UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE BENJ ' '" WHEELER - •—•• «nt THOMAS FORSYTH HUNT, DEANAND DIRECTOR BERKELEY h. e. van norman, vice-director and dean University Farm School CIRCULAR No. 210 March, 1919 SUGGESTIONS TO THE SETTLER IN CALIFORNIA BY THOMAS FORSYTH HUNT AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE STAFF In the selection of a farm perhaps the most important question is the gross income that may be expected. If the farm is a going concern the seller should be required to furnish a statement of sales covering the preceding five years. In California the area of the farm is not significant. Size should be thought of only in relation to financial returns. A barley farm, under biennial cropping, may need to con- tain four hundred acres in order to yield a gross return of $4000, while a lemon grove of ten acres may bring in the same amount of money. It is true that the net profit may not be the same in both cases, but nevertheless as a rough and ready means of determining whether the farm examined will be suitable, the gross income is per- haps the most important indicator that it is practicable to obtain. If the land has never yielded a return or is to be put to some new use which will produce a different income, then the vital question is, when will the new return begin. If three years must elapse before any income may be expected, then the investment must be discounted in just the same way as stocks and bonds are discounted when dividend or interest is passed for three years. If the gross income must be estimated it may be done by obtaining the average yield and average price for the principal California crops through a series of years from the Year Book published annually by the United States Department of Agriculture. Under present con- ditions an average of not less than ten years should be taken. This having been determined, some estimate must be sought from some unbiased person as to the relative adaptability of the land in question as compared with the average of the state (page 18). The new settler may be much perplexed because the average covering a series of years is less than that given in statements concerning known yields of the land in question. It may help to clear up this perplexity to state that it is a safe business rule to assume that the average yield of a piece of land over a series of years may be 40 per cent of the best known yield. EXPECTED YIELDS In order to assist a new settler in California, a table has been prepared, from such data as are available, showing the yields that may be expected when the crop is grown by a competent man in a location adapted to it. The figures given below may be said to represent the best judgment of those who, through actual experience and observa- tion, are competent to judge. The figures are in no sense official. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the fact that the figures given in the table opposite are intended to apply to average land and not to the best land adapted to any particular crop. There are large areas in California where five tons of alfalfa per annum may be deemed a safe estimate and where competent men would not under- take to raise alfalfa if they did not expect six tons per acre. On the other hand, there are some areas where much smaller yields may be considered satisfactory. The chief purpose of this table is to emphasize the teaching that the large yields which are obtained under very favorable conditions are not a true business guide. It is necessary to recognize that only fractions of such possible yields are obtained ordinarily in actual practice. Our purpose is not to try to state what yield may be obtained under each given condition of soil and climate, but to give a sort of working basis for reasonable estimation. Thus if in a given region, on a particular type of soil, one determines that it has been found possible to get a yield of thirteen tons of alfalfa per acre, 5.2 tons of alfalfa would be a safe estimate for business purposes on the basis above stated. If, on the other hand, eight tons were found to be an extraordinary yield, then 3.2 tons are all that could be safely expected as an average. However, it must always be kept in mind that the competent man may hope to secure better yields. The second and third columns in the following table are the ones to which the reader should give his chief attention. SOCIAL CONTACT The next most important question, and perhaps this one should have been put first, is whether the wife and family will be contented in the location contemplated. Climate consists of something more Average, Probable, and Possible, Yields' Average yield per acre Wheat, bu 16 Oats, bu 34 Barley, bu 28 Potatoes, bu 130 Alfalfa, ton 3.5 Grain hay, ton 1.25 Cotton, Durango, lb 300 Eice, rough, lb 2000 Hops, lb 1500 Beans, field, lb 1100 Onions, sack 100 Sugar beets, ton 9 Butter fat, per cow, lb... 150 Oranges, box 150 Lemons, box 175 Eaisins, Muscat, ton .... 0.75 Eaisins, Seedless, ton .. 0.75 Grapes, shipping, ton 3.0 Grapes, interior, wine, ton 3.0 Grapes, Coast, wine, ton 2.0 Olives, ton 1.0 Walnuts, ton 0.4 Almonds, ton 0.4 Prunes, dried, ton 1.25 Plums, shipping, crate.... 250 Apricots, dried, ton 0.75 Apricots, shipping, crate 250 Pears, ton 4.0 Peaches, dried, ton 0.75 Peaches, shipping, box.... 300 Apples, box 200 Cherries, ton 1.25 A safe estimate for business purposes A good yield which com- petent men may hope to obtain Yield not infrequently obtained under favor- able conditions Possible but extra- ordinary yield 20 25 40 50 45 60 90 120 40 50 75 100 175 200 300 500 5.0 6.0 9.0 12.0 1.75 2.0 3.0 4.0 400 500 800 1200 2500 3500 4500 6000 1800 2200 3000 8000 1200 1400 2500 3000 150 250 300 400 13 18 25 30 225 300 350 400 225 300 450 600 250 350 450 600 1.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 15.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 15.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 10.0 1.50 2.0 3.0 5.0 0.5 .75 1.0 1.5 0.5 .75 1.0 1.25 1.75 2.5 3.0 5.0 350 450 650 850 1.0 1.25 1.75 2.5 350 450 650 850 5.0 7.0 10.0 12.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 400 600 800 1000 300 500 900 1200 2.0 2.5 5.0 8.0 barley, 50 ; corn, 52 ; oats, 32 ; and wheat, 60. uniform nor standardized. The variation i is due to the fullness of the sacks and the volume weight of the grain. Good plump barley 110-115 pounds per sack. Second class barley 100 pounds per sack. Heavy extra wheat 125-150 pounds per sack. Average wheat 120-135 pounds per sack. Heavy oats in barley sacks 100 pounds per sack. Light oats in barley sacks 85- 90 pounds per sack. Oats in regular oat sacks, about 125 pounds per sack. Beans 80-100 pounds per sack. Potatoes 110-120 pounds per sack. than temperature and rainfall. Humi'dity, wind, dust, fog, mud, and mosquitoes are factors to which human beings are extremely sensitive. In California, perhaps, in greater degree than in most other states certain agricultural industries have been chiefly carried on by certain races of people. It is, therefore, the part of wisdom to look into all such matters carefully. With electric power, automobiles, telephone, and free rural delivery, there is no difficulty in California in making a farm home comfortable and attractive. Examples are found on every hand. Social contacts are necessary, not only to happiness but also to right living, all of which can generally be worked out satisfactorily. The point is that unless some thought is given in advance to these questions, disappointments may occur. If the would-be purchaser is satisfied with the gross income the farm will produce, and his wife is satisfied with the social contacts she will be able to make, two impor- tant desiderata are achieved. CAPITAL Perhaps the next question to settle is the size of the investment. In pre-war times the gross income per annum from the farms of the United States was approximately one-sixth of the capital invested. As the gross income increased in money value, as it had over a series of years, the capitalization of the farms was increased in approxi- mately the same proportion. Both go up or down somewhat auto- matically, although not necessarily quite concurrently. A competent farmer should expect, and no one should undertake to farm unless he may reasonably expect, to produce 50 per cent more than the average. On this basis, the gross income per annum may be estimated at 25 per cent of the capital invested. A gross income of $4000 would require, therefore, an investment of $16,000. This does not mean that every legitimate farm enterprise will, or should bring in just 25 per cent of the capital invested. This state- ment is only meant to give one a ' ' yard stick ' ' with which to measure any definite farming enterprise. The reasoning here is similar to that used relative to other investments. If it be accepted that 5 per cent is a legitimate interest on good securities, it does not mean that 6 per cent may not be obtained with safety, nor that if there are some unusual provision, as for example, tax exemptions, one may not be satisfied with 4 per cent interest. Nevertheless, one knows almost instinctively that if the interest is below 4 per cent or above 6 per cent, there is something about the securities that is not quite normal. The condition is the same with regard to farming, except that the latter is subject to much greater fluctuations than many other enterprises. If for example, the farm is only returning a gross income of 10 per cent or is claiming to return a gross income of 50 per cent on the invest- ment, it becomes apparent that a very careful analysis of the reasons for the facts must be made before purchasing. FAEM INVESTMENTS IN CALIFORNIA The average California farm investment in pre-war times was, in round numbers, for land and buildings, $16,500, for livestock $1500, and for farm machinery $400, making a total investment of $18,400. The investment in land and buildings in California farms under 20 acres in area was in 1910 about $6000 ; for farms between 20 and 49 acres about $9000 ; for farms between 50 and 174 acres about $14,000 ; for farms between 175 and 999 acres about $25,000, and for farms over 1000 acres about $80,000. In California farms are operated in three ways: 1. By the owner, 2. By renter, or 3. By manager. The investment in rented farms is larger than that in farms operated by the owner, because the former must not only yield a living to the lessee if possible, but in addition at least a part of a living to the owner. In i910 farms in California operated by owners averaged 227 acres ; those operated by renters 342 acres. A certain sized farm devoted to a given industry may produce a satisfactory income for one family and yet the income may not be sufficient to pay in addition the interest and reduce the principal on a large mortgage. One may say that it is not good business if the income does not produce a good living plus surplus for reducing capital, but the fact is that many farms are capitalized only on the basis of a satisfactory living. One of the difficulties in making enough out of a farm to pay interest and reduce principal in addition to making a satisfactory living, is that in such cases one must compete with other farmers in the United States who carry no encumbrances and are content with a living. One reason why renting is, on an average, less satisfactory than farm ownership in America is that the lessee must compete with three other men who own their land. In England where perhaps 95 per cent of all the actual farmers are renters, tenant farming is a more satisfactory business. Laws and customs have also thrown safeguards around the renter in European countries which are not found here. Prior to the war the average farm-owning farmer in California operated a farm worth $12,000. This farm carried on an average an indebtedness of $3000, making the farm owner's equity $9000. From the above data and taking into account the changed conditions due to the war, it would seem that an investment or a credit of less than $10,000 can hardly be expected to return such an income as will enable a farmer to raise and educate a self-respecting family. On the other hand, it would appear that an investment of $20,000 wisely made, will give ample opportunity for the development of an attrac- tive enterprise. Land settlement plans, such as those of the State Colony at Dur- ham, are based on such general considerations as those just stated. Tracts are divided into sizes which sell, unimproved, for amounts not exceeding $15,000. It is estimated that the buildings may cost $3000, while the investment in horses, implements, and tools for operation is estimated at $2000, making a total investment of $20,000. However, by specialization, such as breeding of improved livestock, or by plant- ing orchards or vineyards, the capitalization and, therefore, the gross income may be increased. HOW CAPITAL IS OBTAINED Everyone is born into the world without capital. Few young men of 21 have a capital of $10,000, much less $20,000. There was a time, not long ago, when the normal process of becoming a farmer was to homestead a piece of government land. Theoretically it is still an available process, but practically it is non-existent. Following the homesteading era, came the process of leasing followed by subsequent purchase ; not, however, necessarily of the same land. Next to partial or complete inheritance, this is still the normal and usual process. For social as well as economic reasons leasing is not looked upon favorably. From the standpoint of national welfare it is desirable to find some more satisfactory plan. Nevertheless, it may be better to be a large renter than a small land holder. It may also be a good method for a young man with small capital to determine what it is possible for him to do as well as to earn the necessary capital for the purchase of a farm. The data already submitted show that before the war the investment in floating capital, livestock, machinery, and implements was on an average less than $2000 per farm. Therefore, a man could establish himself as a renter at an investment of $2000. It would cost somewhat more than this sum now, but the amount would probably not be greatly increased since a considerable part of this investment is in horses and mules, which have not increased in price. FEDERAL FARM LOANS The recent Farm Loan Act, which is now fully operative, furnishes the means of obtaining half the capital necessary to purchase a tract of land. The Farm Loan Act provides that loans may be made on real estate to the extent of 50 per cent of the appraised value, at such a rate that by paying 8 per cent per year the principal including interest upon this half of the investment will be paid in full in twenty years. The purchaser will find that borrowing money through this agency not only gives him a low interest rate but also is a helpful means of determining the value of the land, since if the government appraiser will not loan to one-half the proposed purchase price it may not be wise to make the deal. If a man has $10,000 he may purchase a farm worth $16,000 by obtaining a federal farm loan of $8000. The purchaser will have left $2000 for procuring teams, implements and for living expenses. The loan can be canceled by paying $320 semi- annually for twenty years. 1 LAND SETTLEMENT The Land Settlement plan in this state provides that farm allotments may be sold having a value, without improvements, not exceeding $15,000. In the State Colony at Durham, the actual con- tracts for unimproved land involve amounts which range generally from $7,000 to $11,000, although a few contracts were made involving amounts under $5000 and several ranged in value between $14,000 and $15,000. Without regard to the amount involved in the contract the settler was not regarded eligible unless he had $1500, or a working equipment of implements or livestock which is the equivalent of such capital. Settlers were advised, however, that $2500 to $3000 was a better sum for those contemplating a contract involving $10,000 or more for unimproved land. The following is an illustration of how the financing is done under the Land Settlement plan. A certain allotment holder with a capital of $5000 received a farm for which he contracted to pay $9996 for the unimproved land and $1350 for certain improvements. He made a deposit of $500 on the land and $540 on the improvements and had i For further information concerning federal farm loans address District Fed- eral Farm Loan Bank, Berkeley, California. 8 left for the development of his enterprise $3960. His half-yearly payment on the land for twenty years will be $379.84 and his half- yearly payment on the improvements for a similar period will be $32.40, making the total payment each year $824.48. 2 TYPE OF FAEM No state in the Union grows commercially so large a variety of crops as does California. Every domestic animal raised elsewhere in this country has been developed to great perfection also in this state. This great choice of crops and of breeds of animals often leads the new settler into error. The correct choice of crops and animals under the great variety of climatic conditions, together with the differences in transportation and marketing, require careful inquiry. Few state- ments can be made in this regard that do not have so many exceptions as to make them almost valueless. Yet few things are of more im- portance than the right adaptation of crops and animals to their environment. Or to put it in another way, if a man desires to raise a certain crop or class or crops, or a certain kind or breed of animals, nothing can be more important than that he should select land suited in area and naturally adapted to the particular line of farming he desires to follow. However, this general statement may be hazarded now: Covering a period of years the products sold from a California farm should bring more than 5 cents a pound or else should contain a high per- centage of water. Illustrations of products selling for more than 5 cents per pound are dried fruits, horses, beef, mutton, pork, butter, cheese, poultry, eggs, wool, cotton, sugar, nuts, vegetables, and flower seeds. Examples of products containing high percentages of water are milk, fresh fruits, sugar beets, melons, tomatoes, potatoes, and a great variety of vegetables not mentioned. There are certain exceptions to the above general statement. While there is an unusual demand in Europe, wheat may be a profit- able crop. Doubtless some of this staple product will enter into the farm scheme on certain California farms. Beans, on account of their ability to supply themselves with nitrogen and even increase the nitro- gen content of the soil for other crops, are another possible exception. It is highly probable, however, that if the price goes below 5 cents the production of even this important crop will be greatly restricted. It may also be doubted whether there are many areas in California where a farmer would find it wise to make beans a specialty if beans were 2 For information regarding State Colony lands address State Land Settlement Board, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. to sell below 5 cents a pound through a series of years. This comment is, of course, made for the guidance of the new settler. It has no necessary significance to the man who has long made this crop his specialty. In the long run, the man who can arrange his farming to avoid selling low-priced products, unless they contain high percentages of water, will be the one who will longest maintain the fertility of the soil and will have the least marketing difficulties. Where crops like potatoes, onions, fresh fruits, and melons are not to be sold in local markets, care must be taken to determine not only the adaptability of a given soil and climate but whether or not other areas equally suitable possess a lower freight rate to competing mar- kets. Thus there are several areas in northern California especially adapted to raising fine potatoes which can not compete with other areas nearer the city in supplying the San Francisco market because of the cost of transportation. On the other hand, the development of the system of carload shipments to eastern markets may some day make potato growing in such regions especially attractive. There are certain parts of California, well adapted to dairying, where the production of cheese has been developed in place of butter or market milk production because of the conditions surrounding transportation. Of course, this does not mean that a farmer should not raise low-priced products, such as hay and grain, but that so far as practicable he should manage to convert them into animal products which will sell for higher prices per pound. LOCATION A good deal has been accomplished in determining the best location in California for different types of farming through the experience of one or two generations of farmers. Certain locations have not yet been developed for lack of suitable transportation, inability to secure water for irrigation, or because the land has been held in uneconomic units. In general, however, one will do well to be guided by the present developments of the several farming industries. In any case, the best developed regions for any particular industry should be visited and carefully studied, if for no other reason than to under- stand the kind of competition one must meet when he places his products upon the market. Farming is a competitive business. It is necessary, therefore, to determine not only whether a given crop can be grown in a particular location but to determine whether conditions are so much more favor- able elsewhere as to make the attempt at competition inadvisable. For example, let it be assumed that a tract of land has been demon- 10 strated to yield under usual conditions 200 pounds of cotton per acre, which may happen at existing prices to be profitable. It will, never- theless, not be safe to purchase such land for the production of cotton if the average yield of cotton of the same grade is 300 pounds per acre. If, however, a tract will grow under normal conditions 400 pounds of cotton it may be a good investment, although growing cotton on average soil may not be profitable. It is also clear that land which will raise 400 pounds per acre is worth more than twice as much for cotton production as land that will produce 200 pounds. It is partly because of such variations in production that wide differences in land values occur. There is, therefore, always danger that the purchaser may pay a price which would be proper for land that normally produces five tons of alfalfa per acre when the normal production of the particular tract under consideration is only three tons per acre. Exercise of the proper judgment at this point is one of the most important, if not the most important factor to success in any farming enterprise. Investment is not altogether dependent upon geographical location or soil type. For example, two orchards or vineyards in the same neighborhood and upon the same soil type may be so managed that one becomes worth several times what the other will bring. A case in point is where two orange groves were developed side by side. One orchard recently sold for $3000 per acre, while the trees are being removed from the other because the orchard could not be sold for $500 per acre. There are cases, however, where the purchase and renovation of an old orchard have been profitable investments. In other words, the influence of fertilization and intelligent management is to be considered in connection with the selection of a particular tract of land. ORGANIZING THE FARM There is a general agreement that the best minimum farm unit should furnish work for at least two men since there are some oper- ations on almost every farm that can be done to best advantage only by two or more persons working together. From the standpoint of the owner of the land there are additional reasons for finding one or more employees desirable. A farmer should always seek to make his own labor more productive than that of a farm laborer. There always has been, and doubtless there always will be, men whose capacities do not enable them at the moment to command more than the daily wage. By combining their employment, under his direction, with that of his own, he may cause them to earn as much for him as he 11 himself earns. He thus receives as surplus income the difference between his own earning and that which he must pay them. Profits often consist in causing others to earn for one through one 's superior management of their services, more than they could earn without such direction. If one does not make his profit by that means it may be doubted whether he is entitled to it. If this point of view be accepted, it becomes apparent that the organization of labor round a farming enterprise becomes an important, if not the important factor. One of the first questions to consider is what wages do men earn customarily when they work at different kinds of farm work. For example, if it is found customary, therefore practicable, to pay a man $4 per day to cultivate land with a tractor, and it is only customary to pay $2 per day to do it with a hoe, it must be fairly obvious that the farmer will only earn $2 per day when he uses a hoe but may earn $4 when he operates a tractor. It is also fairly obvious that if he is to profit by supervising men who are using a hoe, he must have an enterprise that employs enough of them to make it worth while. If experience shows that when milking is done by machine, the operator is customarily paid a larger wage than ordinary milkers, then it would be advantageous to have a milking machine, provided the farmer has been doing his own milking, because he would thereby himself receive a higher wage. It would be advantageous also in case of large herds, where say two machine operators may do the work of three hand milkers. To put it more broadly, the farmer should so organize his farm, especially if he does a considerable part of the work himself, as to have that kind of labor which is normally best paid. CKOP SPECIALIZATION There are few regions where agriculture has become specialized to the same degree as in California. When custom obtains even though it may appear unwise, it is well to recognize that probably there are good reasons for it. The fundamental reason for crop specialization in California is the large variety in crop adaptation which exists here. It is probably also due to the fact that the farther a product is from market the more apt its production is to become a specialized industry. In a certain section, land used to grow potatoes rents for $20 to $25 per acre, while when rented for barley it brings from $7 to $10 per acre. Under these conditions the owner of the land strives to keep it in potatoes as lang as such rentals maintain. The difficulty is that in the course of time the increase in insect enemies and fungus diseases makes the continuous production of potatoes unsatisfactory 12 both in quantity and quality. So long, however, as there are available sufficient quantities of new land to produce potatoes, diversification will not become necessary since the older cultivated areas will abandon potatoes for other crops. Certain soils are nearly valueless for growing wheat or barley, but may be highly capitalized when planted under irrigation to certain fruits, such as oranges, lemons, peaches and olives. The tendency is very great, therefore, to put all such land into fruit because of its higher possible valuation. The amount of money thus made through the sale of land has been much greater than that by any other method. Nevertheless, there are areas now planted almost solidly to fruit which would in the long run bring a much more satisfactory living if one-third only had been planted to fruit, while the other two-thirds had been put into other crops. This would have been especially true if the crops so raised had been fed to animals so that manure was available for keeping up the fertility of the soil. Among the addi- tional advantages of this mixed farming are a more uniform use of labor and a less variable income, the latter owing to the fact that production and prices do not vary equally with the different crops during a given year. "Wherever the adaptation of climate and soil are satisfactory, the fruit specialist may improve his labor conditions and stabilize his income by planting two or more kinds of fruits. SALE OF LAND If a person owns a ranch that is profitable he is not generally anxious to sell it. If a man owns a herd of cows and desires to sell some of them he will, if he is a good business man, seek to sell his poorest cows. Lands follow the same economic law. The ranches that come upon the market are apt to be those that have for some economic cause become unprofitable. This may, of course, be due to several reasons. It may be that it is not possible to compete with other lands of greater fertility. It may be that the growth of cities and the development of transportation have made it no longer capable of competing with other areas. It may be due to mismanagement. It may be that changing conditions have made the area too large and that it needs subdivision. However, thoroughly desirable areas may be placed upon the market for various reasons, as through the settling of estates. Frequently splendid areas are brought into the market through the development of new water supplies. It is characteristic of California conditions that its soils are what is called "spotted." There may be very poor areas surrounded by 13 land of great fertility. Men who make it a business to buy and sub- divide land will find these less fertile areas offered for sale at much less than the ordinary run of land. For this reason, such areas are often chosen for subdivision. Doubtless the men who purchase these tracts for subdivision are not infrequently mistaken as to their real value, or at least do not appreciate the actual difference in produc- tivity between contiguous lands of different qualities. At any rate, what the new settler should realize is that because he sometimes finds undesirable properties offered to him, it does not follow that fertile soils do not exist in California. Such soil may exist on the other side of the fence. California is a state of wonderful fertility and almost unthinkable agricultural possibilities, of which anyone who wishes may convince himself by proper investigations. The purpose of this circular, however, is not to dwell upon the great opportunities of the state, but to point out to the prospective settler the difficulties to be avoided, to the end that his success may be made more certain. NEED OF WATEE The area on which certain crops can be grown in this state is frequently determined by the water supply or the possibility of developing such supply. At least seven and possibly eight of the principal crops mentioned on page 36 of this circular are dependent on irrigation, except perhaps, when grown in some of the localities of the state more favored, so far as precipitation is concerned. The settler should look carefully into everything that pertains to the extent, reliability, permanency, and cost of an irrigation water supply for his farm, as outlined in a subsequent article, page 33. Recently the Citrus Experiment Station has examined about one thousand sources of irrigation supplies. The analyses of these waters show a great variation in the percentages of soluble, salts which they contain. In a considerable number of cases, the water has been found to carry almost a ton of alkali and in extreme cases more than two tons to each acre of land irrigated during one season. Supplies from wells are more likely to be dangerous than from streams or storage reservoirs. In any case, the kind or percentage of salt should be determined in waters used for irrigation. Soils which are naturally porous and well drained may tolerate a considerable application of soluble salt for some years, but there is ultimate danger to almost any soil in the use of such irrigation water. Other soils which are not under- drained and already contain a quantity of alkali, may be totally unfitted for crop production after a few years. 14 SUBSOIL Soils should have good depth and good drainage in areas of limited rainfall. The need of drainage is hard to appreciate or even determine before the land is irrigated. One reason why analysis of the soil is of so little value in ordinary practice is that the depth of the soil and the position and character of the subsoil usually affect the produc- tivity of virgin soil to a greater extent than existing variations in plant food. Soils in arid climates are more likely than humid soils to develop layers of hardpan. These layers are very irregularly laid down. Hence, a careful examination is required to determine the extent and possible injury on a given piece of land. The United States Bureau of Soils has, on account of these structural differences, adopted the rule of examining a profile of the soil to the depth of six feet in western United States, while elsewhere three feet has been deemed sufficient. DEAINAGE Without natural or artificial drainage, alkali is the inevitable consequence of irrigation wherever the evaporation from the soil is greater than the rainfall. "Irrigation without proper provision for drainage has, in the past, in very many cases, been the cause of abandonment of lands once abundantly fruitful." 3 Without stopping to go into the matter exhaustively, it may be said in general, that those lands most likely to be brought under irrigation are the areas which usually lack good natural drainage. In humid sections the water table may be within three or even two feet of the surface without injurious results. In arid sections the water table should be not nearer than five feet from the surface, while a greater depth is desirable. This is due to the deeper feeding area of the roots of plants in arid climates as well as greater danger from alkali where the water table is near the surface. No prediction can be made as to the length of time which will elapse before alkali will appear under irrigation. There are areas that have been irrigated for more than twenty-five years which do not yet show the need of under- drainage. The purpose of this paragraph is merely to warn pur- chasers of irrigated land that they may be required to add to the purchase price the cost of tile drainage. A complete system of tile drainage may cost over sixty dollars per acre, while it is possible that 3 See article by Dr. Hilgard, entitled " Alkali Lands — Irrigation and Drainage in Their Mutual Relation," in the Report of the California Agricultural Experi- ment Station for the year 1890. 15 sufficient drainage may be afforded in other cases at a cost not to exceed twenty-five dollars per acre. Opportunities exist today for the purchase and reclamation by tile drainage of lands that have "gone bad" under irrigation. The intending purchaser should be cautioned, however, to try to reclaim only lands which are known to have been fertile. Lands which have never been known to have grown profitable crops may well be avoided in the present state of our knowledge. GOOD AND BAD LANDS The goodness or badness of land is largely in relation to the crop it is intended to grow. Thus there are soils excellently adapted to olives which will return poor yields of wheat or barley. There are vast areas in California well adapted to grains and alfalfa, on which potatoes cannot be grown economically because of the character of the soil, and on which oranges and lemons cannot be grown on account of the danger of frost. Certain lands which are adapted to raising olives are not worth, and in the past, have not been valued at more than five dollars per acre for other types of farming, but are now valued at and may be worth one hundred dollars per acre for olives. The fact that lands are valued at much higher prices when adapted to oranges, lemons, or alfalfa than when adapted to grains has led to the placing upon the market of a great deal of land for crops to which it is not adapted. The land is good enough when used for the purpose to which it is adapted, but it is bad when an attempt is made to use it for some other purpose. Certain areas may be very good land when purchased at five dollars per acre for grazing purposes and equally bad land when purchased at fifty dollars per acre for alfalfa, or five hundred dollars per acre for oranges. Yet there are lands that are good when purchased at five hundred dollars for oranges and others that are good when purchased at fifty dollars for alfalfa. The sale of land at prices which its adaptability does not justify, has caused greater losses and greater misery than any other thing con- nected with land settlement. The College of Agriculture has definite information concerning types of soil and their adaptation for a portion of the state. For such portions as are known only statements concerning crop adaptations for the type in general can be furnished. No assurance of economic returns can be made. Persons wishing information with reference to any tract should state specifically the range, town- ship, number of section and the quarter section to which reference is made. This information is not for the purpose of passing upon the value of the par- ticular tract but for the purpose of determining to what soil type the tract belongs. 16 PURCHASE OF LAND A person buying farm land in California seldom deals with the owner. This is especially true where a large tract is subdivided and sold to settlers. The owner of such a tract ordinarily places his holdings in the hands of a real-estate firm, which, of course, handles the sale on commission. But even the members of the real-estate firm seldom, in the case of these large holdings, make the sale in person. The real-state firm employs agents of a more or less itinerant char- acter who make the actual sales. Under the present system, the agent with whom the purchaser deals is not infrequently an irresponsible party and cannot be found later to substantiate the statements made. It is therefore absolutely necessary for the purchaser to act only on evidence confirmed from other sources, to sign no contracts that he does not fully understand and cannot fully verify, and to be absolutely certain his titles to the land and to the water rights are satisfactory. Just as elsewhere in the United States, there are persons, firms, or corporations which make it their business to abstract titles. In California, such a person or agency is not usually called an abstractor of titles but a searcher of records. On smaller transactions, more- over, it is not customary to insist upon an abstract of title, but to secure in place of it a certificate of title, which is in effect a statement by the person, firm, or corporation that it has examined the title and certifies that it is valid, or if the title is not clear states in what way the title is clouded. In some of the larger towns may be found an office, perhaps next door to the bank, over which is the sign "Title Bureau." This means that the searcher of records has qualified under the state law to issue for an additional fee a policy of title insurance. While the searcher of records is not a public officer or the title bureau a public agency, they constitute at present the accepted method of securing advice concerning land titles. Under existing conditions, the new settler will do well to secure title insurance before purchasing land. HOW TO LOCATE Probably nothing can make a man keen in a horse trade save experience. No law can furnish a man with judgment. The United States and the state government are endeavoring to furnish informa- tion on which men may base sound judgment if they are level-headed and already have some knowledge of farming. It is, of course, im- .17 portant to "help the investor as much as possible through supplying accurate data, but the buyers must assume some of the responsibility when they buy without attempting to inform themselves." Persons with no knowledge of farming are advised not to purchase farm lands in California until some months of experience have brought them into actual contact with conditions. It will be found of special advantage for the settler, whether he desires to purchase or rent, to secure employment in the location and with the type of farming to which he considers himself best adapted or most interested. The importance of this probationary period is due to the fact that the climatic conditions and the methods often differ essentially from those in other places. A season of such apprenticeship and experience may save disappointment and prevent failure in whole or in part. Soil surveys of a large part of California have been made by the United States Bureau of Soils in cooperation with the California Agricultural Experiment Station. These soil surveys are published with a map showing the location and extent of the soils occuring within the area and a report giving an accurate and authoritative description of the various types of soil, their specific character, topo- graphic position, drainage and other features, together with a dis- cussion of their present utilization and their adaptation to different crops. These surveys are distributed free and can be obtained from the Senators or Representatives in Congress or from the Division of Soil Technology, University of California at Berkeley. If the surveys are out of print, they can be consulted in most of the public libraries where they are listed under the "Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils." The map (fig. 1) shows the area of the state covered to the end of 1918. The appended lists show the surveys that have been issued and their status as out of print, available, or in preparation. In addition to the soil surveys, the Forest Service has made a study of all the lands within the National Forests that might be more valuable for agriculture than for forestry, and lands so designated have been set aside for elimination from the forests and are being thrown open to entry under the homestead laws. Information regard- ing these lands can be obtained from the Forest Service at Washing- ton, D. C, or from the District office at 114 Sansome street, San Fran- cisco. Less than 2 per cent of the National Forest lands are of possible agricultural value. 18 Soil Surveys Out of Print Except in Bound Volumes, which can be Consulted in Public Libraries Bakersfield Area 1904 Butte Valley Area 1907 Colusa Area 1907 Fresno Area 1900 Fresno Area 1912 Hanford Area 1901 Imperial Area 1901 Imperial Area 1903 Indio Area 1903 Klamath Reclamation Area 1908 Livermore Valley Area 1910 Los Angeles Area 1903 Lower Salinas Valley Area 1901 Madera Area 1910 Marysville Area 1909 Modesto-Turlock Area 1908 Pajaro Valley Area 1908 Porterville Area 1908 Redding- Area 1907 Red Bluff Area 1910 Sacramento Area 1904 Sacramento Valley Recon. Area 1913 San Bernardino Area 1904 San Gabriel Area 1901 San Jose Area 1903 Santa Ana Area 1900 Stockton Area 1905 Ventura Area 1901 Woodland Area 1909 Yuma Area 1904 Healdsburg Area 1915 Honey Lake Area 1915 Lower San Joaquin Recon 1915 Merced Area 1914 Pasadena Area 1915 Riverside Area 1915 Surveys Available in Pamphlet Form San Fernando Area 1915 San Francisco Bay Recon. Area 1914 San Diego Reconnaissance Area 1915 Ukiah Area 1914 Surveys Completed but not yet Published Anaheim Area 1916 El Centro Area 1918 Grass Valley Area 1918 Los Angeles Area 1916 Middle San Joaquin Recon 1916 Santa Maria Area 1916 Southern Cal. Recon. Area 1917 Upper San Joaquin Recon. Area 1917 Ventura Area 1917 Willits Area 1918 AVAILABLE INFORMATION "While it is possible to state some of the general problems that will arise in connection with the purchase, organization, and operation of a farm, there will always be many more strictly local problems which can only be settled by personal contact. It is the policy of the fed- eral government in connection with the agricultural colleges of the respective states to maintain one or more representatives in each of the agricultural counties of the United States. There are one or more such representatives in each of thirty-five counties in California. In 1910, 85 per cent of all the farmers of California lived in these counties. These representatives in California are known as farm advisors, or assistant farm advisors, as the case may 19 be. Since their salaries are paid wholly from federal and state appro* priations, their information and advice is as unbiased as it is possible to secure in human beings. Under the same law, women home demon- strators are maintained in some counties. These agencies are at the service of anyone who desires to create wealth out of the soil or to make a home on the land, without any charge or obligation of any sort. In addition to their own knowledge and experience, the farm advisors may call upon the staff of the Department of Agriculture, University of California, or the United States Department of Agri- culture, whenever a new problem arises. They also become intimately acquainted with the best farmers, and hence with the best farming practices, of their particular counties. They can, for example, tell the new settler who are the successful wheat and potato growers, the leading almond and peach growers, the largest hog and cattle raisers, or the best dairymen. No man who intends to farm or is farming should fail to see for himself the best farming operations and talk with the men who have been most successful in the line of farming he follows or expects to follow. Anyone entering upon the land or operating a farm may obtain first-hand knowledge of his business, since there are agencies in the state and in many of the important agricultural counties of the state which will either give to him the existing knowledge which is essential to his business, or explain to him where such knowledge may be obtained. In addition to the farm advisors there are the county horticultural commissioners, the county livestock inspectors, and the county libraries which keep on hand a supply of agricultural books to loan to farmers free of charge. The state provides correspondence courses in agriculture, and short courses for beginners and experienced farmers, together with the more extended courses in agriculture for their sons and daughters. Whether he has the energy and patience to acquire the necessary information rests with the individual. No one who comes to California to locate upon the Iwid needy therefore, go without reasonable authoritative and accurate knowl- edge, if he consults the various sources of information which have been mentioned and which are ready ivithout a charge to serve the prospective settler. EXPENSE ACCOUNT Every family should keep an expense account whether it lives in the country or in the city. Probably farming enterprises with an investment of less than $50,000 cannot afford to employ a bookkeeper. Hence, on most farms if accounts are kept, they must be kept by 20 LAND CLASSIFICATION MB SOIL SURVEYS CALIFORNIA - Lesend — £«il Surveys -made 5/ nee 1913 'Soil $utvey$~7vixcle j>Mort 1913 not include4 in more recent surveys Nnkion*.! Forests - covered by forest littd cl&ssiftcaitioh Fig. 1. — Soil surveys of a large part of California have been made by the United States Bureau of Soils in cooperation with the California Agricultural Experiment Station. 21 some member of the family. Since both family and farm accounts should be kept by every farm family, in many instances it will be found that they can be most conveniently and efficiently kept by the wife or daughter. To one who is not accustomed to it, it is all very confusing at first, but it is really surprising how in a little time it becomes almost second nature to perform this daily task and how little time it really takes when done regularly, as it must be to be successful. The keeping of accounts is becoming an important question now that everyone must report to the collector of income taxes. Farmers need to know what their income is, first, in order to know whether their supposed income is a real income or only on apparent one. Without proposing any plan for the California farmer the following English custom of obtaining their yearly balance is suggestive : It is an English custom for every tenant farmer to take an inven- tory on March 25, which is the close of the British farmer's fiscal year. This inventory is always made by some outside, supposedly disinter- ested, party. In making the appraisement allowance is made for the manure placed upon the land, and for all work done on the land prior to March 25, that affects succeeding crops. It includes an allowance for grass lands recently seeded. One-third the value of all protein foods, such as cottonseed meal, fed during the year is carried into the next year's inventory. Three dollars per ton is carried forward for cereals fed during the year. There is no thought of proposing this particular plan to the Cali- fornia farmer, but it is obvious that some satisfactory plan must be worked out before a farmer can determine the real income from a single year's operations. A simple plan of keeping farm accounts has been worked out and the necessary books are in the hands of the farm advisors in the several counties. The farm advisor or his assist- ant will help farmers to open these simple records correctly, and will help them close their books at the end of the year, so that they may at least know what their apparent incomes have been, and may get some idea of their real incomes. MARKETING Every farmer should get in touch with the marketing organizations which handle his products in his particular locality. The farmers of California have the deserved reputation of being the most cooperative in spirit of those of any section in the United States. It is not remark- able, therefore, that California has the largest number of successful farmers' organizations of any state in the Union. 22 The new settler should join one or more of these organizations, as the character of his business may indicate, not alone because of the increased price he may obtain for his product, but because it puts him into direct contact with successful men of his particular industry. In many cases the improved methods that he is thereby caused to adopt are of more importance than the increase of price per unit which he obtains for his crop. 4 It goes without saying that there may be both desirable and undesirable cooperative organizations. Neither is it possible for any- one to say precisely whether a proposed organization will work out satisfactorily. There are, however, three general factors involved : 1. The type of industry, including the character of the demand for the product. 2. The type of organization, whether or not it is adapted to the particular industry. One type of organization may be satisfactory for one industry and not satisfactory to another. 3. The ability, integrity and motives of the men conducting the organization. A successful marketing organization should accomplish one or more of the following things : 1. Produce standardized goods. 2. Provide for selling in more than one market. 3. Provide organization and systematic distribution of products among successful markets. 4. Provide methods of attracting customers to California products. 5. Bring about better transportation facilities. 6. Accomplish the purchase of necessary supplies to better advan- tage. The type of organization which will accomplish the best results, as heretofore indicated, is rather more debatable. There are certain points which can only be determined by experience. However, there is a certain consensus of opinion on the following: 1. Cooperative selling organizations generally succeed best which deal in only one product or in closely related products. Either lemons and oranges, or wheat, barley and oats, or potatoes and onions may be handled successfully by one selling organization, while strawberries and lemons, or potatoes and wheat have not generally been handled suc- cessfully by the same agency. 4 The Bureau of Markets issues daily bulletins giving shipments, receipts and prices of crops, such as beans, onions, potatoes, and fruits. 23 2. Most farmers' organizations succeed best in which every person belonging to the organization has an equal voice. In other words, an organization is considered truly cooperative when each member has one vote, as distinguished from a corporation where each man has a number of votes in pro- portion to the capital stock he has invested. The comments under this paragraph on marketing are not in- tended as a complete or comprehensive discussion on the subject of cooperation, but are merely suggestions for the guidance of the new settler. CLIMATE AS AFFECTING CROP PKODUCTIONs Owing to its topography, prevailing winds, and proximity to the ocean, California is subject to a very wide variation of rainfall, tem- perature, and atmospheric humidity, which produce phases of climate characteristic of the several large regions into which the state may be divided. To those coming from states east of the Mississippi Valley two general features of the climate of California will be noticeable: First, the season of greatest rainfall is in the winter months; the months of June, July and August being almost devoid of rainfall. Second, owing to local topography, the lines of equal temperature run for the most part north and south, rather than east and west, as in other parts of the country. So far as climate in its bearing on crop production is concerned, the state may be divided into five regions, but even in these divisions there will be some climatic features common to all. The map on the last page indicates divisions of the state according to the prevalence of similar climatic conditions which roughly deter- mine agricultural adaptations, viz : 1. Northwest Coast Region. 2. Central Coast Region. 3. Southern Coast Region. 4. Interior Valley Region. 5. Mountain and Plateau Region. The Northwest Coast Region. — This section is mountainous, being covered principally by the Coast Range. The valleys are relatively small and irregular. The important climatic features of this section are the moderate temperatures throughout the year, the high annual rainfall, and the prevalence of high winds and fogs along the coast. s By E. J. Wickson, Professor of Horticulture, Emeritus. 24 At Eureka in Humboldt County the highest temperature recorded is 85.2 (June 6, 1903), while the lowest is 20 (January 4, 1888). In most portions of this section the rainfall varies from 40 to 100 inches. This variation, however, is mainly due to elevation. It should be noted that from year to year the rainfall may vary in any one place more than 100 per cent, and as stated above, it is always smallest in July and August. This section most nearly resembles the east-north central and middle Atlantic states in its agricultural operations and possibilities. It is eminently suited for the production of forage grasses and clover, and to dairying, and has also demonstrated success with several fruits in proper soils and exposures. The Central Coast Region. — This region includes coast slopes, many small valleys, a few of considerable size, and a large area of foothills and mountains west of the high ridge of the Coast Range, which at several points attains an elevation of about 4000 feet. Among the valleys are those of the San Francisco Bay district — the pioneer regions of commercial crop-growing and which now constitute one of the largest highly developed and densely populated agricultural districts of the state. Central in this district lies the City and County of San Francisco, which enjoys the unique distinction of having pro- duced the tallest sky-scrapers and the broadest cabbage fields in the state. North of San Francisco are the coast valleys which are great producers of dairy and poultry products, fruits and field crops, and south of San Francisco are the bay-shore valleys long noted for truck crops, fruits — the prunes of Santa Clara and the apples of Pajaro valleys — and the hay, grain, and sugar beets of Salinas and Santa Maria valleys, while adjacent hill lands are largely used for grazing and, on the coast side, for the dairy industry. The Central Coast Region is very diversified in topography, inter- mediate in temperatures and rainfall between its neighboring coast districts north and south, and it has a range of products wide as the state itself, except that citrus fruits are not commercially produced, although grown by amateurs at favoring elevations and exposures. The Southern Coast Region. — This region extends from the point where the coast takes a sharp eastward turn and proceeds southward to the southern boundary of the state. Its width is determined by the distance of the high ridge of the Coast Range from the ocean — narrow at the west, increasing toward the central part, where the San Gabriel and Santa Ana valleys extending northerly and easterly to the foot of Mt. San Bernardino, and then narrowing again to its southern limit 25 just below San Diego Bay. Owing to its environment and exposure, as well as its latitude, this region has more heat than the more northerly coast regions, though in its extensions away from the ocean it has had in some places and at long intervals a brief drop in tempera- ture to a degree as low as other valleys with similar elevations. It is on the whole, however, most equable in its temperatures and by this widely known characteristic has attracted settlement and development in some respects beyond other districts of the state. The products of the district are large and various, including most of the present pro- duction of citrus fruits and walnuts, most of the beans, much of the sugar beets and truck crops for overland shipment, and dairy, poultry, hay, grain, and orchard fruits for a part of its local consumption. It is for the most part an irrigated district, though some crops are successfully made along the coast by rainfall. The Interior Valleys Region. — This region extends from the north end of the Sacramento Valley southward through the length of the San Joaquin Valley to the Tehachapi Mountains, which form its southern boundary. This pair of connected valleys constitute what is properly called l ' The Great Valley of California, ' ' about 400 miles long and from 40 to 60 miles wide. It contains a larger body of pro- ductive land than any other subdivision of the state. Central on the west side of the Great Valley are the deltas of the two great rivers whose names designate their respective valleys. The break in the Coast Range which gives outlet to their waters to the Bay of San Francisco, also admits an interior extension of coast influences which modify climatic conditions over these deltas and adjacent lands, as is indicated by the circular intrusion of Division 2 into Divison 4 as shown on the map. This circular area is somewhat different in climatic characters, however, from that of either of the divisions to which it is related, for it is a blending of the two. In the extreme southeast part of the state is another area marked Division 4 which is thus connected with the Great Valley because it has closer resemblance thereto, both in characters and products, than to any other region of the state. It comprises the Imperial Valley and other valleys adjacent to the Colorado River. It differs from the Great Valley in having a higher temperature both in summer and winter and in its rainfall, which is practically negligible, as all cropping is conditioned upon irrigation. The Great Valley differs from the coast regions west of it in having a lower winter temperature, because its dominating environment is the snow-clad Sierra on its east side, while the dominating environ- 26 ment of the coast is the ocean. This contrast is more marked through the central and southward stretches of the Great Valley. Another contrast is found in summer temperatures which may average more than twenty degrees higher on the east than on the west side of the Coast Range, because the ocean then has a cooling effect upon the regions open to its influence. In rainfall the Great Valley has such marked differences that generalization is impossible. Roughly speaking, the Sacramento Val- ley may be said to have from 20 to 40 inches of rainfall in different years, while the San Joaquin has from 4 to 16. This variation in rainfall is, however, overcome by irrigation which is practiced in the Great Valley over a greater acreage of land than in any other region of the state. The products include all grown anywhere in the state. The Mountain and Plateau Region. — It has been found by obser- vation during many years that what are known as valley conditions prevail to an elevation of about fifteen hundred feet over the rolling region known as the "foothills" — which are the steps up to the high ranges. Above this elevation winter temperatures fall lower, rainfall increases, snow flurries begin, and thence upward mountain valleys and plateaux are found at different levels up to about six thousand feet, which is about the top of California's agricultural lands, and above four thousand feet such lands are used principally for summer pasturage. This mountain region has a winter like that of the eastern states with a great precipitation of rain and snow to cause great rivers to flow down the west side of the Sierra and give the state its invaluable and ample water supply for power and irrigation. In the valleys among the great snow mountains there are farming districts of considerable present production and great future promise. The most marked character of these high lands is the limitations placed upon cropping by the short growing season and the frequency of frosts during the spring and, at the higher elevations, even during the summer months. Therefore this division differs most markedly from other California regions and has closer resemblance to some of the interior states than to the coast and valley areas of our own state. In this region there is a modification of low temperatures from the north to the south, for the mountain region is more open to the influence of north and south latitude and is not so fully dominated by local topography and ocean influences, which give to the rest of the state its unique climatic characters. 27 CHARACTERISTICS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS6 In the humid regions of the world, and especially in the humid region of the United States, practically nine-tenths of the soils are either of residual or of glacial origin. The glacial soils have been transported and deposited by ice, and while the glacial deposits may be very deep, the true soil is not deep. The subsoil is usually heavier than the surface, often clayey, and the practical feeding depth of roots is usually less than four feet. The residual soils are much more extensive than the glacial soils. They are formed by the destruction of rock masses, the disintegrated and decomposed fragments accumu- lating on the surface of the hard rock to form the soil mass. Resi- dual soils usually have a surface soil six or eight inches deep, resting on heavier material that grades to a clay at two or three feet in depth. At greater depths rock fragments are found in the clay and these grow more numerous until the mass is largely broken or ' ' rotten rock, ' ' and finally the solid rock mass is reached. (See fig. 2.) The total depth of the soil mass above the rock varies greatly, but usually is less than four feet. In the humi'd regions, the transported soils, other than those formed by glacial action, are of little extent. The flood plains and bench lands along the rivers and creeks are exceedingly productive, but their total area is small compared with the residual and glacial LOAMY SOIL CLAYEY SUBSOIL DECOMPOSED ROCK ROCK Fig. 2. — Section of a typical resi- dual soil showing gradation from soil through clay, rotten rock to solid rock. soils. In California, as in all arid regions, the residual soils available for agriculture are of relatively limited extent, forming about 10 per cent of the arable lands of the state. They are found on hill slopes and on mountain sides and their topographic position makes irrigation exceedingly difficult or impossible, while the shallow soil mass makes dry farming precarious. In the Coast Ranges and on the Sierra foothills are some successfully farmed residual soils, but their total area is relatively small. s By Charles F. Shaw, Professor of Soil Technology. 28 By far the larger portion of the agricultural lands in the state are transported soils. For uncounted ages the winter rains have been washing the rock fragments from the mountain sides and carrying the material out to the valleys, spreading the mass out as broad sloping alluvial fans or as relatively flat valley floor. The accumu- lation of sediments in the valleys is often hundreds or even thousands of feet deep (fig. 3). Soils formed in this way may be quite uniform to great depths or may be made up of successive layers of varying texture, sands, silts, gravels or clays. As the soils are laid down a little at a time, year after year, they have been acted upon by weathering agencies breaking up the particles and making the plant food quite available. Under the climatic conditions that exist, with the hot dry summers and the low rainfall in winter, the weathering action of air and water, the beneficial action of bacteria and the formation of humus in the soil, occur to considerable depths. Roots ordinarily penetrate to depths of six to eight feet below the surface. In studying the soil, it is necessary to consider at least a six-foot section, instead of the usual three-foot section of the humid regions. The climatic conditions of the region and the mode of formation of the soils, have brought about many features that are not common to the soils of a humid region. Owing to the deficiency of rain, the soils have never been subject to any great degree of leaching and most of the soluble materials have been left in the soil mass. These transported soils fall into two groups — the recent trans- ported soils and the old transported soils. The recent soils form about three-fifths of the arable lands of the state and represent the best and most desirable soils. The soil mass is usually quite deep, and uni- form in general character. Nearly two-thirds of these soils have excellent textures, ranging from sandy loams to clay loams. These soils are easy to work and take irrigation water readily, making them very desirable for almost any type of farming. About 10 per cent of these soils are of a sandy or gravelly nature, loose and open, and of a ' 'leachy" character. Because of the low rainfall and consequent lack of leaching, however, the sands are much more productive than are similar soils in a humid region. Properly handled they give very good yields, and because they are warm, "early" soils, they are especially adapted to special crops such as melons and sweet potatoes. Where these soils are too loose and open there is difficulty in irrigation, owing to excessive seepage. Properly farmed, these sandy soils prove very productive and desirable. 29 LJ o P Hs p 3 Hs I 3 a I cd m. in: £ P p CO 3 f. , ?° t> er ® ^ to V! • cs §•« c+ P P rt P P CM fD £& CD CD hi C5 ~ P M f ^ cm Ofq p' CD o ^ a 4 P cd p o >-s SIS. p P- |crq CM CD Hi