UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES CAUFORNli ANGKLE3 LIBRARY CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES HON. W. TEMPLEMAN, MINISTER; A. P. Low, LL.D., DEPUTY MINISTER; MINES BRANCH EUGENE HAANEL, PH.D., DIRECTOR. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BRANCH R. W. BROCK, DIRECTOR. JOINT REPORT ON THE BITUMINOUS, OR OIL -SHALES OF NEW BRUNSWICK AND NOVA SCOTIA ALSO, ON THE OIL- SHALE INDUSTRY OF SCOTLAND PART I. ECONOMICS PART II. GEOLOGY BY E. W. ELLS, LL.D., F.E.S.C. OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1909 55561 :N"os. 55 and HOT 150363 -rM GENERAL PREFACE. The following report on oil-shales is divided into two parts: (1) a monograph on the economic aspect of the subject, dealing with the practical tests made during the summer of 1908 at one of the largest, modern oil-shale works in Scotland, of nearly fifty tons of oil-shale, mined in Albert county, New Brunswick; and (2) a treatise on the distribution, geological position, and character of the oil-shales of various countries particularly those of Scotland and of eastern Canada; in which is included a description of the mining, retorting, and distillation of oil-shales, and consequent production of crude oil; together with an account of the economic treatment of the various by-products; and a special chapter on the chemical aspects of the mineral oil industry. The testing of the New Brunswick oil-shales was conducted on a large scale, and with complete success, at the Pumpherston Oil Company's works, MidCalder, Edinburgh county, Scotland. The various operations were performed under the direct supervision of Dr. E. W. Ells representing the Mines Branch of the Department of Mines, Canada and of Mr. W. A. Hamor, assistant to Dr. Charles Baskerville, of the Science Faculty of the College of the City of New York acting for the Albertite, Oilite and Cannel Coal Company, of that city. Geological and topographical maps showing the general struc- ture of the district, and distribution of the known areas of the Albert shales (oil-shales) in the counties of Albert and Westmorland, New Brunswick are being prepared by Mr. Sydney C. Ells, B.A., B.Sc., and will be issued in the near future. The photographic illustrations of the Pumpherston, and Broxburn Oil Works were specially taken for this report by permission of the managers of the respective plants. 565&-1J CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES MINES BRANCH HON. W. TEMPLBMAN, MINISTER; A. P. Low, LL.D., DEPUTY MINISTER ; EOGENB HAANEL, PH.D., DIRECTOR. PART I REPORT ON TESTS MADE IN SCOTLAND OF OIL-SHALE SENT FROM NEW BRUNSWICK IN THE SPRING OF 1908, WITH A VIEW OF ASCERTAINING ITS ECONOMIC VALUE: ESPECIALLY AS RE- GARDS THE YIELD OF CRUDE OIL, AND SULPHATE OF AMMONIA BY E. W. ELLS, LL.D. OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1910 No. 55. I. INVESTIGATOR'S INSTRUCTIONS. OTTAWA, May 2, 1908. To Dr. K. W. ELLS, F.R.S.C., &c., Geological Survey, Ottawa. SIR, You are instructed to proceed to Scotland for the purpose of witnessing and reporting upon the distillation tests to be made for the Albertite, Oilite and Cannel Coal Company, on fifty tons of oil- bearing shales from the New Brunswick shale deposits. Your report is to contain a description of the process in detail, of the machinery employed, and such details as to costs of plant and labour required as will enable prospective operators to form a judgment as to the feasibility of introducing the process successfully in Canada. Photographs, blue-prints, and working drawings of the different parts of the plant are, if possible, to be obtained, and samples of the by-products taken for analysis in our laboratory. Yours faithfully, (Signed) EUGENE HAANEL, Director of Mines. CONTENTS. PAGB. Introductory 9 Official Keport of the Pumpherston Oil Co., Scotland, on the New Brunswick Oil-shales: 11 Fractionation Actual Yield of Crude Oil, and Sulphate of Ammonia. 11 Kefining Method A, described 13 B, " 13 Kenned Products : actual yield by method A 14 : B 14 Products and Samples: quality of 15 Analyses of uncondensed gases 15 Analyses of Oil-shales at New York, U.S.A 17 " " " Ottawa, Canada 17 Scotch Oil-shale Industry: 18 Descriptive Geology 18 List of seams developed 19 History of oil-shale industry 21 Statistics 24 Eetort capacity of Works 25 Mining costs 26 Manufacturing costs 26 Wages 26 Prices of output 27 Output 1873-1904 27 Estimated Cost of Installation of Plants for Retorting and Distillation 27 Market Stock Value of six leading Scotch Companies, manu- facturing Mineral Oil, etc., from bituminous shales. . 29 Commercial Value of Oil-shale 34 Value of New Brunswick Shales tested 34 Cost of Mining and Retorting Shale 35 " " Manufacturing Ammonium Sulphate 35 5 6 PAGE Appendix I. Technology of Scottish Oil-Shale Industry, by W. A. Hamor: Crude Oil Works :? 37 Retorts 38 Retort condensers 43 Ammonium Sulphate Plant 44 Stills 44 Refinery 47 Operations 48 Costs 54 Products of Manufacture , 54 ILLUSTRATIONS. Photographs. Page. Plate I. General view of Pumpherston Works. . . . Frontispiece. " II. General view of Refinery, Pumpherston Works, Scot- land. . 10 " HE. Experimental Bryson Retort, used for testing New Brunswick Shale, Pumpherston Works, Scotland. 12 " IV. Battery of Stock Tanks, Pumpherston Works, Scotland 14 " V. Bench of Retorts, with Condensers attached, Pump- herston Works, Scotland 16 " VI. Battery of Stills, front view, Pumpherston Works, Scotland 18 " VII. General view of Broxburn Refinery, Broxburn, Scot- land 37 " VIII. Breaker House, showing trams from mine and to retorts, Broxburn, Scotland 40 " IX. Discharge from Breaker, Broxburn, Scotland. ... 40 " X. Discharge from bottom of Breaker, showing pair of toothed rolls, Broxburn, Scotland 40 " XI. Bench of Retorts, Broxburn Works, Scotland. ... 42 " XII. Condensers, Pumpherston Works, Scotland 42 "XIII. Endless tram conveying shale from breakers to re- torts, Broxburn, Scotland 44 " XIV. " Bings " or heaps of spent shale, with tramway from Retorts to Summit, Broxburn Works, Scotland. . 46 " XV. View in Refinery, Broxburn Oil Works 48 Drawings. Fig. 1. Young and Beilby Retort. 38 " 2. Bryson Retort 39 " 3. Henderson Retort 41 " 4. Beilby's Ammonia Column Still 45 " 5. Two Trays of Henderson's Ammonia Column Still. 46 " 6. Connected Boiler Still 48 7 REPORT ON TESTS MADE IN SCOTLAND OF OIL-SHALE SENT FROM NEW BRUNSWICK IN THE SPRING OF 1908, WITH A VIEW OF ASCERTAINING ITS ECONOMIC VALUE, ESPECIALLY AS REGARDS THE YIELD OF CRUDE OIL, AND SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. BY K. W. ELLS, LL.D. Introductory. Although large suins of money have been spent in attempts to establish a mineral oil-industry in connexion with the so-called Albert shales of Albert and Westmorland counties, New Brunswick by retorting in the earlier stages of the industry (1860 to 1864), and by subsequent borings at a number of places all such attempts to place the industry on a commercial basis have failed. The success, however, which has attended the enterprising Scotch companies engaged in the manufacture of oils from shales in Scotland, led the leading company interested in the oil-shales of New Brunswick to send a comparatively large shipment of raw material across the Atlantic, with a view of having the same properly tested in one of the Scotch works. In pursuance of this plan, from 45 to 50 tons of oil-shale were mined during the winter of 1907-8, from one of the bands which occur at Baltimore, Albert county, viz., the George Irving seam. In March, 1908, the Company referred to the Albertite, Oilite and Cannel Coal Company, of New York, U.S.A. shipped this output to Glasgow. On representations being made to the Honourable the Minister of Mines, W. Templeman, Esq., M.P., with regard to the great importance of a practical test being made oi the oil-shales of Canada, under government supervision, I w-s com- missioned by Dr. Eugene Haanel, Director of the Mines Branch of 10 XEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES I TESTS the Department of Mines, to proceed to Scotland to supervise the operations, and report on the distillation tests made. This was accordingly done, and the following is an account of my investiga- tions. On the part of the Albertite, Oilite and Cannel Coal Company, New York, U.S.A., Mr. W. A. Hamor, chief assistant to Dr. Charles Baskerville, the Dean of the Science Faculty of the College of the City of New York, was appointed to oversee the experiments on behalf of that Company, and to especially look after the technical part of the chemistry of the distillation. In July, arrangements were made with Mr. W. Fraser, the managing director of the Pumpherston Oil Company, to undertake the complete testing of the New Brunswick consignment at their works situated at Mid- Calder; since this Company is practically the only one in Scotland provided with an experimental retort of the regulation size, and pre- pared to do work of this kind on a commercial scale. The shale was accordingly delivered to the works, and on being passed through the retort, was found to work very readily, without clogging, the whole process of the initial retorting, and subsequent fractionation of the crude oil, being entirely satisfactory. The crude oil and sulphate of ammonia were determined from the retort; while the final distillation was carried out in the laboratory. The Company's official report on the testing of these shales, conducted on such a large scale, is interesting technically, and of considerable importance commercially. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 11 Official Report of the Pumpherston Oil Company, Scotland. Yield of crude oil and sulphate of ammonia obtained from New Brunswick oil-shale, passed through the experimental retort at the Pumpherston works, Scotland. Date Crude Oil. Sulphate of Ammonia. Shale used. "Roma. Ira 1908. Produced Sp.gr. Yield per ton. Yield per ton. Tons. Cwt.. Gals. Gals. Lbs. July 25. 26. 2 4 2 6 95-85 99-45 885 907 43-57 4324 58-55 60-51 Not included in aver- age as shale in pre- vious test was not all out of retort until July 26. July 27. 2 74-44 920 37-22 75-38 28. 2 5 86-13 917 38-28 70-62 29. 2 7 90-37 911 38-88 70 01 30. 2 3 81-80 920 38-04 83-18 31. 2 5 84-63 916 37-61 67 46 Aug. 1. 2 3 96-87 918 45-06 82-73 2. 2 3 84-32 921 39-22 79-58 3! 2 4 89-42 927 40 64 81-88 4. 2 4 79-56 918 34-59 79-27 Condenser chest chok- 5. 2 3 86-75 910 40 35 55-47 ed. 6. 2 5 88 70 922 39-42 82-81 Condenser chest clear- 7. 2 3 87-38 918 40-64 100-69 ed. 8. 2 4 88-43 921 40-19 62-45 9. 2 3 95-72 918 44-52 79-63 10. 2 3 91-28 911 42-46 81-31 11. 2 79-90 925 39-95 71-14 12. 2 87-58 925 43-79 85-03 36 15 1,473-28 919 40-09 76-94 Total shale received Put through before test Tons. Cwt. . 41 5 4 10 Total Put through during test 36 15 41 tons, 5cwt. Signed for the Pumpherston Oil Co., Ltd. G. M. McClJLLEY, August 13, 1908. Assistant Secretary. 12 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS On the whole, therefore, it may be said that the results of the retorting of these shales on a working basis, are eminently satis- factory, both as regards th<; yield of crude oil and sulphate of am- monia: exceeding in these respects the greater part of the Scotch shales, which have been worked for many years. The peculiar differences in the yield of these substances from day to day are difficult of explanation, except that they may be due to variations in the composition of the mineral as taken from the shale- bed itself; possibly to carelessness in mining, or to the inclusion of portions of wall rock in some parts of the shipment. The Baltimore bed from which this special shipment was selected, is not one of the best; judging from the physical character of the shales themselves, and by analyses of other beds in the vicinity. This particular shale may be described as being of medium grade: as regards both its oil and ammonia contents. Had similar tests been made of the oil- shales from other local beds they would, doubtless, have given even better results. This has been definitely ascertained by the analyses recently made by Dr. Baskerville, of the College of the City of New York; as will appear from his report on tests of material from several seams found near Baltimore, and other parts of the shale field. In fact shales from the Baizley seam, and from that near E. Stevens house, have shown a much larger percentage both in crude oil and in sulphate of ammonia than the consignment tested in Scotland; due to the different composition of the shale, which is largely of the curly variety, and shows its rich character by the numerous black streaks of a mineral resembling, in some respects, albertite. At the close of the process of retorting, the crude oil was ready for the f ractionation test ; which was carried out by the chief chemist of the Company, Mr. E. M. Bailey. This part of the work was very systematically done; and Mr. W. A. Hamor, of New York one of Dr. Baskerville's assistants supervised the progressive processes employed. The report of Mr. Bailey, chief chemist, endorsed by the manager, is very satisfactory, and may here be given. The fractiona- tion was carried out in the Company's laboratory; since it was im- possible to make such a test in the large works of the Company, owing to the necessity, in such a case, of stopping the regular process of manufacture of their own oil-products. KxpiTimcntal Bryson Retort, med for testing New Brunswick shale, Pnmphenton Works, Scotland. 5656 plS SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE 1NDUSTBY 13 The official report on fractionation is as follows: THE PUMPHERSTON OIL COMPANY, LIMITED. Test of shale received from Canada, through Dr. K. W. Ells. Crude oil made between July 27, and August 12, 1908, in the Pum- pherston Eetort. The crude oil was dealt with by two different methods, for the purpose of obtaining refined products of good quality. The liquid products produced by both methods were practically identical in quality when finished; but the colour of the crude paraffin wax or scale, derived from method B, was much superior to that produced by the use of method A; which is a point of consider- able practical importance, when the conversion of the crude wax into refined wax of marketable quality is under consideration. It is probable, however, that further treatment with acid (before the soda treatment) of the crude distillate obtained by method A, would have the effect of so transforming the material that a crude wax of good colour could be subsequently extracted. As far as the percentage yield of refined products is concerned, however, the results are very similar, whichever method of refining is adopted. The following is an outline of the scheme for refining the crude oil: Method A The crude oil was distilled and fractionated info (1) crude naphtha, and (2) crude distillate. The crude distillate was treated with sulphuric acid (1-84 sp. gr.) and caustic soda solution (1-35 sp. gr.), then again distilled, and fractionated into (3) crude burning oil, (4) heavy oil, and (5) residuum. Nos. (1) and (2) were further refined by treatment with acid and soda, and distillations. No. (4) was cooled to a low temperature and filter pressed, to extract the solid paraffin (6). The blue oil (7) was filtered from (4), treated with acid (1-72 and 1-84 sp. gr.), and soda (1-34 sp. gr.), distilled off solid caustic soda, and fractionated into various pro- ducts ; the refining of some of these being completed by a final treat- ment with acid and soda. Method B The crude oil was treated with sulphuric acid (1-22 sp. gr.), then distilled and fractionated into (1) crude naphtha, and (2) crude distillate. The crude distillate was treated with sulphuric acid (1-72 and 1-84 sp. gr.) and caustic soda solution (1-35 sp. gr.), 56562 14 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS then again distilled, and fractionated into (3) crude burning oil, (4) heavy oil, and (5) residuum. No. (4) cooled and filtered gave solid paraffin (6) and blue-oil (7). No. (7) was then treated with acid (1-84 sp. gr.) and soda, dis- tilled off caustic soda, and fractionated into various products; the refining of some of these being completed by a final treatment with acid and soda. TABULAR STATEMENT OF REFINED PRODUCTS. (Method A.) Product Gallons per 100 gals, of Crude Oil. Specific Gravity. 60 F. Setting Point. Deg. F. Melting Point. Deg. F. 1 62 0-7670 Burning oil Gas oil Cleaning oil 10 04 14-87 2'83 0-7954 0-8431 0-8713 25 25 9'58 0'8957 30 2'26 112-26 93 101-0 Residuum from blue oil (refined) it from treated crude distillate (refined) 0-28 1'27 43-68 Total crude wax containing 4% oil = 3' 19 gals. = 2 '907 gals, refined wax, melting point 108-98. Sulphuric acid used in refining 100 gals, crude oil = 4 "705 gals. (1"84 sp. gr.). (Method B.) Product. Gallons per 100 gals, of Crude Oil. Specific Gravity. 60 F. Setting Point. Deg. F. Melting Point. Deg. F. Heavy naphtha 1-45 0'7670 Burning oil. . . . 11-50 0-7955 Gas oil 13 04 0'8450 25 Cleaning oil . . 1-56 0-8705 26 Lubricating oil '. . . . . Crude wax . . 11 03 2 21 60 0-8935 30 111-3 104 0.16 84 Residuum from blue oil (refined) ii from treated crude distillate (refined) 0-57 1-95 47-07 Total crude wax containing 4% oil = 2 '97 gals. = 2 '2707 gals, refined wax, melting point 108' 38 F. Sulphuric acid used in refining 100 gals, crude oil = 4 '68 gals. (1 84 sp. gr.). Flash point of burning oil : 117 F. (Abel Close test.) Viscosity of lubricating oil : 200" (seconds) at 70 F. (Redwood's apparatus.) 565b-pl4 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 15 REMARKS ON QUALITY OF PRODUCTS AND SAMPLES. Considering the quality of the crude oil and the nature of the mineral (which we do not consider a true oil-shale) from whence it is derived, I consider the quality of the refined products very satis- factory. The samples are representative of the products obtained by both methods of refining. It will be easily understood, however, that it is practically impossible to mix these in precisely their due propor- tions, hence the physical constants of the samples are not perfectly identical with those given in the tabular statement, but are only a close approximation thereto. As it is impossible on a small scale to extract all the lower melt- ing point portions of the crude wax by direct cooling and filter- pressing; the specific gravity and setting point of the cleaning oil and lubricating oil given in the statement differ somewhat from those of the samples submitted ; the specific gravity of these oils, and yield of low melting point crude wax (equivalent to 0-93 and 0-73 on the crude oil) being calculated to what would be obtained by a reduction in setting point to that obtainable on the manufacturing scale. The calculation is based on data derived from actual experi- ment, and is perfectly reliable. It must be understood, however, that the yield of high M.P. crude wax (equal to 2-26 and 2-21 per cent) is that actually extracted and determined. (Signed) EDWIN M. BAILEY, PUMPHERSTON OlL WORKS, Chemist. MidCalder, Scotland, September 21, 1908. THE PUMPHERSTON OIL COMPANY, LIMITED. Test of shale from Canada through Dr. K. W. Ells. Crude oil made from July 27, until August 12, 1908, in the Pumpherston Patent Ketorts. The retort gases, if passed through an oil scrubber, would yield some crude naphtha. Analysis of uncondensed gas, after leaving ammonia water scrubber and returning to retort combustion chamber: 5656-2i 16 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS (Average of three analyses of five samples) (Air-free). Carbon dioxide (CO,) 28-67 per cent. Carbon monoxide (CO) 5-06 " Olefines (C^HJ 1-33 Methane (CHJ 11-02 " Hydrogen (H 2 ) 52-92 " 100-00 " Calorific value = 305-1, B.T.U. per cubic foot, (N.T.P.). Specific gravity = 0-613, (Air = l). Weight per cubic foot = 0-0492 pounds. (Signed) EDWIN M. BAILEY, Chemist. Signed for the Pumpherston Oil Co., Ltd. K. G. McCULLEY, PUMPHERSTON WORKS, Assistant Secretary. MidCalder, Scotland, September 19, 1908. While a number of analyses of the oil-shales of New Brunswick have been made from time to time by various persons, the places from which the greater number of the samples were collected could not be definitely located, hence the results obtained are of little commercial value. After my return from Scotland a number of the shale areas were again visited, and well-chosen samples weighing some twenty pounds each, were collected from several places: including Taylor- ville, Albert Mines, Baltimore, Turtle creek, and Hayward brook; in order that a thorough analyses of these might be made in the laboratory of the Mines Branch of the Department of Mines. These analyses, when completed, will give accurate and reliable results as regards crude oil and sulphate of ammonia, and will be of great economic value. Arrangements were also made to obtain samples from several localities in Nova Scotia; but the samples from these places have not yet arrived. In the meantime the results of analyses made in the laboratory of Dr. Charles Baskerville, Dean of the Faculty of Science in the College of the City of New York, are given, as illustrating the economic values of these shales in crude oil and sulphate of am- monia; and for the sake of comparison with known results obtained from the Scotch shales at the principal works in Scotland. 5G56 p!6 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 17 Analyses of oil-shales from New Brunswick, made by Mr. TV. A. Hamor, in the laboratory of the College of the City of New York, under the direction of Dr. Charles Baskerville: Locality. Imp. gallons of crude oil per ton. U. S. gallons of crude oil per ton. Sp.gr. Pounds of ammonium sulphate per ton. Shale retorted in Scotland George Irving's seam tame as above . . . 40 39 54 49 30 43 48 37 51 48 47 65 59 35 51 58 44 61 0'920 0-895 0-895 0-892 0-895 0-900 0-910 0-925 0-910 77 76 110 67 75 93 98 110 M 111 Baizley farm, Baltimore E. Stevens farm, Baltimore Hay ward brook branch of Prosser brook A. Taylor's farm, No. 1 A. Taylor's farm, No. 2 Sample (85 Ibs.) from Baltimore- run in 1907 Samples of the bands of oil-shale which outcrop on Frederick brook at the Albert mines, also from Baltimore, and from Taylor- ville, were collected during the past season for the Mines Branch of the Department of Mines. A new plant for the distillation of oil- shales has recently been installed in the chemical laboratory of the Mines Branch, Ottawa, and the analyses of the above-mentioned samples, made by Mr. H. A. Leverin, are submitted herewith. It will be perceived that the percentages both in crude oil and in sulphate of ammonia are very high in most of the examples. Locality. Imp. gallons of crude oil per ton. Sp. gr. Pounds of sulphate of ammonia per ton. Albert Mines- Sample No. 1 48-5 0-898 82'8 38'9 0'892 60'3 3 45-5 0'891 48 '0 M 4 Albertite 43-5 27-0 112-0 0-896 0-895 0-857 56-8 49-1 65-4 Two samples of the thin-bedded or ' paper ' shale from Albert mine, of which there are immense quantities, gave Baltimore shale 40-8 33-5 52'0 0-892 0-890 0-904 41-0 47-0 112 - 2 E Stevens 45-5 0-892 70'0 Turtle creek, West br. grey sh Taylorville shale 56-8 42 3 0-891 0-897 30-5 96-5 2 47 3 0'901 88'7 Taylors farm No 1 46*8 0-902 85*0 45-0 0-903 101-0 18 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS Analyses of grey and black shales of Baltimore made by Eicketts and Banks, N.Y., 1893. From the grey bands, probably of Turtle creek Moisture 1-10 1-54 Vol. matter 45-32 51-22 Fixed carbon 1-29 3-03 Ash 50-69 44-21 Sulphur 1-70 100-00 100-00 From the black bands Moisture 0-36 0-64 Vol. matter 39-50 45-52 Fixed carbon 3-00 5-05 Ash 56-10 48-79 Sulphur 1-04 100-00 100-00 THE SCOTCH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY. Inasmuch as considerable interest is now being taken in Canada with regard to the development of the Scotch oil-shale industry, the following extracts from a recent paper in 'Economic Geology,' 1908 by Mr. D. E. Steuart on the early history of the oil-shale in- dustry of Scotland, may be given: 'The Torbanehill mineral was used for about twelve years in Scotland for paraffin oil manufacture. Some was exported to the continent of Europe, and to America for the same purpose. After that time (or about 1862) it became exhausted. The distillation of shale was commenced early in the sixties and has continued ever since. Gas and parrot coals were also used. Throughout the Coal Measures many bands of shale were found, often in connexion with the coal seams. Above the coal seam there was often a thin bed of shale, and under the coal a thin bed of black-band ironstone. Shale seams were worked in the Clyde valley coal-fields, in connexion with the Flint and Virtuewell coals, the mussel-band ironstone, and the Kiltongue coal. In Fife, Midlothian, Lanarkshire, Stirlingshire, Eenfrewshire, and Ayrshire, shale and bastard parrot coals were worked in the Coal Measures, Millstone-grit, and mountain limestone. 6666 pi 8 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 19 In the early and flourishing days of the industry, shale or gas coal was worked for oil at various places in the English coal-fields also, namely in Yorkshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and Staffordshire, and especially in Flintshire, North Wales. In Flint, the Leeswood cannel- coal seam was from 5 to 6 feet thick, in a limited basin-shaped area. All have been stopped for years. ' When American petroleum was imported in large quantities the prices of products fell, the richer cannel-coals were used for gas making, and the bastard parrot coals and shales of the Coal Measures both in England and Scotland ceased to be mined; so that for many years the manufacture has been confined to the shales of the Calciferous sandstone.' The highest seam formerly worked for oil in the West Lothian district was the Torbanehill mineral, already referred to. Thia occurred at the base of the Coal Measures, overlying the Millstone- grit. In this connexion it holds the same geological position as the stellarite found in the Pictou coal-basin of Nova Scotia, where this mineral occurs near the base of the Coal Measures, and overlying the Millstone-grit of that area. In the list of seams which occur in the Scotch shale field, this bed of Torbanehill mineral may be styled No. 1 as regards position. The yield of oil was high, ranging from 90 to 130 gallons per ton. The other shales worked from time to time in the Scotch areas, several of which have long since been abandoned, may be described in descending order: No. 2. A seam of 11", Levenseat shale, yielding 29 gallons per ton, worked probably as the parrot coal seam, belonging to the lower Carboniferous limestone formation. Yield of oil about 34 gallons, and of sulphate of ammonia about 8 pounds. No. 3. From the Calciferous Sandstone formation, the upper shale is the Kaeburn or Damhead shale, 3'-0" to 5'-0" thick, some- times 6'-0", including layers of blaes or fireclay. Worked at West Calder, Tarbrax, and Charlesfield. Oil 54J gallons, sulphate of am- monia 14 pounds. No. 4. Mungle or Steuart shale, 2'-0" thick at West Calder. A 2 ft. seam of coal was worked at Broxburn by Robert Bell, together with 17" shale, yielding 27 gallons of oil per ton. There were 4" of ironstone above the shale. At another point in the Brox- burn field there were 17" of shale, giving 41 gallons crude per ton, 20 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS the average yield being 34 to 35 gallons oil, and 80 pounds sulphate of ammonia. No. 5. The grey shale of Addiewell, about 20" thick, the crude oil yielding much solid paraffin; the shale giving crude oil 28 gallons, and sulphate of ammonia from 13 to 18 pounds. No. 6. The Fells shale, from 3'-0" to 5'-0" thick at West Calder, and in places about 7'-0"; mined at Addiewell, Tarbrax, Breich, Seafield, Hermand, and Pentland. It is the principal shale of the West Calder district. Yield of oil from 26 to 40 gallons, and of sulphate of ammonia 20 to 35 pounds. No. 7. Wee shale of Oakbank; 2'-0" thick, not worked; oil, 36 gallons. No. 8. Big shale of Oakbank; 4'-6" thick, used at Oakbank; oil, 22 gallons. No. 9. Wild shale of Oakbank, or Lower Big shale, the grey shale of Broxburn; worked at Oakbank and Broxburn, 6'-0" thick; oil, 29 J gallons; sulphate of ammonia, 34 to 41 pounds. No. 10. The Curly shale of Oakbank and Broxburn; mined at Broxburn, Oakbank, and Dalmeny; 6'-0" thick; oil, 22 gallons; sulphate of ammonia, 35 pounds. No. 11. The Broxburn shale, varies in oil from 10 gallons to 50 gallons, includes several seams, of which at Broxburn there are three, the Broxburn grey, 6'-0" thick, giving about 23 gallons oil and 35 pounds of sulphate of ammonia; the Broxburn Curly, 5'-6" thick, with 26 gallons of oil, and 38 pounds of sulphate of ammonia; and the Broxburn, from 5 to 6 feet thick, giving oil from 28 to 35 gallons, and 40 pounds of sulphate of ammonia. No. 12. Lower Wild shale of Oakbank, 5'-6" thick, gives oil 19i gallons per ton. No. 13. The Dunnet shale, from 4'-0" to 12 / -0' / thick, yields 24 to 33 gallons oil and 24 pounds sulphate of ammonia. The shales vary considerably at different points. No. 14. The Oakbank New shale, 8'-6" thick, gives 20J gallons oil. No. 15. The Barracks shale, sometimes 8'-0" thick, yields from 18 to 22 gallons oil. SCOTTISH OIL-SHAI/E INDUSTRY 21 No. 16. The Pumpherston seams, five in number, as under: (1) or Jubilee seam; thickness, 8'-0"; oil 18 gallons, sulphate of ammonia 55 pounds. (2) Maybrick seam; 5'-Q" thick; oil 16 gallons, sulphate of ammonia 60 pounds. (3) or Curly seam; 6'-0" thick; oil 20 gallons, sulphate of ammonia 60 pounds. (4) or Plain seam; T-Q" thick; oil 20 gallons, sulphate of ammonia 60 pounds. (5) or Wee seam; 4'-0" thick; oil 18 gallons, sulphate of ammonia 60 pounds. The History of the Oil-shale Industry in Scotland. For much of the information on this subject the writer is in- debted to the notes of Mr. D. K. Steuart, and to the volume by Mr. Iltyd Redwood, 1897, entitled: 'A Practical Treatise on Mineral Oils and their By-products.' Apparently, the first enterprise in the manu- facture of crude oil in Scotland was begun in 1848 by Mr. James Young; the source of supply being a small spring of petroleum, found in a coal-pit at Alfreton, Derbyshire, from which was manu- factured illuminating and lubricating oils, as well as solid paraffin. Upon the failure of the native mineral oil, attention was directed to beds of bituminous coal, and a number of these were tested, with a view of obtaining crude oil by distillation. Upon the discovery of the Torbanehill mineral 1 in 1850, this was substituted for bituminous coals, and proving satisfactory, distillation works were erected at Bathgate, a few miles west of Edinburgh. On the exhaustion of the torbanite, about 1862, oil-shale deposits were utilized. In the working of torbanite the yield of crude per ton was about 100 to 120 gallons, with some 22 peunds of paraffin which at that time was regarded as of little value. The commercial importance of the paraffin was realized about 1858, and since that date it has formed one of the profitable by-products derived from the distillation of crude oil. l TOEBANITK. A variety of cannel coal of a dark brown colour, yellowish streak, without lustre, having a subconchoidal fracture, H = 2-25; G = J -17 1 -2. Yields over 6 per cent of volatile matter, and is used for the produc- tion of biirning and lubricating oils, paraffin, illuminating gas. Named from the locality at Torbanehill, near Bathgate, in Linlithgowshire, Scot- land. (Dana.) 22 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS In the substitution of oil-shales for the torbanite, it was found that while the shale was much poorer in crude oil, it was much richer in paraffin, and other volatile substances : notably ammonia gas, which, by chemical combination with sulphuric acid, is transformed into the very valuable fertilizing agent known as sulphate of am- monia. The shales first used for distillation yielded from 40 to 50 gallons of crude oil per ton. A large portion, however, gave much lower results in oil; but was found to give higher results in am- monia. As progress was made in the process of manufacture, it became an established generalization that, shales low in crude oil were correspondingly high in ammonia. It has also been found that, not only is the yield of crude oil from the pyroschists 1 mined in most parts of the oil-shale field much less than in the earlier days of the industry, but that the greater yield of oil is from those procured from the higher beds of the series; decreasing with depth. As an offset to the last mentioned feature, however, continued improve- ments in distillation methods, and modification of machinery, appli- ances, processes, etc., have enabled the leading companies to manu- facture much more cheaply ; while the increased values of the principal by-products has, in recent years, been such, that the in- dustry as a whole have been placed on a very remunerative basis. It is impossible in this condensed description of the leading features of the industry, to set forth in detail the numerous changes which have taken place in the manufacture of crude oil, and in the various processes of fractional distillation since the early days fifty years ago. It may suffice, however, to state that the whole process of extracting crude oil from pyroschists, and the subsequent fractional distillation thereof, has exhibited a constant series of improvements: carefully considered economies being introduced at every stage of the several processes, and great attention being directed to the utilization of the valuable by-products. In time, through the failure of the supplies of Peruvian guano and the im- pending exhaustion of the Chilian nitrate beds, attention was directed to the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia, which is now extensively used as a fertilizer. 2 This is now one of the leading by- products of the mineral oil industry, and one of the principal sources 1 The term pyroschist is used as being synonymous with oil-shale. See Chemical and Geological Essays by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, 1897, p. 177. 2 Sulphate of ammonia contains of nitrogen about 20 per cent 9f its weight, and is, therefore, richer in that element than its chief rival nitrate of soda, which contains about 16 per cent of its weight of nitrogen. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 23 of profit from the distillation of the oil-shale. With the most recent types of retorts the yield of sulphate of ammonia has markedly increased: as high a percentage as 60 to 70 pounds per ton being now obtainable from certain grades of the oil-shales. Though the market price of this substance has fluctuated widely reaching in 1880, 22 per ton; but declining in 1890 to 8 per ton its subse- quent revival to 12 has saved the industry. Occasionally, large profits are still obtainable from the distillation of shale low in oil contents, but comparatively high in ammonia. The same remark applies to some extent to the manufacture of paraffin, which in some of the works is still a source of profit. It may be of interest to mention as showing the fluctuation and development of the oil-shale industry that in the forty-five years since its commencement, no less than 117 mineral oil works have been in operation; and taking into consideration the several changes of ownership, some 140 different proprietors have been engaged in this business. It is, however, only fair to state, in this connexion, that the profits of the industry have been far from uniform : as will be seen from the statement taken from Iltyd Redwood's Manual, 1897. In this it is stated that for the years 1891-2 a total profit of 85,492 was made, by four of the companies then working; but only two of these made any allowance for depreciation. The remaining four companies had a total loss on the year's working of 32,576; so that the total profits of the eight companies were 52,916. On the other hand, the profits in recent years of several of the principal companies now engaged in the mineral oil business are reported as being very large: reaching 50 per cent on the capital invested; so that on the whole it may be said that the percentage of profits apparently largely derived from the by-products has materially increased; and that with several of the leading companies the oil- shale industry is, at the present time, in a very flourishing condition. As indicating the fluctuations of the mineral oil business, it may be noted (based on the figures given in Mr. D. R. Steuart's history of the oil-shale industry) that of the original large number of com- panies at one time operating, this number, in Scotland, had in 1871 decreased to 51; and in the subsequent ten years had further de- creased to 30. In 1894, there were only 13 of these companies in Scotland; in 1906 this number had declined to 6; but he adds the significant fact that, in spite of this reduction, the output had not decreased. 24 NEW BRUNSWICK DLL-SHALES : TESTS STATISTICS. Full and reliable data cannot now be obtained, but the following figures as given by Mr. Steuart may be regarded as fairly approxi- mate : In 1903, the amount of r hale distilled was . . 2,400,000 tons. Crude oil produced 54,000,000 gallons. From this the marketable products obtained were: Burning oil and naphtha 19,000,000 gallons. Gas oils 6,000,000 " Lubricating oils 8,800,000 " Paraffin wax 22,000 tons. Sulphate of ammonia 40,000 " Total value of products 1,800,000 In 1904 the amount of shale distilled was. . . 2,333,062 tons. Value 544,346 From another estimate: Shale in 1904. . 2,709,840 tons. Crude oil produced 62,932,400 gallons. Marketable products: Naphtha 2,517,296 gallons. Burning oils 16,991,748 " Gas oils 37,997 tons. Lubricating oil. . 39,487 " Wax 22,476 " Sulphate of ammonia 49,600 " In 1906, the total shale production in Scotland was 2,545,582 tons. The refined products for the year were: Spirit or naphtha, sp.gr., 0-680 to 0-750. .about 2,500,000 gallons. Burning oils, sp. gr., 0-790-0-830 " 17,000,000 " Gas or intermediate oils, sp.gr., 0-850-0-870 " 38,000 tons. Lubricating oils, sp. gr., 0-965-0-900. ..." 40,000 " Solid paraffin wax, m. points, 100-130 F. . " 22,500 " Sulphate of ammonia, over 50,000 " Still coke, selling at 60 to 70 shillings per ton. . 5,000 " In 1907, the production of oil-shale in Scotland amounted to 2,775,799 tons, the average yield of crude being 23 gallons. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTBY 25 Quantities and products of shale at intervals from 1871 to 1893 : Shale Tons. Crude oil Gals. Naphtha, burning and gas oils. ..... : i Lubricating oil n Paraffin solid Tons. Sulphate of ammonia n 1871. 51 works. 800,000 25,000,000 11,250,000 2,500,000 5,800 2,350 1879. 18 works. 29,000,000 11,400,000 5,000,000 9,200 4,750 1887. 13 works. 52,876,700 21,680,000 9,000,000 22,846 18,483 13 works. 1,947,842 48,969,050 20,452,341 8,765,289 19,130 28,000 EXTENT OF THE INDUSTRY AS REGARDS RETORTS, ETC. The exact number of retorts engaged in the business of oil-shale manufacture in Scotland could not be ascertained, since no returns were available from either the James Young Company, or from the James Eoss Company. Figures were, however, furnished by the Pumpherston; Tarbrax; Dalmeny; Oakbank, and Broxburn Com- panies : from which the following may be given : Pumpherston Oil Company, three plants, viz. Main plant: with three benches of 64 retorts. ... 192 Deans 156 Seaforth 130 This number will probably be doubled in 1909. - 478 Tarbrax Company Three benches of 64 retorts 192 Dalmeny Company Three benches of 64 retorts 192 Oakbanlc Company Main plant: two benches of 64 retorts 128 Niddry castle: two benches of 64 retorts 128 256 Broxburn Oil Company Main plant: three benches of 64 retorts 192 Koman camp: three benches of 64 retorts 192 384 1,502 26 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS The capacity of the Oakbank plant will probably be doubled in 1909. The main plant of the Broxburn contains 3i benches, or 224 retorts, of which a half bench is held as a reserve. The Broxburn plant puts through about 1,600 tons of shale in a day of 24 hours. As nearly as could be ascertained though the price varies accord- ing to varying conditions the cost of mining the shale may be placed at 5 shillings per ton; and the cost of putting the same through the retort, at about one shilling and sixpence per ton. Miners' wages are fixed periodically, and at present (1908) are as follows: Miners 6s. 3d. per day. Helpers 5s. 9d. " Two men usually work together, and produce jointly about 8 tons per day on a seam of 6'-0" to 7'-0" thick ; or an average of 4 tons per man. On a smaller seam, say of 5'-0" to 6'-0", about 6 tons for each shift of two men. In the 57 years since the establishment of the oil-shale industry in Scotland some 120 different works have started and collapsed in many cases without paying a dividend. In the industry at the present time (1908) about 8,300 men are employed, of whom nearly 4,000 are miners; the wages paid annually being about 700,000. As a basis of calculation it may be added that generally in Scotland the cost of mining and retorting the shale while varying considerably in different places owing to local conditions is about $1.86 per ton, divided as follows : Mining and taking to retort mouth Eetorting. . . . Manufacture of sulphate of ammonia; $1 86 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY Prices of various products at intervals of ten years :- 27 1873 1883 1 1903 8. d. 8. d. s. d. s. d. Burning oil . per gal. 1 5 5f 4 5J 51 Heavy oil . it ton. <><> 9 10 5 6 o' Refined paraffin, oil . . . Ib. 10 4 o 5 2 a- Ammoniun sulphate. . . n ton. 20 17 10 12 10 Statistics showing gradual yearly increase in shale output since 1873: Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. Year. Tons. 1873.. 1874.. . 1875.. 524,095 361,910 424,026 1881... 1882 .. 1883. . . 912,171 994,487 1,130,729 1889... 1890... 1891... 1,986,990 2,180,483 2,337,932 1897... 1898... 1899... 2,211,617 2,133,409 2,208,249 1876.. 541,273 1884. . . 1,409,6491892... 2,077,076 1900... 2,279,879 1877.. 684,118 1NS5. . . 1,741,7501893... 1,947,842 1901... 2,350,277 1878.. 1879.. 645,939 712,428 1886... 1887... 1,699,14411894... 1,390,3201895... 1,967,007 2,236,224 1902... 1903. . . 2,105,953 2,009,265 1880.. 730,770 IS88... 2,052,2021896... 2,435,555 1904... 2,333,062 Cost of Plants for Retorting and Subsequent Distillation of Oil-shale. As a part of the instructions given in connexion with the test of the shale shipment in Scotland was to ascertain as closely as possible the cost of erecting the necessary plants for the retorting of the shale and the subsequent distillations, the following information obtained from Mr. Norman Henderson, manager of the Broxburn Oil works, Mr. James Bryson, manager of the Pumpherston Oil works, and Mr. A. F. Craig, of Paisley, a large manufacturer of such plants, may be given. The figures given are with reference to plants laid down in Scotland, and when applied to points in Canada will be somewhat greater, since allowance must be made for freight, possible custom duties, etc., and extra expense of erection. The cost is based on the daily capacity of a retort, which is placed at four tons, and is given as say 65 per ton capacity. Thus for a 28 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS 4 ton retort the cost of each retort laid down at the works in Scotland would naturally be 260. Each bench of retorts consists of 64 retorts or units, and for a daily capacity of 1,000 tons per day, which would require four benches of 64 retorts, the cost of this part of the plant should be about 65,000. In actual practice, however, this figure will need to be enlarged. Thus, Mr. N. M. Henderson stated that a Henderson retort for experimental purposes would cost from 350 to 500 complete; but if these retorts were erected in any considerable number at a plant for retorting shale the cost would be from 60 to 70 per ton of shale put through daily. Such figures refer to the cost of a retort plant erected only on a large scale, and, using such basis of calculation, only an approximate cost of a retort plant would be obtained. Mr. James Bryson, of the Pumpherston Oil Company, stated that a Pumpherston retort would cost 3*0 when only one was erected for experimental purposes, and that this figure includes a condenser, ammonia scrubber, and receiving tanks, but does not include the scaffold for charging the top of the retort. It was further stated by Mr. Henderson that a crude oil plant, the size of that at Tarbrax, with a capacity of 700 to 800 tons daily, would cost about 100,000 in Scotland, this figure including con- densers, engines, pumps, shale breakers, tanks, boilers, sheds, all connexions for these, a naphtha recovery plant, an ammonium sul- phate plant, and all brickwork necessary. The nominal figure of 65 per ton capacity quoted serves merely as a basis for calculating the cost of the retorts, and does not refer to a complete crude oil plant. The complete cost of a retorting plant containing 180 Pumpher- ston retorts would be 80,000. This figure not only includes retorts and accessories, but a naphtha plant, ammonium sulphate plant, steam boilers, brickwork, and all appliances necessary at the crude oil stage. From Messrs. A. F. Craig and Company, who are very large manufacturers of oil machinery, it was learned that the cost of three benches of 64 retorts each, wit., all condensers, engines, pumps, tanks, boilers, sheds, and connexions, would be about 43,700. A naphtha recovery plant for the same would be 1,550; an ammonium sulphate plant for the same would be 4,320; and all brickwork necessary for the erection of these plants would be 16,200. These figures apply only to plants erected in Scotland, and to those portions of the plant necessary at the crude oil stage. They do not include cost of erection and delivery. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 29 The figures at first furnished by Mr. Henderson of 65 per ton of shale put through refer only to the cost of the retorts and not to completely equipped crude oil works, which include a naphtha recovery plant and ammonium sulphate plant. Mr. Henderson also stated that the cost of a sulphate house, with a capacity of 1,200 tons of shah per day, would be about 5,000; the cost of a refinery plant would be about 11,000 per 1,000,000 gallons, and the cost of a candle house for such a refinery would be from 5,000 to 7,000 complete, in Scotland. Market Values of Stock. In order to show the market values of the leading stocks of the principal oil-shale companies, the following data taken from the Edinburgh Daily Stock and Share List for July 30, 1908, may be given. They refer to six of the leading companies in the district, and comprise the Broxburn, Oakbank, Pumpherston, Tarbrax, Youngs, and Dalmeny: Broxburn, Limited (17s. paid), sold on June 26, 1908, for 44s. 6d., and on July 29, 1908, for 43s. 6d. The highest price in 1907 was 46s., and the lowest 36s., while in 1908, prior to July, it reached 46s. 7-5, but has gone as low as 36s. The dividends for the last half-year amounted to 17-5, while for the previous half-year they were 15. Broxburn 6 per cent cum. preference (10 paid), sold on June 26, 1908, for 12|, and on July 29, 1908, for 12 J (last price). The highest price in 1907 was 12ts, and the lowest 122, while in 1908, prior to July, this stock reached 12|, but went as low as 24%. The dividends for the last half-year amounted to 6, and were the same for the pre- vious half-year. This Company has headquarters in Glasgow, at 28 Royal Ex- change square, Mr. W. Love, Managing Director. They were registered November 6, 1877. In 1907, each ordinary share of 10, with 8 10s. paid, was subdivided into 10 shares of 1, and the authorized capital is now 335,000, all of which has been issued, 100,000 in fully paid 6 per cent cumulative preference of 10, with a priority as to capital, and 235,000 in ordinary shares of 1, with 199,750, or 17s. per share paid up. A sum of 10,000 has been borrowed. The accounts are made up annually to about the end of March, and submitted in May, 56563 30 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS dividends then declared being paid in equal proportions just after the meeting, and in the following December. For each of the three years to 1897-8, the dividend was 7 per cent; for 1898-9, 8J per cent; for 1899-1900, 15 per cent; for 1900-1, 20 per cent; and for each of the six years to 1906-7, 15 per cent. Eeserve fund is 50,430; carried forward, 2,504. Voting power, one vote for each ordinary share. Director's qualification, 1,000 ordinary shares. Oakbank, Limited (17s. paid) ; sold on June 26, 1908, for 39s. 3d.,, and on July 29, 1908, for 39s. 9d. The highest price in 1907 was 43s., and the lowest 29s.; while in 1908, prior to July, it sold for 42s., but fell as low as 28s. 6d. The dividends for the last half-year amounted to 15, and were the same as for the previous half-year. Oakbank cum. preference sold for 2s. 4d. on June 26, 1908. The- highest price paid for this stock in 1908 was 2s. 10d., and the lowest 2s. Dividend for the last half-year was 6. This Company has headquarters at 39 Vincent Place, Glasgow. Managing Director, J. Wishart. Eegistered January 7, 1886, to take over the properties of a company of the same name, established in 1869. The shares were formerly 10 each, fully paid, but in 1906- the sum of 1 10s. per share was returned, and the shares were sub- divided. The authorized capital is now 200,000, in shares of 1, all of which has been subscribed, and 170,000, or 17s. per share paid up. There are also cash deposits to the amount of 27,549. The accounts are made up annually to March 31, and submitted in May, the divi- dend then declared being payable in equal instalments soon after the meeting, and in the following November. For 1895-6, 5 per cent was paid; for 1896-7 and 1897-8, nil; for 1898-9, 5 per cent; for 1899- 1900, 7j per cent; for 1900-1, 12 per cent; for 1901-2 and 1902-3, 7i per cent each year; for 1903-4, 12i per cent; and for 1904-5, 1905-6 and 1906-7, 15 per cent. Works insurance reserve fund, 5,000; retort renewal fund, 25,000; carried forward, 4,940. Voting powers, one vote for ef ch share, but no vote for less than ten shares. Director's qualification, 500 nominal of shares held in own right. PUMPHERSTON. Pumpherston, Limited (17s. paid) ; sold on June 26, 1908, for 13 5s., and on July 29, 1908, for 12 15/16. The highest price in. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 31 1907 was 14, and the lowest 6f, while in 1908, prior to July, it sold fpr 13i, but fell as low as 11. The dividend for the last half- year amounted to 50, and was the same for the previous year. Pumpherston 6 per cent cum. preference (10 paid) sold on June 26, 1908, for 13, and on July 29, 1908, for the same price. The highest price so far this year has been 13i, and it has never fallen below 13 this year. The dividend for 1907-8 amounted to 6. This Company was registered November 3, 1883, to acquire certain properties on leases for 31 years. Headquarters, 135 Buchanan street, Glasgow. Managing Director, Mr. W. Eraser. The authorized capital is 230,000 100,000 in 6 per cent cumu- Jative preference shares of 10, with a priority as to capital, and 130,000 in ordinary shares of 1. All the shares have been issued (the preference in 1890), and 210,500 paid up, the preference shares being fully paid, while the ordinary have 17s. paid. The ordinary shares were originally of 10, but in 1905 they were subdivided into denominations of 1. They were formerly debentures, but these have now been paid off. The accounts are made up annually to April 30, and submitted in May, and the dividend then declared on the ordinary shares is usually paid in equal instalments in June and December after the meeting, the dividend on the preference shares being paid annually in June. For 1894-5, and 1895-6, the ordinary shares received 5 per cent each year; for 1896-7, no dividend on either class of shares; out of the profits of 1897-8 the preference dividend was paid for 1896-7; out of the profits of 1898-9, 9 per cent was pai37 APPENDIX. THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE SCOTTISH SHALE OIL INDUSTRY.* BY WILLIAM ALLEN HAMOR, Research Chemist, IJflth Street and Convent Avenue, New York City. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A SHALE OIL PLANT. The Crude Oil Works. The crude oil works consist of retorts, arranged in benches, the necessary condensers and scrubbers, the naphtha recovery plant, and the ammonium sulphate plant. The shale as it is received at the mine head is transferred to the retort department of the works by means of wagons, which are emptied into the shale-breakers by hydraulic machinery, and there the shale is broken into small pieces, about 6" square, by passing it between two toothed drums or rolls, about 9 feet long, which are driven by gearing from a steam- engine. The breakers are made of cast-iron discs, about 3 feet in diameter, and are provided with heavy teeth on their periphery. The tooth clearance is about 1". Each breaker crushes about 200 tons of shale per day of eight hours, and there is one or more of them, according to the amount of shale required (Plate X). From the breaker, the shale drops into iron hutches, holding from 10 to 25 cwts. each, which are hauled up an incline to the top of the retort bench. The hutches are raised by an endless chain (Plate XIII) set in motion by wheels geared from the engine which runs the breakers, and are so constructed that they are easily tipped for discharging into the top of the retorts.- Four labourers, each receiving four shillings per day, are required for each breaker. The crude oil works are generally located in the centre of the shale fields, and in this way considerable expense is saved in haulage. * Published by permission of Dr. Charles Baskerville, Director of th< Chemical Laboratories, College of the City of New York. 37 A rr 38 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS (fl) RETORTS. Oil-shales, bituminous shales, and coals do not contain free oil or oily matter that is, they are not oil-bearing but must be sub- jected to destructive distillation at low temperatures, in order to obtain a crude oil from them. This distillation is carried out in retorts, of which many forms have been devised. At the present time, however, there are four types of retorts in operation, viz., the Pumpherston, the Henderson, the Young and Fyfe, and the Crichton. All of these retorts are based on the Young and Beilby principle. The Young and Beilby retort (Fig. 1) which was patented in 1881, consists of four iron retorts, connected with a common hopper ^bove. Each retort is provided with an iron upper part in which the Fio. 1. Young and Beilby Retort. oil is distilled from the shale at the lowest possible temperature (circa 900 F.) ; and, after the oil is practically all distilled, the shale passes down through the lower portion of the retort, which is built of firebrick. In this section of the retort the shale is subjected to a high temperature (circa 1300 F.) in the presence of steam, thereby converting the carbon into a mixture of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, and the nitrogen of the shale into ammonia. About SCOTTISH OIL-SHAT/K INDUSTRY 39 one pound of steam per square foot of shale is used, and the shale re- mains in the retort for eighteen hours. Every six hours about 8 cwts. of broken shale is put in the top hopper (jumbo), and at the same time the spent shale is removed from the bottom hopper. A bench of 80 Young and Beilby retorts distills 100 to 120 tons of shale per twenty- four hours. In 1894, the quantity of shale distilled in retorts of this type amounted to 92 per cent of the production of Scofland. During this year 1,986,300 tons of oil-shale were mined. The cost of retort- ing one ton of shale in retorts of this principle was 24d. The Pumpherston, or Bryson retort (Eng. Pat. 7113, 1895) (Fig. 2) was devised by Messrs. Bryson, Jones, and Fraser, and is used by the Pumpherston, Oakbank, Dalmeny, and Tarbrax companies Fio. 2. Bryson Retort. with great success. It has been in use on an extensive scale since 1896, and there are now 1,130 retorts on this principle in operation in Scotland, with 272 additional retorts in the course of erection. The experimental retort erected by Mr. James Bryson at the Pum- pherston works, in 1894, was the first constructed on this plan. It was found that, in addition to reducing the cost of working by 40 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS one-half, as well as improving the yields got from the shale, it removed the difficulties and heavy losses caused by the shale fluxing in the older types of retorts, which were only moved intermittently, the continuous moving of the whole mass of shale in the new type preventing the fluxing, reducing the up-keep from a heavy charge to a nominal figure, and prolonging the life of the retort to an extent as yet undetermined, as the first bench built, in 1896, is still being worked to its full capacity. The Pumpherston retort consists of two portions: the upper or cast-iron portion, which is 15 feet in length, 2 feet in diameter at the top, and 2'-4" in diameter at the bottom; and the lower or fire- brick portion, which is 20 feet in length, 2'-4" in diameter at the top, where it joins the cast-iron portion, and 3 feet in diameter at the bottom. At the end of the firebrick portion there is a disc support, or table, which supports the column of shale in the retort; this table is provided with a revolving arm, or quadrant, which removes the spent shale and maintains a movement in the shale column by revolv- ing at regular intervals. At the top of the retort there are iron hoppers, holding 4 tons, 10 cwt. each, into which 1 ton of broken shale is charged every hour. The iron portion is heated to a dull red heat externally, and it is in this part of the retort that the destruc- tive distillation takes place, the oil vapours passing out below the hoppers in an iron main, 2'-6" in diameter. In the lower, or fire- brick part of the retort, the shale is subjected to a temperature suffi- ciently high to burn off all the carbon from the oil-spent shale; this is done in the presence of steam, and ammonia is produced by the hydrogen of the steam uniting with the nitrogen contained in the shale. About 60 per cent of the total nitrogen is converted into am- monia and recovered. At the bottom of the retort there are hoppers, which converge in such a way that a single line of rails under the centre of the bench of retorts receives the spent shale, in an iron hutch, 5 feet x 4'-6" x 2 feet. In this type of retort, a throughput of 4 to 5 tons per day may be worked at a cost not exceeding Is. 6d. per ton. The cost of the Pumpherston retort, including condenser, am- monia scrubber, and receiving tanks, but exclusive of the scaffold for charging, amounts to 350. The men necessary for the operation of retorts of this type receive the following wages : 5656 p~_40 565G p4(V? SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 41 Foreman of 3 benches 2 10s. per week. Two assistants 1 18s. " Dropper for 1 bench 5s. 4d. per day. Charger for 1 bench 5s. 4d. " Tipman for 1 bench 6s. " These men work seven hours per day. The foremen get free house rent, light and heat. The Henderson retort (Eng. Pat. 6726, 1889) (Fig. 3) is now used by the Broxburn Oil Company, Limited, in an improved form (Eng. Pat. 26647, 1901). This type of retort is 60 feet high from the ground-level to the top of the upper hopper, and the section is oblong. FIG. 3. v \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ v Henderson Retort. The metal part is 2'-6" x l'-2" at the top, and the brick part is 3'-8" x l'-10" at the bottom ; the metal part is 12 to 15 feet in length, and the brick part is 19 feet long. In its newest form, the Henderson 42 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS retort has two toothed rollers, 3'-6" in length at the bottom to> support the shale column and to maintain a downward movement of the shale, thereby regulating the speed of the discharge of spent shale into the hopper below. The original form of this type was provided with a single delivery roller and was smaller ; it put through 35 cwts. of shale per 24 hours, while the 1901 retort is capable of retorting 4J tons per 24 hours. Each retort is provided with a malleable-iron hopper on the top, having a capacity of 54 cubic feet and capable of holding 18 hours' supply of shale. The products are conducted off in a 2 ft. branch pipe at the bottom of the top hopper. The retort is heated by gas made from dross coal, in Wilson gas producers, which method is found to be advantageous in manipulat- ing and regulating the heats, besides saving fuel. The increased length and capacity of this type over the Young and Beilby resulted in giving the shale longer exposure to the distillation temperature, diminished wear and tear, and increased the yield of ammonia. Four of these retorts are arranged in an oven, and sixteen ovens constitute a bench. At the Broxburn crude oil works, three and a half benches are now in operation. The Young and Fyfe retort (Eng. Pats. 13665, 1897; and 15238, 1899) is now used by the Young Company; it is merely a remodelled Young and Beilby type, as the improvements were applied to the old retorts in use. Each retort is composed of four sections, namely, a hoppw redistillation chamber at the top, a metallic section, a fire- brick chamber, and a combustion chamber of large capacity at the bottom. The combustion chamber is not externally heated, as the rest are, but receives the spent shale from the firebrick chamber in a red-hot condition. The top hoppers are provided with rocking shafts, to which are attached rods or chains to ensure the regular passage of the shale; and the continuous discharge at the bottom is maintained by a kind of roller. This type is by no means comparable in efficiency to either the Henderson or Bryson types. The Crichton, or Philipstoun retort, is used by James Ross and Company, at Philipstoun. It is built on the principle of the Young and Beilby retort; and consists of 18'-3" of brickwork and an iron part 10 feet in length. As in the case of many of the shale retorts that have been de- signed, this type differs from the others mainly in the mechanical PLATE XI. Bench of Retorts, Broxburn Works, Scotland. 5<556-p42 5656 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 43" appliance at the base of the retort for removing the spent shale. This appliance consists of two transverse shafts which work into a plain boss at the back of the hopper, and pass through an easy-work- ing stuffing-box at the front to the outside of the bench of retorts. The outer ends of the shafts are carried on an iron bearer with cod and coyer, and on the end of each shaft there is an arm connected with links to a hand-lever. Each shaft is fitted with a set of grippers, and the discharge of spent shale is regulated by their manipulation. The retorts are drawn every six hours, and the throughput i* about the same as in the old Henderson retort. The shale in the retort is under perfect control, but such a tjpe is much more expen- sive and would not pay on a large scale. (&) RETORT CONDENSERS. The oil and water vapours leave the retorts by an outlet pipe,. usually about 8" in diameter, and enter a common main, generally about 30" in diameter. This main conveys the gases into a water heater, a tower in which water for the steam boilers is heated in, pipes, and then into large upright air-cooled condensers, formed of light cast-iron spigot and faucet pipes, 4" in diameter, fitted with cast-iron chests and resting on them (Plate XII). Two hundred feet of condenser pipe are required for every ton of shale put through per 24 hours. The crude oil and ammonia water collected from the condensers are run into a separator, where they are separ- ated, while the uncondensible gases pass into exhausters, which continually maintain a slight pressure on the retorts. The gases then pass into a vertical water-scrubber, where the last traces of ammonia are removed; and next into a naphtha scrubber, where the gas is washed with mineral oil to absorb the naphtha. These scrubbers are generally 5 feet in diameter and 30 feet in height. The efficiency of tower scrubbers for removing ammonia and light. hydrocarbons from the uncondensible retort gases depends on three factors : the height of the towers ; the extent to which the vapour is split up in its passage through the vessels ; and the regular distri- bution of the absorbing material, which is now generally wooden chequer work, although coke was used for many years. The theo- retical scrubbing limit is never attained in the ammonia scrubbers; the practical limit is reached when the gas contains not more than 0-5 grain of ammonia per 100 cubic feet; and about three pounds of 4:4: NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES! TESTS ammonium sulphate per ton of shale put through is recovered. In the naphtha scrubbers it is possible to reduce the illuminating power of the uncondensible gas to about one-half a candle. An inter- mediate oil (sp. gr. 0-84 to 0-856) is used for scrubbing, and about two gallons of light spirit (0-73) are recovered from the scrubbing oil per ton of shale put through the retort. The number and size of these towers is dependent on the number of retorts in operation; but for three benches of retorts (192) three naphtha scrubbers and two ammonia scrubbers are necessary. The scrubbing oil is denuded of naphtha by steaming it in a vessel containing a series of plates and cups with corrugated edges. The denuded mineral oil is used continuously after cooling. After the retort gas is freed from all condensible and absorbable matters, it is caught by a fan, which forces it under a few inches pressure into the main which supplies the burners at the bottom of the retort flues. It will be seen that the results of the distillation of shale in retorts are as follows: (1) Spent shale, which is removed from the bottom hoppers and conveyed by mutches to the dumps; this residue is of no value, although it has been used in brick-making, road- making, and has been suggested as a material for the manufacture of alum. Spent shale contains about 2-5 per cent of fixed carbon, and is essentially an aluminium silicate; 80 to 85 per cent of the raw shale put into the retorts is sent to the waste heaps as spent shale. (2) Permanent gas, which is used as fuel in the retorts. (3) Crude oil, which is pumped into tanks and then refined. (4) Naphtha, which is recovered as above described. (5) Ammonia water, which is distilled for the manufacture of ammonium sulphate. (c) AMMONIUM SULPHATE PLANT. It was some time after the distillation of shale had been started in Scotland before the value of the water from the retorts was dis- covered. Eobert Bell, of Broxburn, ascertained its value in 1865, and placed ammonium sulphate on the market in May of that year. Stills. The method which was first used for expelling the am- monia from the ammonia water was to boil the latter in horizontal boilers and conduct the gas into vessels containing sulphuric acid, called cracker boxes. It was found, however, that considerable loss of ammonia occurred from the inability to drive off all the ammonia contained in the water, and in 1882 tower stills were introduced. PLATE XIII. Endless tram conveying shale from breakers to retorts, Broxburn, Scotland. 5656-p 44 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDWSTBY 45 The Beilby ammonia column-still was patterned after the Coffey alcohol still, and was the first tower still used. In this still, the ammonia water entered at the top and was deprived of most of the ammonia, before it overflowed through an outlet at the base of the still, by the action of 20 pound pressure steam, which passed upwards and carried the ammonia vapours with it. The descending water and the ascending steam were forced to travel over a zig-zag course, and FIG. Beilby's Ammonia Column Still. were thereby brought into intimate contact, by means of concav and convex plates containing openings. The action of this still was con- tinuous (Fig. 4). Nearly all the ammonia stills now in operation are based on the Henderson type (Eng. Pat. 15836, 1885). In this column-still the ammonia water is run in at the top, and runs irom tray to tray, where it is acted on by 30 pound pressure steam, blown in at the 5656-4 4G NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS bottom of the still. The ammonia water is consequently boiled, and the volatile ammonia compounds are expelled in a gaseous state. The stills of this type are generally 22 feet in height, and 5 feet in dia- meter, and contain 11 trays ('see Fig. 5). The capacity of such a still is 45,000 gallons of ammonia liquor per diem. The gaseous ammonia compounds are passed into sulphuric acid: first into sulphuric acid recovered from the refinery tars, the FIG. 5. Two Trays of Henderson Ammonia Column Still. ammonium sulphate thus produced being obtained by boiling down the solution; and second, the rest of the gas is passed into a cracker box of fresh chamber sulphuric acid. Wilton's form of cracker box is now widely used. The sulphuric acid flows in the cracker box in a constant stream in lead pipes, with perforations in 5656- -p46 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 47 the part laid along the bottom, where it meets the ammonia gas. The cracker boxes are cylindrical tanks made of " iron, and are lined with 10 pound lead sheet. The ammonium sulphate forms by the interaction of the sulphuric acid with the ammonia gas, and falls along the sloping bottom into a well, from which it is raised by a steam injector and thrown into a receiving box. The crystals are then transferred to draining tables and afterwards to a drying room, where they are exposed to a temperature of 100 to 120 F. for several days. At several of the works centrifugal dryers are being used with great success. In diluting the acid used, the solution of ammonium sulphate made from the recovered acid is generally run in, thereby saving a separate evaporation of it. The fixed ammonia in the ammonia water from the retorts (about 1 pound per ton of shale) is recovered by distillation over lime, which is accomplished by putting lime into the stills. An ammonium sulphate plant with a capacity of 1,200 tons per day costs 5,000, and the cost of manufacturing one ton of am- monium sulphate is 2 5s. The cost of the sulphuric acid used in manufacturing one ton of sulphate is 25s., and this is generally pur- chased, the Broxburn Company being the only one which manufac- tures all their own acid. The sulphate men receive a wage of 4s. 6d. per day of eight hours. The Refinery. Crude shale oil is of a dark green to a brownish colour, possesses a specific gravity of 0-86 to 0-96, and has a congealing point of approximately 32 C. It is substantially a mixture of the paraffin and olefine series, with a small amount of naphthenes, benzines, and alkaloidal bases; and contains about 1 per cent of nitrogen. The Tjuality of the crude oil depends greatly on the temperature at which it is formed from the kerogen, or bituminous matter, in the shale. It has been ascertained that the greater part of the decomposition and distillation in the retorts occurs below 427 C., and upon investi- gation it seems probable that 554 C. is the maximum tempera- ture required in a retort, as this temperature is the highest boiling point of any normal paraffin; and as oil-shale produced in Scotland is of a paraffin base, steam is necessary in the iron portion of the retorts, just as it is in the firebrick part, and its presence prevents decomposition. 565645 48 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS Four companies are now refining crude shale oil in Scotland, viz., the Pumpherston Company, which refines the crude product of the Pumpheraton main plant, the Seafield and Deans works, and the crude oil of the Tarbrax Company, and a portion of the oil of the Ross Company; the Oakbank Company, which refines its own pro- duct as well as that of the Dalmeny Company; the Young Company; and the Broxburn Company, which refines the crude oil produced at the Broxburn crude oil works and at the Roman Camp Works. Oil-shale refineries consist of (a) stills for distilling the crude oil and refining the fractions (Fig. 6) ; (fe) agitators and settling tanks, in which the oils are treated with sulphuric acid and caustic soda for the separation of the tarry matters; (c) paraffin-house, FIG. 6. Connected Boiler Still. where the heavy oil obtained from the crude oil is cooled and pressed for the separation of the paraffin wax; (d) paraffin refinery, where the wax is refined; (e) stock tanks for the finished products; (/) shipping department, where the barrels are made and the products are shipped to the comsumers; (0) candle-house, where the paraffin is made into candles for the trade; and sometimes (h) a sulphuric acid manufactory, where the sulphuric acid required for refining, and the production of ammonium sulphate is made, and concentrating plants. There are also, of course, shops, saw-mills, offices and labor- atories. All are arranged with due regard to convenience, cheap- ness, and safety from fire. (a) REFINERY OPERATIONS. After being settled from ammonia water and shale dust in the separators, the crude shale oil is pumped into charging tanks, from 5656-p48 SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 49 which the oil may flow by gravity into the refinery stills. There are high charging tanks behind each bench of stills, and low tanks to receive the distillates. The crude oil is first once run, that is, it is first distilled to dry- ness, separating into naphtha and once run oil, which is then refined further. The crude oil is not treated directly with sulphuric acid and caustic soda, as the loss would be great, but is subjected to destructive distillation at once, whereby the tarry matters are con- verted into the required hydrocarbons. This distillation is carried out in pot stills of 2,000 gallons capacity, made of cast-iron, which stills are 3'-6" to 4'-6" deep, and 8'-6" in diameter at the top ; the top, which is made of steel, is generally 8'-8" in diameter x 6 feet in depth. Each still has a condensing worm 225 feet in length, made of 4" cast- iron pipe immersed in water in a tank. Before the distillate passes from the condenser to the receiver it is conducted into a separator box, which is provided with a water-outlet at the bottom and an oil- outlet higher up. In this box the water resulting from the condensa- tion of the steam used in the distillation is separated from the oil distillate. The stills are first heated externally for about 10 hours, to expel all the water contained in the oil, then steam is gradually introduced. The steam used is more or less superheated, and it serves to prevent decomposition, to carry the oil vapours over, and to lower the boiling point of the oil. The quantity of steam used is variable, but when the heavier oils are distilling off, the distillate is usually accompanied by 20 per cent of condensed water. The crude oil is run down to dryness in about a day, and the steam is not shut off until about three hours after the close of the distillation. The still is then allowed to cool for a day, and the still coke is removed; this material represents about 3 per cent of the crude oil. The pot stills are run about three times per week. The naphtha, which is collected during the first stage of this distillation, has a specific gravity of about 0-74; and the remainder of the distillate is run into one tank and is known as once run oil. There is also some permanent gas produced in this distillation; it is used for fuel. The Broxburn Company have arrangements at their refinery whereby the uncon- densible gases from the condensers connected with the crude oil boilers and crude oil residue stills are collected and used. The gases from the residue stills are mostly due to the decomposition of a part of the oil ; these gases do not condense to a liquid form under working conditions, but are of value either as illuminants or as fuel. The 50 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS Broxbum Company now obtain about 60,000 cubic feet of good illuminating gas per day, or about 1| cubic feet for every gallon of crude oil put through. This gas is used for lighting the works and village nearby, which were formerly supplied with gas from coal carbonizers. This Company also obtains about 150 gallons of light naphtha daily by the friction of the gas through a water lute, and it is made into motor spirit. This naphtha comes over with the over- flow water of the hydraulic main, and is separated in an ordinary separator and collected in a receiving tank. In refining oil-shale, noxious gases are evolved. From the con- densers connected with the crude oil stills, hydrogen sulphide escapes, and during the subsequent refining and fractionations gases contain- ing hydrogen sulphide are also formed, especially in the residue stills. At the present time the Young's Company use iron oxide purifiers for absorbing the hydrogen sulphide, and find them very successful. In the distillation of 50,000 gallons of crude oil for the production of once-run oil, 24 pot stills and 5 boiler stills are required. The latter are made of steel, and are for continuous working alone; they are generally 30 feet long and 8'-6" in diameter. Boiler stills require a condensing area of 850 square feet. In the Henderson system of continuous distillation (No. 540, 1883), the boiler stills are 19 feet in length and 7 feet in diameter. The methods of continuous refin- ing now in use are based on this system. The once-run oil from the crude oil distillation is first settled free from all moisture, and is then pumped into an acid agitator, where it is treated with sulphuric acid for the removal of the acid tar. The agitator is first charged with the oil and agitation is started, then the acid is added and the agitation is continued for a period of from 15 minutes to over an hour, depending on the grade of the oil. The mixture is then allowed to settle for about a day, and the tar is drawn off at the bottom. The oil is then pumped from the acid agitator into the soda agitator, where it receives the soda treatment. It is allowed to settle for about eight hours after the second treat- ment with soda, and is then pumped to a storage tank to supply the first stage oil stills. The agitation is performed by means of air in an agitator, from 6 to 9 feet in diameter and 10 to 15 feet in depth. The air is blown in under a pressure of from 6 to 10 pounds per square inch, and serves to mix the oil and acid and oil and soda thoroughly in its passage to the surface. As above mentioned, the naphtha or spirit is alone separated in SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 51 the crude oil distillation, and the remainder of the once-run oil is distilled in the first stage oil stills; it is called green oil, and is fractioned into naphtha, light oil, heavy oil, and heavy oil and wax. The residuum is coked in pot stills. In a refinery having a working capacity of 50,000 gallons of crude oil, 17 pot stills and 6 boiler stills are used at this stage. The light oil and heavy oil are pumped into separate agitators, and are treated with sulphuric acid and soda for the removal of the acid and basic tars. The heavy oil resulting from the above distillation is then dis- tilled in boiler stills, fractioning into burning oil, gas oil, and heavy oil. The latter is added to the heavy oil and paraffin from the first stage distillation, while the gas oil is cooled and pressed in the paraffin house to separate into soft paraffin and 0-850 gas oil. The burning oil is treated with sulphuric acid and caustic soda, and is distilled along with the light oil distillate of the first stage, fraction- ing into naphtha, burning oil (0-785), burning oil (0-800), burning oil (0-810), and gas oil. The latter is combined with the gas oil from the heavy oil distillation. The heavy oil and paraffin are cooled and pressed in the paraffin house (see below), producing blue oil and hard paraffin scale. The former is refined with sulphuric acid and caustic soda, and is then distilled over caustic soda in boiler stills, fractioning into lubricating oil. The first lubricating oil distillate is cooled and pressed, giving 0-865 gravity oil and soft wax; and the second distillate is given the same treatment, which results in 0-885 gravity oil and soft wax. The lubricating oil is then refined in pot stills holding 2,200 gallons, and the soft paraffin wax is added to the sweatings from the hard paraffin scale produced from the heavy oil and paraffin. The sweatings are re-sweated, forming 100 m.p. wax and 110 m.p. wax, and the wax from the re-sweating of the hard scale gives 115 m.p. wax, and hard wax. The naphtha from the towers connected with the condensers of the retorts is mixed with the naphtha from the first stage stills, and is treated with acid and soda in agitators provided with means for mechanical agitation. It is then distilled into 0-730 and 0-740 naphtha, and a residue of light oil, which is generally refined with the green oil. Separation of the paraffin. The separation of the paraffin wax of various melting points has been referred to, but the methods em- ployed are of such import that more detailed information is neces- sary. 52 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS The heavy oil is first cooled in tanks set in open sheds, and is then further cooled with freezing machines. The latter are gener- ally ammonia solution machines, in which a solution of chloride of lime is cooled, and placed in a tank containing alternate compart- ments wide ones for the oil and paraffin, and narrow ones for the brine solution. The oil and paraffin lie in these compartments for many hours, and solid paraffin crystallizes out. Beilby designed a cooler in which the paraffin lay undisturbed until sufficiently cooled, but such a method required much time for crystallization and neces- sitated a large plant. The Henderson form of cooler (Eng. Pat. 9557,. 1884) is so arranged that a larger throughput may be effected. It is provided with a scraper, which removes the chilled mass of paraffin from the cold plate and permits the warmer material to move to the cold sides of the tank. Some works use dry ammonia gas, liquified by pressure, and utilize the cold by passing the paraffin mixture through pipes which are chilled by the evaporating ammonia gas. This produces more sudden chilling, and causes some paraffin to thicken in an amorphous state, difficult to separate from water. From the cooling machines, the paraffin is broken up by machinery and then is pumped through filter presses. The paraffin is collected in the press, while the oil flows into its own tank. When the cooling is carried out by means of ammonia gas, without the interposition of the brine, many more filter presses are necessary because of the amorphous paraffin. The paraffin wax from the filter presses is further squeezed in cloths in hydraulic plate presses, and is called paraffin scale. The heavy oil separated from the solid wax is known as blue oil; the refining of this oil has been referred to above. The crude paraffin was formerly refined by repeated crystalliza- tion from naphtha, but this is now accomplished by sweating. In the naphtha treatment the oily matters were removed by dissolving the paraffin in naphtha and allowing it to crystallize out. This operation was conducted generally three times, and the loss of naphtha amounted to about 200 gallons per ton of paraffin refined. The paraffin was freed from the adherent naphtha by being melted in a closed iron vessel, where it was exposed to a current of steam at 20 pounds pressure for 48 to 60 hours. The paraffin was finally decolorized by agitation for one and a half hours with animal char- coal, in pans, with a horizontal mixer. In the sweating process, which is now generally used, naphtha is not employed, the paraffin being simply exposed to such a tempera- SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 53 ture that the softer paraffin is melted and runs away with the oil. In carrying out the process, the crude scale was formerly melted, ad heated to about 180 F., in order that water and other impurities might be separated, after which it was run into pans of one to two gallons capacity and then allowed to solidify. The cakes were after- wards placed on cocoa fibre mats on inclined shelves and ovens, which were heated by steam pipes to about 30 F. below the melting point which the finished product was required to have. The portion which ran out was again treated in the same way and sweated at a lower temperature, and the drainings from it were cooled and pressed to obtain oil and scale, the latter being either worked up with the crude scale mixed with a portion of the intermediate wax, or worked alone. In 1886, Tervet and Allison patented a cooling and sweating arrangement for treating large quantities of paraffin. It consisted of a cooling, and sweating chamber, each formed in three sections so that three qualities of wax might be treated. In 1887, Tervet patented another sweating apparatus, in which it was claimed that first-class wax could be obtained from crude scale in one operation. In the sweating process patented by Norman M. Henderson (No- 1291, 1887; No. 11,799, 1891), which is now universally employed, a chamber about 52 feet x 13 feet x 10 feet, having steam pipes for heating it, and enlarged doors and ventilators which may be opened for cooling it, is fitted with a number of superimposed horizontal trays, about 21 feet x 5'-6" deep, resting on transverse heating pipes. Each of these trays is supplied with a horizontal strainer of wire gauze of about sixteen meshes to the inch. The bottoms of the trays communicate with short pipes with nozzles constructed to work with worm wheels on a vertical shaft. Before charging the trays, the diaphragm, or strainer, is covered with about half an inch of water, which prevents the melted wax from running through the diaphragm. The crude solid paraffin from the filter presses, after being melted in the tank, is pumped through the vertical charging pipes, and through the small cocks on to the surface of the water, to fill the trays; and when it is solidified, the water is run otf, the cake of paraffin resting on the gauze, and the doors and ventilators are then closed. The stove is then heated for a considerable time to 80 F., and finally to the temperature at vhich the sweating is to take place, and the liquified impurities are drained off until the overflowing paraffin sets on a thermometer bulb at 130 F. The various liquids separated! 54 NEW BRUNSWICK OIL-SHALES: TESTS in the refining of the wax are drawn off through the nozzles into hoppers on the standard pipes, which lead them into horizontal pipes through which they are passed to suitable receivers. When the sweat- ing is completed, the remaining wax is melted by increasing the temperature and is run off through the same outlets into a tank, from which it is pumped for treatment with charcoal as in the older processes. The stoves used in this process are built of brick, and have double doors of iron and wood, generally with sawdust between. Each stove is fitted with two sets of nine pans each, and will take from two to three charges of 14 tons each per week according to circumstances. Larger capacity stoves are also in use. At the Pumpherston refinery there are twenty sweating houses for refining the paraffin wax; each house contains two sets of nine pans each. Mr. Norman M. Henderson has recently designed an improved apparatus for sweating paraffin wax, which he claims is superior to his older process. In this process the paraffin is sweated in cells; a sweating house for an installation of 144 cells being 50 feet long x 14 feet wide x 16 feet high. The full charge of paraffin wax in the cells is 32 tons, and the cells may be charged and run twice a week. Four such installations of 144 cells will give a throughput of 276 tons per week. At the Broxburn refinery, five installations are now in operation, and the authorities state that these stoves will replace the older ones as opportunity arises. The cost of a refining plant is 11,000 per million gallons of crude oil run, and a refinery to deal with ten million gallons of oil per year would cost approximately 200,000, everything included. The cost of labour and everything in and for the refinery is three farthings to one penny per gallon of crude oil put through. Three classes of workmen are employed in the refineries: stillheadmen (three for each shift), who receive 5s. to 5s. 6d. per day; two assistants to the stillheadmen, receiving 4s. 6d. per day; and six firemen for each shift, receiving 4s. 2d. per day. Products of Manufacture. (1.) The permanent gases produced by retorting are used for fuel. The composition of these gases varies considerably, but the retort gas from Bryson retorts, using Pumpherston shale, generally contains 50 to 60 per cent of hydrogen and about 20 per cent of carbon dioxide. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 55 (2.) Shale naphtha generally consists of 60 to 70 per cent of ole- fines and other hydrocarbons acted on by fuming nitric acid, the rest being principally of the paraffin series. It is completely volatile at ordinary temperatures, and is obtained at different specific gravities and boiling points according to requirements: for instance, 0-660 for gasoline, and 0-690 for motor spirit. Ordinary naphthas, the specific gravities of which range from 0-72 to 0-75, are used for lighting purposes, and as solvents and cleansing agents. The present price of naphtha is 7d. per gallon. (3.) The burning or lamp oils are transparent and nearly colour- less, having both the paraffin and olefine series in considerable propor- tion. They are used for lamps of many designs, and the specific gravities vary from 0-78 to 0-83. The following are the flash points of the principal Scottish burning oils: Young's Crystal 128 F. , Pumpherston Pearline 126 F. All of Broxburn Petroline 126 F. f 18 c.p. Oakbank Kerosene 126 F. J Scottish oils have been free from lamp accidents since their manufacture. They are serviceable for continuous burning lamps, for buoys and lightships, and may be used for combustion in oil engines. The present price of burning oil is 6d. to 7|d. per gallon. (4.) Intermediate oils. The specific gravity of these oils varies from 0-84 to 0-87, and the flash point is generally greater than 150 F. They are used for gas making, and at 800 to 900 0. a good Scottish intermediate oil will yield 1,200 candle power per gallon; it will be seen, therefore, that the gas produced is of high illuminating power, so they are largely used for enriching coal and water gas and also for combustion in oil engines. The present price of inter- mediate oils is 5 per ton. (5.) Lubricating oils. These oils are made with a specific gravity varying from 0-865 to 0-910, and are employed for lubricating purposes, either alone or mixed with vegetable or animal oils. It is worthy of note that shale lubricating oils do not decrease so rapidly in viscosity by heating as many other mineral lubricating oils. The present price of lubricating oil is from 5 10s. to 8 per ton. (6.) Solid paraffin is used in vast quantities for candle making. Also for water-proofing, metal protection, insulating purposes, and a variety of well-known uses. The usual grades of paraffin are melt- 56 XEW BEUNSWICK OIL-SHALES : TESTS ing point 130, 125 to 127, 118 to 120, and 110 to 112 F. The price of crude and refined paraffin varies from 2d. to 3Jd. per pound. (7.) Still grease is the amorphous distillate from the end of the crude oil and heavy oil distillation. It is employed for grease making, and the present price is 4 to 4 10s. per ton. (8.) Still coke. This is the residue left in the still on distilling crude oil to dryness. This coke is worth from 40s. to 50s. per ton, and represents in the case of the best crude oil about three to four per cent of the oil, but in the case of the less pure oil, or where the distillation has not been properly conducted, it may amount to eight to ten per cent of the crude oil. It is used for gas fires in private houses, as a fuel in drawing-rooms, as a smokeless fuel for yachts, as carbon for electrical purposes, and for making moulders' blacking. (9.) Sulphate of ammonia is used as a manure by agriculturists; it is especially useful for growing the sugar beet. Ammonium sul- phate solutions have also found application in the preparation of fire extinguishers. The present price of ammonium sulphate is 11 15s. per ton (May, 1909). (10.) Liquid fuel. The acid and basic tars obtained in the refinery are used as a liquid fuel for the stills, together with the dregs and residues unfit for other purposes. It is probable that these tars would be valuable as wood preservatives, fluxes for mineral smelting, and for coating iron pipes to prevent the formation of rust. Owing to its high thermal value, there is considerable demand at present for liquid fuel, but in Scotland the tars are used solely for liquid fuel under the refinery stills. The ordinary products obtained by refining Scottish oil-shale are too valuable to be used for fuel. It is conceded that the use of liquid fuel is an ideal method of raising steam, but it has been found difficult to supply high-grade fuel oil at a reason- able cost; in fact, it is owing to this reason that the shale oil pro- duced in Scotland, which has a calorific value of 18,217 B.T.U., has not been employed for fuel purposes, although some experiments were conducted at Woolwich Dockyard in England by the British Admiralty as early as 1866, with the view of testing the value of shale oil as a substitute for coal in raising steam in marine boilers. It should be noted in this connexion that one ton of fuel oil is equal in thermal efficiency to about one and three-quarter tons of steam coal, mainly owing to the diminished loss of heat up the stacks and; the more equal distribution of heat in the combustion chambers. SCOTTISH OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY 57 The crude oil obtained by retorting the oil-shales of New Bruns- wick is especially suitable as a liquid fuel, owing to its thermal efficiency, and it may be produced in unlimited quantities at a mini- mum cost. The crude product obtained by retorting a large amount of shale from Irving's farm, Baltimore, New Brunswick, at the experimental plant of the Pumpherston Oil Company, Limited, possessed a specific gravity of 0-92, a flash-point of 194 F., a setting- point of 54 F., and a heating value of 18,474 B.T.TJ. It contained only 0-62 per cent of sulphur. It is interesting to note that this crude oil bears a resemblance to the crude petroleujn of the mid- continent field; it yields 10 per cent of an asphahic residuum on dis- tillation, showing that it is of a semi-asphalt base. (11.) Other products. Scottish oil-shale does not yield vaseline, and no attempts have been made so far to manufacture tar products from the acid and basic tars. Profits on a Ton of Shale. At the present time, the average cost of mining and manufactur- ing products from one ton of shale in Scotland may be given as 8s. 3d.; and the net profit on the products of a ton of shale may be given as 3s. 4d. In 1882, the profit on a ton of shale amounted to 3s. 7d., while in 1897 the profit was 2s. (See Table of Dividends, etc.) The regulation of wages, railway rates, and maiket prices of the various products, is controlled by an organization composed of representatives of the various Scottish oil-shale companies. In 1887, it was proposed to change into an oil syndicate or trust, but this was never effected. Only two strikes have occurred in the history of the industry : one in 1887, from July to October, and another in October, 1903. Perfect harmony now reigns, and there is a friendly under- standing between the masters and workmen. The development of the Scottish oil-shale industry has been carried out with skill and energy, and it is gratifying to note that the industry is now meeting with the commercial success it well deserves. It may be stated, however, that opportunities for improve- ments in the processes and wastes still present themselves. INDEX. PAOB. Allcit Miucs, sample from". 16 Albertite, Oilite and Cannel Coal Co ..9, 10 Ammonia 44 Ammonium sulphate 44, 55 Appendix, Technology of Oil-shale Industry, Hamor 37 B Bailey. E. M., fractionation test by 12 Baizlev seam 12 Baltimore, Albert county, N.B 9, 12 sample from 16 Baskerville, Dr. Charles 10 analyses by 12, 16 Bathgate, distillation works at 21 Beilby ammonia column still 45 Bell, Eobert, discovery of value of ammonia water by 44 Broxburn Oil Co 25, 29 refinery 48 Bryson, Jas.. Manager Pumpherston oil works, re cost of plants.. ..27, 28 retort 39 C Candles, paraffin 48 Coke, still, product of manufacture 56 Condensers 43 Cost, ammonium sulphate plant 47 of mining and manufacturing products 57 " Pumpherston retort 40 refinery plant 54 " retorting and distillation plants 27 Cracker boxes 44, 46 Craig, A. F., re cost of plants 27,28 Crichton retort 38, 42 D Dalmeny Co 25 > & Distillation plant, installation at Ottawa 17 F Fractionation, report on 1 Fraser, W., Managing Director Pumpherston works 1& G Gas, permanent 44, 4fr Georpe Irving seam Grease, still, product of manufacture 56 69 60 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA PAGE. H Hamor, W. A 10, 12, 17 " description of oil-shale plant by 37 Hayward brook, sample from 16 Henderson, Norman, re cost of plants 27, 28, 29 " ammonia column still 46 " patent sweating process 53, 54 retort 38,41 I Irvine's farm shale, rich in fuel oil 57 J James Ross Company 25 James Young Company 25 L Leverin, H. A., analyses by . . 17 Liquid fuel 56 N Naphtha 44, 49, 50, 55 O Oakbank Co 25, 30 refinery 48 Oil, burning 55 " crude 44, 57 " intermediate 55 " lubricating 55 Oil-shale, commercial value of 34 " industry a commercial success 57 plant, description of 37 " products, prices of 27 substitution of for torbanite 22 P Paraffin 48, 51, 55 regarded as of little value 21 Philipstoun retort 42 Pumpherston Oil Co., market values of stock 30 number of retorts 25 official report 11, 13, 15 refining crude oil 48 retort 38,39 Pyroschist, synonymous with oil-shale 22 R Redwood, Iltyd, author of volume on mineral oils 21 Refinery 47,48 Refining, process of 48 Retorts, number of employed 26 Ricketts and Banks, analyses by 18 Roman Camp works 48 INDEX 61 Pine s Scotch shale oil industry described 18 history of 21 Seafield and Deans refinery 48 Shale, cost of mining and retorting 26 spent 44 " tests of official reports on 11,13,15 Standard Oil Co., possible competition from 34 Statistics of oil-shale industry in Scotland 24 Steuart, D. E 18, 21 Stills 44, 50 Stock, market values of 29 Strikes in oil-shale industry 57 Sulphate of ammonia 56 Sulphuric acid 48 T Tarbrax Co 25, 31 Tars (See Liquid Fuel). Taylorville, sample from 16 Tervet and Allison, patent arrangement for treating paraffin 53 Torbanehill shale 18,21 Torbanite 21 Turtle creek, analysis of sample from 18 sample from 16 V Vaseline, none in Scottish oil-shale 57 W Wages 41, 54 " etc., regulated by organization 57 Woolwich dockyard, experiments at with liquid fuel 56 Y Young and Beilby retort 38 " Fyfe retort 38, 42 " Co., refinery 48 " Jas., first manufacturer of crude oil in Scotland 21 Youngs Company 32 5656-5 CANADA DEPARTMENT OF MINES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BRANCH HON. W. TEMH,EMAN, MINISTER; A. P. Low, DEPUTY MINISTII; R. W. BROCK, DIRECTOR. PA.RT TI GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER OF THE OIL -SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA BY R. W. ELLS OTTAWA GOVERNMENT PRINTING BUREAU 1909 No. 1107 565655 To E. W. BROCK, Director Geological Survey, Department of Mines. Sm, I beg to submit the following report on the oil-shales of Canada. A geological and topographical map of the areas in Albert and Westmorland counties, N.B., is being prepared by Mr. Sidney C. Ells, B.A., B. Sc. This will serve to show the general structure of the district, and the distribution of all the known areas of the Albert shales (oil-shales) in these counties. I have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient servant, K. W. ELLS. JUNE 14, 1909. CONTENTS. PAGE Letter of Transmittal Introductory: , 7 Historical sketch of oil-shale discoveries in Canada. ... 7 Geological formations 9 On Palaeontological evidence 12 Similarity of New Brunswick and Scottish shale strata. ... 13 Bore-hole logs at Baltimore, KB 14 Bore-hole logs at Memramcook and Petitcodiac rivers, N.B. 16 General distribution of the Albert shale series, N.B 17 Oil-shales of Nova Scotia: General occurrences and analyses 21-40 Notes on Pictou County deposits, with analyses 21 Notes on Antigonish County deposits, with analyses. ... 22 Oil-shales from other countries 40 History of Scottish oil-shale industry 41 Geology of Scotch oil-shales 45 Comparative Study of Scotch and Eastern Canadian shales. 47 Economic Geology of the oil-shales of Scotland 48 Specification of oil-shale seams under operation 53 Torbanehill mineral (Torbanite) 55 Comparison of Stellarite with Torbanite 56 Oil-shales of Newfoundland 59 Oil-shales of Quebec 59 The Utica shales 61 Origin of oils 68 Index.. 71 II GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER OF THE OIL- SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA. BY K. W. ELLS. For more than half a century the presence of a well defined belt of shale and sandstone, of various colours, generally black, brown, and grey, in part highly bituminous, has been recognized in the south- eastern part of the Province of New Brunswick: especially in the counties of Westmorland and Albert, whence these rocks extend west into Kings county. From their occurrence and early development in Albert county they have been for many years known under the name of Albert shales. Rocks very similar in character, and regarded as belonging to the same geological horizon, have been long known in different parts of the adjoining Province of Nova Scotia, where, they received the name of Horton series, given by Sir J. W. Dawson many years ago. In New Brunswick, attention was first specially directed to these shales about 1849, as the result of an examination of the area by Dr. A. Gesner, a local geologist of marked ability, and the author of several valuable reports on the geology and resources of the Maritime provinces. In that year 1849, he discovered on Frederick brook, near what is known as Albert Mines, a remarkable deposit, consisting of a vein or bed of a bright jet-black shiny mineral, easy of ignition, and supposed by some persons to represent the outcrop of a bed of coal. On subsequent careful examination Dr. Gesner came to the conclu- sion that the mineral was not a coal in any sense, but a form of mineral pitch, or a hardened or inspissated petroleum, which occurred in vein form, cutting the enclosing strata transversely to the bedding, instead of occurring as a regularly bedded deposit after the usual manner of coal-beds. For this new mineral the name albertite was 7 8 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA suggested by Dr. James Kobb to Sir Charles Lyell, at a time when the true nature of the mineral was still a matter of doubt. The discovery of this mineral on Frederick brook in 1849 directed attention to the area at once, and in the same year the locality was visited by Dr. James Eobb, professor of geology and natural history in the University of New Brunswick, at Fredericton. Under date of November 26 he writes: 'Dr. Gesner mentions the occurrence of a bed of coal at Frederick brook, a branch of Weldon creek, etc. I visited,' continues Dr. Eobb, 'this place in October last (1849), and found on the land of Mr. J. Steeves, near the head of Frederick brook, a good deal of brownish bituminous substance, but no coal whatever. .... Mr. Steeves showed me what had been regarded as coal, but it proved to be a mineral pitch or hard bitumen ; it had only been found, he said, in small rolled fragments in the surface drift of his field. ' The discovery of the existing Albert mine was due, I have been informed, to the bursting of a milldam on a branch of Frederick brook, which exposed the brilliant and massive veins of albertite, now the source of the mineral of the Albert mine.' In 1852 a celebrated law-suit was commenced, involving the owner- ship of this peculiar mineral, which promised, when developed, to be of great economic value. Dr. Gesner, the original discoverer, claimed the mineral on the ground that it was not a true coal, and, therefore, was exempt from the ordinary Crown Land regulations applicable to that mineral, in which contention he was supported by Dr. James Robb of the University of New Brunswick, and by Mr. R C. Taylor, of Philadelphia, a chemist of repute. Mr. W. Cairns, who was the appellant in the trial, contended that the mineral was a true coal, and as such was subject to the regulations then in force by the New Brunswick government. At the trial a large amount of evidence was taken by experts, with the result that the jury decided in favour of the contention that the mineral was a true coal. It may be added, however, that though Dr. Gesner by this decision lost his personal interest in the property, it has since been abundantly established that the contention advanced by himself and Dr. Robb was correct, namely, that it is true asphaltic mineral, occurring in veins, and not as a bed similar to bituminous coal. As this mineral, known at first as Albert coal and now under the name albertite, proved on investigation to be of great value, and was mined for nearly thirty years, at a large profit, its subsequent history assumes an importance due to its direct association with the shale GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTEK 9 deposits ; though mining operations on this celebrated vein have been discontinued for 25 years. This deposit has often been described, and the property was surveyed and mapped by the Geological Survey in 1876-7, but complete records of the enterprise have never been obtained. Many of these records have been destroyed by fire, or other- wise; the principal persons interested have passed away; and no re- liable data can now be secured. It may be said, however, that in each of the years 1865 and 1866 the output of albertite was 20,500 tons, while the total from 1863 to 1874 amounted to 154,800 tons, and during the entire period of working it was probably not far from 230,000 tons. The price ranged from $15 to $20 per ton, and mining was carried to a depth of nearly 1,300 feet. The length of the vein worked was, in a straight line from west to east, about 2,800 feet. It varied greatly in thickness, was frequently broken and thrown from side to side, sometimes thinning out almost entirely, and again increasing to a thickness of from 15 to nearly 17 feet. In its lower levels it passed into a brecciated mass of shale fragments, closely cemented with albertite, as was also the case at the extremities, which thinned out until it became unprofitable to continue mining. Several spur veins were found, with other smaller separate veins, but of these none were worked to any considerable extent. The vein did not follow the exact crest of the principal anticline in the shales, which was located in one of the tunnels from near the bottom of the west shaft, at a distance of 420 feet north. This anticline was also located at the surface in a couple of brooks, where it corresponded in position with that observed in the underground workings. The vein descended almost vertically 1,300 feet to the bottom of the workings, and was followed downward by pits and bore-holes to a further depth of about 200 feet, though the brecciated nature of the deposit at this depth rendered its working unprofitable. Though numerous attempts have been made by borings, since 1876, to find other veins of this mineral in the shale areas, none of these have been successful outside the area of the Albert mines. It is probable, therefore, that conditions exist in that district, either through peculiarities of anticlinal structure, fissuring, or in the nature of the original deposit, which do not occur in other parts of the shale field. The geological formations of the district may be briefly stated. At the base are pre-Cambrian rocks, consisting of schists and hard 10 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA slates, granite, and diorite. These form the ridge known as Caledonia mountain. In their extension westward from the Albert mines these rocks are almost continuous to the vicinity of St. John city. In Kings county they are overlaid by sediments of Cambrian age, well recognized by characteristic fossils, but in Albert county and eastern Kings these old sedimentaries are apparently absent, and the crystalline rocks are directly overlapped by a series of shales, con- glomerates, and sandstones which are a part of the Devonian system, in which the portion known as Albert shales is included. For many years these were regarded as of lower Carboniferous age, but their abundant fauna of fossil fishes, together with the abundance of plant remains, some of which are similar to those found in the typical Devonian of Gaspe and elsewhere, together with the fact that every- where yet studied they are unconformably beneath the recognized lower Carboniferous limestone series, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, have led to their being now regarded as an upper portion of the Devonian. The reason for this change in horizon is more apparent from the fact that westward in Kings county they have been found to constitute an integral part of the Perry group, which occurs at intervals from the western part of the Province through southern New Brunswick into Nova Scotia. From the most recent work on the rocks of this group, both in Maine and in New Bruns- wick, it has been conclusively established that this group really be- longs to the upper part of the Devonian system, both by the fact that the shales and sandstone carry a well defined Devonian flora, and that everywhere it is unconformably overlaid by the series of marine lime- stones which are associated with deposits of gypsum in New Bruns- wick, and Nova Scotia, now regarded as constituting the proper base of the lower Carboniferous rocks, and of the Carboniferous system as a whole. The views stated by Drs. Bailey and. Ells, in the report for 1876-7, regarding the structure of the shale formation, though now modified in some respects by more recent study of the several districts, may be briefly stated. The Albert shales form a belt extending from the Memramcook river, between Dorchester and Memramcook on the east to within a short distance of the village of Hampton, a distance of about 70 miles. The rocks of this belt are concealed at many places by over- lying drift deposits or by lower Carboniferous sediments, comprising limestone, gypsum, conglomerate, marly shales and sandstone, which GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 11 overlie unconformably the shale formation. As these shales reappear at intervals on the general line of strike to the southwest, often with but little change in character, it is probable that the areas are con- tinuous throughout, and are repeated at various points by the pre- sence of anticlines which have brought the lower beds to the surface. East of Albert mines no pre-Cambrian rocks are visible; but west of that place crystalline rocks of pre-Cambrian age rise abruptly in the prominent ridge known as Caledonia Mountain range, and, as already remarked, continue thence nearly to the city of St. John, the shale formation lying against its northern flank for some miles. Westward the strongly marked bituminous character of the shale de- creases somewhat, but the formation as a whole can be readily recog- nized as far as the head of Kennebecasis bay, which is an arm of the lower part of the St. John river. In Nova Scotia, rocks of similar age, also strongly charged with hydrocarbons, are developed at several points, though the well-defined brownish bituminous characters were not seen in this Province, the colour of the shales being generally black or greyish. These will be described later. The formation evidently is continuous en Kennebecasis island, which lies in the bay of that name, a few miles north of St. John city, the shales here being grey and black, with grey and brown sand- stones ; but as far west as Apohaqui, along the south side of the Inter- colonial railway, their character as brown bituminous shales is well preserved. They can be well seen on the roads between Sussex and Bloomfield to the south of the railway, and their bituminous nature is apparent in their westward extension nearly to Hampton, where some years ago they were mined in a search for coal. In this part of Kings county their position as a part of the Perry group can be well seen. This formation at the base consists of massive red conglomerate, shale, and sandstone, with a thickness of several thousand feet. These pass upward gradually into greyer and more sandy beds, alternating with grey and dark shales, which abound in plant remains, partly of Devonian aspect and partly of Carboniferous types. In places these xipper shales contain fish remains similar to those of the Albert series, the associated plant remains, which are very abundant in certain layers, having a like similarity. The shales of Albert and Westmor- land counties, according to the Geological Survey examination in 1876, show generally the following succession: 12 OIIrSHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA Basal conglomerates sometimes absent, but when present often greenish in colour, both coarse and fine textured, sometimes with reddish beds, and made up of the debris of the underlying pre-Cam- brian rocks, the thickness not definitely ascertained, but variable occur in isolated basins as in Kings county. They apparently pass up into calcareo-bituminous shales and sandstone, with thin lime- stone, grey to dark brown in colour, in places quite black, rich in hydrocarbons, with thin bands of ochreous weathering ironstone. Their thickness as measured in several sections is from 850 to over 1,000 feet. The shales are sometimes very thin bedded, or papy- raceous, separating readily into thin flexible sheets, the surfaces of which are sometimes almost covered with remains of fishes. Other shales are greyish tinted, especially on weathered surfaces, but choco- late coloured on fresh surfaces, and are associated with hard and massive bands, well bedded, often destitute of apparent shaly struc- ture or lamination, except on well-weathered surfaces of outcrops. These hard beds are very tough, break with a well defined conchoidal fracture, and are especially rich in hydrobarbons. They kindle readily and burn freely owing to the quantity of contained oil. In colour they range from almost a jet black to brownish-black, and sometimes are decidedly grey, with frequent streaks and layers of black bitu- minous matter somewhat resembling albertite. Portions of these beds show a very curly structure, indicating apparently a greater per- centage of hydrocarbons in composition, as if they had been effected by movements in the mass, which were resisted by the denser portions of the shale beds. These massive bands constitute what are known as the oil-shales proper, though a large portion of the mass of brown bituminous shales, as well as of the grey beds is sufficiently saturated with hydrocarbons to ignite quite readily. As has already been remarked, the fossil remains of fishes are quite abundant at places in the shale beds, some of the papery layers being almost covered with their impressions, while hard nodular masses, scattered through the shales, on splitting, often yield larger forms, also in a very perfect state of preservation. Large numbers of these fossils have been obtained from time to time, and, during the season of 1908, very full collections were made by Mr. L. M. Lambe, more especially in the vicinity of the Albert mines. Numerous bore-holes have been put down by different companies to ascertain the presence or otherwise of crude oil, but, as in the case of the Scotch shale, all such attempts have resulted in failure GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTEE 13 to find wells with an economic yield, the contained oils apparently being obtainable only by distillation. In many respects these New Brunswick shales correspond very closely with those of Scotland, which have for half a century been extensively mined and distilled with much success, but from which free oils of economic importance, either in the borings or the extensive underground workings, have never been obtained. As a very large portion of the Scotch shales has thus been proved, it is only natural to suppose that further attempts to obtain oils in the free state from such bituminous shales would be equally unsuccessful. It is possible that the lack of success attending the numerous boring operations in the shales of both coun- tries, as regards finding native oil, may be due in part at least, to the generally disturbed and faulty nature of the ground. In New Brunswick this feature is very pronounced, the strata being often highly inclined and the indications of faults numerous. The same features are seen in the several shale areas of Scotland; so that it would appear that no oil reservoir where large bodies of oil 'might accumulate actually exists in either country. That this is the case in New Brunswick, in Nova Scotia, and in Gaspe, seems to be fairly well established; for while small quantities of native oil have been found in a number of the wells and there are several springs in the shale country which show its presence up to the present time nothing of commercial importance has been met with, and boring operations have been discontinued for several years. So far it has been impossible to obtain the logs of the wells from most of the localities where boring operations have been carried on. Of some 65 or 70 wells bored in the Memramcook-Petitcodiac district in New Brunswick, the logs of only three are available; at Balti- more also three have been obtained; while of those bored at Albert mines and at Elgin no record has apparently been kept. This is greatly to be regretted, since, had reliable logs been preserved of the strata passed through, our knowledge of the shale problem would have been largely increased. In none of these holes was the underlying base of the shale series apparently found, though at one point in the southern part of the Dover field a depth of 3,000 feet was reached. The only information obtainable is the verbal statement that red rock was at the bottom. The record of several of these logs is appended, as showing in some degree the nature of the strata passed through. 14 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA LOGS OF BORE-HOLES AT BALTIMORE. Boring No. 1, Diamond core-drill. Elevation above sea-level, 710 feet, April, 1900. H. B. Goodrich; Geologist in charge. This hole was located on the flat of the east branch of Turtle creek, 1,800 feet northeast of the corner at Eosedale post-office. The boring evidently commences in the overlying lower Carboniferous sediments, and the log is as follows: Feet. Gravel, surface drift Green and red, coarse and fine conglomerate 60 67 Red marly shales, occasional pebbles 14 81 Conglomerate 4 85 Eed clay shale 6 91 Unconformity, dips of above, N. 10-15 deg. representing the lower Carboniferous formation. Feet. Albert shale series Fine sandstone, shale layers 7 98 Shale, calcite veins, holds oil and will burn 9 107 Shale with fine sandstone 4 111 Banded shale, calcite, pyritons, small quantity of oil 13 124 Oil-shale, contains much oil and burns readily 3 127 Oil-shale, burns, but not so readily 7 134 Bituminous sandstone and shale 10 144 Oily shale, but not a true oil-shale 1 145 Bituminous shale oil-be xring, burns more or less freely.. .. 27 172 Slightly bituminous claystone with shale bands 32 204 Shales and fine sandstone 10 214 Very fine sandstone (claystone), with shale layers 36 250 White sandstone 1 251 Black bituminous shale, with sandy layers, burns 19 270 Very fine-grained, probably calcareous sandstone 22 292 Black bituminous shale, burns freely 77 369 Black bituminous shale with sandstone beds 24 393 Fine dark sandstone with 3 feet shale 14 407 Light brown oil-stained sandstone 3 410 Fine sandstone, with shaly streaks, brecciated 20 430 Black bituminous shale, bands of fine sandstone 49 479 Very fine brown sandstone, in part rich in oil 27 506 Black shale rich in hydrocarbons 11 516 Sandstone, and shale, slightly bituminous 47 563 Fine grained sandstone 12 575 Fine black shale 27 602 Fine white sandstone 17 619 Clay shale, slightly bituminous 10 629 Fine white sandstone 2 631 Grey clay shale 8 639 Fine white sandstone 9 648 Black shale 46 694 Fine white sandstone 8 702 Black shale 7 709 White sandstone 5 714 Shale and sandstone 11 725 Fine sandstone to bottom 21 746 GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 15 It will be seen that the lower part of this horing traversed a con- siderable thickness of white sandstone. This rock does not appear at the surface in any observed portion of the shale field of Albert county. The contact with the underlying crystalline rocks was, evidently, not reached. Boring No. 2 at Baltimore. Diamond core-drill. Elevation above sea-level, 891 feet. Begun, September 1, 1900. H. B. Goodrich, Geologist in charge. Location near summit of ridge west of Kosedale post-office near E. Steven's house. Feet. Gravel and clay.. .1 20 Grey clay-shale faulted, dips N. 15-20 deg 73 93 Quartzose mica sandstone, -with thin shales 13 106 Micaceous fine grained sandstone with shales 26 132 Black clay shale 6 138 Oily sandstone 7 145 Whitish brown whetstone rock 5 150 Sandstone and shale 8 158 Oil-bearing sandstone with oil streaks 22 180 Grey shale and white sandstone 5 185 Black and green shale, no oil, dip N. 15 deg 38 223 Quartzose sandstone 7 230 Shale and sandstone 12 242 Grey and green shale 36 278 Fine micaceous sandstone 11 289 Shale and white sandstone 4 293 Grey and green shale, faulted, dip 20 deg 37 330 Sandstone and conglomerate 9 339 Shale 4 343 Whitish sandstone with some shale 8 351 White micaceous sandstone with oil at bottom 22 373 Green shale and sandstone, no oil seen 80 453 Mostly grey sandstone with shale partings 27 480 Grey shale broken and faulted 39 519 Clay stone and micaceous sandstone 28 547 Dark grey shale 26 573 Claystone with shale ba.ids 7 580 Grey clay shale 27 607 Sandy reddish shale 7 614 Hard fine grey sandstone 8 622 Grey shale 7 629 Grey sandstone 10 639 Dark grey shale 17 656 Hard dark grey sandstone and shale 62 718 Sandstone and fine conglomerate 12 730 Grey shale 12 742 Grey shale or slate to bottom of hole 35 777 From the above log it will be seen that the chocolate coloured shale so characteristic of the Albert shale formation elsewhere was not recognized, and that there are considerable thicknesses of sand- stone, both grey and white. At the Albert mines the sections from the shafts and along the brooks show the brown beds more abund- antly, with but small areas of the sandstones. 56566 16 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA Bore-hole No. 3, at Baltimore, with churn drill. Elevation above sea-level, about 800 feet. Begun December 4, 1900. H. B. Goodrich, Geologist in charge. Feet. Soil ............................................ 1 Shale slightly bituminous, close grained and brown ........ 29 30 Hard claystone, or sandstone non-bituminous, brown bitumin- ous shale, small showing of oil .................... 13 43 Shale slightly calcareous and bituminous; grey shale or clay- stone, calcareous and bituminous; shale with streaks of fine bituminous sandstone; hard grey calcareous shale slightly calcareo bituminous; grey shale slightly bituminous, shal calcareous bituminous shale with streaks of claystone, and sometimes with calcite veins, broken, with sandy layers.. 70 113 Brown shale, probably oil-shale, bed of about 2 feet hard rock, probably rough claystone; calcareous shales, a bed of oil-shale 2 feet thick ....................... . 53 123 Grey shale, slightly bituminous; very bituminous shale, but probably not an oil-shale in places with calcareous bands; calcareous shale and claystone; grey calcareous, slightly bituminous shale .............................. 47 170 Fine calcareous sandstone, with harder calcareous and bit- uminous shale and sandstone, passing into hard grey bit- uminous shale ................................ 43 213 Hard, very bituminous shales, possibly oil-shale ; calcareous shale and sandstone, faulted, bituminous claystone, cal- careous shale and claystone slightly bituminous to bottom of hole .................................... 35 248 Hole for entire distance in bituminous shales and claystone; a slight find of gas was given off, but no flow of oil at surface. Principal concentration of hydrocarbons appears to be at 112 feet to 123 feet; secondarily important at 212 feet to 214 feet. Location is approximately 10 southwest of a vertical line from face of big tunnel on the Baizley lot, and is at least 95 feet above level of that tunnel at collar. LOGS OF BORE-HOLES AT MEMRAMCOOK AND PETITCODIAC RIVERS. A number of bore-holes were put down, mostly with cable drill, in the area between the Memramcook and Petitcodiac rivers, and several were bored on the west side of the latter river, a short distance south of Stony creek. The greatest depth reached in these holes was a little more than 3,000 feet at Pre d'en haut. In all, nearly 80 holes were bored, the logs of which are available in some cases ; but a close study of these does not furnish much information owing to the unsatisfac- tory manner in which these logs were kept. Holes Nos. 4, 5, and 7, were superintended by Mr. Goodrich the geologist in charge of these boring operations and the logs are as follows: GEOLOGICAL, POSITION AND CHARACTER 17 Bore-hole No. 4, May, 1901. Surface soil 6 Grey shale with black bituminous bands 50 56 Shale with hard bands . .. 21 77 Black shale 43 120 Close grained sandstone or claystone 33 168 Dark bituminous shale 16 159 Hard rock, probably fine grained sandstone ! 7 176 Oil-bearing sandstone 28 204 Grey shale [] 41 245 Darker shale to bottom of hole 65 310 Bore-hole No. 5, August, 1901. oet. Eed clay and gravel 13 Hard grey shale 42 55 Hard grey shale and sandstone 5 60 Very hard shale with finer layers sandstone 40 100 Grey and black shale with hard limestone 26 126 Grey bituminous shale 4 130 Grey bituminous shales with sandy beds 10 140 Greyish and black bituminous shale 20 160 Greyish black bituminous shale with limestone 14 174 Sandstone with small show of gas and oil 4 178 Hard grey and black shale 42 220 Dark soft highly bitumiious shale 20 240 Dark shale with sandstone 7 247 Oil sands 28 275 Shales to bottom of hole at 12 287 Bore-hole No. 7, September 24, 1901. Peet Surface soil 20 Grey shale 92 112 Hard limestone 5 117 Grey and black bituminous shale 10 127 Hard rock, probably limestone 10 137 Grey and black, slightly bituminous, shale 70 207 Hard rock sandstone or limestone with shale 16 223 Black shale 5 228 Hard sandstone or fine claystone 8 236 Black shale 3 239 Hard brown sandstone, flow of gas 17 246 Black close grained shale, bituminous 27 27S Reddish shale 4 277 Black bituminous shale 46 323 Grey non-bituminous shale 47 370 Oil-bearing sandstone 37 407 Sandy shale to bottom of hole 4 411 The three holes indicated above were put down not far from St. Joseph's college, west side of Memramcook river. DISTRIBUTION OF ALBERT SHALE SERIES. The general distribution of the Albert shale series in Albert and Westmorland counties was shown on the map accompanying the Re- port of the Geological Survey for 1876-7. Some minor changes have been made at several points; but on the whole the delimitation of these rocks, as there shown, still holds good. No attempt was made on the map to indicate the several bands of oil-shale, owing to the smallness of the scale on which it was compiled. These were further 565661 18 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA examined during September, 1908, and were measured at the outcrops in the several areas. Of these it may be said that workable beds are now known to exist in at least six localities, with further possibilities along the western extension of the Albert shales. Beginning at Taylorville, on the Memramcook river, opposite Upper Dorchester station on the Intercolonial railway, four beds of very excellent character were uncovered. Of these, two beds were each 22 inches in thickness, one of 3 feet and one of 5 feet. These are largely of the curly variety. At the Memramcook outcrops near St. Joseph's college the oil-bands were not observed at the surface, but were apparently passed through in the borings. The former place is situated directly on tide water, and within a mile of the railway station, and is, therefore, very easy of access. From this place several thousand tons were shipped, in 1864, to the United States, apparently for use in gas works or for distillation at Boston. No thick bands of oil-shales were uncovered either at Beliveau or at Dover on the Petitcodiac River side, but there is a strong probability that such exist in these areas, since the beds are evidently continuous across the district, the intervening distance being occupied by over- lapping deposits of Millstone-grit age. In Albert county, the area between the Petitcodiac river at Hills- borough and Albert Mines is also covered with Millstone-grit, and by the true lower Carboniferous formations, comprising marine lime- stone and gypsum, with conglomerates and shale, beneath which the Albert shale series emerges near the mines, at the Salisbury and Harvey railway. These underlying shales are thence well exposed, especially along the stream known as Frederick brook, where they were first discovered in 1849. Along this brook six well defined beds of oil-shale, in massive bands, were opened up. These are partly of the curly variety and partly of the plain, the thickness ranging at the surface from 3'-6" to T feet, all of which may be classed as of very excellent quality, with a total exposed thickness of about 30 feet. While other beds have been passed through in sinking the several shafts by which the albertite vein was worked, the exact position of these cannot now be ascertained without boring, though pieces of this material can be seen in several dumps, and much of it belongs to the curly variety and should be exceptionally rich in hydrocarbons. The deposits of albertite which occur in veins in this area have already been referred to, and while the use of this material as an enricher of bituminous coal in the manufacture of gas has largely GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHAEACTER 19 ceased, its high percentage of oils by distillation still makes it an important factor in the future development of these shales. The shale deposits of this area terminate against the flanks of the Caledonia Mountain range, where they apparently become overlaid along its north side by the conglomerate and marly beds, with sand- stone, to within a short distance of the village of Baltimore. At this place the shales again emerge from the unconfonnably overlapping cover, about half a mile east of Forsyth brook, which is a branch of Turtle creek, and on this brook the Albert shales are well exposed, resting against the flank of the crystalline rocks. On Baizley brook i mile to the west, these shales contain several beds of very rich oil- shale, partly of the curly variety, the percentage of oils and ammonia being very high. They have been opened, to some extent, and it was from one of these beds that much of the material used in the old distillation works at this place, in 1862-4, was taken. Farther west, near the corner at Kosedale post-office, other beds are seen, and on the crest of the hill near the house of Edward Steeves others of very fine quality are exposed, and have also been opened by drifts to a point nearly 100 feet from the line of outcrop, with a north dip of 15 to 20. Near this point is the bed now known as the Irving seam, from which the shale shipment sent to Scotland for the test on a commercial scale during the winter of 1908 was taken, the details of which have already been given. These beds appear to strike west to the west branch of Turtle creek, in which direction they become greyer in colour. In all it is known that at least six well defined beds of rich oil-shale occur in the Baltimore area, and probably there are others not yet definitely located. The thickness of the seams at this place range from 4 to 7 feet, as given p. 140, Geol. Surv. Summary Keport, 1908. On the west branches of Turtle creek several other outcrops of oil-shale were observed. One of these, on the branch nearest Balti- more, has a thickness of about 15 feet, but other thinner bands are seen along the stream; while on a small branch of the west branch another seam of very rich shale of the grey variety has been partially opened up, and as nearly as could be measured had a thickness of S'-6". In the Baltimore areas the Albert shale rests directly upon the north flank of the crystalline rocks, with a well defined north dip at moderate angles, and no underlying conglomerates are visible in this area. The measures, though somewhat faulted, are not so greatly 20 OLL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA disturbed as in the areas to the east. The exposed breadth of these shales is not large, as they soon become covered to the north by the reddish beds and limestones of the lower Carboniferous formation, which in turn are capped by Millstone-grit. Going farther west good outcrops of the shales are seen on Hay- ward brook, which is a branch of Prosser brook, and on the upper part of this stream three good beds with thicknesses of 4 to 5 feet, of a rich chocolate-brown oil-shale, are exposed near the contact with the pre-Cambrian rocks of the mountains. These beds are different in character from the oil-shale bands of Baltimore and Albert Mines, cutting readily with the knife, but are rich both in oils and ammonia. They also have a well defined northerly dip, but as the width of the outcrops is small and terminates a short distance west against a spur of the crystalline rocks, in the absence of development work, save at one point, little can be said as to the general structure. The projecting spur of the pre-Cambrian rocks, which extends eastwards across Prosser brook for a mile or more, apparently term- inates the shale belt just described, but on the north side of this spur, and near the road crossing of the Coverdale river in the east part of Pleasant vale, the brown bituminous shale again appears on the side of a ridge in a small anticline, overlaid directly by lower Car- boniferous limestone and conglomerate. Thence westward they are exposed at intervals to beyond Mapleton, where they have a consider- able development, and contain several beds of oil-shale to within a short distance of the crossing of Pollet river, north of Elgin corner; the shales in this portion keep to the south along the flank of the mountain range, and are associated with green conglomerates. The flat land along the river north of Elgin is occupied by drift deposits, prob- ably resting on lower Carboniferous sediments, which in turn lie un- conf ormably upon the shale series. West of Elgin the Albert shales are seen in a few places along Eobertson brook, but here the rocks of this series are much less bituminous. Rich shale again appears on Montgomery brook, near the cross road from Goshen corner south, beyond which they are entirely concealed by overlying formations, and do not again appear at the surface until the branches of Trout creek south of Sussex in Kings county are reached. From this creek west the brown shales are again exposed regularly on a back road leading to Campbell settlement south of Norton, and are well seen at Ratters corner in this direction. They also outcrop on Moosehorn brook, and on a road south of Bloomfield, but their bituminous character is much GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 21 less pronounced, black, grey, and dark shales accompanying the brown beds. Farther west they appear in a railway cutting half a mile southwest of Apohaqui station, beyond which they are covered by drift deposits along the valley of Kennebecasis river, and show in a small outcrop to the north of this stream at a point two miles north- east of Hampton village, with some carbonaceous matter, which has been supposed to represent a coal deposit. This, however, has no apparent economic value, and the material taken from a shaft sunk at this place shows but slight trace of bituminous matter. Westward of this, on Kennebecasis island, while the shales of the formation are seen, as already remarked the bituminous character is absent. THE OIL-SHALES OF NOVA SCOTIA. The oil-shales of Nova Scotia have been known for half a century, and shortly after their discovery in Pictou county in 1859, were opened and mined to some extent under the name of stellarite, the output being used in the distillation of oil, and for admixture with bituminous coals in gas-making. The literature on the subject has recently been reviewed, and has been supplemented by recent examina- tion in the field of the several areas. 1 The areas are quite numerous, PICTOU COUNTY. 1 The Pictou oil-shales belong to a different geological horizon to those of Antigonish ; being referable rather to the Carboniferous rocks. Along the course of McLellan brook which is a branch of the East river of Pictou, and lies to the southeast of New Glasgow a number of outcrops of black shale are found, most of which are carbonaceous rather than bituminous. A number of samples were taken from different out- crops, and, as in the case of those from Antigonish county, were tested in the laboratory of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines. The locations from which these samples were taken are as follows: No. 1, McLellan brook, near Black's old mill site; No. 2, McLennan's mill, a short distance below the old fulling mill, described in report of Logan and Hartley, 1869; No. 3, Marsh brook, a branch of this stream from the east; No. 4, Marsh brook, outcrop about 150 feet above McKay's house; No. 5, Marsh brook, about 300 feet above McKay's house; No. 6, Shale brook, branch of MoLellan at mouth; No. 7, Shale brook, upper end under grey sandstone cover ; and No. 8, one mile west of Woodburn station, and 50 feet north of track. Analyses of Pictou County Oil-Shales. No. Crude Oil. Ammonium Sulphate No. 1 . Imp. gals. 42 '0 Lbs. per ton. 35 0-802 2 3 4 5.... 14'5 8-0 3-0 9'0 41 Not given. 0-889 0-903 Not given. 921 6 4'0 lt Not given. 1 8'.'.'.'.".'.. 14-0 14-3 902 0-902 With the exception of the sample from No. 2. these results are not satisfactory as regards yield of crude oil, and ammonium sulphate. 22 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA being found at a number of places in that part of Nova Scotia, east of the Avon river, and exposed at intervals, to the eastern part of Cape Breton. The shales apparently belong to several formations, in part belonging to the upper Devonian, and in part to the Coal Measures, and some are apparently associated with upper Carboni- ferous rocks, the latter two being in the county of Pictou. The oil-shales differ in some respects from those seen in New Brunswick. There is a lack of the brown bituminous shales and thick hard oil-bands already described as occurring in New Brunswick, though in age many of those in the adjoining province appear to be on the same general horizon. In Nova Scotia the shales are more usually black in colour, containing also bands of blackish material which are rich in hydrocarbons, the black shale deposits being in places of great thickness. Among these areas may be mentioned a basin of shales with thin coals, found a few miles north of Antigonish town, which has been opened to some extent, in the search for workable seams of coal. These coals have been regularly examined by the Department of Mines and found to be too impure to make a good fuel. 1 Accord- ing to the Eeport of Mr. H. Fletcher, (G.S.C. 1886), no seams of workable coal appear yet to have been found in the peninsula north of Antigonish, the black shales there exposed being in some cases mistaken for coals, into which they pass at several points; but from many of these openings no trace of good coal has yet been obtained. Mr. Campbell, in How's Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, 1868, has clearly shown that these oil-coals underlie the lower Carboniferous limestone at Big Marsh. He divides them into two groups, the lower 70 to 80 feet in thickness, including 20 feet of good oil-shale, 5 feet 1 In view of the commercial possibilities of the oil-shale deposits which occur in large magnitude in eastern Nova Scotia, and which are referred to by Mr. Campbell in How's Mineralogy of Nova Scotia, samples from the principal deposits were collected in both Antigonish and Pictou counties since the above was written. Those gathered in the former county are principally from the Hallowell Grant known usually as the Big Marsh, eight samples of which were taken as follows: BIO MARSH: ANTIGONISH COUNTY. No. 1, is from Dan McDoneld's property, on which a shaft was sunk forty years ago, to a depth of over 60 feet; No. 2 (curly shale), and No. 3 (plain shale), are from McLellan brook a small stream about half a mile east of No. 1; No. 4 (curly), and No. 5 (plain), are from Sawmill brook, about one mile farther east ; No. 6 from the bank on Sawmill brook ; No. 7, from the branch of Sawmill brook: these are known as Dan Boyds; while No. 8 is from the Big Beaver Hugh Mclnnis' property, several miles nearer the shore. It was supposed that these samples would fairly represent the nature of the several deposits in this district most of which were worked to some extent in former years and furnish a reli- GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHAKACTEB 23 of which are curly cannel, rich in oil; the upper, 150 feet thick, in immediate contact with the limestone, and containing a large per- centage of oil. Of the 5 ft. seam of curly cannel, he states that 'it will yield at least 40 gallons of crude per ton, and 15 feet of the remainder will yield at least 20 gallons.' The black shales are associated with light grey micaceous shales, with impressions of broken plants, and are in places much faulted and sometimes steeply inclined. In Cape Breton, around Lake Ainslie, where borings for coal have been carried on for many years, the beds of black shale are not visible to any large extent, much of the surface being drift-covered. Greenish and dark grey ripple-marked sandstone and shale are seen in which the borings have been carried on in former years, and in one of the holes put down near the shore of the lake, brackish water, with a strong taste of petroleum, oozes out. The rocks at this place are greenish-grey sandstone, and dark grey shale. The remarks of Mr. Fletcher, who has studied this district very carefully, show that in places, while these sandstones are seen, other beds of grey, green, rusty, red and purple argillaceous shale dip northwest at a high angle, with sometimes thin greyish, slightly bituminous, shaly limestone. The grey sandy beds and shales may represent that portion of the Perry Devonian seen in New Brunswick on Kennebecasis island, which is apparently the non-bituminous extension westward of the bituminous shales of Albert county. Dr. I. C. White, of Morgantown, West Virginia, made an exam- ination of the Lake Ainslie district some years ago, and after a care- ful study of the whole area, and of the several borings made, expressed able test of the shales, as to their yield in crude oil and sulphate of ammonia. The following analyses were made in the laboratory of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines: Analyses of Antigonith County Oil-shales. No. Crude Oil. Ammonium Sulphate. Specific Gravity. No. 1... 2 3 4 5 *6 Imp. gala. 4-0 6-0 None. 10-0 23'0 iro 10-0 Lbs. per ton. 8-7 Not given. None. 38 34-0 22-6 17 Not given. "o-893' 906 0-917 890 8 7-5 Not given. Not given. 24 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA the conviction that in this part of the island there is no geological evidence of the existence of petroleum in quantities large enough to make it commercially valuable. On the contrary, he says all the geological evidence goes to negative the supposition. On the west side of McAdam lake, situated a short distance north of East bay, Bras d'Or lake, black and grey shales are exposed near the west shore. Some twenty years ago a shaft was sunk by American capitalists in a belt of the black shale, to a depth of 65 feet, which was subsequently carried down to a reported depth of 175 feet. A small retort was erected, but apparently was operated only a short time, the material on the dump showing black and dark-grey car- bonaceous shales, with crushed and slickensided surfaces, portions of which were graphitized. No information could be obtained during a recent visit to the locality as to the results of the working. The place has long since been abandoned. Some portions of the black shales on a small brook which crosses the property were reported to burn readily, but the rocks generally are much crushed in the vicinity. At Cheverie, near the mouth of the Avon river, in Hants county, where boring for oil has been carried on for some years, Mr. Fletcher reports that oil and bitumen have been found in cavities, joints, and fissures, in a mass of gypsum largely quarried in the neighbourhood, which overlies a great body of black carbonaceous shale, containing numerous remains of plants and animals, (Vol. XV, p. 393, G.S.C.), and thus ' supplying the materials for the supposed source from which petroleum was originated.' Along the shore thence east to Walton large bodies of these black shales are exposed, but so far as examined appear to be carbonaceous rather than bituminous. In the vicinity of Walton they are overlaid by red beds of Triassic age. They are much folded and faulted, showing anticlinal structures at various points. No oil has yet been found in any of the bore-holes, but the rocks resemble in many respects those at Antigonish. Similar black shales occur in the North river near Truro, in large volume, overlain by green and grey jointed sandstone; but no attempt to ascertain the presence or amount of hydrocarbons has yet been made. These shales of Cheverie and other points closely resemble the rocks seen along the west side of the Avon river between Hantsport and Horton Bluff, where they have long been known under the name of the Horton series. They consist of heavy beds of black shades, with fish and plant remains, and have been regarded as the equivalent in position of the Albert shales of New Brunswick. They occur in GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 25 basin shape and show the presence of faults. In a boring made near the line between Hants and Kings counties, the rocks, penetrated to a depth of 1,500 feet, were light and dark-grey fine sandstone, under- laid by bluish-grey coherent argillaceous shale, with plant stems and bands of ironstone, to a depth of 800 feet, belcw which grey sandstone again comes in. Some of the shales are said to have the characteristic strong odour of petroleum. Regarding the shales of this part of the Avon, Mr. Fletcher re- marks (Vol. VII, p. 90a), 'the lower plant-bearing beds occur be- tween the gold-bearing series and the lower Carboniferous limestone. They consist of whitish-grey and rusty, fine and coarse quartzose grits, coherent or loose in texture, interstratified with thick bands of blackish shining bituminous shale, like those of Hallowell Grant, Antigonish county, and East bay, Cape Breton, some of which will burn and have been used for coal, while others, full of rootlets, con- stitute true underclays.' Among the most important of the oil-shales in Nova Scotia are those found in the Pictou coal basin. These have been known for fifty years, and shortly after their discovery in 1859 were mined for material for distillation. They are better known under the name of stellarite and may be described in some detail because of their possi- ble use as a source of oil. Oil-shales occur at several points in the Pictou basin, as at Stellar- ton, McLellan brook, on Marsh brook a branch of the latter, Shale brook, on the shore of Deacon cove, and near the mouth of Smelt brook. Of the stellar or oil-coal, first found in 1859 at Stellarton, Sir J. W. Dawson remarks in Acadian Geology, 1868, p. 339, that ' under the McGregor seam lies a very curious bed, known as stellar or oil- coal. It is 5 feet in thickness, having, according to Mr. Hoyt, the following section: Bituminous coal l'-4" Stellar oil-coal l'-10" Bituminous shale I'-IO" ' The material known as stellar coal is, as I have maintained in previous publications, of the nature of an earthy bitumen, and geologically is to be regarded as an underclay or fossil soil, extremely rich in bituminous matter, derived from decayed and comminuted vegetable substances. It is, in short, a fossil swamp muck or mud, 26 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA which, as I have elsewhere pointed out, is a character of the earthy bitumens and highly bituminous shales of the coal formation general- ly. Its value depends on the high percentage of illuminating gas and of mineral oil which it yields on distillation, and it is likely on this account to form an important portion of the products of this coal area. According to the results of different trials it is stated to yield from 50 to 126 gallons of crude oil per ton, the larger amount being apparently the yield of the pure stellar-coal, so named from the scintillatory appearance in burning. According to an analysis by Prof. How, of Windsor, this gives : Per cent Vol. matter 66-33 Fixed carbon 25-23 Ash 8-21 Moisture 0-23 ' The sample to which the above analysis refers gave 126 gallons of crude oil per ton. The immense amount of petroleum obtained from wells in Canada and the United States has for the present diminished the demand for this earthy bitumen ; but it is certain that it must again come largely into use as the wells diminish their yield, and additional uses are found for the mineral oils.' In the Geological Survey Report for 1869, on the Pictou coal-field, by Sir W. E. Logan and Edward Hartley, the stellar-coal is described as occurring at several places, notably on Marsh brook, in a pit opened by Mr. Haliburton, thickness uncertain, stated as 4 feet. In this section a great thickness of black carbonaceous shale is found. Also in the section on McLellan brook a seam varying from V to 8 feet, associated with black carbonaceous and argillaceous shale occurs. A seam on this brook, about 26 chains from the old fulling mill, was formerly worked by a Mr. Patrick, and supposed to be on the same horizon as that seen on Marsh brook. On the south outcrop on Mc- Lellan brook, at Patricks opening, Sir W. E. Logan remarks that from a statement of Mr. A. MacBean, ' in descending the slope the oil-shales maintained a thickness of from 2" to 6" for about 20 feet. They then gradually thickened to 5 feet in descending 60 feet farther, the dip gently inclining to the eastward. Descend- ing 8 feet more the deposit diminished to nothing, and in 8 feet still farther the face of the fault presented itself, the strata being vertical. In the thickest part of the oil-shale a horizontal gallery was driven 20 yards to the left, and in this distance the seam GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 27 thinned from 5 feet to 15", then again thickened and again thinned. ' From the description of Mr. MacBean, and from th.-s specimens shown me, the best and most typical parts of the oil-shale appear to have a curly or felt-like structure. It is this part that varies so much in thickness, and while the bottom of the deposit remains even, the thinning arises from depressions on the upper portion, which are filled up with even layers of the more ordinary carbonaceous shale. The outcrops approach one another to the northwest, and the turn of the axis of the synclinal occurs about 300 yards from the margin of the brook . The measures associated with the oil-shale on the opposite outcrop as exposed in the brook are as follows, in descending order : Brown-grey, fine grained sandstone, weathers brown. Grey compact sandstone, with very micaceous partings. Dark-grey flaggy sandstone, weathers brown-grey. Bluish-grey argillaceous shale. Black highly carbonaceous shale. Oil-shales from 1" to 8 feet. Black argillaceous shale. Black carbonaceous shale. Measures concealed for 164 feet. Cannel coal, 3". Bituminous coal, l'-6" Greyish-drab, fine grained uiiderclay with stigmaria.' In the same report (1869), Mr. E. Hartley describes the outcrop of stellar coal as occurring 011 McCulloch brook, and on Coal brook. Of these he gives a section of the Albion and Acadia mines area, in which he places the stellar coal as follows : Good coal l'-4" Stellar oil-coal I'-IO" Bituminous shale, oil band 1' 10" ' Two slopes have been sunk upon the oil-coal seam, namely the Frazer mine on Coal brook near No. 3 slope, and the Stellar mine on McCulloch brook. The principal value of this seam consists in the large quantity of oil contained in the bench mentioned as oil- coal in the general section, which in former years was extensively worked, the oil-coal or stellarite, as it has been named by Prof. Henry How, who first described it, selling for a high price for gas-making and distillation. The present low price of coal oil from the extensive 28 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA workings of petroleum in this country and the United States, com- bined with the high tariff on imported coal imposed by the United States, have combined to render the working of this seam unprofit- able, and both workings are at present abandoned.' Mr. Hartley further adds: 'As the quality of this peculiar coal will receive special mention in the Appendix to this report, I will only add in conclusion that, from the large content of oil, this seam must at some time prove of considerable value. From pits sunk by the Acadia Coal Company, it would appear that the size and quality of the oil-coal bench improves towards the east, the greatest thickness (l'-10") being procured from a pit sunk at the corner of Grove street and Pennsylvania avenue in Acadia village, which coal produced 120 gallons crude oil to the ton, the average yield from the Frazer mine being about from 60 to 65 gallons per ton.' Of the coals found in the Marsh brook, (Haliburtons) and on McLellan brook (Patricks), Mr. Hartley states as regards the Patrick locality, 'the oil coal from this mine occurs both shaly and curly, the latter description appearing the most valuable. That portion having the curly texture much resembles the stellarite in appearance, but is much heavier and has a lighter brown colour. It weathers a very dark-grey. The following analysis has been made by Mr. Broome of some large samples, selected by Sir W. E. Logan in 1868. Per cent Volatile below 200 C. water and some oil. . 0-67 Volatile at 200 C. (oil) 14-73 Total vol. matter 33-91 Fixed carbon 6-11 Ash, (greyish-brown) 59-88 99-90 Coke 66-09 Sp.gr 1-747 The oil-coal has been used in the manufacture of burning oil, I believe, but I am not aware of the quantity of oil produced per ton.' Of the oil-coal or shale from the Marsh Brook specimen he says : ' This substance appears to be an argillaceous shale of a greyish black colour, having a brownish streak; the bedding is not well GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 29 marked except on surfaces of fracture, where the lamination can bo traced by numerous small brillant points, apparently bituminous, which are included between the laminae. A thin section of this oil- shale under the microscope presents the appearance of a dark-brown or black ground, nearly opaque, with numerous spots of yellow which are translucent; the black ground being the shale, and the yellow spots the included hydrocarbonaceous matter. The following analyses of this substance have been made, the first of a specimen procured in 1868, by Sir W. E. Logan, from the pit on Marsh brook, known as Haliburtons pit. Per cent Hygroscopic water 1-02 Vol. combustible matter 27-44 Fixed carbon 9-26 Ash (greyish-brown, shaly) 62-28 100-00 Sp. gr. 1-68. ' Since the above analysis was made I have procured other speci- mens from the same pit, one of which was analysed by Mr. Broome with this result: Per cent Vol. at 100 C. (water and some oil) 0-596 Vol. at 200 C 11-250 No. 1 Bapid coking. Total vol. matter 40-600 Fixed carbon ; 0-400 Ash 59-000 100-000 No. 2 Slow coking. Total vol. matter 35-540 Fixed carbon 5-260 Ash 59-200 100-000 ' The above results show that the shale is composed almost entirely of volatile matter and ash, the amount of fixed carbon being depen- dent on the rapidity of carbonization. The shale has been tested for 30 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF C AX AD A oil, but the results I have not heard. Theoretically it should be a valuable oil-shale.' Of the section given of the Stellar seam Mr. E. Hartley says: ' These three divisions of the seam are quite separate and distinct in character. The substances from each were examined some time since by Prof. How, who first described the peculiar substance form- ing the middle bench, to which, from a likeness in some of its qualities to the so-called oil-coals torbanite and albertite, he has given the name stellarite from its throwing off sparks or stars of fire when lighted. From these three benches, Prof. How obtained, by analysis, the following results: Coal. Stellarite. Shale. Vol. matter 33-58 66-56 30-65 62'09 25 23 10-88 Ash 4 33 8-21 58'47 100-00 100-00 100-00 Moisture 0-230 Sp. gr 1'103 'Coal. The coal appears to be merely an ordinary fat coking coal, with an unusually small percentage of ash for this region, but the bench being thin, the value of the seam depends principally on the two lower divisions, stellarite and oil-shale. ' Stellarite. This peculiar substance was first known and worked at these mines by the former owner, the late Mr. J. D. B. Erazer, of Pictou. It appears to be an earthy bitumen, or, to quote Dr. Dawson, a fossil swamp muck or mud, which he has elsewhere shown is the character of the earthy bitumens and highly bituminous shales of the coal-formation generally. ' Bituminous shale or oil-shale. This is a rather heavy brownish- black shale. The following remarks thereon include both this bench and the stellarite. The first series is taken from Mr. Hoyt's report to the Acadia Coal Company for 1866, and the analyses under the head of No. 1 refer to the stellarite, while No. 2 refers to the oil- shale. GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHAKACTEE Analysis by Professor Wallace, of Glasgow. 31 No. 1. No. 2. Vol. matters 68 38 38 "69 Fixed carbon Ash Sulphur Moisture 22-35 8-90 0'05 0'32 8-26 52 20 0-25 0'60 Sp. gr Weight per cubic foot Crude oil per ton 100-00 1'079 67 Ibs. 126 gals. lOO'OO 1-568 97 Ibs. 63 gals 0'844 0'850 31 '25 60 ' 16 Ash in coke of stellarite . 28 '487 Analyses by Prof. Penny, Andersonian University, Glasgow. No. 1. No. 2. ' Vol. matters 67-26 34-18 24-03 12'30 Ash 8'40 52 '00 Sulphur O'll 0-74 Water 0'20 0'80 Sp. gr 100-00 1-069 100-00 1-612 Weight per cub. foot 66J Ibs. 100 Ibs. Crude oil per ton 123 gals. 60? gals. Gravity of oil . . 0-844 0-850 Quantity of Oil by Various Trials. Trials by Mr. .1. DeW. Spurr, of St. John, N.B., of No. 2 crude oil per ton .74 gals. ii J." Ha worth, Boston, Mass., by steam process 65 n F. McDonald, Portland, Me., No. 2 crude oil 50 ' By way of comparison, the following results from these and other oil-coals are introduced; the table is taken from How's Mineralogy of Nova Scotia; 1868 : Union oil-coal of West Virginia afford Elk River oil-coal Kanawha oil-coal u Leshmahagow cannel, Scotland, Albertite, New Brunswick, Torbanite, Scotland, Stellarite, Nova Scotia, 56567 32 gallons of crude oil per ton. 88 40 M 92-100 it 116-125 53 No. 2 (shale) from 50, 60f, 63, 65, 74 No. 1 123-126 picked samples 199 32 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS .OF CANADA ' In the practical working of the Frazer n.Jne, the result was about 60 gallons crude, and from 30 to 35 gallons of fine clarified oil per ton. 'It will be noted that the three oil-coals, or bitumens, known as torbanite, albertite, and stellarite in the list just given, appear to afford the best results in oil manufacture. It will, therefore, be of interest to compare full analyses of these three, forming a class by themselves, and again to compare this class with other mineral com- bustibles from which they differ to a greater or less extent. ' This subject has been thoroughly investigated by Prof. How, and the following tabulation of analyses and conclusions drawn there- from are taken from his late work. Although most appropriately in- troduced here, many of the facts will be found useful for comparison with coals of other seams, and the remarks on the theoretical value of fuels is also of general interest. ' Having, on account of my former connexion with the British Admiralty coal inquiry, been one of those engaged to furnish chemical evidence in a famous trial at Edinburgh of the question whether the mineral known as Boghead coal, found at Torbanehill, Linlithgow- shire, should be properly called a coal, I was naturally interested in the discovery of the stellar oil-coal, and got ultimate analyses made of it and of the Albert coal; also in the subject of a trial on the ground that it had been improperly called coal. These analyses were kindly made for me through Prof. Anderson, of Glasgow, who generously met my deficiency in the necessary apparatus, which I had not brought out with me. The results were most interesting, especially when compared with those obtained from bituminous and cannel coals. As to the former, I selected from those I had made in the Admiralty inquiry, analyses of English, Scotch and Welsh bituminous coals; and as to the latter, analyses of English and Scotch cannels made by other chemists. The following table shows the differences which obtain between these minerals in proximate and ultimate analyses and in specific gravity, and the ratio existing between the two most important constituent elements: GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHAKACTER > W joS < o o eo o oo oo f oo ac 1 l rt 1 t Cq on. 45'44 Hydrogen 9'62 Ash 0-17 Nitrogen 1'75 Ash 0-17 Oxygen and sulphur 1 "21 lOO'OO lOO'OO The proximate analyses of the three minerals may also be added : Sp.gr. Vol. matter. Fixwicarb. Ash. Torbanehill, Scotland .. . 1'170 71'17 7'65 21'1 Albertite, N. B 1'091 54'3fl 45'44 01 Stellarite, N.S 1'1039 66'53 25'23 8'2 The analysis of the Joadja mineral of New South Wales, Austra- lia, taken from Mr. Game's report on the kerosene oil-shales, 1903, is as follows: Sp. ffr. Vol. mat. Fixed carb. Ash. Joadja oil-shale 1'108 89 "57 5 "27 4 '98 T. Steel. New Zealand. Three samples from various localities, described as a variety of tobanite. Analyses as follows: Fixed carb. Hydro, carb. Water. Ash. Mongonui... . 11'17 33'18 14'61 41'04 Cambrian 26'02 56'05 12'83 5'10 Waimate 9'81 27'99 16'19 46'01 An analysis of Kentucky cannel coal, Old Kentucky Boghead, by George R. Hislop, Paisley, Scotland, given for comparison, is as follows : Vol. matter, containing 0' 44 of sulphur 55'36 Coke, consisting ot carbon, 35 '17) sulphur, O'lSV 43-43 ash, 8-08J Water, expelled at 212 F 1'21 Sp. gr., 1'175. 100 00 Characters : The coal is black, possesses a high lustre and yellowish- brown streak; fracture slaty, coarse and dull, with impressions of stigmaria, while in cross fracture it is conchoidal, with coating of fireclay in the natural partings; very compact and cohesive. On the fire it partially and slightly intumesces; colour of ash, brown; well defined in stratification and of very uniform density. Of this Gesner says that, 'by the ordinary methods of working, this coal yields 130 gallons crude oil per ton, of which 58 per cent was manufactured into lamp oil, and 12 gallons into paraffin-oil and paraffin.' GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 59 Oil-shales of Newfoundland. For many years the presence of black highly bituminous shales has been known in Newfoundland, and these have been referred to in several of the reports of the Geological Survey of that island. Re- cently a small sample of this black shale was sent to the Department of Mines, Ottawa, which was, however, too small to be used for analyses for crude oil or ammonia, but which showed the presence of hydrocarbons, igniting readily with the flame of a match, giving a bright yellow flame and a strong odour of petroleum. On inquiry of the Director of the Geological Survey of that Province, Mr. J. P. Howley, he states that shales of a more or less bituminous nature are known to occur at several places, but that no attempt has yet been made to exploit them, except by boring operations at several points on the west coast. Samples sent from the north side of Notre Dame bay from out- crops at Cap Rouge peninsula were analysed some years ago by a Mr. Chance, of Philadelphia, the result being: vol. hydrocarbons, 36%; fixed carbons, 35% ; ash 29% ; the material being called a cannel shale. He also adds that about Deer lake loose pieces can be picked up, very black in colour, of which splinters ignite rapidly, and that large de- posits of similar shale occur along a small tributary flowing into the Humber above Deer lake, and that there is much shale of the same character along the north side of Grand lake. Oil-shales of Quebec. In the Province of Quebec, the occurrence of shales of the character just described is rarely seen. The Carboniferous rocks are not ex- posed west of Chaleur bay in Gaspe peninsula, but there is a large development of Devonian sediments in that area, the whole thickness of which aggregates over 7,000 feet. While oil-springs are found in the vicinity of Gaspe basin, at the eastern extremity of the peninsula, all attempts at finding petroleum in economic quantity by borings have as yet been unsuccessful. At several places beds of bituminous or oil-shales are seen, vary- ing from a foot to 15 inches in thickness, but in so far as examined these beds are quite local, though found at intervals for some miles on their strike along the north side of York river. Of these beds, which are associated with greyish sandstones, Sir William Logan remarks in Geology of Canada, 1863: 60 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA ' Some beds of these rocks contain a peculiar resinous matter, which forms the cementing material. It appears on the fractured edges of the beds as in the form of irregular laminae, rarely an eighth of an inch in thickness, and generally much less. It has a vitreous lustre, a conchoidal fracture, and is tough, with a hardness nearly equal to calc-spar. Its Colour is deep reddish-brown, but it gives a fawn-coloured powder, and when in thin plates or fragments, is translucent, and has an orange-red colour. This substance has neither taste nor odour, is insoluble in alcohol, naphtha, or potash-ley, and is but slightly attacked by nitric acid. It is scarcely fusible; but at a high temperature is decomposed, with a slight softening and swelling, giving off abundance of inflammable vapours, and leaving a small quantity of brilliant spongy coke. It has the characters of a fossil resin, somewhat like amber, but approaches more nearly to what has been named scleretinite and middletonite. ' The portions of sandstone impregnated with this resin burn, when kindled, with a brilliant flame, and much smoke; and the resi- due, which consists chiefly of siliceous sand, has very little coherence. Partial analysis was made of four fragments of this rock, which were supposed together to represent an average of the mass. The amount of volatile matter, of fixed carbon or coke, and of incombustible resi- due was as follows : T II III IV Volatile matter . 32'4 22'8 42'8 30'4 Carbon 89 81 7'4 8'9 Residue 58'7 69'1 49'8 60'7 ' The purest specimen is seen to yield the smallest amount of fixed carbon. The excess of this in the others is due in part to the small portions of mineral charcoal generally present among the layers of this resinous sandstone. This material could be made to furnish large quantities of illuminating and lubricating oils, by a process of dis- tillation similar to that applied to coal and to bituminous shales. In some experiments made on a small scale to test its power of producing illuminating gas, it was found that a few pounds of this material, which lost, by distillation, 26 per cent of its weight, yielded two and a quarter feet of gas of superior illuminating power, to the pound. As this quantity of volatile matter corresponds to about 33 per cent of resin, it is evident that if obtained in a state of greater purity this material would become valuable as a substitute for coal in gas- making. GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 61 ' The specimens which served for the preceding experiments were obtained from a bed of from fourteen to fifteen inches thick, which was found near Shaw's mill, on the north side of Gaspe basin, and was traced for a distance of about 200 feet before it became con- cealed by the overlying sandstones. In numerous localities along the York river, for a distance of nearly thirty miles, small interrupted beds of a similar nature are met with in the sandstones. Those observed had a thickness of from four to twelve inches, and are some- times a hundred feet in length. Some of them are composed in great part of laminae of a brilliant brownish-black matter; which when examined in thin fragments, show the same reddish translucency as the resin just described, and are apparently similar to it in com- position; although in some cases mingled with more coaly matter, and containing less ash. A specimen from one of these beds on the York river gave of volatile matters, 52-4; carbon, 26-3; residue, 21-3. The greater proportion of still more valuable hydrocarbons which may be obtained from this would render it still more valuable for distillation than the bed whose analysis has been given above.' The TJtica Shales. Another probable source of material for oil-distillation is found in the great development of the Utica shales, which occur along the course of the St. Lawrence from the vicinity of the city of Quebec, as at Montmorency falls, as far west as the city of Montreal. Between these places, especially nearing the latter city, they occupy a large area along both sides of the river. Farther west in Ontario, they appear along the shore of Lake Ontario in the vicinity of Port Hope, and thence west to the shore of Lake Huron, being especially well displayed about Georgian bay, the Manitoulin islands, and in other places on the Ontario peninsula. In 1859-1861, these shales were used for the distillation of oils with a fair amount of success, until the discovery of the oils of the Petrolia district put an end to the industry. Of the IJtica shales of Collingwood, Dr. T. S. Hunt remarks, Gcol. Can. 1863: 'These shales contain very variable amounts of combustible matter, and they give when distilled, besides inflammable gases, portions of oily matter, which in the shales of Collingwood, the richest yet examined, are equal to 4 or 5 per cent. Though the final results of the retorting of these shales are not now available the following details of operations at this place may be given (Geol. Can. 1863, p. 784) : 62 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA ' In 1859, works for obtaining these oils were erected on the locality of this shale, near the town of Collingwood. Twenty-four longitudinal cast-iron retorts were set in two ranges, and heated by wood; of which 25 cords are said to have been required weekly. The shale, broken into small fragments, was heated for two or three hours ; from eight to ten charges being distilled in 24 hours. In this way, it is said from thirty to thirty-six tons of shale were distilled daily, and made to yield 250 gallons crude oil, corresponding to about three per cent of the rock. By a further continuance of the heat, a small additional proportion of oil was obtained from the shale; but it was found more economical to withdraw the charge after 2J hours. The bed of shale available for the purpose adjoins the works, and was furnished, ready broken, at twenty cents per ton. The cost of the crude oil from the shale was stated by the manufacturers to be fourteen cents per gallon. When rectified and deodorized, it gave from 40 to 50 per cent of burning oil, and from 20 to 25 per cent of pitch and waste, the remainder being a heavy oil fitted for lubricating purposes. After two or three unsuccessful trials, and the repeated destruction of the works by fire, they were at last, in 1860, got into successful operation, and a ready market was found for the oils. Data are, however, wanting to show whether the enterprise was re- munerative; and it was after some time abandoned, partly, it is pro- bable, on account of the competition of the petroleum of Enniskillen, which was about that time brought into the market in large quanti- ties, and at a very low price. Should it, however, at any time, be found advantageous to renew the experiment of distilling the bitu- minous shales of this formation, those of Collingwood offer very favourable conditions, from their accessibility, and also for the ready means of transport afforded both by the lake and the railway/ The position of these rocks was on lot 23 of range III, the thickness of the shale bed used being about 7 feet. The rock is highly calcareous, and from analyses of two samples from this place one gave to dilute acids 53 per cent, and another 58 per cent of carbonate of lime, with a little magnesia and oxide of iron. The insoluble snuff-brown argillaceous residue from the former, when ignited in a close vessel, gave off 12-6 per cent of volatile combustible matter, leaving a coal-black carbonaceous residue, which when calcined in the open air, lost 8-4 per cent additional, and became ash- grey. The insoluble residue from the second specimen was digested for some time with heated benzole, which took up from it about one GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 63 per cent of a solid bituminous matter. It then no longer gave out the odour of bitumen when heated, but a smell like that of burning lignite. The matter which had thus been treated with benzole still gave by ignition 11-8 per cent of volatile and inflammable matters. It was not attacked by a boiling solution of caustic soda. Portions of this shale, when distilled in close vessels, gave from 4 to 5 per cent of oily and tarry matters, besides combustible gases and water. Other analyses of the Utica shales may be given, taken from a report on the Geology of Wisconsin, the analyses being made by Messrs. Chandler and Kimball, for Prof. J. D. Whitney. I II III IV V Clay and sand Carbon Hydrogen 38 45 6-83 74 34-60 6-63 0-77 37-26 0-61 0'83 48-27 6-99 T13 73 57 1503 1 65 Oxygen 3-20 2'96 1'71 3 39 5-39 Carbonate of lime. it magnesia Alum, and oxide iron 45-02 2 09 2-16 49-31 2T>3 2 09 52-60 3 42 3 29 20-30 11-48 7-99 1-29 76 2-79 98-49 98-89 99-72 99 55 100-48 No. I is a brownish black, very fine grained rock from Cape Smith, Lake Huron. No. II from an island to the north of Maple cape, Lake Huron and is blackish-brown, fine grained, and of earthy texture, with a la- minated structure, and contains no fossils. No. Ill from St. Anne, Montmorency, is a dark-brown shale, and contains graptolites. No. IF is from Gloucester, near Ottawa, and is a black shale filled with fragments of trilobites and crinoids. In these analyses the carbonates of lime and magnesia, with the alumina and oxide of iron, were removed by solution in acids, and the elements of the organic matter were determined in the insoluble portion. No. V is that of a pyroschist from this formation in the lead region of Wisconsin. The bhack shales of Bosanquet on the southeast shore of Lake Huron, as seen at Kettle point, belong to the upper part of the De- vonian formations. In a low cliff, it is remarked, on the west side of Cape Ipperwash, or Kettle point, is a section of between 12 and 56569 64 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA 14 feet of very fissile black bituminous shale, weathering to a lead-grey, and often stained brown with oxide of iron. (Geol. Can., 1863, p. 387.) Of these Dr. Hunt remarks that: ' A specimen of the schist, by ignition in a covered crucible, lost 12-4 per cent of volatile and inflammable matter, and left a black residue, which was not cal- careous. Another portion, in fine powder, was digested for several hours with heated benzole, which dissolved 8 per cent of bituminous matter. The residue, carefully dried at 200 F., then gave off by ignition in a close vessel, 11-3 per cent of volatile matter, and by calcination lost 11-6 per cent more; equal to a total of 23-7 per cent of combustible and volatile substances. The calcined residue was grey in colour. By distillation in an iron retort there were obtained from the shale, in two experiments, 3-7 and 4-2 per cent of volatile liquid hydrocarbons, besides a large amount of inflammable gas, and a portion of ammoniacal water.' He also states that 'these shales contain so much organic matter as to take fire and burn with flame, after which the colour is changed to brick-red. This is observed in the shingle of the beach, which has evidently been subjected to fire, and is reported by the Indians to have continued burning for a long time.' (Ibid. p. 388.) At Manitoulin these Utica shales appear to be more than usually bituminous, and on the island north of Maple point a spring of petroleum rises from them. At Cape Smith the usual black bitu- minous shales of the formation are interstratified with a few bands of less bituminous character, grey in colour, and with an occasional thin layer of brownish limestone. At Lake St. John the black bituminous shales of the Utica are also exposed over a considerable area, but no tests of their oil or ammonia contents have yet been made. In fact, in all these analyses the ammonia appears to have been quite neglected, the tests having regard only to the percentage of oils. As at the present day the value of these shales as a source of sulphate of ammonia is very considerable, it will be very desirable that certain beds be examined for this substance, as well as for their contents in crude oil. In the report of the Geological Survey for 1907, Mr. Mclnnes records the occurrence of soft, grey highly bituminous shales on the slopes of the Pasquia hills in northern Manitoba and along the valley of the Carrot river. They contain sufficient bituminous matter to GEOLOGICAL POSITION A!ND CHARACTER 65 burn freely, and give out a strong odour of petroleum when heated in the fire. No attempts at analyses of these shales have been made. In the North West Territories and in British Columbia no shales which have been recognized as oil-shales have yet been definitely dis- covered. The celebrated tar sands of the Athabaska river, in northern Alberta, may at some time furnish material for distillation, since all attempts to find oil by boring have hitherto been unsuccessful. These tar sands have been well described by Dr. Bell, and other officers of the Geological Survey who have visited the area. Dr. Bell, after describing the immense amount of tarry matter found along the river, states that ' the pitchy sand may itself be useful for a variety of purposes. When chopped out of the bank in lumps like coal it was found to burn freely, with a strong smoky flame, if supported in such a way as to admit of the free access of air. As the bitumen became exhausted the fine sand fell to the bottom. ' A very superior lubricating oil may be manufactured from it. Dr. Hoffmann, of the Geological Survey, Mr. Isaac Waterman, the well known petroleum refiner of London, Ont., and Lieut. Cochrane, instructor in practical chemistry at the Military College, Kingston, have found it to contain from 12 to 15 per cent of bitumen. Although this proportion may appear small, yet the material occurs in such enormous quantities that a profitable means of extracting the oil and paraffin which it contains may be found. The high banks of the river and its branches offer an easy means of excavating it, and as it burns readily one part might be consumed to extract the oil from another, there being practically no limit to the quantity which may be obtained for the digging. Dr. Hunt suggests that the lighter and less valuable oils obtained in the process of distilling might be used to percolate through or lixiviate large masses of the crude material, and that in this way a large proportion of the better part of the oil which it contains might be cheaply obtained on a commercial scale. Dr. Hoffmann found that in the sample he tried, 69-26 per cent of the bitumen was removed by boiling or macerating in hot water, the ex- tracted bitumen containing 50-1 per cent of sand. This might be found a good method of reducing the bulk of the material to be dis- tilled for oil or for the purpose of making gas. The natural tar which has been already referred to may be found to exist in sufficient quan- tities to be available for the manufacture of oil. Mr. Waterman in- formed me that the proportion of paraffin in the bitumen of the sample submitted to him appeared to be large, and it is possible that 5656-fi 66 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA this substance might be profitably extracted for export from the de- posits which have been described.' As to the mode of occurrence of this remarkable deposit Dr. Hoffmann remarks, in the Geol. Surv. Keport for 1880-1-2, on the evidence of Dr. K. Bell, ' that the deposit is of Cretaceous age, but rests directly upon the limestone of the Devonian system. The bedding of the latter undulates gently, while the asphaltic sand lies in thick horizontal layers upon its surface, and in some cases fills fissures in the upper part of the limestone. The asphaltic matter has no doubt resulted from petroleum rising out of the underlying De- vonian rocks, in which evidence of its existence can be detected. In descending the Athabaska river it was first observed a few miles above the junction of the Clearwater branch, below which it becomes more conspicuous, forming the whole banks of the stream, with the excep- tion of a few feet of limestone at the base, for a distance of many miles. These banks are sometimes about 150 feet high, and frequently maintain an elevation of over 100 feet for considerable distances. Except where they have been long exposed to the weather they gen- erally look as black as coal. A thick tar is often seen dripping out of this deposit, and in numerous places, on the ground and at the foot of either bank, or on terraces lower than the summits, this tar col- lects in pools, or flows in sluggish streams to lower levels among the peaty materials in the woods. The surface of these accumulations of tar is usually covered with a hardened pitchy crust. The boatmen on the river break through this crust in order to collect the under- lying tar, which they boil down and use for pitching their craft. Some parts of the bank are rendered plastic en masse from being over saturated with the asphalt, and in warm weather they slide gra- dually down into the bed of the river, incorporating the boulders and pebbles in their course.' An analysis was made of the material from this place by Dr. Hoffmann. He says : ' the specimen was compact and homogeneous in appearance, and of a dull, dark brownish-black colour. Sp. gr. at 60 F., 2-040. At a temperature of 50 F. it is quite firm, barely, if at all, yielding to pressure, and does not soil the hand; at 70 F. it gives somewhat to the touch, and is slightly sticky; at 100 F. it be- comes quite soft and soils the fingers. It is scarcely acted on by alcohol when cold, and but very slightly at a boiling temperature ; but ether, oil of turpentine, kerosene, benzine (petroleum spirit), benzol, (coal tar naphtha) and bi-sulphide of carbon, more especially the last GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 67 two, readily dissolve the bituminous matter, with formations of dark- brown coloured solutions, and leave a pure or almost pure siliceous residue in the form of sand, of which apparently the bitumen has constituted the sole binding medium. ' The composition of this specimen of the rock was found to be as follows: Per cent Bitumen 12-42 Water, mechanically included 5-85 Siliceous sand , 81-73 100-00 ' Of the maltha or mineral tar which occurs so abundantly at this place, as also at other places along this river, Dr. Hoffmann remarks that ' as regards the utilization of these substances the most appro- priate application of the former, and that for which it would appear to be admirably adapted, would be for asphalting purposes. It has one of the most ^important qualifications of a good bituminous con- crete, viz., intimate combination of the mineral and organic consti- tuents, and this in a degree which no artifical preparation of the kind could be expected to possess. It will in all probability be found that a very slight treatment will render it suitable for employment in construction of roads, foot-paths, court-yards, etc., for asphalting the flooring of granaries, basements of warehouses, and the like, and further as a roofing material. Should it be deemed more expedient to separate the bitumen, this may be effected by simply boiling or ma- cerating the material with hot water, when the bituminous matter, entering into fusion, will rise as a scum to the surface, and may be removed by skimmers while the sand falls to the bottom of the vessel. The sand separated by this process, when carefully conducted, is free, or almost free, from bitumen, and might after being heated to redness in a reverberatory furnace to destroy any little adhering bitu- men be advantageously employed for the manufacture of one of the better qualities of glass. He adds : ' Should it (the maltha) occur in sufficient quantities, it might possibly, amongst other uses, be ad- vantageously employed as a crude material for the manufacture of illuminating and lubricating oils and paraffin.' 68 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA Origin of Oils. The source of supply for the oils, both native and those contained in the shales, has long been a subject for controversy. The two theories as to their origin are the organic and the inorganic, the principal evidence hitherto brought forward appearing to support the former. This subject of the organic origin of mineral oils has been very thoroughly presented by Mr. J. E. Carne in his volume on the Kerosene Oil-shales of New South Wales, 1903, and has recently been discussed by Mr. D. E. Steuart in the Oil-shales of the Lothians, issued by the Geological Survey of Scotland, 1906, from which the following extracts may be made. He says, (p. 142) : ' for convenience of description we may apply the name kerogen to the carbonaceous matter in shale that gives rise to crude oil by distillation. This term kerogen was suggested by Professor Crum Brown, late of Edinburgh University. It is regarded as the valuable material in oil-shale as regards the oil-contents of that substance, and this value depends very largely on the amount of carbonaceous matter. This carbona- ceous matter in the form of mineral paraffin, or paraffin oil, does not exist in the shale as such. It cannot be obtained by boring as in the case of ordinary rock oil, and the containing rock will yield up its valuable contents only by a process of distillation. The term kerogen has been used, therefore, to indicate this carbonaceous matter in shale beds that give rise to crude oil by distillation.' Though the view has long been held by various persons that crude oil can be obtained from these shales by boring, it must be acknow- ledged that this view is not supported by the results obtained hitherto at the extensive works carried on in Scotland, either through ex- ploration by boring or by underground workings ; or in the Provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick. In the Scotch field it is held that paraffin and paraffin oil do not exist as such, but are created by destructive distillation in retorts, and so far as bituminous or oil- shales are concerned this remark will, without doubt, be found to hold good. It is also held as certain that the substance kerogen is of organic origin. As for the origin of the shale beds, they are now generally re- garded as having been deposited in the form of fine clays at the bottom of lagoons or swamps, with frequently much vegetable and sometimes much animal matter, the latter chiefly in the form of fishes, as can be readily observed in the many collections of fossils made GEOLOGICAL POSITION AND CHARACTER 69 from the shales, both in Scotland and America. It is not, however, necessary to suppose that the oils or bituminous matters are the re- sult of the decomposition of such organisms. The more plausible theory is that put forward by Mr. Steuart in his paper, viz., that the deposits in the swamp or lake bottoms have been subject to macera- tion and microbe action. Part would be decomposed, and only what could withstand the water, etc., would remain. This mode of de- position agrees very closely with that suggested by Sir W. E. Dawson, many years ago, who regarded the oil-shales of eastern Canada as originating in swampy lagoons, and that the resulting bituminous contents were the result of the decomposition of various organisms enclosed in the original clayey mud of the swamp bottom. In this case also the oily contents may have been subjected to a form of natural distillation. Some shales are largely made up of entomostraca, and it is pro- bable that the animal matter has, in some cases, been converted into kerogen, or it may owe its origin in part to remains of certain kinds of vegetable matter. Laboratory experiments made in Scotland with a mixture of Fuller's earth and spores of lycopo- diaceous plants, or spore dust, subsequently distilled in the labora- tory and then retorted, were found to yield a fair amount of crude oil, equal to 23-8 gallons per ton, sp. gr. 0-930 and sulphate of ammonia 3-3 Ibs. per ton being obtained. The results from these experiments agreed very well with those obtained from the distillation of Torbane- hill mineral, and from some of the higher shales. Mr. Steuart further remarks that ' as peat gives paraffin products on distillation very like those from shale it is probable that shale contains ordinary vegetable or organic matter that has undergone decay, together with substances of a humic acid nature which have been rendered insoluble and preserved by chemical combination with the metallic oxides of the clay and water, the alumina, lime, etc. During the deposition of the sediments the climate may have varied, and the vegetation on the shores producing pollen, spores, and seeds may have changed together with the algae. 'Oil-shale may, therefore, be composed: (1) of vegetable matter which has been made into a pulp by maceration with water and pre- served by combining with the salts in solution as already mentioned ; (2) richer materials of many kinds, such as spores, which nature has provided with means for some protection against decay; and (3) a proportion of animal matter.' ^Reviewing the literature on the sub- 70 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA ject we may, therefore, conclude that the probable origin of these shales, and of their bitumen contents as just stated, may be accounted for on a fair basis of reason; and that the origin of petroleum in shales is the result of fermentations and decompositions on the sur- face, through microbe action. Such action may be increased by the agency of heat from volcanic masses or from some other source; and the petroleum is often associated with brine or sea-water which in some of the ancient lagoons became shut off from the sea. Natural gas is found in some of the oil-shale districts in Scot- land in considerable quantities, issuing with water from bore-holes in the oil-shales. With the underground development the outflow of the water gradually ceased, but in some cases can still be recognized. The source of this gas is said to be either from fire-damp given off from underlying coals and oil-shales, or a permanent gas induced by the action of molten igneous rocks intruded into the oil-shales themselves. In Scotland the action of such intrusive masses is readily recognized in many places, either by the debituminization of the shales or by the general alteration of the sediments in contact with the intrusive mass. APPENDIX. Oil-shale found on Melville Island, 1909. Among the specimens collected by Captain Bernier during the recent voyage of the SS. Arctic were some very rich, black oil-shales, which were picked up on the beach of Melville island, inside the Arctic circle. These specimens are exceedingly rich in hydrocarbons, kindling very readily into flame when ignited by a match. They are apparently of the same class, and are probably of the same horizon as the oil-shales of New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and those recorded from Bear island, near Spitzbergen. INDEX. PAOB. A Acadia Coal Co 28 Admiralty, British, coal tests 32,33 Albert shales 7, 1 distribution of 19, 20, 21 outcrops of 8,32,39 Albertite 8,32,39 discovery of 7 output of 9 rich in oils 19 " yield of oil from 39 Ammonia, sulphate of 50,51,52,64 Analysis, Antigonish County shale 21,38,39 Athabaska River tar sands 66,67 French shales 42 Haliburton pit 29 " Kentucky cannel coal 58 " Newfoundland shale 59 New South Wales shale 43,58 New Zealand torbonite 58 Pictou County shale 21, 38, 39 " resinous sandstone of Quebec 60,61 Stellar seam 30 Stellarite and oil-shales, by Prof. Penny 31 Prof. Wallace 31 " Stellarton oil-coal 2 " torbanite 55,58 Utica shales 63 Anderson, Prof., analysis of torbanite by 56 Antigonish County oil-shales 3 " analysis of 2 Appendix, oil-shale of Melville island 7 Athabaska River tar sands 6* B Bailey and Ells, Drs., views re shale formation 10, 48 Baltimore, logs of bore-holes at !* 15, 1* Barracks seam worked 54 Beliveau, oil-shales at 1 Bell, Dr. R.. tar sands of Athabaska river described by 6 Bernier, Capt 7i Bitumen (see Oil-shale). " in tar sands of Athabaska river 6 Bosanquet, black shales of Broome, Mr., analysis by 28.29 Broxburn seams worked 53,54 Bryson, G., Manager Pumpherston works * By-products, importance of ** 71 72 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA c PAGE. Cadell, H. M .- 44 Cairns, W 8 Caldwell, W., Mining Manager Pumpherston Oil Co... . 44 Caledonia mountain 10, 11, 19 Campbell, Mr., on oil-coals of Nova Scotia 23,35 Cannelite , 49 Cape Breton, borings in 23 oil-shales found in 40 Came, J. E.. origin of oil 68 report by 42,58 Chance, Mr., analysis of Newfoundland shale. 59 Chandler, , analysis of Utica shale by 63 Cheverie, boring for oil at 24 Coal, Stellar seam 30 Coal brook oil-coal, yield of oil 39 Cochrane, Lieut., re Athabaska River tar sands 65 Collingwood, distillation works at 62 oil-shales at 61 D Dawson, Sir J. W., name given to Horton series by 7 opinion as to origin of oil-shales 69 " re Perry rocks 40 reference to stellar or oil-coal by 25, 30 Dover, oil-shales at 18 Dunnet seam worked 54 E Ells. Dr., view re shale formation 10 F Fish remains in shales 10, 11, 12, 47 Fletcher, H., report of 22,23,24,25,48 Fossils in oil-shale 37,47 Frazer, J. D. B 30 Frazer mine 27, 30, 37 analysis of coal from 38 Frederick brook, albertite first formed at in 1849 7, 18 Fyfe, Dr., analysis of torbanite by 55 G Gas, natural, in oil-shale districts of Scotland 70 Gaspe 1 , petroleum at 55, 59 Geological formations in oil-shales district 9 Geology of Scotch oil-shales 45 Gesner, Dr. A., examination of area by 7 Goodrich, H. B., in charge of borings at Baltimore 14, 15, 16 Grant- Wilson, J. S 44 INDEX 73 H Haliburton, Mr., pit analysis by 29 pit opened by 26, 28 Hants county, shale deposits by 35 Hartley, Edward, on Nova Scotia oil-coal 26, 27, 28, 30, 35 Haworth, J., trials of oil-shale by 31 Helms, Dr. A., analysis by 43 Henderson, Norman, Manager Broxburn Oil Co 45 Hislop. Geo. E., analysis by 58 Hoffmann, Dr., re Athabaska River tar sands 65,66, 67 Home, Dr. J., Director British Geological Survey 44 Horton series of Nova Scotia 24 similar to New Brunswick shales.. .. 7 How, Prof., analysis of Nova Scotia coal-oil by '., ..26, 30 comparison of stellarite and torbanite by 26, 30 investigation by 32 reference to stellar coal by 27, 37, 39 How's Mineralogy of Nova Scotia 22, 31, 35 Howley, J. P., on Newfoundland oil-shales 59 Humfrey, C., analysis bv 43 Hunt, Dr. T. S., report by on Utica shales. 61, 64 I Intrusives, effect of upon oil-shales 52 Irving seam 19 K Keiinebecasis island, shales of 11 Kirogen 68,69 Kimball. , analysis of Utica shale by 63 L Lake Ainslie district, examinations in 23 oil-shales formed at 40 Leshmahagow coal (Scotland), yield of oil from 39 Lambe, L. M., fossils collected by at Albert mines 12 Logan, Sir W. E., on Nova Scotia oil-coal 26 remarks by, on Quebec oil-shales 59 Logs of bore-holes at Baltimore 14, 15, 16 " Memramcook and Petitcodiac rivers 16, 17 Logs of wells bored unobtainable 13 M McAdam lake, oil-shales found at 40 MacBean, A., statement by re shale 2 McCulloch Brook oil-coal: yield of oil 39 McDonald. F., trial of oil-shale by 3 Mclnnes, Mr., reference to bituminous shales at Pasquia hills by.. .. 6 McLellan brook 2 " oil-coal: yield of oil 3 Maltha Manitoulin, Utica shales of 6 Marsh brook 2 Melville island 7 Memramcook river, logs of bore-holes at 16 74 OIL-SHALE DEPOSITS OF CANADA PAGE. N Newfoundland, oil-shales of 59 Nova Scotia, exposures of oil-shales of 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 " characteristics of 22 yield of 23, 26 O Oakbank seam worked 54 Oil, not obtainable by boring in shales 13 " origin of 68 Oil-shale, Stellar seam 30 Oil-shales, composition of 69 " difference between those of New Brunswick and Scotland. 49 Melville island 70 of Canada, geology of 7 " of foreign countries 40, 42, 58 of Newfoundland 59 of Quebec 59 Scotland 48 P Pasquia hills, bituminous shales at 64 Patrick, Mr., seam worked by 26,28 Penny, Prof., analysis by 31 Petitodiac river, logs of bore-holes at 16 Petroleum 23, 53, 54, 64 Pictou County oil-shales, analysis of 21 oil-shales in 21,39 Pumpherston Oil Co., seams worked 54 tests of New Brunswick shale by 44 Q Quebec, oil-shales of 59 R Redwood, Sir B., analysis and statements by 42 extract from Vol. on Petroleum and its Products. 40 Robbs, Dr. Jas., name Albertite suggested by 8 S St. John lake, Utica shale at 64 Scotch oil-shale industry, history of .. 41 oil-shales, characteristics of 48 " seams worked 53 Shale mining, method of 53 Shales, Utica 61 Slessor, Mr., analyses by 38, 115 Spun-, J. De W M trials of oil-shale by 31 Steeves, J., mineral pitch found on land of 8, 19 Stellar mine 27, 34 Stellarite 21,25,30,31,32,39 compared with torbanite 56 Steuart. D. R., note on characters of torbanite by 55 chief chemist Broxbiirn Oil Co 44 note on origin of oils by 68 paper by 51 " theory re origin of oil-shales 69 IXDEX 75 T Tar-sands of Athabaska river 65 Taylor, R. C 8 Taylorville, beds at 18 shipments from 18 Teall, Dr. J. J. H 44 Torbanehill oil-coal: yield of oil 39 Torbanite 32,59,55 " compared with stellarite 56 U United States, shale oil manufacture in 40 Utica shales 61,63 W Wallace, Prof., analysis by 31 Waterman, Isaac, re Athabaska River tar sands 65 White, David, determination of plant forms by 47 White, Dr. I. C., examination of Lake Ainslie district by 23 Whitney, Prof. J. D., analysis of Utica shales 63 Wild seam worked 54 Y Young, James, father of Scotch oil-shale industry 41 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 'MAY 6 1937 HAY l 9 1937 Form L-9-35m-8,'28 TN 871 C anada . Dept . K47J of TnlnftflT" Mines branch- ...Joint report on the bituminous or e^=fto Brunswick and Nova Scotia. TN nr. LOS ANGELES LIBRARY