately draw an animal form, and yet it may be totally 
 unfit for a decorative purpose ; while it is possible to 
 have a less accurate representation which may have 
 high decorative quality, for the reason that the first may 
 be wanting in composition and continuity of line, while 
 in the latter these may be preserved and emphasized. 
 It is for these reasons that some animal forms found 
 in barbaric ornament are so often ornamentally true, 
 while their accuracy, from a realistic point of view, is 
 defective. 
 
 Besides the inclusion of animals in decoration we 
 have the amalgamation of animal forms with ornament. 
 This practice, dating from prehistoric times, has survived 
 in modern art, and to some extent explains the con- 
 tinuance of this method of treating animated nature. 
 Other reasons will be given, when considering the highest 
 organic form, the human figure, in our last division of 
 natural elements. Birds are particularly useful in adding 
 variety and interest to ornamental compositions. They 
 are graceful in themselves, and associate well and 
 pleasantly with ornament based upon vegetable nature. 
 In scroll work, while their general shapes may flow in 
 with the lines of the ornament, the variety of action 
 
ISO THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 offers opportunities for adding contrast and giving 
 brilliancy and force, relieving the tendency to monotony 
 from the use of oft-recurring curves. 
 
 On Plate XXXV. are given a few examples of 
 the ornamental treatment of quadrupeds and birds. 
 Fig. i, a dog in the act of running after a bird, is 
 adapted to undulating lines clothed with foliage ; and 
 in Fig. i a are given the analytic lines which regulate 
 the composition. Figs. 2 and 3 are examples, from 
 sixteenth century Italian stone carving, of the adaptation 
 of bird forms to ornamental foliage, and Figs. 2b and 3^: 
 show the lines which form the bases of the designs. 
 Fig. 4 is an arrangement of birds and conventional 
 foliage taken from Indian wood carving. It is rather 
 severe in treatment, but the whole pattern is well 
 disposed. Fig. /^d gives the abstracted lines devoid of 
 details. Figs. 5 and 6 are sketches from nature, and 
 Figs. $e and 6/ respectively show the ornamental lines 
 that are to be found in them, and which should be studied 
 when adapting these elements to ornamental purposes. 
 Fig. 7 is a sketch of a dog, given to illustrate the 
 arrangement of the parts of the limbs, which differ from 
 those of human beings ; the extremities consisting of an 
 elongation of the bones of the hand and foot. This 
 figure further illustrates the place from which wings 
 should start, if required — i.e., from the spine of the 
 
152 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 scapular or blade-bone. In Fig. 8 we have the adapta- 
 tion of a deer to an oblong panel. 
 
 Supplemental to this Plate are given drawings of 
 wings and wing structure. On Plate XXXVI., Fig. i 
 shows a wing stripped of the coverts, revealing the bony 
 structure. By comparing this with the drawing of the 
 human arm, Fig. 2, it will be seen that it is a similar 
 structure, but specially adapted by readjustment of 
 parts to the purposes of flight through the air. From 
 what answers to the wrist and fingers of the human limb 
 proceed the long or primary feathers ; to the underside 
 of the forearm are attached the next important feathers 
 — the secondaries ; while the humerus, or upper arm, 
 carries the tertiaries, and to the thumb are attached some 
 small feathers forming what is called the winglet. Fig. 
 3 shows the structure of the wing of a bat. Here there 
 is a different arrangement, but again it will be seen that 
 it is an adapted arm; in this case, the substitution of a thin 
 membrane for the feathers favours noiseless flight. The 
 forearm is extended, and the fingers lengthened ; and the 
 thumb is developed into a hook, by which ^^^ 
 the creature suspends itself when at rest. /0^_ 
 The wings of birds are various in shape, V 
 though agreeing with a general form, which, ^7\_^ 
 however, differs materially from that of bats. 
 The varieties result from the development of parts 
 
Plate XXXVI. 
 
 \A/I NOUT 
 
154 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 according to the nature of these aerial creatures. A 
 wing of rounded form, especially if allied v/ith con- 
 cavity on its inner surface, is not conducive to high or 
 rapid flight, as in the case of the barn-door fowl. The 
 wings of the sparrow (see Figs. 5 and 6) are more 
 pointed and less concave, and therefore are better suited 
 to sustained and rapid progression through the air. 
 Wings of birds that have great rapidity of flight are very 
 much pointed, as the goat-sucker, falcon, sea-swallow, 
 pigeon, and curlew. 
 
 On Plate XXXVII., Figs. 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10, 
 will be found some historic examples of the orna- 
 mental treatment of wings, and their application to 
 animal forms, etc. It will be seen in Fig. 1 that 
 in the Egyptian " winged globe," the emblem of 
 deity, the feathers of the wings are rendered in strict 
 accordance with the severity that characterises that 
 style of art. Notwithstanding this diagrammatic treat- 
 ment, the idea of wings as regards the arrangement 
 of feathers is well preserved, while the all-encompassing 
 nature of this symbolic attribute of the Deity is beautifully 
 and effectively expressed. It is altogether much finer in 
 conception than the similar Assyrian emblem shown at 
 Fig. 3. Fig. 2, given as an example of the way in which 
 symbols are oftentimes rendered in purely aesthetic styles 
 of ornament, is taken from Italian art of the sixteenth 
 

 Plate XXXVII. 
 
 JE&1 
 
156 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 century. Here the general form only of the Egyptian 
 symbol is regarded, the globe is transformed into a 
 shell, and the wings are naturalistically treated. The 
 whole composition is a mere piece of eye - pleasing 
 ornament, having no symbolic meaning whatever. Fig. 
 5 shows the application of wings to the Greek sphinx — : 
 one of the attributes which distinguish it from the 
 Egyptian creature bearing the same name. Fig. 13 
 shows an ingenious conventional treatment of the wings 
 of a bird taken from a fifteenth century textile. Figs. 
 11, 12, and 14 — 19 are illustrations of various wing 
 treatments. Fig. 1 1 is from stained glass. Fig. 12 was 
 taken from a carved wooden panel of the sixteenth 
 century, and Fig. 14 from the base of a bronze candela- 
 brum. Fig. 15 is an illustration borrowed from a 
 painting by Holbein, Fig. 16 from a ceiling decoration 
 by Perugino ; while Figs. 17 and 18 are from modern 
 book illustrations, and Fig. 19 is a sketch from a painting 
 by one of the old masters. 
 
 Besides the structure of wings, the decorative character 
 of the plumage of birds should engage the attention of 
 students of design, not only for the beautiful colouring 
 and detail, but for the hints to be obtained for setting 
 out ornament. The forms and arrangements of spots 
 and stripes are almost infinite in their variety. On Plate 
 XXXVIII. are given some examples of feathers with 
 
Plate XXXVIII. 
 
 
 
 
 Fi<3. a 
 
 
 lrt& 13 
 
 
158 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 ornaments suggested by their markings. Figs, i and 2 
 are peacocks' feathers in different stages of development, 
 and Figs. 8, 11, and 16 are ornaments based upon them. 
 At Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6 are shown some pheasants' 
 feathers exhibiting various arrangements of spots and 
 stripes. Figs. 9, 10, 12, and 13 are simple patterns 
 designed upon the general forms and upon the principles 
 of distribution seen in the natural markings. Fig. 9 
 follows the lines of Fig. 3, Fig. 10 those of Fig. 6, 
 Fig. 12 those of Fig. 4, and Fig. 13 those of Fig. 5. 
 
 Insects have decorative value ; and, although they 
 may not so easily as birds lend themselves to compo- 
 sition of line, yet may be effectively used as spots in a 
 design when contrast is desired. Their shapes are 
 suggestive, while the markings on the wings of some, 
 such as butterflies and moths, afford excellent examples 
 of surface treatment. On Plate XXXVIII., Fig. 7, is 
 shown the application of the marking of a butterfly's 
 wing, given at Fig. 24, to an ornamental repeated 
 pattern.^ The insect, Fig. 17, is translated into an 
 
 * Decoration which mainly consists of the adaptation of natural 
 markings such as are seen on the skins of animals, butterflies' wings, 
 feathers of birds, and in the graining of woods, etc., is sometimes classed 
 as naturalistic. This term applies to another kind of naturalistic de- 
 coration which concerns itself with the idealising of natural forms, as 
 explained in " Lessons on Decorative Design," page 100. 
 
Plate XXXIX. 
 
 OOiXSAU 
 
 CTUJDfl 
 
160 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 ornament at Fig. 18; and in Fig. 19 is given a diaper 
 based upon a similar form. Fishes and reptiles, again, 
 are a fruitful source of decorative material. Their 
 flexibility renders them easy of adaptation to any 
 purpose required. In using them, however, their 
 general arrangement or structure should be borne in 
 mind, and also the principle upon which nature produces 
 her varieties. On Plate XXXIX. a few typical fish 
 forms are given with their ornamental renderings. A is 
 a sketch of an idealised fish showing the arrangement 
 of means of progression — namely, the fins ; the forms 
 of these vary in different kinds of fish. b shows the 
 division of the dorsal fin into two parts. At c we 
 have a large development of the pectoral fins, which 
 have the appearance of wings. The fish shown at r> 
 has a divided dorsal fin, the forepart being enormously 
 developed in length and depth. At e is given the 
 representation of a fish with the back fin divided ; the 
 front portion is developed in height, while the back 
 part is extended in length. F shows another variety, 
 in which there is a suppression of the fins, especially 
 of the dorsal one. At h we have a curious fish in 
 which the dorsal fin is extended along the whole upper 
 border of the creature ; the beginning, at the head 
 developing some graceful appendages. These few 
 examples of natural fish will suffice to show the variety 
 
ANIMAL ELEMENTS. 161 
 
 of lines upon which ornamental fish forms can be con- 
 structed, while below are given illustrations of the 
 method adopted in practice. Thus ic and nc are 
 two renderings of the natural type marked c ; and so 
 on. Snakes and lizards are also useful for decorative 
 purposes, in introducing an element of playfulness, and 
 in relieving the seriousness of constructive composition 
 by their graceful forms and the variety of ornamental 
 lines that they naturally take. On turning back to 
 Plate XXXVIII. the reader will find, in Figs. 20 and 21, 
 examples of snake and lizard taken from a Japanese book 
 on natural history. Serpents have always been favourite 
 forms with designers of all periods. Figs. 22 and 23 
 show a modern and an antique use of these creatures ; 
 the first is taken from the border of a small tray, the 
 second shows their adaptation to the handle of a vase. 
 Shells again, the product of the lower forms of animal 
 life, have great ornamental value, which is attested by 
 their frequent use in historic art, where they are subject, 
 more or less, to modifications according to the style 
 in which they are found. In fact, it is possible from 
 the treatment of the shell to name the style from which 
 it is taken. Natural shells in many cases require but 
 little adaptation when used in simple schemes of orna- 
 ment, yet in others they readily lend themselves to 
 amplification and enrichment. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 OUR third and last sub-division brings us to the 
 use of the human figure in ornament. The 
 human figure is the highest and noblest of all the 
 elements with which the ornamentist has to deal, 
 and is at the same time the most difficult to treat. 
 In spite of this difficulty, however, we recognise 
 the fact that the interest given by the human figure 
 to any decorative scheme, surpasses that imparted by 
 any other elements, be they what they may ; and, 
 parallel with the interest which it excites, is the re- 
 fining influence which it exerts over the elements 
 associated with it. The study of the human form is 
 of such a nature, that it is impossible to pursue it 
 without benefiting the use of the lower elements of 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 163 
 
 ornament and raising their general character. In proof 
 of this, examine a piece of good Italian or English 
 Gothic foliage, and compare it with the best obtainable 
 foliage to be found in Asiatic art ; and it will be seen at 
 once how tame the latter is by the side of the living 
 creations of the styles first mentioned, in which the 
 study of the figure is so greatly fostered. Nor is this to 
 be wondered at, for the subtlety of line, composition of 
 mass, proportion and balance of parts are so perfectly 
 illustrated in the human form, that it seems as if nature 
 had concentrated all her wealth in this one supreme 
 creation, which presents an epitome of the qualities 
 essential to ornamental art. 
 
 In adapting figures to design, it is of the utmost 
 importance that they should harmonise with the flow of 
 the ornament with which they are allied, and with the 
 shape ojfthe space to be filled by them. The mere 
 imitative rendering of the figure is not sufficient for the 
 purpose. Figures so drawn would have the appearance 
 of being " stuck " in the composition, instead of forming 
 an integral part of the whole. To deal successfully, 
 therefore, with the figure as an ornamental element, the 
 student must not depend on merely copying his model, 
 but must idealise by every possible means, — by analysis, 
 and by searching after the ornamental lines which are to 
 be found in the human structure. The study of anatomy 
 
164 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 will to some extent be a help, but should not be relied 
 upon altogether; as it is the surface forms and lines 
 which concern the ornamentist, and they do not always 
 agree directly with the under structures. Perhaps there 
 is nothing more noticeable in a young student's first 
 attempts in drawing the human figure, than his failure to 
 grasp the continuity and beauty of line on which the. 
 unity of the composition of the human form depends, 
 and the general lines upon which its details are built. 
 He does not see, until it is pointed out, that, in the case 
 of a figure standing with the weight upon one leg, as in 
 Plate XL., Figs, i., n., and v., there is a general and 
 controlling line running from the pit of the neck to the 
 inner ankle, which brings into unity all the varieties of 
 form in the trunk and lower limbs. Or, again, in draw- 
 ing the upper and lower limbs,' a beginner invariably 
 seizes upon the details of their shapes, and fails to 
 appreciate their values and the general lines which 
 govern their disposition. In the side view of the leg, 
 he would observe that its outline is made up of a series 
 of convex lines ; and, dwelling upon these details of form 
 and not comprehending their relative values and their 
 subordination to the shape of the whole limb, would give 
 a result like that shown at Fig. vl, Plate XL. Now, 
 a closer observation would lead him to see that, not- 
 withstanding the convex curves of the shin, the general 
 
Plate XL. 
 
166 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 line of the front of the leg is concave, while that of 
 
 the back is convex / ; regard to which fact, while 
 
 adding detail, would give the form as Fig. vn. The 
 
 same with the forearm ; it is often drawn thus : 
 
 but if the general lines were taken into account, 
 as here shown / / , a result like this would be 
 
 given : / / Another example is given in Figs. vm. 
 
 and ix., to which the foregoing remarks apply. Careful 
 analysis of this kind when studying the figure, would 
 not only be a guide to its truthful representation, but 
 would disclose many an instance of subtle composition, 
 confirming and emphasizing the value of the funda- 
 mental principles of ornament : continuity and repetition 
 without monotony, variety without pettiness, contrast 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 167 
 
 without disunion, radiation and symmetry without 
 formality. On the same Plate will be found several 
 examples of the ornamental lines to be traced in 
 figures in different positions. Fig. x. shows the lines 
 of the muscles of the back. Fig. xn. illustrates the 
 composition of the foot with the ground. Fig. xvn. 
 shows the radiation of the lines of the fingers, seen 
 in a partially closed hand. 
 
 Let us now consider the direct application of the 
 figure to decorative purposes (1) for the filling of spaces, 
 such as panels, spandrels, and tympanums. Of course 
 the same rules hold good as those laid down for decora- 
 tion with foliage, but it becomes more difficult, because 
 we v0tey not do with the human figure what we may do 
 with plants ; we have to take figures in their entirety, 
 without adding to their structures. To fill a space, 
 therefore, it behoves the student to study well the lines 
 of his elements, — all the movements of which figures are 
 capable, and any accessories that will aid the work of 
 composition, such as draperies, architectural details, and 
 foliage, so that adaptation to spaces may be effected 
 without undue strain or seeming effort. On Plate XLI., 
 which consists of the adaptation of figures to variously 
 shaped spaces, Figs. 1 and 3 show kneeling figures 
 adapted to a square and circle. It will be seen that 
 in both cases the object has been to evenly distribute 
 
i68 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 the action of the figures so as to fairly fill the shapes. 
 Recognising the rectilinear character of the square, the 
 figure is so arranged that its angularities are brought 
 out, and auxiliary details are so introduced that the 
 whole mass may repeat in a measure the shape of 
 the space. The figure, of course, might have been 
 more severely fitted to its space, thus : 
 but the effort would have been too 
 obvious, as is the case in Fig. 9. In 
 Fig. 3 the curved perimeter is the 
 dominating influence ; so that the de- 
 velopment of angularities is not necessary, except by 
 way of contrast, rounded forms being required for 
 harmony. The curve of the back of the figure flows 
 in an almost parallel direction with the right-hand side 
 of the space, while the vase and spray of leaves balance 
 it on the other side. In the annexed illustration is given 
 an example of the adaptation of the figure to a space 
 bounded by a curve and straight line : 
 Fig. 2, Plate XLL, shows the de- 
 coration of an elliptical-shaped panel 
 by a youthful figure arranged as a 
 " spot " within an imaginary line harmonising with the 
 boundaries of the shape. Fig. 4 is from a design 
 by the late Alfred Stevens, and shows an easy 
 and harmonious adjustment to a given space ; the 
 

 Plate XLI. 
 
 V16 i 
 
 "FIG 2. 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
170 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 leading lines of which are here shown : 
 Fig. 5 is after Godfrey Sykes, and is an 
 excellent example of the filling of a rect- 
 angular space (see the parallelism of the 
 principal mass). At Figs. 8 and n are 
 given examples of figure treatment in spandrels, with 
 analytic sketches showing the lines upon which each 
 is based. In Fig. Za the first line drawn starts from 
 below, parallel for some distance with the arch, after- 
 wards diverging until it assumes a horizontal direc- 
 tion towards the vertical side of the spandrel. Lines 
 corresponding to the wings are then put in to further 
 repeat the horizontal boundary, while the lines of archi- 
 tecture are added to complete the composition. In 
 Fig. lib the starting line radiates from the arch in an 
 upward direction ; and at the termination on either side 
 are horizontal lines. A vertical line is then introduced 
 parallel to the upright side of the spandrel, upon which 
 the details of the wreath, etc., are arranged. Fig. 10 
 shows the figure decoration of a narrow longitudinal 
 rectangular space. Fig. 12 is selected from the 
 illustrations to " Pan-pipes," by Walter Crane, to show 
 how, in quasi-pictorial work, the composition of line is 
 seen ; note the uplifted arm and the line of the left leg. 
 In the history of ornamental art we constantly meet with 
 figures terminating in foliage. Some people there are 
 
7W.E HUMAN FIGURE. 171 
 
 who deride such examples on the score of their im- 
 possibility, and, therefore, not to be used by the en- 
 lightened designers of to-day ; but at the same time 
 do not hesitate to convert the human animal into a six 
 limbed creature by adding wings to the shoulders — a 
 combination no less impossible or monstrous than that 
 they condemn. With such criticism, however, we have 
 little to do, for our business as students is rather to 
 ascertain the reasons for the creation of such creatures, 
 and their employment in art. There are symbolic, 
 harmonic, and other reasons for their artistic existence. 
 The first consideration has been already pointed out ; 
 but there remains an important one, that of scale, a 
 matter of high importance in a complicated scheme of 
 decoration. If it were required to introduce the figure 
 element into a space forming part of a design, it might 
 very possibly be found that the use of an entire figure 
 would give masses too small in size, as in Fig. 6, 
 Plate XL I. But, by using a demi- figure, as in Fig. 7, 
 the defect in respect of scale would be remedied. Here 
 it will be seen that by this means larger masses are 
 introduced, and the quantities throughout the design are 
 thus varied, while the dominant feature of the design — 
 the figure — is accented. 
 
 To prevent a crudeness of effect in the bare use 
 of a portion only of a figure, ornament was developed 
 
172 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 from the sectional line, such ornament having harmonious 
 relations with surrounding details. This treatment may 
 have gradually obtained form in this way. Having 
 found that a half-figure suited the scale of the work 
 in hand, nothing would be more natural than to 
 terminate it with drapery, as in Plate XLII. (a), 
 a method which survives in the termination of 
 sculptured busts ; and, after due elaboration of the 
 folds, any desire for further enrichment was no doubt 
 satisfied by ornamenting the edges of the material 
 by shaping the outline as at b. A little exercise of the 
 imagination would convert these cuttings of the edges 
 into foliated forms, as at c. For the purpose of further 
 harmonising the foliage with the figure, as well as the 
 details accompanying it, the addition was made to grow 
 out of the figure, taking certain anatomical lines for the 
 start, as at d. On the same Plate are given compo- 
 sitions of figures with and without ornament ; figures 
 amalgamated with foliage, and figures used as structural 
 supports. Fig. i. is a design representing a frolic of 
 amorini, by a French artist of the early part of the 
 present century, and below it, Fig. 1.(0), the elemental 
 lines of the composition. Fig. in. shows a composition 
 of figures with conventional foliage to fill an upright 
 panel, and is accompanied by Sketch in. (a), showing its 
 leading lines. Fig. v. is after a drawing by Le Pautre, 
 
Plate XLII. 
 
174 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 illustrating the composition of figures with rich scroll 
 work, and below it is given a diagram of the lines of its 
 arrangement. Fig. iv. is an example of the amalgamation 
 of figures and ornament ; the lines of the latter were 
 suggested by the action of the figures shown in the small 
 sketches at Figs n. and in. Fig. vin. is a drawing 
 of a figure used as an architectural support in place of 
 a column. This application of the human form by the 
 Greeks probably arose out of their misconception of the 
 Egyptian use of figures with their architecture, as at 
 Fig. ix., in which it will be seen that the figure does 
 not support the structure immediately above, although it 
 may appear from the front view to do so. The figure 
 rests against the wall ; and, if it has any structural value 
 at all, which may be doubted, it is that of a buttress 
 rather than that of a column. The Greeks, acknowledg- 
 ing the want of fitness in employing animate forms for 
 the support of massive superstructures, were careful to 
 give to these caryatides, as they are called, a strong 
 architectonic character, which to some extent concealed 
 their inappropriateness. But, notwithstanding the skill 
 shown in their treatment of the subject, the error is but 
 disguised, and forms a bad precedent, a precedent 
 which is answerable for much of the bad art exhibited 
 in subsequent periods in the adaptation of figures to 
 structural purposes. The artists of the Renaissance period, 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 175 
 
 seeing only the idea of using figures in place of columns, 
 and without regarding the artifice practised by the 
 Greeks to cover any weakness of effect, adopted a 
 more or less natural treatment. In the pursuit of 
 gracefulness of line they lost sight of the essential 
 nature of a support : stability and strength ; and they 
 perpetrated caryatides and telamones that conveyed to 
 the beholder an idea of insecurity. See Fig. vn., 
 an illustration taken from a work on architecture by 
 Philibert De L'Orme, also Fig. vi., a still later example 
 from a German source, further showing the neglect of 
 the principle of stability, notwithstanding the employ- 
 ment of strong muscular figures. Take the medial lines 
 of all three of these structures, thus : -,-. 
 and, on comparison, it will be seen what )*\ 
 a much better conception the Greeks 
 had of adapting an unsuitable subject 
 to the purposes of columnar support. J4 
 They based their adaptation upon the 
 strongest line, a vertical one ; their successors on 
 curves, graceful but weak, having no supporting qualities 
 whatever. 
 
 There is another class of architectural supports into 
 which the figure element enters, used in a similar manner 
 to pilasters, called termini, consisting of half-figures, or 
 busts, and united by draperies or other ornaments to 
 
176 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 pillars which taper downwards. In the example given in 
 Fig. xi., it will be seen that the office of support is slight; 
 the general purpose appearing to be that of the decorative 
 filling up of the gap found to exist between the upper 
 architectural projection and the face of the wall, to which 
 the terminal is applied, rather than that of bearing any- 
 actual weight. On Plate XXXVII. some illustrations are 
 shown of the treatment and application of wings to the 
 human form. In Egyptian art the wing feathers are 
 usually attached to the under-sides of the arms, thus 
 avoiding the anomaly which would result by adding the 
 whole of the wing structure, and giving them distinct 
 points of attachment (see Fig. 4). The Assyrians in 
 their winged figures altered this arrangement by making 
 the wings to issue out of the shoulders, giving to the being 
 six limbs instead of four (Fig. 7). Although this 
 method of applying wings to the human subject is to 
 the biologist the least satisfactory, it is the one that 
 survives, and is, at the present time, the accepted way 
 of dealing with these decorative appendages. Figs. 
 6 and 10, taken from vase paintings, show some 
 Greek treatments of wings. In their upper margins the 
 structures of the limbs are well and finely indicated. 
 In the Renaissance examples, shown at Figs. 8 and 9, 
 this outline is much exaggerated, and the curves do 
 not agree with the hidden structure. Fig. 8 is from a 
 

 THE HUMAN FIGURE. 177 
 
 carved wooden chest, and, although the sinuous curved 
 outline of the top of the wings is open to objection, 
 the way in which the wings are applied is reason- 
 able. They are developments of the arms, and not 
 added limbs as in the case of the example below, 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 In the course and current of decorative art, many 
 fabulous creatures, partly human and partly animal, 
 have been created, giving forms upon which artists of 
 later periods have based their grotesques. To Grecian 
 art, the central idea of which was the glorification of the 
 human form, we are indebted for most of the mythical 
 creatures that have been handed down to us. Rocks, 
 trees, woods, mountains, rivers, and seas, Literature and 
 the Arts, had each, in the Greek system, a human repre- 
 sentative, depicted in an ideal form ; and even natural 
 calamities and the vices of mankind had symbols in 
 human guise. When the latter, however, did not, in a 
 sufficient degree, express the idea intended, animal forms 
 were added for the purpose of rendering the symbol as 
 complete as possible. Thus, in their personification of 
 free, untrammelled woodland life, they gave to the figure 
 of a man the legs and horns of a goat to intensify the 
 idea of wild freedom, and hence resulted the mythical 
 forms of Pan and Satyr (see Plate XLIII., Fig. 7). On 
 this Plate will be found other fabulous creatures, which 
 
 N 
 
178 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 may be briefly described. Fig. i is an Egyptian Sphinx 
 having a human head and lion's body. The combination 
 is a symbol of intellectual wisdom and power. The 
 Greek Sphinx, Fig. 2, differs in form from the Egyptian 
 one, as it is always represented as being of the female 
 sex and having wings. It appears to have been adopted 
 as the personification of malignity and mystery. She is 
 credited with the practice of propounding riddles to 
 those who visited her, and of tearing in pieces those 
 who failed to solve them. Apart from symbolism, the 
 gracefulness of the creature's form caused it to be 
 employed in an aesthetic way, and it was a favourite 
 ornamental element, frequently used in. mural decoration, 
 and for the adornment of bronze tripods, etc. It was 
 used in a similar way and for similar purposes in Roman 
 art, subject to modifications (see Fig. 3). At Fig. 4 is 
 shown a combination of half man and half horse, called 
 a Centaur, a creature which appears to have been the 
 symbolic representation of a race of warriors who were 
 celebrated for their great skill in horsemanship. It is 
 said that their skill was so great that rider and horse 
 appeared as one, hence the symbol. Fig. 5 is a similar 
 combination of half woman and half deer, a mythical 
 denizen of the forest. Fig. 6, a Siren, is a beautiful 
 female with bird-like lower limbs, terminated by power- 
 ful talons. Wings are attached to the shoulders. Some 
 
Plate XLIII. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 writers regard this creature as symbolising the unseen 
 dangers belonging to rock-bound coasts. Sirens are 
 said to have possessed wonderful voices, and with their 
 sweet songs to have lured mariners on to their de- 
 struction. By others it is thought that they typify the 
 delusive nature of human pleasures. Figures of sirens 
 holding lyres were often chosen for the decoration of 
 Attic graves, and would thus appear as mourners or 
 wailers. Fig. 9 shows the form of a Harpy, composed 
 of the head of a fair-haired maiden and the body of a 
 vulture. Harpies were credited with wonderful rapidity 
 of flight, greater than that of any known bird, and were 
 considered to be the personification of sudden events. 
 If a mortal suddenly disappeared, the harpies were 
 supposed to have carried him off. If a sudden tempest 
 arose they were regarded as its authors. Fig. 8 repre- 
 sents Triton, the attendant and trumpeter of Poseidon 
 (Neptune), usually depicted as being half man and fish, 
 having a shell which he used as a trumpet, and carrying 
 a rudder in one hand. Fig. 13 shows an infant triton. 
 Fig. 10, the head of Medusa, is an emblem of terror and 
 extreme fear. Medusa was the most celebrated of the 
 Gorgon Sisters, originally a priestess of Athene ; but, 
 having broken her vow of celibacy by listening to the 
 wooing of Poseidon, and ultimately marrying him, was 
 fearfully punished by the goddess ; each of her beautiful 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 181 
 
 wavy locks of hair became a venomous serpent, and 
 her person assumed a horrible aspect. Fig. n is 
 another fabulous creature of the sea — a more peaceful 
 form of siren, called a Mermaid. Fig. 12 is a man- 
 headed serpent, used to symbolise subtlety guided by 
 intelligence. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS— CUPS, VASES, ETC. 
 
 WHATEVER may be thought of evolution in 
 regard to biology, there can be no doubt as to 
 its being an important factor in the development of art, 
 whether we regard the progress of a picture from its first 
 rudimentary conception, or the gradual completion of 
 useful objects based upon some primeval model rudely 
 designed to immediately serve some special purpose. 
 The history of industrial art exhibits the evolution of 
 forms, by the endeavour to fully fit them to the varied 
 necessities of mankind, and to meet the growing wants 
 pertaining to the progress of civilisation. Did space allow, 
 it could be shown how all the familiar and elaborate forms 
 in furniture, jewellery, etc., were evolved out of very 
 elementary beginnings, and how the changes were wrought 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 183 
 
 for reasons of convenience and in accordance with the 
 altering conditions of society. While it is not possible to 
 undertake so comprehensive a task, the purposes of such 
 an inquiry will be served by directing attention to the 
 class of objects named at the head of this chapter — 
 namely, to the consideration of cups, vases, and other 
 hollow vessels, showing their origin and development, 
 and their artistic composition and decorative value as 
 ornamental elements. The origin of these vessels is to 
 be found in the wants of man in his early condition, who 
 required some vessels of capacity, in which to collect 
 water for drinking and other purposes. Doubtless, the 
 cups or bowls were natural ones, such as the hard .rinds 
 of nuts, gourds, shells, and horns of animals (see natural 
 types, Plate XLIV.). These ready-to-hand vessels were 
 found to answer in a rough way the several necessities, 
 and satisfied man's varied requirements, until his faculties 
 were more fully awakened. When, however, a more 
 cultured period in history was reached, we find that 
 objects for similar purposes were fashioned out of plastic 
 materials, and vessels more suited to special needs were 
 made. The natural forms w T hich had been used in- 
 fluenced, more or less, the artificial productions. In 
 early pottery, while some forms were copied from 
 natural types, other shapes were purely inventive, 
 specially designed to meet the increasing wants of 
 
184 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 an advancing civilisation. When a natural cup fulfilled 
 its useful purpose, its reproduction showed but little 
 departure from the original model, but when it was 
 felt that certain requirements were but imperfectly met, 
 modifications took place. When new wants arose, and 
 no natural form answered to his necessities, man's 
 inventive powers were stimulated into action, and this 
 activity resulted in the creation of new vessels, suitable 
 to the particular needs of his improving condition. But 
 while these inventive shapes answered his purpose in 
 some degree, they were necessarily incomplete, as most 
 first conceptions are, and, consequently, we find they were 
 subject to, and modified by, developments in the direc- 
 tion of fitness. Let us take an example by way of illus- 
 tration. The first notion of forming a vessel for catching 
 water from a spring would be a wide-mouthed bowl, 
 with the addition of handles for carrying : 
 Now, although well designed for receiving 
 the water, it was not so well adapted for the 
 after process of conveyance from the spring, because 
 the motion imparted to the large surface of water at 
 the orifice of the vessel, by the act of carrying, would 
 cause it to be easily spilled. For carrying purposes a 
 narrow-mouthed vessel was the better. The two con- 
 ditions, however, of receiving and carrying had to be 
 provided for, and so we find the form has been modified 
 

 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 185 
 
 by a consideration of the double use, thus : 
 Here, while the wide mouth is retained, the 
 underpart is narrowed in order to present 
 a smaller oscillating surface ; consequently reducing 
 the chances of accidentally spilling the contents. For 
 similar reasons we find at the present day that in 
 country places, where water is often carried for some 
 distance in open buckets suspended from a yoke, a 
 float is commonly used, composed of two pieces of 
 wood nailed together crosswise, thus dividing the sur- 
 face of the liquid into narrow sections : 
 Now turn for a moment to the consideration 
 of one of the simplest of the primitive forms 
 of drinking cup, the one, perhaps, suggested 
 by a section of an animal's horn, as Fig. 1, Plate XLIV., 
 a form similar to the modern glass tumbler. This form, 
 as we shall see, is the parent of the modern vase, and 
 has been developed through the successive stages of 
 the beaker and hanap to the fully constituted vase with 
 its multiplicity of parts. 
 
 Throughout the ages mankind has never been wholly 
 contented with merely satisfying his utilitarian require- 
 ments. However well a useful object may have served 
 its special purpose, it has never been allowed long to 
 remain in its bare and simple condition. There has 
 always been a tendency to elaboration, riot only by the 
 
1 86 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 addition of decoration, but by the enrichment or re- 
 finement of the contour of the object itself. This form 
 of elaboration is often the result of a finer perception 
 of the law of fitness, as well as of the desire for beauty 
 and variety of form. The progress of art has always 
 been from the severely simple to the ornate and 
 complex. 
 
 The use of this horn shape in various materials 
 shows it to be a fairly serviceable one ; but to some 
 minds it has appeared that it would be further improved 
 by provision being made to prevent its slipping from the 
 hand, and also from being so easily overturned. The 
 tendency to slip while holding has been counteracted 
 in two ways : first, by alteration of the outline (see 
 Fig. 3) ; secondly, by the addition of a moulding or 
 mouldings (Fig. 4). Stability has been given by ex- 
 tending the area of support, as in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. 
 (In the modern glass tumbler stability is secured by 
 the additional weight of material at the base.) Other 
 changes came about from aesthetic reasons, and were 
 added without interfering with the usefulness of the 
 object ; for instance, after the addition of the foot, 
 greater variety was given to the form by turning in 
 the lower part of the body and introducing a short stem 
 (see Fig. 5). The change in the outline necessitated 
 the addition of a moulding which also marked a further 
 
Plate XLTV. 
 
 3 Bo&y 
 
 CAUX 
 
 TOOT 
 
 rifcii 
 
 T=K>lS 
 
 
1 88 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 division of parts, giving us in a rudimentary way all the 
 members of a developed beaker, which may be enu- 
 merated thus : lip, body, calix, stem, and foot (see 
 Fig. 5). Amongst the early forms of beakers we 
 have four varieties : the straight, the convex, the con- 
 cave, and ogee (see Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 8). The process 
 of development which led to the varieties now given did 
 not stop here ; further changes are to be noticed which 
 resulted from the application of a different principle, 
 to which allusion has not yet been made — namely, 
 the principle of partial development, as (1) the develop- 
 ment of the calix (Figs. 7 and 10); (2) the frieze and 
 lip (Figs. 7 and 18); and so on. For the purpose of 
 keeping out the dust, covers were subsequently added 
 (see Figs. 11 and 14). 
 
 On Plate XL IV. are shown various forms of 
 beakers, including the examples already referred to. 
 Figs. 1-10 are designed to show the different forms 
 developed in early times. The rest of the illustrations 
 are taken from various sources. Fig. 1 1 is a Flemish 
 form of the seventeenth century, Fig. 12 a German 
 Renaissance example, Fig. 13 is modern English, Fig. 
 14 is an old Venetian shape, and Fig. 15 is taken 
 from Flemish stone-ware. Fig. 16 is from a drawing 
 by Holbein, a very graceful composition. Fig. 17 is 
 a -sketch from a German glass hanap in South 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 189 
 
 Kensington Museum. Fig. 18 is Japanese, and Fig. 
 19 from Venetian glass. 
 
 The word hanap now appears in connection with 
 these covered beakers ; but, while there is a show of 
 reason for so naming them — as the term hanap signifies 
 a covered vessel — yet it is usually applied to the next 
 stage of development under consideration. Covered 
 beakers came to be made of large size — so large that they 
 could not be handled without great inconvenience — and 
 this led to an alteration in construction. To make them 
 convenient for lifting, two courses were open, either to 
 elongate the stem so that it might be grasped, or to add 
 a side handle. The first, which immediately concerns us, 
 produced the hanap, the second developed the tankard. 
 With the elongation of the stem came the introduction 
 of another member, the knop (see Plate XLV., Fig. 8), 
 for the purpose of presenting a firmer grip, and to prevent 
 the vessel from slipping in the hand. The stem now 
 being extended, we find that the knob, or finial, of the 
 cover acquired increased importance, and this for artistic 
 reasons. But whether the height of the finial found in 
 some covered beakers called for a more lengthened stem, 
 and directed the choice between the two methods of 
 construction before alluded to, or whether the develop- 
 ment of the knop came in with the elongation of the 
 stem, is of little consequence, seeing that the aesthetic 
 
TQo THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 result is the same. The various parts of a hanap as now 
 developed are illustrated at Fig. 8, Plate XLV. We 
 have now to see what further developments took place 
 in the process of elaboration. As luxury advanced, 
 these drinking vessels became enriched in every possible 
 way, and were ultimately regarded as articles for show 
 rather than as articles for use — as rich adornments for 
 rooms of state to be displayed on special occasions. 
 The possession of such articles often indicated wealth ; 
 and even the particular form of dtage upon which they 
 were placed indicated the rank of the owner. The 
 enrichment of these hanaps appears to have been 
 mainly effected by three modes of procedure, all of which 
 bear upon the contour : first, by adding variety to the 
 outline ; secondly, by developing parts ; and thirdly, by 
 sub- division. To these methods some allusion has 
 already been made in reference to beakers ; but their 
 full importance will be better appreciated when con- 
 sidered in relation to the more fully developed vessels. 
 One important alteration in the outline arose out of the 
 nature of material and the method of working. The 
 ductility of metal allows of its being wrought into cups 
 of great lightness, a quality requisite for a vessel to 
 be handled ; but, though a cup of this kind should be 
 light on this account, it is necessary that it should 
 also be strong to resist any damage to its surface by 
 
Plate XLV. 
 
192 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 indentation. So we find that one method employed 
 consisted of bulging or beating out the light material 
 into certain regular forms, and thus securing the two 
 important desiderata : lightness and strength : 
 This characteristic mode of working, while 
 answering its useful purpose, was soon adopted 
 as a decorative feature, and was often used on certain 
 parts of these objects for the sake of artistic balance 
 alone (Plate XLV., Figs, i, 4, 5, and 6). Another 
 source of enrichment, arising out of construction, was 
 found in the necessity of adding small cast metal 
 supports at different points of the stem, to give 
 strength and stiffness to the whole. These were in 
 the first place adopted to counteract any pressure that 
 might be brought to bear upon the vessel. The part 
 where undue strain and, therefore, injury was likely to 
 occur, was at the junction of the calix and stem (Figs. 
 3, 6, and 7). These supports, while they gave firmness 
 to the work, produced a pleasing effect, and doubtless 
 suggested to the mind of the worker extended applica- 
 tions. Hence their use soon became a matter of orna- 
 ment, and details of this kind were applied where they 
 were not actually requisite, but merely as contributing to 
 the aesthetic effect. Like all other ornaments arising 
 out of necessity, these have been abused, and, where 
 little or no restraint has been exercised in their use, they 
 

 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 193 
 
 have degenerated into fussy and unmeaning adjuncts, 
 as in Fig. 11. It has been pointed out how some of 
 the variations in the general forms of beakers may- 
 have arisen, and examples have been given. These 
 changes were retained in the subsequently developed 
 hanaps, as will be seen in the collection of examples 
 on Plate XLV. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 2 are hanaps of the Gothic period, show- 
 ing rich decorative use of bulbous forms. Fig. 3 is from 
 a seventeenth century example of English goldsmiths' 
 work ; Fig. 4 belongs to the same period. Fig. 5 is an 
 illustration of the fanciful treatment of the bulbous forms, 
 originally beaten out to give strength to the metal, as 
 already explained, and adopted by many masters of the 
 sixteenth century. Figs. 6 and 9 are sketches of rich 
 hanaps taken from etchings by Virgil Solis. Fig. 7 
 was drawn from a small vase of the cinque -cento 
 period, in the South Kensington Museum. Fig. 8 is a 
 diagram showing all the various parts of a hanap to 
 which the reader's attention has already been called. 
 Fig. 10 is taken from an Italian example. Fig. 11 is 
 from a design by one of the " little masters of Germany." 
 The four diagrams on the lower part of the Plate are 
 given to show the probable lines of construction of some 
 of these vessels. The small arrows indicate the hanap 
 to which each belongs. 
 
194 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 A change in the shape of the lip, which led to the 
 formation of the fully developed vase, has yet to be 
 noticed. The body of the vessel, instead of terminating 
 in an open lip, as in beakers and hanaps, was gradually 
 closed in, and a shoulder formed like an urn. The 
 object for this does not appear, but probably it came 
 about from following some different natural type, such as 
 a gourd. This turning-in of the lip necessitated, for 
 some purposes, the introduction of another member, a 
 "neck," the upper margin of which, turning outwards, 
 received the cover (see Plate XLVI., Figs, i and 2). 
 Here, then, we have all the parts of a complete vase. 
 Any further enrichment of contour was effected by the 
 sub-division of the various parts, rather than by the 
 addition of any new members (with the exception 
 of handles, which will presently be considered). The 
 sub-division into minor parts by the addition of 
 mouldings not only has the effect of enriching the 
 contour (see Figs. 13 and 14), but gives fineness of 
 character to the work ; and, what is of more im- 
 portance still, expresses the quality of strength. By 
 the introduction of mouldings at the 
 different changes of curvature, al- 
 most any outline, however weak, may 
 be made firm and strong (see Fig. ). 
 
 The rest of the examples on Plate XLVI. illustrate 
 
Plate XLVI. 
 
 
 9ueowiofro 
 
 2 
 
 S&X 
 
 tTNIVERsiTir) 
 
196 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 the various developments of vases. Figs. 3 and 4 are 
 Italian designs, given to show the different treatments of 
 the neck and lip, particularly the latter, which is rounded 
 inwards. Figs. 5 and 6 are Japanese variations of the 
 neck and lip (the covers are absent). In Fig. 5 the 
 neck is vertically developed and merged into the lip, 
 which is greatly expanded. In Fig. 6 the body and 
 neck are repressed, while there is an enormous expansion 
 of the lip. Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10 are given to illustrate 
 the development of bottle-like forms. Fig. 7 is a 
 Sardinian shape, Fig. 8 is Greek, Fig. 9 Japanese, and 
 Fig. 10 Indian. Fig. 11 is an Italian vase of the 
 fifteenth century, simple, and well balanced in form and 
 decoration. One illustration is given at Fig. 12 of a 
 carved vase, wherein the plan is angular instead of round, 
 from a design by Gibbs, an architect of the eighteenth 
 century. Fig. 15 is a rich and sumptuous two-handled 
 vase, in the Italian style of the latter end of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 From the vase a class of useful hollow vessels ap- 
 pears to have been developed, to 
 which carafes and various other 
 bottle shapes belong. These forms 
 result from an elongation of the neck 
 immediately above the shoulder, thus : 
 (see also Figs. 9 and 10), serving as a handle by 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 197 
 
 which it might be lifted up. Some examples, however, 
 are often met with which seem to indicate that they 
 were primarily suggested by natural forms, like cala- 
 bashes or other gourds, and developed in like manner. 
 The development of the upper portion of these bottle- 
 like forms was accompanied by the gradual suppression 
 of the stem ; ending in its total disappearance owing 
 to its being no longer useful. 
 
 Another form of cup, the chalice, appears to have 
 been developed from the primitive bowl. In ancient 
 Greek art we have <£ a^ ~3jgj& drinking bowls raised on 
 a short stem, thus : 3S These furnish examples 
 of the initial stages in the course of development. The 
 next step seems to have been the elonga- 
 tion of the stem and the suppression of the 
 side handles, which became unnecessary : 
 
 This form of drinking cup is the one that was most 
 generally adopted for religious purposes, and many of 
 the subsequent changes in its form were brought about 
 by considerations of structure, and of the nature of the 
 special functions which it had to serve. The knop 
 was added to the stem for the reason which led to 
 its adoption in the case of the hanap. The base, 
 however, was, for ritualistic reasons, greatly extended 
 beyond the dimensions assigned to similarly shaped 
 vessels; it often exceeded the diameter of the bowl 
 
198 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 itself. This was done in order to minimise the danger 
 of upsetting the chalice and so spilling the precious 
 wine which it was designed to hold. An accident of 
 this kind was held by ecclesiastics to be a very 
 serious matter, and, therefore, it. was to be provided 
 against in every possible way. Hence the form became 
 as in Fig. i, Plate XLVII. Another change arising 
 out of special use was the alteration of the plan of the 
 base from the circular to a more complicated form. It 
 was the ancient practice to place the chalice, after use, 
 to drain into the paten. A circular base would render 
 the object liable to roll out of its position, and so, to 
 prevent this, the base was either indented, scolloped, or 
 angularised, as in Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7, and as shown in 
 the small plans, a, 6, c, and d. Here, then, we have the 
 main characteristics of the chalice : small bowl, tall stem, 
 knop, and wide non-circular base. The earliest form 
 of chalice differed but little from the old classic drinking 
 cup mounted on a stem ; but gradually departed from it. 
 In the earliest departure, the bowl became a plain half 
 globe, the stem tall and the base spreading. Subsequently 
 the bowl became deeper and straight-sided, the stem still 
 higher, and the base shaped. Coincidently with these 
 changes in general form, enrichment of the profile and 
 surfaces of these objects came in. The stem was en- 
 riched by sub-division as in other vessels. Certain parts 
 
Plate XLVII. 
 
 W&S.i; 
 
2oo THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN, 
 
 appear to have received special attention, such as the 
 knop and the base ; the large surface presented by the 
 extended base offering a fine field for the decorative 
 artist. The fullest advantage was taken of it, and here 
 all the resources of art have been expended (see 6, 7, and 
 8, Plate XLVIL). The knop has also been subject to 
 artistic enrichment, but often it has been unwisely treated 
 (see k t Plate XLVIL). The useful purpose which 
 originated this enrichment has been lost sight of by 
 the decorator, pointing a moral that decoration should 
 never interfere with usefulness, and that effect is not 
 the only consideration to be regarded in designing 
 ornament. 
 
 Further illustrations are given on the same Plate of 
 chalices belonging to different periods, exhibiting the 
 various changes, already alluded to, which have taken 
 place in their development. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are 
 diagrams showing the alteration in stems and bowls. 
 Figs. 3 and 5 are thirteenth century examples. That of 
 a chalice discovered near Dolgelly, North Wales, 1890, 
 is from a sketch which appeared in The Illustrated 
 London News of that year. The other is taken from 
 Sir Digby Wyatt's book on " Metal Work." Figs. 
 6, 7, and 8, also from Wyatt's " Metal Work," are later 
 examples, as shown by the deepened bowls, and the 
 decoration of these and other parts of the vessels. The 
 
XXWIVJEHSIT 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 201 
 
 remaining illustrations show the elaboration of the 
 chalice during the Renaissance period. Figs. 10 and 11 
 are sixteenth century examples, and respectively are of 
 Spanish and Italian workmanship. Fig. 9 is French 
 of the eighteenth century, while Fig. 12 is Italian, taken 
 from a drawing in the South Kensington Museum. 
 
 We will now pass on to the consideration of another 
 class of hollow vessels, the jug and ewer. These appear 
 to have been evolved by a different process from that 
 which generated the vessels already dealt with — i.e., by 
 adding a side handle for lifting, instead of using the stem 
 for that purpose. Ewers may have been derived from 
 vases and beakers in this way, as an examination of 
 various historic examples suggests : by repressing the 
 stem, as its office is superseded by the addition of the 
 handle at the side ; and by cutting the lip obliquely 
 downwards, as at a and 3, the 
 
 beak c formed by the process e \ y^\ c ^) ^T^v 
 being afterwards developed and \ a %s^ [ <r §/ 
 
 shaped to further facilitate the IgjT V M 
 
 deliverance of liquids. Some 
 
 forms of these are shown on Plate XLVIII., Figs, c, 
 d, and f, with sketches in plan at a, b, e, g. 
 
 The records of ancient Greek art will supply ex- 
 amples of objects, so developed, which have furnished 
 the moderns with models for imitation and elaboration 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 (see Plate XLVIIL, Figs, i, 2, 4, and 5). An important 
 consideration in the application of handles to pouring 
 vessels is their proper relation to the lips and spouts of 
 those objects, so that the weight of the vessel and its 
 contents may not be against the action of pouring. Too 
 often mistakes are made in this respect by either follow- 
 ing some antique model which was formed for another 
 purpose than that of pouring, or by treating the handles 
 as ornamental adjuncts, without regard to their full and 
 complete usefulness. Take any ewer with a tall handle, 
 and endeavour to ascertain by a few experiments which 
 part of the handle it is best to grasp for easy lifting, 
 reversing, and delivery of its contents ; and it will be 
 discovered that it will be at a point near to, and a little 
 above, the centre of gravity of the whole mass. This 
 shows that it is of the highest importance to determine the 
 central point, # in order that the handle may be placed in 
 right relation to it and in balance with the lip ; that the 
 
 * This may be sufficiently accomplished in the following way : 
 Cut out in cardboard the form of the proposed vessel, and regard 
 it as a section of a vertical plane passing through the middle of 
 it when in an upright position. Draw a vertical line through the 
 centre of the card, then suspend it from any convenient point in 
 its edge, and from that point let fall a vertical line crossing the 
 first. The intersection of the two lines will be the centre of gravity 
 required. 
 
Plate XLVIII. 
 
 T(6 
 
 HANDLE 
 
 1V?<S.£ 
 
 ri& ii 
 
 C3MPO&1NO 
 
 with B°oy &\ 
 Lip 
 
204 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 action of lifting and reversing, for discharging the contents, 
 may be accomplished with the least possible effort. This 
 adjustment of handles, according to the balancing centre 
 of vessels of capacity other than those for pouring, 
 applies with equal force to such as are used for carrying 
 by suspension or by support 
 
 On Plate XLVIII. are given examples of ewers 
 and jugs, illustrating the treatment and adjustment of 
 their handles. Figs, i, 2, 4, and 5 are Greek forms 
 of simple character, with handles more or less usefully 
 applied and pleasantly composed with their shapes. 
 Fig. 3 shows a richly decorated ewer, attributed to 
 Benvenuto Cellini. The handle is not well placed for 
 lifting and pouring ; but, although in this respect it is 
 not useful, the handle is of graceful form, and is well 
 composed with the vessel it adorns (see the dotted lines). 
 Fig. 6 is another ewer of the Italian Renaissance, the 
 handle of which, like that in the former example, is 
 placed too high for ease in handling. In this case, 
 however, the defect is somewhat atoned for by the 
 space between the lower attachment of the handle and 
 the " neck," thus allowing the handle to be grasped 
 at a more convenient place. Fig. 7 is an Italian shape, 
 on which a small winged figure is placed in front to 
 balance the fanciful handle. It would appear from this 
 that the designer was more careful to bring all parts of 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 205 
 
 his design within a symmetrical outline than to make 
 a serviceable object. Fig. 8, an example of French 
 Renaissance, is of simple form, the stem and foot of 
 which are rectangular in plan. The handle is well 
 placed for fulfilling its purpose. Fig. 9 is an elaborately 
 ornamented ewer by an unknown artist of the sixteenth 
 century, and is another example of attaching a handle as 
 an ornament instead of for easy use. Figs. 10, 11, and 12 
 show the proper adjustment of handles with due regard 
 to composition, and the shapes to which they are 
 applied. 
 
 Besides jugs and ewers, we have other varieties of 
 hollow vessels with side handles, such as tankards and 
 flagons. The tankard used for drinking purposes was, 
 as before intimated, developed from the covered beaker. 
 The type upon which it was generally formed appears 
 to have been one having a wide-spreading base, as in 
 Plate XLIX., Fig. 1. Some historic examples are met 
 with which follow a type having a necking as in Fig. 4 
 on the same Plate. In addition to the handle, a dis- 
 tinctive mark of tankards is the attachment of the 
 cover to the top of the handle by a hinge, and a small 
 lever or thumb-piece for lifting it up. 
 This arrangement enabled the drinker, 
 while grasping the handle of the vessel 
 and conveying it to his mouth, to raise the lid by simply 
 
206 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 pressing the lever with his thumb. The uncovering of 
 the tankard by this means did away with the necessity of 
 retaining the finial, which was essential for removing the 
 unattached cover of the beaker ; and so this feature was 
 either partly repressed or discarded altogether. When 
 used, how T ever, it is only for aesthetic reasons, as a matter 
 of composition, and to correct what to some may appear 
 to be a too abrupt termination of the object. Tankards 
 are mostly cylindrical in general form ; the varieties 
 which deviate from this shape are similar to those 
 beakers which they appear to follow. Later, however, 
 these vessels taper upwards. This alteration in form 
 led to the flagon, which is distinguished from the 
 tankard by increase of size and the narrowness of the 
 mouth; the latter being sometimes developed into a beak, 
 or spout. On Plate XL IX. are given various forms of 
 tankards and a flagon, to further illustrate the foregoing 
 remarks on these vessels. Figs, i, 2, 4, and 5 show 
 elementary forms of tankards, from the squat cylindrical 
 shape to the more elegant tapered form, which finally 
 resulted in the flagon. Figs. 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 
 are decorated examples, which in most cases appear 
 to follow the lines of the former, and which also illustrate 
 the repression of the finial, to which allusion has been 
 made. 
 
 Having now traced the development of a few of the 
 
Plate XLIX. 
 
 Fl6 IS 
 
 fig »/ 
 
 K*2 
 
(ppf 
 
 208 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 important hollow vessels, it will be well to offer a 
 few remarks upon handles generally. Handles may- 
 be broadly classified into: first, those which have a 
 vertical direction (see Figs. 1, 2, 3), and, secondly, 
 those which are horizontally disposed, as 
 They are attached to vessels designed 
 for various purposes. The particular 
 purpose of any individual object determines the form 
 of handle to be used, whether of the first or second 
 kind. Vertical handles are appropriate for lifting and 
 pouring vessels, horizontal ones for vessels for carrying 
 and transporting liquids. Of the first class there are 
 varieties — namely : (a) those which are attached at one 
 point only, (b) others which touch at two points, while 
 others (c) are attached along the whole of their inner 
 surface. We have now to look at their ornamental 
 development. The extremities of handles where they 
 joined the body of the vessel to which they were applied 
 naturally widened out to give a large connective surface, 
 that the attachment might have the 
 fullest security. These parts were the S$ 
 first to receive decorative attention, 
 and hence we find them elaborated ^ (I 
 as shown in sketches here given : 
 Again, to the middle. part of the handle, attention was 
 directed to fit it more perfectly for its purpose. A 
 smooth handle of uniform thickness (see Fig. 1) would be 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 209 
 
 liable to slip in the hand, and so it widened out, either 
 
 gradually, or by adding distinct prominences according 
 
 to convenience {see Fig. 2). This also offered a field for 
 
 decoration of which advantage was taken, and at last the 
 
 ornamentation extended throughout its entire length 
 
 {see Fig. 3). Some vertical handles are often seen which 
 
 combine the horizontal principle in their construction — 
 
 i.e., their extremities spread out laterally — and, while 
 
 being more decorative, appear to have a firmer hold of 
 
 the vessel to which they belong (Fig. 3). Handles, 
 
 having only one point of attachment, were subject to 
 
 different forms of development, arising from difference 
 
 of character and from the use to which they were put. 
 
 The upper part, being detached, terminated differently, 
 
 and often finished with a scroll turned inwards. This 
 
 served the purpose of checking any tendency to slip in 
 
 the hand, and consequently there was no necessity, as 
 
 in the preceding variety, to introduce anything in the 
 
 middle for the same object ; and so there was one point 
 
 less from which ornament could reasonably be developed. 
 
 For further illustrations of the treatment of vertical 
 
 handles the student is referred to Plate XLIX., where 
 
 he will find other examples, besides those applied to 
 
 tankards, at Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. 
 
 The object in tracing the development of these 
 
 varieties of cups, etc., has been to show their inventive 
 
 and imitative origin, and to direct the attention of the 
 
 p 
 
2io THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 student to the first principles which should guide him in 
 his endeavours to originate new forms. While he must 
 largely cultivate his inventive faculty, he must limit its 
 exercise by the particular necessities of the case. The 
 brief survey we have been able to give indicates that 
 some forms with which we are familiar were originally 
 suggested by natural objects. This source of inspiration 
 is always open to us, and many a valuable hint may be 
 culled from nature and utilised by the designer. He is 
 not to copy natural forms wholesale, and force them to 
 serve other purposes than those intended by Nature 
 herself ; but to adapt by his inventive powers any sug- 
 gestion which they may yield. For example, the form of 
 the acorn (a, Plate L.) may arrest our attention, and we 
 may desire to adapt it to a cup of the hanap type. We 
 first take the form, having regard to the subtlety of curve 
 and general proportion ; here our imitative work ends, 
 and our inventive power begins its function. To make it 
 serve the purpose of a covered cup, we cut it across and 
 put on a moulding to mark the division, and to provide 
 a fitting for the cover. We then add a knob for raising 
 the cover, and a stem for support, by which the whole 
 vessel can be lifted (see Fig. i, Plate L.). 
 To simply copy the form and raise it upon a 
 " rustic " stem with leaves, and, for fear of 
 disturbing the likeness to the original, to 
 conceal, as far as possible, the opening, thus : 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 211 
 
 is a procedure which, while it may please the thoughtless 
 and unskilful, cannot but make " the judicious grieve." 
 To look to nature for models for imitation is to narrow 
 our means ; to study nature for suggestions is to widen 
 our resources. Leaves, buds, flowers, fruits, and animal 
 forms will all yield to the diligent student ideas which 
 will stimulate his inventive powers. On the same Plate 
 are given other illustrations of the adaptation of sug- 
 gestive natural forms. Fig. 2 is a design for a jug, 
 based upon the acorn. Fig. 3 a vase, suggested by the 
 general form of a leaflet of the horse-chestnut sketched 
 at b. Fig. 4 shows a form derived from the outline of 
 the campion flower, as at c, and immediately below (Fig. 
 6) is another shape obtained from the same natural form 
 by utilising the space between two drawings 
 of it. From the human form, which of all 
 created things contains the most beautiful and 
 subtle lines, can be extracted many pleasing 
 shapes by simply repeating the contour of some 
 detail on either side of a vertical axis, thus : 
 or by filling in the space occurring between two profiles 
 symmetrically disposed, as shown on Plate L., Figs. 7, 
 8, and 9. Of course, in selecting a natural form for 
 the purpose of new shapes, it will be desirable to 
 consider its suitability to the particular case in hand, 
 whether for a useful or a purely decorative object. 
 Again, other means of developing varieties of form 
 
212 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 will be found in lateral and vertical expansion, partial 
 development^ and varying the angle of inclination. 
 In designing a vase or cup, the attention naturally centres 
 on the body first ; and, whether we start with a purely 
 inventive form, or one suggested by nature, the next 
 difficulty that presents itself to the student is the com- 
 position of a stem and foot suitable to the main part of 
 the vessel. A good method to aid the accomplishment 
 of this end is to continue the general line of the body 
 downwards in a simple and easy way, forming a pleasant 
 shape that will harmonise with the form above, and to 
 let that outline regulate the profile of stem and foot. 
 By this means it will be found that, whatever projections 
 may be made, will be in an agreeable and progressive 
 order. An extended application of this method to the 
 whole design is often desirable, either by way of testing 
 the various projecting parts, or for the purposes of 
 development. For instance, suppose that to a completed 
 design an outline of a simple form be applied, it may 
 then appear that a moulding or some other feature of 
 the composition could, with advantage, be extended or 
 repressed. By reversing the process, starting with a 
 simple controlling shape and developing the form within 
 it, the student will be more likely to secure those 
 qualities, so important in a design (see Plates XLV. 
 and XLVIII., where the controlling lines are indicated) : 
 
 * See Chapter IV., " Lessons on Decorative Design." 
 

 Plate L. 
 
 TIO 14- 
 
214 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 
 gradation and unity. Whatever methods may be 
 adopted in order to realise original and beautiful forms, 
 proportion and stability must be regarded, for, without 
 these, the composition would be defective. Good pro- 
 portion will depend largely upon the variety in th< 
 dimensions, both lateral and vertical. When these are 
 equal, or nearly so, the less satisfying will be the general 
 effect ; because there will be too much repetition, and, as 
 a consequence, a lack of interest and vivacity due to the 
 absence of variety and contrast (see Plate L., Figs. 10 
 and n). But while it is important that in the adjust- 
 ment of parts there should not be equality of quantities 
 or dimensions, neither should the other extreme prevail. 
 The differences should be such that, while they are 
 apparent enough to give pleasure to the eye, they 
 should not be so great as to interfere with the repose 
 and unity of the design. Excitement from too much 
 contrast is exhausting ; too much repetition is wearisome. 
 To secure agreeable proportion, therefore, in dividing 
 the height, there should be a leading or dominant 
 division, to which all others should be in pleasant 
 relation ; while simple controlling forms, imagined or 
 drawn, will regulate and limit the lateral projections 
 in harmonious proportion. It will be obvious that 
 what has been advanced as regards proportion in the 
 general shapes of vases, applies with equal force to 
 the laying out of the surfaces of plain forms for decora- 
 
THE EVOLUTION OF INDUSTRIAL OBJECTS. 215 
 
 tion, whether divided by vertical, horizontal, or oblique 
 lines. If horizontal, they should be graduated agreeably 
 to the outline ; if vertical, the spaces will naturally 
 graduate with the shape to which they are applied. To 
 ensure the necessary amount of uniformity, the spaces 
 will have to be repeated round the circumference in 
 regular order, and may be in equal or alternating 
 quantities. The necessity for unequal divisions in this 
 latter case is not so great as in the first, as it is not 
 possible to view circular vases, so divided, without 
 the- modifications of perspective. In Figs, e, f, g, h are 
 shown four different ways of setting out surface decora- 
 tion on vases : by spotting, oblique, horizontal, and 
 vertical striping. Two or more of the methods may 
 be combined, or the whole surface may be covered 
 with a pattern. Stability is another condition which 
 should be observed ; every form that may be classed 
 with these under consideration, should not only be made 
 to stand firmly and well, but should have the look of 
 being well balanced. A vase may be constructed with 
 a narrow foot and be made quite secure by loading or 
 weighting the base ; but this will not make the work 
 satisfactory to the eye, for, notwithstanding the device, 
 it will always look insecure and unsafe. Apart from the 
 necessary width of the base, there is another way in 
 which the quality of stability is likely to be interfered with 
 — namely, in the use of animals and figures in place of a 
 
216 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DESIGN. 
 
 proper structural stem. A figure made to support a vase 
 or cup, and more particularly if in action, will convey to 
 the mind an idea of unsteadiness, no matter how well it 
 
 may be executed. Besides which, the use 
 of figures for direct support will always 
 be productive of painful impressions by 
 reason of constrained positions and im- 
 plied continuous action. To use them is 
 an offence against good taste, and there- 
 fore to be avoided. Carelessness in 
 design has much to do with errors of this 
 sort ; harm is often wrought by want of 
 thought. When figures have been used 
 in this faulty way, as in No. i, it is often 
 apparent that a similar effect might have 
 been obtained, with a more satisfactory 
 result, by using them in conjunction with 
 a more reasonable support, as in No. 2. 
 
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