SB 
 
 193 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 SB 70 
 
 KILLEBREW 
 
Agrj. - Forestry - Main Library 
 
GRASSKS 
 
 KORAGE PLANTS 
 
 BY- 
 
 J. B. KILLEBREW, A.M., Ph.D, 
 vS 
 
 BULLETIN OF THE 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE, 
 
 VOL. XI. 1898. Nos. 2, 3 & 4. 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE PRESS, 
 
 BY 
 S. B. NEWMAN & CO., KNOXVILLE. 
 
 1899. 
 
THE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE. 
 
 CHAS. W. DABNEY, President. 
 
 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 
 
 O. P. TEMPLE. T. F. P. ALLISON. 
 
 JAMES COMFORT. J. W. CALDWELL. 
 
 TREASURER:' SECRETARY: 
 
 JAMES COMFORT. J. W. GAUT. 
 
 STATION OFFICERS: 
 
 DR. CHAS. W. DABNEY, President. 
 
 ANDREW M. SOULE, Agriculturist. 
 
 R. L. WATTS, Horticulturist. 
 
 CHARLES A. MOOERS, Chemist. 
 
 S. M. BAIN, Botanist. 
 
 J. B. KILLEBREW, Grass Expert. 
 
 F. H. BROOME, Librarian. 
 
 JOHN R. FAIN, Farm Manager. 
 
 P. O. VANATTER, Assistant for Plat Work. 
 
 GEORGE A. FLICKENGER, Dairyman. 
 
 The Station has facilities for analyzing and testing fertilizers, cattle 
 foods, milk and dairy products; seeds with reference to their purity or 
 germinating power; for identifying grasses and weeds, and studying for- 
 age plants; for investigating the diseases of fruits and fruit trees, grains 
 and other useful plants. 
 
 Packages by express, to receive attention, should be prepaid. 
 All communications should be addressed to the 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, 
 
 Knoxville, Tennessee. 
 
 Experiment Station building, containing its offices, labora- 
 tories and museum, and the plant house and horticultural department, are 
 located on the University grounds, fifteen minutes walk from the Custom 
 House in Knoxville. The Experiment farm, dairy barn, stables, milk 
 laboratory, etc., are located one mile west of the University, on the 
 Kingston pike. Farmers are cordially invited to visit the buildings and 
 experimental grounds. 
 
 Bulletins of this Station will be sent, upon application, free of charge, to 
 any Farmer in the State. 
 
^ 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 The Tennessee Experiment Station published, in 1892 and 1894, two 
 bulletins on The Grasses of Tennessee, from the pen of Prof. F. Lamson- 
 Scribner, at that time Botanist of the Station, now Agrostologist of the 
 United States Department of Agriculture. Part I. of this work was a 
 handy reference book of information as to the general character and qual- 
 ity of our grasses; Part II. was a handbook of the grasses of the State, 
 with full descriptions and illustrations. 
 
 The present publication is the first of a series of bulletins which will 
 discuss the methods of cultivating and using the domesticated grasses 
 and forage plants of Tennessee, of establishing and maintaining perma- 
 nent meadows and of harvesting and using the various kinds of forage. 
 It is designed thus to complete the former series. 
 
 The Station has been fortunate in securing, to prepare this new series, 
 the services of Col. J. B. Killebrew, A. M., Ph. D., probably the greatest 
 authority in the South upon the culture and uses of grasses and forage 
 plants, whose work on the grasses and forage plants of Tennessee, pub- 
 lished in 1878, now entirely out of print, remained until the present time 
 the best manual on the subject. The present work gives the result of 
 twenty years' additional study and experience in the cultivation of grasses 
 and forage plants. 
 
 The analytical engravings of grasses in this Bulletin were made by 
 Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner. A few of the larger cuts are from Scribner's 
 translation of Haeckel's "True Grasses." The half tone engravings are 
 from Tennessee and Southern sources. 
 
 CHAS. W. DABNEY, President. 
 
 901098 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This is a practical work on grasses, prepared by a practical man, for 
 practical farmers. The basis of the work is the author's experience on 
 his own farm, supplemented by his observations of the making of 
 meadows and pastures in nearly every state and territory in the Union. 
 This experience and these observations have been fortified by a diligent 
 study of the literature on grasses in this country, and from Great Britain 
 as well. 
 
 Among the works, which have afforded him the greatest aid are the 
 bulletins issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, and by 
 the various experiment stations. He is especially indebted to F. L/amson- 
 Scribner, probably the most accomplished agrostologist in America, for 
 many years botanist of the Tennessee station, now of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture. The works of Rev. C. W. Howard, of Geor- 
 gia; of Dr. Phares, of Mississippi; of Dr. Gattinger, of Tennessee; of 
 Prof. J. Stanton Gould, of New York; of Prof. C. L. Flint, of Massachu- 
 setts; of Prof. Beal, of Michigan; of Edmund Murphy, of Ireland and 
 Margaret Flues, of England, have been freely consulted, and to all of 
 them the writer acknowledges his indebtedness for valuable, practical sug- 
 gestions. In addition to these the agricultural reports of the various 
 states have been consulted. The old files of the "Rural Sun" contain 
 many admirable articles on the grasses, and these have been frequently 
 used. 
 
 The author hopes that this work will meet the demands of many 
 farmers of Tennessee, who are anxious to enter more extensively upon 
 the cultivation of the grasses, and that it will supplement the excellent 
 scientific work already done by our Experiment Station to the great ben- 
 efit of agriculture in Tennessee. J. B. KILLEBREW. 
 
GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 No vegetable products of the soil are of such transcendent import- 
 ance to mankind as are the grasses. Included in the family of grasses are 
 all the cereals that furnish the important bread-grains upon which the 
 largest number of the population of the globe subsists. The animals, 
 domestic and wild, that furnish meat for the sustenance of the most civil- 
 ized portion of the human family feed upon grasses. Indeed it is difficult 
 to see how the people of our planet could survive the entire destruction 
 of the grass family. 
 
 The vast importance of grasses in the creation of wealth is difficult 
 to estimate. The annual production of hay in the United States accord- 
 ing to the eleventh census was 6(5,831,480 tons, grown on 52,948,797 acres. 
 
 A. Fragment of culm of wheat with sheath-node, 
 somewhat bent. B. Longitudinal section of the 
 same; sk, sheath-node; hh, point of insertion of the 
 sheath. C. Andropogon; the sheaih is removed on 
 the left side in order to show the culm-node, hk; 
 sk, sheath-node. 
 
 having a farm value, taking the average of four years, of $514,602,096. 
 There is no crop that surpasses the hay crop in value. The corn crop, 
 one year with another, runs nearly equal in value. The wheat crop fol- 
 lows with an annual value for a full crop of $425,000,000. This is followed 
 by the cotton crop, the value of which rarely exceeds $300,000,000. But 
 in this estimate of the value of grass to the country no account has been 
 taken of the value of pastures. In area, the pasture grasses occupy at 
 least two acres to one of meadow grasses, and the value of their annual 
 production cannot be less than that of the meadows. This will make the 
 total approximate value of the grass crop $1,029,204,792. The making of 
 
"two blades of grass to grow where only one grew before" is the most 
 certain road to wealth and commercial supremacy. But even corn 
 and wheat are the matured fruit of the grasses, as well as oats, 
 rye, barley, rice and nearly all other bread-grains that enter into the com- 
 merce of the country. Exclude the grasses from agriculture and the 
 value of farm products would be reduced fully five-sixths. 
 
 HOW TO TELL A GRASS. At the very outset several important 
 questions likely to be asked by the unscientific farmer, should be an- 
 swered. How shall I tell a grass? What are its most distinguishing 
 characteristics? How shall I separate it from other forms in the vegeta- 
 ble kingdom? Without attempting to instruct such a farmer in the 
 science of botany a few elementary principles may be laid down, which 
 will aid him in determining a grass from other lowly forms of vegetable 
 life and may lead him to a more extensive study in this delightful field of 
 inquiry. 
 
 Point of separation of the sheath (s) and blade 
 (spr). A. \\\ Daclylis glomerata L. B. In Ammophila 
 arundinacea Host. 1. Ligule. C. Flowering glume 
 of Bromus Alopecurus Poir. 
 
 1 A true grass, with rare exceptions, has either a hollow stem; or it 
 is filled with pith, like Indian corn or broom grass, commonly called 
 "broom sedge." 
 
 2 A cross section of the stem is circular or elliptical, but generally 
 round. 
 
 3 The stem or stalk or culm of a grass is divided into sections and 
 the continuity of the hollow in the stalk is broken by cross partitions. 
 These partitions are located at the nodes. The parts of the stalk between 
 the nodes are called joints or internodes. In other words the stalk or 
 culm is separated like pipe stems or fishing poles by the intervention at 
 intervals of a solid partition, which partition closes the tube. 
 
 4 The leaves of grasses are always alternate, that is, only one at a 
 joint. The leaves have a sheath that encloses the stem, but this sheath 
 
8 
 
 is never a solid cylinder. It is split or open on the side opposite the leaf. 
 The blade of the leaf is narrow, and its nerves or veins are parallel to 
 each other, forming raised ribs on the underside that run the whole 
 length of the leaf. In grasses the third leaf overhangs the first and the 
 fourth overhangs the second. In sedges the fourth leaf will stand over 
 the first and the fifth over the second. This is an easy way of distinguish- 
 ing a grass from a grass-like sedge. Another important thing to remem- 
 ber is that sedges always have closed sheaths. 
 
 Rye. Barley. 
 
 Two useful plants in the family of grasses. 
 
PART I. 
 
 DOMESTICATED GRASSES. 
 
 Between the Mississippi River and Atlantic ocean there are known 
 to exist about 295 species of grasses indigenous to the soil. Between the 
 Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains there are 190 species, 60 
 species belonging to that region exclusively. This makes a total of 355 
 species of grasses from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic ocean. There 
 are 250 that have been found between the Pacific ocean and the Rocky 
 Mountains, many of which are common to the other sections of country. 
 It may, with confidence, be said that there are not less than 350 grasses 
 indigenous to the United States. Nearly one-half of these are found 
 within the State of Tennessee. Many have been introduced and are cul- 
 tivated in every part of the state, and some of the indigenous grasses also 
 have been domesticated. A considerable percentage of them are valuable 
 for making pastures and meadows but others are unmitigated pests and 
 worthless for any purpose whatever. 
 
 Out of all this number of grasses, 29 have been selected for discussion 
 in detail in this bulletin. The grasses selected have, in nearly every 
 instance, been tested not only in the various experiment stations in the 
 south and especially at our Experiment Station at Knoxville, but they 
 have been successfully grown by the farmers of the state. A few grasses 
 have been mentioned, not for the purpose of recommending them for 
 
 cultivation, but to warn the farmers 
 of the state against them. 
 
 TIMOTHY (Phleum praiense.} 
 
 (Meadow Grass.) 
 Named for Timothy Hansen, of 
 North Carolina, who introduced it 
 into this country from England in 
 1720. Timothy has become the most 
 popular, the best known and the most 
 profitable hay grass in the United 
 States. This popularity is due not 
 altogether to its superiority in nu- 
 tritive elements, but largely also to 
 the fact that it makes the standard 
 hay of commerce, with which all 
 other kinds are compared. It is sold 
 in all the markets of the country, 
 and its price is quoted in all the 
 leading commercial journals. In 
 buying this hay therefore, one 
 knows precisely what he is paying 
 for. He knows how much to feed 
 
 Timothy Phleum pratense. 
 
 1. The base of plant. 2. Inflorescence. 
 3. Empty glumes. 4. Floret. 
 
10 
 
 and what result to expect from it. It is graded like cotton, tobacco and 
 wheat, and it is the only hay that is in universal demand. -For this reason, 
 more than for any other, it is the most profitable, because the sale of it is 
 most certain. 
 
 SOILS Timothy is a perennial grass and grows best upon a moist, 
 tenacious, rich soil. It does not thrive on high, dry or sandy lands, 
 however fertile they may be. The best situation is valley land having a 
 soil rich in calcareous matter and humus, not too loose or friable but 
 with a sufficiency of clay in its composition to make it reasonably com- 
 pact. Timothy starts slowly in the spring and it does not take so rank 
 a hold upon the soil as many other meadow grasses do. It is not suited 
 for pasturage, for it has but little aftermath and the tramping of stock 
 soon destroys it. 
 
 In Tennessee the best lands for its growth are found in the valley of 
 East Tennessee upon calcareous soils, in the Central limestone basin of 
 Middle Tennessee, and in the northern and western counties of West 
 Tennessee. Many of the bottom lands on the Cumberland River and its 
 tributaries are eminently adapted to its growth. It is unfitted generally 
 for the dry and cherty lands of the Highland Rim. The conditions favor- 
 able for its growth, however, may be found in the elevated basins of 
 Montgomery, Robertson and Stewart counties, as well as those in Frank- 
 lin, Warren and other counties lying at the western base of the Cumber- 
 land Mountains where the soils have a large content of the carbonate of 
 lime. On all the bottom lands lying on the streams of those counties 
 suitable soils are found, except where there is a predominance of sand 
 and gravel. Many of the bottoms lying on little Tennessee River in East 
 Tennessee and on Pigeon River are admirably adapted to the growth 
 of timothy. Powell's Valley, in Claiborne county, furnishes soils capable 
 of growing very large crops. The writer has seen magnificent timothy 
 meadows in the elevated coves near the top of the Unaka mountains in 
 Johnson and Carter counties, where mists and rains are almost of daily 
 occurrence in summer. In general it may be said that the conditions 
 most favorable for the growing of timothy hay are: (1) A rich, tenacious, 
 calcareous soil with some humus; (2) a situation where moisture is re- 
 tained in the soil throughout the growing season, but in connection with 
 good drainage. 
 
 PREPARATION After the selection of a suitable soil and situation 
 for the growth of timothy, the land should be well and thoroughly 
 broken. The depth of the plowing must be regulated by the depth of the 
 soil. On deep, rich, alluvial bottoms the deeper the land is plowed the 
 better. Care, however, must be taken in preparing thin soils not to throw 
 too much clay to the surface, for this will impair the fertility of the seed 
 bed and prevent the young plants from attaining a vigorous vitality. 
 When the soil has been well broken, and repeatedly harrowed until it is 
 thoroughly pulverized, it is in a condition to receive the seed. The best 
 time for sowing this grass in Tennessee is the last week in September or 
 the first week in October, after the dry hot weather has been tempered by 
 cool nights, heavy dews and frequent rains. It is best not to sow the 
 seed until the ground is moistened by rain, otherwise the heavy dews may 
 
11 
 
 cause the seed to germinate when the hot suns of mid-day are likely to 
 destroy the young plants. 
 
 The quantity of seed to be sown is regulated somewhat by the char- 
 acter of the soil. On rich, heavy, deep soils a third of a bushel to the 
 acre will not be too much; on thin light soils, two gallons per acre will 
 be ample. The seed may be sown with a drill and probably it will in- 
 crease the future crop for the land to be afterwards rolled. The sowing 
 may be done by hand, the width of the spaces sown being regulated by 
 stakes. Eight feet is as wide a space as one should attempt to sow. It 
 is best to sow the land with one-half of the seed arid then cross-sow it. 
 This will insure a more even distribution of the seed. After sowing a 
 light drag brush or roller, or both, should be run over the land so as to 
 slightly bury the seed and produce rapid germination. The drag brush 
 used for this purpose should be light. 
 
 The best crop to precede timothy is tobacco, or some clean-hoed 
 crop. The next best is a crop of millet or Hungarian -grass sown in the 
 summer and harvested in September. This leaves the land clean and 
 free from any noxious vegetation. Many persons, after the removal of 
 the millet, do not rebreak the land but harrow it well and immediately 
 sow the timothy seed. With such preparation they claim they are able 
 to secure a better stand than in any other manner. This result is no 
 doubt largely dependent upon the character of the soil. 
 
 Timothy rarely does well when sown with wheat or rye in the fall, 
 or with oats in the spring. The only reason assigned for thus sowing it 
 is that it saves one preparation of the land, but in trying to economize in 
 this work it often follows that the wheat crop is injured, while the tim- 
 othy crop is put off one year and frequently completely fails. It is a 
 most unusual thing to get a good stand of timothy when it is sown with 
 grain; in thus sowing it there is great danger of entirely losing the seed 
 or of having a meadow spotted with many vacant places. 
 
 Many excellent meadows are made by sowing with the timothy seed 
 a gallon of herd's grass seed to the acre with a slight sprinkling of clover 
 seed. One gallon of clover seed for ten acres will be sufficient. The 
 hay thus mixed has more richness or nutriment, has a better flavor, is 
 more relished by stock, and, indeed, is a complete food. At the same 
 time the yield is greatly increased. The amount of clover will not be 
 sufficiently large to impair the keeping qualities of the hay or to make it 
 easily injured by dampness. 
 
 CUTTING AND CURING The best time for cutting timothy to 
 make the largest quantity of sweet hay is when it has stopped blooming 
 and a few of the blooms begin to fall. The best cutting stage is limited, 
 extending from the time when the first blooms begin to fall to the time 
 when the first dry spot appears above the first joint and half the blos- 
 soms have turned brown. If mowed before the blooms begin to fall the 
 vitality of the plant will be endangered. If mowed after the stalk has 
 become hard, the hay is of but little value for the nourishment of animals. 
 Cut at the right stage, every part of the plant is palatable to stock. The 
 culm or stem, which forms such a large proportion of the whole at this 
 period, is soft and tender and the blades are green and succulent through- 
 
12 
 
 out. If the time of cutting is deferred until the seed begins to ripen 
 many of the blades will be dry and the stalk will be yellow and hard for 
 a considerable portion of its length. It will be woody, indigestible as 
 food, and a great part of its value will be lost. When timothy is over- 
 ripe it has very little more value than oat-straw for feeding. When cut in 
 its prime it has no superior as a hay. 
 
 Timothy hay cures quickly. It should remain in the sun only long 
 enough to assure it against mould. After it is well wilted it must be 
 raked into wind-rows and afterwards made into small cocks four feet in 
 diameter at the base' and about five feet high, well pointed and rounded 
 off at the top. Within a day or two, the hay will be cured sufficiently to 
 put into permanent ricks or stacks, or to be stored in an open shed, 
 from which it may be baled and sent to market If a rain should unfor- 
 tunately fall while the hay lies in wind-rows or in cocks, wetting it to a 
 considerable depth, it must be immediately opened to the sunlight until 
 it is dried out. It is best for the quality of the hay that not a single drop 
 of rain fall upon it and that it be cured, as far as possible, with the least 
 amount of sunshine. This method will make sweet, fragrant and nutri- 
 tious hay of prime quality with excellent color. 
 
 When the saving of seed is the main object, timothy should not be 
 cut until the heads are fully ripe. A good thick stand of timothy upon 
 rich land should yield from eight to twelve bushels of seed to the acre, 
 weighing 45 pounds to the bushel, which is the legal weight in Tennes- 
 see. Of timothy seeds there are about 75,000 in an ounce. 
 
 Heavy rains or strong winds are to be feared after the heads are fully 
 ripe, for they beat out the seeds and largely diminish the yield. In cut- 
 ting timothy for seed the self-binder should be used, and the grass tied 
 up in bundles like wheat or oats, and put up in shocks where it must 
 remain for two weeks or more, until it is dried thoroughly and is ready 
 for the thresher. The fewer times the bundles are handled, after being 
 fully dried, the less will be the loss of seed. 
 
 The yield of timothy hay on fertile valley lands sometimes reaches 
 three or four tons an acre. It oftens attains a height of five feet with 
 heads from eight inches to a foot in length. A bottom field lying on Red 
 river in Montgomery county was sown by the writer in 1858 with a mix- 
 ture of timothy and herd's-grass. It was sown the latter part of Septem- 
 ber. The following summer thirty tons of excellent hay was sold from 
 ten acres and two or more tons were retained for home consumption. 
 The soil of this meadow was a calcareous loam with a deep red, well- 
 drained, unctions, clayey subsoil. The meadow lasted for twelve years 
 and yielded heavy crops of hay every year, until it was finally plowed up 
 to give place to a tobacco crop. 
 
 Timothy is thought to be a great exhauster of the soil. This is 
 doubtless true, but its capacity in this respect is not greater than that of 
 Indian corn, wheat or tobacco. It has been well said that a crop that does 
 not exhaust the soil is not worth gathering; that it is impossible to get 
 from the soil something for nothing. The duty of every farmer is to 
 restore to the soil, by commercial fertilizers or by home-made manures, 
 some of the valuable nutritive elements that are taken from it by the 
 crops. 
 
13 
 
 STACKING OR RICKING HAY There is no particular skill re- 
 quired in making stacks. A pole about twelve or fifteen feet long should 
 be planted firmly in the ground. Around this a platform for the foun- 
 dation of the stack should be built. This should be ten or twelve inches 
 high and as broad as the proposed diameter of the stack. The bottom of 
 the stack or rick should cover this platform completely and for the 
 height of six or eight feet the stack should be broadened out so as to 
 throw any rain that may fall upon it outside of its base. The most con- 
 venient size of stack for a majority of farmers is one that will contain 
 four or five wagon loads of hay, a quantity that may be hauled up in a 
 day or conveniently accommodated in the stock barn. When a stack is 
 once broken the whole of it must be carried to shelter or it is liable to 
 be caught and injured by rain. In stacking, the hay should be com- 
 pacted around the pole and practice alone will teach one how to preserve 
 the symmetry of the stack and give to it the lines of beauty and utility. 
 The handrake must be used in combing down the sides of the stack. 
 
 A rick may be made of any required length with a width at the base 
 of from 12 to 15 feet. This width should be gradually increased to the 
 height of seven feet or more. No poles are necessary in the making of 
 a rick, but a good substantial platform for the hay to rest upon is nec- 
 essary. The width of the rick after the height of seven or eight feet 
 should be gradually contracted like the roof of a house. The rake should 
 be freely used in combing the sides. It is necessary when first put up to 
 secure the top against strong winds by passing grass ropes over the rick 
 and fastening them to the ground on each side. These ropes must be 
 put at intervals of six or eight feet throughout the entire length of the 
 rick. After the hay has been well settled, the ropes may be dispensed 
 with. 
 
 The use of hay knives, which have recently been introduced, enables 
 the farmer to haul away just such quantites of hay from his rick as he 
 may desire. With these knives a vertical section is cut from one end 
 cleanly and evenly from the top to the bottom of the rick. The introduc- 
 tion of hay knives has made the rick more popular than the stack. 
 
 Every large hay-grower now bales his hay. The most popular size for 
 a bale is one that will weigh 100 pounds. A bale of this size is more easily 
 handled, and thus adds value to the hay. There are many persons who 
 make a business of baling hay, going from farm to farm like those en- 
 gaged in threshing wheat. They charge a certain price for baling and 
 furnishing the wire, regulated somewhat by the prices of hay. Every 
 farmer who raises more timothy hay than is necessary to meet the re- 
 quirements of his own farm should bale it before carrying it to market. 
 The farmers in every thickly settled community would do well to sow 
 timothy enough to justify them in buying a baling press, which in the 
 marketing of 800 or 400 acres of hay will pay for itself in a single year. 
 The press could also be used in baling clover hay and wheat straw, the 
 latter being worth when baled, four dollars per ton or more. 
 A FEW PRECAUTIONS (1) Do not sow without testing before- 
 hand the power of germination in the seed. 
 
14 
 
 (2) Do not sow anything but clean seed. Examine for noxious seeds 
 
 with a magnifying glass. 
 
 (3) Do not sow when the' soil is very dry and cloddy. 
 
 (4) Do not cover the seeds to a greater depth than one-fourth of an inch. 
 
 When covered 2 inches very few, if any, will germinate. 
 
 (5) Do not pasture a timothy meadow at any time; the destruction of the 
 
 bulbous roots will soon exterminate the grass. 
 
 (6) Do not cut the grass below the first joint. 
 
 (7) Do not forget that blue-grass is the arch enemy of a timothy meadow. 
 
 Therefore never permit stock from a blue grass pasture to roam 
 over a timothy meadow. 
 
 (8) Do not fail to exterminate all bunches of "broom-sedge" and all 
 
 "yellow dock" that may appear in the meadow during the sum- 
 mer. Never let these go to seed. 
 
 (9) Above all do not forget to top dress your meadow with suitable 
 
 manure in the fall of the year and with superphosphate in the 
 spring. Feed your meadow and it will feed you. 
 
 HERD'S GRASS, RED TOP. FINE BENT, FIORIN, (Agrostis alba 
 
 or Agrostis vulgaris.} (Pasture and Meadow.) 
 
 Recent botanical investigations have determined the fact that herd's 
 grass is greatly modified by climate, soil and situation. The most appro- 
 priate name for it is probably agrostis polymorpha, on account -of the 
 many forms which it assumes when subjected to different conditions. By 
 
 whatever name it may be des- 
 ignated in various localities it 
 is one of the most useful agri- 
 cultural grasses of the south. 
 It will grow upon every soil, 
 and will give more general 
 satisfaction to the farmer than 
 any other grass. It is scat- 
 tered over the whole state of 
 Tennessee. The writer has 
 seen it growing luxuriantly 
 upon the hightest mountains 
 of East Tennessee, as well as 
 in the deepest valleys; on the 
 sandstone soil of the Cumber- 
 land table-land, and upon the 
 cherty soils 'of the highland 
 rim. It sparkles in the beauty 
 of its verdure on the lime- 
 
 3. ^K ' stone soils of the central basin 
 
 and acquires its largest 
 Herd's Grass, Red Top- Agrostis alba. growth in the sandy river and 
 
 2. Panicle. 3. Spikelet. 4. Empty glumes. creek basing of Wegt T ennes _ 
 
 5. Flowering glume. * 1 
 
 see. There is no place in 
 Tennessee in which it does not prove a profitable grass to the farmers. 
 
Even upon the called and worn-out soils, if sown and top dressed with a 
 small quantity of stable manure, it will be a powerful factor in the recla- 
 mation of the soil and at the same time it will yield a large amount of 
 good grazing. It is not only a good meadow grass but it is one of our 
 best pasture grasses. Grazing indeed is almost necessary for its perpet- 
 uation and preservation. It loves a moist soil best and on swampy places 
 that are unfit for the growth of almost any other useful grass, herd's grass 
 will thrive in the greatest vigor. 
 
 PERMANENT AND ADAPTED TO EVERY SOIL By all odds 
 it is the most permanent grass for all soils. Blue grass is very dainty in 
 the selection of its soil. Timothy must have moist and rich but not wet 
 soils. Clover even, the greatest of our forage plants, will only grow well 
 upon rich calcareous loams but herd's grass is a universal feeder and as 
 such is of use to every farmer, whatever may be the character of his soil 
 or the location of his farm. 
 
 In a wet soil, especially, herd's grass sends out is long creeping 
 roots and takes full possession. It assumes in such situations a stolini- 
 ferous form, that is to say it sends out shoots from the base, which take 
 root at every joint and produce a thick dense sod. A pasture of herd's 
 grass where it is well set is much valued by dairymen everywhere for it 
 will bear tramping and will continue its growth for a longer period dur- 
 ing the year than almost any other grass. When the grass has been cut 
 for hay its aftermath makes the very best late summer and fall pastures. 
 
 A HAY AND PASTURE GRASS It does not rank as high as tim- 
 othy as a hay grass but as a combined hay and pasture grass it deservedly 
 stands at the head of all economic grasses in Tennessee. When sown 
 upon lands inclined to be wet it often attains a height of four feet. The 
 writer has seen it growing in the sandy creek bottoms in Carroll county 
 five feet high and so rank as to yield three tons of hay to the acre. 
 Usually upon uplands it will attain to a height of from two to three feet. 
 When in full bloom its purplish or brownish panicles present by their 
 feathery undulations a most charming sight. 
 
 WHEN AND WHERE TO SOW Herd's grass may be sown in 
 the fall or in the spring. It may be sown alone or with a nurse crop, as 
 wheat, barley, rye or oats. If the farmer should desire to sow it for a 
 meadow it is best sown alone, about the first of October, upon land well 
 pulverized by plowing and frequent harrowing. One bushel of seed in 
 the chaff is not too much to sow to the acre. Of clean seed half that 
 quantity evenly distributed will be ample. For the making of hay it 
 should not be sown upon uplands, unless the soil is very fertile or the 
 land freshly opened to cultivation. While it is the best of all grasses for 
 pastures upon thin soils, it yields upon such soils but a small quantity of 
 hay. 
 
 In England it is supposed to grow best on sandy soils, and such is 
 the experience of the farmers in West Tennessee, but in other parts of 
 the state the best results are obtained by sowing it upon a deep calca- 
 rous loam. It makes a fair meadow grass upon the sandy soils of the 
 Cumberland table-land, but the places for such meadows are usually 
 selected in creek basins where the sandy soils are moist. Notwith- 
 
16 
 
 standing this grass prefers a wet soil, it has the ability to withstand severe 
 droughts even when sown upon dry uplands. It will retain its verdure late 
 in the fait and even in winter when it has not been pastured during the 
 summer or cut for hay. Under these conditions the old grass falls down 
 and forms a protection for the young sprigs which keep green during 
 severe frosts and hard freezes. Good winter pastures of this grass are 
 especially valuable for ewes at lambing time, the green grass producing 
 a copious flow of milk when the young lambs most need it. 
 
 Herd's grass is often sown with other grasses and leguminous plants, 
 and especially with timothy and clover. These additions largely increase 
 both the quantity and quality of the hay, but they do not permanently 
 benefit the pasture, as the clover, being a biennial plant, soon disappears 
 and timothy cannot survive the heavy tread of cattle or the compact 
 tramping of sheep. 
 
 For stopping gullies no grass except the Bermuda is equal to herd's 
 grass. Like Bermuda-grass it will send its long rhizomes down the sides 
 of the gullies which take root at every joint and will, in a short time, 
 cover the silty deposits in the bottom of the gullies. This mat of grass 
 will catch and hold the soil carried by the water after a rain, thus grad- 
 ually building up the bottom until it can be crossed with a plow. 
 
 WHEN TO CUT FOR HAY The proper time for harvesting 
 herd ; s grass so as to secure the best quality of hay is when in full flower 
 or as soon thereafter as possible. When seed is the main object it should 
 not be cut until fully ripe. It is more easily cured than almost any other 
 hay grass. Cut in the morning of a clear day after the dew has been dis- 
 sipated by the warmth of the sun it should be ready, unless very heavy, 
 to be raked up into windrows in two hours, and put into cocks in the late 
 afternoon. Remaining in cocks for another clear day it may be stacked 
 or ricked without the least danger from over-heating or fermentation in 
 the stack. If there should be any doubt in this respect it must be watched, 
 however, for a day or two, and if an undue amount of heat should be 
 generated the stack should be torn down. Rarely is this necessary and 
 care should be taken not to put the hay in stacks until it is fairly well 
 cured. The less the hay is exposed to the sun the better and sweeter it 
 will be. Mr. P. H. Marbury, of Warren county, Tennessee, who for 
 many years was a most successful cultivator of this grass, thus gives his 
 experience with it: 
 
 "As a meadow or grazing grass it is very valuable. It yields on good 
 soil from a ton to one and one-half tons of superior hay, the stems and 
 blades much fewer and somewhat softer than timothy. I prefer it to 
 timothy my stock prefer it. For grazing it is very valuable. Upon 
 land where limestone is absent it flourishes, has greater tenacity of life, 
 makes a sod almost impervious to hoof and tooth in fact it is the blue- 
 grass of the mountain district. We have but little lime in our soils and 
 therefore blue-grass does not grow well. For a meadow I prepare the 
 soil well with plow and harrow and sow one bushel of clean seed per 
 acre, one-half one way and then sow the other half across the first so as 
 to avoid leaving spaces unoccupied. A light brush may be dragged over 
 it or not, as is preferred. I prefer to leave it without brush or roller. 
 The roller is better than a brush; in fact it prepares the surface well for 
 
17 
 
 the mower or scythe. If sown alone the first of October, a crop of hay 
 the next season may be cut perhaps equal to any it will ever afterward 
 yield and worth more than a crop of wheat or corn. 
 
 "The" time to cut for hay is just before the seeds ripen, but if seeds 
 are desired let them ripen, and, if cut immediately, it will still make fine 
 hay. For pastures I would advise a mixture of orchard grass with it. 
 Orchard grass grows well in the same soil with herd's grass." 
 
 The seed of herd's grass is very easily saved. The grass may be cut 
 with a self-binding reaper when the seed attains maturity. The bundles 
 may be put into shocks without caps and the seed will be dry enough in 
 a few days to thresh. It is difficult to separate the chaff from the seed 
 as the seed is very light but the stand will be just as good to sow the 
 seed in the chaff as to have it clean. Herd's grass seed in the chaff sells 
 low and there should be no stint in the sowing. Some people recom- 
 mend the sowing of two or three bushels to the acre and even as high as 
 four when a dense sod is wanted in a lawn or pasture. The experience 
 of the writer is that one bushel to the acre in the chaff is sufficient when 
 sown for pasture upon land thoroughly prepared. 
 
 ORCHARD GRASS (Dactylis glomerata.) (Pasture and Hay.) 
 
 Orchard grass is diffused extensively all over Europe, from Norway 
 and Russia to Portugal and is also found growing in Northwestern 
 Africa, in India and in Asia Minor. It is cultivated with profit in all the 
 states east of the Mississippi river that lie between 35 and 47 degrees 
 north latitude, and in nearly every state between the Mississippi river 
 and the Rocky Mountains. In New York it is the favorite grass. It 
 
 was known in England for 
 many centuries but its good 
 qualities were not appreciated 
 until it was introduced into 
 that country from Virginia in 
 1764 by the Society of Arts. 
 It is a very hardy perennial, a 
 vigorous grower and flour- 
 ishes as well in the shade as 
 in the sunshine. Owing to 
 this habit of the grass it takes 
 the name of orchard grass in 
 the United States. In Eng- 
 land it is called cock's-foot. 
 It is grown with success in 
 woodland pastures, having 
 generous soils. 
 
 SOILS Orchard grass 
 grows upon every soil not sat- 
 urated with water. Its pref- 
 erence is an alluvial soil, mod- 
 
 Or chard Grass Dactylis glomerata. 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spike- 
 let. 5. Empty glumes. 6. Floret, 
 with stamens and pistil. 
 
 erately dry, porous and with a 
 considerable amount of sandy 
 material in it. Stiff, clayey 
 
18 
 
 soils, retentive of moisture, do not suit it so well. Upon this class of soils 
 the roots acquire, such a feeble hold that they are liable to be thrown out by 
 winter freezes. In England, however, Mr. Wheeler, a writer on grasses, 
 recommends it among those grasses suited "for a poor stiff soil or a dry 
 subsoil." 
 
 Mr. Edmund Murphy, of Ireland, states that it is most advanta- 
 geously used in the sandy soils of Norfolk. 
 
 It will grow well upon a soil naturally sterile, provided it is top- 
 dressed with stable manure. Upon freshly cleared lands where there is 
 a considerable amount of virgin mold it grows with a surprising luxu- 
 riance, getting a good start early in the spring and growing successive 
 crops until fall. One of its chief merits lies in the earliness and rapidity 
 of its growth, furnishing a grateful bite to horses, sheep and cattle long 
 before any other grass. It retains its verdurous appearance during the 
 hot days of August when grown upon a rich deep loam. 
 
 As a hay grass it does not rank high in the estimation 'of Tennessee 
 farmers. Upon good soils it attains a usual height of three feet but some- 
 times reaches four and even five feet. The stalks when grown on rich 
 soils are coarse and woody, unless the grass is very thick. As a hay, un- 
 less cut very early, it is not relished by stock to the same extent as clover, 
 timothy or herd's grass hay. Nevertheless it makes, upon good soils, a 
 large quantity of medium quality. If cut before the leaves begin to be em- 
 browned or to dry up and before the seed begins to form it is greatly 
 relished, by stock, though it is deficient in nutritive matter. 
 
 The Woburn experiments developed some interesting facts pertain- 
 ing ro this grass. Grown upon a rich, sandy loam, and cut the middle of 
 April the green grass weighed 10,209 pounds per acre, in which there 
 were 1,190 pounds of nutritious matter. Cut, when in full bloom, the 
 green produce weighed 27,905^ pounds. It lost in dessication 
 16,045 pounds, or a little more than half, and furnished 1,089 pounds of 
 nutritious matter. After the seeds were fully ripe, the green produce 
 weighed less by 1,361 pounds per acre, but there were 1,415 more pounds 
 of dry bay, with an excess of nutritive extract of 363 pounds. The after- 
 math, however, was not so good, and in the loss of this the advantage of 
 an increased yield of hay was counterbalanced. 
 
 Its best record as reported by Sinclair was 27,905 pounds of green 
 grass; 11,860^2 pounds of hay and 11,910 of green aftermath per acre. 
 The following account of the extraordinary productiveness of this grass 
 is given by Mr. Falla. nurseryman and seedsman, of Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne, in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture: 
 
 On the 30th of April he weighed the produce of. a square yard, and 
 found it to be 16 pounds or 34^ tons per acre; the second crop of this 
 yard was cut again on the 10th of June, and weighed 8 pounds. The 
 third crop was cut on the 10th of September and weighed 10 pounds in 
 all equal to 73 tons as the year's produce. He remarks that it was; in 
 every case, weighed on a dry day. 
 
 HOW AND WHEN TO SOW The land if inclined to be tenacious 
 or stiff in its character should be well -broken in the fall, rebroken the 
 following March or April and thoroughly harrowed just before sowing 
 
19 
 
 until the top is as mellow as garden mold. If a sandy soil is selected it 
 will not benefit it or render it more pulverulent by plowing it in the fall. 
 When the soil becomes dry enough to plow the land should be prepared 
 and the seed should be sown before a rain compacts the land. 
 
 Orchard grass always does best in Tennessee when sown early in the 
 spring. From the 15th of March to the 15th of April is the best time. 
 Not less than two. to three bushels of seed should be sown to the acre. 
 As the seeds are large a light harrow must be dragged over the land after 
 sowing so as to cover them well. The greatest objection to this grass 
 is its tendency to grow in stools or tussocks leaving large bare inter- 
 spaces. To correct this habit a fine toothed harrow should be run over 
 the pasture every spring and wherever there is a vacant place more seed 
 should be sown and carefully covered. A roller run over the pasture 
 when the land is wet represses this tendency to form tussocks. Mr. Ed- 
 mund Murphy recommends the sowing of ten pounds of red clover per 
 acre as a preventive of this proclivity. 
 
 Orchard grass is a very vigorous grower, surpassed in this respect 
 by but few in the whole catalogue of domestic grasses. It is succulent 
 and nutritious and when mowed it requires only a few days of moist 
 weather to bring out its verdant blades in as great beauty and vigor as 
 ever. It will bear more grazing than almost any other grass because of 
 this rapid growth. Tramping does not seem to affect it in any other way 
 than by inducing a tussocky growth. Two or three crops of it may be 
 cut in one season when grown on a deep, rich and moist soil but after 
 each cutting it should be top-dressed with superphosphate of lime or with 
 stable manure. 
 
 Mr. W. D. Gallagher gives the following directions for sowing or- 
 chard grass: ''Plow the land deep, pulverize the soil well, be generous as 
 to the quantity of seed, let the seed be good, sow it evenly, give the land 
 as good treatment afterwards as is given to meadow lands in timothy." 
 
 VIRTUES OF ORCHARD GRASS Orchard grass is a long liver 
 and will be victorious in a contest for supremacy in the pasture over 
 other grasses provided always that its tendency to grow in tufts be coun- 
 teracted. Mr. L. F. Allen, of New York, a farmer and stock grower 
 of national reputation, testifies to the fact that he has had it growing in- 
 one field for a period of forty years with continuous mowing and pas- 
 turing. He says that if cut at the right stage it is just as good for any 
 kind of animal as timothy hay. 
 
 Mr. T. A. Cole, of the same state, says that after twenty years of 
 experience he has settled down upon orchard grass as possessing greater 
 merits than any other for both pasture and meadow, for fattening animals 
 or for dairy stock. Of its value for dairy purposes he says: "When cut 
 for hay just before it blooms and cured with as little sun as possible it 
 will make more milk than any other variety known to me; if left to ripen, 
 it is worthless." 
 
 When grown for hay therefore it may be cut and cured before clover,, 
 timothy or herd's grass is ready for the mower and in this there is a 
 great advantage. The yield of hay on fertile land is two tons to the acre. 
 
 As to its capacity for furnishing grazing Col. Bowman, writing from 
 
20 
 
 the blue grass region of Kentucky, says: "Owing to its capacity to resist 
 drought and in consequence of its rapid growth it will yield more pastur- 
 age than the best blue grass sod." 
 
 Its superiority to timothy lies in the great value of its aftermath. It 
 will improve under depasturing when a timothy meadow subjected to the 
 same treatment would be destroyed. It also makes an excellent winter 
 pasture. Prof. Phares, of Mississippi, an expert writer on grasses, says 
 he prefers orchard grass to any other grass. 
 
 Mr. Howard in his manual on grasses thinks it stands in importance, 
 for the climate of Georgia, second only to meadow-oat grass for hay and 
 winter pastures. Where hay is the object he recommends that meadow- 
 oat grass and orchard grass be sown with red clover and white, as each 
 of the four blossoms at the same time. The cultivation of orchard grass 
 and meadow-oat grass he thinks cannot be too strongly recommended 
 for the south. 
 
 Hon. N. B. Dudley, of Logan county, Kentucky, a most successful 
 stock-grower, has this to say of orchard grass: 
 
 "Orchard grass with a good stand on medium to good land will fur- 
 nish more grazing than any other of the grasses in common use. It 
 starts on its spring growth sooner, is less affected by a summer's drought 
 and grows later in the fall than any other grass. It is the best yard grass 
 for farmers who love large yards and many shade trees. But to get the 
 most benefit from it, it should be grazed hard enough to keep the blades 
 short and tender. If they are permitted to grow long they become tough 
 and rough to the mouths of stock. 
 
 It is not a sod grass like blue, herd's and Bermuda grass. It is more 
 like timothy, growing its tillers from the parent plant, each tiller having a 
 bulbous quality at its base and it. should never be grazed hard enough for 
 these bulbs to be eaten by stock for that would soon destroy the stools 
 from which they grow. 
 
 Orchard grass does very little towards reseeding or thickening itself 
 on the ground. The stools seem to love to have a little neutral territory 
 around themselves. Good farmers usually sow blue and herd's grass to 
 fill these spaces and some sow timothy also because it gives a mowing the 
 next summer. Stock should be kept off of orchard and blue grass for 
 two winters after seeding. 
 
 It is the nature of orchard grass to grow blade in the fall and seed 
 stock in the spring. It should therefore have a good holiday in the fall. 
 Orchard grass is not one of the best hay grasses. The seed stalk will get 
 hard whether it is cut early or late but a very fine hay can be had by 
 sowing with it the common or medium red clover. They are ready for 
 the mower at the same time. I have seen its blades four feet long and the 
 stand of grass seriously injured because it was neither mowed nor grazed. 
 I love orchard grass because it will grow well on land where blue grass 
 would be too dwarfish for profit." 
 
 SAVING SEED When seed is the object the grass should be cut 
 with a self-binding reaper and tied up in bundles -as wheat or oats. The 
 bundles are put up in shocks without being capped. They should remain 
 in this condition until dry enough to thresh, which will be in three or four 
 
21 
 
 weeks. They should be threshed from the wagon and some care must be 
 exercised in hauling the bundles to the thresher, otherwise many of the 
 seed will be lost by shattering. The yield upon rich soils is fifteen 
 bushels to the acre. It is put up in eight bushel sacks and the weight is 
 14 pounds to the bushel. 
 
 Lawes and Gilbert, by selecting the best seed and sowing for several 
 years none but the best for several generations, established a new variety 
 which they called giant cock's-foot. The seed of this weighs only 10 
 pounds to the bushel, and there are only 34,000 seed to the ounce in place 
 of 40.000 of the ordinary orchard grass. This so-called giant orchard 
 grass is not in any respect superior to the common variety. 
 
 It may, with confidence be said of orchard grass that it will suit the 
 ordinary Tennessee farmer better than any other grass for all purposes 
 except herd's grass, and it may with safety be recommended. It soon 
 arrives at maturity. It thrives upon almost every soil and in every variety 
 of situation. It produces an immense amount of herbage and hay. It 
 grows very rapidly and is a favorite with all kinds of cattle, especially 
 when grown in the sunshine. It is found in the best English and Ameri- 
 can pastures. It does not impoverish the soil and is not hard to destroy 
 when the land is wanted for other crops. 
 
 Summing up the merits of this grass it may be said: 
 
 1. It is better suited to every variety of soil than any other except 
 herd's grass. The writer has seen it growing with vigor on mountain 
 heights and in valley plains, on sandy loams and calcareous soils; on the 
 coarse sandstone soils of the Cumberland Mountain, and on the tertiary 
 loess and alluvium of West Tennessee, as well as upon the cretaceous 
 sands of that division. He has grown it with success upon the siliceous 
 soils of the rimlands, and has seen it enliven the landscape of the Cen- 
 tral Basin with its mantle of verdure. It is best adapted to the sandy 
 loams of West Tennessee and to the lands of the Central Basin having a 
 porous subsoil. On lands having a tenacious clay foundation, the roots 
 are checked in their descent, and the growth is not so luxuriant; nor is 
 the duration of the pasture so great. 
 
 2. It will grow with greater rapidity than any other grass and for 
 this reason will sustain a larger number of stock. It is excellent for soil- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 3. It will grow in the shade. This quality will enable the farmers to 
 utilize their woodlands as pasture, and so make them a source of profit. 
 
 4. It will resist drought better than almost any other grass. The hot 
 summers make this a very valuable quality in any grass. Often in July 
 and August the pastures become so parched as to afford but a small 
 amount of grazing. Orchard grass then comes to the rescue and supplies 
 the deficiency. 
 
 5. It is both a pasture and a hay grass. After a crop of hay has been 
 taken off in May or June, the aftermath will furnish a good pasture 
 throughout the remainder of the summer. A prominent sheep raiser- of 
 Tennessee who has been carrying a thousand sheep or more, says that 
 during the summer it will carry double as many sheep as blue grass, acre 
 for acre; but that blue grass will furnish more and better winter grazing. 
 
22 
 
 6. It may be sown in the spring or fall with small grain or alone. It 
 is best not to sow it with grain, as the extra production of grass, when 
 sown alone, is worth more than the grain and grass grown together. It 
 may be mown as hay or cut with reapers or cradles, and bound in sheaves 
 like oats. 
 
 MEADOW FOXTAIL "MOUNTAIN TIMOTHY." (Alopecurus 
 
 pratensis.} (Meadow and Pasture.) 
 
 This grass is one of the earliest in making its appearance in the 
 spring. Its tall culms and club-like panicles are charming in their robes 
 of golden anthers. They are so much earlier than the panicles of other 
 grasses that they readily attract attention. In England this grass is in 
 almost every pasture, and in many pastures famous for their richness and 
 luxuriance it is the principal grass. It blossoms in Tennessee in March 
 and early April. 
 
 SOILS SUITED FOR ITS GROWTH It grows best on rich, 
 moist, strong soils. A calcareous loam with a loose gravelly subsoil is 
 
 well suited for it also, but it 
 will thrive upon all soils ex- 
 cept the dryest sands. It may 
 be grown with success in 
 every part of the state, even 
 upon the Cumberland table- 
 land, wherever the underlying 
 subsoil is clayey and retentive 
 of moisture. 
 
 Prof. Beal says "it is 
 quite common at elevations of 
 from five to seven thousand 
 feet above the sea, growing in 
 rich soils along mountain 
 streams and frequenting the 
 so-called mountain meadows.'' 
 "For the more elevated 
 meadows of the Rocky 
 Mountain region and for 
 northern latitudes there is no 
 grass that so highly com- 
 mends itself as this for hay 
 and summer grazing." 
 This grass would do best in Tennessee in the moist and cool climate 
 of the Unaka mountains. The rich soils of the sheltered valleys and 
 coves of that region, and also that upon the "Balds," are probably better 
 suited for its growth than any other soils and situations in the State. In 
 England it is a great favorite in the sheep breeding districts. It very 
 much resembles timothy in general appearance, but while the head of 
 timothy is rough and harsh to the touch that of the meadow foxtail is soft 
 and velvety, but broader and shorter. The hay, however, is much lighter 
 than that of timothy, while the bulk may be greater. Its chief value in 
 
 Meadow Foxtail Alopecurus pratensis. 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet. 
 5. The awned flowering glume, the 
 stamens and stigmas project- 
 ing from the apex. 
 
23 
 
 Tennessee is for pasturage, because of its earliness and the rapidity of its 
 growth, resembling in these particulars orchard grass. It excels timothy 
 for pastures as much as timothy excels it for hay. Like most grasses its 
 greatest nutritive value is attained when in full bloom. When cut at that 
 period it loses over 70 per cent, in drying and contains when green 4.32 
 per cent, of albuminoids as against 3.79 per cent, for timothy cut at the 
 same stage. 
 
 One great drawback to the introduction of this grass is the length of 
 time (three to four years) it requires to be firmly established, but it is 
 well adapted to permanent pastures and many mountain districts in the 
 state could be greatly benefited by its introduction. It is a long liver, a 
 quick grower, and furnishes a very nutritious and palatable herbage. It 
 requires about three bushels of seed to the acre to insure a good stand 
 but it is best to sow it with other grasses. The land may be prepared 
 and the seed sown in the fall. In the moist climate of the Unaka moun- 
 tains it may be sown either in the spring or fall. The plant at first is 
 very feeble and should only form one of the grasses in a pasture. After 
 two or three years it makes the principal grass. 
 
 Mr. Taunton, of England, thus speaks of its durability and good 
 qualities: 
 
 "In the dry soil, in the course of seven or eight years, it became 
 much weakened; but in a meadow on the clay with a dark moory mould 
 on the surface, it maintained its size, frequently as well or better than any 
 other grass; and where I had sown it on deep loamy sand where springs 
 rise, there its produce was extremely luxuriant, insomuch, that I, this 
 year, sold the crop standing at the rate -of 8 pounds sterling ($40) per 
 acre. No manure had ever been given to this, land since the grass seeds 
 were sown seven years ago, other than the irregular irrigation produced 
 by the winter springs; yet it most completely covered the ground. One 
 character particularly attracted my attention; namely, that although it 
 stood late in the summer not having been cut until late in July, and after 
 the seed had fully ripened none of the lower leaves had decayed or with- 
 ered, whereas those of the cock's-foot and fescue and some others were 
 quite dead. This experiment proves to what a valuable purpose any tract 
 of springy, moist, loamy sand may be converted by sowing it down with 
 a selection of grasses, in which the foxtail should predominate. 
 
 This grass must not be confounded with the foxtail (setaria viridis} 
 that springs up in the fields of Tennessee after oat and wheat harvest. 
 This foxtail is nothing but a troublesome weed. 
 
 TALL MEADOW FESCUE RANDALL GRASS EVERGREEN 
 GRASS (Festucaelatior\a.r. pratensis.}(Mzz&ow and Pasture.) 
 
 This is a most valuable grass and well suited to many of the. soils of 
 Tennessee. It is a perennial and flourishes best on moist lands rich in 
 humus. It is good for permanent pastures or meadow, producing when 
 cut in flower a large amount of excellent hay which Mr. Sinclair values 
 next to the meadow foxtail. As a hay grass it is superior to the meadow 
 foxtail. It is common throughout Great Britain, Lapland, Norway, Swe- 
 
24 
 
 Fall Meadow Fescue, Festuca elatior. 
 
 2. Panicle. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet. 
 
 5. M'mpty glumes. 6. Flowering glume. 
 
 den, Germany, France and as far South as Italy. It grows all over the 
 
 United States. It was first 
 domesticated in 1820. It is 
 inclined to grow in tufts or 
 bunches' like orchard grass. 
 The roots are stout and the 
 leaves are from one to two 
 feet long. This grass often 
 grows to the height of five 
 feet in suitable situations and 
 soils and makes excellent win- 
 ter pastures from Virginia and 
 Kentucky southward. It 
 grows vigorously on the 
 mountain lands of upper East 
 Tennessee and is ' highly 
 prized for its good grazing 
 qualities during the spring, 
 summer and fall months, even 
 extending far into winter, not- 
 withstanding the rigor of the 
 weather upon these chilly 
 heights. It has taken various 
 names; in Virginia it is "Randall grass;" in North Carolina "evergreen 
 grass." In the mountain lands of Virginia, a writer says: "The variety 
 of forage best adapted to sheep-grazing on the mountain lands is the 
 'Randall.' a tall, coarse grass, growing freely on the rocky soil to a 
 height of six feet, remaining green and affording fine herbage all the 
 winter." 
 
 From the limited cultivation this grass has received in Tennessee it 
 seems to be adapted rather to moist low lands than to uplands, though 
 I have seen it growing on some of the high ridges of East Tennessee, at 
 least 1,500 feet above the sea. There, on good soils, it thrives luxuriantly, 
 and makes a very superior pasture. Some of this grass was sown in 
 Davidson county as early as 1850 upon the farm once owned by Col. D. 
 H. McGavock. The place selected for sowing was low, wet and almost 
 marshy. The same spot is yet green with it, still flourishing in the great- 
 est vigor, furnishing more grazing according to Col. McGavock, than any 
 other grass. The roots penetrate much deeper than the roots of blue- 
 grass, descending indeed, as deep as red clover. In consequence of this 
 it bears droughts remarkably well. Nor do overflows affect it, but seem 
 rather to add to its vigorous vitality. 
 
 A small plat of upland was also sov/n, but it disappeared in about five 
 years. Its disappearance, however, was hastened by the presence of the 
 army worm. 
 
 In Europe this grass is one of the standard meadow grasses and 
 might be found by further experiment to form a fine addition to the list 
 here. Its name of evergreen originated from its habit of remaining green 
 
25 
 
 under the snow, affording fine croppings for cattle. It will grow on a 
 greater elevation than the blue grass. 
 
 Meadow fescue grass does not attain its full productive capacity until 
 the third or fourth year, so that while its durability in the soil is great it 
 may not be depended upon for a quick meadow or pasture. It will yield 
 the first year. from one to one and a half tons of hay when sown upon con- 
 genial soil, and twice that amount the second year. The seed weighs 
 from 12 to 16 pounds to the bushel and three bushels are required to the 
 acre. Prepare the land and sow at the same time of the year and in the 
 same manner pointed out for the sowing of blue grass. In sowing it for 
 pasture it is usual to mix it with other fescue grasses. 
 
 This grass has never received the attention in the south it justly 
 merits. It is greatly relished by all herbivorous animals. It is a vigor- 
 ous grower, resembling in this particular, after being well established, 
 
 Sheep Fescue Festuca ovina. 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Spikelet. 4. Empty 
 
 glume. 5. Flowering glume. 
 
 Tennessee Fescue Festuca rubra glaucescens. 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet. 
 
 5. Empty glume. 6. Flowering glume. 
 
 blue grass, though it takes two or three years to reach the condition of 
 its greatest fruitfuiness. It is fairly nutritious both in its green and cured 
 state. 
 
 SHEEP FESCUE (Festuca ovina.} (Pastures.) 
 This is a very hardy perennial and deserves mention in this bulletin 
 because it will grow on thin, dry, siliceous soils and thus fills a want in 
 those regions of Tennessee that are destitute of good grass lands and are 
 now practically without grasses. On the sandy soils of the Cumberland 
 table-land and on the siliceous soils of the Highland Rim and on the 
 sandy areas of the cretaceous formation of West Tennessee this grass 
 would prove a boon. The gravelly ridges of East Tennessee could also 
 
26 
 
 be made good sheep walks if set with it. Sheep are very fond of it and 
 hence its name. 
 
 Its panicles are narrow; its leaves are short, bristle-like and tufted 
 and have a grayish color tinged with red. It forms a profuse foliage in 
 bunches and makes excellent pastures for sheep and cattle where other 
 grasses will not grow. 
 
 This grass constitutes the great bulk of the grazing grasses in the 
 sheep pastures of the Highlands of Scotland. It is believed by the shep- 
 herds in that region to be more nutritious for sheep than any other. In 
 the arid plains of Asia it is often the only grass upon which the wandering 
 tribes can subsist their cattle and sheep. 
 
 Linnaeus asserts that sheep have no fondness for hills without it. 
 Where all other vegetation parches up it will grow. Its short and dense 
 turf when sown thick makes it well suited for lawns. The aftermath in a 
 lawn cannot be surpassed. 
 
 Many varieties of this grass are found in the Rocky Mountain dis- 
 tricts. Some of these grow to the height of two or three feet. The usual 
 
 Rats 's-tail Fescue Festuca myurus. 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Upper leaf. J.Spikelet. 
 
 5. Empty glumes, tj. Flowering glume. 
 
 Small Fescue Festuca tenella. 
 
 1. Panicle. 2. Spikelet. 3. Empty 
 
 glumes. 4. Flowering glume. 
 
 height of this grass on thin soils rarely exceeds eight inches. The weight 
 of a bushel of seed is 14 pounds. Two or three bushels to the acre is not 
 too much to secure a sufficient density of turf for lawns or pastures. The 
 seed sells for about $2.00 per bushel. 
 
 OTHER FESCUE GRASSES. 
 
 Tennessee fescue, Festuca rubra glaucescens, is a perennial and is 
 strongly recommended for worn out soils and hill-sides. It has a creep- 
 ing habit and makes a good turf, close and fine leaved, remaining green 
 
27 
 
 throughout the year. It is not easily affected by either drought or cold. 
 It will grow well on dry sandy soils and may be a valuable acquisition for 
 the Cumberland mountains. 
 
 Festuca myurus (rat's-tail-fescue) and tenella (small fescue) are both 
 annual grasses which grow on dry sandy soils six inches to a foot in 
 height, and, as they appear early in the spring, they make a good sheep 
 pasture. 
 
 Festuca duriuscula, hard fescue, is a variation of the sheep fescue and 
 will thrive on poor sandy soils. It is of but little value where the soil 
 is fertile enough to produce better grasses. But for its hardy nature and 
 its adaptability to unfavorable situations it would not be mentioned. 
 
 Differences in soil and situation cause these species to run into sev- 
 eral varieties and the narrow leaved species seem to lose their individu- 
 ality when grown on like soils and under similar conditions. Prof. 
 Buckman of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester sowed in ex 
 perimental plots the seeds of Festuca ovina, Festuca ruba and Festuca 
 duriuscula and for two years the specific differences were well marked but 
 in the third year these differences vanished and the appearance of all three 
 was practically the same. The creeping habit of the Festuca rubra was 
 totally lost. On poor upland regions, according to Mr. Gould, these 
 fescues assume the appearance of the Festuca ovina; on good uplands the 
 appearance of Festuca duriuscula and in river valley lands of Festuca 
 rubra. 
 
 PERENNIAL RYE GRASS RAY GRASS (Lolium perenne} 
 (Meadow and Pasture). 
 
 This grass has been in cultivation in England and Scotland since 
 1667 and in France for even a longer period. It is regarded in England 
 very much as timothy is in the United States, though it is difficult to see 
 the reason why. It is a short perennial, lasting usually from three to 
 seven years and in consequence of the shortness of its life it is not highly 
 esteemed for pasture. It is a good grass, however, for alternate hus- 
 bandry. 
 
 SOILS Like nearly all stoloniferous grasses it prefers a moist soil 
 and is especially suited to a low-lying clayey soil. The roots put out 
 several stems, which grow prostrate at the base. Upright stems ascend 
 from each joint of the prostrate stem, attaining a height of from two to 
 three feet. The stem is stiff; the spike is flattened and it is not an at- 
 tractive grass in appearance, but it has a full green tint except at the 
 joints of the stem, where it sometimes takes on a brownish hue. It has a 
 vigorous habit, starting early in the season and flowering early. It re- 
 quires one to two bushels of seed to sow an acre. It may be sown either 
 in the fall or spring when the land is in good condition. The preparation 
 of the land is the same as that for orchard grass. 
 
 Prof. Beal does not think it well adapted to a southern climate as it 
 cannot bear great heat. It must have a cool climate and a moist soil. 
 These conditions of growth are found among the high mountains of East 
 Tennessee and I have no doubt it would grow with great luxuriance in 
 
28 
 
 the moist soils of the elevated valleys and coves found among the Unaka 
 mountains. 
 
 On fertile soils it will yield about 40 bushels of seed to the acre and 
 the seed weighs 25 to 30 pounds per bushel. It cannot be called an eco- 
 nomical grass for pastures or meadows. Its shortness of life makes the 
 sowing of it for permanent pastures or meadows very bad husbandry. 
 The sowing of it is only a little more economical than the sowing of an 
 annual. And yet for a three years rotation it will be found very useful. 
 
 Mr. Edmund Murphy, a close observer of the habits of this grass 
 says: "In laying down some hundred of acres with this grass alone or in 
 mixture with others my experience fully bears out the justice of the 
 charge of bad husbandry in sowing it for permanent meadows or pastures. 
 Nor is the want of durability its only bad property. It is perhaps the 
 most exhausting of all the grasses on land, nearly as much so indeed, 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass Loliuni perenne. 
 2. Inflorescence a spike. 3. Upper leaf. 
 4. Spikelet, with a portion of the rhachis. 
 * o. Empty glumes of the terminal spikelet. 
 6. Floral glume. 7. Palea. 8. Caryopsis. 
 
 when permitted to form its seed, as a crop of corn (wheat). In dry soil 
 or in almost any kind of soil, should dry weather set in after it has been 
 cut, an almost total failure of the aftergrass will be the result. Its great- 
 est value appears to be for sowing with clover, on land intended to remain 
 only two or three years in grass; with this view, and when sown at the 
 rate of one bushel per acre, with 20 pounds of red clover; or two bushels 
 of rye grass, and 14 pounds of red clover on deep rich ground, enormous 
 crops are produced. When the intention is to .leave the land only one 
 year in grass, the Italian rye grass is greatly to be preferred." 
 
 According to the Woburn experiments it is very low in its nutritive 
 elements. It ranks low as to the quantity and quality of its produce and 
 
in its aftermath it is the very lowest in the scale of cultivated grasses. 
 Compared with orchard grass its nutritive power is as five to eighteen; to 
 meadow foxtail, five to twelve; to meadow fescue, five to seventeen. 
 Nevertheless it is a useful grass in a mixture and will furnish the earliest 
 of grazing. It possibly may be recommended for culture in Tennessee 
 only on the soils of the Unaka mountains and on the moist low clayey 
 lands adjoining the lake districts of West Tennessee. 
 
 ITALIAN RYE GRASS (Lolium Italicum,) (Soiling and Hay). 
 This is a sub-perennial grass and is esteemed among the very best of 
 the short-lived grasses. Its period of duration is two to three years. It 
 gives more abundant crops of a better quality than perennial rye grass. 
 It is characterized by Flint as being the "greatest glutton of all the 
 grasses;" will endure any amount of forcing by irrigation, by timely rains, 
 and by manuring. It will withstand a drought remarkably well, notwith- 
 
 Italian Rye Grass Lolium Italicum. 
 
 2. Spike. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Lateral spikelet, 
 with a portion of the rhachis. 5. Empty glumes 
 of the terminal spikelet. t>. Floral glume. 
 
 standing its capacity for absorbing moisture from the earth. It has 
 within the past fifty years been introduced into America from Europe 
 where it is claimed to be more universally adapted to all kinds of climates 
 than any other domesticated grass. 
 
 SOILS Italian rye-grass reaches its highest perfection on moist, 
 rich, alluvial lands and calcareous loams where the soil is in good tilth. 
 It is not recommended for permanent pasture or meadow but owing to its 
 rapidity of development it is of the greatest value when an early crop of 
 forage is desired. With proper manuring it is said that it may be cut 
 within three to four weeks after seeding. A succession of crops may be 
 
30 
 
 cut every four or five weeks during the season. This quickness of growth 
 makes it stand in the first rank as a soiling grass. For dairymen living 
 near a city it is of especial value as the green food produces a rich flow 
 of milk at a very small cost. One and a half to two bushels of seed, 
 weighing 20 pounds to the bushel, is about the proper quantity to sow on 
 an acre of land. Prepare the land and sow in the same manner as or- 
 chard grass. Tt is, however, better when sown in the fall, about the first 
 of October. It may be considered a very valuable grass for Tennessee 
 and indeed for the south generally. It has been fully tested in Georgia 
 and in Tennessee, and it has in every instance given satisfactory results. 
 
 It gives a fine color to the butter of the milch cows fed on it, and 
 they eat it with great relish. It withstands the hottest suns of summer as 
 well as the frosts of the severest winter. It must be sown alone, as it 
 will quickly choke and destroy clover or other grasses. Its yield per 
 acre, according to received authority, is something immense. Mr. Dick- 
 ens, of England, sowed it on a stiff, clay soil, well-manured, cut it ten 
 times during one year; the first time, ten inches, in March; April 13th, 
 again, and May 4th, a third time; May 25th, a fourth time; June 14th, 
 again; July 22nd, a sixth time, with ripe seed and three loads of hay to the 
 acre. Immediately after each cutting it was manured with liquid manure, 
 the produce of each crop increasing with the temperature of the atmos- 
 phere, from three-quarters of a load, the first cutting, to three loads the 
 last. He discontinued manuring now, thinking its growth would be ter- 
 minated in bearing seed, but he afterwards cut four crops from it. On 
 the 26th of January following, it measured sixteen inches in height. The 
 last cutting was October 30th, and on the 8th of April a crop twenty-two 
 inches high was cut from it. "I was desirous to know the exact amount 
 taken per acre for the year, and it amounted, on a careful measuring and 
 'weighing of green hay, thirteen tons and eighteen hundred and twenty- 
 seven pounds per acre." (Coleman's European Agriculture.) 
 
 It presents a most charming view, with its broad, dark green foliage, 
 and especially in a dry year, when vegetation is parched up all around, it 
 does not show any signs of losing its fresh, living, luxuriant growth. 
 Although of short life, a meadow of this grass may be made perennial by 
 scattering fresh seed over the ground every second year and scratching 
 it with a harrow having sharp teeth. Its unusual ability to withstand the 
 vicissitudes of heat and cold makes it a desirable grass for any thirsty 
 soil, as well as for moist soils. It might possibly be a valuable addition 
 to the soils of the western portions of our state. At least it is worthy 
 of a trial. 
 
 Mr. Gould thinks the valuable qualities of this grass may be summed 
 up as follows: "Its habit of coming early to maturity. Its rapid repro- 
 duction after cutting. Its wonderful adaptation to all domestic animals, 
 which is shown by the extreme partiality they manifest for it, either alone 
 or when mixed with other grasses; whether when used as green food for 
 soiling, as hay, or as pasturage, in which latter state its stems are never 
 allowed to ripen and wither like other grasses. Its beneficial influence on 
 the dairy, not only augmenting the flow of milk, but improving the flavor 
 of the cheese and butter, Its uncommon hardiness and capacity to with- 
 stand for vicissitudes of both wetness and dryness." 
 
31 
 
 PEARL OR CAT TAIL MILLET (Pennisetum typhoideum) (Annual 
 
 Hay Grass.) 
 
 This is a hardy annual and may be cut two or three times during the 
 season. It grows usually to the height of six or eight feet. It has dense 
 heads, six to twelve inches long and a half inch or more in thickness. The 
 stalks are coarse and hard to cure. When cut before the stalks harden 
 and the seeds ripen it makes a vast quantity of forage that is readily eaten 
 by all herbivorous animals. It requires plenty of heat and a rich soil to 
 bring it to maturity. The experiment made with it on the Centennial 
 grounds in Nashville in 1897 proves that it is a vigorous grower, a gross 
 feeder and a princely looking grass, towering high above all other 
 grasses except sorghum and teosinte. The head resembles a mammoth 
 head of timothy. 
 
 The hay is cured with difficulty, owing to its rankness and coarseness. 
 It requires a great deal of exposure to the sun or air before it can be 
 stored away with safety. It can be recommended as a forage plant on 
 the ground that it makes a large yield at a small cost. 
 
 SOILS The strongest soils only are adapted to the growth of this 
 rank feeder and even these should be heavily manured to secure the best 
 results. Plenty of moisture in the soil is required for its growth and for 
 that reason a dry sandy soil is unfit for its cultivation. A deep calcareous 
 loam or a rich alluvial soil is to be preferred. The rich lands in the loess 
 formation of West Tennessee, the fertile river bottoms of Middle and 
 East Tennessee and the deep soils of the central basin are all well suited 
 to its growth. The rich moist upland valleys of the highland rim deeply 
 plowed and heavily manured will yield large crops of it. 
 
 Pearl millet does best when sown in drills eighteen inches apart. The 
 running of a cultivator or double shovel once .between the rows is suf- 
 ficient cultivation to give it. It is a rapid grower and will overlap the 
 rows within three weeks after sowing. About one peck of seed when 
 drilled is sufficient to plant an acre; one bushel per acre is required when 
 sown broadcast. It is a plant very sensitive to cold and it should not be 
 planted until all danger of frost has passed. 
 
 Mr. P. Henderson, of New Jersey, gives an interesting account of 
 his experience with it, which is here condensed. He prepared the land 
 by applying ten tons of stable manure to the acre and then plowing it ten 
 inches deep. The seed was sown in drills eighteen inches apart on the 
 15th of May. After coming up a cultivator was run between the rows one 
 time which was all the cultivation it received. The first cutting was 
 made 46 days after planting. When cut it was seven feet high and covered 
 the whole ground. This cutting weighed green, gave a yield of thirty 
 tons to the acre; weighed after being dried, six and a half tons. The 
 second growth, which was of tropical luxuriance, started at once from the 
 stubble left three inches high at first cutting. The second cutting was 
 August 15th ? forty-five days from the first cutting. The height of this 
 was nine feet and it weighed at the rate of forty-five tons to the acre, 
 green, and eight tons dried. The third crop was -cut October 1st, which 
 weighed ten tons green and one and a half tons dried. The cool weather 
 of autumn sensibly affected its growth. The aggregate yield from one 
 
32 
 
 sowing was ninety-five tons, in 135 days, of green fodder, which made six- 
 teen tons when dried. It should be cut for hay when the heads first 
 appear. 
 
 Pearl or Cat-tail Millet Pennisetum typhoideum. 
 
 As to its feeding value it is about equal to corn fodder. Cattle, 
 horses and sheep are very fond of it both green and dry. It has probably 
 
33 
 
 the largest productive capacity, when grown upon highly manured lands, 
 of any forage crop now grown. While the fodder is coarse it is highly 
 nutritious. The only difficulty is to cure it sufficiently td prevent it from 
 fermenting and moulding. It will grow and flourish wherever Indian 
 corn may be grown. The weight of the seed is fifty pounds per bushel. 
 
 MEADOW OAT GRASS OR EVERGREEN (Arrhenatherum 
 
 elatius.} (Meadow and Pasture.) 
 
 This grass is equally valuable for making hay, for pasturage and for 
 soiling. It produces an immense amount of foliage and its aftermath 
 is about as heavy as the first crop. Having characteristics and adapta- 
 bility similar to those of the oat, it has been widely distributed in the 
 United States from New England to Georgia. It was introduced into 
 this country from England where it is highly prized for its good quali- 
 ties. It is a favorite grass in 
 France and the south of Europe 
 generally. It is an object of ad- 
 miration to all lovers of the 
 grasses, by reason of its great 
 height, its gracefully bending 
 panicles, its purplish anthers, its 
 flag-like leaves hanging in grace- 
 ful arches beneath the panicle, 
 the green of which contrasts 
 with the purple of the anthers 
 and the violet of the flowering 
 glumes making altogether a rare 
 picture of grace and beauty. 
 
 SOILS This is one of the 
 grasses that will grow best on 
 dry sandy soils, and is a great 
 acquisition therefore to those 
 sections of Tennessee where 
 sandstone soils predominate. It 
 may be grown on the Cumber- 
 land table-land with success. Al- 
 though it prefers sandy soils it 
 will thrive upon any rich, dry, 
 well-drained land. It is a very 
 hardy perennial and will resist equally the heat of summer and the cold 
 of winter. In Southern latitudes it is green throughout the year and 
 hence the name evergreen. In a favorable season two crops of hay may 
 be harvested from the same sowing in one }ear. 
 
 The best time for sowing in the latitude of Tennessee is in March or 
 April, or it may be sown in the fall from the middle of September to the 
 last of October. As this grass has a tendency to grow in tussocks like 
 orchard grass plenty of seed, not less than two bushels, should be sown 
 to the acre. 
 
 Mr. Edwin Montgomery, of Mississippi, writes to the American 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass or Evergreen Arrhena- 
 therum elatius. 
 
 1. Panicle. 2. Spikelet, with the empty 
 
 glumes removed. 3. Empty glumes. 
 
 4. Awned floral glume. 
 
34 
 
 Agriculturist that many persons in his locality state if they were restricted 
 to one grass, tall meadow oat grass would be the one selected. 
 
 Mr. Jared G. Smith, Assistant Agrostologist of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, says it is one of the best drought-resistant 
 cultivated grasses, but he does not recommend that it be sown alone un- 
 less it is grown for seed only. "The forage," he says, "is bitter and is 
 not readily eaten by cattle except where it occurs in small quantities 
 mixed with other grasses. However, the hay is of fine quality and is 
 relished by stock." 
 
 It grows rapidly and comes into blossom early. The best time for 
 cutting it is during its period of inflorescence. It likes heat and will 
 grow with more vigor on southern than on northern slopes. An excess 
 of moisture soon destroys it. Well drained lands should therefore be 
 selected for its cultivation. The seed weighs ten pounds to the bushel. 
 
 Mr. Sinclair says it is subject to rust in England which does not 
 appear on the blades however, until after its flowering season. 
 
 The directions for preparing the soil and the sowing of timothy will 
 apply to the seeding of this grass. 
 
 ITALIAN, GERMAN OR GOLDEN MILLET (Setaria Italica] (Grown 
 for Hay and Soiling. ) 
 
 This is an annual and is extensively cultivated in parts of Tennessee 
 for hay. It differs from German millet only in having a larger head but 
 less dense. It is considered superior to the common millet and indeed to 
 all other kinds for soiling purposes but not for hay. It grows to the 
 height of from three to five feet on good soils. 
 
 SOILS Italian millet, like 
 all the millet family, requires a 
 strong, rich, deep soil, suffi- 
 ciently clayey to retain a 
 large amount of moisture; at 
 the same time the land must 
 be thoroughly drained. It 
 should receive a good coat of 
 stable manure and be well 
 broken in the winter and 
 pjowed again in the spring 
 and frequently harrowed, 
 logged or rolled until the 
 earth is fine and lightly com- 
 pacted. All rank growth of 
 vegetable matter turned under 
 before sowing is decidedly in- 
 jurious. Such vegetable mat- 
 ter makes the land dry and 
 thirsty and too porous. On 
 land so prepared failures will 
 result in four cases out of 
 five. 
 
 A clayey soil in a moist situation, enriched by the application of well 
 rotted stable manure, kept in good tilth, that has been deeply and well 
 
 Italian Millet Setaria Italica. 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet, 
 
 with two bristles. 5. Spikelet L aid open. 
 
35 
 
 broken the previous winter, and upon which all vegetation has been kept 
 down by frequent plowings or harrowing, are the most favorable condi- 
 tions for the growth of a large crop of millet. Upon land so prepared 
 one bushel of seed to the acre will be sufficient. The ground should not 
 be dry or wet when it is sown. If too dry many of the seeds will perish 
 near the surface; if too wet the land will be compacted and the crop will 
 "french" or turn yellow. After sowing, harrow well with a light harrow 
 
 a, 
 
 German Millet Setaria Italica var. 
 
 a, b, Spikelet and "beards," c. Seed. 
 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 or run a drag brush over the land, or use a smoothing harrow. Millet 
 may be sown at any time in the latitude of Tennessee from the first of 
 April until the 15th of August. One good soaking rain after sowing will 
 assure an abundant crop. It is a very rapid grower and a rank feeder. 
 It will be ready for the mower within fifty to sixty days after it is sown. 
 
 Millet must be cut when it begins to head and before it blooms. To 
 put off the time of harvesting until the seeds are ripe will be to ruin the 
 
36 
 
 hay, for when cut at this stage it is not only worthless for forage' or hay 
 but the abundance of seed renders it dangerous for feeding to horses, as it 
 will affect their kidneys in a very marked degree. The hay is cured and 
 treated in the same way as timothy hay but a little more time is required 
 to cure it properly. The less millet is exposed to the sun after it is cut 
 the better will be the hay. The yield of hay on very fertile well prepared 
 land, is as much as three to five tons per acre. 
 
 For raising seed run light parallel rows three feet apart and drill the 
 seed with a tin cup or an oyster can having three or four holes punched in 
 the bottom with an eight penny nail. Walk rapidly holding the cup over 
 a row and the seed will be distributed about thick enough. Cover 
 slightly and when the seed germinates and before it comes up run over 
 the land with a light harrow. Cultivate between the rows with a double 
 
 Millets. 
 
 1. Italian or Common Millet. 2. Hungarian Millet. 3. German or Golden 
 Millet (varieties of Italian.) (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 shovel plow, one plowing being all that is necessary. The millet should 
 be thinned to a mere thread of plants. Cut when the seed is in the 
 dough state with a self-binding reaper. Put the bundles in shocks and 
 thresh when the heads are thoroughly dry. The yield is frequently from 
 30 to 40 bushels of choice seed to the acre. 
 
 Italian millet, and indeed every kind of millet, is very exhausting to 
 the soil, especially if the seed is permitted to ripen. 
 
 This grass is of great value to tlie renter who has rarely the oppor- 
 tunity of continuing in possession of the land long enough to sow a 
 meadow and reap the benefit of it. But for the proprietor who has suita- 
 
37 
 
 ble soils there is no excuse for not providing himself with the best hay 
 th-? climate and soil can afford, and there are plenty of good grasses to 
 suit almost every variety of soil in the state of Tennessee. If a farmer 
 who is a landowner, wishes to indulge the pride, and it is an economical 
 pride, of having fat horses, sleek cattle, and plenty of bacon, let him at 
 once see to his meadows, for a good meadow is next to a corn-crib to 
 prepare pork for the smoke-house, as well as to fatten all kinds of stock. 
 A crop ol millet is a good forerunner for a meadow as it destroys all the 
 noxious weeds, and leaves the land in fine condition for timothy or herd's 
 grass. 
 
 Italian millet is sometimes called Missouri millet and Tennessee mil- 
 let, there being a slight variation induced by differences in soil and 
 climate. 
 
 HUNGARIAN MILLET OR HUNGARIAN GRASS (Setaria 
 Italicavar. Germanics.) (Grown for Hay and Soiling). 
 
 There is a very slight difference between this and the Italian millet. 
 Botanists regard it as a variety of Italian millet. The head is not so 
 large or long as that of Italian millet, but it is more compact. It was 
 introduced into France in 1815 and is largely grown for forage in that 
 country. It is much relished by horses and cattle and has the capacity 
 of resisting droughts better than the Italian millet. As a hay grass it is 
 probably preferred to Italian millet, both because the head is smaller and 
 the straw is not so coarse. It also cures more quickly and does not grow 
 so rank, nor does it require so much moisture in the soil. It will grow 
 on any soil rich enough to produce good corn or potatoes. If sown after 
 potatoes it yields remarkably well and especially if the land was manured 
 when put in potatoes. Old well-rotted manure is much better for its 
 growth than fresh stable manure. In the management of this grass the 
 same instructions as given for Italian millet must be followed. 
 
 Hungarian millet attains maturity a week or ten days earlier than 
 Italian millet sown at the same time. It should be cut when the seed 
 is just beginning to form. Two to three tons of hay to the acre is not 
 unusual. One good rain thoroughly wetting the ground after the seed 
 is sown is. sufficient to bring the crop to maturity. 
 
 For seed cultivate in the same manner as for Italian millet. 
 
 Two or three crops of Hungarian millet can easily be raised from the 
 same ground in one year. A farmer of Davidson county raised a most 
 excellent crop of Hungarian millet, sown the first day of September and 
 cut on the 10th of October. Another, of Williamson county, -secured a 
 good crop of German millet sown on the 13th day of August and cut on 
 the 12th day of October. So, if a farmer, by any kind of misfortune, fails 
 in the earlier months to secure a sufficient quantity of dry forage for his 
 stock, he can, as a dernier resort, start very late in supplying himself, by 
 crops of this grass. Should it be desired to use the hay as a green forage, 
 it can be cut three times at least, provided it is done before it begins to 
 throw up the seed stalks. It is a common custom in the southern states 
 to use it in this manner instead of buying the expensive baled hay of the 
 north. 
 
38 
 
 COMMON OR BROOM CORN MILLET (Panicum miliaceum.} (Grown 
 for Hay and Soiling. ) 
 
 The heads of common millet are large, open and nodding, resembling 
 broom-corn in general appearance. This grass is used for the same pur- 
 poses, and cultivated in the same manner and upon like soils, as Italian 
 millet and Hungarian grass. It will yield from sixty to seventy bushels 
 of seed per acre. Cut after the seed is ripe it is valueless -as food for any 
 kind of stock. 
 
 Broom Corn Millet Panicum miliaceum. 
 
 a, b, c, Spikelet and Chaff, d, e, Two views of Seed. 
 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
39 
 
 GAMA GRASS SESAME GRASS (Tripsacum dactyloides)CFor 
 Hay and Soiling.) 
 
 Gama grass merits more attention from Tennessee farmers than it 
 has ever received. It is one of the largest and most beautiful perennial 
 grasses grown in the South, reaching oftentimes a height of seven feet. 
 When young and succulent it is eaten with avidity by stock and makes 
 from its rapid growth a good soiling or forage crop or material for the 
 
 silo. Its leaves are very large, 
 equal in size to the leaves of 
 Indian corn. It has very 
 strong creeping root stocks, 
 which are as large as those of 
 cane roots, but close grazing 
 will destroy the grass in a few 
 years. 
 
 Gama grass may be cut 
 three or four times a year and 
 though in its native state it 
 grows in swamps, it . will 
 thrive almost equally well on 
 dry or sandy ridges. It will 
 grow where timothy or or- 
 chard grass will not, and con- 
 sequently it is well suited to a 
 large section of our State. The 
 quantity of hay taken from 
 one acre is simply enormous, 
 
 GamaorSesameGrass-Tripsacumdactyloid.es. resembling very much COrn- 
 
 fodder. As a hay it is fully 
 equal to corn-fodder, and it 
 can be saved at one-tenth the 
 labor required to save fodder. 
 It is very nutritious and succulent when cut green. The great mass 
 of roots will serve to open, loosen and improve the land upon which it 
 grows. It should never be allowed to shoot up the seed stem when de- 
 sired for hay. 
 
 It is with difficulty the seed can be made to vegetate and therefore it 
 must be propagated by slips from the roots. Prepare the land well, lay 
 off the furrows with a bull-tongue plow two feet apart, and drop small 
 pieces of root about one foot apart in the furrow, covering with a board. 
 The creeping roots will soon meet, and the ground is quickly turfed with 
 the grass. It should be planted early in September. Of course, the 
 richer the land, whether upland or bottom, the greater the yield. Poor 
 land rarely makes better crops of anything than fertile land. I have seen 
 this grass growing with great luxuriance in Montgomery county, Tenn. 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Base of the female inflor- 
 escence. 4. Upper leaf. 5. Male or stam- 
 inate spikelet. 6. Female spikelet 
 in section. 7. Female spike- 
 let expanded. 
 
40 
 
 TEOSINTE (Euchlcena Mexicana, E. luxurians.} (Grown for Fodder.) 
 
 This is an annual grass 
 and in the luxuriance and 
 largeness of its growth it much 
 resembles Indian corn. It at- 
 tains a height upon fertile 
 soils of from eight to twelve 
 feet. It is of tropical origin 
 and was introduced into the 
 United States probably from 
 Central America or Mexico, 
 or from both. 
 
 It has been successfully 
 grown at the Experiment Sta- 
 tion at Knoxville, and is re- 
 garded as one of the most 
 prolific forage plants known 
 to agriculture. Stock is very 
 fond of it, and it will yield 
 twenty or more tons of green 
 forage per acre. It will bear 
 cutting several times during 
 the year but some authorities 
 believe that the best results 
 will be obtained from a single 
 cutting just before frost. It 
 tillers greatly, as many as 
 fifty stalks having been 
 observed as springing from 
 the same root. The Agricul- 
 tural Department at Wash- 
 ington recommends that teo- 
 sinte be planted in drills three 
 feet apart and thinned to a 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 Teostnte Euchlcena Mexicana,E. luxurians. 
 
 The uppermost cut in the figure shows the 
 male inflorescence reduced one-half; to the right 
 below is shown the female inflorescence mostly 
 concealed within the sheathing leaf: to the left 
 below is shown a single female spike. R. A 
 joint of the rachis of the female spike. St. Ter- 
 minal portion of the stigma. 
 
 foot apart in the rows. One 
 pound of seed is sufficient to 
 plant an acre. One drawback 
 to this grass is that it does not 
 mature its seed in Tennessee, 
 and very rarely north of 
 Southern Florida. 
 The soil for its growth must be deep, moist and fertile. Any soil 
 suitable for corn will produce teosinte. It is one of the rankest feeders 
 of all the grasses. Dairymen living near a city would find it valuable as 
 a soiling crop for cutting green and .feeding to milch cows. The stalks 
 are very tender and are eaten greedily by cattle, whether green or dry. 
 
 It is a difficult matter to cure this grass properly and many other 
 grasses adapted to the soils of Tennessee are to be preferred to it for 
 making winter feed for stock. It may be cut with corn knives in the fall 
 
41 
 
 and set up in shocks. It has very little, if any advantage over corn when 
 the latter is cut and put up before the blades are dry. Teosinte harvested 
 in the same way would probably have its greatest value and be most easily 
 saved at the smallest cost for labor. It is superior to corn as a forage 
 crop only in its capacity of giving a greater yield. 
 
 Teosinte Euchlcena Mexicana, E. luxurians. 
 
 Showing its robust character and habit of throwing up many stalks or culms 
 from a single root. 
 
 SUGAR SORGHUM CHINESE SUGAR CORN (Sorghum sac- 
 charatum,') (Hay, Pasture, Forage, Silo and for the Manu- 
 facture of Syrup. 
 
 Fifty years ago sugar sorghum or Chinese sugar-corn, was unknown 
 in the United States. It is now grown to a greater or less extent in every 
 southern state, all through the western states and as far north as Pennsyl- 
 
42 
 
 vania and New York and even in Canada. At first it was grown only 
 for the manufacture of syrup. It was soon discovered, however, that stock 
 of all kinds ate it with a decided relish and that it kept them fat. About 
 1880 it first began to be grown in Tennessee as food for .cattle. It is 
 now grown extensively for forage in every part of the State and by many 
 farmers it is regarded as far superior to corn fodder for feeding cattle. It 
 certainly abounds in fat-making elements. The seed in India and in other 
 tropical regions is largely employed by the inhabitants as food and it is 
 asserted by high authority that more people subsist upon it and kindred 
 species than upon any other cereal. While wheat makes the best bread, 
 sorghum seed, Kaffir-corn, Durra-corn and other like species can be pro- 
 duced cheaper and is the chief "staff of life" among the 
 poorer classes in the Orient. In Tennessee the grain has 
 rarely been employed for human food, but it has been fed 
 to all kinds of live stock and it is especially valued for 
 feeding poultry. 
 
 VARIETIES, SOILS AND CULTIVATION. 
 There is a vast number of varieties and sub-varieties of 
 sorghum. Original!}' there were two leading kinds, the 
 Chinese sugar cane and the Inphee, known as the red and 
 the black, or the Chinese and the African. For the man- 
 ufacture of sugar, probably the Inphee cane is superior, 
 but for the manufacture of syrup, the Chinese is preferred. 
 These varieties have been modified by cultivation and cli- 
 mate and from them have originated several that are re- 
 garded for specific purposes much better than the two 
 great original varieties. The variety called amber is most 
 widely distributed and is used for forage purposes in 
 almost every state where sorghum is cultivated. What is 
 known as the early amber is used both for forage and for 
 pasture. The amber variety is very sweet, very early, not 
 very rank and therefore is better adapted for making a 
 coarse kind of hay. The orange varieties are said to come 
 next to the amber varieties in point of popularity and use- 
 fulness. These are coarser than the amber varieties. 
 They do not grow so rapidly or mature so quickly and are 
 therefore not so much used for early feeding or for hay. 
 They are said, however, to be better for soiling purposes 
 and for the silo. Other varieties are known as Folger's 
 early, Coleman and gooseneck. For summer pasturage, 
 Folger's early is said to be an excellent variety. 
 Sorghum will thrive to some extent on the poorest soils. When the 
 earth is parched up by drought it maintains its fresh, green color and 
 continues to grow. However, it will thrive, better on rich, calcareous and 
 alluvial soils, and though the juice may have more water, when grown 
 on such soils it will make far more syrup. The roots of sorghum pene- 
 trate the soil deeper probably than any other cereal and consequently 
 deep plowing in the preparation of the soil is highly important to make a 
 full crop. Not only should the plow be used, but the subsoiler also. On 
 
 Seedhead of 
 Amber-Orange 
 
 Sorghum. 
 
 (U. S. Dept. 
 
 of Agric.) 
 
43 
 
 good land it grows to a height of 15 to 18 feet; on poor, badly prepared 
 land, it stops at five or six feet. Because it will grow on poorer land than 
 other plants is no evidence that poor land is better for it. On gravelly or 
 sandy subsoils, the roots will go four or five feet deep, and on this kind 
 of land, if rich, it will make far more syrup and of a better quality. For 
 syrup making it should be planted in drills three feet apart. In four or 
 five days the young and tender plants come up, looking very much like 
 
 Seedheads of Sorghum Collier variety, one of the best. 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 grass. Young sorghum grows rapidly, and soon outstrips the weeds. 
 When three or four inches high, it should be chopped and thinned out, 
 and but little more work need be done to it. Two or three plowings are 
 all it should receive, as the roots penetrate the ground so thickly the 
 plant will receive more injury than benefit if plowed after it is three or 
 four feet high. Besides, by that time the ground is so shaded by lateral 
 branches and suckers that the weeds will effect no material injury. 
 
44 
 
 Much difference of opinion existed at first, and still exists, as to the 
 best time of cutting so as to get the largest amount of good syrup. Some 
 assert it should be harvested when the seeds are in the milky state, others 
 when they are fully matured. A slight degree of frost does not injure it, 
 and this has caused the loss of many a crop, for whenever it freezes, fer- 
 mentation ensues, and it will not make syrup at all; or if it does it is 
 black and has a disagreeable odor. But repeated experiments have dem- 
 onstrated the fact that early cut cane makes the best and cleanest 
 molasses. 
 
 AS A FORAGE AND SOILING CROP But it is rather as a for- 
 age crop that the methods of cultivating and curing this plant properly 
 belong in this bulletin. Its uses are almost as various as those of Indian 
 corn itself. As has already been stated, it is greedily eaten in all stages by 
 stock of every kind. The seeds are abundant and one acre of good sor- 
 ghum will make from forty to sixty bushels of seed. The heads can be 
 cut from the stalks and stored for use, taking care to spread them out until 
 they are dry, when they make good food for cattle, horses, sheep, hogs 
 and poultry. When ground into flour they make good bread. Both 
 the seeds and the expressed juice have been extensively used in distilla- 
 tion, large quantities of alcohol and sorghum brandy being annually made 
 from them. During the civil war it formed almost the only resource of 
 the South for whisky, all other kinds of grain being in too much demand 
 for distillers to use them. 
 
 But probably it possesses more good qualities as a green soiling 
 plant than any other. Let it be sown on good land, either broadcast or 
 thickly drilled with a seed drill, from April to July, with about one bushel 
 of seed to the acre, and the amount of forage will be immense. It will 
 yield from 20 to 30 tons of green fodder to the acre, which, when dry, 
 will make four to six tons of the sweetest and best of hay, and stock will 
 eat up the last vestige of it. 
 
 HARVESTING AND CURING The most difficult thing in con- 
 nection with the growing of sorghum for hay, is to cure it properly. 
 When sown broad-cast upon a rich soil using three bushels or more of 
 seed per acre or when drilled with a wheat drill using a like amount of 
 seed, it makes such a rank growth that it is a troublesome task to cut and 
 save it. If the seed is sown thick enough so that the stalks will be small, 
 the crop may be cut with a mower. If the stalks are large, a corn knife 
 will have to be used or a corn harvester. Some farmers use the self- 
 binder in cutting the crop but in this case the height of the stalks must 
 not be over five or six feet. 
 
 The proper time for cutting is when the heads begin to flower. Then 
 it should be cut and bundled as corn fodder, or it may be left spread on 
 the ground; if the weather is good, for several days, and it will be dry 
 enough to store but not in too large a bulk. Its stems are so full of 
 juices that it will not cure quickly. The juices in it, however, will sugar 
 in a few days when it will keep as well as timothy. It possesses fattening 
 qualities in an eminent degree and nothing like it was ever used for im- 
 proving a drove of mules. If the farmer has a drove of mules or herd of 
 cattle or milch cows or flock of sheep it can be fed to them from the time 
 
45 
 
 it is two feet high and they will eat it with avidity. By the time a field 
 is gone over, it will be ready to cut again, as the root freely throws up 
 new suckers and will continue to do so until stopped by the frost. Thus, 
 as many as three crops of it. if sown early can be cut in Tennessee as a 
 soiling crop, before it is destroyed by the cold. Or if it is not wanted as 
 
 Sorghum Growing on the Station Farm, University of Tennessee. 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 green forage, it can be cut at blossoming for hay, at least twice without 
 resowing. And the second crop will be as good as the first. 
 
 After lying on the ground for three or four days it may be gathered 
 and shocked like corn, if the stalks are large, but if they are small they 
 
46 
 
 may be raked up and put into cocks from which, after remaining for a 
 few days, the hay may be hauled to a shelter or put into stacks and 
 topped off with fodder, rye straw, herd's grass or timothy hay. It will 
 be necessary if the crop is very rank to turn it over on the ground so that 
 all parts of it may, as far as possible, be equally exposed to the sun. 
 
 The difficulty of curing is greatly increased during rainy weather, as 
 under such a condition the stalks are apt to blacken and ferment. Some 
 farmers find the best way to preserve it from fermentation is to make 
 alternate layers of sorghum and dry wheat straw, the latter readily ab- 
 sorbing any undue moisture which may remain. 
 
 For a long time the farmers objected to growing it extensively be- 
 cause they believed it to be a very exhaustive crop to the soil. This is 
 true when the seeds are permitted to ripen fully. In fact the experience 
 of the writer is that if left to ripen seed it exhausts soils more than the 
 growth of corn or wheat. But when sorghum is cut just as the head 
 begins to blossom and before the draughts are made upon the soil for 
 maturing the seed, it injures the soil less than probably any other crop 
 yielding as much forage. In many parts of Tennessee where there are 
 fields well suited for the growing of sorghum the same land is planted 
 with it for several years in succession without showing any diminution in 
 the quality or quantity of the forage produced. It is claimed by some 
 observant farmers that the land is benefited by the deep growing roots 
 through their agency in permitting the soil to be thoroughly aerated. 
 Very little injury is done to the soil by removing the crop in an e^arly 
 stage of development. Many farmers claim that when planted late with 
 cowpeas or other field peas and cut before the seeds are matured, the 
 land is left in excellent condition. 
 
 Mr. Bulow, of South Carolina, in speaking of sorghum^ says: 
 
 "I rely almost entirely on early amber sorghum as forage for my 
 sheep and cattle. I cultivate it in three-foot rows and sow the seed 
 rather thick. About the time the heads begin to get hard, cut and put 
 up in shocks and bind tightly at the top and it can remain in the fields for 
 three or four days, as we have but little rain during the fall months." 
 
 Mr. Thompson, of Georgia, says: 
 
 "Sorghum makes good roughness. Plant thick in the drill, cultivate 
 it, cut it and shock until cured. Make the shocks small; when partly 
 cured put two to four together. Sow about one and one-half bushels of 
 seed to the acre and mow and cure like millet." 
 
 In Texas the hay is often baled from the cocks after giving it an addi- 
 tional exposure to the sun for several hours. The experiments made at 
 the Texas Station show that the percentages of fat and protein increase 
 as the sorghum ripens, but when ripened it is not so digestible, so that 
 the increase in fats and protein are more than off-set by the indigestibility 
 of the forage. 
 
 Georgia experiments show that the highest percentages of fat and 
 protein are found in the plant when "cut during its inflorescence. Un- 
 questionably the consensus of opinion with a large majority of farmers is 
 that it makes the best forage when cut in bloom. The yield often runs 
 as high as 12 to 15 tons from one sowing. As a food for milch cows it is 
 
47 
 
 unexcelled on account of the large flow of rich milk, which it induces. 
 Care should be taken at first in the feeding of the green forage to cattle 
 unaccustomed to it. They should be restrained and not suffered to take 
 a full feed, as it is very succulent and like clover, is apt to induce hoven. 
 
 AS A PASTURE As a pasture grass sorghum has been highly 
 commended. The Arkansas Experiment Station issued a bulletin in 
 August, 1896, in which it is stated that sorghum gave excellent results as 
 a hog pasture used in connection with clover and Spanish peanuts to give 
 a succession of fresh food. Sheep, hogs and milch cattle are especially fond 
 of it. For a pasture it should be sown very thickly and it is a wise policy 
 to sow two or three fields or parts of fields separate from each other in 
 sorghum and pasture them alternately. Sorghum grows so rapidly that 
 as soon as the stock is taken off one field it will, within a week be ready 
 to pasture again. Tennessee farmers would find it greatly to their interest 
 to break up portions of their stubble fields when a catch of. clover has 
 failed or been destroyed, and sow in sorghum for a late summer pasture. 
 The capacity of this plant to resist drought makes it especially valuable 
 for pastures at a season when clover, blue grass and orchard grass and all 
 the best pasture grasses have fallen off or become exhausted in their graz- 
 ing capacity by reason of the summer's drought. I know of nothing that 
 will so well fill up the gap between the spring pastures and the fall pas- 
 tures as sorghum sown upon wheat stubble from the latter part of June to 
 the last of July. Farmers should try it. 
 
 SORGHUM FOR THE SILO Dire'otor Redding, of the Georgia 
 Experiment Station, regards sorghum as a material for ensilage quite sat- 
 isfactory. He says: "For the silo I consider the three most valuable 
 plants in order, are Indian corn, cowpeas and sorghum." Notwith- 
 standing this favorable estimate of the value of sorghum for the silo 
 many object to it on account of its tendency to become acid. It also 
 lacks the nutritive quality of Indian corn and unless cut very early in its 
 growth the stalk becomes so hard that it is not eaten with comfort by 
 cattle. One advantage, however, of sorghum is that it will remain green 
 in the fall for a much longer time than corn and so a larger quantity of 
 it may be utilized for making ensilage. When it is grown in conjunction 
 with cowpeas or soy beans it gives a much more nutritious ensilage than 
 corn taken by itself. 
 
 With all the short-comings of sorghum it must be regarded as one 
 of the most useful and widely cultivated plants that has ever been intro- 
 duced into the United States. Among the small farmers it is highly 
 prized for its syrup-making properties. Among stock-breeders it is 
 valued because of the immense amount of forage which it supplies at a 
 small cost. It has the capacity to resist dry weather better than almosc 
 any other crop. It may be used for more purposes than almost any 
 other crop. It is very valuable as a pasturage for sheep, hogs, cattle, 
 mules and horses. It makes good hay for winter feeding. The seed is 
 said to be worth, for feeding purposes, about 90 per cent, as much as 
 corn. The hay is better than corn-fodder and the stalk when properly 
 cured may be reckoned among the best fattening foods grown. 
 
48 
 
 JOHNSON GRASS (Andropognon sorghum halepense.') Meadows and 
 
 Pasture. 
 
 Space for a description of Johnson grass is given in this bulletin 
 mainly for the purpose of warning Tennessee farmers against it. While 
 it makes excellent hay and furnishes a large amount of grazing it is at 
 the same time one of the most troublesome weeds that can be introduced 
 
 upon a farm. If one wishes 
 to raise nothing but hay; if 
 he has no regard for the rights 
 of his neighbors; if he expects 
 never again to grow tillage 
 crops on his farm, then the 
 wisdom of sowing Johnson 
 grass may be commended. 
 Otherwise it should be left 
 severely alone for no time will 
 completely eradicate it when 
 once well set upon good land. 
 It has a thick fleshy root stock 
 that penetrates the soil in 
 every direction and throws up 
 a culm from every joint. If a 
 single piece of root an inch 
 long is left in the ground it 
 will be the prolific mother of 
 a numerous progeny of stalks 
 and roots within a year. It is 
 possessed of a strange and ex- 
 traordinary vitality. A barrel 
 of salt poured upon a bed of 
 
 it eight feet square did not destroy the roots. Within a month the salt 
 disappeared, leaving a briny surface, but the invincible roots sent up an 
 army of numerous stalks that waved their flags in victory over the bed 
 that was intended to be their grave. 
 
 The only possible way to keep Johnson grass in subjection, so far as 
 the writer knows, is to pasture it with hogs and never suffer the grass to 
 go to seed. Frequent plowing of the land and bringing the roots to 
 the surface so that the hogs may find them readily will assist in keeping it 
 down. One of its greatest virtues is that hogs will thrive upon its succu- 
 lent roots which they seem to prefer even to artichokes. They never tire 
 in searching for them. 
 
 SOILS Rich, well drained, calcareous soils and especially rich allu- 
 vial soils will grow this grass most luxuriantly, but it will thrive on a 
 sandy dune, in a barren field, on a rocky ledge, wherever it can find a 
 handful of dirt, and it will even flourish in the bottom of a gully. It 
 knows not how to fail. In a southern climate it will grow on any spot 
 and will resist the severest droughts, withstand the coldest weather of 
 southern winters, and make a vigorous growth where but few other plants 
 
 Johnson Grass Andropognon Sorghum halepense. 
 
49 
 
 will live. It is in a sense the most self-assertive of all the grasses and like 
 the wild garlic will propagate itself equally as well from the roots as from 
 the seeds. 
 
 With all its bad qualities it is probably the most prolific perennial hay 
 grass in the United States. In the latitude of Tennessee, Northern Ala- 
 bama and indeed throughout the South, it may be mowed three to four 
 times a year and will yield at each mowing from two to three tons of 
 excellent hay when grown on rich soil. The best time for cutting it to 
 make hay is before the heads appear. After the seeds are formed the 
 stalks grow hard, which makes the hay unfit for stock. Jno. B. Mc- 
 Ewen, of Williamson county, a most observant farmer, speaks in rather 
 extravagant terms of the quality of hay made from this grass and de- 
 clares that it is the best hay he makes on his farm. 
 
 When young, Johnson grass is very tender and sweet and the pith is 
 filled with sugary juices. As a soiling crop it is very much prized, as it 
 may be cut every month from May until heavy frosts. Dr. Phares, of 
 Mississippi, says during a long drought it was mowed in the northeastern 
 part of that state three times and on the first of October there was a 
 growth from eight to twelve inches high. Upon this cattle were turned 
 and there remained feeding and fattening on the abundant, rich, rapidly 
 growing foliage to the last of December. 
 
 All writers on this grass, with the exception of a few who live above 
 the 37th degree of north latitude, while commending it highly for the 
 fecundity of its growth' and the nutritious qualities of its foliage and 
 roots, speak of it as utterly ineradicable. Prof. Gulley, of Mississippi, 
 says in the quantity and quality of hay it stands first for permanent 
 meadow, especially if sown on rich, well drained, heavy land. Prof. S. M. 
 Tracy, says: ''Johnson grass makes excellent hay and will give from 
 three to four cuttings a year. While thousands of dollars have, been made 
 by its cultivation and it grows well on almost any kind of soil, it will 
 never be popular, as, when once planted 'it sticketh closer than a brother,' 
 and it is difficult to grow any other crop on the land." 
 
 When l:he roots become thoroughly matted in the soil the yield of 
 hay decreases. A good plowing of the ground so as to dislocate the 
 masses of roots will start the grass to growing again in all its tropical 
 vigoT. As a meadow or pasture grass it will retain its hold upon the 
 land and suffer no inroads whatever by other grasses or weeds. The only 
 situation it cannot endure is when sown where it will be overflowed and 
 the water left standing upon the ground. Under such conditions the roots 
 will rapidly decay. 
 
 The seed weighs 35 pounds to the bushel and one bushel is required 
 for sowing an acre. It may also be propagated by setting out pieces of 
 the roots a foot apart. 
 
 The writer, however, wishes to emphasize and repeat his warning to 
 the farmers of Tennessee: Never plant Johnson grass with the expecta- 
 tion of destroying it for it is a "stick-fast" and will survive the roughest 
 treatment. Many excellent valley farms in the central basin of Middle 
 Tennessee have had their value ^reatly decreased by the presence of this 
 unconquerable grass. 
 
50 
 
 Indian Corn Zea Mays. 
 
 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF INDIAN CORN (ZEA MAYS, L,.) In the center above is 
 single stalk, reduced to l-10th its natural size, showing the terminal male (the "tassel"), 
 and in the axil of the third leaf from the base is the female inflorescence enveloped in 
 broad, leafy bracts. At the base of the figure on the right side this female inflorescence 
 is shown more clearly; the hair-like tuft is formed b3' the projecting slender styles (the 
 "silk.") To the left' at the base of the figure is shown an "ear" of corn, the kernels 
 being the matured ovaries from which the styles have disappeared. In the upper left- 
 hand corner of the figure are two spikelets. The flowers of Indian corn are unisexual, 
 the one male or staminate, the other female or pistillate; both are born upon the same 
 plant, but each is in a separate inflorescence. 
 
51 
 
 INDIAN CORN (Zea Mays.) (For Forage). 
 
 Taking it in all its manifold uses there is no other product of agri- 
 culture grown in America so important to man and to domestic ani- 
 mals as Indian corn. The grain is more extensively used in the United 
 States than all other grains combined. The average annual crop does 
 not fall short of two thousand million bushels. The oat crop which 
 comes second rarely surpasses 800,000,000 bushels. The corn crop has 
 always been a leading one with the farmers of Tennessee from pioneer 
 days to the present. In fact, in 1840, Tennessee grew more Indian corn 
 than any other state in the Union. 
 
 It is not the purpose of this bulletin, however, to try to teach Ten- 
 nessee farmers how to raise corn or to go into an elaborate description 
 of the great number of varieties produced in the United States. The 
 chief object of this paper is to direct their attention to the value of Indian 
 corn in the making of hay and forage. The "saving of fodder" was for 
 nearly a century considered one of the indispensable tasks of the farmers 
 of Tennessee, but no one in early times ever thought of sowing Indian 
 corn and mowing it to supply the place of fodder. The dairymen of the 
 north have, for many years, been using corn so sown as a soiling crop for 
 their cows during the dry months of July and August after the first pas- 
 tures have dried up and before the fall pastures have become green with 
 the latter rains. A vast amount of forage in the form of fodder tops and 
 stalks is saved in every part of the United States. Even in Europe corn 
 forage is growing to be very popular, and the grain is now used by the 
 inhabitants of many foreign states who knew nothing of it thirty years 
 ago. 
 
 Mr. Mechi. who for a long time enjoyed the distinction of being one 
 of the best farmers in England, placed a very high estimate upon corn 
 fodder not only in' the feeding of sheep and cattle, but for the production 
 of milk and butter. He estimated that one ton of such fodder is equal 
 to forty bushels of grain. 
 
 There is a class of small farmers and tenants in the State of Tennes- 
 see who do not own the land which they cultivate. These farmers must 
 raise some kind of hay, or as they call it "roughness" with which to feed 
 their work stock. This can be easily done by sowing, the first of May 
 upon well prepared land, a few acres in corn at the rate of a bushel and a 
 half to the acre. It should be covered with a harrow. The corn fodder 
 will mature in about 90 days, that is to say, it will arrive at that stage 
 when it should be cut, which will be about the time the tassels and silks 
 are well developed. Cut at this stage, it will make from 40 to 50 tons 
 of green forage on an acre of fertile land and from three to four tons of 
 dry forage. It makes also an excellent soiling crop for milch cows. 
 
 There is some difficulty in curing corn-fodder properly, as it is ex- 
 tremely succulent. It must be cut in good weather and spread evenly on 
 the land so as to receive as much sun as possible. It may then be put up 
 in shocks like hay, after it has been sufficiently dry to escape the danger 
 of fermentation. It may be managed very much in the same manner as 
 sorghum. Corn fodder, green, is also an excellent material for ensilage, 
 especially when grown with cowpeas, oats and soy beans. 
 
There is a small variety of corn known as Dixie corn, the ears of 
 which are not larger than the fingers. This corn usually yields from six 
 to eight and even as high as fifteen ears to the stalk. The grains are very 
 small and the corn matures quickly. If this corn should be sown upon 
 rich land and cut at the time the grains are in the dough state, it would 
 make a mass of forage highly nutritious and would serve the purpose ot 
 both grain and hay. The stalks are so small that they may be cut with 
 a reaper or mower and put up in the same way as the corn shocks of 
 ordinary corn when cut in the fall. The sowing and saving of this Dixie 
 corn for forage deserve the consideration of Tennessee farmers. Stubble 
 land could be employed for the growing of this crop. 
 
 CRAB GRASS (Panicum sanguinale.}(^y and Pasture.) 
 This is a hardy annual grass, attractive because of its digitate form 
 of inflorescence. It is indigenous to the soil and troublesome in the cul- 
 tivation of other crops when clover or peas have not been used in the 
 systems of rotation. In the early settlement of Tennessee it was far more 
 abundant in the cultivated fields than at present. This grass comes up 
 
 spontaneously. It grows with 
 the greatest luxuriance upon 
 stubble fields and in corn- 
 fields in low situations. It 
 makes an excellent pasture 
 from June until October in 
 the latitude of Tennessee and 
 even to a later date when 
 heavy frosts do not occur. Its 
 most intimate associate is 
 green foxtail (Setaria viridis), 
 which is totally worthless 
 when it begins to seed. Crab- 
 grass is never sown. When 
 cultivation ceases it takes pos- 
 session of the land. It is 
 justly regarded as an excellent 
 pasture grass but it forms no 
 sward. It sends out numerous 
 stems, however, branching at 
 
 Crab Grass Panicum sanguinale. 
 
 2. Upper leaf and inflorescence. 3. Portion of 
 
 one of the racemes. 5. Spikelet, front 
 
 view. H. Spikelet, side view. 
 
 comes on at a time when northern farmers are compelled to resort to 
 soiling crops in order to supply green food to their milch cows. A dairy- 
 man from Ohio said to the writer upon seeing a field of crab grass grow- 
 ing to the height of three feet, that it was the most valuable summer 
 grass for the dairy he had ever seen. It grows very rank after oats 
 and, cut when in flower, often yields more forage than the oat crop that 
 precedes it. Sometimes as much as two tons of crab grass hay to the 
 acre have been cut within forty days after the oat crop has been re- 
 
 the base. Crab grass serves a 
 useful purpose in stock hus- 
 bandry all over the south. It 
 
53 
 
 moved. The hay is sweet but light, and stock seem to prefer it to any 
 other when cut early before the seeds harden. It will not shed rain very 
 well and it should be cut during a dry spell. It cures rapidly and unless 
 very rank it may be hauled in and stored away the next day after it is 
 mowed. It may be stacked in the open fields but the stacks must be 
 capped with herd's grass or timothy hay. The hay is sometimes gath- 
 ered by pulling it up from between the corn rows. This is a tedious task 
 but not more so than the pulling of fodder. Crab grass furnishes more 
 hay for home use in the Gulf states than any other grass. It is usually 
 cut in August or September, and even as late as October. 
 
 Mr. Sinclair says that the clean seed, when boiled in milk, makes a 
 dish resembling sago. It has been used as a substitute for sago in Ger- 
 many, and is really cultivated for that purpose in some districts. 
 
 BLUE GRASS JUNE GRASS (Poa pratensis. ) (Pasture Grass.) 
 
 This is a perennial grass and is well styled the king of all the pasture 
 
 grasses. It is very choice, however, in the selection of soils and situation. 
 
 Kentucky Blue Grass Poa pratensis. 
 2. Panicle. 3. Upper leaf . 4. Spikelet. 
 5. Empty glumes. 
 
 Spikelet of Blue Grass, 
 showing seed. 
 
 Wherever it plants itself the land advances rapidly in price and it becomes 
 the breeder's ideal home. Blue grass indeed has no rival within the limits 
 of its growth. All other grasses that make inroads upon its territory are 
 regarded as intruders. Whoever has blue grass is possessed of the key 
 to fortune. Stock breeders depending upon other grasses may do well. 
 The stock breeder in the blue grass region can hardly fail to do well. 
 
 SOILS The best blue grass soils in Tennessee and Kentucky are 
 the calcareous loams of the Trenton formation. In Tennessee these soils 
 prevail in the central basin. There are parts of East Tennessee, where 
 the Trenton limestone abounds, that will also grow blue grass well. 
 
54 
 
 Even upon some of the foot hills of the mountains, as well as in the val- 
 leys, thick blue grass sod is often met with. Among the limestone hog- 
 back ridges in that region, and especially in Southwestern Virginia, are 
 found some of the best, blue grass pastures of the South. Blue grass 
 may be successfully grown upon the more fertile lands of the highland 
 rim, particularly in those localities where the St. Louis limestone abounds. 
 A singular fact in connection with the heavy clay soils of Montgomery, 
 Robertson and Stewart counties deserves mention. When the lands are 
 first opened to cultivation; the soils seem adapted to the growth of blue 
 grass. Tramping however, soon destroys it. After being in cultivation 
 for a few years so as to destroy a large part of the original humus, it 
 seems to reach a condition, a second time, favorable for the growth of 
 blue grass. All old fields thrown out of cultivation in these counties 
 soon show considerable areas covered with blue grass. In the digging of 
 an ice house many years ago on the writer's farm, the red clay was 
 thrown out and a mound made of it around the superstructure. Blue 
 grass after a few years appeared and is now growing in vigor upon this 
 clay. The presence of locust and walnut trees always induces a growth 
 of blue grass on any soil clear of underbrush. West Tennessee has some 
 blue grass lands in the tier of northern counties where limy concretions 
 abound in the soils. It is also successfully grown in the yards in many 
 other parts of that division of the state. 
 
 Good blue grass pastures, however, are rare in Tennessee outside of 
 the central basin. The best soil for its growth is strongly impregnated 
 with the carbonate and phosphate of lime, potash, alumina, ferric oxides 
 as indicated by the reddish color of the soil, all associated with a large 
 content of humus. Commingled with the soil are small angular pieces 
 of limestone gravel to the extent of twelve or fifteen per cent. The 
 alumina in such soils varies from 15 to 30 per cent., though the subsoil is 
 often porous. Blue grass sown on such soils is benefited by being tramped 
 The foundation of all these soils is a soft calcareous limestone belonging 
 to the Trenton period. 
 
 Blue grass is not so highly prized for pastures in England as it is in 
 the United States. Doubtless its nutritious qualities are there impaired 
 by the extreme humidity of the climate, notwithstanding Mr. Sole, of 
 England, calls it "the most noble of all the grasses for agriculture." It 
 produces nearly all its flowery stems at once and when the seed ripens 
 and the stalks decay a wealth of blades spring up and falls over in great 
 folds which furnishes an immense amount of grazing. Its aftermath is 
 more valuable than its first growth. Blue grass is rarely injured by cold 
 weather, by close grazing or by the tramping of stock. It bears a 
 drought heroically. Though it may look brown and sere after a long 
 dry summer, the first autumnal rains will start it afresh and in a few 
 days its beautiful leaves will clothe the earth with a rich mantle of 
 verdure. 
 
 Blue grass requires three or four years to become well established. It 
 should be grazed but lightly during this period. After it has grown into 
 a good thick sod close grazing will not hurt it. When eaten down to 
 the ground in favorable weather it will reproduce itself in a few days. 
 
55 
 
 The early spring growth, by its succulence, greatly increases the flow of 
 milk but it does not add materially to its richness. As the summer ad- 
 vances the quality of the milk grows richer and its capacity for butter- 
 making increases. 
 
 HOW AND WHEN TO SOW IT If a wooded lot has been selected 
 for seeding to blue grass, all leaves and trash and underbrush should be 
 removed. The seed- must come in contact with the soil. Sown on a bed 
 of leaves the seed will germinate during moist weather but under such 
 conditions the rootlets will soon wither and die. The timber trees 
 should be thinne'd out if standing very thickly upon the land. At least 
 one-half or two-thirds of the area should have unobstructed sunshine 
 during a portion of the day. The tallest and best timber trees should be 
 left and the bushy trees should be removed. Blue grass does better when 
 subjected to the cool of the shade during a part of the day. 
 
 So many seasons have been recommended as the best time for sowing 
 blue grass that it may be said each one, under favorable conditions, is a 
 good one. One Kentucky farmer says: "Any time in the winter, when 
 snow is on the ground, sow broadcast from three to four quarts of clean 
 seed to the acre. W T ith the spring the seeds germinate and the sprigs of 
 grass are then very fine and delicate. No stock should be allowed for the 
 first year, nor until the grass seeds in June for the first time, which will 
 be in the second or third year. The best plan is to turn on your stock 
 when the seeds ripen. Graze off your grass, then allow the fall growth, 
 and graze all winter, taking care never to feed the grass too closely at 
 any time." 
 
 Another authority says: ''Follow nature and obey her dictates. The 
 seeds ripen in June and are scattered by the winds and rains as soon as 
 ripe and therefore, sow your seeds as soon as they can be gathered." 
 
 This plan might be a proper one in a colder or moister climate than 
 that of Tennessee but here it would result in the grass being often killed 
 by the droughts that come almost invariably in the latter part of 
 summer. Many sow on winter snows, which is a very good method, but 
 care should be observed to have the ground free from leaves before the 
 snow falls. 
 
 There are others who sow in the latter part of February or first of 
 March. This season does as well as any provided the grass gets sufficient 
 hold to resist the withering effects of the summer's drought. The main 
 point is to get the grass large enough to resist successfully the frosts of 
 winter or the droughts of summer. It can endure frost better than heat 
 and this fact justifies the statement that the most approved time of sowing 
 is in the latter part of August or first of September. If sown at that time 
 the autumnal rains will cause the seed to germinate quickly and the grass 
 to grow rapidly. At this season there is comparatively little trash on the 
 ground, the leaves having not yet -fallen. The ground being prepared 
 the seed is sown broadcast, at the rate of one bushel of seed in the chaff 
 per acre. The sower should be followed with a harrow, or if the ground 
 is very loose with a stiff brush and roller. This will give the seed a 
 sufficient covering. Blue grass seeds will vegetate best when put at a 
 depth of one-quarter of an inch. It may be supposed that, with no more 
 
56 
 
 covering than will be given by a harrow or brush, a great many seeds 
 will be left uncovered. This is true but in one pound of blue grass seed 
 (clean seed) there are 3,888,000 seeds. By a computation every square 
 inch of surface will contain from nine to ten seeds. With this amount on 
 the surface, one scarcely need fear a stand, when if one or two take root 
 there will be a close turf in a year upon good soils. 
 
 Dr. F. H. Gordon, of Smith county, who during his life paid more 
 attention to the growing of blue grass than any one else in the State, 
 adopted a plan of management that has been repeatedly tested, with uni- 
 form success. It was this: 
 
 He sowed, either in the autumn or spring months indiscriminately, as 
 suited his convenience. He usually sowed with rye, wheat or barley if 
 sown in an open field, but if in a woods lot, the blue grass was sown only 
 with rye, or after a crop of millet. The soil was cleared of all trash and 
 brush, and broken up as well as the nature of the land would permit. 
 The grain was first sown, the land harrowed and if possible rolled. After 
 this, the grass seed was sown over the ground and brushed lightly. Cat- 
 tle, horses and sheep were then turned in, as many as could be secured. 
 If there were not enough on his place he borrowed his neighbor's stock, 
 and let them run on the land until it was well packed all over the surface. 
 If sown after millet (and that is greatly recommended, as millet destroys, 
 more effectively than anything else, all weeds) the land should be har- 
 rowed .about the first of September thoroughly, the seed sown and brushed 
 in. After this the stock should be turned on the land. If it is desired to 
 sow the grass in the spring, during the latter part of February or early in 
 March, if not practicable sooner, the grain field should be harrowed, the 
 ground having been well prepared in the fall. The seed is sown and stock 
 turned on the wheat, rye or barley as the case may be. Oat land may be 
 sown in the same way. The treading of the stock packs in the seeds and 
 prevents the grass from drying up in summer or freezing out in winter; 
 Dr. Gordon considered an open, loose porous surface, extremely unfavor- 
 able to the safety of the young grass. When packed as directed, the 
 grass will quickly spring up and get a firm hold, and the loose condition 
 of the subsoil will favor the transmission of the roots to a good depth. 
 
 Dr. Gordon would not permit the grass to seed at all. His great 
 success in this branch of agriculture gives weight to his authority. Others, 
 who have been successful in managing blue grass think no stock should 
 go on it for two years, or at least until after the first seeding, which will 
 take place in June of the second year. Some of the best blue grass lots 
 in Middle Tennessee have been started by following either of the methods 
 given above. The ground should not be well broken up. The surface 
 should be as firmly packed as possible in order to secure a perfect stand 
 and to form a perfect turf. When the surface is loose, the grass dries up 
 in summer and freezes out in winter. With favorable weather, seed 
 sown in the spring on a crop of oats will do as well as fall sowing. What 
 is meant by favorable weather, is that no unusual dry weather supervenes. 
 But the risk of meeting with unfavorable weather in spring sowing is 
 great, and for this reason fall sowing is preferred. The sowing should 
 take place as early in the fall as the weather will permit, or indeed in the 
 
57 
 
 latter part of summer, if there is a proper degree of moisture in the soil. 
 Some sow a limited amount of seed daily and over the same surface 
 sprinkle shelled corn and then turn on their hogs. The hogs root in 
 search of the corn and thus plant the seed, doing the work of plow and 
 harrow. This, to say the least, is a slovenly way, and though possibly 
 insuring a good stand, the ground is made so rough it can never make a 
 beautiful pastuje until worn down. 
 
 If the land is loose as some soils are, it will answer a very good pur- 
 pose to simply scratch the surface well with a sharp toothed harrow, and 
 this is especially to be commended where there is a large number of roots 
 in the ground. 
 
 AFTER TREATMENT A blue grass pasture must not be pastured 
 to death. It will stand almost unlimited grazing, but there is a point 
 beyond which grazing will cease to be profitable. That limit should never 
 be passed. The better method is to have the field divided into lots and 
 allow the stock to run on one lot until it is cropped down, and then the 
 stock should be removed. No good purpose is served in letting stock 
 run on a lot in which there is no grass. It will not only do the stock 
 no good, but by constant tramping, the grass will be unable to throw up 
 any foliage. Under such treatment the roots will frequently perish. 
 Time should be given for the grass to recuperate by chang- 
 ing the stock from one pasture to another, and never permitting it to be 
 overstocked. Grass that will keep ten oxen in growing order, will fatten 
 five oxen quickly. Stock of all kinds are constant feeders and there 
 should always be forage enough to enable them to get plenty to eat with- 
 out the labor of hunting for it. 
 
 There is much variety of opinion as to the amount of stock that ought 
 to be put on an acre. This arises from the difference in the capacity of 
 the land to produce grass, the character of the season and the nature of 
 the soil. Porous soils will stand much heavier grazing than compact 
 soils. It is better to err on the safe side and it is wiser to put on too 
 few than too many cattle. If stock are fattened quickly, they are more 
 remunerative than when fattened slowly. Ordinarily two acres of good 
 grass are sufficient for one three year old ox and what will fatten one ox 
 of that age, will fatten ten head of sheep. Some think that blue grass 
 should be allowed to go to seed once or twice or until the ground is well 
 set or turfed over and then never again. It is a grass that propagates 
 itself mainly by its creeping roots or rhizomes after the first sowing, and 
 it is the disposition of all plants and animals to lose vitality in the process 
 of reproduction. It lies dormant for a time after a full crop of seed. It 
 is to be doubted if blue grass should ever be allowed to go to seed after 
 the first time. 
 
 The grass sometimes becomes so dry that it will burn. Stock will, 
 however, eat it, ravenously, in that condition. The grass having dried 
 full of nourishing juices, it is equal to the best of hay, and stock will fatten 
 upon it, unless the dried grass has been drenched with rain. 
 
 The fall growth of some lots should be kept untouched by stock so 
 as to have a good winter pasture. The grass will grow high enough to 
 fall over and protect the surface foliage. In this condition stock will 
 
59 
 
 keep up their flesh when permitted to run on it during the winter months 
 without other food. When snow falls, however, cattle will have to be 
 fed, but horses, mules and sheep will paw off the snow, unless it is too 
 deep and get at the grass. It is the first grass that puts forth its leaves 
 in the spring. Good fat lambs can be sent into the market earlier than 
 from any other grass. It makes milk rich in butter, and gives the latter 
 a fine golden color without injuring its taste, or, like clover, imparting its 
 peculiar flavor to it. 
 
 While blue grass is the most valuable of all grasses for those portions 
 of Tennessee where the soils are adapted to its growth it is too true that 
 many farmers living in those sections show a total indifference concern- 
 ing its cultivation. A farm well set in blue grass will yield a return per 
 acre of from $10 to $15 for grazing purposes alone. With such profits 
 from its growth it would seem that every farmer in the state would 
 hasten to sow it. Many do not because they are unacquainted with the 
 best system for its management. In its nutritive elements it ranks very 
 high. Recent tests show that while timothy contains 4*/j per cent, of 
 albuminoids; orchard, G, 1 -^ per cent., red top, G% per cent., blue grass 
 contains 8 per cent. These results vary with grasses grown on different 
 soils, time of harvesting and methods adopted in curing. 
 
 A standard bushel of seed weighs 14 pounds. 
 
 It is the very best grass grown for lawns and yards. A good sod of 
 it with proper care will last for centuries. It will withstand, under favor- 
 able conditions, all the vicissitudes of the weather, the heat of summer, 
 the cold of winter, parching droughts and sweeping floods. 
 
 It forms the greatest attraction of a country home. It is the ground- 
 work of all natural and artificial decorations. Without this grass the 
 shade is not half so grateful nor the flowers half so beautiful. For the 
 embellishment of yards it is the best of all grasses. Wherever blue grass 
 flourishes homes are more inviting and beautiful; lands are more valuable 
 and in greater demand; the people are more intelligent and cultivated, 
 have a nobler bearing and a higher sense of honor, become more highly 
 educated; domestic animals are better bred and of higher types, both for 
 beauty of form and for profitable marketing. In blue grass regions there 
 is more wealth, greater taste, more real contentment, a larger hospitality, 
 more ease and luxury, better society and fewer paupers, less worry, less 
 enervating labor, more charming surroundings and happier families.. 
 
 Blue grass is nature's sweetest smile; it is God's benediction; it helps 
 to support us in life; it cheers us on our way by its freshness and beauty 
 and it covers our last resting place with its perennial mantle of green, at 
 once the emblem of life, of resurrection and of immortality. 
 
60 
 
 English or Canada Blue Grass Poa Compressa. 
 
 3. Panicle. 4. Upper leaf. 5. Spikelet. 6. Empty 
 glumes. 7. Floral glume seen from the side. 
 
 ENGLISH BLUE GRASS OR CANADA BLUE GRASS. 
 (Poa compressa.} (Grazing and Hay.) 
 
 In many of its features 
 this grass resembles the Ken- 
 tucky blue grass, but it has a 
 more creeping habit, narrower 
 panicles and flattened stems. 
 The leaves have a deep bluish 
 tint and it deserves the name 
 of blue grass more than the 
 blue grass does. 
 
 This grass does not re- 
 quire for its growth such fer- 
 tile soils of calcareous origin 
 as the Poa pratensis or blue 
 grass. It is more hardy. It 
 will thrive upon dry, sandy, 
 thin soils. It flowers later than 
 blue grass proper but its 
 blades appear very early. 
 Stock are very fond of it and 
 it is rich in nutritive matter 
 but the amount of its foliage 
 is not great. Gould says: 
 "Cows that feed upon it both in pasture and in hay, give more milk and 
 keep in better condition than when fed on any other grass. Horses fed 
 on this hay will do as well as when fed on timothy hay and oats combined. 
 Sheep fatten astonishingly when fed upon it." This is high commenda- 
 tion but this commendation is more applicable to this grass when grown 
 upon the soils and in the climate of New York than when grown in Ten- 
 nessee. But little of it is ever seen in Tennessee, except among the 
 mountains of East Tennessee. It is known in some sections as the "blue 
 grass of the North." It is rarely sown in Tennessee. The price of 
 the seed is quoted at $14 per 100 pounds or $2 per bushel. It is easily 
 distinguished from blue grass by its compressed stems, its lower habit of 
 growth, the want of fuzziness on its seed, its smaller panicles and by its 
 intense bluish color. It deserves to be tried in Tennessee upon those 
 soils where blue grass will not grow. Many farms in the more sandy 
 regions of the state would probably increase their grazing capacity by the 
 introduction of this grass, as it will withstand drought better than blue 
 grass. It withstands colcl as well. On good soils it will grow to the 
 height of two feet and may be mowed for hay, of which it will make a 
 yield of from one ton to one and a half tons per acre. The grass is said 
 to lose less in drying than any other economic grass. 
 
 ROUGH MEADOW GRASS (Poa trivialis.} (Pastures.) 
 This grass is a perennial .and is known in Lombardy as the queen of 
 forage plants (La regina dell 'erbe.) It is closely related to blue grass 
 but it has no conspicuous rootstocks and has rough stems and sheaths: 
 
61 
 
 hence its name. It is said to be an excellent grass on good, moist, loamy 
 soils, but it is not adapted to sandy or dry soils. It multiplies itself 
 greatly by seed and does not throw out rhizomes and thicken by means 
 of its roots. It forms a good bottom grass in pastures. 
 
 In England it is used for making hay as well as for grazing and is 
 said to make more hay than rye grass. The hay is very sweet and 
 nutritious and the partiality which horses, cattle and sheep show for it is 
 a high recommendation. It will probably be a good grass for the moun- 
 tains in the extreme eastern portion of Tennessee as it delights in a moist 
 climate and sheltered situations. 
 
 This grass is best for a mixture and should be sown with Kentucky 
 blue grass and orchard grass. It finds its most congenial situation in 
 woodland pastures and on the banks of streams. In the climate of Ten- 
 nessee it is totally unfit for hay-making, as the exposure of its roots to 
 the sunshine destroys it at once. The seed weighs 15 pounds to the 
 bushel and is free from fuzz. Half a bushel per acre is ample when sown 
 with other grasses. 
 
 TEXAS BLUE GRASS (Poa arachnif era.) 
 
 This grass, as its name would indicate, is a native of Texas, but it 
 is now largely distributed throughout the Southern States. It is a hardy 
 perennial and grows with great vigor. It has long leaves, creeping root- 
 stocks and narrow but densely flowered panicles. It forms a thick turf 
 and is well suited for making permanent pastures. It may be propagated 
 by the roots or seed. The latter is so woolly that it is difficult to sow. 
 The seed also sells very high, being quoteu at $3 per pound or $42 per 
 bushel. In rows two feet apart the roots may be planted one foot in the 
 rows with a certainty of the early thickening of the grass by its creeping 
 rootstocks. The roots may be depended upon much more surely than 
 the seed for getting a stand. 
 
 Texas blue grass will grow faster and to greater height than Ken- 
 tucky blue grass. It is one of the very best pasture grasses for the ex- 
 treme south and it remains green throughout the year, even in as high 
 a latitude as Tennessee. It grows during the winter months, and blooms 
 the latter part of April or the first of May. It will stand more heat and 
 will resist a drought better than blue grass, while its capacity for grazing 
 is not surpassed by any other southern grass. Any good fertile soils and 
 especially calcareous loams will grow this grass in rank luxuriance and 
 beauty. It should take the place of Kentucky blue grass in all soils ex- 
 cept those especially adapted to the growth of the latter, but Kentucky 
 blue grass well set will endure longer than any other grass. The rich 
 soils of East Tennessee appertaining to the small valleys are well adapted 
 to the growth of Texas blue grass, as are the calcareous soils of the cen- 
 tral basin and of the highland rim. The loess formation of West Ten- 
 nessee supplies soils that will grow this grass to perfection. Having a 
 southern habitat and being of southern origin, it will not endure severe 
 freezes. 
 
Texas Blue Grass Poa arachnifera . 
 a. Spikelet. b. Flowering glume. 
 
(58 
 
 SWEET VERNAL GRASS (Anthoxanthum odoratum.} (Pastures.) 
 
 This is a perennial pasture grass and is only valuable because it is one 
 of the first to shoot up its green leaves in the spring and one of the last 
 to disappear in cold weather. It is almost worthless when sown alone but 
 
 Sweet Vernal Grass Anthoxanthum odoratum. 
 
 it imparts to the pastures, or to hay cut from such pastures, an agreeable 
 fragrance. It scarcely deserves notice, as its foliage when green is .bitter 
 to the taste. 
 
 The seed weighs 10 pounds to the bushel. A few pounds of seed as a 
 mixture sown on an acre will not be objectionable in a pasture. 
 
 YELLOW OAT GRASS ( Trisetum flavescens. ) ( Pastures. ) 
 
 This grass has recently been introduced from Europe where it is 
 greatly prized as a mixture for permanent pastures. It may be grown 
 on every variety of soil but it seems to prefer in this country mountain 
 slopes having fairly good soils. It is a slender, loosely tufted perennial 
 with fibrous roots, and grows to the height of about two feet. 
 
 In England its natural habitats are dry pastures, heaths, rocky places 
 and chalk meadows. Sheep and cattle relish the early foliage. The high- 
 est yield recorded in this country was when grown on clayey loam like 
 much of the valley land of East Tennessee and of the highland rim. 
 
 Prof. Beal thinks it promises little for this country. 
 
 Prof. F. Lamson-Scribner thinks it has some agricultural value. 
 But for the misleading name of oat grass it might be passed over without 
 mention. 
 
 BERMUDA GRASS (Cynodon Dadylon.} Pasture and Meadow.) 
 
 Bermuda grass is of little or no value when grown above the 37th 
 degree of north latitude. It is the child of the sun and luxuriates in a 
 tropical or semi-tropical climate. It cannot stand the rigorous winters of 
 
64 
 
 the northern states. The value of this grass has rarely been appreciated. 
 Because it is a most troublesome weed in tillage it has been decried as 
 almost worthless by a large class of planters in the south, who want corn 
 and cotton and not grass and stock. Though regarded as a nuisance its 
 merits are disclosed by the fact that when young and tender it is preferred 
 by stock to almost any other grass and it is very nutritious. It is a friend 
 in disguise. It is one of natures allies to conceal and heal the wounds 
 inflicted upon mother earth by bad cultivation. It is the best of all natural 
 agencies for stopping gullies. It will fasten its roots upon the bottom of 
 the gullies and catch the burden of soil as it is carried down by a rain. 
 
 Bermuda Grass Cynodon dactylon. 
 2. Inflorescence. 3. Spikelet. 4. Empty glumes. 
 
 As the bottom of gullies fill up the grass rises with it, building up, little 
 by little, until the general surface is reached. 
 
 Bermuda grass is a perennial and the most valuable for a pasture 
 grass of any grown in the cotton states. It will also grow on rich soils 
 in all parts of Tennessee and especially in West Tennessee. Freezing 
 weather endangers its vitality and therefore it will not do to rely upon in 
 exposed situations, especially upon great elevations. It prefers sandy 
 soils and fluviatile deposits, but it is not so well suited to sandstone soils 
 such as obtain on the Cumberland table-land. It will readily grow upon 
 the moist rich soils of the central basin but winter freezes often leave 
 great vacant places upon such soils. The clayey soils of East Tennessee 
 in proper situations will grow it in vigor. It has the capacity to endure 
 the greatest amount of summer heat, and droughts that will threaten the 
 vitality of all other grasses will not arrest its growth. 
 
 HOW IT IS PROPAGATED Bermuda grass does not mature 
 seed in Tennessee and only to a limited extent in the Southern States. 
 The best and surest means of propagating this grass is to cut pieces of the 
 turf and scatter it along shallow furrows or sow it over the land well pre- 
 pared by plowing and harrowing and cover of compress the roots into 
 
65 
 
 the soil with a roller or drag brush. A stand can be secured also by cut- 
 tings of the grass if it is. at once distributed over the land and covered. 
 
 A writer in the Southern Farm Magazine says: "Let the plants be 
 gathered, root and branch, from some patch of ground thickly occupied 
 by them. Let them be shaken free from earth and passed through the 
 cutting-box as though designed for the manger of an animal. Let these 
 giblets of an inch long be sown by hand broadcast before the harrow 
 along with the oats in the spring of the year. Every joint will be as 
 sure to germinate as the seed corn. But the little plants will be too tiny 
 the first year to interfere at all with the cereal crop. The next year the old 
 stubble will have become the Bermuda sod, yielding an almost incredible 
 amount of pasturage and incapable of being grazed out by the severest 
 treatment in the hottest summer drought." 
 
 Seed is rarely sown for two reasons. One is that the seed is expen- 
 sive and sells for $1.00 to $1.25 per pound, and a still, better reason is 
 that the germinating power of the seed obtained from the West Indies 
 is very low. 
 
 When Bermuda grass is once thoroughly rooted it spreads itself with 
 amazing rapidity and soon takes possession of a field. It is extremely 
 difficult to exterminate. It should never be planted on any land intended 
 for tillage as it becomes a very troublesome pest. Shade will ultimately 
 destroy it. A crop of peas sown upon the land for two or three years 
 will do much to exterminate it. Exposure of the roots to winter freezes, 
 which is done by shallow plowing, often destroys it in the latitude of 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Rev. C. W. Howard, a well known writer on grasses, says he has 
 found "no difficulty in destroying it upon the uplands of Georgia by close 
 cultivation in cotton for two years. When not pastured broom grass or 
 briers soon destroy it." He also thinks it very doubtful whether "there 
 is one acre of land in the South thoroughly set with Bermuda grass that 
 is not worth more than any other crop that can be grown on it." 
 
 Dr. C. W. Dabney says: "The Bermuda grass sod, not only in the 
 cotton states, but in Virginia, has proved itself the most fruitful of all 
 pasturage. There are well-known fields, not on superior soil and never 
 fertilized, which are today fattening more than one head of cattle per acre. 
 This will almost equal the blue grass in Kentucky. Some wheat farmers 
 in Virginia have almost surrendered tillage for the sake of cattle rearing 
 upon these Bermuda grass fields, because they have found live stock 
 more profitable than wheat, and their present pursuit free from many vex- 
 ations. The farmers upon the red-wheat lands of Virginia report that 
 Bermuda grass can be entirely dispossessed by turning it under and keep- 
 ing it constantly under the plow for two or three years. In this case they 
 advise, after taking off the wheat crop in June, to plow the stubble under 
 and sow the field in peas. In September the peas are turned under as a 
 fallow crop and the field resown in wheat. After two or three summers 
 of this double cropping, which should yield profitable returns in itself, 
 Bermuda grass will be found to be extirpated by the shade of the pea 
 vines while the enrichment of the soil still continues." 
 
 For the making of hay Bermuda is held in high esteem in all those 
 
BOUQUET OF GRASSES FROM THE GRASS GARDEN, 
 TENNESSEE EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
67 
 
 sections of the South where it grows to a sufficient height for mowing. 
 The grass must be cut early and often to make good hay. If left until 
 the culms harden it is almost valueless for feeding purposes. Just as soon 
 as it grows high enough it should be cut and cured much after the manner 
 of timothy hay. Prof. S. M. Tracy, in an address delivered before an 
 Agricultural and Horticultural Convention in Jackson, says of its hay- 
 making qualities: 
 
 "With us, Bermuda is the staple sort for both hay and pasture. It 
 grows well all through the South, will make from two to four tons of hay 
 per acre and the hay is fine, tender and nutritious. During the summer 
 it gives the best of pasture, and is uninjured by the 1 longest droughts. At 
 the Experiment Station we have been feeding with both Bermuda and tim- 
 othy hays during the last three years, as a test of their feeding values. 
 The timothy was selected especially for the purpose by a man who ships 
 that hay very largely and was of the very best quality; the Bermuda was 
 purchased from a neighboring farmer. Without going into the details of 
 the trial, I may state that, ton for ton, we found very little difference be- 
 tween the two, though the balance was slightly in fav'or of the Bermuda. 
 As the timothy cost, delivered at the Station, nearly twice as much as did 
 the Bermuda, the balance of profit was very decidedly in favor of the 
 home-grown hay." 
 
 Prof. Phares, writing in the,, early seventies says of it: "As a peren- 
 nial pasture grass I know of no other that I consider so valuable as this. 
 As hay this grass has been cured and held in high esteem in Mississippi 
 for more than forty years. It does not bear dense shade but grows best 
 where most exposed to the intense heat of the sun. To make good pas- 
 ture it must be kept well trodden and grazed to keep it tender, and to 
 suppress other objectionable grasses and weeds. To make good hay and 
 the largest yield, this' grass must be mowed from three to five times every 
 summer. Thus briars, brome grass and other weeds are also repressed 
 and prevented from seeding, multiplying and ruining the meadow. Prop- 
 erly managed this grass grows from ten to fifteen inches high." 
 
 BERMUDA GRASS AND SHEEP Bermuda grass has long been 
 recognized as one of the very best grazing grasses for cattle in the United 
 States, but its capacity for carrying large flocks of sheep has not received 
 the attention from the people of the South which the subject merits. No 
 grass will bear tramping so well in all kinds of weather. The Southern 
 States are the largest producers of cotton in the world; they should rival 
 or surpass Australia in the production of wool. On the same plantations 
 where cotton grows best, Bermuda grass finds its most congenial home. 
 The cheapest wool should be produced on the same fields that produce 
 the cheapest cotton. One acre of Bermuda grass well established on soils 
 entirely adapted to its growth will carry ten sheep for eight months in the 
 year, and in many parts of the South, ten months. Texas blue grass, 
 sheep fescue, and in some places Kentucky bjue grass, when properly 
 cared for, will carry the flocks through the remaining months. When one 
 considers the great profits that may be derived from the sale of early 
 lambs in the northern markets, and the growing demand for first-class 
 American wool and mutton, it is not too much to expect that within the 
 
Kt V 
 
 Botanical Description of Wheat Triticum sativum. 
 
 On the left, a "head" or spike of beardless wheat. A, a single spikelet; the two 
 uppermost florets are reduced to small sterile or empty glumes. C, empty glume seen 
 from the side. Cx, the same seen from the back. D, flowering glume. E. palet. Kl, 
 grain seen in front. K2, the same seen from the back. A", a portion of the axis of the 
 spike. J, the pistil. G, lodicules. On right, a "head" or spike of bearded wheat 
 
 Wheat, which belongs to the same family as the grasses here described, is occasion- 
 ally cut in the spring or early summer for forage. It is frequently grazed a little, but 
 must not be too much grazed. 
 
next score of years sheep and wool, mutton and early lambs will be as well 
 known products of southern agriculture as cotton is at the present time. 
 The establishment of Bermuda grass pastures for the purpose of carrying 
 sheep, supplemented by pastures of winter grasses, will work an indus- 
 trial revolution in the South. This would bring about a realization of un- 
 told wealth. It is a prize well worth contending for to be the largest pro- 
 ducers in the world of two of the most important fibres for clothing the 
 population of the globe. They form the basis of the most numerous and 
 most useful industrial establishments in the world, which give employ- 
 ment to a larger number of people than any other manufactories. A 
 larger part of this cotton and wool should be manufactured where pro- 
 duced. 
 
 SMOOTH BROME GRASS (Bromus inermis.} (Hay and Pasturage.) 
 
 About 1880, the Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station of 
 California introduced this pe- 
 rennial grass into that state 
 from Europe. It is stolznifer- 
 ous like Bermuda grass and 
 soon makes a thick turf. It 
 seems to be adapted to every 
 climate from Canada to Ten- 
 nessee, and was grown suc- 
 cessfully at the Experiment 
 Station at Knoxville. It re- 
 sists droughts and cold equal- 
 ly well and thrives upon dry, 
 loose soils and so may be well 
 adapted to the Cumberland 
 mountain region. It grows, 
 * however, more vigorously 
 upon good soils. It is difficult 
 to exterminate, but not so 
 much so as Bermuda or John- 
 son grass. It possibly may 
 supply a want on the gravelly soils of East Tennessee and of the siliceous 
 soils of the highland rim. Its introduction, however, is attended with 
 some risk. It remains green the greater part of the winter and is desira- 
 ble as a winter pasture. It is said to be low in its nutritive elements. A 
 bushel of seed weighs 14 pounds and sells for $20 to $22 per hundred 
 pounds. As three bushels of seed are required for one acre, it is hardly 
 probable that the grass will receive much attention from the farmers of 
 Tennessee. It is one of those grasses of questionable value that may 
 prove an enemy rather than a friend to the farmer. If in its habits it at all 
 resembles its kindred grass, cheat, (Bromus secalinus} its introduction 
 would be altogether injurious to the best interests of agriculture. 
 
 Smooth Brome Grass Bromus inermis. 
 
 '2. Panicle. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet. 5. Empty 
 
 glumes. 6, 7. Floral glume. 
 
Botanical Description of Oats A vena saliva. 
 
 A, a portion of the inflorescence which is a simple, open panicle. B, a spikelet, 
 two-flowered, with a sterile rudiment terminating the rachilla. C, one of the broad, 
 lanceolate empty glumes. Z), a flowering glume; this bears an awn on the back just 
 below the two-toothed apex. V", pistil; the ovary of which is very hairy. G, lodicules. 
 1_ The oat is a most useful forage plant; but its culture and uses are well understood 
 and require no discussion here. 
 
71 
 
 RESCUE GRASS AUSTRALIAN OATS (Bromusunioloides.} (Winter 
 
 Grazing.) 
 
 This grass is a native of South America. It is an annual, but as it 
 seeds freely the young plants succeed the old ones so quickly that it is 
 practically a perennial. It supplies good grazing during the winter. It 
 grows from one to three feet in height. It makes its best growth during 
 cold weather and has come to be regarded as an excellent grazing grass 
 for the winter months. It resembles chess or cheat in its habits of 
 growth, and danger to agriculture may lurk in its introduction. It is 
 
 Rescue Grass Brontus unioloides. 
 2. Panicle. 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet. 5. Empty glumes, 6. Flowering glume. 
 
 not therefore recommended for cultivation to the farmers of Tennessee. 
 The notice of this and the preceding grass is made as a warning rather 
 than as a recommendation. Farmers will never regret the exercise of 
 due caution in the introduction of new and but partially known grasses. 
 They have herd's grass and blue grass and wheat, rye, barley and win- 
 ter oats that will serve as winter pastures without taking the risk of intro- 
 ducing a strange grass with unknown qualities that may prove to be an 
 enemy. 
 
 HAIRY FLOWERED PASPALUM (Paspalum ovatum or dilatatum. 
 
 (Pastures.) 
 
 This is a perennial, said to be a native of Brazil, and is considered an 
 excellent grass for late pastures, as it makes its principal growth in 
 autumn. Dr. Gattinger, of Nashville, mentions it in his Tennessee Flora 
 as being one of the grasses found in open ground and in grass plots. It 
 
72 
 
 grows from two to four feet high and has long narrow leaves. It is 
 greatly relished by stock and does not appear to have any troublesome 
 qualities. 
 
 There are twelve species of this grass, according to Dr. Gattinger, 
 found in the Southern States, seven of which are found in the State of 
 Tennessee. He says: ''The various species which represent this grass 
 within the State of Tennessee rank, in my opinion, foremost by the num- 
 ber of individuals, nutritious qualities and tenacity of life, amongst the 
 whole of the grazing herbage. They are perennials with thick, strong, 
 
 2. Inflorescence. 
 
 Hairy* Flowered Paspalum Paspalum ovatum. 
 
 3. Upper leaf. 4. Spikelet. 5. Spikelet laid open. 6. Floral glume. 
 7. Palea and lodicule. 
 
 running roots, often making a dense matting. Wherever they take hold 
 other plants disappear. * * * Blue grass and paspalum are frequently 
 commingled but the latter succeeds the former by four or five weeks and 
 comes in full force after the former has perished away. They are vigor- 
 ous growing succulent grasses with heavy culms, large and smooth seed 
 grains with a smooth and thin epidermis. They must surely be very 
 nutritious and their habit and cultivation ought to be studied." 
 
PART II. 
 DOMESTICATED LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 The leguminous plants embrace not less than 6500 species. They are 
 widely distributed in every quarter of the globe and vary in size from a 
 lowly plant that scarcely lifts its head above the surface to the majestic 
 locust trees found in tropical lands. 
 
 Of the leguminous plants Dr. Gattinger in his Tennessee Flora enu- 
 merates 35 genera, 85 species and 3 varieties, making 83 species and varie- 
 ties. Nine of these have been introduced, three are woody plants, three 
 are trees and seventy-two belong to the flora found in the counties imme- 
 diately around Nashville. 
 
 For the making of hay and for pasturage many of these leguminous 
 plants rank with the best domesticated grasses in nutritive elements, and 
 in their capacity for furnishing forage for live stock. As a restorer of 
 worn-out soils leguminous plants are far more valuable than the grasses. 
 Every leguminous plant is endowed with nodules, the habitat of special 
 microbes, which have the power of catching free nitrogen from the at- 
 mosphere, this nitrogen being assimilated by the plant itself. These 
 microbes are believed to embrace as many species as there are species of 
 leguminous plants, and the cultivation of one leguminous plant is thought 
 to destroy the microbes of another. "Clover sick" is probably due to the 
 destruction of the clover microbes, or bacteria. To preserve the fertility 
 of the soil it is important that leguminous plants become one of the crops 
 in rotation, and there should also be a rotation in the leguminous crops 
 themselves. Clover should alternate with cowpeas, soy beans, crimson 
 clover, etc. Nitrogen, in leguminous plants, occurs in the form of pro- 
 teids, which make meat and milk, and so is the most valuable constituent 
 in the food for cattle, especially for milch cows. The dry forage of legu- 
 minous plants is worth nearly twice as much for such stock as dry hay. 
 
 The following domesticated leguminous plants will be discussed in 
 the order named in this bulletin: 
 
 Red Clover Trifolium pratense. 
 
 Crimson Clover Trifolium incarnalum. 
 
 Bur Clover Medicago maculata. 
 
 Alsike Clover Trifolium hybridum. 
 
 White Clover Trifolium repans. 
 
 Sainfoin or Esparcet Onobrychis saliva, 
 
 Melilotus Melilolus alba. 
 
 Lucern, or Alfalfa Medicago saliva. 
 
 Cowpeas Vigna caljang. 
 
 Peanuts Arachis hypog<za. 
 
 Japan Clover Lespedeza slriala. 
 
 Soy Bean Glycine soja or Sofa hispida. 
 
 Short mention of other domesticated leguminous plants will also be 
 made. 
 
74 
 
 RED CLOVER ( Trifolium pratense.} (Pasture and Hay.) 
 There is no forage plant in all respects so useful to the American 
 farmer as red clover. It has been well styled the corner stone of agricul- 
 ture and this because it seems to be the concomitant or forerunner of all 
 successful agriculture. In the border States a farmer who is too 
 poor to sow clover is too poor to own a farm. In our climate and soils 
 this plant is well nigh indispensable. The soils of Tennessee fatten upon 
 it. It furnishes an immense amount of grazing, yields an abundance of 
 nutritious hay, and is a profitable crop, considered with reference to the 
 seed alone. But beyond all these it acts as a vigorous ameliorator of the 
 soil, increases more than any other forage plant probably the amount 
 
 CLOVER FIELD AT SOMERVILLE, TENN. 
 
 of available nitrogen, supplies humus and so becomes an important agent 
 in keeping up the productive capacity of the soil, increasing the yield of 
 other crops and thus adding to the prosperity of the farmer who sows it. 
 Scientific inquiry has abonl reached the conclusion that the little excres- 
 cences or tubercles upon i' e roots of clover enable the plant to utilize 
 the free nitrogen of the :: icsphere as an important element of fertility. 
 It must be borne in min<l liat a soil may contain the most abundant sup- 
 plies of every substance demanded by a growing plant, and yet that plant 
 may perish of starvation. If these substances are not in a condition to 
 
75 
 
 be dissolved by rain-water or the plant juices they are as impotent to sup- 
 port plant life as the uncrumbled surface of a desert rock. The food 
 must be prepared for plants just as the corn and wheat must be shucked 
 or threshed, ground and baked for the use of man. Clover acts as the 
 miller and baker for other crops. It prepares the food so that it becomes 
 available and digestible by them. 
 
 SOILS ADAPTED TO ITS GROWTH Red clover is a biennial 
 plant, which under judicious tillage, may be made practically a perennial, 
 and is specially adapted to calcareous or limy soils; but it will grow well 
 upon sandy soils, when a "catch" is secured, by the application of a top- 
 dressing of gypsum or barnyard manure. I have seen it growing with 
 vigor upon the feldspathic soils of Johnson county, upon the sandstone 
 soils of the Cumberland table-land, and upon the sandy loams of West 
 Tennessee; but it finds a more congenial soil in the clayey and limy lands 
 of the valley of East Tennessee, or on the red soils of the Highland Rim, 
 and grows most luxuriantly on the limestone loams of the Central Basin. 
 But the deep, black, porous soils of this division are not suited physically 
 for the growing of clover. Such soils become very dry in summer and 
 open in great cracks or fissures. The clover grows well enough at first 
 but is apt to be killed by the dry, hot weather of summer. The clayey 
 lands of West Tennessee, containing nodules of calcareous matter, have 
 no superior for the production of clover. It often grows upon these lands 
 from four to five feet in height, and when it falls forms a mat of great 
 density and thickness. As much as four tons of clover hay have been 
 taken from a single acre. There is also a soil derived from the Dyestone 
 or Clinton formation in East Tennessee that grows clover with surpris- 
 ing luxuriance. On such soils in McMinn county, the ordinary red 
 clover sometimes grows six feet in height. Probably three-fourths of the 
 lands in Tennessee will grow clover remuneratively, and of the soils that 
 will not a large portion are included in the old gullied fields that con- 
 stitute the shame and mark the shiftlessness of too many farmers. It 
 may be set down as an infallible rule in the State of Tennessee that good 
 farming and abundant clovering go together. 
 
 SOWING CLOVER Clover may be sown in Tennessee upon 
 wheat, rye or oat fields, or alone. Instances have been reported where a 
 splendid stand was obtained by sowing after cultivators in the last work- 
 ing of corn in July. This is unusual however. So is fall sowing. The 
 best time to sow is from the first of January until the first of April. If 
 sown in January or February, the seed ought to be sown upon snow. 
 This is not only convenient in enabling one to distribute the seed evenly 
 over the land, but the gradual melting of the snow, and the slight freezes, 
 bury the seed just deep enough to insure rapid germination when the 
 warm days of March come on. For the same reason, if sown in March, 
 the seed ought to be sown when the ground is slightly crusted by a 
 freeze. If the sowing is deferred until too late for frosty nights, the 
 land should be well harrowed and the seed sown immediately after the 
 harrow. Upon land seeded to wheat, this harrowing will not only serve 
 to secure a good stand of clover, but will add greatly to the yield of the 
 wheat. It will hasten germination and cause a larger proportion of seed 
 
76 
 
 to grow fo harrow the land after the seed is sown. With oats, the seeds 
 should be sown after the last harrowing or brushing, with a slight after- 
 brushing to cover them. 
 
 It often happens when clover seed is sown with wheat or oats, espec- 
 ially if the land be much worn, that a "catch" will not be obtained. The 
 practice is so universal throughout the country of sowing clover with 
 small grain, that many farmers labor under the impression that this is the 
 only way of seeding land to clover. This idea is erroneous. A better stand 
 of clover with less seed, may always be secured by sowing upon land pre- 
 pared for clover alone. An excellent catch upon "galled" places may be 
 had by breaking the land well and sowing the seed without any previous 
 or after harrowing. In nine cases out of ten a stand will be secured in 
 this way upon soils where clover sown with small grain will fail in nine 
 cases out of ten. Clover seed sown upon a well harrowed stalk field will, 
 in most cases, secure a stand. 
 
 The quantity of seed to sow per acre depends upon the character of 
 the soil, its state of pulverization and also upon the fact whether the land 
 has ever been seeded to clover. Upon good, fresh, rich soils where clover 
 has not been previously grown, one bushel for eight acres should be 
 sown. If the soil is thin and unproductive one bushel for six acres 
 ought to be sown. If the land has been regularly rotated with clover, 
 one half the quantity of seed mentioned above will suffice; sometimes 
 much less. Clover seed, owing to the large quantity of oil which it con- 
 tains, is nearly indestructible when placed ten or twelve inches beneath 
 the surface. 
 
 The frequent failure to secure a good stand of clover should admon- 
 ish the farmers to exercise more care in the seeding. When sown 
 late in the spring many of the seeds sprout and are killed by dry weather. 
 It would be all the better if the clover seed could be buried a half inch 
 (or even an inch on loose soils) beneath the surface after the middle of 
 March. The common practice in England is to sow not only clover, 
 but all grass seeds, with oats or barley in spring. After the seeds 
 are sown the field is harrowed and then rolled, so as to cover them 
 and at the same time to smooth the surface of the field. While upon well 
 prepared soils a bushel to eight acres is sufficient, yet a bushel to six 
 acres will, in a majority of cases, give better and more satisfactory results. 
 In England 24 pounds are usually sown to the acre when the crop is in- 
 tended for hay. The smaller the stem the more acceptable it is to cattle. 
 When the clover is thin, the woody fibre is greatly increased. There is 
 no greater blunder committed by the farmer, than to be sparing of grass 
 seed. It is difficult for grass to be too thick. The plants shelter one an- 
 other; they retain for a longer time the dew and moisture when thickly 
 set, and they must push upward as there is no lateral space to occupy. 
 
 GROWTH AND MANURE Red clover rarely makes much 
 growth the first season, if sown with grain. Should the weather be sea- 
 sonable after harvest, and the land fertile, it will sometimes attain the 
 height of thirty inches and put out blooms, making an excellent fall pas- 
 ture. When sown alone, it will always blossom in August. 
 
 Sheep and hogs are very injurious to young clover, and should never 
 
77 
 
 be allowed to run on it until the second year. Grasshoppers often eat 
 out the crown and destroy it. Dry weather in a stubble field where the 
 rays of the sun are reflected and repeated a thousand times from the 
 surface of the yellow stubble, is very trying to its vitality. Yet if the land 
 has been well and deeply broken and is moderately fertile, a sufficient 
 stand may be depended upon. 
 
 As soon as the clover begins to grow, in early spring, an application 
 of two bushels of gypsum or land plaster, upon granitic or sandy soils, is 
 absolutely necessary to get a good growth. 
 
 An application of gypsum is rarely beneficial upon clayey loams, but 
 its effects are very apparent on strong limestone soils, such as are found 
 in the Central Basin, where from t50 to 100 pounds per acre should be 
 sown upon clover. On the chocolate colored soils of Warren, Mont- 
 gomery, Stewart and Robertson counties, gypsum benefits clover very 
 little. Upon the soils of the Unaka and Cumberland mountains, it is 
 indispensable, to secure a remunerative yield of foliage. 
 
 Mr. C. W. Johnston in a prize essay on the application of gypsum to 
 the artificial grasses, says that it should not be considered as a stimulant, 
 but as an essential food. "When the farmer finds that those fields which 
 once produced luxuriant crops of red clover, or sainfoin, will no longer 
 yield them in abundance; if he notices that the young plants spring up 
 very numerously, but die away as the summer advances; if he finds that 
 his fields will only grow clover successfully once in eight or twelve years, 
 and that his neighbors tell him his land is tired of clover, or "clover sick," 
 he may then safely conclude that his crops have gradually exhausted his 
 land of sulphate of lime; and he may, with every confidence of success, 
 apply a dressing of gypsum by scattering it evenly over the ground on the 
 clover plants at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, taking care to choose a 
 wet morning for the application; and this may be done at any season of 
 the year, but it is best either in April or the first days of May." In Ten- 
 nessee gypsum should be sown in the spring as soon as the clover begins 
 to grow, and again the following spring. 
 
 Mr. Smith, of Highstead, England, states that he found the greatest 
 benefit from the use of gypsum to his clover leys; for where the simple 
 soil produced one ton only per acre of hay, the portion of the same soil 
 to which five bushels per acre of gypsum had been applied, yielded three 
 tons the first only yielding 20 pounds of seed while the latter produced 
 105 pounds. Mr. Smith, too. first noticed what observation has since 
 confirmed that cattle, horses, etc., always prefer the clover growing on 
 the portion of the field that had received an application of gypsum to any 
 other. The same remark is made by those who spread coal ashes, which 
 contain a considerable quantity of this earth, on their grass leys. 
 
 Red clover, the second year, has two growing seasons. It makes its 
 most vigorous growth from the first of April until the 15th of June, be- 
 ginning to bloom usually in the latitude of Tennessee about the 15th 
 of May, and attaining its full inflorescence about the first of June. After 
 this, unless pastured by stock or cut for hay, the heads begin to dry up, 
 and stems and leaves begin to fall, forming a mat upon the land. Some- 
 times this mat is so thick as to catch and concentrate the heat of the sun 
 
78 
 
 to such a degree as to scald the roots and destroy the clover. Usually it 
 is best after clover has attained its full bloom, either to cut it for hay or 
 pasture it until about the first of July, when the stock is removed, or 
 the clover hay cured and taken off. If there is rain enough, a second 
 crop will spring up from the roots at once. This second crop is the most 
 valuable for seed, the seed maturing about the last of August and sooner, 
 if there be copious rains. To make the most abundant yield of clover for 
 grazing, it should be allowed to grow all it will, but never let it make 
 seed, always grazing it down when in full bloom. When grazed down, 
 take off the stock until it blooms again. Several successive crops may 
 thus be made during the summer. The crop of August is unfit for horses 
 or mules, the seed having the effect of salivating them to such a degree 
 as to cause them to lose flesh. 
 
 Clover has no superior as a grazing plant. When in full vigor and 
 bloom it will carry more cattle and sheep per acre than blue grass, herd's 
 grass or orchard grass. After it has been grazed to the earth, a few 
 showery days with warm suns will cause it to spring up into renewed 
 vitality, ready again to furnish its succulent herbage to domestic animals. 
 Though very nutritious and highly relished by cattle, it often produces a 
 dangerous swelling called hoven, from which many cows die. When 
 first turned upon clover, cattle should only be allowed to graze for an 
 hour or two, and then be driven off for the remainder of the day, grad- 
 ually increasing the time of grazing, until they become less voracious in 
 their appetites, never permitting them to run upon clover when wet. 
 Clover made wet by a rain at midday is more likely to produce hoven 
 than when wet by dew. If taken in the stomach of cattle when wet by 
 rain at midday, and after the stalks and leaves are heated by the sun, fer- 
 mentation in the stomach will occur much sooner than when the herbage 
 is cool, though wet with the morning dew. Cattle are more easily af- 
 fected by clover than horses, because, being ruminants, they take in the 
 clover rapidly, filling the stomach at once, without chewing. Diges- 
 tion is for the time checked and a rapid fermentation sets in. 
 
 Stock should never be turned upon clover until it blooms. The prac- 
 tice of many farmers, to turn all the stock upon a clover field early in 
 April, is very destructive. The crown of the clover is eaten out, causing 
 it to perish. The tread of heavy cattle has the same effect. 
 
 As a soiling crop red clover is excelled by .no crop grown in the 
 South. The practice of soiling in thickly settled communities is one much 
 commanded by agricultural writers. A half-acre of clover on a rich soil 
 will supply one cow throughout the months of June, July and August, if 
 cut off and fed in a stall, while twice the amount in pasture, according to 
 some English experimenters, will barely subsist a cow during the same 
 period; but this will depend, of course, upon the luxuriance of the growth. 
 Soiling that is cutting the grass and feeding it green is a very desirable 
 practice, near small towns, where many persons own small lots and de- 
 sire to keep a milch cow. No other plant, perhaps, will produce a larger- 
 flow of milk. 
 
 EFFECTS OF CLOVER UPON SOILS Numerous facts have 
 taught the farmers of every country where agriculture has flourished, that 
 
79 
 
 in many cases the value of the aftercrop depends upon the preceding 
 crop. In other words a proper rotation is a necessary antecedent to suc- 
 cessful farming. The cultivation of some crop with extensive root rami- 
 fications, will prepare the soil for the subsequent growth of a cereal. But 
 the farmer should not deceive himself. Every crop takes away a part of 
 the available plant-food and the field has not increased in fertility, but 
 the plant-food has been made more readily effective for the production of 
 a crop. "The physical and chemical condition of the fields has been 
 improved, but the chemical store has been reduced." "All plants," says 
 Liebig, "without exception, exhaust the soil, each of them in its own 
 way, of the conditions f.or their reproduction." 
 
 A field then, which produces more kindly after rotation, is not neces- 
 sarily more fertile, but is in better physical condition. It has already 
 been mentioned, that the mechanical effects of clover upon soils is not 
 the least among its valuable properties. The reaction rendered possible 
 by the penetration into the soil of the long tap roots and the effect of the 
 dense shade upon the land have a tendency to increase the productiveness 
 of the soil. 
 
 Clover, however, is the greatest of all fertilizing plants. Other legu- 
 minous plants as well as clover collect nitrogen from the atmosphere and 
 save it, but clover more rapidly improves the physical condition of the 
 soil. A crop of clover taken from the land, while it abstracts some of 
 the elements needed for plant growth, yet, in increasing the content of 
 nitrogen, it gives back to the soil much more of value than it takes away. 
 Clover has been called "a trap for nitrogen," which it catches and pre- 
 serves for the nourishing of growing crops. Dr. Kedzie says: "Clover 
 hay or sod contains enough phosphoric acid for more than double an 
 average crop, enough nitrogen for more than four average crops and 
 enough potash for six average crops of wheat." 
 
 The analysis of red clover indicates what manures would increase its 
 growth. Sulphate of lime or land plaster, the phosphates, wood and coal 
 ashes, are all excellent top dressings for the clover field. Common stable 
 manure, containing as it does all the elements of a good fertilizer, is suit- 
 able as a top dressing for any pasture or meadow. 
 
 Sulphate of lime is found on limy or sandy soils, to largely increase 
 the growth of clover. When used on a wheat field seeded to clover in 
 early spring, a "catch" of clover will be secured on the thinnest spots and 
 it will grow luxuriantly after such top dressing. The greatest benefits 
 from an application of commercial fertilizers upon wheat are often ob- 
 tained in this way. A gfood stand of clover, however secured, is the best 
 possible preparation of land for a succeeding crop of wheat. And this 
 arises not only from the available nitrogen which a clover crop supplies, 
 but from the thorough subsdiling which is effected by the deep, pene- 
 trating tap-roots of the clover. They often descend to the depth of four 
 feet in search of food, while its broad leaves "absorb carbon from the 
 atmosphere, changing it into solid matter, and causing elements in the 
 soil to assume organic forms, rendering them more available as food for 
 other crops." If the soil be robbed of its fertility, the deficient elements 
 must be added before clover will "take." 
 
80 
 
 As clover derives a large percentage of the constituents necessary to 
 its growth from the atmosphere, it is all important that there should be 
 a good top growth. Its value as a renovator of the soil depends largely 
 upon the quantity of the roots, and the roots will always be proportioned 
 to the quantity of foliage. For this reason it is better to cut clover off 
 than to feed it off. A writer in the American Cultivator, speaking of this 
 subject, says: 
 
 ''Where a clover sod is desired for future grain or other crop, it will 
 be found that the cutting of clover is generally better than feeding it off, 
 because every leaflet upward has rooted downwards, and if a leaflet be 
 taken off the rootlet will not grow, so that if sheep or pigs be fed upon 
 the surface, the constant cropping of the leaves diminishes the under 
 production. Always feeding the top will leave but few roots below. 
 This was illustrated by a practical experiment on a field of clover, divided 
 into two parts. The whole was cut in July; half was left to grow again, 
 and the other half fed off. In October the roots of each division were 
 dug up, carefully cleaned and weighed, with a result that showed a pro- 
 portionate weight of 3.920 pounds to the acre where the clover was cut 
 once and fed afterwards, while the part on which the clover was cut 
 twice yielded at a rate per acre of nearly 8,000 pounds of roots. The sys- 
 tem of cutting instead of feeding resulted in leaving two tons extra of 
 vegetable matter, valuable in nitrogen, and which had a perceptible effect 
 on the corn crop that followed." 
 
 WHEN TO CUT AND HOW TO CURE CLOVER HAY 
 Clover for hay should be mowed at the time when the nutritive elements 
 those elements which give strength and produce flesh are at their 
 maximum. Those who are in the habit of feeding stock find that clover 
 cut about the time of full bloom, when a few of the blooms begin to 
 dry up, and just as the reproductive functions are being brought into 
 play for the maturing of seed, will, pound for pound, produce more fat 
 and muscle than that cut at any other stage. The only art in curing hay 
 is to retain as many of the life-giving constituents in it as possible, or to 
 preserve it as nearly as practicable in the same condition in which it is 
 cut. with the water only abstracted. 
 
 The plan generally adopted is to mow the clover in the morning and 
 let it lie in the sun several hours until a wisp taken up and twisted will 
 show no exudation of moisture. It is then thrown up into small cocks, 
 say four feet in diameter and four feet high. In these, unless there is 
 appearance of rain, it is allowed to remain for a day or two, when it may 
 be hauled to the barn and stored away without danger of damage. Care 
 should be taken not to let the dew fall upon it as it lies scattered by the 
 mower after it has begun to cure. The dew of one single night, under 
 such conditions, will blacken the leaves and destroy the aroma for which 
 good clover hay is so much prized. 
 
 Another plan practised is to mow it and let it lie just long enough in 
 the sun to wilt, and then carry it to an open house and lay it upon 
 beams or tier-poles, where it can receive the free action of the air. After 
 a few days it may be packed down without any danger of fermenting. 
 Cured in this way, in the shade, it retains its green color, is fragrant, and 
 
81 
 
 makes a most excellent feed. The only objections to this plan are the 
 great amount of room under cover required for curing, and the addi- 
 tional burden of hauling while green. 
 
 Another plan is to haul it up as soon as it wilts, using about half a 
 bushel of salt to the ton of cured hay. A layer a foot or more in thick- 
 ness is put down, over which salt is scattered pretty freely, then another 
 layer and salt, continuing to repeat the operation until the space set 
 apart for hay is filled. A rapid fermentation will ensue, and the hay will 
 be cured by the heat of this fermentation, the salt acting as a preventive 
 against putrefaction. Instead of salt, layers of wheat straw may be sub- 
 stituted. By using straw the clover may be cured in the field. The quan- 
 tity of straw to be used in the rick or stack depends upon the moisture in 
 the clover the greener the clover the thicker should be the straw. The 
 straw will act as an absorbent and during the process will itself be greatly 
 increased in value as food for stock, having imparted to it the flavor and 
 aroma of the clover plant. 
 
 One of the largest farmers in Maury county, Tennessee, whose land 
 is admirably adapted to the growth of clover, and who has made a great 
 success in saving clover hay, gives the following account of his method 
 of saving it: 
 
 ''Clover should be cut when about half of the first blooms are dead, 
 to make the best hay. My plan is to begin cutting early in the morning 
 and continue throughout the entire day. The next morning just before 
 the hay becomes entirely free from the dew I rake it into windrows, then 
 put it into shocks where it remains from 24 to 36 hours. I never permit 
 it to remain spread out on the ground until it becomes dry and crisp 
 from the heat of the sun. Putting it up into shocks while yet green or 
 half cured causes fermentation to begin immediately, but this fermenta- 
 tion is not excessive because the air can penetrate it and keep it com- 
 paratively cool. I rehandle it after it has begun to heat, which airs it 
 well and it then remains perfectly bright and sweet after it is put into 
 ricks or barns. No other rehandling is necessary except that which is 
 incident to the hauling and storing of it. In threatening weather I put 
 up my hay in the barn after one day's sun, but in that case I rehandle it 
 after 36 hours and it is thus aired thoroughly. My opinion is that fer- 
 mentation, if left undisturbed, will injure the hay for food because it usu- 
 ally induces mould and in this condition it is objectionable to stock. I 
 never stop cutting hay for rain, though a protracted rain will ruin it. One 
 rain only will make it of dull color, but does not materially change its 
 value as food for stock. 
 
 "There is no hay known, in my opinion, to southern farmers that 
 equals good clover hay for stock. I prefer it to choice timothy for reg- 
 ular feeding. It is the principal hay, which I use for horses, mules and 
 cows and they never seem to tire eating it and always keep healthy and 
 fat. In the management of my clover fields I usually sow about 50 
 pounds of gypsum per acre upon young clover and repeat early in 
 March the following year. This gives a very large yield of hay. My 
 clover crop is probably as profitable as any crop I grow. I estimate its 
 value one year with another at $20 to $25 per acre." 
 
82 % 
 
 Hon. L. N. Bonham, of Oxford, Ohio, uses a different method in 
 putting up clover hay. He says: 
 
 "For several years I put up clover hay as did my father and other 
 Jersey farmers. I have long since abandoned their method and now put 
 my clover hay in the mow the same day it is cut. The hay is far better, 
 and the labor and risk in making it are far less. I select a bright day 
 and Start the mower as soon as the dew is off. By 11 o'clock I have cut 
 as much as can be hauled in between 1 and 5 o'clock. The clover is 
 then all turned and shaken up loose before we go to dinner. By one 
 o'clock it is dry enough to rake into windrows if the day is an average 
 hay day. No time is lost now in getting it into the mow. The hay is 
 warm and free from external moisture. The warmer it is the less mois- 
 ture is left on it. By five o'clock we have it all in the mow, if we can. 
 If not all in then, we prefer to leave it in the windrow until near 
 noon the next day. After we stop hauling, at 5 p. m., the mower is 
 started to cut what we can haul in the next day. The clover cut so late 
 in the day is not wet with dew, and will not wilt enough to be blackened 
 by the dew. It will be ready to shake up and spread out before ten 
 o'clock the next day, and by one o'clock we can begin to haul it into 
 the mow. 
 
 "The clover hay thus made goes into the mow bright and with every 
 leaf and head left on it. The secret of the whole business is, it is free from 
 external moisture, while the warmth of the hay when it goes into the mow 
 hastens the approach of the temperature of the mass up to 122 degrees 
 when the germs which cause increased fermentation are destroyed, and 
 the hay keeps bright and sweet, and comes out fragrant clover, with all 
 the heads and leaves of good color. My mow is 28 by 28, and as tight 
 as good siding and strips painted can make it. There are no windows in 
 the sides to let in air. The clover is put in as compactly as we can get 
 it, to save room, and kept level, to have the heat uniform. Sometimes 
 we sprinkle a half gallon of salt to the load when putting into the mow, 
 but this is of doubtful value. 
 
 "To exclude the air from the top of my clover mow, I often cover 
 with straw. But this does not pack closely. I find it better when haul- 
 ing in wheat to fill up over the clover with wheat. This excludes air, 
 and packs the clover so that it keeps bright to the very top. The old 
 theory that the mow must be open and the clover thrown in loose, and 
 treated to 'plenty of salt,' which may mean much or little, is exploded. 
 Green clover will keep green in the silo if well packed and the air is ex- 
 cluded. Clover hay, put into the mow warm and dry, the day it is cut, 
 will keep brighter and purer and sweeter than if cured longer in the 
 field. 
 
 "The trouble, however, in farmers adopting the method I have suc- 
 cessfully used, is they do not attach enough importance to the fact that 
 the conditions named must be followed. It will not do to cut clover in 
 the morning and haul it in after sun-down. It will surely mould or 
 come out brown or fire fanged, simply because dew falls at five o'clock. 
 Nor can we cut clover and put in the mow the same day without favora- 
 
83 
 
 ble conditions of sun and air. In neither case will the hay go in free from 
 external moisture." 
 
 It should always be borne in mind that clover hay will not shed rain. 
 The best farmers now build open sheds in the field for storing it. When 
 stacked it should either be thatched or have a thick top-covering of 
 wheat straw or other hay. The tedder is thought by many to be indis- 
 pensable in saving good clover hay. Unquestionably it is of great ser- 
 vice, and the hay made by the use of the tedder in dry, hot weather, is 
 superior to that made without, but good hay can be and is made by many 
 farmers who never saw a tedder. Clover hay is more difficult to cure 
 than hay from any of the true grasses, and this arises from the fact that 
 it contains more water than the true grasses. For this reason also, it is 
 more difficult to keep, being more liable to damage in the mow. It will 
 not bear handling or transportation except when damp and while it will 
 always be a favorite hay for home consumption, it will never be shipped 
 to distant markets like timothy hay. For horses and mules clover hay 
 is very nutritious. Many persons make a crop by feeding on clover hay 
 without any grain whatever and the working stock keep fat. Clover is 
 also a superior hay for cattle, producing in milch cows a fine flow of milk. 
 It makes the best hay when the stalks are small and stand thickly upon 
 the ground. 
 
 SAVING CLOVER SEED All the clover seed used in the border 
 states should be produced in them. Besides, there should be a large 
 surplus to be sent to other markets, for no section of the Union will pro- 
 duce, acre for acre, a larger quantity. Six bushels per acre have some- 
 times been gathered, although the usual average is about three bushels. 
 Large quantities are grown in and shipped from Bedford, Maury, Wil- 
 liamson and other counties in Tennessee. 
 
 As the first crop of clover, coming to maturity in June, will not per- 
 fect its seed, this must be removed either by feeding or by mowing for 
 hay. The seed must be gathered from the second crop. The quantity of 
 seed will depend much upon the weather. Should there be much rain or 
 heavy winds, the yield will be small, but when the weather has been fine 
 .and calm and the seed free from dock or other noxious seeds, the crop 
 will be as remunerative as any other grown by the farmer. A bushel of 
 clover seed will weigh usually about 64 pounds, though 60 pounds is the 
 standard bushel by the statute regulation. 
 
 The second crop of clover should be allowed to stand until the husks 
 have become quite brown and the seeds have passed the milky state. It 
 should then be mowed and permitted to lie upon the ground until it is 
 well cured. After it is cured rake it up into swaths. Rain will rather 
 benefit than injure it, making it easier to separate the heads from the 
 haulm, which is done by passing through an ordinary wheat separator. 
 A clover huller attachment is adjusted to the separator below the vibrator, 
 which hulls the seeds, and they are separated from the chaff by the fan, 
 care being taken to shut off as much air as possible by closing the sliding 
 doors. Machines are now made especially for threshing clover seed. 
 
 The crop of seed can be largely increased by mowing or feeding off 
 the first crop of clover about the first of June, and then top-dressing with 
 
84 
 
 stable manure. The earlier the first crop is cut the larger will be the crop 
 of seed. By treating the clover fields in this way, the yield of seed is 
 often doubled. Uplands will yield more seed than bottom lands, but 
 they should be enriched by a liberal application of manure. About the 
 first of September is the time to mow for seed, and the straw will thresh 
 all the better for being exposed to the weather for three weeks. The 
 'threshing is usually done in the field, though the haulm may be hauled 
 up after being thoroughly dry, and stacked with a good straw covering, 
 or else stored away under shelter on a good tight floor until it suits the 
 convenience of the farmer to thresh. Care should be taken not to run 
 over or tramp upon the clover after it is dried, as many seeds are thus 
 shelled out and lost. The better plan is to haul to the thresher from the 
 field just as soon as the straw is in a proper condition to thresh. This 
 will save the trouble and expense and loss of handling it twice. 
 
 Some farmers prefer to sow seed in the chaff, believing that a better 
 stand of clover is thus secured. Usually about thirty bushels in the chaff 
 are considered equivalent to one of cleaned seed. Of course this will de- 
 pend greatly upon the yield of seed, and experiments ought to be made 
 to determine the relative amount to sow when in chaff. 
 
 It is a curious fact and one, I believe, first mentioned by Mr. Darwin, 
 that the bumble bee plays an important part in the fertilization of this 
 plant. Careful observation has determined the fact that the amount of 
 clover seed gathered from a particular field will, other things being equal, 
 be in proportion to the number of bumble bees that feed upon the flowers. 
 In the act of feeding they gather the pollen from one flower and transfer 
 it to the next one upon which they alight, thus acting as important agents 
 in the fertilization of the flower, and consequently in increasing the pro- 
 duction of seed. 
 
 CRIMSON OR SCARLET CLOVER- ( Trifolium incamatum.} 
 (Pastures and Hay.) 
 
 Within the past decade crimson clover has become a staple crop in 
 some of the counties in Tennessee. It is an annual and grows to the 
 height of three feet on good soils. Few things in the vegetable world 
 present a more beautiful sight than a field of crimson clover in full 
 bloom. It seems to be better adapted to southern climates than red 
 clover and it has given satisfaction at the North Carolina Experiment 
 Station and as far south as Louisiana. 
 
 Prof. Stubbs, of Louisiana, says: "It is thoroughly at home in 
 every part of the State, making a large crop of excellent hay. A combi- 
 nation of this crop and cowpeas affords the readiest means of quickly 
 restoring worn out lands or of furnishing a continual supply of fresh 
 hay for stock." 
 
 A large area of this clover is sown every year in Franklin county, 
 Tennessee, in the Belvidere settlement. In answer to inquiries Mr. Jno. 
 Ruch, of that place, says: "We sow it in August or September, using two 
 or three gallons of seed to the acre. It comes to maturity the last of 
 April or first of May, when it is cut and cured for hay in the same man- 
 
85 
 
 ner as red clover hay. I consider the hay as good, in every particular, as 
 that made of red clover. Crimson clover has given excellent results in 
 Franklin county." 
 
 The advantages of crimson clover are chiefly four: 
 
 Crimson Clover Trifolium incarnatum. 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 1 It is a good "catch'' crop and when a failure of red clover occurs 
 it may be sown upon the same land and so preserve the regular rotation. 
 
 2 After the clover has been cut in early May, the same land may be 
 ploughed and planted in corn. 
 
 3 It makes excellent pastures during the fall months after the other 
 green crops have dried up. 
 
86 
 
 4 As a crop for green manuring it ranks high. It is turned under 
 in the spring as it makes its growth during the fall and winter months. 
 In this it differs from all other crops for green manuring. 
 
 At Belvidere it is sown on a deep clayey loam impregnated with more 
 or less of the carbonate of lime, but it is not what may be called a cal- 
 careous loam. Crimson clover should be sown alone as it will need all 
 the land. For the feeding oi milch cows it is held in high esteem as it 
 induces a full flow of rich milk. Growing as it does in the fall, it pro- 
 longs the season of green food and so increases the profits of the dairy. 
 A co-operative creamery at Belvidere has its butter products largely in- 
 creased from the general habit of the farmers in the vicinity of sowing 
 crimson clover in the fall. 
 
 This forage plant deserves more attention from the farmers of the 
 South for dairy purposes than it has heretofore received. 
 
 It will yield from three to ten bushels of seed per acre. Mr. Ruch 
 says he has ma-de both these extremes. 
 
 It is generally believed in those places where crimson clover has 
 been sown for a number of years that though not equal to red clover it is 
 a very good substitute. The farmers who have grown it once feel in- 
 clined to continue to grow it, especially when there is a failure of red 
 clover. 
 
 A bulletin from the United States Department of Agriculture, recently 
 issued, has this to say in regard to a possible danger in the use of crimson 
 clover: 
 
 "The introduction of the annual leguminous plant, crimson clover, 
 into the United. States is comparatively recent, but its use as a forage 
 plant and green manure is rapidly extending. This is easily explained 
 by the decided advantages this clover possesses of covering and protect- 
 ing the soil from washing and leaching during the winter, and of fur- 
 nishing a green manure for spring crops or a succulent and nutritious 
 food at a time when such food is likely to be scarce. It has been found, 
 however, that there is a danger in the use of the overripe clover, espec- 
 ially with horses, that should .be carefully guarded against. The small 
 hairs which occur in the heads of the clover are so constructed (when the 
 plant has passed the flowering stage) that they collect together and form 
 large, round, impervious balls in the intestines of horses, and many cases 
 have been reported in which these have caused the death of animals. 
 When the balls have once developed to such a size that they cannot pass 
 through the intestine no practical remedy can be suggested. But the 
 prevention of the difficulty is in most cases easy. The hairs of crimson 
 clover do not become stiff until the plant has passed the flowering stage 
 and begun to ripen. It should be made a rule, therefore, never to feed 
 crimson clover after the crop has ceased flowering, and especially never 
 to follow the pernicious practice of feeding stock with the straw of 
 crimson clover raised and threshed as a seed crop. By guarding against 
 improper methods of feeding there is no reason why crimson clover 
 should not continue to maintain its well-merited reputation and increase 
 in use as a forage plant and green manure." 
 
 No reports from the farmers growing crimson clover in Tennessee 
 make any mention of having lost stock directly or indirectly by feeding it. 
 
87 
 
 Mr. J. Kaserman, a very successful farmer in Franklin county, Ten- 
 nessee, who has sown crimson clover for many years, mentions one dis- 
 advantage of crimson clover hay, for horses especially, in the fact that 
 the chaff causes a dust, which is injurious to horses. He, however, says 
 nothing in reference to the formation of balls in the stomach of horses. 
 Mr. Kaserman also says: "Crimson clover is sown in September or Octo- 
 ber and ihe usual amount of seed sown per acre is about ten pounds. It 
 matures the following May. and ought to be cut for hay when it is in full 
 bloom. The usual yield of hay per acre on good soil is from one to one 
 and a half tons. I do not consider it as good as red clover in sustaining 
 stock. If perfectly cured it keeps about as well as red clover hay, but 
 being very sappy it is harder to cure. I do not consider that it has any 
 advantages over red clover, but it is easier to get a stand of crimson 
 clover than of red clover. It is sown alone or with winter oats to be cut 
 together for hay. In this section the yield of seed has been from four to 
 six bushels per acre." 
 
 BUR CLOVER SPOTTED MEDICK CALIFORNIA CLOVER. 
 
 ( Medicago maculata. ) ( Grazing. ) 
 
 Bur clover is admirably adapted to lowlands that are well drained. 
 Sown in connection with Bermuda grass it is a great desideratum, inas- 
 much as it makes its principal growth during winter months and dis- 
 appears just about the time Bermuda grass begins to grow. Both to- 
 gether make a continuous pasture for cattle and hogs. Horses, however, 
 do not relish it. It is unfit for growing in any place where Bermuda 
 grass will not thrive. In some of the lands on the Mississippi River 
 it would be a valuable addition to the pasture plants. It is an annual and 
 so must be sown every year, but is hardly so valuable as the crimson 
 clover, because it will only grow on very rich soils and is not relished by 
 all kinds of stock. It is worthless for hay. 
 
 ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum.} (Hay and Pasture.) 
 
 Linnaeus gave the specific name of hybridum to this clover because 
 he imagined it to be a hybrid of the white and red clover as in its ap- 
 pearance it seems to be intermediate between the two. It is a perennial, 
 has a slenderer stalk, a narrower leaf and paler colored flowers and foliage 
 than red clover. The flower stalks are larger, the blossoms more fra- 
 grant and fuller of honey and for this reason it is sometimes sown by bee- 
 keepers for the making of honey. The blooms are faintly tinged with 
 pink when they first open. Afterwards they deepen into a pale red. 
 The seed is kidney shaped and is less than half the size of the seed of red 
 clover. 
 
 It is a good idea to sow the seed with red clover, as, being a peren- 
 nial, the clover will cover the ground when red clover runs its biennial 
 course and alsike clover does not get its full strength until the third year 
 after sowing. It does well also sown with orchard grass, for when sown 
 alone the stems are so weak it is liable to fall and lodge. The sturdy 
 culms of orchard grass will hold it up. It consorts well with herd's grass 
 also. 
 
88 
 
 This clover is not well adapted to dry, sandy or gravelly soils with 
 porous or leachy subsoils. It prefers moist clayey soils. It does best in 
 the climate of Tennessee on rich bottom lands, on deep clayey lands, and 
 even in the swampy lands where the wild growth should be exterminated 
 by plowing and the land thoroughly drained of its surplus water. It 
 yields a very superior quality of hay and a great deal of it. A Michigan 
 correspondent of the Western Rural mentions four tons of finely cured 
 hay as having been cut from one acre of land where the soil had been 
 deeply broken and the land was rich, moist and underdrained. It grows 
 to the height of three and a half feet on such land and much thicker than 
 red clover. It stands dry and cold weather better than any other clover, 
 is not easily winter killed and is a great favorite with those who have 
 tested it. In giving an estimate of its value the correspondent referred 
 to, says: 
 
 "For soiling cows, horses, etc., when pastures fail, it is equal or supe- 
 rior to green corn, and attended with much less trouble in the gathering 
 and feeding. During the past year, I cut three crops from the same 
 ground, standing at the first cutting from two to three feet in height; last 
 cutting one foot in height, as thick as it could stand, small, delicate 
 stalks, with numerous branches, and perfectly glorified with a mass of 
 small peach-blow colored blossoms, filling the air with the most delight- 
 ful and exhilarating perfume, and swarming with bees every fair day. 
 The root is like that of red clover, but longer and more fibrous. The 
 haulm is small, tender and nutritious; when well cured, as it should be, in 
 full bloom, every part will be eaten with avidity by all kinds of stock. 
 
 There is no plant known that will produce so much good honey, but- 
 ter, cheese, beef, mutton, wool and hay per acre, as this plant, not even 
 excepting corn. In using the latter for soiling, you get only the haulm, 
 while in the alsike you get the haulm and a large yield of honey; and if 
 the ground is prepared as well by deep tilth, manure, and plaster or other 
 fertilizers, as for corn, you will get as much by weight of the haulm. 
 
 It bears feeding to an enormous degree. I think its fattening qualities 
 superior to the famous blue grass of Kentucky, and as it will flourish 
 well on such soils as I have designated, from the Gulf to Lake Superior, 
 farmers can easily divine its immense advantage to their pockets. Be- 
 sides, the expense of 'seeding down' every three or four years is saved. 
 It is a great renovator and disintegrator of hard, tenacious soils. Its long 
 tap roots and numerous fibres reach deep for its pabulum, and thus 
 loosen the soil and endure drought well. Some think there are two 
 kinds of this clover. I think not. The difference in growth, etc., in 
 diverse localities, is owing to the character of the soil. I never saw any 
 but the large kind on land once covered with beech, maple, oak, bass, 
 lever wood, etc., and I never saw any but the small kind on light, sandy 
 and gravelly soils. Also on pebbly soils with calcareous debris and good 
 tenacious subsoil it succeeds well." 
 
 This clover is very prolific in the yield of seed. From three to eight 
 bushels are usually gathered per acre from a good stand. The yield will 
 average probably five bushels per acre. In its capacity for seeding land 
 this is equivalent to about fourteen bushels of red clover seed, as the 
 
89 
 
 proportions are 16,000 of red clover and 45,000 of alsike clover seed in 
 an ounce. The seed varies from a dark green to a violet color; weight 
 94 to 100 pounds per bushel. 
 
 The farmers of the South would do well to try this species of clover 
 by sowing it with red clover or herd's grass in the spring of the year upon 
 bottom land, and upon mellow and moist, well-drained clayey soils. The 
 many moist bottoms along the streams would suit it. The valley of East 
 Tennessee offers some excellent soils for its growth as well as the High- 
 land Rim of Middle Tennessee, and the uplands of Northern Alabama 
 and Georgia. 
 
 WHITE CLOVER ( Trifolium repens.}(For Pasture.) 
 
 This hardy species of clover grows in almost every part of the 
 United vStates and Europe. It is said to be the shamrock of Ireland. 
 Various estimates have been made as to its value, many persons claiming 
 that it is totally worthless, while others place it among the most valuable 
 of the grazing plants. In Tennessee it unquestionably stands next to 
 blue grass for pastures. It is to the pasture what red clover is to the 
 meadow. All stock, even hogs, will fatten on it, but after its first inflo- 
 rescence it salivates horses. To the beekeeper it is very valuable, being 
 one of the best honey-making plants in the South. 
 
 It is rarely sown in any of the states, but it comes up spon- 
 taneously, sometimes almost disappearing one year and in another year 
 completely covering the pastures and yards. Farmers often speak of 
 white clover years and this is due to the prevalence of early rains in the 
 spring. Whenever blue grass is pastured too heavily white clover comes 
 to its relief and supplies good grazing during the dryer months of sum- 
 mer. It will grow on almost any character of soil, sterile or fertile, cold or 
 warm, moist or dry. It is virtually a perennial plant, which gives it a great 
 advantage as a pasture grass over red clover. Analyses have determined 
 its highly nutritive qualities. It is said to be richer in these than blue 
 grass. It is not fit for a meadow as its dwarfy growth makes it difficult 
 to cut, though hay made from it is said to be excellent. A good pasture 
 of white clover is by no means to be despised by thrifty farmers. The 
 seed may be bought from seed stores and sown at the rate of about one 
 bushel for twelve acres. 
 
 The time of sowing is the same as that for red clover. 
 
 SAINFOIN OR ESPARCBT (Century Diet) (Onobrychis saliva.} (Hay.) 
 
 This is a perennial leguminous plant resembling the pea more than it 
 does clover. It has straggling, smooth, tapering stems from two to 
 three feet long. Its flowery stalks are higher than the leaves, ending in a 
 spike of crimson or variegated flowers. This is what the French call a 
 sacred grass and is considered more valuable in that country than almost 
 any other. 
 
 It will grow upon dry calcareous soils, which are too sterile for 
 growing either clover or alfalfa. The soil must be well drained for it 
 dies whenever the ground becomes saturated with water. Sainfoin re- 
 quires two or three years to arrive at maturity and is rather difficult to 
 
90 
 
 establish because the plants are very delicate when young, but when once 
 established it will last a score of years. 
 
 Instances are given in France where it has lasted on a single piece of 
 land, with rich soil, a hundred years. The yield of hay is not so great as 
 that from red clover or alfalfa, but it is of a very superior kind and is 
 more nutritious than that of red clover. It is highly valued as a butter- 
 making hay and its seeds are said to be superior to oats for feeding stock 
 and more nutritious. They are excellent for feeding to poultry to incite 
 them to lay. 
 
 Sainfoin will stand a large amount of heat though it is sensitive to 
 cold. The writer has seen it growing in Stewart county, Tennessee, hav- 
 ing been brought there by a Swiss family. It would probably grow well 
 in all parts of the South, especially on dry soils. It requires two 
 bushels of seed, as usually cleaned, for sowing an acre and it should be 
 sown from the first of May to the end of June on well prepared land. In 
 order to insure germination the seed must be covered with a harrow. 
 When very clean seed are used half as much as has been indicated will 
 be sufficient. 
 
 In all those places where the ground is too dry or too sterile for 
 growing red clover, sainfoin might be introduced with profit. Possibly 
 it would do well upon the benches of the Cumberland mountain and 
 upon the siliceous soils of the Highlands and on the high ridgy lands of 
 East Tennessee where there is some lime in the soils. 
 
 Sainfoin will make from ten to twenty-five bushels of seed per acre, 
 forty pounds being the weight of a bushel. 
 
 For pasturing it is not a very desirable plant, as it does not have the 
 ability to withstand tramping as well as red clover. 
 
 MELILOTUS SWEET CLOVER (Melilotus alba.} 
 
 This forage plant is highly commended as a restorative crop for cal- 
 careous soils. It acts also as a drainage plant. The roots descend to the 
 depth of several feet, and, being large, they supply innumerable down- 
 ward drains for carrying off stagnant water. This gives warmth to the 
 soil and permits the roots of succeeding crops to descend to a greater 
 depth in search of food. 
 
 The writer has often grown this in a small way in a garden but his 
 experience is that no stock will eat it. It makes a splendid growth upon 
 rich soils, attaining the height of six feet or more. It starts very early in 
 the spring and soon becomes a conspicuous object with its bluish green 
 foliage. It is said by observant writers that stock will soon learn to eat 
 and relish it. It is a biennial, but it makes a very luxuriant growth the 
 first year and two crops of hay may be harvested during the summer 
 succeeding the spring in which it is sown. 
 
 Prof. S. M. Tracy, of the Mississippi Experiment Station, says: 
 "While the hay from this plant will not sell as well as that frotn Lespe- 
 deza, the crop is heavier, furnishes pasture earlier in the spring, and is 
 by far the most valuable crop we have for a natural fertilizer. Seed 
 must be sown in August or February at the rate of half a bushel to the 
 acre." 
 
Whether this plant is suitable for feeding stock or not there is no 
 doubt it is an excellent plant for building up worn-out soils, and for this 
 purpose, if for no other, it may be recommended to the farmers of the 
 South for restoring fertility to lands of a calcareous nature. It has a dense 
 foliage; it grows rapidly; its roots are abundant; it has the capacity like 
 clover of gathering nitrogen from the atmospnere; it is more hardy than 
 clover and it is much easier to secure a stand upon run-down soils.. It 
 therefore supplies a want for some localities where the land needs humus 
 and an increased supply of nitrogen. 
 
 If the statement that stock soon learn to love it is true, it makes it 
 still more valuable to the farmer, for the immense amount of dry forage 
 which can be made from it when grown upon soils even of moderate fer- 
 tility, is almost incredible. 
 
 ALFALFA OR LUCERN (Medicago saliva.} (Hay.) 
 
 Alfalfa, or lucern, stands unrivalled among all the forage plants for 
 its abundant yield, its longevity, its hardiness when once established, its 
 extended habitat and its great antiquity. From the vast highlands of 
 Western Asia it was introduced into Greece at the time of the Persian 
 War, 470 years B. C. It was cultivated extensively by the Romans, was 
 carried into France probably when Caesar invaded Gaul, and then into 
 Spain. From Spain it came to Mexico and then to South America, and 
 from South America to California. It was introduced into New York 
 before it was brought to 
 California. 
 
 Alfalfa is now cultivated 
 to some extent in every 
 State and Territory in the 
 Union, and in every State 
 and Territory it has met 
 with more or less suc- 
 cess. Wherever it has been 
 well established it has re- 
 ceived great favor. It is a 
 child of the sun and revels 
 in heat that would destroy 
 any other species of clover. 
 Its nutritive elements are 
 almost identical with those 
 of red clover. It has one 
 advantage, however, of red 
 clover, in that it is a peren- 
 nial plant. It does not at all 
 resemble clover in its ap- 
 pearance. The purple pea- 
 like flowers are in long, 
 loose clusters or racemes, 
 and are scattered over the 
 
 entire plant. Alfalfa- Medicago saliva. (U. S. Dept. of Agric.) 
 
92 
 
 SOILS ADAPTED TO ITS GROWTH Alfalfa does not grow 
 well on any soil that has a hard pan or on thin soils. It is a deep rooted 
 plant and must have a deep soil. Wherever the roots find a permeable 
 soil they will descend to a great depth and on river banks they have been 
 traced to the depth of 60 or 70 feet. On the rich sandy soils of the South 
 it is invaluable, and will grow luxuriantly and make enormous yields of 
 hay. Underlying rocks or impervious subsoils, or sour, marshy soils, or 
 crswfishy soils, or stiff, clayey soils are fatal to its growth. So is stagnant 
 water. It will grow on favorable soils at almost any height from sea 
 level up to an elevation of 7000 feet. 
 
 Alfalfa is not affected so much by altitude as by the depth and 
 warmth of the soil and the depth of the water-table beneath the surface. 
 A rich, sandy loam, limy with a porous subsoil suits it best. A region in 
 which the rainfall is excessive is not favorable for the growth of alfalfa as 
 the plants are quickly killed even by surface water. Nor is the presence 
 of a large proportion of iron in the soil favorable to the growth of this 
 plant. Soils that have a large content of lime, phosphoric acid, potash 
 and magnesia are those best adapted to its growth, but lime seems to be 
 the most essential. A considerable amount of sand in the soil is not 
 objectionable. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE THE SOIL The soil should be prepared in 
 the most thorough manner. It must be finely pulverized; it must be 
 broken deeply and subsoiled and it must be free from any trash or weeds. 
 It is better to sow alfalfa after some hoed crop, as tobacco, cotton, pota- 
 toes and root crops such as beets, carrots, turnips and rutabagas. In 
 the middle South the seed may be sown in the fall or spring. October and 
 March are the best months. It is best to sow the seed in drills from 15 to 
 20 inches apart. Twenty to twenty-five pounds of seed per acre will be 
 required. When the plants have come up and grown high enough a small 
 cultivator should be run between the rows so as to destroy any grass or 
 weeds that may have made their appearance. Many persons sow the 
 seed broadcast but if this is dene it must be upon land that has been kept 
 free from any noxious weeds by crops or clover. 
 
 Alfalfa when young is an exceedingly delicate plant and requires much 
 nursing. It is sown by some persons with oats or wheat but in the cli- 
 mate of Tennessee when so sown the young plants rarely survive the 
 summer heat. No crop requires more extraordinary preparation to se- 
 cure a good stand than alfalfa, but it should be remembered that one 
 preparation will last for a generation, for if it is planted upon suitable soil 
 and a good stand obtained it may yield luxuriant crops for thirty or forty 
 years. It rarely happens that alfalfa will grow tall enough the first year 
 or will be sufficiently free from weeds to be mowed for hay, yet if it has 
 been sown broadcast in the spring it will be wise management to run the 
 mower over the land as often as weeds and grass may grow high enough 
 to cut. It reaches its best growth during the third year. When properly 
 managed up to that period the number of cattle which can be kept in 
 good condition on an acre by soiling throughout the whole season sur- 
 passes belief. It is no sooner mown than it pushes out fresh shoots, and 
 wonderful as the growth of clover sometimes is, that of alfalfa is far more 
 
rapid. Upon soils suitable for it it will last for many years, shooting its 
 roots tough and fibrous almost as those of liquorice downward for 
 nourishment, until they are altogether out of the reach of drought. In the 
 dryest and most sultry weather when every blade of grass droops for 
 want of moisture, alfalfa will hold up its stems as fresh and green as in a 
 showery spring. 
 
 Alfalfa has been fully tested in Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama and 
 Kentucky, and has given great satisfaction. Horses are very fond of it, 
 and it is claimed by many that they require no other food, except when 
 they have been at work. Five tons of good hay may be made to the 
 acre. It is estimated that five horses may be supported during the entire 
 
 CUTTING AI,FAI,FA. 
 
 year from one acre of alfalfa in full growth. It is ready for the mower a 
 month before red clover, and springs up long before the usual pasture 
 grasses. 
 
 ALFALFA FOR PASTURE Alfalfa is indifferently suited for pas- 
 ture. The tramping of stock upon the land compacts it so much that 
 the plants rapidly deteriorate. It is often pastured in the west but rarely 
 when it is intended for making hay, as, when once pastured, so many 
 roots are destroyed as to greatly diminish the yield of forage. It is, how- 
 ever, extensively used as a pasture for hogs and they do not seem to injure 
 it as much as heavier stock. One acre of alfalfa will furnish abundant 
 forage for ten to twenty hogs throughout the season. It is a great pork 
 producer. 
 
94 
 
 Mr. Jared G. Smith, the Assistant Agrostologist of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, states that ten pigs put on a field of it will 
 gain 100 pounds each during the season from May to September. He 
 says that pigs will come out of the field in autumn in capital condition to 
 fatten with corn or small grain. For a hog pasture alfalfa should be 
 mowed once or twice during the summer so that young and tender her- 
 bage may be supplied, which is more nutritious than the forage from 
 older plants. 
 
 ALFALFA HAY It requires much skill to properly cure alfalfa 
 hay. Being ranker usually than red clover, and cut when the first blooms 
 begin to appear, it is full of sap and must be managed with great discre- 
 tion and judgment. The best method of saving the hay is to cut it in the 
 morning after the dew has been dissipated. It should lie in the sun until 
 it is wilted, then raked into windrows; after remaining for 24 hours it may 
 be carried to the barns or open sheds, or stacked in the field. It should 
 be handled just as little as possible. It sheds its leaves much more easily 
 than red clover and, as the leaves are the most nutritious part of the hay, 
 handling greatly impairs its value. 
 
 In wet weather it is very difficult to save alfalfa hay without mould- 
 ing. If a rain should fall upon it, while in the windrow, hard enough to 
 pass through it, it should be shaken up just as soon as the sun comes out, 
 but the sun does great damage to it by drying the leaves and so causing 
 them to shatter when the hay is being handled. Therefore the best plan 
 in such a case is to throw the windrows into small cocks before the leaves 
 are thoroughly dry, but these cocks must be small enough for the air to 
 circulate through them. A hard rain will diminish the value of the hay, 
 under any circumstances, fully one-half. If very much injured it should 
 be used as a top-dressing. It will be more valuable employed for this 
 purpose than for hay. In sub-tropical regions the hay may be cut seven 
 or eight times a year. The writer has seen it growing in the northern 
 part of Mexico with such luxuriance that it seemed almost impossible for 
 an ordinary mower to cut it. In the State of Chihuahua, upon bottom 
 lands where alfalfa is irrigated after each cutting, the yield sometimes 
 reaches fifteen tons in a single year. It is cut every four weeks and the 
 seasons last from February to November. With the stimulating effects 
 of heat and moisture upon the rich soils in the valleys of that region the 
 amount of hay which may be obtained from a single acre is often great 
 enough to supply the demands of a considerable ranch. Alfalfa hay is 
 rich in protein but it is deficient in fat and carbohydrates. It is therefore 
 recommended that some of the coarser fodders,, such as wheat or oat 
 straw, millet or root crops, be added to the feed. Prof. Smith says that 
 "one ton of alfalfa hay and three tons of green fodder will furnish food for 
 one milch cow of a thousand pound weight for 136 days without notable 
 loss of any of the digestible compounds in the forage." 
 
 There is no better hay, however, for all kinds of domestic animals and 
 especially for young and growing cattle and horses, and for sheep. 
 Alfalfa is well adapted to the use of persons living in small towns or vil- 
 lages who have a lot they wish to devote to hay for a horse and a cow. 
 No other kind of forage crop will equal it in the quantity and quality of 
 
95 
 
 its produce, for all experience has demonstrated that it is as good as the 
 best. From such a lot alfalfa may be cut green and fed every night and 
 morning. Care must be taken, however, not to feed too much, or to feed 
 it to cattle when it is wet, as it is liable to produce bloat or hoven. Sheep 
 are also liable to be affected in the same way, but horses and hogs are not. 
 
 Prof. Smith warns the orchardists against planting it in an orchard. 
 The roots descend so much deeper than the roots of the fruit trees that 
 the latter are often killed. It is a good forerunner for an orchard because 
 the roots penetrate the subsoil deeply and in their decay furnish an ex- 
 cellent fertilizer for fruit trees, inasmuch as the alfalfa roots have the 
 power to collect nitrogen from the air just as other leguminous plants, 
 and the field is greatly enriched. 
 
 In an analysis of the soils upon which alfalfa is grown it is found that 
 they differ widely in their chemical composition. However, the carbonate 
 of potassium and the carbonate of lime are usually the most abundant in- 
 gredients, followed by the phosphate of lime. In clayey and chalky soils 
 the carbonate of lime reaches nearly 50 per cent. Alfalfa will produce 
 the largest quantity of forage for domestic animals and will, at the same 
 time, enrich the lands upon which it is grown. 
 
 COW PEAS (Vigna catiang,} -(Pasture, Ensilage and Dry Forage.) 
 
 No agricultural product of the South has come so rapidly into well 
 merited and almost universal favor within the past twenty years as cow 
 peas. Though they were introduced into South Carolina over 150 years 
 ago it is but within recent years that they have been grown in all the 
 Southern States. They are now a staple cro-p in the border states and are 
 grown in every portion of them. Twenty years ago their cultivation was 
 confined mainly to the cotton growing districts, but at present they have 
 taken to a large extent the place of clover, and especially where the lands 
 have become "clover sick," or the clover crop uncertain. Cowpeas, in fact, 
 richly deserve to be called the "clover of the South." It is a leguminous 
 plant and appropriates nitrogen from the atmosphere as all other plants 
 of the same family do. They supply as much humus to the soil as clover, 
 and may be successfully grown upon soils that are so sterile clover would 
 wither and die on them. 
 
 There are many varieties or subvarieties of the cowpea. These 
 varieties often take local names derived from the persons who introduced 
 them. The best established varieties for the Southern States are the 
 eureka No. 1, the unknown, clay and black; in the Central and Northern 
 section the eureka No. 2, black, black eye, whippoorwill and Carolina. 
 Some of these are bunch varieties and some trailing or climbing. 
 
 SOILS FOR COWPEAS One of the greatest advantages which 
 the cowpea possesses over every other forage or fertilizing crop grown is 
 its adaptability to every soil. The writer has seen it growing with strong 
 foliage upon a dozen different soils in the State of Tennessee. Some 
 varieties seem to prefer one soil, and some another, but all varieties will 
 make a satisfactory growth upon any soil. But the cowpea is especially 
 valuable for dry sandy soils, inasmuch as clover rarely does well upon 
 such soils. 
 
96 
 
 The peas may be sown at any time from the first of May until the last 
 of July. It takes from sixty to eighty days for them to mature. The soil 
 may be prepared by breaking it with a two horse plow. The peas should 
 then be sown at the rate of one bushel and a half per acre and the ground 
 afterwards well harrowed. Some farmers prefer to drill the peas in rows 
 two and a half to three feet apart, the neas being at intervals of one or 
 two inches in the row. After they have come up a cultivator should be 
 run between the rows. Peas furnish a large amount of feed when planted 
 between the corn rows at the last plowing of the corn. The bush varieties 
 ripen soonest but the California cowpea, the clay, pea and the black pea 
 are more profitable as they do not rot so readily in wet weather and will 
 remain sound and keep a large number of stock the best part of the winter 
 after the corn has been gathered. The whippoorwill pea planted by itself 
 will give the earliest returns. 
 
 Stubble ground after oats or wheat is turned to good account by 
 breaking and sowing it with peas. The pasture comes on at a time when 
 it is most needed. In the southern part of Tennessee and in Northern 
 Alabama a crop of peas grown on stubble land goes a long ways towards 
 fattening hogs for slaughter. 
 
 COWPEAS FOR HAY It is generally conceded that when prop- 
 erly harvested and cured cowpea hay is the equal of red clover hay in 
 every particular and indeed much richer in protein. The only exception 
 to this general admission as to the value of cowpea hay comes from the 
 Kansas Experiment Station, where it is reported that stock would not 
 eat the vines green, cured or in ensilage. 
 
 Recent experiments at this Experiment Station go to show that in two 
 tons of timothy hay and in three tons of cowpea hay, each the product of 
 one acre, the following results were obtained: 
 
 FERTILIZING MATERIALS. 
 
 NITROGEN 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID 
 
 POTASH 
 
 WORTH 
 
 Timothy 25 Ibs at 12 cts 
 
 10 Ibs at 5 cts 
 
 18 Ibs. at 5 cts. 
 
 $4.40 
 
 Cowpeas 58 Ibs. at 12 cts 
 
 15 Ibs. at 5 ct... 
 
 40 Ibs. at 5 cts. 
 
 9.71 
 
 FOOD MATERIALS. 
 
 
 
 PROTEIN 
 
 CARBOHYDRATES 
 
 FATS 
 
 Timothy 
 
 118 Ibs. 
 
 15CO Ibs 
 
 50 Ibs 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 500 Ibs. 
 
 1700 Ibs 
 
 87 Ibs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 "We see, thus, that legumes furnish three to four times as much pro- 
 tein and more carbohydrates and fats than common hay. They contain 
 over twice as much nitrogen and twice as much potash. This nitro-r 
 gen is derived from the air, and removing it does not deplete the soil. 
 The best plan is, thus, to feed leguminous plants and return to the soil the 
 manure, which will still contain four-fifths of all the fertilizing elements. 
 As nitrogen of the air is the cheapest source of nitrogen for plants, so it 
 
97 
 
 is the cheapest source of protein for animals. Soiling is a good plan for 
 dairymen. Save the manure. Grow more legumes. They furnish the 
 cheapest manure for the soil and the cheapest food for stock, because they 
 obtain from the air the nitrogen necessary for plants and animals, which 
 costs 12 to 15 cents a pound." 
 
 The director of the Delaware Station testifies that in one experiment 
 the yield of dry hay per acre was 2353 pounds, which contained 58 pounds 
 fat, 147 pounds ash, 320 pounds protein, 1596 pounds fibre and carbohy- 
 drates and 232 pounds of moisture. Comparing it with wheat bran it 
 was shown that the bran leads in fat, but in all other respects the dried 
 vines excel. 
 
 "The proper stage for cutting peas for hay," says the Hon. H. M. 
 Polk, "is when the first pods begin to turn yellow and while the leaves 
 are green and the stems soft. The greatest care must be exercised in 
 curing cowpeas for hay. The vines are full of moisture and they will not 
 shed water. They should be cut in clear weather after the dew is off and 
 treated very much as clover when cut for hay. The great end to be ac- 
 complished is to cure the vines to the extent of getting rid of a part of 
 the moisture without having the leaves burned by the sun. When exposed 
 too long to the sun the leaves become dry, fall off the stems and are lost. 
 When put up too green and too compactly, they heat', and when fermen- 
 tation of the juices in the vine and unripe pods occurs, the hay is seriously 
 damaged, if not completely spoiled. Mildewed hay of any kind is very 
 poor food for stock, and when eaten at all it is only taken from necessity 
 to ward off starvation. Some planters house their pea hay in open sheds, 
 or loosely in barns, with rails so fixed as to prevent compacting. Others 
 stack in the open air around poles on which are left limbs from two to 
 four feet long, to keep the mass of vines open to the air.. The top of the 
 stack must be covered with hay or straw that will shed water." 
 
 COWPEAS AS A SOIL RESTORER Not even clover surpasses 
 the cowpea as a soil renovator. The most badly worn and abused soil 
 may be quickly brought to a condition for profitable production by plant- 
 ing a succession of pea crops upon it. Nor are the best results obtained 
 by plowing under the pea vines when green. Careful experiments made 
 at the Georgia Station show: 
 
 (1) That the best disposition of a crop of field peas is to convert the 
 vines into hay. 
 
 (2) The next best is to permit the peas to ripen and gather them (or 
 pasture them.) 
 
 (3) Turning the pea vines under green gave the poorest economic 
 results. 
 
 To which the director adds the following note: 
 
 "It may be truly said that the practice of turning under a crop of 
 cowpea vines read}' for the mower, and in a few days for the barn and 
 for the cattle has no more reason to sustain it than would the practice of 
 turning under a crop of wheat, oats, corn or cotton at its most vigorous 
 stage of growth. Nearly every form of stock food would be a valuable 
 and effective fertilizer if applied immediately and directly to the soil; but 
 the farmer in an economic sense can no more afford to manure his soil 
 
with a crop of pea vines that are ready to mow, than he can to sow good, 
 sound wheat bran on his land as a fertilizer." 
 
 Of the capacity of the cowpea as a fertilizing agent Prof. Stubbs, of 
 the Louisiana Experiment Station, says: 
 
 "Valuable as this plant is for its vine and fruit as food, its superlative 
 excellence lies in the property which it has of restoring worn soils. This 
 property it shares with all leguminous plants, but it surpasses them all in 
 producing the maximum results in a minimum of time. Clovers, trefoil, 
 lupine and alfalfa are used in different countries as soil renovators. They 
 are planted in the fall or spring and occupy the ground the entire season 
 or longer for good results. In the South the cowpea is planted in the late 
 spring or early summer and the crops of vines or peas are harvested or 
 buried for fertilizing purposes in early fall. The growth and develop- 
 ment of this plant is both rapid and enormous, particularly when planted 
 on good land. It perhaps assimilates more plant food in a short time 
 than any other leguminous plant. 
 
 This plant in common with all others of the pulse family, assimilates 
 the nitrogen of the air and if phosphates, potash and lime be present in 
 the soil, it will grow with great rapidity and luxuriance. The manner of 
 assimilation of nitrogen has recently been patiently investigated by scien- 
 tists, and while the' exact process by which it is accomplished is not yet 
 clearly understood, the primary cause is clearly shown. If a farmer will 
 pull up carefully, with its roots, a pea vine plant from his field, and ex- 
 amine closely each rootlet, he will, if he has selected a healthy growing 
 specimen, find each one covered with wart-like protuberances or tubercles. 
 These tubercles, if examined under a powerful microscope, will be found 
 filled with micro-organisms called bacteria. They are living on the plant 
 and are drawing from it the mineral matter requisite for their existence. 
 Simultaneously, however, they are assimilating the free nitrogen of the 
 air which reaches them through the porosity of the soil. These bacteria 
 have a very ephemeral existence but great facility for rapid multiplication. 
 Hence millions die every few moments. This living togethe- of the plant 
 and its seeming parasite, each acting as a purveyor of food for the other, 
 is a most remarkable discovery made almost simultaneously by Dr. W. 
 O. Atwater of this country, and Hellriegel of Germany. While it has 
 long been known that leguminous plants had these nodules on their roots, 
 and longer still that they were in some way nitrogen gatherers, and there- 
 fore soil improvers, yet the relations between these nodules and the plant 
 were determined only a few years since by these distinguished scientists." 
 
 Much more might be written to show the great value of the pea crop. 
 Summing up its chief merits we have: 
 
 1 The pea will thrive upon every variety of soil and will grow on 
 land too poor to grow clover. 
 
 2 It will produce a heavy and rich crop to be returned to the soil 
 in a shorter period than any other green manuring crop. 
 
 3 On the same land in one year two crops can be grown, but it 
 requires two years for clover to produce a hay crop, so it will be seen that 
 four crops of peas may be grown in the same time as one crop of clover. 
 
 4 The pea crop feeds lightly upon the soil but largely upon the at- 
 
99 
 
 mosphere, appropriating nitrogen through the agency of the bacteria that 
 infest its roots. 
 
 5 It is one of the best preparatory crops for wheat, as it leaves the 
 soil in excellent condition, adding a large content of nitrogen which is an 
 essential element in the growing of wheat. 
 
 G The rapidity of its growth makes it the only crop in the South 
 that may be used as a manurial crop between the harvesting of grain and 
 the sowing of it on the same land. 
 
 7 It grows as vigorously as clover and in connection with that plant 
 makes the South peculiarly rich in those vegetable agents that improve 
 the soil. 
 
 8 It may be grown in connection with the corn crop, furnishing 
 almost as much nutriment as the corn crop itself, with a positive benefit 
 to the land. 
 
 9 It is a substantial factor in the production of cheap beef, pork, milk 
 and butter. 
 
 10 It doubles the capacity of the land for wintering stock, and gives 
 double the material for making manure heaps. 
 
 11 The galled and waste places in the South can be more quickly 
 and cheaply restored by a judicious cultivation of the pea, and by proper 
 rotation of other crops with it, than in any other way. 
 
 12 By adding humus it preserves the humidity of the soil and so 
 enables the crops to resist droughts. 
 
 13 The vines of cowpeas furnish the very best material for ensilage. 
 
 14 The composition of cowpeas and pea vine hay shows that they 
 have a very high feeding value for all domestic animals. 
 
 PEANUTS (Arachis hypogaea.}~($orzgt for Cattle and Seed for 
 
 Hogs.) 
 
 Peanuts have long been a staple crop in some portions of the South. 
 They were introduced into Tennessee from North Carolina about sixty 
 years ago and for a long time the crop was regarded as one of the most 
 profitable that was made in the State. Within Yecent years, however, the 
 price has fallen so low that the quantity raised has sensibly decreased. 
 
 Two varieties are grown in Tennessee, the red and the white. 
 
 The red is an upright grower and produces a small nut, the epidermis 
 or outer coating of which is dark red in color. 
 
 The white grows with spreading branches that lie flat on the ground. 
 These branches bear peanuts almost throughout their entire length. It 
 is highly important in growing white peanuts to have the land very mel- 
 low so as to permit the bearing "spikelet" to penetrate the ground. The 
 white peanuts command a better price than the red. The pods are larger 
 and whiter and present altogether a much better appearance. 
 
 A few Spanish peanuts are grown in places. They are earlier than 
 the other varieties and have an upright growth like the red. They mature 
 a larger proportion of the nuts, so that, though the nuts are small, there 
 are fewer inferior nuts or ''pops." There is another advantage which is 
 .claimed for this variety and that is that the pods cluster around the vines 
 so closely that when the vine is pulled up nearly every nut clings to it, 
 
100 
 
 making the loss very inconsiderable in harvesting. The flavor of the 
 Spanish nut is very delicate and the kernel does not differ materially in 
 chemical composition from the Tennessee nut. except in its larger content 
 of water. Many people, however, prefer the larger nuts and so these 
 usually outsell the Spanish peanut, but the Spanish variety is a much 
 surer crop. When the white variety by reason of bad seasons makes a 
 comparative failure, the Spanish peanut often makes a large yield and it 
 is also more valuable for the feeding of hogs than the white peanuts. It 
 is said that when it is planted in Tennessee in a few years it grows as 
 large as the Tennessee nut. Extremely warm weather is not necessary 
 for the fruitage of the peanut. Cool weather will cause the pods to form 
 as readily as the hottest weather in July. It requires five months to ma- 
 ture the white variety. The Spanish variety will mature in about four 
 months. 
 
 The best peanuts are planted early and therefore an early spring is 
 desirable, with no beating rains, especially if the land is strongly argilla- 
 ceous, for when the ground is baked the delicate young stem cannot pene- 
 trate the hard crust. A bad stand then results, which is scarcely to be 
 remedied by replanting. The regions growing the best nuts for eating 
 are embraced in Virginia, Tennessee and Kentucky. The extreme 
 Southern States grow the peanuts fully as well as the states mentioned, 
 but they contain so much oil as to impair their flavor and make them 
 more indigestible. On the other hand, when grown in the far South 
 they are better for fattening purposes, and far better for making peanut 
 oil, which is now regarded as one of the most valuable of the oil products. 
 
 Peanuts have been successfully grown in Tennessee for many years in 
 the counties of Perry, Hickman, Humphreys, Dickson, Lewis .and 
 Wayne, situated in that natural division of the state known as the High- 
 land Rim, and in a few counties in West Tennessee. 
 
 THE BEST SOIL The best soil for the peanut is a light colored 
 clayey soil, filled with finely-comminuted, cherty, angular gravel, which 
 makes the ground loose and prevents it from baking. The ground should 
 be well drained and light in color, for it is a singular fact that there is a 
 correlation between the color of the soil and the color of the nut. black 
 or deep red soils making a dark colored nut and light or whitish soils a 
 light-colored nut. The darker soils may, and most frequently do, make 
 a larger yield per acre but the nuts do not command such a good price 
 and are classed in a lower grade. 
 
 Land with much humus is not suited to the growth of peanuts. The 
 soil should be strong but with a small amount of vegetable matter in its 
 composition. Peanuts, therefore, do not yield well after clover or in 
 freshly cleared lands. In such condition-s the amount of vine is excessive 
 and such land is best for growing peanut hay, but the quantity of good 
 peanuts is very small. The best results are obtained by planting the 
 crops after corn or tobacco or potatoes, or after any crop that requires 
 clean cultivation. 
 
 TIME AND MANNER OF PLANTING The land for peanuts in 
 Tennessee is usually prepared during the latter part of April after the^ 
 danger of frost is passed. It should be well broken and finely pulverized 
 
101 
 
 with a harrow. For white peanuts or the spreading fra>:ie# *h-e land is 
 checked off in rows two and one-half to three feet apart; and two 'kernels, 
 after being carefully hulled by hand, are dropped it the points' of inieV- 
 section of the furrows like corn and covered with a hoe to the depth of 
 one and one-half to two inches. In shelling the nuts care must be taken 
 not to break the delicate covering that surrounds the kernels, for this will 
 impair or totally destroy their vitality. If the land after planting should 
 become compacted by a hard rain, a light harrow should be run over it 
 when the land is dry enough to plow, in order to break the obstructing 
 crust, so that the very delicate shoot can make its way to the surface. 
 Red peanuts are planted in ridges like cotton. The rows are run off three 
 feet apart and four furrows thrown on these. The ridges thus made are 
 opened on lop by a bull-tongue plow or coulter and the seed dropped at 
 intervals of eight to twelve inches apart and covered two inches deep by 
 a board like that employed for covering cotton seed, or it would be better 
 to procure a one-horse corn planter, adjusted so as to open the ridges to 
 the proper depth and to drop the kernels at the required intervals, and 
 at the same time, cover them. About two bushels and one-half in the 
 hull are required to plant an acre. The brown millipede, the cutworm, 
 the wood mouse, and the mole are all great enemies of the peanut when 
 just planted. Replanting should begin, if the plant does not appear above 
 ground, in ten days. 
 
 FERTILIZERS Many peanut-growers object to the use of any 
 manure whatever, but in this they undoubtedly commit an error. The 
 application of a large amount of stable manure would prove detrimental, 
 but in small quantities it is highly beneficial. The best fertilizer for the 
 peanut is an ammoniated superphosphate of lime with some potash. An 
 application of lime in its caustic state on other than limestone soils during 
 the fall previous to planting would be beneficial. The peanut must have 
 lime, but not too much of it. The heavy limestone soils will produce a 
 great quantity of pops. No top-dressing of lime of any kind should be 
 made. The superphosphate and the nitrogenous manures may be 
 strewn in the furrows at the rate of 300 pounds to the acre. Ashes or 
 kainit will supply potash, and a greater amount than 150 pounds to the 
 acre is not necessary. Cottonseed meal and barnyard manure in limited 
 quantities are excellent fertilizers for this crop. Being a leguminous 
 plant the peanut has the power of extracting nitrogen from the atmos- 
 phere 
 
 CULTIVATION If the land has been well prepared before the pea- 
 nuts are planted the after-cultivation is very simple and inexpensive. The 
 weeds should be kept down by using a narrow harrow or a double culti- 
 vator. Many growers use a one-horse turning plow and bar off the soil 
 from the peanuts when they first come up. Afterwards in the cultivation 
 of the white peanut this middle ridge is leveled down with a harrow or 
 double shovel. For the red or upright growers the dirt at the second 
 plowing is usually thrown back to them, if they have attained a height 
 great enough not to be covered up by the process. The peanut will thrive 
 with the same cultivation that is given to corn. Any cultivation is good 
 that will destroy the weeds and keep the land in good tilth, but it must 
 
102 
 
 not be extended. beyond the period when the peanuts begin to form, and 
 especially must Ihis caution be observed in the case of the trailing or 
 ( white peanuts. L,eve] cultivation is far better for the white peanut and 
 equally good for the red. 
 
 Many years ago it was thought that a necessary requirement in the 
 cultivation of the white peanut was to cover the bloom. This practice has 
 long been discontinued, for it not only does no good, but it does much 
 damage and decreases the yield of the crop. The "spikelets" form above 
 ground after the fall of the flowers, but the ground should be soft enough 
 to permit the sharp thorn-like points to penetrate the surface. When 
 once beneath the surface the ovary at the end of the "spikelet" begins 
 to enlarge and ripens into a pale, yellowish, wrinkled pod, slightly curved, 
 sometimes contracted in the middle, and containing generally two, some- 
 times three and rarely four kernels. A dry spring is always desirable 
 for planting and cultivating, but when the "spikelets" begin to push down 
 into the ground frequent showers are indispensable to a large yield. 
 
 HARVESTING The harvesting must always take place before 
 frost, for the nuts and haulm are both greatly injured, if not ruined, by 
 frost. If the fall should be wet, or the peanuts mature very early, many 
 of the first formed nuts will be ruined by sprouting. Dry weather should 
 always be selected for harvesting. It cannot be done when the ground 
 is wet for then the dirt will adhere to the nuts and ruin them or at least 
 greatly detract from their market value by injuring their color. 
 
 The crop of white peanuts is harvested by running a furrow on each 
 side of the row with a bull-tongue plow or a pea-digger, so as to dislocate 
 the roots. Care must be taken not to detach the nuts from the vine in 
 running the side furrow. After the plow has been run on each side of 
 the row (and it is sometimes necessary to run twice on a side) then lift 
 the vines gently with the hand, carefully shaking the dirt off, and lay 
 them on the ground. Let them remain in this way, if the sun is shining, 
 from six to eight hours. The vines will wilt like clover, when they may 
 be brought together and stacked. The stacks are made around a pole 
 planted in the ground and rising some eight feet above the surface. A 
 platform made of old rails rests upon logs placed around the pole and 
 upon this the stack is built. The platform protects the nuts and vines 
 from the mold and dampness of the ground. In stacking, the nuts should 
 be put on the inside next to the stack-pole, but not so close as to prevent 
 the air from circulating freely from the bottom to the top of the stack. 
 To make the stack entirely secure it should have a capping of hay or corn 
 fodder. Put up in this manner the nuts will keep securely all the winter 
 should it be desired. 
 
 The red nuts are more easily harvested than the white, as they have 
 but few roots and the nuts adhere closely about the stem. In loose land 
 they may be pulled up without running a furrow on each side ol the row, 
 though to do this will make the work much easier. There are but few 
 red nuts now grown in Tennessee. An over-production of them for a few 
 years reduced prices below the cost of the labor required in producing 
 them. 
 
 Usually the nuts are allowed to stand in the stacks about four weeks 
 
103 
 
 and are then picked off by hand, the white nuts always. The red nuts 
 are sometimes threshed off by taking up bundles and beating them against 
 a rail or the side of a box. This latter plan greatly injures the nuts. Five 
 to six bushels of red peanuts can be picked off the vines in a day by a 
 nimbled-fingered person, but the picking of three to four bushels of the 
 white is considered a good day's work. Women and children are said to 
 be much more expert in this work than men. The price paid for picking 
 is about ten cents a bushel. After this they ought to be screened in a 
 cylinder so as to separate them from the dust and leaves and also for the 
 purpose of brightening the hulls by abrasion. After sunning they are put 
 in sacks containing four to five bushels. So much may be added to the 
 selling price of the peanut crop by proper cleaning and assorting that it 
 has been found profitable in all localities where many peanuts are grown 
 to erect great recleaning houses. These houses are four stories high. 
 The upper or fourth floor contains a large hopper into which the peanuts 
 as they are delivered by the farmers are poured. They run down through 
 pipes to the third floor, where they pass through a screen or cylinder and 
 by abrasion the nuts are cleaned and the hulls brightened. From the 
 cylinder the nuts are carried to the second floor, where they are passed 
 through a fan by which the light ones are blown out. The heavier ones 
 are caught on an endless belt passing longitudinally over the surface of a 
 long table. On both sides of the table employes, usually girls or boys, 
 stand and pick out all black or discolored nuts. At one end of the table 
 is a sizer, where the nuts are separated into three classes: Jumbos, or 
 fancy, which are very large nuts; No. 1 and No. 2. On the lower floor 
 all grades are caught and sacked. The puffs and black or discolored nuts 
 are shelled and sold to confectioners. The owners of the recleaning 
 establishments buy the nuts direct from the farmers and resell them on 
 the market after they have been cleaned and assorted. 
 
 YIELD PER ACRE The weight of a bushel of. peanuts in Tennes- 
 see is twenty-three pounds; in Georgia twenty-eight; in North Carolina 
 and Virginia twenty-two pounds. The Tennessee peanuts are larger 
 than those of Georgia and smaller than those of North Carolina and Vir- 
 ginia. Of those raised in Tennessee, less than one-fourth are of the red 
 variety. The usual yield per acre is from thirty to fifty bushels, though 
 as high as 100 bushels are sometimes made. The white peanuts will make 
 from ten to twenty bushels per acre more than the red, but not being so 
 easily cultivated or gathered, they were until recently considered less 
 valuable as a crop. 
 
 USES OF THE NUT The present consumption of peanuts by the 
 American people for eating purposes alone reaches 4,000,000 bushels. 
 This is largely in excess of what we produce. It is estimated that the 
 peanut crop of the world now amounts to 600,000,000 pounds or 26,087,000 
 bushels. Much of this product is used in the Old World for making oil, 
 which is regarded as an excellent substitute for olive oil, as it has an 
 agreeable taste and odor. The s-helled nuts will yield about 40 per cent, 
 of oil. It is said that the Tennessee nut yields an oil that is often used 
 and is highly esteemed for culinary purposes. Estimating that the hulls 
 of the peanuts make 6 per cent, by weight and that 40 per cent, of oil may 
 
104 
 
 be extracted from the kernels, there should be obtained 8.65 pounds of oil 
 from each bushel of twenty-three pounds. This would give in liquid 
 measure 1.15 gallons, which at the price of $1 per gallon, would make 
 $1.15 for the oil extracted from one bushel of peanuts. Manufacturers use 
 this oil as a substitute for olive oil in fulling cloth. A large amount is 
 used in the manufacture of soap. It is not very desirable as a lighting 
 fluid, as it does not give as clear light as whale oil or petroleum. For the 
 fattening of hogs peanuts are exceedingly valuable, and have proved very 
 satisfactory on account of their large content of fatty matter. Hogs are 
 very fond of them. 
 
 THE VINE AS A FORAGE CROP The haulm or vine, when 
 carefully harvested, before it has been injured by frost, is an excellent 
 food for cattle and sheep. Horses are exceedingly fond of it, but the 
 amount of dirt which necessarily adheres to it is apt to produce a disa- 
 greeable cough. The red peanut makes better hay than the white, because 
 it grows erect, and is, therefore, freer from dirt. Usually about one ton 
 is saved per acre, though upon strong land, where the vines grow luxu- 
 riantly, two or more tons have been saved. Many practical farmers prefer 
 this hay to clover hay. Like clover hay it must be handled carefully, or 
 the leaves will fall off, leaving nothing but the stems, that are practically 
 worthless. It produces a copious flow of rich, creamy milk when fed 
 to milch cows. Ewes in lambing time can have no better food given them 
 than well-cured peanut hay, because it increases the flow of milk and 
 enriches its quality. 
 
 JAPAN CLOVER BUSH CLOVER KING GRASS (Lespedeza 
 
 slriata} (Grazing and Hay.) 
 
 There were numerous species of Lespedeza found in the South as far 
 back as the time of the Spanish occupation of Louisiana. They were then 
 observed and mentioned in Spanish records and regarded, at the time, as 
 being good forage plants. The seeds of the Lespedeza striata were intro- 
 duced into South Carolina about 1849 from Japan or China or probably 
 from both, doubtless coming over in tea chests. Its existence in Japan 
 was mentioned as early as 1784, by a German chemist, who saw it growing 
 in that country. A few years after its first appearance in South Carolina 
 it had spread as far as Macon, Ga. It appeared in Tennessee about 1870 
 and spread rapidly through many counties in the State, covering old 
 fields, rooting out broom sedge and other grasses, and showing such a 
 vigor of growth and tenacity of life as to arrest the attention of every 
 observant farmer. It will grow with great luxuriance on the poorest 
 soils, and will resist the severest droughts. Soils that are totally unfit 
 for the growth of any other plant will produce Japan clover high enough 
 to make good pasturage. On more fertile lands it will grow to the height 
 of two feet or more. It is an annual and should be sown in the State of 
 Tennessee during the month of March, but it is rarely necessary to sow 
 it at all as, when it once becomes established in any spot, it soon spreads 
 throughout the locality. It is an excellent plant for restoring fertility to 
 old fields and many of these in the state have been reclaimed through its 
 instrumentality. In many of the Southern States it is regarded as the 
 
105 
 
 most valuable of all forage plants for the very reason that it will grow on 
 the most sterile or exhausted soils. It is largely used for hay, especially 
 when grown on calcareous soils, being said to have a high feeding value, 
 though less than that of the cowpea and clover. It does not stand cold 
 weather. The first frost will kill it, and occasionally it suffers from hot 
 weather when grown upon thirsty, sandy soils. Its roots penetrate to a 
 great depth in the soil and like all other leguminous plants it collects 
 nitrogen from the atmosphere It is much more highly esteemed in the 
 extreme Southern States than it is in Tennessee. 
 
 Mr. H. B. McGehee, of Woodville, Miss., says: "My experience is that 
 Lespedeza striata (Japan clover) is the most satisfactory and best all- 
 around forage crop we have in Southwest Mississippi. It is the quickest 
 grown, easiest handled and affords the most abundant yield of any hay 
 crop we have. We prepare our lands and sow in October or March one- 
 half bushel of seed to the acre. It yields from one and one-half tons to 
 three tons per acre, reseeds itself, and the meadows may be lek from two 
 to three years without replowing. Often after preparing lands and sow- 
 ing our fall oats we sow Lespedeza among the young growing oats some 
 time in March, after all danger of a freeze is over, and thereby get two 
 crops from the same piece of land during one year. Stock .of all kinds 
 eat this hay readily and fatten on it. It sells on a local market for from 
 $12 to $15 per ton. Ours is a loamy, sandy soil, with a good deep sub- 
 soil." 
 
 Prof. S. M. Tracy, says of this plant: "Lespedeza is the standard 
 clover plant of the South. It will grow on the poorest and dryest soils 
 and, pound for pound, is the best hay I have ever used for fattening or for 
 milch cows. Three years ago last October, our barn containing the hay 
 we had stored for winter use was destroyed by fire. The last of October 
 is late for making hay in Mississippi. On the day after the fire we put 
 our mowing machines into a field of Lespedeza, which we had before 
 thought hardly worth the cutting, and in two weeks we had stored a fresh 
 supply of hay, mostly Lespedeza, but with a liberal mixture of asters, 
 golden rod and plum bushes; but even this hay gave us better results in 
 milk and butter than did equal weights of imported timothy." 
 
 Mr. Samuel McRamsey, of Warren county, Tennessee, who was in 
 the dairy business for many years, says: "This clover made its appearance 
 in this locality in 1870. It is fast covering the whole country. It supplies 
 much grazing from the first of August until frost. It is short, but very 
 hardy. Sheep are very fond of it, and cattle will eat it. It is killing out 
 the broom sedge wherever it appears. It grows exceedingly well on red 
 clay, and with a little care covers red hillsides that are much too common 
 all over the state. If it will do this and destroy the broom sedge, it should 
 be cultivated. It is not good for meadow and is only valuable for 
 pasture." 
 
 Upon the farm of the writer in Montgomery county, Tennessee, the 
 chief soil of which is a deep clayey loam belonging to the Lithostrotion 
 bed of the subrarboriiferous formation, Lespedeza appeared about 1880, 
 and it quickly took possession of several wooded lots and also spread in 
 some older fields that were not in cultivation. At first cattle were totally 
 
107 . 
 
 indifferent to it and would not eat it, but gradually both cattle and sheep 
 began to relish it. The advantage of this plant is its drought-resisting 
 quality. On good soils it will remain green and continue to grow until 
 the advent of frost. Broom sedge, in many places, especially in fence 
 corners, has yielded to its conquering march. It is far less troublesome 
 than broom sedge in every particular, and if it does no other good it will 
 be regarded as a benefactor in its ability to destroy one of the most 
 troublesome of all growths to meadows and pastures. During the period 
 of dry weather it will turn brown upon thin soils, but the first rain will 
 give it a new growth. 
 
 The best estimate of its value was made many years ago by Prof. E. 
 M. Pendleton, of Georgia. He says: "I am willing to concede to it sev- 
 eral things that do not apply to any other plant we have ever grown in 
 this latitude. 
 
 "It has great powers of endurance, so far as the roots are concerned; 
 but the branches and leaves will parch and die out under a burning sun 
 very soon, especially where it grows sparsely. During a wet summer it 
 luxuriates wherever propagated on poor hill-sides as well as on meadow 
 lands. It loves, however, rainy seasons on thirsty lands and I fear will 
 not prove to be all we desire in such localities. It however, reminds us 
 of an anecdote of Mr. Dickson, when he was showing some gentlemen 
 his farm during the prevalence of a severe drought. As they passed 
 through a corn field in which some of the stalks were actually dying for 
 lack of moisture, one. of them called his attention to several in that con- 
 dition. 'Yes,' said he: ; I perceive the fact, but it dies game.' And so 
 of the Japan clover; it dies from severe drought, but rallies again as soon 
 as the rain sets in. 
 
 "It is good pasturage for stock and I think would make good hay, if 
 cut and cured. But I do not believe that our stock like it as well as the 
 native grasses and I doubt whether it is as nutritious as the Bermuda. As 
 cattle love variety, however, this may subserve a good purpose in that 
 way. My opinion, however, is, from a not very close observation in the 
 matter, that they would soon tire out on it exclusively. 
 
 "It furnishes a large supply of vegetable matter to the soil, and I 
 believe will prove to be the best humus-making plant we have at the 
 South, where so much is needed from our clean cotton culture. As it is 
 said to be difficult to gather the seed in large quantities, I intend to plow 
 up the surface where it has seeded, and rake up the grass and top soil, 
 and sow this dirt over my oat and wheat fields, and especially on the poor 
 places. My opinion is that a most luxuriant growth of this clover will 
 follow, which can be turned under in the fall while green, and thus fur- 
 nish not only humus but nitrogen to the soil. 
 
 "Another rare quality of this plant is indicated in the name I have 
 given it 'King grass' in the fact that it absolutely roots out and de- 
 stroys every living plant in its wide-spread path. Not even old Bermuda, 
 which has so long held undisputed sway over his circumscribed fields, can 
 resist its encroaches. I have a bottom long since given up to the Ber- 
 muda. Recently I passed through it and found that the Lespedeza had 
 almost completely throttled it, though like Mr. Dickson's corn it died 
 
108 
 
 game, as here and there, peering above its enemy, could be seen an 
 isolated sprig of Bermuda, which, as it cannot stand shade, will have to 
 yield entirely before the close of another season. I have but little doubt 
 that any pest, like coco or Bermuda, could be. rooted out by this 'King 
 grass' in a few years in any locality, and would recommend it to be 
 sown on such fields, if for no other purpose. I intend to give it a fair 
 trial myself on one or two similar localities." 
 
 The North Carolina Experiment Station has this to say: 
 "The ability to grow on land too poor to produce even broom sedge 
 and to crowd out all other plants; its dying each winter and leaving its 
 roots to fertilize the soil; and its possessing the nitrogen-fixing power 
 peculiar to the pulse family of plants, place Japan clover at the head of 
 renovating plants adapted to the climate of Southern States. It is un- 
 equalled as a restorer of worn fields, such as are generally turned out to 
 grow up in pines." 
 
 SOY BEAN COFFEE BEAN SOJA BEAN ( Glydne hispida.} 
 (Forage, Ensilage and Pasture.) 
 
 This plant has recently been introduced into cultivation in the United 
 States, though it has been known in China and Japan from a remote an- 
 tiquity. It is one of the crops grown for human food in oriental coun- 
 tries. It yields a large amount of seed while the forage, both green and 
 dry, is capable of sustaining and even fattening domestic animals. Ex- 
 periments that have been tried in Tennessee in its culture have been fairly 
 successful. 
 
 The soy bean is an annual, belongs to the leguminous family, and is 
 grown for the same purposes as cowpeas and clover. As a soil renovator, 
 as a hay and as ensilage it is nearly the equal in every respect of red 
 clover. 
 
 There are many varieties of the soy bean. The early varieties are 
 thought to be the best to cultivate for seed. The medium early green is 
 the best for hay and this with the medium early black is best for soiling 
 and for ensilage. Soy beans will grow upon almost any soil, but that 
 which is supplied with potash, phosphoric acid and lime is said to give the 
 best results. Good crops have been made on very thin soils in Kansas 
 and South Carolina. It is a great drought-resister and will suffer less 
 from continued dry weather than almost any ordinary field crop. It will 
 grow in every latitude in which corn will mature. It is not so sensitive to 
 cold as cowpeas or the ordinary garden bean. It will bear moisture well 
 and a case is given by Mr. Robert C. Morris, of Illinois, where soy 
 beans stood three weeks in water during the month of July without any 
 permanent injury. For hay the beans should be sown at the rate of one 
 bushel per acre unon land well prepared by thorough pulverization. The 
 seed may be covered with a harrow. If planted mainly for seed it is best 
 to plant in drills, say 30 inches apart, and cultivate in the same manner as 
 corn. About five or six plants should be left for every foot in the row. It 
 is best to stir the earth after every rain, but not to work the plants when 
 they are wet either from rain or dew. The haulm of the soy bean is very 
 rich in fat and muscle making constituents and should always be fed in 
 
109 
 
 connection with fodder, corn or sorghum. It should be cut for hay when 
 the plants are in late bloom or when a few of the pods begin to form. It 
 is a hay very difficult to cure, much more so than red clover, and it is 
 necessary after cutting to throw the plants into a windrow until they have 
 wilted, then to put them up in cocks with small diameter so that the air 
 can pass freely through them. Handling the hay injures it very much in 
 causing the leaves to be broken off and lost. Probably the best plan for 
 saving the hay is to stack it around a pole upon which long limbs have 
 been left. These limbs admit the air, which causes the hay to cure 
 
 Soy Bean Glycine hispida. 
 (U. S. Dept. Agric.) 
 
 much better, but as soy bean hay does not shed rain the stack should be 
 capped with wheat straw or hay that will shed water. 
 
 When harvesting the crop for seed it may be cut with a scythe or 
 mower and put up into small cocks until the pods become thoroughly 
 dry. The threshing may then be done with a flail or with a threshing 
 machine. The soy bean will yield upon good strong land from ten to 
 fifteen tons of green forage per acre which will make from two to three 
 tons of cured hay. At the North Carolina Station an experiment was 
 made with the soy bean and cowpea upon the same character of soils, 
 both grown under similar conditions. While the soy bean yielded 2 1-4 
 tons of cured hay per acre the cowpea yielded less than a ton. 
 
 l 
 
110 
 
 The yield of the soy bean is very prolific, running from 25 to 40 
 bushels per acre and even 100 bushels have been reported under very 
 favorable conditions. The soy bean like the cowpea may be sown upon 
 stubble land after the wheat or oat crop is harvested. Two crops may 
 thus be grown upon the same land and the land left in much better condi- 
 tion than it would be after the wheat or oat crop. In fact the bean crop 
 is often worth twice as much as the wheat or oat crop, the seed selling for 
 $1.00 to $2.00 per bushel, and the haulm is as valuable as an equal 
 amount of red clover hay. All the analyses which have been made of the 
 soy bean show that it compares well in useful qualities with other legu- 
 minous plants. The green haulm has nearly the same composition as 
 red clover. It is richer in protein and fat than the cowpea. 
 
 In a comparison of many analyses made, it appears that the soy bean 
 stands as well in digestibility as the clovers, cowpeas, alfalfa or any other 
 legume whatever. As a soiling crop it is regarded as one of the most 
 important. A succession of forage may be had from summer to autumn 
 by sowing several varieties that mature at different times. As an ensilage 
 crop it is surpassed by few. It is said that the silage keeps well and is 
 readily eaten by stock, and the animals show good results in flesh and in 
 the production of milk. When, as often happens, the bean is allowed to 
 get too ripe for hay it may, with more profit, be used as silage. The hay, 
 being coarse, is not eaten so voraciously as red clover hay or peanut hay, 
 and that of many other leguminous plants. 
 
 Probably the best use which can be made of the soy bean in the 
 South is. for the fattening of hogs. When so used the labor and expense 
 of harvesting is saved. It also forms an excellent pasturage for sheep. 
 Prof. Georgeson, in his experience at the Kansas Station, has this to say 
 in regard to its value for the production of pork: 
 
 "It was found that a lot of three pigs which was fed for 126 days on a 
 ration consisting for the first eleven weeks of Kaffir corn meal alone, and 
 the last seven weeks of Kaffir corn meal and shorts, gained a total of 191 
 pounds, while a similar lot fed two-thirds Kaffir corn meal and one-third 
 soy bean meal gained 547 pounds in the same time. Another lot of three 
 pigs which was fed on corn meal for the first eleven weeks of the experi- 
 ment, and a mixture of two-thirds corn meal and one-third shorts for the 
 last seven weeks of the experiment, made a total gain of 306 pounds in 
 126 days, while a similar lot of three pigs fed on two-thirds corn meal 
 and one-third soy bean meal throughout the experiment gained 554 
 pounds in the same time. The largely increased gains in these pigs must 
 be credited chiefly to the soy bean meal." 
 
 The soy bean may also be regarded as a valuable acquisition as an aid 
 in the restoration of soils. It, like all other leguminous plants, adds 
 nitrogen to the soil. For this purpose it is highly valued in Japan, and is 
 one of the crops planted in rotation with the cereal crops. It is now gen- 
 erally believed that if planted in a corn field at the last plowing it will not 
 only do much to enrich the field but it will also furnish almost as much 
 food for live stock as the corn crop itself. 
 
 Prof. Jared G. Smith, Assistant Agrostologist of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, says that "the feeding value of the bean has 
 
Ill 
 
 been found to be greater than that of any other known forage plant except 
 the peanut." This is certainly very high commendation. 
 
 The farmers of Tennessee would do well to test the value of this bean 
 practically on all the different varieties of soils. It would unquestionably 
 be a valuable addition to the crops of the Cumberland table-land. It 
 would be valuable in the sandy soils of West Tennessee but it would grow 
 with the greatest luxuriance upon the valley lands of East Tennessee and 
 upon the limestone soils of the Central Basin and the clayey lands of the 
 Highland Rim. 
 
Herd's Grass 
 Agrostis alba. 
 
 Timothy Phleum 
 pratense. 
 
 Tall Meadow Fescue 
 Festuca elatior. 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass Arrhenatherum 
 avenaceum. 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass Lolium perenne. 
 
 FIVE IMPORTANT MEADOW GRASSES. 
 
PART III. 
 MEADOWS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Upon the proper selection of soils and situations for meadows will 
 depend largely their permanency and their productiveness. The soil, its- 
 condition and situation are the most important elements of success. 
 Above all things the soil must be fertile, or it should be made so by abund- 
 ant fertilization. Poor soils will not produce rich grasses. Stable ma- 
 nure must be freely used on the soil if it is sterile in its character. Before 
 such an application, however, the land must be deeply broken and under- 
 drained if very dry or very wet. It is a well known fact tnat underdrain- 
 ing dries wet soils and gives the capacity to dry ones of retaining humid- 
 ity. It stimulates plant growth earlier in the spring and keeps it up later 
 in the fall, because it carries away the cold subterranean water, and by 
 doing so the lower portion of the soil is warmed by diminishing evapora- 
 tion. Droughts are never so disastrous upon well drained soils as upon 
 undrained ones. When the soil is saturated with water, plant food be- 
 comes so much diluted that the roots must take in a larger quantity of 
 fluid to nourish the plants, and the hay is greatly injured by this excess of 
 moisture. Many soils that are intractable may be made mellow and well 
 fitted for the growing of grasses by thorough draining. Drainage also 
 makes all fertilizing matter have a better effect. The productiveness of 
 the land when drained is largely increased, for the reason that the roots- 
 are enabled to range through a wider extent of soil in search of plant food 
 By permitting the roots of the plants to penetrate deeper, drainage makes 
 them more independent of the moisture of the surface soil, and so has the 
 same effect as a rain fall. 
 
 Another great advantage which meadows receive from proper drain- 
 age is in the prevention of the formation in the soil of acids which are 
 injurious to vegetation. Another is that it arrests or checks the heaving 
 out of grasses in winter by freezing. Drainage also lessens the tendency 
 to the formation of a hard crust on the surface after rains with super- 
 vening hot weather. Above all, drainage greatly facilitates that reaction 
 which prepares the organic and mineral matter in the soil for plant food. 
 All soils saturated with water are placed in a condition that stops the 
 decay of vegetable matter incorporated with it. The mineral matters also 
 require to be exposed to the air before they are put in a condition to be 
 readily assimilated by plants. 
 
 Underdraining is but little practiced in the South and yet there is no 
 work that is more essential to a good meadow. Drains should be made 
 from forty to sixty feet apart and should be put at least three feet beneath 
 the surface of the ground, with an outlet that will carry the water from. 
 
114 
 
 the field. Tiles make the best drains, though drainage is often affected 
 by subterranean channels made of stone of even logs and brush. Low 
 lands lying on creeks or rivers should have the drainage tiles placed in 
 lines perpendicular to the general course of the stream. It must be 
 understood that these drains shall have an inclination sufficiently great to 
 carry off the water to the outlet. Nor should there be any low depres- 
 sions in the drain, where water will stand and stagnate. 
 
 If the soil is neither very wet nor very dry in its character it will not 
 be necessary to go to the expense of underdraining to secure good 
 meadows. Select a low lying situation on a stream if possible. If this 
 cannot be done take an upland valley in which the silt from the surround- 
 ing acclivities may be gently deposited from time to time upon the grass. 
 The surrounding hills must not be so high nor so abrupt as to cause 
 large quantities of silty material to be deposited at once. The deposit 
 should be just sufficient to cover the base of the grass but not enough to 
 cover the crowns. In the latter case much of the grass will perish; in 
 the former the silty material will act as a fertilizer and as a mulch for the 
 retention of moisture. Grass must have plenty of water but it must no'. 
 be in excess. Nothing is more hurtful to a meadow than standing water, 
 for after it retires many vacant spots will be seen. Argillaceous soils are 
 often so compact as to prevent a healthy growth. In very loose soils the 
 roots of grasses frequently suffer for want of moisture. In the selection 
 of lands for either meadows or pastures the depth of the underlying rocky 
 strata must be taken into consideration. If the underlying rocks come 
 near the surface the grass will parch up during a dry season. The 
 united depth of the soil and subsoil should be not less than four feet, and 
 the subsoil should be a retentive clay capable of conserving moisture. 
 
 The soil best adapted to the growth of the leading meadow grasses is 
 a calcareous loam with clay enough in its composition to give it a con- 
 siderable degree of adhesiveness, and that will hold the grasses firmly, but 
 not enough to give the soil so much compactness as to prevent it from 
 being aerated and the roots from penetrating to a good depth. The soil 
 must be neither too compact nor too porous. When too porous the 
 manure applied to the meadow sinks too rapidly to a plane beneath the 
 feeding depth of the roots. If too compact the roots are not able to go 
 deep enough to secure the proper moisture; nor can the fertilizing mate- 
 rial sink deep enough to be within the plane of moisture. 
 
 Some sandy soils make excellent meadows, especially when resting 
 upon a clayey subsoil which retains moisture. Strong clay soils with a 
 large admixture of sandy material in the form of chert, or of calcareous 
 matter in the form of limestone gravel, make good meadows in proper 
 situations. It is not unusual to find little strips of bottom lands lying on 
 mountain streams in which the soil is largely composed of silty deposits 
 with about an equal proportion of humus, sand and clay. Such meadows 
 are very productive both of timothy and herd's grass hay. River bottom 
 lands having black soils, which are liable to crack into deep fissures with 
 the advent of hot weather, however fertile they may be, are unfit for 
 meadows. Nor are those lands suitable for meadows that are liable to 
 have a thick slimy deposit of vegetable matter left on them after over- 
 
115 
 
 flows, for though they may be excellently well adapted for the growth of 
 corn, the grasses will soon wither and die in such situations. 
 
 Good meadows are found in the latitude of Tennessee upon suitable 
 soils, with every exposure and in almost every situation. The earliest 
 meadows and those that produce the most nutritious hay have slightly 
 southern exposures but not enough to absorb heat from the sun to such a 
 degree as to wither the grasses at noon tide. A slight southern inclina- 
 tion, especially if facing a water course having a fringe of trees between 
 the stream and meadow, is in all respects the best situation. Large quan- 
 tities of hay may, as a general thing, be harvested from meadows having 
 
 BI.UE GRASS PADDOCKS, MAURY COUNTY, TENN. 
 
 a northern exposure. The soils in such situations will retain moisture 
 longer and moisture is indispensable to a heavy growth of grass. Though 
 the growth will not be so quick or so early as upon southern exposures, 
 it will be continued later in the fall months and in general the grass will 
 be ranker and denser. Soils on northern exposures are also more fertile 
 in a region having the same general character of soils. An eastern ex- 
 posure will grow larger quantities of hay than a western one, because the 
 growth of the grasses on the latter is checked to a greater extent by the 
 heat of the afternoon sun. The earliest and most nutritious hay crops are 
 harvested from meadows having a southern exposure; the largest yields 
 
116 
 
 from those having a northern exposure. The meadows with eastern ex- 
 posures will yield more hay upon similar soils than those having western 
 exposures, but at the cost of a slightly inferior product. From the sun 
 hay derives its sweetness and to the sun it is largely indebted for its rich 
 stores of nutritive juices. Experience and analyses have demonstrated 
 the fact that hay grown on well-prepared, well-drained and well-manured 
 soils is more valuable than that grown on prairie or other unimproved 
 lands in the larger content of its flesh-forming material; in the diminution 
 of its indigestible matter; in the amount of its saccharine and other solu- 
 ble constituents; in its succulence and fatty matters, and in its compara- 
 tive freedom from dust, trash and noxious weeds. Every observing 
 farmer knows that stock prefer the grasses grown on rich, well-prepared 
 land to the grasses of the highway pastures or those grown on poor land. 
 They prefer the grasses grown in the sun to the grasses grown in the 
 shade, and the grasses grown in a dry season to those grown during the 
 prevalence of rain and cloudy weather. The unerring instincts of domes- 
 tic animals suggest many valuable ideas. Shade in a pasture, though 
 desirable to a limited extent for protecting stock from the fervor of a 
 mid-day sun, is highly detrimental to the nutritiousness of the grasses. 
 Some shade should be provided in every pasture but never in a meadow, 
 for all grasses grown in a meadow under shade are injured for hay 
 making. 
 
 Lands intended for meadows should be prepared in the very best 
 manner. Not only should the drainage be made perfect, if not so nat- 
 urally, but the soils should be as well prepared as for the growing of the 
 most highly cultivated crops. It should be put in the finest mechanical 
 condition. Every trace of wild growth and of unimproved land should 
 be effaced. Stumps should be extracted so that mowers and horse rakes 
 may be used. All bushes, roots, stones, trash, brush and the turf of wild 
 grasses and weeds, should be removed or destroyed. The cultivation of 
 the land for a few years in crops requiring clean cultivation and high fer- 
 tilization is probably the best preparation for a meadow. A crop of an- 
 nual grass such as millet fits the land for a perennial meadow by destroy- 
 ing the weeds. New land with fertile soils, however, when put in good 
 tilth, grows the meadow grasses to perfection. If old land is selected it 
 should be deeply plowed and, if possible, sub-soiled; for deep tillage is 
 essential to the luxuriant growth of the perennial grasses. Their roots 
 constantly seek a lower level, and if the land is at first drained and after- 
 wards fertilized year after year, and kept free from noxious weeds, the 
 meadow will grow stronger and better with time. 
 
 There is a great difference in the duration of grasses and in their time 
 of maturing. Some live but a short time; others are more permanent. 
 Some mature in one year; others do not become firmly established for 
 several years. Some are very nutritious; others are more showy than 
 useful. Different species require different soils and in sowing a meadow 
 some regard must be had for these differences. A much greater amount 
 of hay may be made by sowing several species that ripen together. This 
 arises from the fact that some grasses will grow in one situation but not 
 in another and by the further fact that a plant of one species is a greater 
 
117 
 
 enemy to another plant of the same species than to a plant of a different 
 species. Among the grasses that may be most profitably sown for mead- 
 ows in Tennessee are timothy, herd's grass, perennial rye grass, meadow 
 oat grass, and tall fescue grass, with a slight sprinkling of clover. In 
 sowing a meadow each kind of seed should be sown separately. If the 
 seeds are mixed together the weight of some will prevent them from be- 
 ing uniformly distributed with the lighter seeds. He who desires a good 
 meadow should not spare the seed. A wise plan is to sow nearly as much 
 of each kind of seed upon the meadow as is required when only one kind 
 is sown. 
 
 The best time for sowing meadows in Tennessee is the last of Sep- 
 tember or the first of October. After the seeds are sown they should be 
 covered with a roller or a light brush and all stock kept out. Farmers 
 more often than otherwise sow grass seed in the fall of the year with 
 wheat. This is poor economy. A meadow should be sown for its own sake. 
 In trying to save the cost of preparing the land a second time there results 
 in a majority of instances, the total loss of the grass seed. At any rate 
 in sowing grass seed with wheat, rye or barley a whole year and a half 
 must elapse before any returns can be realized from the meadow. An- 
 other objection to this method is the temptation to pasture the stubble 
 lands during the heated term and so destroy or impair the vitality of the 
 grasses. If the soil has been properly prepared and a sufficient amount 
 of good grass seed sown alone in the early fall one may expect with the 
 greatest confidence a good crop of hay the succeeding summer. Often- 
 times the heaviest crop of hay is the first one. This arises from the fact 
 that close mowing the first year frequently kills a portion of the meadow 
 grasses, leaving bare spots. Grasshoppers often eat the crowns of the 
 fresh grass in the fall of the year, and so thin it out. Grazing the after- 
 math, which many farmers practice, does much damage to the meadow, 
 to say nothing of the injurious effects resulting from the heavy tread of 
 cattle, especially when the ground is soft and wet. Tramped in this con- 
 dition the soil becomes, after exposure to the sun, little better than a sun 
 dried brick. 
 
 It frequently happens that a meadow becomes "hide-bound;" that is 
 to say, the soil and subsoil run together and become very compact either 
 from tramping of stock or from standing water. When this is the case 
 the grass will show a diminished vitality by turning yellow. Under these 
 conditions it will rarely grow tall enough to be mowed. The best rem- 
 edy for this "hide-bound" condition is to take a very narrow subsoil plow 
 with a coulter attached and run it at intervals of two feet through the 
 meadow and as deep as possible. This will roughen some places but by 
 running a fine toothed harrow over it it may be made sufficiently level for 
 the mower. The best time for this subsoiling is early in the spring, as 
 soon as the ground becomes dry enough to plow. Old meadows may be 
 made productive by pursuing this plan and top-dressing with manure 
 directly afterwards. This same treatment should be given to pastures 
 after they have ceased to be productive. 
 
 MANURING OF MEADOWS The farmers of Tennessee rarely 
 cut the aftermath. Sometimes it grows high enough during a wet sum- 
 
118 
 
 mer to mow but they usually depasture it. In fact meadows are put to 
 their severest trials after they are mowed in June or July in consequence 
 of the dry, hot weather which supervenes. It is best not to apply stable 
 manure during the continuance of hot, dry weather for such manure has 
 the effect of making the meadow still dryer and of attracting a number of 
 insects that cover and feed upon the small green blades. The best treat- 
 ment after mowing is to top-dress with about 100 pounds per acre of the 
 nitrate of soda. This preserves the verdure of the grass. In two or 
 three weeks an application of an equal quantity of bone meal or the super- 
 phosphate of lime should be added. Some ammonia in the form of sul- 
 phate will have a beneficial effect. Where there is clover gypsum may 
 always be applied with good results. After the fall rains begin stable 
 manure should be applied freely. It is the best of all manures, on our 
 soils, for grass lands. 
 
 Baron Lawes writing in 1858 thought that "a dressing of dung once 
 in five years with two hundred weight of the nitrate of soda each year for 
 the other four years" was the very best manure that can be used. Dr. 
 Voelcker was of the opinion that good barnyard manure is "the most 
 efficacious and economical manure both for seeds (of clover) and per- 
 manent pasture." The effect of bone dust on meadow lands is not 
 thought to be as great as on pasture lands. "Bone meal is usually wasted 
 when applied on cold clay soil." Dr. Voelcker also says: "unfortunately 
 the application of artificial manures to permanent pastures is often dis- 
 appointing in an economical point of view. As a rule, no artificial 
 manure gives so favorable a return as good farmyard manure, and I can- 
 not help thinking that it would be more profitable for a farmer to apply 
 the larger portion of his yard manure rather to his pasture land than to 
 the arable land; for there is no difficulty in growing roots and cereal 
 crops economically with artificial manures." 
 
 A writer in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society in 1869 
 says: "After much experience, I think manuring grass lands is one of the 
 worst subjects to treat. I have seen bones applied and produce no good 
 whatever; and on the other hand, I have seen them used with immense 
 advantage. I have seen guano produce a splendid crop, while the year 
 following the crop has been worse than before guano was applied. It is 
 impossible to give any definite rules without knowing the kind of land to 
 be manured, and other attendant circumstances. Still, money judiciously 
 laid out in the improvement of grass land brings in a more certain return 
 than when expended in the growth of wheat." 
 
 In the manuring of clover fields gypsum will greatly increase the for- 
 age but not the seed. Superphosphate of lime, nitrate of potash and stable 
 manure are much better for increasing the yield of seed and should be 
 applied to the clover after the first crop has been cut off for hay or de- 
 pastured by stock. All manures will, as a general proposition, so in- 
 crease the strength and vitality of the better grasses as to diminish the 
 weeds. This may be seen by the application of stable manure to a broom 
 sedge field- the broom sedge disappears and the better grasses assert their 
 sway. 
 
 In some famous experiments conducted by Lawes at Rothamsted in 
 
119 
 
 England it was clearly shown that superphosphate of lime was favorable 
 to the growth of the true grasses, but not to the leguminous plants. Am- 
 moniacal salts were of but little benefit to the grass when applied to the 
 meadow. Nitrate of soda increased the grasses and kept them green for 
 a longer period, more leaves and fewer stems being the result of the ap- 
 plication. A mixture of superphosphate of lime and ammonia had pre- 
 cisely the same effect as the superphosphate alone. Mineral manures 
 alone increased the leguminous plants and diminished the grasses. Min- 
 eral manures and ammonia increased the grasses but not the leguminous 
 plants. Mineral manures and nitrate of soda had the same effect as 
 mineral manures and ammonia. Gypsum produced its greatest effect 
 upon leguminous plants but its effect on the grasses was slight The 
 most potent application was farmyard manure, which increased the hay 
 grasses and the leguminous plants and encouraged the growth of many 
 good grasses and some bad ones, as well as some noxious weeds. It was 
 by far the best application, though attended with some undesirable re- 
 sults. The general conclusion reached was that drainage is highly im- 
 portant. The application of mineral manures, such as potash, lime, gyp- 
 sum and marl, is followed by good results, though attended with too much 
 expense. The use of bones was discouraged. "The grasses proper ap- 
 pear to be the most strikingly independent of any artificial supply of car- 
 bon. The hay crop is more exhaustive of potash than wheat or barley. 
 A predominance of mineral elements in the fertilizers increased the pro- 
 portion of the culms of grasses, while a predominance of ammoniacal salts 
 increased the proportion of leaves. Those manures which much increased 
 the produce of hay, at the same time very much increased the proportion 
 of graminaceous plants. The total miscellaneous herbage (chiefly weeds) 
 were the m'ost numerous in kind and nearly in the greatest proportion on 
 the unmanured land, viz: 16 per cent, while on the manured plat they de- 
 creased to 2 per cent." 
 
 In summing up the results of these painstaking and suggestive experi- 
 ments, Baron Lawes says: 
 
 "We learn from these results that good pasture grasses can never 
 thrive upon a poor soil; and if a soil does not contain in itself the ele- 
 ments of fertility they must be added from external sources. I may add 
 that if the pasture of a rich soil deteriorates from bad treatment the good 
 grasses do not die out, but only retire from the contest to wait for better 
 times. Under invigorating treatment it will be found that the good 
 grasses soon reassert their supremacy. 
 
 "The general result, comparing the product by the different manures 
 in one and the same season, seems to be that the more the produce is 
 graminaceous the more it goes to flower and seed, and the more it is 
 ripened the higher will be the percentage of dry substance in the hay. 
 Under the same circumstances, the higher will be the percentage of 
 woody fiber and the lower will be that of the nitrogenous compounds and 
 of the mineral matter. On the other hand, in a large proportion of the 
 non-graminaceous herbage the reverse of these things is true." 
 
 TROUBLESOME PLANTS IN MEADOWS The proper care of 
 meadows after they have been mowed must not stop with the application 
 of manures. There are many noxious plants and weeds that spring up 
 
120 
 
 when the grasses are enfeebled by mowing, especially if the mowing is 
 followed by dry weather. The most pestiferous of these is broom sedge 
 (Andropogon Virginicus). If left alone it will grow to the height of 
 three feet after the hay has been cut. If permitted to seed, the meadow 
 will show a largely increased number of these plants the following sea- 
 son. Each tussock of this vile grass before it goes to seed should be cut 
 up with a sharp sprouting hoe. If permitted to grow the meadow will be 
 destroyed in a very few years. 
 
 Another troublesome plant is the fleabane (Erigeron Philadelphicus) 
 known as "white top" in Tennessee. This will thicken on suitable soils 
 very rapidly. There is no remedy for this except running the mower 
 over the meadow before the seeds ripen. 
 
 The trumpet flower (Tecoma radicans) infests meadows on rich 
 bottom lands and it is especially troublesome on strong limestone soils. 
 When cut off by the mower it forms hard knots which will arrest the ac- 
 tion of the sickle. This vine should be dug up "root and branch." While 
 white clover and blue grass are both great enemies to the meadow 
 grasses, their presence will have the effect of rapidly converting a 
 meadow into a pasture. 
 
 THE HAY HARVEST The first grass that ripens for the harvest 
 in Tennessee is the Italian rye grass. There is only a small quantity of 
 land, however, laid down in this early meadow grass. The red clover 
 crop demands the earliest attention from a majority of farmers. This is 
 cut for hay from the time it blooms in the middle of May until the middle 
 of June. Varieties of soils exert a perceptible influence upon the period 
 of inflorescence. On strong limy soils clover is usually ready for the 
 mower two or three weeks earlier than when grown on cold or heavy clay 
 soils. Timothy and herd's grass follow soon afterwards and the harvest- 
 ing of these usually continues until the middle of July. Millet grown on 
 strong soils is harvested in about sixty days after it is sown. It is not 
 possible to define the precise stage in which grasses should be cut, for 
 this depends upon the uses to be made of the hay and upon the character 
 of stock to be fed. If the object is to produce the greatest quantity of 
 milk, grass should be cut before coming into blossom, for at that stage it 
 contains the greatest amount of succulence and will produce the largest 
 flow of milk. If the richness of the milk is desired rather than quantity, 
 grass should be harvested while in blossom. For work horses, mules and 
 oxen and for fattening cattle the harvesting should be deferred until the 
 seed is in the milky state and the blades of the grass are still green, or 
 at least but slightly spotted. For "roughness" or "distending" forage 
 the hay should be cut when only a portion of the flowers have fallen. At 
 this stage it is filled with starch, gum and sugar. After the seeds become 
 ripe these ingredients are changed into woody and indigestible fibre. 
 The seds themselves, indeed, after ripening contain a large amount of 
 very nutritious matter but the value of the hay grasses with ripened seed 
 is greatly lessened and the juicy stalks and blades will be worth no more 
 than wheat straw. With wheat, corn, barley, rye and oats the reverse is 
 true, as the seeds are worth much more than the forage from such crops 
 would be if cut when in flower. 
 
 Prof. Armsby comes to the following conclusions as to the best time 
 
121 
 
 for cutting hay: "Young plants while rapidly growing contain relatively 
 more protein and less fibre than more mature ones; consequently early 
 cut fodder must be of better quality than that cut late. It is more 
 digestible. 
 
 ''Three elements enter into the problem of selecting the best time for 
 cutting, viz.: the quality of the fodder, its quantity, and the amount of 
 labor expended upon it. While any grass is ripening a large part of the 
 protein and starch passes from the leaves and stem to the seeds, which 
 are so small that they are seldom masticated or digested. Moreover, 
 they are easily lost in curing. The hay made from fully ripe grass is 
 essentially straw. 
 
 ."If only one crop is to be obtained, probably the best time for cutting 
 is usually when the plants are just beginning to blossom. At this time 
 a larger crop is obtained than if cut earlier, while the digestibility is not 
 seriously impaired/' 
 
 If cut early there is a great advantage to the second crop, as shown 
 by an experiment at Hohenheim: 
 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF 
 PROTEIN 
 
 TOTAL POUNDS OF 
 PROTEIN 
 
 TOTAL DRY MATTER, 
 POUNDS 
 
 One cut 
 Two cuts . . 
 
 16.3 
 24.4 
 
 434 
 
 668 
 
 2,662 
 3,274 
 
 
 
 
 
 One cut Percentage of protein, 16.3; total pounds of protein, 434; 
 total pounds dry matter, 2,662. 
 
 Two cuts Percentage of protein, 24.4; total pounds of protein, 668; 
 total pounds dry matter, 3,274. 
 
 "The legumes are characterized by the large proportion of protein 
 contained in the plant as a whole, and in the seeds. As fodders, when 
 properly cut and cured, they are very rich, but have the disadvantage of 
 being rather bulky, and of being easily subject to deterioration by me- 
 chanical losses. As a general rule clover is richer in nitrogenous matters 
 than grass. Compared with meadow hay, which is made from the true 
 grasses, its protein is about equally digestible, its crude fibre decidedly 
 less digestible." 
 
 Full instructions have been given in Parts I and II as to the proper 
 method of curing the different varieties of hay and forage plants. With 
 the improved harvesting machinery and implements now in general use 
 consisting of the mower, tedder, horse-rake, six-tined pitchfork and hay 
 wagon bodies, the expense attendant upon saving a crop of hay is not 
 one-fifth as great as it was when farmers had to rely upon the scythe, 
 wooden pitch-forks and hand-rake. This great reduction in the cost of 
 harvesting the hay crop has increased the product many times throughout 
 the Southern States. 
 
 In 1880 the production of hay in these states was 1,412,358 tons; in 
 1898, 4,386,669 tons. The yield has increased from .82 of a ton per acre 
 in 1880 to 1.45 tons per acre in 1898. The increase in the State of Ten- 
 nessee has been still more rapid as may be seen by the following table 
 from the census report; 
 
12-2 
 
 HAY PRODUCED IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 1870 116,582 tons 
 
 1880 180,698 tons 
 
 1890 630,417 tons 
 
 The extraordinary increase during the past ten years in the acreage 
 sown in cowpeas is one of the most favorable signs in southern agricul- 
 ture. It will be one of the marked changes that will appear in the report 
 of the twelfth census. Throughout the State of Tennessee this increase 
 has been within the present decade fully 500 per cent. The haulm of the 
 pea is now largely employed for the feeding of cattle and sheep during 
 the winter months. Those varieties of peas that produce seed not subject 
 to early decay from humidity are left ungathered, and they form no in- 
 
 PASTURE, CAMDEN, BENTON COUNTY, TENN. 
 
 considerable item in reducing the expense of fattening swine and of 
 carrying stock through the stress of winter. This change was one greatly 
 needed, for, in addition to furnishing nutritious food for stock, the pea 
 crop is a good fertilizer. Ncr is the pea crop subject to the disastrous 
 failures of the clover crop, though yielding a forage and a fruitage equally 
 as valuable to the farmers of the South. . 
 
 PASTURES Much land that is totally unfit for meadows may 
 profitably be laid down in pasture. Such lands as are too rough for cul- 
 tivation often make the very best pastures. The utilization of the rough 
 limestone lands of Southwestern Virginia for making pastures has made 
 
123 
 
 them as valuable as the best arable lands of that state. On these pasture 
 lands hog-back ridges are often seen, making it impossible to grow any 
 tillage crop, and yet these lands make the finest blue grass pastures in the 
 South, not excepting those in Central Kentucky, and are worth from fifty 
 to a hundred dollars per acre for the raising of cattle. Likewise in some 
 of the rough lands of East Tennessee may be seen strong growing, nutri- 
 tious grasses upon lands that are worthless for any other purpose except 
 for pasture. 
 
 In selecting grasses for the pasture an opposite course must be pur- 
 sued from that pursued for a meadow. In the latter only such grasses 
 should be sown as mature about the same time. In a pasture, on the other 
 hand, the grasses selected should form a succession of green forage from 
 early in the spring until late in the fall. Some pasture grasses also die 
 out after the first year, while others do not reach their greatest value for 
 several years after being sown. In selecting pasture grasses regard must 
 be had to their turf-making qualities. A grass may be eminently adapted 
 to the making of hay and yet be totally unfit for the pasture. Our best 
 meadow grass, timothy, will not survive as a pasture grass because it 
 cannot bear the close cropping and heavy tread of cattle. 
 
 Some grasses are relished by one kind of stock and not by another. 
 The author of British grasses, M. Pleues, put the case happily thus: 
 "Sheep have strong likes and dislikes. They will hasten to a kind of 
 grass which is a favorite with them, tramping down all the other grasses 
 as unfit to taste. Horses, again, have their preference and cows theirs, 
 and we have even seen swine exercise considerable cunning to secure a 
 feed of a favorite grass. So the agriculturist has as much to consider as a 
 master of ceremonies; he must consult the capabilities of situation, the 
 qualities of his provision, and the various tastes of his company." 
 
 In the selection of a situation for pasture it is highly important that 
 the soil be naturally moist in its character. Pastures suffer more in the 
 South from dry than from cold weather or heavy grazing. When they 
 occupy a thirsty soil they may furnish good grazing during the wet 
 spring months, but the grasses parch to a crisp when the hot weather of 
 July and August comes on. Early pastures do well on southern slopes, 
 but low level bottom lands or north hillsides having rich soils can only 
 be depended upon for good pasturage during the heat and dryness of 
 summer. 
 
 The best grasses for pasture lands in Tennessee are the following: 
 
 Blue grass (Poa pratensis. ) 
 
 June grass (Poa compressa.} 
 
 Orchard grass ( Dactylis glomerata. ) 
 
 Meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis. ) 
 
 Hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula.}' 
 
 Herd's grass (Agrostis alba. ) 
 
 Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactyl on.} 
 
 Meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis.} 
 
 Sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina.} 
 
 White clover ( Trifolium repens.} 
 
 Red clover ( Trifolium pratense. ) 
 
 Four or five of these grasses, the names of which are given above, 
 should be sown together in the fall of the year on land intended for a per- 
 
124 
 
 manent pasture. The larger the number of grasses sown on a pasture 
 the longer the pasture will last and the fewer the vacant spots, especially 
 if it is on land capable of retaining moisture. In Holland, one of the 
 finest grass countries in the world, the meadows are often depastured 
 during one year and cut for hay the following year, and so on alternately. 
 In that country it requires about two acres of pasture land to fatten a 
 large ox. In the bottoms of the greatest fertility along the Rhine an 
 extent of surface equal to 1800 square yards is calculated to keep a cow. 
 
 The farmers of Tennessee should have more permanent pastures than 
 they have at present. 
 
 GRASSES SUITABLE FOR LAWNS Many people with subur- 
 ban places and farmers wishing to beautify and adorn their homes have 
 asked for a mixture of grasses suitable for lawns and woodland pastures. 
 To gratify this desire the subjoined mixtures with the amount of seed to 
 be sown per acre are recommended. A few of these grasses are unfit for 
 general cultivation in the State of Tennessee, and yet as a mixture in 
 lawns they may be sown with almost a certainty of securing a good 
 stand. If it is intended to mow the lawn or yard frequently the follow- 
 ing mixture may be used: 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 10 Ibs. 
 
 Hard fescue 5 Ibs. 
 
 Wood meadow grass 5 Ibs. 
 
 Sheep fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Meadow fescue 4 Ibs. 
 
 Sweet scented vernal grass 2 Ibs. 
 
 Red top 15 Ibs. 
 
 Yellow oat grass 4 Ibs. 
 
 Crested dog's tail 6 Ibs. 
 
 Orchard grass 5 Ibs. 
 
 Meadow foxtail . 5 Ibs. 
 
 63 Ibs. 
 
 Flint recommends as a mixture for permanent lawns and pastures 
 lying within the vicinity of dwellings or public highways the following, to 
 which I have added one or two other grasses: 
 
 Meadow foxtail 3 Ibs. 
 
 Sweet scented vernal 2 Ibs. 
 
 Orchard grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 Hard fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Sheep's fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Meadow fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Italian rye grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 Perennial rye grass 4 Ibs. 
 
 Timothy 3 Ibs. 
 
 Red top 3 Ibs. 
 
 English blue grass 5 Ibs. 
 
 Rou^h-stalked meadow 3 Ibs. 
 
 Yellow oat grass 1 lb. 
 
 Red clover 2 Ibs. 
 
 Perennial red clover 2 Ibs. 
 
 White clover - 4 Ibs. 
 
 Fowl meadow grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 14 Ibs. 
 
 61 Ibs. 
 
125 
 
 In the selection of these grasses for lawns the idea of beauty should 
 be preserved as well as the nutritiousness of the grasses. Some grasses 
 will grow and maintain their verdure throughout the dry season, giving 
 a freshness to the lawn, and yet will be of but small value for the grazing 
 of stock. 
 
 The following mixture is also suggested, which will probably do bet- 
 ter on argillaceous soils thinly shaded than the first mixture named: 
 
 Tall oat grass \ l /z Ibs. 
 
 Tall fescue 1^4 Ibs. 
 
 Meadow fescue 1^4 Ibs. 
 
 Meadow foxtail 1 . lb. 
 
 Orchard grass 2 Ibs. 
 
 Hard fescue 1 lb. 
 
 Sheep's fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Quaking grass *4 lb. 
 
 Comb grass V?. lb. 
 
 Sweet scented vernal 1 ]b. 
 
 Timothy ^ lb. 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 14 Ibs. 
 
 Red top 10 Ibs. 
 
 Tufted hair grass *4 lb. 
 
 Red clover 5 Ibs. 
 
 White clover Ibs. 
 
 Fowl meadow . 2 Ibs. 
 
 44^ Ibs. 
 
 For orchards and shady places the following mixture of grasses and 
 the quantity of seed per acre will be found suitable: 
 
 Orchard grass 20 Ibs. 
 
 Hard fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Tall fescue .. 2 Ibs. 
 
 Italian rye grass Ibs. 
 
 Perennial rye grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 Timothy 6 Ibs. 
 
 Red top 10 Ibs. 
 
 Wood meadow grass 4 Ibs. 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow grass 2 Ibs. 
 
 English blue grass 4 Ibs. 
 
 Perennial red clover 3 Ibs. 
 
 White clover . 4 Ibs. 
 
 63 Ibs. 
 
 For rocky or gravelly lands the following mixture is recommended: 
 
 Red top ..." 2 Ibs. 
 
 Tall oat 2 Ibs. 
 
 Crested dog's tail 3 Ibs. 
 
 Orchard grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 Red fescue 4 Ibs. 
 
 Meadow soft grass 2 Ibs. 
 
 Perennial rye grass 6 Ibs. 
 
 Timothy 6 Ibs. 
 
 Wood meadow grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 English blue grass 2 Ibs. 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow grass 2 Ibs. 
 
 Black medic 3 Ibs. 
 
 White clover 8 Ibs. 
 
 46 Ibs. 
 
126 
 
 Lands liable to be overflowed with fresh water will do best if sown 
 with the following mixture: 
 
 Fiorin 4 Ibs. 
 
 English Bent 3 Ibs. 
 
 Tall fescue 5 Ibs. 
 
 Slender fescue 2 Ibs. 
 
 Manna grass 5 Ibs. 
 
 Reed canary grass 3 Ibs. 
 
 Timothy 4 Ibs. 
 
 Red top 3 Ibs. 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow grass 4 Ibs. 
 
 Fowl meadow grass 6 Ibs. 
 
 White clover . 3 Ibs. 
 
 42 Ibs. 
 
 Prof. Beal, of the University of Michigan, recommends the sowing 
 of two bushels of Kentucky blue grass and two bushels of small bent 
 
 VIEW ox LAWN, UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE. 
 
 grass, known as Rhode Island bent, brown bent, or creeping bent, or red 
 top, to the acre for lawns. He thinks a few ounces of white clover seed 
 might be added, but it is by no means important. The bent grasses, so- 
 called, correspond with our herd's grass. He, as well as Prof. Scribner, 
 objects to the sowing of orchard grass in a lawn. My observation and 
 experience convince me that when orchard grass is sown at the rate of 
 three or four bushels of seed per acre in a woodland pasture where most 
 of the trees are oak it does better than the finer grasses, because it is a 
 
127 
 
 stronger grower and is able to withstand the damaging effects of the 
 heavy oak leaves. Being sown thickly it covers the ground completely 
 and will not appear in a tussocky form for two or three years. My opin- 
 ion is that orchard grass in such situations is to be preferred to any other. 
 Lawns should be sown with about double the number of seed that is used 
 for a pasture. The object is to have the ground covered. The seed 
 should be sown without any ''nurse crop." 
 
 In the preparation of lands for a lawn the greatest care must be 
 taken to have the soil enriched and raked until it is as fine as garden 
 mold. No clods or stumps or rocks should be left on the surface. After 
 the seed is sown the lawn should be rolled and as far as possible all the 
 little inequalities in the surface filled. Frequent mowing of lawns is the 
 only method of preserving their attractiveness and beauty. The grass 
 should never be permitted to seed. 
 
 Bermuda grass makes a beautiful lawn, but is apt to turn brown the 
 latter part of the summer. Where there is a sufficient supply of water to 
 keep the ground moist by sprinkling it forms a beautiful covering for the 
 yards and lawns of the Southern States. 
 
 The question in the South is not so much what will make the most 
 attractive lawns, but what grasses will best resist the heat of the long 
 summers. Any grass, however, will look better than the bare earth, and 
 every effort should be made to have the wooded lawns and the shady 
 yards covered with verdure. 
 
 THE HIGHWAY PASTURES OF TENNESSEE AND THEIR 
 NUTRITIOUS HERBAGE. 
 
 Probably no state in the Union, lying east of the Mississippi river, 
 has such a wealth of highway pastures as Tennessee. These pastures are 
 common in every division of the state. In East Tennessee the "balds" of 
 the Unaka mountains, at an elevation of 5000 feet above the sea, are well 
 watered and are supplied with rich soils upon which several grasses and 
 leguminous plants grow luxuriantly and furnish good grazing for stock 
 several months in the year. The areas of these natural mountain pastures 
 are limited, but in their capacity for carrying stock they are not surpassed 
 by an equal area of the best blue grass pastures of Kentucky. The fre- 
 quent rains in the mountain district during the growing season with the 
 fertility of the black granitic prairie soils induce a rapid growth of the 
 wild grasses so that there is a continuous succession of nutritious her- 
 bage from April until October. During this period all kinds of stock- 
 horses, cattle, sheep and swine, feed on these grasses unvexed by the flies 
 that so often torment stock on valley plains. In many of the open woods 
 of East Tennessee lying at the base of the mountains are found growing 
 in spring and summer wild grasses and other plants of great value for 
 grazing purposes. 
 
 But the most extensive highway pastures in the State are found on 
 the Cumberland table-land at an elevation of 2000 feet above the sea. 
 Broad, grassy stretches of open woods, and acclivities green with verdant 
 turf, characterize the top of this table-land everywhere except in those 
 places where the abundant underbrush has choked out the grass. In trav- 
 
128 
 
 eling over the grassy undulations of the top of this natural division of the 
 State in the spring of the year one is able to realize the description of the 
 pastoral countries of the Orient "with cattle upon a thousand hills." Hun- 
 dreds of streams with thousands of contributing rivulets furnish the 
 purest of water, while the park-like landscapes with their beautiful arbo- 
 real growth of pine, oak," chestnut, gum and other trees supply grateful 
 shade to the stock during the heat of the day. The sun shines upon those 
 airy heights with a splendor unknown elsewhere in the State, and breezes 
 sweep over the mountain during the fervor of the day, tempering the air 
 and making one of the most delightful summer climates to be found in 
 America. The purity and elasticity of the air make this whole region one 
 of greatest healthfulness to man and beast. When passing through the 
 
 Panicum latifolium. 
 
 silent forests of the mountain the earth covered with untrodden grasses 
 and emblazoned with mvriads of wild flowers "born to blush unseen" 
 it requires no great stretch of the imagination to suppose the landscape to 
 be now as it was before the discovery of America by Columbus, when it 
 existed in all its primeval beauty. There are no natural pasture lands in 
 America that surpass the pastures of the Cumberland table-land when the 
 healthfulness of the region, its freedom from blizzards, its ample supplies 
 of shade and water and its beautiful situation are taken into consideration. 
 The grasses spring up in April, grow until late in November, and often- 
 times supply some grazing throughout the winter months. The area of 
 this division of the state is over 3,200,000 acres of which not less than 
 2,300,000 acres are given up to natural pastures. 
 
 Lying west 'of the Cumberland table-land is the region about 900 feet 
 above the sea known as the Highland Rim that encircles the great central 
 limestone basin of the State. This Highland Rim comprises nearly 6,000,- 
 
129 
 
 000 acres, one-third of which area is devoted to highway pastures. West 
 of Nashville in the counties of Cheatham, Dickson, Hickman, Hum- 
 phreys, Lewis, Wayne, Perry, Houston and Stewart, not over one-fifth 
 of the land is in cultivation. Out of the 2,699,520 acres embraced in these 
 counties only 481,456 were returned by the census of 1890 as improved 
 lands. The remainder was in woodlands and natural pastures. 
 
 The highway pastures in West Tennessee are not so extensive as they 
 are in the other two grand divisions of the State. These pastures are con- 
 fined mainly to the Mississippi bottoms where a dense growth of cane 
 keeps a large number of cattle throughout the year. 
 
 The wild grasses and legumes that are found in the highway pastures 
 of Tennessee are numerous. The most valuable ones with their habitat 
 are the following: 
 
 Barnyard Grass Panicitm crus-galli. 
 
 GRASSES IN HIGHWAY PASTURES. 
 
 Andropogons (beard grasses). There are several species of these 
 grasses. Among others may be named: Andropogon scoparius, Andro- 
 pogon provincialis, Andropogon argyraeus, Andropogon macrourus, and 
 Andropogon Virginicus. 
 
 Andropogcn scoparius (mountain sedge) has long been known in the 
 mountains of East Tennessee. By some it has been confounded with the 
 Andropogon Virginicus. It is a good pasture grass when young and 
 tender, but when it shoots up its culms it becomes hard and indigestible. 
 It is not general over the State. 
 
 Andropogon provincialis, var. furcatus, Tennesseensis and others, 
 (big blue stem) though growing taller and stouter than the Andropogon 
 Virginicus, does not so readily take possession of old fields and meadows 
 but prefers open woods and retired nooks and dry soils. The stems are 
 
181 
 
 very leafy. It supplies good grazing and is not so troublesome as the 
 Andropogon Virginicus. When cut young it makes a very good hay. It 
 is not worthy of cultivation but it answers a very useful purpose in the 
 highway pastures in every part of the State. Samuel M. Ramsey, of 
 Warren county, tried it for butter-making as against some of the domes- 
 ticated grasses and claimed that it made butter of better flavor and quality, 
 and more of it than herd's grass or blue grass. 
 
 Andropogon argyraeus (silver beard grass.) This is a native grass, 
 found in East Tennessee among the mountains and on the borders of 
 woods. It is rarer than either of the other species mentioned and proba- 
 bly is of no importance as a grazing grass. It is easily recognized by its 
 dense silky and silvery white flowers in September. 
 
 Andropogon macrourus (cluster flowered beard grass). This grows 
 on wet or swampy lands and very much resembles -the next to be men- 
 
 Setaria viridis. 
 
 tioned. It is found at intervals all over the State. It is not so valuable 
 for grazing as the broom sedge,, though cattle will eat it in early spring. 
 
 Andropogon Virginicus (broom sedge). This grass is very palatable 
 to stock when young and tender but totally worthless when its culms be- 
 gin to shoot up. It is the best known grass in the State and grows in 
 almost every locality. It is a great enemy to meadows and will soon take 
 possession of them if not resisted vigorously. It is the grass that takes 
 possession of all "old fields" in every part of the State. While furnishing 
 good grazing in early spring for all classes of stock, during the summer 
 after its stems shoot up the grass becomes so tough and indigestible that 
 no stock will touch it. After frost it turns brown and is an eyesore to 
 every landscape where it makes its appearance. Its only value consists 
 in its capacity to furnish early grazing and its agency in the stopping of 
 
132 
 
 gullies. By many it is regarded as the flag of sterility, but this is not true 
 as it will grow more vigorously upon rich than on depleted soils. It is 
 one of the leading grasses in open woods and highway pastures. 
 
 Panicum latifolium (broad leaved panic grass). This grass is fre- 
 quent in the open woods of the Highland Rim. It grows to the height 
 of one to two feet but it grows intermixed with other plants and does not 
 seek companionship of its own kind. It is a good pasture grass, bears 
 close cropping and grows rapidly and constantly. 
 
 Panicum clandestinum (hidden panic grass). Much like the last but 
 coming in a month later. It grows in a solitary manner and is found 
 along the banks of the Cumberland river and in bottom lands in East 
 and West Tennessee. 
 
 Panicum crus-galli (barnyard grass). Stock will eat this as greedily 
 as any other species of grass whatever. It is a coarse grass and its favor- 
 
 Paspalum distichum. 
 
 ite habitat is in drained ponds and marshes. It will grow with great 
 vigor in ditches and low bottom lands and furnishes good grazing for 
 stock. 
 
 Setaria (foxtail grass). There are several wild species of this grass 
 that furnish some grazing when young and tender. Setaria viridis (green 
 foxtail) is common to all stubble lands and consorts with crab grass 
 (Panicum sanguinale.) Setaria verticillata, or bristly foxtail, is probably 
 the best wild species for grazing. The millet grasses belong to this 
 genus. They have been treated in Part I. 
 
 Paspalum. Among the wild indigenous grasses there are several 
 species of this genus that are held in high repute as grazing grasses. 
 Paspalum distichum. Paspalum digitaria and Paspalum angustifolium 
 
133 
 
 are all numbered among the grasses found in cultivated fields and fre- 
 quently in the highway pastures of the "barrens" and indeed in nearly 
 every natural division of the state. 
 
 Elymus Virginicus (lyme grass) grows abundantly in Middle Ten- 
 nessee on strong, limy soils but it forms no turf. It is found near woods 
 and thickets, and stock is fond of it. There are three or four species be- 
 longing to the genus Elymus but only one other is eaten by stock and 
 that is Elymus Canadensis, or Terrell grass. This is usually found on the 
 banks of streams. 
 
 Danthonia compressa (mountain oat grass). This is one of the prin- 
 cipal grasses on the "balds" of the mountains in East Tennessee. They 
 will bear the closest grazing and are highly esteemed in the mountain 
 region. 
 
 Danthonia spicata is another species of this grass found growing on 
 the Harpeth hills of Middle Tennessee and over parts of West Tennes- 
 see. It is one of the grasses furnishing grazing on the highway pas- 
 tures of the Highland Rim. 
 
 Mountain Oat Grass Danthonia compressa. 
 
 ARUNDINARIA (cane). There are two species of this grass found 
 in Tennessee, viz: Arundinaria gigantea and Arundinaria tecta. It is pos- 
 sible that these two are really varieties of the same species. In the first 
 settlement of the State cane was the principal dependence for stock graz- 
 ing in the summer and in many sections the whole face of the country 
 was covered with it. The shoots of the young cane are both succulent 
 and nutritious. It grows best on the richest land, but if the poorest soil 
 is once set with it, it acts as a fertilizer. This is to be attributed to its 
 wonderful net-work of roots, the immense foliage it deposits on the soil, 
 and to its dense shade. It is a very difficult matter to break up cane land, 
 
134 
 
 but once broken, the roots quickly rot and add to the fertility of the soil. 
 The roots run to a surprising length and depth, and serve as pumps to 
 raise dormant fertilizing material from below the reach of any plow. 
 
 The farmers living near 'the Mississippi bottoms find the immense 
 cane-brakes in that region exceedingly .useful. They are in the habit 
 of driving their stock to them, and the most luxuriant pasturage is ob- 
 tained, both summer and winter. Cane will not grow in standing water, 
 as the presence of water destroys its roots. Therefore, it is only found on 
 land elevated above the swamps. 
 
 FESTUCA The genus Festuca contains many species that are high- 
 ly valued for grazing purposes. Several of the fescue grasses have been 
 already treated in Part I. The sheep fescue is one of the principal grasses 
 
 Cane Arundinaria tecta. 
 
 found growing on the mountain soils of East Tennessee and in other por- 
 tions of the State where there are light, thin and siliceous soils. The 
 red fescue (Festuca rubra glaucescens) called also Tennessee fescue, is an 
 admirable native grass. It makes a good pasture where many other 
 grasses would fail. Nodding fescue (Festuca nutans) is most frequently 
 seen about thickets. Sheep will eat it but do not relish it so much as they 
 do the sheep fescue. Short's fescue (Festuca Shortii) is probably a 
 variety of the same grass. 
 
 POA Many species of this genus have already been treated in full in 
 Part I. Several of them grow with great luxuriance among the high 
 mountains of East Tennessee. The writer has seen the densest turfs of 
 low spear grass (Poa annua), leafy meadow grass (Poa alsodes) and 
 short meadow grass (Poa brevifolia) growing in the elevated valleys of 
 Johnson county and on the crests of Iron and Roane mountains. Ken- 
 tucky blue grass also grows well in the same situations and gives richness 
 to the mountain pastures. 
 
186 
 
 Other species of this family are common along the river banks of 
 East, Middle and West Tennessee. The genus Poa is probably the most 
 raluable of all genera of grasses for grazing purposes. Scribner mentions 
 
 Tennessee Fescue Festuca rubra glaucesceiis. 
 
 fourteen species as growing in Tennessee. Every species is more or less 
 vakiable. 
 
 EATON! A But a single species of this genus, Eatonia Pennsylvania 
 is of any value for grazing purposes. This grass is found in abundance in 
 
 No.iding Fescue Festuca nutans. 
 
136 
 
 Middle Tennessee and in moist, open places on the borders of woods in 
 all parts of the state. It is a valuable addition to the native grasses and 
 cattle seem to relish it more than any other wild grass. A species known 
 as Eatonia filiformis grows on the dry hills of the cretaceous formation in 
 West Tennessee, but while cattle will eat it in the absence of other grasses 
 it is not of much agricultural value. 
 
 Diarrhena Americana (American Diarrhena) is found growing on 
 the rich soils among limestone rocks. Its feeding value is about equal to 
 that of cheat. 
 
 Eleusine Indica (yard grass: dog's tail) is frequent in all places 
 where there are human habitations or have been. In many abandoned 
 places on the Highland Rim it grows very rank. It constitutes one of 
 
 Ea to n ia Pen nsylva n tea . 
 
 the wild pasture grasses that will make good and lasting pickings for all 
 kinds of stock. . 
 
 Bouteloua curtipendula (horse shoe grass) grows on dry soils and in 
 pine barrens in various parts of the State. It makes a dense turf which 
 will bear tramping well. It is one of .the best native grasses for highway 
 pastures among cedar glades. 
 
 Muhlenbergia diffusa (nimble will) is an indigenous and perennial 
 grass. It forms a dense mat on limestone soils and in river bottoms. 
 The writer has seen it growing in the woods four and a half feet high. 
 There is a great difference of opinion as to its feeding value. Dr. F. H. 
 Gordon maintained that it was one of the most nutritious of the wild 
 grasses and said that this was demonstrated by the fact that much of the 
 beef and mutton sold in the Nashville and Memphis markets was fat- 
 tened on nimble will. On limestone lands thinly wooded and where blue 
 grass has not already obtained possession, nimble will furnishes good 
 pasturage for five or six months in the year. Dr. Gattinger, on the con- 
 
187 
 
 trary, thinks all species of the Muhlenbergia make very poor forage and 
 are not eaten by stock unless they are compelled to do so by the absence 
 of more nutritious grasses. The writer is inclined to think that the qual- 
 ity of this grass is affected by the soil upon which it grows. 
 
 Mexican Muhlenbergia is another species that is highly commended 
 by some writers. Dr. C. E. Bessey, of Nebraska, says this grass has 
 been known in the West for many years as a valuable one. "Chemical 
 analyses," he continues, "show that Muhlenberg grass is highly nutritious. 
 In the years 1878 and 1879, at my suggestion, Mr. W.K.Robinson, a grad- 
 uate of the Iowa Agricultural College, made analyses of this grass, with 
 results which showed that in nutritiousness it ranked with red top and 
 
 Nimble Will Muhlenbergia diffusa. 
 
 blue grass, and, in some instances, timothy. More recent analyses by 
 the government chemist at Washington make a still better showing. 
 Taking an average of the analyses I find the following results: 
 
 "Timothy contains 4 1-3 per cent, of albuminoids. 
 
 "Orchard grass contains G 1-2 per cent, of albuminoids. 
 
 "Red top contains 6 2-3 per cent, of albuminoids. 
 
 "Blue grass contains 8 per cent, of albuminoids. 
 
 "Muhlenberg grass contains 17 2-5 per cent, of albuminoids. 
 
 "That is, Muhlenberg grass is more than twice as nutritious, weight 
 for weight, as blue grass. It is nearly three times as nutritious as red 
 top and orchard grass, and about four times as nutritious as timothy. 
 Now I would not for a moment be understood as considering these an- 
 alyses as settling the relative merits of these grasses. It is well known, 
 however, that the analysis of a grass is one of the important factors in 
 determining its value, and I bring it in here as simply corroborating what 
 the feeders of hay have been saying for a long time." 
 
 There are four or five species of this grass found growing on wooded 
 lands in Tennessee. All of them remain green until winter. In their 
 
188 
 
 general appearance they resemble small cane from the hardness and en- 
 amelled surface of the stalks and the stiff aspect of the leaves. They fur- 
 nish pickings to stock until December. Their creeping rootstocks are 
 very troublesome on cultivated grounds, especially on newly opened bot- 
 tom lands and much resemble those of Bermuda grass. 
 
 Sporobolus Indicus (drop seed grass) is said to be a good grass in 
 wild pastures. It is soft and succulent, springs up quickly after being 
 grazed and will last from May until October. It usually grows in patches 
 and in low and small tufts. It is very palatable to cattle. In the West 
 several species of Sporobolus furnish good winter pastures. Sporobolus 
 asper is another species found in Tennessee and grows mainly on the 
 Cumberland table-land on sandy soils and in the oak barrens of the High- 
 
 Muhlenbergia Mexicana. 
 
 land Rim on siliceous soils. It forms one of the least nutritious wild 
 grasses in the highway pastures of these regions. 
 
 Zizania aquatica (water or Indian rice grass) is found in the 
 swampy regions of West Tennessee. It has flat leaves two to three feet 
 long and its culms grow to the height of three to nine feet. It is found 
 in swamps and on the borders of sluggish streams. In some pastures of 
 the west the seed is gathered by the Indians and made into a species of 
 mush or bread which they relish greatly. Cattle are fond of the herbage 
 and Dr. Gattinger states that in its feeding value an acre of it is equal to 
 an acre of wheat. The seed is eaten by red birds. 
 
 The foregoing, with the grasses described in Part I constitute the 
 principal economic true grasses in the State. A few of the domesticated 
 grasses have been found growing in the wild pastures. Among the most 
 valuable of these are the Randall grass -(Festuca elatior); meadow oat 
 or evergreen grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) ; Tennessee fescue (Festuca 
 rubra glauccscens) ; various species of Paspalum and Panicum; blue grass 
 (Poa pratensis) ; annual spear grass (Poa annua) ; English blue grass 
 
189 
 
 (Poa compressa) and other species of Poa. All these are found 
 intermingled with the wild indigenous grasses to a greater or less 
 extent in the highway pastures of the State. The beard grasses (Andro- 
 pogons) form by far the largest number of grasses that occur in the nat- 
 ural pastures on the Cumberland table-land and on the Highland Rim. 
 
 WILD LEGUMINOUS AND OTHER FORAGE PLANTS FOUND 
 IN THE HIGHWAY PASTURES OF TENNESSEE. 
 
 There are many species of wild vetches, beans, peas and nuts, and 
 several grazing plants belonging to the leguminous family that are found 
 in the highway pastures and woods and in old fields, fence corners and 
 waste places that furnish forage, seeds and nuts highly nutritious for 
 stock. The wild vetches are especially abundant. Among the most valu- 
 able are the small flowered vetch CVicia micrantha), Carolina vetch 
 
 Drop Seed Grass Sporobolus Indicus. 
 
 (Vicia Caroliniana), American vetch (Vicia Americana), Tennessee milk 
 vetch (Astragalus Tennessiensis), Canada milk vetch (Vicia Canadensis). 
 These vetches are found in most of the highway pastures of the State, 
 sometimes abundant, sometimes scarce, adapting themselves to the char- 
 acter of the soil, some preferring a limestone soil, others a sandy soil. 
 Some of these make excellent food for cattle, sheep and hogs. 
 
 The pencil flower (Stylosanthes elatior) is found on the sandy soils 
 throughout the State. It is a lowly herb, growing in tufts and the stems 
 are downy on one side. It has an orange yellow flower. Cattle are 
 very fond of it. 
 
 Bush clover (Lespedeza). There are six or eight species of this 
 genus known to grow in Tennessee. The Lespedeza repens, Lespedeza 
 
140 
 
 Stuvei. Lespedeza capitata, Lespedeza violacea, Lespedeza hirta and 
 Lespedeza striata or Japan clover, are all valuable grazing plants. The 
 last named is an introduced plant and has been treated at length in an- 
 other place. It is believed that the indigenous varieties found in America 
 are equally as valuable, though probably lacking in the diffusive qualities 
 of Japan clover. All the native species are found growing on dry soils 
 and in barrens, though they are not averse to good soils. 
 
 Tick trefoil, beggars ticks, beggar's lice. There are sixteen species 
 of tick trefoil growing for the most part on uplands and siliceous and 
 sandy soils of the State, though a few cling to the limestone soils and to 
 rich woods. These furnish a large bulk of the pea vine forage found in 
 uncultivated regions. They enrich the herbage of all the natural pasture 
 lands of Tennessee. 
 
 The wild "clovers" are numerous and nutritious. Among the best 
 are several species of the Petalostemon and the Trifolium genera. Leafy 
 prairie clover (Petalostemon foliosus), Buffalo clover (Trifolium re- 
 flexum), white clover (Trifolium repens), and black medick (Medicago 
 lupulina) are all valuable forage plants. 
 
 The Psoraleas supply good food for cattle. This genus prefers up- 
 lands and open piney woods. Psoraleas melilotoides, for instance, is 
 quite abundant in the open, sandy woods of the southern counties of West 
 Tennessee. It is a vigorous perennial with stout, deeply growing roots. 
 
 Ground nut or wild bean (Apios tuberosa) grows wild in the woods 
 in various parts of the State, generally in low grounds. It has subterra- 
 nean shoots bearing tubers which are greatly sought after by swine. It 
 grows with a climbing vine and its flowers are a brownish purple with a 
 faint odor of the violet. It bears legumes from three to five inches long 
 which contain from eight to ten seeds. Dr. Gattinger thinks this is one 
 of the wild leguminous plants that ought to be introduced into cultivation. 
 
 The wild kidney bean (Phaseolus perennis) is a very common plant 
 in every part of Tennessee. It grows in woody places. It has slender 
 climbing stems and scimitar-shaped drooping pods with four or five seed 
 each. It forms one of the valuable wild beans of the wooded pastures. 
 Another species of this same family is the long stalk kidney bean (Pha- 
 seolus helvolus) which grows on sandy soils. The stalks are several 
 times larger than the leaves. One single plant makes a large quantity of 
 herbage for stock. 
 
 Still another member of this family is the creeping kidney bean (Pha- 
 seolus diversifolius) which grows in the cedar glades with a prostrate 
 spreading stem and supplies valuable forage for hogs, sheep and cattle. 
 
 There are several wild peas that are held in high esteem by those 
 who depend during the summer and fall months upon the woodland pas- 
 tures for carrying their stock. The best are: The Virginia butterfly pea 
 (Centrosema Virginianum), the milk pea (Galactia mollis), the smooth 
 milk pea (Galactia glabella), and the butterfly pea (Clitoria Mariana). 
 All these produce foliage and fruit that are eaten by cattle. 
 
 The hog peanut (Amphicarpaea monoica) grows on rich soils and is 
 a common plant in the wooded lands around Nashville. The herbage is 
 good for cattle and the subterranean nuts for hogs. 
 
141 
 
 Several sensitive plants grow in the woods on dry or siliceous soils 
 in every part of the State, and are eaten by all kinds of herbivorous ani- 
 mals. The best of these are the Desmanthus brachylobus, the Schrankia 
 uncinata and the Schrankia angustata, the two latter being creeping 
 briars. 
 
 Besides the leguminous plants herein mentioned as furnishing, in 
 highway pastures, sustaining food for domestic animals, beggar's lice 
 (Cynoglossum Morisoni) may be added. This belongs to the borage and 
 not to the leguminous family. It grows in fields and woods and the 
 ripened fruit, which consists of convexed-barbed, flat nutlets slightly 
 joined together, is greedily eaten by cattle. These nuts ripen about the 
 time of the first autumnal frosts and are highly nutritious. Cattle often 
 fatten upon them during the latter months of the year. 
 
 For the raising of swine the pasture lands of the mountain districts 
 offer unusual advantages, for, besides the nutritious grasses and legumi- 
 nous plants there are succulent and aromatic roots in which these animals 
 delight. There is also an abundance of mast, which supplies food for cat- 
 tle as well as hogs from early fall through the winter until the grasses 
 and forage plants spring up with the warmth of the season. The mast is 
 both bitter and sweet. The bitter mast is composed of the acorns of the 
 oak trees; the sweet mast is composed of the nuts of the beech, hickory, 
 chestnut and walnut trees and hazel bushes. Persimmon, haw, pawpaw, 
 huckleberry, blackberry, dewberry, mulberry, service berry, wild grapes 
 and other fruits and berries are greedily devoured by hogs. Thousands 
 of head of these animals are kept fat throughout the entire year by the 
 food which they get from natural pastures. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Alfalfa, or Lucern Medicago saliva 91 
 
 For Pasture 98 
 
 Hay 94 
 
 Soils 92 
 
 Alsike Clover Trifolium hybridum 87 
 
 Arandinaria ( Cane) 18S 
 
 Australian Oats Bromus unioloides 71 
 
 Bermuda Grass Cynodon dactylon 63 
 
 Bermuda Grass and Sheep 67 
 
 How propagated 64 
 
 Blue Grass Poa pratensis 53 
 
 After treatment 57 
 
 Canada 60 
 
 English ' 60 
 
 How and when to sow 66 
 
 Soils 53 
 
 Texas 61 
 
 Brome Grass, Smooth Bromus inermis 69 
 
 Broom Corn Millet Panicum miliaceum 88 
 
 Bur Clover Spotted Medick, Medicago tnaculata 87 
 
 Bush Clover See Japan Clover 104 
 
 Canada Blue Grass Poa compressa 60 
 
 Cane See Arundinaria 188 
 
 Cat Tail Millet See Pearl Millet 81 
 
 Clover 74-90 
 
 Coffee Bean See Soy bean 108 
 
 Cowpeas Vigna catjang 96 
 
 As soil restorer 97 
 
 Hay.... 97 
 
 Soils 96 
 
 Crab Grass Panicum sanguinale . 52 
 
 Crimson or Scarlet Clover Trifolium incarnatum 84 
 
 Domesticated Leguminous Plants. 73-111 
 
 Domesticated Grasses 9-72 
 
 Eatonia 136 
 
 English Blue Grass Poa compressa 60 
 
 Evergreen or Meadow Oat Grass 33 
 
 Evergreen Grass See Tall Meadow Fescue 23 
 
 Fescue Grasses 26 
 
 Festuca duriuscula 27 
 
 Festuca myurus : 27 
 
 Festuca 134 
 
 Gama Grass Tripsacum dactyloides 39 
 
 Grasses How to tell . . 7" 
 
Grasses Introduction 6 
 
 Domesticated 9 
 
 For Lawns 124 
 
 Hay produced in Tennessee 122 
 
 Herd's Grass Agrostis alba or agrostis vulgaris 14 
 
 Soil 15 
 
 When to sow 16 
 
 When to cut 16 
 
 Highway Pastures of Tennessee 127 
 
 Grasses in 129 
 
 Hungarian Millet Setaria Italica var. Germanica 37 
 
 Indian Corn Zea mays 61 
 
 Introductory note 3 
 
 Italian Rye Grass Lolium Italicum 29 
 
 Soils 29 
 
 Japan Clover Bush Clover King Grass Lespedeza striata 104 
 
 Johnson Grass Alopecurus pratensis 22 
 
 Soils 48 
 
 King Grass See Japan Clover : 104 
 
 Leguminous Plants, domesticated 73 
 
 Lucern See Alfalfa 91 
 
 Meadows and their management 113 
 
 Hay harvest 120 
 
 Manuring 117 
 
 Troublesome plants 119 
 
 Meadow Foxtail Alopecurus pratensis 22 
 
 Soils 22 
 
 Meadow Oat Grass or Evergreen Arrhenalherum elatius 33 
 
 Soils 33 
 
 Melilotus Melilotus alba 90 
 
 Millet, Italian, German or Golden Setaria Italica 34 
 
 Common 38 
 
 Hungarian 37 
 
 Soils 34 
 
 Oats Arena saliva, Botanical description 70 
 
 Orchard Grass Dactylis glomerata 17 
 
 Saving seed 20 
 
 Soils 17 
 
 Virtues of 19 
 
 Part I Domesticated Grasses 9-72 
 
 Part II Domesticated Leguminous Plants 73-111 
 
 Part HI Meadows and their management 112-141 
 
 Paspalum, hairy flowered Paspalum oratum or dilatatum 71 
 
 Pastures 122 
 
 Best grasses for 123 
 
 Peanuts Arachis hypogaea 99 
 
 Cultivation 101 
 
 Fertilizers 101 
 
 Harvesting ' 102 
 
 Soil.. 100- 
 
Page 
 
 Peanuts Time and manner of planting 100 
 
 Uses 103 
 
 Vine as forage crop 104 
 
 Yield per acre 103 
 
 Pearl Millet Pennisetum typhoideum 31 
 
 Soils 31 
 
 Perennial Rye Grass Lolium perenne 27 
 
 Soils 27 
 
 Poa 134 
 
 Preface 5 
 
 Randall Grass See Tall Meadow Fescue 23 
 
 Red Clover Trifolium pratense 74 
 
 Effects of clover upon soils 78 
 
 Growth and manure 76 
 
 Saving seed 83 
 
 Soils 75 
 
 Sowing 75 
 
 When to cut and how to cure 80 
 
 Red Top See Herd's Grass 14 
 
 Rescue Grass Bromus unioloides 71 
 
 Rough Meadow Grass Poa trivialis 60 
 
 Rye Grass See Perennial Rye Grass 27 
 
 Italian 29 
 
 Sainfoin or Ksparcet Onobrychis saliva 89 
 
 Scarlet or Crimson Clover Trifolium incarnatum 84 
 
 Sesame Grass See Gamma Grass 39 
 
 Sheep Fescue Festuca ovina 25 
 
 Smooth Brome Grass Bromus inermis 69 
 
 Soja Bean See Soy Bean 108 
 
 Sorghum Sorghum saccharatum 41 
 
 Forage and soiling crop 44 
 
 For the silo 47 
 
 For pasture 47 
 
 Harvesting 44 
 
 Soils , 42 
 
 Varieties 42 
 
 Soy Bean, Coffee Bean, Soja Bean Glycine hispida 108 
 
 Spotted Medick See Bur Clover : 87 
 
 Sweet \ovzrMelitotus alba t 90 
 
 Sweet Vernal Grass Anthroxanthum adoratum 63 
 
 Tall Meadow Fescue Festuca elatior, var. pratensis 23 
 
 Tennessee Fescue Festuca rubra, glaucescens 25 
 
 Teosinte Euchlcena Mexicana, E. luxurians 40 
 
 Texas Blue Grass Poa arachnifera 61 
 
 Timothy Phleum pratense 9 
 
 Cutting and curing 11 
 
 Soils 10 
 
 Stacking 13 
 
 Precautions 13 
 
 Wheat Triticum satirum, Botanical description 68 
 
 White Clover Trifolium repens 89 
 
 Wild Leguminous and other forage plants found in highway pastures 
 
 of Tennessee . 139 
 
 Yellow Oat Grass Trisetum flavescens 63 
 
901098 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY