SoMiH Australia S :}].] STORY, PRODUCTIONS, N ATI) R A L RESOURCES. »;:;■/•'■'• V THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES ^ /: SOUTH AUSTRALIA: History, Productions, N^ATURAL Resources. / \U 3' §♦ ^^^^. /S': «> WRITTEN FOR THE CALCUTTA EXHIBITION By request of the South Australian Government.'^ -ee ]':. SPILLER, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, NORTH-TERRACE. 1883. PREFACE. The Government of South Australia having honored me with a request to prepare a brief sketch of the foundation and progress of the colony, witn some account of its products, industries, natural resources, and climate, this volume is the result. It is intended to give visitors to the Calcutta Exhibi- tion, whose attention has not been directed to South Australia, reliable information with regard to that province. This being its special object, and on account moreover of its publication under official authority, party politics are avoided in its pages. In preparing this little work, I have been assisted by my acquaintance with the subject of which it treats, gained during a residence of over forty years in the colony, and by the com- mand of a great collection of materials, in print and manu- script, in my own possession. I have also freely consulted Dutton's, Forster's, and Harcus's histories. Bull's Recollec- tions, Earl's Handbook of Tropical Australia, and other authorities ; and my labors have been facilitated by the assist- ance cordially rendered to me by all departments of the public service. J. P. STOW. South Terrace, Adelaide, August 30TH, 1883. RRTTIQn EMPIRE CONTENTS Pagi.. CHAPTER I. - - - 1 South Australia — Absurdity of its name — Boundaries — Original limits — No Man's Land — Northern Territory— South Australia proper — Discoverjr^Flinders — His coast exploration — Kangaroo Island — Capt. Sutherland — Disappearance of Kangaroo — Capt. Sturt's voyage down the Murraj^ — Capt. Barker — His ascent of Mount Lofty and crossing the ranges to the Lakes — Capt. John Jones and his discovery of the creek now forming Port Adelaide. CHAPTER n. ..-.----- 6 Establishment of the Colonj- — The Wakefield system — Land inmiigration — No convicts from the Old World — No State Church — The foun- ders of the Colony— First Commissioners. CHAPTER ni. .....--.- 12 The first vessels— Colonel Light— Lieutenant Pullen — Kangaroo Island — Port Lincoln — Encounter Bay — The Murray Mouth -Sir John Jeilcott — Port Adelaide — Adelaide — Discovery of River Torrens — Site of Adelaide — Captain Hindmarsh, the first Governor — Disagree ments about the site of the capital -Delays in surveys — Mr. Kings- ton's scheme of survey— -Colonel Light's death — Governor Hind- marsh's recall — Arrival of Colonel Gawler — Extravagant administra- tion — The colony deeply in debt— Colonists concentrated about the metropolis — Financial crash — Oveilanders with cattle and sheep — Ej're's explorations — His journey to King George's Sound — Captain Grey's arrival — Retrenchment— Distress — Improved condition of affairs — Rapid advance of agriculture — Mineral discoveries— Silver lead mines — The Kapunda Mine — The Burra — General progress — Captain Sturt's explorations, and discovery of Cooper's Creek — Captain Grey appointed Governor of New Zealand. CHAPTER IV.— 1845 to 1855 ------- 21 Major Robe— State aid to religion -The Burra mine -Attempt to impose royalties on mines— Sir Henry Young- First instalment of Repre- sentative Government — Victorian diggings — Bullion Act — Land system of Victoria the salvation of South Australia — Prices of pro- duce — The Murray trade — Goolwa and Port Elliot tramway and harbor works— District Councils' progi'ess. vi. CONTf:NTS. Page. CHAPTP:K v. — 18r>5 to 1862 ------- 29 Sir Richard MacDonnell — Xew Constitution — Real Propertj^ Act — Dis- putes between the two Houses — Real Property Act - Mineral disco- veries on Yorke's Peninsula — The Wallaroo and Moonta mines — Exploratoin and Explorers — Gregory, Babhage, and Warhurton — Stuart crosses the continent— Burke and Wills -Their sad fate — McKinlay — Howitt recovers remains of Burke and Wills — Northern Territory annexed to South Australia — First railway — Progress. CHAPTER YL— 1862 to 1869 37 Sir Dominic Daly — The Judges — Mr. Justice Boothby — Invalidity of South Australian Acts — -The ultra vires and "repugnancy" mania — Amo^-al of Mr. Justice Boothby — Validating Acts — Local Courts — Expedition to the Northern Territory to establish a settlement— Dis- putes — Recall of Mr. Finniss, the Government Resident — John McKinlay's expedition — Captain Cadell — The Squatters and Goyder's valuations — Visit of the Duke of Edinburgh — Parliamentary contests, generally about nothing — The Governor's death— Progress. CHAPTER YIL— 1869 to 1873 ..---. 43 Colonel Hamlcy — Strangways' Act — Killing a squatter — Sir James Fergusson— Further amendment of the land system — The transcon- tinental telegraph — Gold discoveries in the Northern Tenitory — Forrest's journey by Eyre's route from Western Australia to Fowler's Bay — Raih^ays — Progress. CHAPTER Vni.— 1873 to 1877 51 Sir Anthony Musgravc — The Chief Justice — The Boucaut policy — Wreck of the Goiheuhurg and loss of life, including Judge Wearing and the Hon. Thomas Reynolds — Mr. R. I. Stow appointed judge- — New Parliament — Increase in number of members — The Blyth Ministry defeated and succeeded by the Boucaut Cabinet — Stamp Duties Bill rejected by the Legislative Council — Second session, and Bill again rejected — Mr. Boucaut refuses to proceed with his Public Works Bills — Education Act — Sir Richard Hanson's death — Mr. Way appointed Chief Justice — Mr. Boucaut constructs new Ministry, without any of his old colleagues — Ejected from oflSce — The Colton Ministry — Stamp duties abandoned— Probate and Succession Duties carried — £3,000,000 bonowed — Railway 15ills carried — First private Tramway Bill — New Tariff — Border Duties Convention — Sundry Legislation — Sii" Anthony Musgrave's departure — Eucla telegraph — Progress. CONTENTS. vii. Page. CHAPTER IX.— 1877 to 1883 57 The Cliief Justice — Arrival of Sir "W. "W. Cairns, and his departure on account of ill-heaith— Arrival of Sir William Jervois — Australian defences— Quarrel between the Colton Ministry and the Upper House — Colton Ministry defeated on a crisis motion — The second Boucaut Ministry — Crown Lands Act — Death of Mr. Justice Stow — Mr. Boucaut, the Premier, appointed Judge — Mr. Justice Gwynne retired several years later and was succeeded hy the Cro^\^l Solicitor, Mr. Andrews— The Morgan Ministry — The Volunteers — The Forts — "War Vessel — Morgan's retirement — The Bray Ministry — Upper House Reform— Eail way Construction — The Naime line— The Jubilee Exhibition — The Transcontinental line — Other Railways — Rise in the Value of Property — Progress — Arrival of Sir William Robinson. CHAPTER X. - 66 The Constitution — Administration of Justice — The Press. CHAPTER XL— Adelaide ----- - - 75 Adelaide — Colonel Light's choice of the site— The Torrens — Wide streets — Post Office — Town Hall — King William- street — Value of frontages — Markets — Terraces — Government Buildings — Park lands — Botanic Gardens — Mount Lofty Range — Suburbs— City Corporation — As- sessment — The Dam — Port Adelaide — Towns lietween the Port and the City — LeFevre's Peninsula — The Semaphore— Largs Bay and jetty — The forts — Glenelg— Henley Beach — The Grange — Brighton — Kensington and Norwood — Unley — Gawler — Kapimda — The Burra — Port Augusta — Port Pirie — ^Yorke's Peninsula, its mines and towns — Wallaroo Bay — The hills and towns east of Adelaide — Mount Gambler and the Blue Lake — Port MacDonnell — Beach- port and other south-eastern towns and ports — Naracoorte and its famous caves— Bordertown. CHAPTER XII. 84 The first wheat crops — South Australia the granary of New Holland- Ridley's stripper — Farmers too exclusively stick to wheat-growing — The drained lands of the South- East — Roots, potatoes, and other crops — Progress - Experimental Farm — Scrub lands — Fruit trees and plants — The olive — Sericulture — The wine industry — Raisins and other dried fruits — Forest culture — Government plantations and nurseries — The land system — Concessions to distressed credit pur- chasers of agricultui-al land. viii. CONTENTS. ^ Page. CHAPTER XIII. 93 Definition of terms — Early importations of live i3tock by sea — The over- landers with cattle and sheep — Mr. Charles Bonney — Mr. Eyre, the explorer — Encoimters of overlanders -with the blacks — The Murray and Coorong routes — The Australian horse — Draught horses — Cattle — Durhams — Herefords — Driving cattle — Richness of the pasture — Cattle from Gulf of Carpentaria and their weight— Effect of fencing the country on travelling stock — Carrying them by rail — Sheep — The Merino — Other breeds — Crossbreeds — Great fall in prices of mutton between 1838 and 1844 — Effect of the diggings — Mutton and beef rise again in value — Demand for store sheep for Queensland— Another fall to lowest rates in 1869 — Since then prices have varied — Statistics — Diseases of the flocks and herds — The land system as applied to the pastoral interest. CHAPTER XIV. --------- 102 The Mines and Mineral leases — Fii'st impressions of the early settlers — Mr. Menge — The Glen Osmond and other silver lead mines — Copper mines — The Kapunda Mine— The Montacute— The Bm-ra — The "Wallaroo and Moonta gold mines — The Bird-in-Hand — The Alma — Miscellaneous — Silver, lead, copper, bismuth, gold— Exports — The land system and mining regiilations. CHAPTER XV. - - - - 108 Trade and Revenue — Imports and Exports — Brcadstuffs — Wool — Minerals — Other exports — Manufactures — Tariff — Shipping. CHAPTER XVI. - - - - 113 The Rainfall — Climate— Effects on agricultural and pastoral interests — Port Elliot — The Hills— Guichen Bay — Kangaroo Island — Port Lincoln — Scenery — Pichi Richi Pass — Mount Gambler and the Blue Lake — South Australia as a Sanatarium. CHAPTER XVII.— Religion and Education - - - 120 The original voluntaryism of religious bodies — The first clergymen — The grants-in-aid in 1846— Their abolition in 1851 — The first Anglican Bishop — The Catholics — The AVesleyans — The Presbyterians — Other religious bodies — The Lutherans— Progress — The system of State Education— The Education Act of 1875 — Working of the system — Statistics. CHAPTER XVIII. - - - - 126 Public Works — Telegraphs— The first telegraph — Intercolonial lines — Railways — Roads — Bridges — Waterworks — Public Buildings — Marine improvements — Deepening and improving outports— Jetties — Lighthouses. CONTENTS. ix. Page. CHAPTER XIX.-The Aborigines 131 Low mental capacity — Linguistic faculty — Humor — -Comical blunders — Superior attractiveness of the wild to the half-civilised black — Origin — The Malays — Customs — Rites — The corroboree — Dying out of the race — Causes of Mortality — Early conflicts between whites and blacks — Wreck of the Maria, and massacre of all the passengers and crew — The Eufus slaughter — Port Lincoln atrocities — Execu- tions — Peace — Native battles — Weapons and implements— The finest and puniest tribes — -Half-castes — Superstitions and beliefs — Statistics — Mission stations. CHAPTER XX.— The Fauna of South Australia - - 141 The dingo — The kangaroo dog — Marsupials — Other mammalia — Birds — Acclimatised animals — Hares — Rabbits — Deer — Sparrows. CHAPTER XXL— Flora of South Australia - - - 145 CHAPTER XXII.— The Northern Territory - - - 166 Its discovery — Early explorers — The Portuguese-^-The Dutch — Torres — Modern explorers — ^Cook — Flinders — King — -Stokes — Raffles Bay — Melville Island — Port Essington — Bufi"aloes —Timor ponies and cattle — Gulf of Carpentaria— Adam Bay — Adelaide River — Port Darwin — Anson Bay — Gulf of Cambridge — Victoria River — Leichardt — The Roper and other Rivers — Gregory — The Table Land — Cooper's Creek — Stuart's explorations — Crossing the Conti- nent — Annexation of the Northern Teiritory to South Australia — Settlement of Adam Bay — Government Resident recalled — McKinlay sent up — Narrow escape of him and his party from destruction by floods — The settlement abandoned — Captain Cadell's expedition — Goyder's survey — English and other holders demand return of their money, and get it — Transcontinental telegraph — Port Dar\^in settle- ment — Gold diggings and mania— Regular mining — Tin — Copper — Agriculture — Cotton — Sugar — Pastoral interest — Horses — Land regulations — Appearance and formation of country — Navigable rivers — Trees — Animals — Climate — Coolie labor — Progress — Tariff Revenue. CHAPTER XXIII. - - - - - - - - - 179 Exhibitions — Calcutta Exhibition^ — Commercial Intercourse between India and Australia— The JubUee Exhibition — Past and Future. APPENDICES (Australasian Statistics) - - - - 183 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS 197 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. -~x-s<9y&-»-^ Paue. 1 . Adelaide in 1837 — Frontispiece — 2. Fern "Waterfall, in the neighborhood of Adelaide 2 3. Adelaide Plains, viewed from Mount Lofty Range, looking west 14 4. The Kapimda Copper Mines 18 5. The Biin-a Burra Copper Mine, looking south 22 6. Eiver Murray Steamboat, M-ith Wool Barge in tow 26 7. Government House, Adelaide 28 8. Parliament Houses, Xorth-terrace 32 9. The Local Coiuthouse, Adelaide 40 10. National Bank of Australasia, King William -street 42 1 1 . Railway Station-yard, Adelaide 50 12. Lindsay House, Angaaton, (the residence of the late Geo. Fife Angas, Esq.) 56 13. The Town Hall, King William-street, Adelaide 64 14. The Supreme Court, Adelaide 70 15. GrenfeU-street, with office of Register, the oldest daily newspaper 72 16. Comer of Waymouth and King AVilliam -streets, with office oi Advertiser daily newspaper 74 17. The Government Offices, King William-street, Adelaide 76 18. Hindley- street, Adelaide 78 19. Imperial Buildings, King William-street 80 20. Wheatfield, showing Reaping Machines at M'ork 86 21. General view of Farming Implements and Stock on a South Australian Farm 88 22. The Clarendon Yinej'ard, 18 miles south of Adelaide 90 23. Flock of sheep, with a magnificent Gum Tree 92 24. Herd of Mixed Cattle and Bush Scenery 94 25. Herefordshire cattle and Bush Scenery (near Angaston) 96 26. Pure Merino Rams 98 27. Sheep-shearing Operations 100 28. Burra Burra Copper Mine (view looking north) 104 29. The Waterfall Gully, in the Mount Lofty Range 112 30. Group of Cattle, Angaston 114 31. Gumeracha Bridge 116 32. Country Scenes, Oullina Gap, near Adelaide 118 33. " St. Peter's," Episcopalian Cathedral, North Adelaide 120 34. Model Schools, Adelaide 122 35. The Hamley Railway Bridge 126 36. Bridge over Onkaparinga River, at Clarendon 126 37. The Old Reservoir 128 38. Aqueduct connecting the old and new Reservoirs 130 xii. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. YiEAVS IN THE ADELAIDE BoTAXICAL GaKDENS : — 39. The Curator's Residence 144 40. The Lake 146 41. Large gum tree with Native Shrub Plantation 148 42. Another view of the Lake 150 43. The Cockatoo House on the Lake 152 44. The Conservatory 154 45. The Hose Garden 156 46. The Plantation of Medicinal Plants, and keeper's cottage 158 47. The " Victoria Eegia" House 160 48. The Centre Walk 162 49. The General Post Office, Adelaide 178 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: HISTORY, PRODUCTIONS AND jy'ATURAL RESOURCES. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. CHAPTER I. South Australia — Absurdity of its n.amc — Boundaries — Original limits — No Man's Land — Northern Territory — South Australia proper— Discovery — Flinders — His coast exploration — Kangaroo Island — Capt. Sutherland — Disappearance of Kang- aroos — Capt. Stiu-t's voyage down the Murray — Capt. Barker — His ascent of Mount Lofty and crossing the ranges to the Lakes — Capt. John Jones and his disco^"ery of the creek now forming Port Adelaide. South Australia is singularly misnamed. Portions of Victoria and Western Australia are south of its most southernmost point ; and since the Northern Territory has been added to South Aus- tralia, its nomenclature has become still more absurd. It is a pity that its original description, Flinders' Land, was not retained, but " Centralia" would convey a fitting representation of the position of the province, for it occupies the centre of the great island conti- nent from the Southern to the Indian Ocean. ( )n the west it is bounded by Western Australia ; on the east, by Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, so that it is in territorial and inti- mate communication with every other colony of the group. The original limits were fixed by Act No. XCV., William IV., estab- lishing the colony. This Act declared that part of Australia between the one hundred and forty-first and one hundred and thirty-second degrees of east longitude, and between the twenty- sixth degree of east latitude and the Southern Ocean, with all the bays and gulfs belonging thereto, and all the adjacent islands, a colony to be known as South Australia. Originally, all New Hol- land was under the jurisdiction of New South Wales, and formed part of its territory, but Western Australia was founded in 1829, its eastern boundary being long. 129. Thus between South Aus- tralia and her western neighbor there was a strip of territory, B 2 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : three degrees in widtli, practically under no jurisdiction whatever. Nominally belonging- to New South Wales, it was cut off from that province by the whole width of South Australia. Western Australia could not govern it, because she had no settlement of an}' kind within a thousand miles. South Australian squatters, however, had their flocks upon the very borders of this piece of country, and it is not surprising that, in response to the reason- able applications of South Australia, the Home Government should, in 1861, annex this No Man's Land to the only province able to make any use of it. Two years afterwards, in consequence of the discoveries of the gallant explorer Stuart, who crossed the continent from Adelaide to the Indian Ocean west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, all that portion of the continent north of lat. 26"^., and between Queensland and Western Australia, was added to South Australia. The map attached to this volume shows the exact boundaries of this addition to South Australian territory, which now contains more than 903,690 square miles, i.e., South Australia proper, 380,070, and Northern Territor}^ 523,620 square miles. At present, I will confine the attention of my readers to South Australia propei% i.e., south of lat. 26^. Capt. Flinders was the discoverer of the South Australian coast. From the great Austra- lian Bight to Encounter Bay, or rather Lacepede Bay, every island, every cape, every important bay and point, the mountains and eminences within view, Avere named by him ; and considering the rapidity with which this exploration was accomplished, extending as it did onl}' from the 8th December, 1801, to the 9th April, 1802, the accuracy with which the geographical positions were fixed, and the soundings taken, was amazing, and has ever been the admiration of mariners who have sailed in those waters. But Flinders was essentially a marine explorer. He travelled but little on la]id. He killed kangaroos on the island, whicli, on account of the immense numbers of these animals he found there, he named Kangaroo Island. Strange it is, that for the last sixty or seventy years not a kangaroo has been seen there. Flinders could not have confounded the animal with a smaller marsupial, as those he killed weighed from 65 to 1201bs. The disappearance of these animals has been attributed to various causes, but the most probable supposition is that they were swept off by some disease. In 1819 Morialta Waterfall, near Adelaide. Waterfall in Mount Lofty Range. rrs DISCOVERY AND BOUNDARIES. 3 Capt. Sutlierland found kangaroos — some weigliing 1201bs. — and emus were plentiful on Kangaroo Island, but both animals, soon after, became extinct. A man named Bates, who has lived on the island ever since 1827, never saw a specimen of either during his long residence there. Capt. Flinders discovered and named Mount Lofty, but did not explore the few miles of plain between the coast and the range of hills, of which that is the highest point. He did not discover the fresh-water streams that in winter time empty their waters into St. Vincent's Gulf, the creek or branch of the sea now forming Port Adelaide, or the two somewhat similar creeks in Spencer's Gulf that accommodate the shipping of Port Pirie and Port Augusta ; no.r did he see the Murray and the lakes through which it passes to the ocean. His work was coast exploration, and he did it well and quickly, leaving others to come after him, profit by the abundant information he supplied, and, by closer examination, make further discoveries. The name of Flinders is regarded by Australians with gratitude and reverence. It appears in the geo- graphy of the continent, in regions so far apart as the Gulf of Car- pentaria and the southern coast. In the very neighborhood of Port Lincoln, first explored by him, the amiable and gallant Sir John Franklin, who had served under Flinders about fortv years previously, erected a monument to the memory of his old com- mander. The real discoverer of South Australia, as a country fit for European habitation, was Capt. Sturt. He had already established his name as a great Australian explorer, when he started on a boat voyage down the Murrumbidgee, which had lately been discovered by Sir Thomas (then Major) Mitchell. In a few days the explo- rers found themselves sweeping into a grander stream, which Capt. Sturt named the Murray. It proved afterwards to be iden- tical with the river previously discovered, at a point higher up, by Messrs. Hume and Howell, and called after the first-named of these explorers ; but this fact does not detract from the merits of Capt. Sturt's achievement. He found the junction of the ^Murrumbidgee with that noble river, and soon afterwards passed the mouth of the Darling a great tributary he had himself discovered. Pursuing his voyage through perils by water, perils by snags, and dangers from savages, who had never before seen the face of a white man, he reached Lake Alexandrina, crossed it, and passed into the 4 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: Murraj'' again, but could not get through the dangerous mouth, a& he Avished to do, in order to meet a vessel waiting for him in St. Vincent's Gulf. Of Capt. Sturt's toilsome journey up the stream, back to his starting point, it does not fall within the scope of this work to speak ; but when about the lakes, the ranges to the westward at- tracted the gaze of the explorer, and he was convinced that there was rich country among and beyond those hills of promise. When, after all his toil and perils, he again reached Sydney, he urged this opinion upon the Government there, and in consequence his friend, Capt. Barker, a man likeminded with himself, who was about to leave King George's Sound for Port Jackson, was requested to call at St. Vincent's Gulf to ascertain whether these impressions were well founded. Captain Barker arrived off" Cape Jervis on the 13th April, 1831, with Dr. Davies, Mr. Kent, of the Commissariat, some soldiers, and the crow of the vessel. On the 17th April, having moved the vessel northward, he landed with Mr. Kent, a servant, and two soldiers. Accompanied only by Mr. Kent, he crossed the plains, entered the range, and reached the summit of Mount Lofty. Only those who have enjoyed the view from that eminence can form any conception of the magnificent prospect spread out before the two explorers, and can imagine the effect it must have produced upon their minds, associated as it was with the reflection that they were the first civilized men who had ever beheld it. Five miles west- ward from where they stood, the hills sloped down into the rich plains, parti}' timbered with the lordly eucalyptus and beautifid underwood, partly clothed with forests of mimosa, while alternating with this woodland were areas of open grass pastures. This sort of count r}^ extended to the sea shore westward, and away twenty miles distant to the south-west, where the range sweeps round till it reaches the bay. To the north-west, the view of open plains extends for seventy miles, till it is bounded by the Hummocks, nnmed by Flinders "Hummock Mount." Capt. Barker looked long and earnestly over country- where the City of Adelaide and suburbs, with their population of sixty thousand, now stand; overland no-vv' studded with handsome villas, noble lookhig mansions, and thriving towns and villages, or planted with vineyards and orchards ; over stretches of plain and imdulations where fields have yielded their ITS DISCOVERY AND BOUNDARIES. 5 harvests of golden grain, or flocks or herds have grazed and fat- tened. The death of Capt. Barker, a few days after he had viewed this landscape, was a loss to science, to Australia, and to his native country, but it was specially unfortunate in connection with the new region he was exploring, for the particulars furnished by his companion must have been of the most meagre description, other- wise the first South Australian colonists would have been better informed respecting the land they came to occupy. Enough, how- ever, was told to point to the shores of St. Vincent's Gulf as a pro- mising spot for a new colonising settlement. "When Capt. Barker returned from Mount Lofty to his vessel, he stood southward, landed again with some officers and men, and walked to Lake Alexandrina. The whole party were delighted with the ranges they passed through and the country generally. They saw Mount Barker, since named after the gallant leader of the party, and reached Lake Alexandrina. Wishing to trace the passage from the lake to the sea, Capt. Barker swam across a narrow channel, as- cended a sand hillock, descended on the opposite side, and was seen no more. It was afterwards discovered that he had been murdered by the savages, and his body thrown into deep water, where it was washed out to sea. After Capt. Barker's ill-fated expedition, Capt. Jones coasted about St. Vincent's Gulf, and from his account of his cruise, must have entered the creek that now constitutes Port Adelaide. He landed at several places, and killed kangaroos. Capt. Jones speaks of four streams flowing into the Gulf. These were probably the Onkaparinga, the Sturt, and one or two brooks between those rivers. He could not have seen the Torrens, which does not directly pour its waters into the Gulf, but, in flood times, spreads out into extensive swamps, stretching in one direction to the Pata- walonga Creek which joins the sea at Glenelg, and in another direction to the Port channel, and so the flooded water reaches the ocean in an indirect way. SOUTH AUSTRALIA ■ CHAPTER II. Establishment of the Colony — The Wakefield system — Land immigration — No convicts from the Old World— ISTo State Church— The founders of the Colony— First Com- missionei's. The news of Capt. Sturt's latest discoveries excited great in- terest in the old country, and in 1831 there was a movement in favor of establishing a new colony on the shores which Flinders had explored thirty years before. The exact locality was not determined upon by the projectors of the enterprise, but their idea doubtless was that the new settlement should be somewhere about Spencer's or St. Vincent's Gulf, if not at Encounter Bay. The pro- ject was dropped for a time, but fully revived three years later. It was thought desirable that there should be a new colony, not a mere off-shoot of New South Wales ; and the principal reason that the scheme took this shape was, that the projectors desired to start with a better land system than had yet been tried in New Holland. Western Australia, then spoken of as the Swan River Settlement, has furnished a shocking example of v/hat to avoid in the way of land legislation. In that colony immense blocks of land were freely granted to settlers, regardless of their means to profitably occupy such holdings, or the necessity for obtaining some payment for those portions of the public estate the Government thought fit to alienate. The immediate consequence of this unwise policy was that the settlers were without the necessary supply of laborers to tiU the soil, and many, if not most of their large estates lay waste for thirty years, or at most only supported a few sheep or cattle. To this day Western Australia has a population of imdcr 40,000, though she is at last making considerable advance in wealth and in the development of her resources. The lagging so far behind in the race has been attributed to the fact that her good land is in comparatively small patches instead of in large areas of hundreds of miles, as in the other colonies ; but granting that the colony did labor under this disadvantage, the more necessity there was that ITS ESTABLISHMENT. 7 these patches should be put to the best use, instead of being mono- polised by persons who either had not the wish or lacked the ability or means to utilise them. Perhaps more than any other man, Edward Gibbon Wakefield may be regarded as the founder of South Australia, for the scheme for its establishment seemed in the first instance to be started principally to experiment with his theories of a land system, applied to the circumstances of an entirely new colony. The Wakefield system was something more, however, than a land system : it dealt with the supply of labor, and professed to point out the safest and best principles upon which to embark in the colonization of a country hitherto known only to the savage or the adventurous explorer. Wakefield was opposed to grants of land. He proposed that it should be sold at a substantial price, and that the money thus obtained should be emploj'ed to import laborers to till it. Thus the land would be turned to good account at once. Peojile wovdd not give a pound or ten shillings for land they did not intend to make profitable use of, and the labor im- ported by means of the price they did pay would enable them to cultivate the soil. The scheme was watched with interest ; it was enthusiasticalh^ defended, and flippantly decried ; but it worked well till the colony outgrew it. For the first two or three years delays in the surveys of the country lands, official mismanagement, the unwise policy which induced the settlers to remain in Adelaide instead of going into the wilderness to attend to the rich soil only waiting for the plough to make it yield bounteous harvests, pre- vented the Wakefield system from having fair play ; but when there came a wise administration of public afiairs, all that was propounded as the natural result of the system came to pass. Some large estates were bought and paid for in hard cash by the South Australian Company and a few private capitalists, but the greater portion of the land alienated was purchased by bond fide agricul- turists. South Australia became at once an agricultural country. The 41b. loaf fell in price from five shillings to sixpence, and within six years from the proclamation of the colony it exported wheat to other Australian provinces, and has continued to do so ever since. Meat fell from a shilling and upwards to twopence and a penny a pound. The system worked well for the first sixteen or seven- teen years of the colony's history. The capitalists were too few. 8 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: and not sufficiently powerful, to drive the bond fide agriculturists out of the auction room ; and many hardworking, frugal laborers saved enough to purchase one or two eighty-acre sections, and thus in many cases laid the foundation of a respectable fortune. A great change came, however, after the discovery of the Vic- torian diggings in 1851. "Wealth poured into South Australia. Through the rise in the value of live stock the squatters became rich men. Fortunes were made by trade and in speculation. Shepherd kings and capitalists soon contracted earth-hunger. The land-shark came into existence. Persons wishing to buy land for farming purposes, were at first forced to give great prices, and soon gave up the struggle against wealth and jobbery. They had to be satisfied with refuse land, or become tenants, or huy from specu- lators at two, three, four, or five times the price originally given for the land. The public revenue gained nothing by this, agri- culture was retarded, and the colony was injured. It was not till 1869 there came a reform that was urgently needed in 1853, and the South Australian Parliament passed an Act with residence and cultivation conditions, in its main principles similar to a system recommended about a hundred years before, by Adam Smith, as suitable to the circumstances of some of the British American colo- nies. The Act was defective in matters of detail, and to some extent was used to defeat the objects of the legislators who passed it ; but it established principles that have been more effectively carried out by subsequent legislation. At another stage of this work, I shall have to deal further with the land system of the colon}^ ; at present it is only necessary to observe that the Wake- field system which worked so well for the first seventeen years of the colony's existence, has necessarily been so altered in its fea- tures since that period, that its author would not recognise it. It may be observed, however,'that auction sales that have been ad- hered to (except for a brief period, during which farming lands were selected bj'- lot) from the year 1842, when an Imperial Act was passed ordaining that mode of sale, are no essential part of the system, and whatever evils may have attended that mode of disposing of the waste lands cannot properly be charged upon Wakefield. Originally, the whole of the proceeds of land sales were to be expended in immigration ; but this part of the system has under- ITS ESTABLISHMENT. 9 gone serious modifications. The Act just referred to provided that only half the proceeds should be so applied, and this was the law for many years, till it was abandoned as unworkable. "Whenever the working classes experience the slightest difficulty in obtaining full employment at high wages, there is an outcry against State immigration, and what that means in a colony with universal suf- frage, and Responsible Government, I need not say. When em- ployment is abundant, and times prosperous, and the pay of the working man high, the Government may pour immigrants in by thousands without provoking a protest. At last the conclusion seems to have been reached that the best plan is to bring immi- grants to the colony when they are really wanted, and not at other times. At present, free immigration, in practice, is abandoned, and the immigrants who arrive pay a portion of their own passage, and the Government the rest ; or else they come out under what is termed the nominated or land order system, under which a person who nominates and pays for the passage of immigrants certificated suitable for the colony receives a £20 land order for each adult, and a £10 land order for each child under ten. After the immigrants have been in the colony for two years, the land orders are available to the amount they rej)resent in the purchase of Crown Lands, and are transferable. The scale of payments of assisted immigrants, towards the cost of their passage, is as follows : — Under 12 years, £3 ; between 12 and 40 years, £4 ; between 40 and 50 years, £8. I am pushing forward a long way, as far in fact as the legislation of 1872 ; but my object has been to show what our land and immi- gration systems were originally ; how they worked for a few years ; and how they have been altered since. There were other important principles besides those relating to land and labor distinguishing the scheme for colonising South Australia. It was resolved that it should be free from the taint of convictism ; that the felonry of the United Kingdom or of any other country should not be poured upon its shores. There were some proposals a few years later to infringe upon this principle, by the introduction of Parkhurst Boys and Pentonvillians ; but the Home Government did not persist in this design against the passionate remonstrances of the colonists. It was resolved by the founders of the colony, some of the most influential and energetic of whom were dissenters, that it should 10 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: have no State cliurch. It is true the Act of 1834, establishing the colony, authorised the appointment of " Chaplains and Clergy- "men of the Established Church of England or Scotland " ; but such representations were made to the British Government, that only a colonial chaplain was appointed, and the authority to appoint chaplains and clergymen was repealed b}^ an Act of 18B8. The office of colonial chaplain ceased with the death of the second occupant of the position. Grants-in-aid to religious denominations were established in 1846, but abolished in 1851, in the first session of the Legislative Council, consisting of two-thirds elective members. As soon as the people had a voice in the management of their own affairs, they declared decisively against all State interference with religion. The Act of 1834 provided for the aj)pointment of Commissioners to carry it into ettect, and the following were appointed : — Colonel Torrcns, F.R.S. (chairman), W. A. Mackinnon, Esq., M.P., Jacob Montefiore, Esq., W. Hutt, Esq., M.P., George Palmer, jun., Esq.* John "Wright, Esq., George Fife Angas, Esq., Samuel Mills, Esq. The pcj-sojiiiel of this board must have been soon altered, for shortly afterwards Mr. (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill figures in the early records of the colony as one of the Commissioners. The Com- mittee, remodelled in 1834, to carry out the colonisation scheme, consisted of thirty-two gentlemen, including such men as George Grote, Sir W. Molesworth, H. L. Bulwer, J. W. Childers, and others whose names are perpetuated in the street nomenclature of Adelaide. Outside both Commission and Committee there were able men earnestly working in furtherance of the enterprise, and foremost among them may be mentioned Mr. (afterwards Sir) Richard Hanson, the late Chief Justice of the colony ; Mr. (after- wards Sir) John Morphett, who for years filled ^the position of President of the Legislative Council ; Mr, Robert Gouger, the first Colonial Secretary ; Mr. John Brown, and others. The Act was not to come into operation till the Commissioners had raised £35,000 bj' the sale of land, and they were " required to raise " £20,000 by the issue of bonds, to be called South Australian " Government Securities, and invest this sum in the funds as a " guarantee that the colon}^ would at no time be a charge on the " mother countr}'." The Home Government did not guarantee the loan, and it was effected at a very high rate of interest. The ITS ESTABLISHMENT. 11 first purchasers of laud paid 12s. per acre, and for the sum of £81 received one town acre and 134 acres of country land. The price was soon afterwards raised to £1. The Commissioners did not receive their appointment till May, J 835, and the first vessel with settlers for the new colony sailed on the 22nd February, of the following year. SOUTH AUSTRALIA CHAPTER III. THE PIONEERS. — THE FIRST FIVE YEARS. The first vessels — Colonel Light— Lieutenant PuUen — Kangaroo Island — Port Lincoln — Encounter Bay — The Mmray Mouth — Sir John Jeffcott — Port Adelaide — Discovery of Eiver Torrens — Site of Adelaide — Cai^tain Hindmarsh, the first Governor — Disagreements about the site of the capital— Delays in surveys — Mr. Kingston's scheme of survey — Colonel Light's death — Governor Hind- marsh's recall — Arrival of Colonel Gawler — Extravagant administration — The colony deeply in debt — Colonists concentrated about the metropolis — Financial crash — Overlanders with cattle and sheep — Eyre's explorations — His jom-ney to King George's Sound — Captain Grey's arrival — Retrenchment — Distress — Im- proved condition of affairs — Eapid advance of agriculture — Mineral discoveries — Silver lead mines — The Kapunda Mine — The Burra — General progress — Cap- tain Sturt's explorations, and discovery of Cooper's Creek — Captain Grey appointed Governor of Xew Zealand. The first vessel tliat arrived in South Australian waters with intending settlers was the Duke of York, and the first colonist who stepped upon South Australian territory was Mr. Samuel Stephens, an able man, who came to the colon}^ as Manager for the South Australian Company, and several years afterwards lost his life by a fall from his horse. This pioneer ship anchored on the 27th July, 1836, in Nepean Bay, Kangaroo Island, which was the rendezvous for the early vessels, it beiiig thought not improbable that the capital would be on the island, which was the best known part of the new province. The Lady Marij Pelham and John Firie followed with settlers, including small capitalists, farmers, business men, and laborers. The Rapid arrived on the 20th August, having on board Colonel Light, the Surveyor- General, and his staff of surveyors. Mr. (afterwards Sir George) Kingston followed in the Cugnet, and landed on the 11th September. The Emma and Tam o' Shunter arrived in October, and the Africaine in November. Colonel Light was a man of remarkable attainments, great versa- tility of talent, and high character. He had seen distinguished service in the Peninsidar war, on the staff of the Duke of Welling- THE PIONEERS. 13 ton, and eulogistic reference to him is made in Napier's histor}' of that prolonged and brilliant struggle. He was a sailor, havino- held a command in the Egyptian fleet. To his other attainments he added those of an artist, and he had a singularly clear and forcible style of expressing his views. It would have been im- possible to have selected any one more suited for the arduous and difficult task imposed upon Colonel Light, and he proved fully equal to the task. The firmness and determination necessarj' to the discharge of the duties of his position were continued with great patience, a lofty sense of honor and an amiability of disposition that won for him the respect and afifection of the colonists gener- ally, and most of all of those with whom he was brought in contact. On arrival at Kangaroo Island, he saw at a glance that was not the place for the settlement, and he lost no time in exploring the coast in order to decide where the capital of the embr\'o State should be fixed. Port Lincoln he carefully examined, and decided that, though the harbor was magnificent, there was nothing in the adjoining country to warrant the establishment of the first and principal settlement there. He visited Encounter Bay, and came to the same conclusion with regard to the country in that locality, and moreover there was nothing in the bay to recommend it as a harbor. The mouth of the Murray he found had a bar which would prevent the passage of large vessels, and the breakers were extremely dangerous. Sir John Jeficott, the first Judge of South Australia, Captain Blackensop, and several seamen were drowned, early in 1837, in the endeavor to pass through in a boat. Lieut. PuUcn succeeded in taking a brig through, and for about eighty miles up the stream to the point on the river known as Blanche- town, where she sunk. In St. Vincent's Gulf, Colonel Light searched long and care- fully for a good port, and found some difficulty in recognising the features of the coast from the descriptions of Capt. John Jones. At last a fine inlet or creek was discovered, and Lieut. Pullcn explored it up to and beyond where the wharfs and town of Port Adelaide are now situated. Colonel Light pronounced this to be a fine natural harbor, capable of improvement in the future, Avhen the resources of the colony should justify the outlay. He fixed the port too high up, and the site had to be changed several years afterwards ; perhaps it would have been better and would have 14 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : f \ saved expense in deepening operations, had the North Arm been chosen ; bat however this may be, there is no doubt that this creek was the proper place for the chief harbor of the colony. It was essential that fresh water should be discovered, and Mr. Kingston being requested to make a search, started on foot Math Mr. John Morphctt, and another of the pioneers, and dis- covered the Torrens, coming from the Mount Lofty range of hills to the eastward. Tliis river was soon found to be, in its course through the plains, something like a chain of ponds in the summer time, but in the hills it was and is a constantly running stream. By means of a, weir and two reservoirs, seven or eight miles from Adelaide, the city and suburbs, Port Adelaide, Glenelg, and an area of about fifty miles of country, are supplied with pure water, a large supply coming from the Sixth Creek, a tributary that joins the Torrens in the range. On Colonel Light being informed of this river, he followed it up till he came to rising ground which he se- lected as the site of the metropolis, and to this selection he adhered in spite of all opposition. Nearly fifty years have passed away since then, but time only serves to show more clearlj' the wisdom of his choice. The City is about eight miles from the Port, but only flat low land could have been got any nearer. The ground on whicli the City is built, is from 96ft. to 176ft. above the sea level, and is adniirably situated for drainage. The late Mr. Clarke, the eminent liydraulic engineer, who designed the plan of draining Adelaide now being carried out, stated that there was not a city in the world more easy to provide with a system of deep sewei'age. Capt. Ilindniarsh, P.N., the first Governor, arrived at Hold- fast^ Bay on the 28th December, 1830, in J [.M.S. Buffalo, and landing the same day proclaimed the colony, under the shadow of a gum tree, in llic presence of the members of his council and other officers, a few hundred settlers, and a guard of Marines. The 28th 'December has ever since been observed as the national holiday. The Governor was one of the veterans who, during tlie close of the last century and the beginning of this, had upheld the lienor of old England on the ocean, lie liad served under Nelson, and had lost an eye at the battle of the Nile, where he greatly distinguished iiraself. As a civilian administrator, he did not achieve success. He wished the city moved a mile or two nearer the Port, on to the ground, and Colonel Light yielded for a few days, but then Ill ifi '':'l!i ill © THE PIONEERS. 15 returned to his original plan, from which he would not afterwards deviate. The Governor managed to quarrel with nearly all his officers, and with the President Commissioner^ Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. H, Fisher. Disagreements took place among the colonists about the site for the capital, a section of them advocating Encounter Bay. A meeting of the purchasers of land was called to consider this matter, early in 1837, when an overwhelming majority decided in favor of Colonel Light's choice, and that question was settled for ever. Through this dispute, and afterwards through want of horses or other animal power to shift the survey parties and carry their provisions, the surveys were much delayed, and hence arose great dissatisfaction ; Mr. Kingston returned to England, and submitted to the Commissioners a plan for a more rapid survey on a different system from that on which Colonel Light was proceeding. The Commissioners wrote to the E-esident Commissioner, instructino- him to request Colonel Light to proceed upon this new system, or, if he objected, to hand the survey over to Mr. Kingston, and occupy himself, until that was concluded, with an examination of the country about Lake Alexandriua. Colonel Light replied in indig- nant terms and resigned his office. All the surveyors who had been employed under him also resigned. In consequence of the severe comments on this affair, it was made the subject of Parlia- mentary inquiry in England, and a Committee of the House of Lords reported that Mr. Kingston had not attempted to undermme his superior officer, but, on the contrarj^, had acted lovally to him throughout. Worrj^, anxiety, and a sense of having been subjected to unfair treatment, seriously impaired the gallant Colonel's health, and doubtless brought on the illness which j)roved fatal. lie died on the 5th October, 1839, and five days afterwards was accorded a public funeral, and buried in the square which bears his name, amid the lamentations of a large concourse of colonists. A monu- ment, with a suitable inscription, marks the spot where rests all that is mortal of one to whom the colony owes so much. ^ Captain Hindmarsh's disagreements with his officers increased ; the Commissioners addressed lengthy complaints to the Colonial Secretary, Lord Glenelg, and in 1838 the Governor was recalled. He left the colony on the IGth July of that year, and Mr. George Milner Stephen became Acting Governor till the arrival of the 16 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: second Governor, Colonel Gawler, on the 12tli October, 1838. The services of Mr. Fisher, as Resident Commissioner, had been dispensed with, and the office was, on Colonel Gawler's arrival, absorbed in that of Governor, the dual control having worked un- satisfactorily. Some time afterwards the Commissioners in the old country were relieved of their duties. The surveys had made considerable progress by the time the new Governor landed. The town lots Avere selected in March, 18-37, and the countr}^ sections in Ma}', 1838. Colonel Gawler came with a history and a reputation calculated to command respect and confidence. He had distinguished himself at many of the great sieges and battles of the Peninsula, and led the right Aving of the 52nd Regiment in the grand charge at Waterloo. He was possessed of high attainments, and as a devout Christian his influence on a young community was of the most beneficial character. His great mistake was that of embarking in great public works about the city which were in advance of the times, and not of any utility in developing the resources of the colony. The effect of his policy was that the settlers were induced to remain in Adelaide, instead of engaging in the cultivation of the rich soil all around them. The laborers, too, were occupied in the same unprofitable way, and therefore were not available for those settlers Avho really wished to engage in agricultural opera- tions. Colonel Gawler soon plunged the colony into debt. In 1840 the population Avas under 15,000, and considerably more than half the colonists Avere in Adelaide. In the last quarter of that year the expenditure was at the rate of £240,000 per annum, and the debt incurred exceeded £300,000. The bills drawn by His ExcellencA on the Home Government Avere dishonored, and a financial crisis ensued, the great crash, hoAvever, coming in the years 1841-2. Many colonists were absolutely ruined, and some never recovered their position. Poverty and distress were universal, and the utmost despondency prevailed AA'ith regard to the future of the colony. At the end of 1840 Colonel GaAvler was recalled, and on the 10th May, 1841, Captain Grey arrived in the colony, and, walking into Government House, presented his commission as Governor of South Australia. During Colonel GaAAder's administration the difficulties of the survey had been OA'crcome. Mr. Kingston having surveyed enough THE PIONEERS. to satisfy the original purchasers, resigned, and Captain 8turt,\ discoverer of the colony, was appointed his successor. He soon transferred to another office, and was succeeded by Captain Frome, R.E., who, with the assistance of a staff of surveyors and a number of sappers and miners, pushed on the surveys with great energy. In August, 1839, o yer 250,000 acres of land had_ been sold, realising nearly i^ ^dU^^OO, and 7,412 settlers had arrived in the colony^ Iu _1838 Messrs. H awden & Bonney brought cattle 'iiitO""the colony from New South Wales, by the Murray route ; :ind Mr. Eyre, afterwards celebrated as an explorer, and who subsequently was Governor of Jamaica, followed with a herd in the same year. Next year both sheep and cattle were imported by land. Mr. Bonney was the first overlander who brought sheep by the Coorong route. In 1840 there were 108,700 sheep, 7,600 cattle, 800 horses, and 1,700 goats and pigs in the colonj*. The quantity of land under cultivation was 6,722 acres ; the year before it was 2,500 acres. It was while Colonel Gawler was Governor that Mr. Edward John Eyre performed the overland journey from this colony to King George's Sound. After exploring the northern country about the waters now known as Lake Torrcns and Lake Ej-re, he struck for the coast, and proceeded from Streaky Ba}^ to Fowler's Bay, Avhich he made his depot and starting point. Here he parted with his friend, Mr. Scott, who had so far accom- panied him, and started with his overseer, named Baxter, a King George's Sound and two South Australian natives on a journey of over a thousand miles, once going 160 miles without any water but what the party carried. The two South Australian boys one night murdered Baxter, while the leader of the expedition was away watching the horses, Mr. Eyre finished the journey with only the Western Australian boy as a companion, and found that the country all along the coast was particularly barren, with no surface water for the greater part of the distance, except what could be got in the sandhills near the beach. Dur- ing the expedition, Mr. Eyre obtained a suj^ply of food from a French Avhaler he found at anchor in Western Australian waters. Captain Grey found the expenditure unreduced, the revenue decreasing, and only a few hundred pounds in the Treasury, and two thousand men, women, and children depending on the c 18 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: Government for support. For 1842 lie reduced the expenditure to £34,000. AVages lie cut down from Is. 6d. per diem witli ra'-ions to Is. 2d. without, and of course excited great discontent, as did his policy of economj^ gcneralh'. He finished the Avorks Colonel Gawler had left in progress, and then employed the laborers in more useful undertakings, principally in roadraaking, and especiall}^ in the construction of a highway through the Mount Lofty range in the direction of Mount Barker. The colony had to suffer a recover}^ Property fell in value ; money was extremely scarce ; privation was universal ; but the colonists bore their adversities with fortitude, and there was a general movement in the direction of agriculture. In the summer of 1841-2 there Avas an abundant harvest ; two years later wheat was 2s. 6d. per bushel. There was a great difficulty in obtaining labor to reap the harvest, but this was met hj the invention of the stripper known as Ridley's machine, which strips the heads off and threshes them. When the machine is full, the contents are taken out and are ready for winnowing, and the machine is started again. Land had been rapidl}^ taken up. Thirty-five si^ecial sur- veys, of 4,000 acres each, had been completed. The price was £1 per acre, and the cost of surve}^ had been reduced to 7jd. There were upwards of 300,000 acres surveyed and open for selection, in addition to what had been sold and occupied. The Imperial Parliament had advanced £Lj5,000 to meet Colonel Gawler's dishonored bills, and a further sum of £27,290 was also advanced for the same purpose. Captain Grey after this drew on the Home Government for money to pay other debts of Colonel Gawler's, not provided for, but these drafts were dishonored, great distress being thereby occasioned. All these early trials were overcome by the colony, but the losses of indi- viduals were never repaid. While South Australia was rescued from insolvency by Gover- nor Grey's policy, and the attention of the settlers turned towards farming and pastoral pursuits, prosperity came also from other .sources. To those of the pioneers possessing any geological or miner- alogical knowledge. South Australia presented the appearance of a country rich in minerals, and the impressions then formed have been amply justified. Within three or four years of the proclama- tion of the colony, several lodes of silver lead were discovered on iiMiMiiijiMltl THE PI0XEEK8. 19 the slopes of the hills overlooking Adelaide, and some thousands of pound's worth of the ore were raised and exported. These work- ings were, however, soon abandoned as unprofitable. In 1842 the Kapunda mine, fifty miles from Adelaide, was discovered by the youngest son of Captain Bagot and Mr. (afterwards Sir) Francis Dutton, late Agent- General, about the same time and independ- entlv of each other. Capt. Bagot and Mr. Dutton secured the land, and after raising a quantity of rich ore, disposed of the property to a company, by whom it was profitabl}' worked for years. Several j^ears ago operations were suspended, but a fresh lode has been found on the mine, and is being worked on tribute. But the great mineral discover}', that contributed a new epoch in the history of South Australian progress, was the world-renowned Burra mine, a hundred miles from the metropolis. This was found by a shepherd named Pickett, who never received any reward, or at any rate any worthy of mention, for the service he thus rendered to the jjrovince. The land on which the mine was situated was purchased of the Government b}' a Company, with a capital of £12,000, in £5 shares, and no further call was ever made on the shareholders. The shares rose to £200. and for some time returned £40 per annum in dividends. A large population was settled about the mine ; the town of Kooringa and lesser townships sprung into ex- istence in the neighbourhood. A good market was thus established for agricultural produce ; employment was given to thousands of miners, mechanics, carters, and laborers ; and farmers, in the less busy times of the year, found profitable occupation for their teams in carting the ore to Port Adelaide or Port Wakefield, the former being a little over a hundred, and the latter about seventy miles distant. Soon after the opening of the Burra mine. Captain Grey was appointed to the Governorship of New Zealand, then in one of the crises of its history, when one of the Maori wars had to be fought out. He left South Australia amidst the regret of all the colonists but those who could not forgive the retrenchment policy from which they had sufiered, or a few whom in the exercise of his ad- ministrative powers he had personally offended. In 1 845, the year in which he left, the population had risen to 21,759 ; the immi- gration was 2,336, and the emigration 449 ; revenue, £32,443 ; expenditure, £40,775 — the balance being of course drawn from 20 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n the land fund ; land alienated during the year 49,658 acres, the amount received for it being £52,902 ; land under cultivation £26,218; cattle in the colon}' 22,911; sheep 355,689; imports £118,915; exports £95,272; staple produce exported £82,268; of which £42,769 was for wool and £6,436 for minerals, The returns were taken earh' in the year and did not include the ex- ports of Burra ore. Heavy port dues were imposed during Captain Grey's rule and created great dissatisfaction, but were abolished before he left the colony. Captain Sturt started on his expedition into Central Australia in 1844, and got within 150 miles of the centre of the continent. He discovered Cooper's Creek, watering w^hat for many years past has been a valuable pastoral country. The unfavorable nature of the season, and the illness of several of his party, obliged him to return to Adelaide. One of his party, Mr. Poole, died in the in- terior, and a mountain near where he ended his earthly pilgrimage is named after him. Captain Sturt returned from this expedition, in 1846, after enduring great privations. ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES 21 CHAPTER IT. 1845 TO 1855. Major Robe— State aid to religion— The Burra mine -Attempt to impose royalties on mines— Sir Henry Young — First instalment of Representative Government — Victo- nan diggings — Bullion Act— Land system of Victoria the salvation of Soiitli Aus- tialia — Prices of produce — The Murray trade — Goolwa and Port Elliot tramway and harbor works— District Councils' progress. Major Robe, afterwards promoted to a colonelcy, who succeeded Captain Grey, arrived on the 25th October, 1845. He was a blujff old soldier, of fcAv words, hospitable and kind-hearted, but of tor}^ principles and no civilian experience — in short, a particularly unfit man to rule over such a community as that of South Australia. It was his fate to raise burning questions which set the people by the ears, and produced a great amount of illfeeling. He was persuaded to introduce a measure in 1846 for granting State aid to religious sects. As this was contrary to the principles on which the colony was founded, the scheme provoked the most violent hostility, influential members of the Church of England being among its most pro- minent and determined opponents. The Legislature then consisted of a nominee council of eight, four of whom were official, and the other four non-official members. His Excellencj'' presided, and - when the officials voted on one side and the independent members on the other, he gave his casting-vote for the Government. The arrangement was beautifully simple, but the casting-vote was not necessary in the case of the church grants, as two of the non-official members voted for them, and the Bill was passed in opposition to the will of an overwhelming majority of the people, as expressed by petitions and public meetings. The provision was onlj" for one year, but it was renewed afterwards, and the system lasted till 1851, when it was abolished for ever. Major Robe's next embroilment was with the mining pro- prietors. He introduced in his Legislative Council a Bill for im- 22 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ~^ posing a royalty on minerals, and his officials voted for it, of course, the non-official councillors oj^posing it. Five councillors were necessary to constitute a quorum, and when the division was called for, the four non-official councillors all walked out of the chamber, so effijctually defeating the Government. His Excellency subse- quently came to the conclusion, presumably after consultation with the xVdvocate-General, who was the only law officer of the Crown in those days, that he could impose this tax without the authority of the Council. The matter was, however, tried in the Supreme Court, when the Government were defeated. There was no appeal in the colony, which, at that time, possessed only one Judge, Mr. Charles Cooper, who was afterwards created Chief Justice and re- ceived the honor of knighthood from Her Majesty. His Excellency was liked by people who had the privilege of his acquaintance, but in his gubernatorial capacity he was constantly in hot water. He and the colonists got very tired of each other, and it was at his own request he was removed to another sphere of official activity more suited to his tastes and previous experi- ence. The colony had now reached such a position that it was not possible for its advancement to be stopped by the want of adminis- trative capacity on the part of its rulers. Agricultural settlement had progressed ; the population increased rapidl}'. Large quan- tities of ore were shipped from the Burra and other mines, and there was an immense amount of speculation in new mineral dis- coveries, most of which proved to be worthless. The fifth Governor, Sir Henry Edward Fox Young, assumed the reins of Government on the 2nd August, 1848. His advent was unaccompanied by any labored formality or display. He rode up from Port Adelaide to Government House, escorted by two mounted policemen. In the Imperial Act of 1834, founding the colony, there was a provision to the effect that when the inhabitants numbered 50,000 they should have a constitution. That number was ex- jceeded before Sir Henry Young had been long in the colony, and 'the Home Parliament passed an Act abolishing the nominee Legis- lative Council, and establishing one to consist of twenty-four mem- bers, of whom eight were to be nominee and sixteen elected mem- bers. Half the nominees were officials. The colony was divided into sixteen electoral districts, each returning one member. ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 23 Radical principles prevailed ; but the one question on which the elections hinged \yas that of State aid to religion. The elections caused an amount of excitement never witnessed in political matters in tlie colony in these latter days, and three- fourths of the success- ful candidates were in favor of the purely voluntary system. The Advocate-General, Mr. Smillie, resigned before the elections were over, and Mr. Eichard Davies Hanson, who about twenty years later became Chief Justice, was appointed in his stead, but stipu- lated that he should vote against the Government on this question, and did so. In the first session of the new Council, a Bill for the renewal of the grants-in-aid was rejected on its first reading. For several years afterwards the question was contested at casual elec- tions to fill vacancies in the Chamber, and then the defeated party yielded to the inevitable, and it was accepted as the settled principle that there should be no connection between church and State. An Education Act was passed during the same session, making better provision than had hitherto existed for the secular instruction of the settlers. The Bible was, or might be, read in the State schools without note or comment. The period of Sir Henry Young's administration was eventful in the highest degree. During those few years, a great social, political, and commercial revolution swept over Australia, owing to the discovery of the Yictorian goldfields in 1851. Auriferous finds had been made shortly before in New South Wales, but not on a sufficiently extensive scale to cause such a mighty rush of people as followed quickly upon the opening up of the goldfields of Bal- larat. Mount Alexander, and Bendigo, in the younger province. A few months before these discoveries, Victoria, previously known as the Port Philip settlement, was separated from New South Wales, and established as an independent colony, free from the evils of transportation. Among the first immediate effects of the gold discoveries was the complete abolition of transportation to any part of Australia, to accomplish which object the Australian Anti-transportation League, with branches in all the colonies, had been formed in 1851. A few years afterwards, the people of Western Australia petitioned for transportation to that colony, as their only hope of rescuing it from its stagnant condition, but owing to the remonstrances of the other colonies, this was stopped finally in 1868. 24 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n Late in 1851, a great exodus from South Australia to Victoria commenced, and this increased during the first few months of 1852, All the coasting vessels were crowded with passengers to Melbourne, and thousands of people travelled overland, the dis- tance being from 400 to 500 miles, according to the route taken. Men of all classes joined in the rush ; farmers and their laborers, shopkeepers, clerks. Government officials, mechanics, doctors, and schoolmasters, sailed, or rode, or travelled on foot to the neighbor- ing colony. South Australia lost most of her male population ; some townships were left with only one or two adult male residents. Trade was paralyzed ; houses were left empty ; and property was enormously depreciated in value. There was a run upon the banks early in 1852, and the gold in its native state, or in bullion, of course was not a legal tender ; it was j)urchased on the diggings as low as £2 16s. and sent to London to be sold for about £4. In this crisis it was evident that unusual measures must betaken to avert great finan- cial disaster, and a Bill was introduced in the Legislative Council of South Australia making gold assayed and cast into ingots by a Government assay er a legal tender, at the rate of £3 lis. per ounce. The Banks were authorised to issue their new notes against such gold, and pay for the notes with the gold at the rate stated. Sir Henry Young assumed great responsibility in as- senting to this Bullion Act, as it was called, for it was opposed to the currency laws of the British Empire, and repugnant to Impe- rial legislation ; but he hazarded his own position to save the colony, and the Home authorities, recognizing the greatness of the emergency, did not disapprove of the action of the Governor. The Bullion Act was only to be in operation for a year. The banks asked the Government to extend the period of its operation, but this was declined, and a Bill was introduced and passed to legalize gold tokens representing twenty shillings each, calculating the value of the gold at the same rate as the ingots had been valued at. Not many of these tokens were issued, and now one is considered a curiosity. Its intrinsic value is about twenty-four shillings. This legislation raised the price of gold in Victoria, and before long the competition among buyers raised the price pretty nearly up to the full English value. To facilitate the desp;jtch of the gold obtained by South Aus- tralians to their own colony, an overland escort, first proposed by ITS HISTORY AND KESOURCES. 2o Inspector Tolmer, an able and daring police officer, was established, and proved of great benefit to the diggers, and their families, and to the colony. During 1852, most of the South Australian dig- gers came back, and remained in South Australia ; others followed in 1853, leaving comparatively few behind them. The reason which operated, perhaps, more than the Bullion Act or the Gold Escort to draw them back to South Australia, was the land system of Victoria. With millions of acres of fertile land in that colony, it was almost impossible to buy an acre. The squatters claimed security of tenure or pre-emptive right, and this claim was upheld by a Government and a Council under squatting domination. But for this system, a large agricultural population would have been at once established, and the farmers would have had, in the diggings and the mining townships, splendid markets for their produce. But Victoria's blunder and loss were South Australia's sal- vation. A large portion of the money obtained at the diggings was invested in farming land and farm stock. Ao-riculture made immense strides ; for several years hay was worth £10 a ton in Adelaide, and £40 in Melbourne. Wheat was sold in the former city at from 8s. to 12s. per bushel ; as late as 1856, the higher price named was obtained, and as much as 15s. 6d. was given in that year. Flour rose to £50 and £60 per ton in South Australia — I do not refer particularly to the prices on the diggings, as they were caused by the cost of carriage. In 1852, flour was worth £200 a ton a1 Bendigo. It was sold there at £20 per bag. The flood of prosperitj^ that visited South Australia in those days led to much extravagance, but the beneficial effects to the colony were lasting ; and though there have been dull times since then, there have been no serious panics. In 1853 the colon}^ had passed through the crisis caused hj the diggings, and attention was turned to the Murray, or, "to speak more comprehensively, the Riverina trade. More than thirty years before this time, the navigability of the Murray and its tributaries, the Darling and Murrumbidgee, had been ascertained by Capt. Sturt. There is some confusion as to the distances for which these rivers are navigable. Calculating all their windings, 4,000 miles would not be beyond the mark ; but taking their more general course, about 1,500 miles should be deducted from this estimate. Some of their tributaries are navi enable for a considerable distance for small 26 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: craft, bat tlic quantity of water in them varies greatly, according to the seasons, and the Darling even is sometimes unnavigable for a year or two. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the settlers in Riverina have been immensely benefited by the utilization of those rivers for the carriage of their produce. These streams, with their tributaries, drain over half a million square miles of country, prin- cipally in New South Wales and Queensland ; and the trade of this vast region is what the South Australian Legislative Council bid for when it offered a reward of £4,000 for the first two iron steamers of not less than 40 -horse power, and a draught not exceeding two feet of water when loaded, that should navigate the Murray from the Goolwa through Lake Alexandrina, and up to the Darling junction. 3Ir. William Randall, an old colonist, who arrived in the colonj^ as a boy in the year 1837, launched a little steamer at Mannum, a point above the lakes and about forty miles from Adelaide, and took it up the Murray and Darling, but his craft was too small to entitle him to the reward, which was won by Captain Cadell, who had previously, in a canvas boat, sailed down the Murray from a point above the junction of the Darling, and carefully examined the stream. He and the late Mr. William Younghusband, who subsequently was Chief Secretary of the colony, formed the Murray River Navigation Company, which placed a number of steamers on the Murray. The pioneer was the Lady Augusta named after the wife of Sir Henry Young, and on her first trip His Excellency and Lady Young and a large party of ladies and gentlemen were on board. Captain Cadell being in command. The pioneers in new enterprises are commonly sacrificed, and others enter into their labors, to profit by their mistakes and experience and the information they have given to the world. A few years after the trial trip of the Lady Aiigustd the company owning her was dissolved, and Captain Cadell had lost all he possessed; but the Murray navigation was a great fact, and the trade created thereby has gone on increasing from that day to this. In connection with the Riverina trade arose the question of an outlet for it to the sea. The mouth of the Murray was prac- tically unavailable. Small steamers were afterwards taken through it, but not with full cargoes, or loaded barges. It was necessary to land the wool and other produce at Goolwa, a point of the l> •r-{ q O 02 ITS HISTORY AND llESOURCES. 27 Murray after it lias passed through the lake, and then carry it to the nearest ocean harbor. Sir Henry Young fixed upon Port Elliot as the harbor, and had a tramway constructed from Goolwa to that port, a distance of about eight miles. Strange to say, the harbor was reported favorably upon by Captain Lipson, R.N., the harbor-master of Port Adelaide, and Mr. Hill, a civil engineer. Thus encouraged Sir Henry Young expended £20,000 on a break- water, and it was soon found that the place was utterly useless as a harbor, and that the outlay upon it was so much money thrown away. The Legislative Council protested against the whole pro- ceeding, but the money was taken from the land fund, over which the Governor then bad absolute control. Afterwards a little bay, four miles further from Goolwa, and now known as Port Victor, was chosen, and, though small, it is a safe harbor, and lately its safety has been increased by a breakwater a thousand feet in length, constructed at a cost of £120,000. Previously to the commencement of this work there had been a large expenditure on a jetty connecting Granite Island with the main land. For some years after steamers were first placed on the Murray and its tributaries, the trade belonged to South Australia, but afterwards it was largely diverted to Victoria, that colony seeming the greater share by the construction of a railway 160 miles in length, from Melbourne to Echuca. Most of the traffic, including- all from the Murrumbidgee and Darling, must go up the stream to reach Echuca, and then there is the cost of the land carriage ; but the attraction in this direction consists in the fact that Mel- bourne is a better market for the sale of wool, and, till lately, was a better port of shipment, having a large command of vessels at the lowest rates of freight. The South Australian trade was discouraged by want of shipping facilities at Goolwa and Victor Harbor, and by the high charges of merchants and agents. To secure the trade, it was proposed, about fifteen years ago, to construct a line of rails from Adelaide to the Murray, but this pro- posal was negatived, and the consequence was the loss of most of the trade. In 1878, a railway from Adelaide to the North-West Bend, a distance of 110 miles, was completed, and has been found a paying line. The river terminus is named Morgan, after the late Chief Secretary, Sir William Morgan, and there is naturally a keen rivalry between it and Port Victor. The imports of wool to I 28 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ^ both places are largely increasing, but it is certain that Sonth Australia did not begin to recover the trade till this line was laid down. Sir Henry Young's regime was distinguished by the establish- ment of District Councils wherever the settlers desired them. These bodies are to the country districts what corporations are to towns, and the district roads throughout the most settled portions of the colony, as distinguished from the main roads — which are con- structed and maintained at the cost of the general revenue, suffi- ciently attest the usefulness of these local representative bodies, and the judgment and economy Avith which the district councillors manage their affairs. On this subject Sir Henry was a great en- thusiast, and though some of his expectations of results to flow from these councils were visionary, it is beyond question that by their establishment an addition that could be ill-spared was made to the institutions of South Australia. Sir Henr}' Young was, in 1854, appointed Governor of Tas- mania, and in December of that year, left Adelaide for Hobart. Mr. Boyle Travers Finniss, the Colonial Secretar}^, was sworn in as Acting- Governor, and held that position for nearly six months. The advances made in wealth and prosperity by the colony during the Governorship of Sir Henr}^ Young, mainly owing to the Victorian gold discoveries, were immense. The population in- creased from 38,666 to 92,545 ; the revenue, from £82,911 to £595,o56 ; the land alienated during the former year amounted to 29,200 acres, and in 1854 to 213,925 acres ; land under cultivation increased from 48,911 acres to 129,692 acres ; cattle, from 55,083 to 74,220; sheep, from 838,394 to 1,768,724; imports, from £384,326 to £2,147,107 ; exports, from £504,068 to £1,322,822. The staple produce exported, increased from £465,878 to £694,422. Two years later, the export of staple produce had doubled. The balance of exports in 1854 was com- posed mainly of Riverine wool. The export of mineral produce, through tlic closing of the mines, when the male population flocked to the Victorian diggings, sunk from £320,624 in 1848 to £94,831 in 1854. Three years later, it had risen to £458,839. ITS HISTORY AND llESOURC'ES. 29 CHAPTER V. 1855 TO 1862. Sir Eichard MacDonnoU— Xesy Constitution — Disputes between the two Houses — Eeal Property Act — Mineral discoveries on Yorke's Peninsula — The Wallaroo and Moonta mines — Exploration and Explorers — Gregory, Babbage, Warburton, and Stuart crosses the continent — Burke and Wills — Their sad fate — McKinlaj- — Howitt recovers remains of Burke and Wills — Xorthern Territorj- annexed to South Australia — First raihvay — Progress. Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell arrived in the colony on the 8th June, 1855, and retained the Governorship for the unusually long period of nearly seven years. It fell to his lot to take part in the inauguration of Responsible Government. The people were strongly opposed to the principle of nominee legislators, and lost no opportunity of making known their feelings on this question ; but nevertheless the mixed Council in 1853 framed a Constitution, of which one feature was that the Upper House should be com- posed of members nominated by the Crown for life. The protests of the people by petition and in public meetings had the desired effect, and the Constitution Bill was sent back to the Governor by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. In 1^55 Sir Richard MacDonnell dissolved the Legislative Council, so that the voice of the people might be heard as to the sort of Constitution they wished themselves and their children after them to live under. The electors were almost universally in favor of manhood suffrage and vote by ballot, and put a final veto on nomineeism. The new Council had a task of great difficulty and responsi- bility before them, but in the main the}' carried out the wishes of their constituents. They decided in favor of two chambers, and passed a Constitution Act and an Electoral Act. The former de- fined the suffrage, the constitution, powers, and privileges of the two Houses ; the latter prescribed the mode of election, and the :30 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n rules afi'ecting the electors, the elected, and the returning officers. The House of Assembly was to be elected on the basis of universal suffrage, that is to say, the franchise was given to every man 21 years of age who was a natural born or naturalized subject of Her Majesty, who had been six months on the electoral roll of any dis- trict, and was not under unexpired or unremitted sentence for any felony or infamous crime. Everyone qvialified to be a voter for this House was qualified to be member of it, except that if not a natural-born British subject, he could not be elected unless he had been five years resident in the colony. The elections were to be triennial. The Legislative Council, commonly called also the Upper House, was to be elected on the basis of a property suffrage — consisting of either freehold worth £50 ; registered leasehold of £20 per annum, with three years to run, or right of purchase ; or occupanc}^ of a dwelling-house of the clear annual value of £25. The members were to be elected for twelve years, a third retiring ■every four years, the order of retirement being fixed by lot after the first election, when all were to be returned, and subsequently after each general election of one- third, or a casual election of more than one member. In case of a single election to fill a vacancy, the name of member then elected to be placed last on the roll, i.e., last in the order of retirement. The Assembly was to con- sist of thirty-six members, elected by districts ; the Legislative ^Council was to consist of eighteen members, returned by the electors ■of the whole colou}^ voting as one constituency. The salaries of the Governor, the Judges, and certain ofiicials were fixed by this Act, and pensions were settled on those officials required to be in' the ministry, in case of their losing their offices, ■so long as they were deprived of those positions ; if they took other -offices the pensions were merged in their salaries, or if the salaries were smaller, they were merged in the pensions. The Judges were lo hold their offices during good behaviour, but nevertheless might be removed by Her Majesty upon the address of both Houses of the South Australian Parliament. Power was given to the Governor to dissolve the House of Assembly, but not the Legislative Council. All money l^ills were to be initiated iu the Assembly, and such Bills and all money votes, resolutions, or appropriations, must be recommended by the Governor, b}^ message to the House of Assem- bly. Government officials, (except cabinet ministers,) judges, and ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 31 ministers of religion were not to be eligible for election to either branch of the Legislature. This Constitution continued in force without any important alteration for nearly a quarter of a century ; but in 1881, certain changes, which will be specified in another chapter, were made in the constitution of the Upper House. Minis- terial responsibility is the same as in the old countrj', except that members on obtaining seats on the Treasur}^ benches are not sent to their constituents for re-election. There were originally five Cabi- net Ministers, namely, the Chief Secretary, the Attorney General, the Treasurer, the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Immigration, and the Commissioner of Public Works. A few years ago a sixth was appointed, an Act being passed to authorise this. His title is variable, and he may be appointed either as a Minister of Justice, or of Education, or of Agriculture. The present occupant of the office is Minister of Education, controls the postal and telegraph departments, and has charge of the Northern Territor3\ Tlie Com- missioner of Crown Lands looks after agriculture, and the At- torney General has the administration of justice in his department. The Electoral Act of 1855-G provided vote by ballot, pre- scribed the duties of returning-officcrs, dispensed with hustings nominations of the English style, forbad the appearance of any candidate at any election meeting after the issue of a writ for the election for which he was a candidate, except for the purpose of recording his vote, and contained stringent provisions against personal solicitation of votes by a candidate, or briber}- by anyone. Nominations were to be in writing, and were to be read by the returning-officer on the day and at the hour aj^pointed in the writ. This Act was superseded four or five years afterwards bj^ another, and the electoral law has been amended and consolidated several times since then ; but the most important principles of the original Act have been preserved, though there have been great improve- ments in the machinery. Candidates are not debarred now from attendins: election meetings from the time the writ is issued; but they must not attend such meetings within twelve hours before the nomination, and from then until the election is over, except for the purpose of voting. The first elections for the two Houses took place in March, 1857, and the first Parliament met on the 22nd of the followinjr month. Mr. (afterwards Sir) James Hurtle Fisher, was ajjpointed 32 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n President of the Legislative Council, and Mr. George Charles Hawker was chosen as Speaker of the Assembly. The population at -this time was not much over 100,000. During the first session the two Houses of Parliament came to loggerheads over their respective privileges with regard to money Bills. The Constitu- tion Act provided that such Bills should be initiated in the Assembly, but placed no other restriction on the Legislative Council with regard to such measures ; and as the Constitution was the creature of a Statute, the powers and privileges of each branch could only be found within the four corners of that Statute. All attempts to draw analogies between the Council and the House of Lords were rejected by the South' Australian Upi^er House as simply absurd. However, the members of the Assembly were resolute, and a compromise was arrived at. The Council agreed not to make amendments in future, but to " sug- " gest " them, and ask for a conference with the Assembly there- upon. This course has rarely been followed, and the practice will probably be abandoned altogether. Where the Constitution fails to prescribe the same rules with regard to the powers of the Upper House as obtain in the old country over financial measures, the defect has been, or will be, supplied by resolutions of the Assembly and submissions of the Council till the practice is established by custom, if indeed it may not already be regarded as so established. The first session under the new Constitution was not entirely occupied in sqviabbles between the two Houses, for it was dis- tinguished by the passing of the Real Property Act, one of the most sweeping and beneficial measures of law reform ever adopted in an)^ countr3% The introducer of this scheme, as everybody knows, was Mr. (now Sir) Robert Richard Torrens, who carried it through Parliament against the powerful, and, in some cases, very bitter opposition of the legal profession. The system was briefly explained by Mr. Torrens as an assimilation of the mode of trans- ferring real property to that of transferring ships, and though this notion was much ridiculed, experience has proved that in the majority of transactions in land the jjrocess is almost as simple as the transferring of vessels. The fundamental principle of the Act is conveyance by registration and certificate instead of deeds. All the retrospect is destroyed. In bringing private lands under the 'I '[(il'V'Jil \ ITS HISTORY AND KESOUItCES. 33 Act, the title is carefully inquired into, but when the authorities of the Lands Titles Office are satisfied about that, a clean certificate is given, and the cumbrous deeds disappear. The title is inde- feasible, except in cases of fraud, or adverse and rightful possession when the certificate or a transfer based thereupon was given. In the former case the title is secure in the hands of an innocent per- son, who has purchased from the holder under a certificate fraudu- lently obtained. The party wronged, under such circumstances, recovers from the assurance fund, constituted by a percentage of a halfpenny per pound, levied on all property brought under the Act. That sum amounts to £75,919 13s. lid. ; only eight claims have been made upon it, and only £2,229 lis. lid. paid in satisfaction of such claims. With regard to defeasibility through someone being in adverse and rightful possession, ordinary precaution would prevent anyone from becoming an unfortunate transferee under such circumstances. In the case of misdescription of boun- daries they are corrected, but otherwise the title is indefeasible. The fees for transfer and mortgages are very small. A certificate of title costs £1 ; registering a memorandum of mortgage, 10s. ; other fees in proportion, the expenses being greater by a pound or two in rescuing land from the old system and bringing it under the new. The assistance of a lawyer is not necessary; the transferor and transferee can act for themselves, or employ a broker licensed to conduct such business. Amending Acts have since been passed, but the cardinal principles of the first Act have been carefully preserved. The system has been adopted in all the Australian colonies, and has long been the subject of serious dis- cussion in the old country, where its introduction is only a question of time. All the Crown lands sold since the passing of the first Act, in 1857, are under the Torrens system, and the quantity of land left under the old system is constantly diminishing, purchasers preferring the simple titles of the Ileal Property Act. In 1860 the real value of the Wallaroo mines, on Yorke's Penin- sula, were made known. Copper had been discovered on the land years before by Mr. W. W. Hughes, who was a large sheepowner there. He persevered in his endeavors to develop the mineral dis- covery he had made, and his enterprise and determination were rewarded. Great quantities of ore were raised from the original mine. There was a rush of prospectors to the Peninsula. Other D 34 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: mines were found ; speculation commenced ; companies were formed ; shares went up to great prices and Avent down again ; townships Avere proclaimed by the Government, and land sj)ecu- lation was added to dabbling in mining shares. In 1861 the Moonta was discovered, and was richer than the Wallaroo mine. The right to this grand property was a matter of dispute and litigation, but it remained in the hands of the proprietors of the Wallaroo mine and some other persons, with whom they shared their good fortune. The Moonta never cost the original proprietors a farthing, and the shareholders have received in dividends £1,072,000. The dividends from the Wallaroo mines and the smelting Avorks, owiied by the same company, amounts to £372,256, no capital having been paid up. The immediate result of these discoveries AA'as the settlement of about 20,000 people about the mines and the seaport of Wallaroo. Agricultural settlement fol- lowed and extended to the southern point of the Peninsula. Great strides Avere made in the exploration of the conti- nent, and especially of Sovith Australian territory, Avhile Sir Richard MacDonnell presided over the destinies of the colonj^. Augustus Gregory, Surveyor- General of Queensland, and formerly of Western Australia, proceeded from Brisbane to the Barco, Avhich he folloAved down to Cooper's Creek, with Avhich stream he found it to be identical, and then came to Adelaide, where he Avas Avarmly welcomed. Mr. Babbage and Major Warburton ex- tended our knowledge of the far north in 1857, the former dis- covering some remarkable freshwater springs to the Avest of Lake Gairdner. In May, 1850, ]\[r. Stuart, AA^ho was the draughtsman in Capt. Sturt's expedition fourteen or fifteen years before, started for the north coast, and got as far north as lat. 27"^ 12' 30'. He discoA'ered more springs, several creeks, and good grazing country. In No- vember of the same year he Avent to the Avestward of that line of route, and added to his knowledge of the interior. On the 2nd March of tlic folloAving year, Avith tAA'o men and thirteen horses, he made another start, discovered rivers and mountain ranges, and a remarkable formation, Avhich he named Chambers' Pillar, after his friend Mr. James Chambers, at Avhose expense mainly these explo- rations were conducted ; passed 200 miles beyond the centre of the continent, and then returned prostrated by scurvy. Then the Go- ITS HISTORY AND KESOI^R('J<:S. 35 vernment took the enterprise up, and Parliament voted £2,500 to assist tlie gallant explorer in crossing the continent from south to north. In December, 1860, he was at Chambers' Creek, and started from there on New Year's Day, 1861, with eleven men and saddle and pack-horses. In Maj^ he discovered Newcastle Water, in lat. 17"" 40' S. situated in splendid pastoral country ; but although he made repeated efforts for six Aveeks to reach the coast, he failed. He returned to Adelaide on the 23rd September ; but three months after- wards he was again at Chambers' Creek with a party of ten, and this expedition was entirely successful. The party found abun- dance of water and reached the River Roper on the 2Gtli June, 1801, and bearing to the westward of north came to the ocean on the 24th July. / 8 C^-^ . Burke and Wills, the ill-fated explorers, got to the Gulf of Carpentaria with two men named Gray and King in February, 3.861, and returning died at Cooper's Creek, their lives being sacri- ficed to mismanagement, and to want of bush knowledge on the part of the gallant but impetuous leader. John MacKinlay, with a small part}'', was dispatched by the South Australian Government in search of these explorers, who were supposed to have perished, or at least to be in great peril. Beyond Cooper's Creek he found the remains of Gray, who had succumbed to fatigue and hardships; so, thinking the whole party had perished, he made a dash for the north coast, which he reached some distance to the east of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Howitt, from Melbourne, cleared up the mystery attaching to the fate of Burke and his two comrades. When they returned to their depot at Cooper's Creek, having left the body o£ Gray in the wilderness, to the northward, they found that the portion of the expedition that should have remained at that depot had deserted them. They endeavored to reach the nearest squatting stations of our colony, but were obliged to give up the attempt, and return to Cooper's Creek, where Wills and Burke successively died, leaving King the sole survivor, who Avas rescued by Howitt. Howitt afterwards conveyed the remains of Burke and Wills to Adelaide, whence they were taken to Melbourne and honored with a public funeral and a monument As a consequence of Stuart's discoveries, the Northern Territory — that is all the countr}- between Queensland and 36 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: Western Australia, and north of the 26th parallel of latitude — was annexed to South Australia. The first railway in the colony — that connecting Adelaide with the Port — was opened soon after Sir Richard MacDonnell's arrival. Before he left lines were conijDleted to Gawler and Kapunda. The colony made great progress during Sir Richard Mac- Donnell's rule. Since Sir Henry Young left, at the end of 1854, the population had increased nearly 50 per cent , but the revenue had decreased ; owing to the j)eople having recovered from the excitement and extravagance caused by the diggings, they consumed less duty-paying luxuries, and an alteration in the tarifi' also affected the Customs receipts. There was a slight increase in the quantity of land alienated, but the area under cultivation had increased from 129,692 acres to close upon half a million acres. Cattle had increased from under 80,000 to 258,342, and the sheep from about a million and three-quarters to nearly three and a half millions. The staple produce exported rose from £694,422 in value to £1,920,487. Copper exports rose from £316,217 to £633,241 ; two years later they had advanced to £1,464,598. ITS HISTORY AND TvESOURCES. 37 CHAPTER VI. 1862 TO 1869. Sir Dominic Daly — Tlie Judges — Mr. Justice Boothby— Invalidity of South Australian Acts — The " ultra vires" and "repugnancy" mania — Amoval of Mr. Justice Boothby — Validating Acts — Local Courts — Expedition to the Xorthern Territory to establish a settlement — Disputes — Eecall of 3Ir. Finniss, the Government Resident — John MacKinla}'"s expedition — Captain Cadell — The Squatters and Goyder's valuations — Visit of the Duke of Edinburgh — Parliamentary contests, generally about nothing — The Governor's death — Progress. Sir Dominic Daly arrived in the colony on the day on which his predecessor left, March 4th, 1862, his last Governorship previously having been Prince Edward's Island, He had been trained in a constitutionally governed colony, having occupied an important official position in Canada, in the troublous times of Lord Dur- ham's rule. On Responsible Government being granted to Canada, he was chosen, at the first elections, to represent a constituency, and held office in the Ministry for some time. Not exhibiting in any high degree the gifts of a public speaker, he nevertheless possessed great sagacity and firmness as a ruler, and these qualities were required during his tenure of the gubei'natorial office in South Australia, for some of the matters he had to deal with were of no small importance, and special difficulties and responsibility were attached to them. The Governor's first great trouble was with the judicial bench ; and as the representative of the Sovereign, and the ruler of a people whose instinct it is to reverence the ermine, he had to avoid even the appearance of impairing the indejaendence of the Judges, while at the same time upholding the principle that the law is above even the Judges, and that their duty is to administer and not to obstruct it. For the first few years of the colony's history there was only one Judge, but as the work of the Supreme Court increased, it was thought desirable to have a second, and in Feb- 38 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ruaiy of tlie year ]850, Mr. Crawford, aa Irish barrister, was appointed as a colleague of Mr. (now Sir Charles Cooper), who suc- ceeded Sir John JefFcott, the first Judge of South Australia. Mr, Justice Crawford died in the colony in September, 1852, and Mr. Benjamin Boothby, Recorder of Pontefract, was chosen as his suc- cessor, and arrived in the colony in the following year. Soon after his arrival he manifested a dislike to colonial enactments, which he did not attempt to conceal, and this tendency constantly in- creased. In 1858 Mr. Gwynne, a leading practitioner at the bar was- appointed Third Judge under authority of an Act of the South Australian Legislature passed in that year. In 1861 Sir Charles Cooj)er resigned the Chief Justiceship ; and Mr. (afterwards Sir) Richard Hanson, who had occupied the office of Advocate-General for six years, and, subsequently to the introduction of responsible Government, that of Attorney- General for several years till the Ministry of which he was a member went out of office, and was recognised as the leader of the bar, and the foremost politician of the colony, was appointed his successor. Against this appoint- ment Mr. Justice Boothby protested as wholly illegal, but his colleagues overruled him. After this his astuteness in discovering^ in colonial Acts repugnanc}^ to Imperial law became intensified till the words " repugnant " and " ultra vires " seemed to figure necessarily in the proceedings of every sittings of the Supreme Court. He declared on the Bench that the appointment of Mr. Justice Gwynne, as well as that of the Chief Justice; was invalid, and that they were not Judges at all. Twice the Parliament passed addresses for Mr. Justice Boothby's removal from the Bench, bvit in vain. He had warm defenders in Parliament, and one Ministry resigned on account of diSerences of opinion in Cabinet with regard to the action to be taken upon addresses for the Judge's removal. Some of his decisions against the validity of South Australian Statutes were confirmed on appeal to the Pri^y Council, and this greatlj^ encouraged him in his warfare against things colonial. Several validating Acts were passed by the Im- perial Parliament to give force to South Australian laws, or remove doubts concerning them. Still the Judge was not more practicable. Suitors suffered seriously from the delays and obstruc- tion in the Supreme Court, and at last business in that tribunal ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 39 was brought into such a condition that it was necessary for the Executive to take decided action. Several j^ears before Mr. Justice Boothby arrived in the colony grand juries had been abolished, the Parliament regarding them as useless. Soon, if not immediately, after his arrival the Judge expressed his strong disapproval of this innovation, but still he tried prisoners without grand juries for about thirteen years, and then at a particularly heavy criminal sittings declared that the accused persons on the calendar could not legally be tried without a grand jury. They were all kept in gaol or had their bail renewed, as the case might be, till the next criminal sittings, when another Judge tried them. This was the occasion of the second unsuccessful Parliamentary Address to the Queen for Mr. Justice Boothby 's removal. He was not allowed to preside at a criminal sittings again ; when his turn came round he was prevented by a Special Commission to the Chief Justice, directing him to try the prisoners. In 1867 the patience of the Judicial Bench, the bar, and the colonists was exhausted. Charges were made against Mr. Justice Boothby of obstruct- ing the administration of justice, and of unseemly conduct on the Bench, as exhibited in his demeanor towards his colleagues and towards counsel. These charges were dealt with by the Executive Council under the authority of an Act of George III., the Governor presiding, and the Judge was " amoved." The Crown Solicitor, Mr. Wearing, afterwards drowned in the wreck of the Gothenbunj in Torres Straits, was appointed to suc- ceed him. Out of all this trouble some benefit accrued to the colony. The amoved judge had accurately ruled that, owing to some omis- sion in bringing the new Constitution into force, the Legislature itself was invalid, and this defect was remedied by the Imperia Parliament. The repugnancy nuisance was effectually disposed of Nothing can now be ruled repugnant unless it is so to an Imj)erial Act specifically applying to the colonies. The last Imperial vali- dating statute was of a most comprehensive character. "With the exception we have stated, no colonial Act can be ruled invalid after receiving the Queen's assent, or after a proclamation that she has not exercised her power of disallowance. The greatest inconvenience and alarm was caused in the year 40 SOUTH AUSTKALIA: ^ 1865 by a decision of the majority of the Judges— namely (Justices Boothby and Gwynne) that the South Australian Legislature had no power to establish Courts of Judicature. This invalidated all the Local Courts of the colony, they having jurisdiction in civil cases up to £100, and the Insolvency Court. The Imperial Vali- dating Act however, settled this difficidty, greatly to the relief of suitors in particular and the public generally. The powers of the Local Court of Appeal were enlarged by an Act of the South Australian parliament passed in 1861. This anomalous tribunal consisting of the Executive, of whom nearly all are laymen, owes its continued existence to the recollection the colonists have of the "repugnancy" and ^' ultra tires" troubles. About two years after Sir Dominic Daly's arrival, the first two expeditions were despatched to the Northern Territory to establish a settlement there. This was a necessary consequence of the an- nexation of that portion of the continent to South Australia, for it was never supposed that the Territorj^ would be allowed to remain undeveloped. In April, 1864, a party of about forty officers and men, under the command of ]Mr. (soon afterwards the Honorable) B. T. Finniss, was despatched by the sailing vessel " Henry Ellis" to the north coast. Mr. Finniss was appointed Government Hesi- dent, and was to go in the first instance to Adam Bay, which was strongly recommended as the site for the capital ; but he was to secure certain advantages in the harbor and the locality chosen for the first settlement, and was free to select any other spot intead of Adam Ba3% He remained there, however, against the protests of the representatives of land order holders, who arrived with a second party of about forty officers and men in December of the same j'ear, and against the opinion of nearly all his officers. Dis- agreements arose in the party ; scarcely any progress was made in the surveys ; and late in 1865 the Hon. B. T. Finniss was recalled and Mr. John MacKinlay was sent to explore the countr5^ Unfor- tunately he was despatched at such a period of the j^ear that he arrived at Adam Bay just before the commencement of the rainy season. He travelled with his party south eastward, and they were imprisoned on the bank of the East Alligator till they had eaten most of their horses. Then iinder the direction of their leader, ever fertile in expedients, and the cleverest bushman Aus- tralia has produced, they killed the rest of the horses, dried the CD O O o o ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 41 flesh for food, and with the skins and saplings constructed a launch, with which they sailed down the river and along the coast to Adam Bay. MacKinlay afterwards examined Anson Bay, of which he gave a favorable account. While he was in the Terri- tory, a Commission, appointed to inquire into the whole adminis- tration of affairs at Adam Bay, condemned the site and Mr. Finniss' management of affairs. Mr. Manton, the second in com- mand, remained in charge until it should be decided where to fix the capital. About 15,000 acres of land were surveyed, besides the town, and then nothing more was done for several years. At last the party were brought back, and for a 3'ear not a European was in the Territory. Captain Cadell was sent to explore the coast, and he furnished a rejDort principally relating to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing more was done to settle the Territory during Sir Dominic Daly's life. One matter of great consequence that had to be dealt with during Sir Dominic's Governorship, was the rent to be imposed upon the pastoral lands held by the squatters. They had paid a trifling- rent, but the attention of the public and Parliament had been called to the practicability and propriety of the State receiving a fair revenue from the waste lands engaged by the shepherd kings, and Mr. Goyder, the Surveyor- General, was employed by the Government to value the runs, or estimate the rent that should be paid upon them. His valuations were denounced by the persons affected as exorbitant and unjust, but they were confirmed. The disjaute was very warm in and out of Parliament, and several years later the squatters in the district countr}^ to the north, north-east, and north-west received large concessions in the shape of remissions of rent, owing to their heavy losses sustained through a severe and protracted drought. In 1867 a notable event in colonial existence was the visit of His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, the first member of the Royal Family who had visited Australia. The Prince was re- ceived with great enthusiasm, and during the few weeks he was in the colonj^, saw a great deal of it. He officiated at various im- portant public ceremonies, and laid the foundation stones of the college which bears his name, and of the post office, which is a noble building, considered by some people too magnificent for the requirements of the colony. It is, however, more than a post 42 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ^ office ; it is also the general telegraph office, and furnishes accom- modation for the Education Department. The Parliamentary proceedings during Sir Dominic Daly's ad- ministration, as a rule, possessed only ephemeral interest. Apart from the judicial difficulty, there could hardly be said to be any •great questions disposed of. There was brilliant debating, especi- ally in the Lower House, but a stranger at the time witnessing, or a colonist looking back upon those animated contests, could hardly tell exactly what they were all about. Ministries were changed raj)idly, sometimes for not very sufficient causes, but their advent to office or ejection from it did not mark the triumph of any im- portant principle. The Governor was calm and impartial through- out all the strife, and thoroughly loyal to whatever ministry was in power. During the last year or two of his administration, his health failed rapidly, and on the 19tli February, 1868, he died at Government House. The colonists mourned their loss deeply, for Sir Dominic Daly was respected and trusted as a Governor, and his genial though dignified manner, and the evident interest he took in all movements calculated to benefit the colony made him univers- ally popular. The colony had continued to progress under Sir Dominic Daly's rule, though not so raj)idly as during the previous half dozen years. The population had grown from 135,329 in 1862, to 176,298 in 1868 ; the revenue had increased from £548,709 to £716,004 ; in 1865 it was £1,089,129. It must be observed, that in these statements of revenue proceeds of land sales are included. The land alienated in the first-named year amounted to 129,910 acres, and in 1868 to 199,693 acres. Land under cultivation in- creased from 494,511 to 808,234 acres ; cattle decreased from 258,342 to 123,213, but sheep increased from 3,431,000 to 4,987,024. Exports of staple produce advanced in value from £1,920,487 to £2,603,826. There had, owing to a bad harvest, been a fall in the export of breadstufis, but the wool shipment had risen from £635,270 to £1,305,280. The progress in railway con- struction was sliglit, only four miles more were open for traffic in 1868 than eight years previously. The total length of our lines at the end of the last year was sixty miles. 01 c3 I— I 03 O M a pq 1 — I O •iH -P 03 !21 ITvS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 43- CHAPTER YII. 1869 TO 1873. Colonel Hamlej' — Sti-angways' Act — Killing a squattei' — Sir James Fergusson — Fiu'- ther amendment of the land system — -The transcontinental telegraph — Gold dis- coveries in the Northern Territory — Forrest's journey by Eyre's route from "Western Australia to Fowler's Bay — Kaih\'ays Progress. Sir James Fergusson, Bart., now Governor of Bombaj^, who was appointed to succeed Sir Dominic Daly, did not exhibit any im- petuous haste to enter upon his new sphere of activity, for the Acting Governor, Lieutenant-Colonel Francis Gilbert Hamley, who- was sworn in on the 20th February, 1868, held office for nearly twelve months. Sir James not arriving till the 14th February of the following year. Colonel Hamley won golden opinions from the colonists while he held the reins of power, and he steered safely through the difficulties attending two ministerial crises and changes of Cabinet. During his ride the first substantial reform in the land system of the colony was effected. At this time farmers wished to get their land cheaper than hitherto, but the price obtained for the land by the Government was of minor conse- quence ; the real grievance was the impossibility of the bond fide farmer competing at all with the squatter and the capitalist in the auction room. From the foundation of the colony until the passing of the Waste Lands Act of 1868-9, the average price per acre, in- cluding town lands, obtained by the Government was only £1 5s. 6d. ; but the farmers paid to the capitalists and land jobbers £o, £5, and up to £10 an acre, and occasionally even higher rates. The State profited nothing by the existing system ; the farmers and the country suffered greatly. The leading object of reform then was to protect the agricidturists from the competition they had been subjected to at land sales. For this object what is known as Strangways' Act was passed, and, since then, with competition limited to farmers, the average price of land up to the end of 1882 44 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ^ was £1 6s. lOd., so that Is. 4d. more per acre has been obtained under the reformed system for lands inferior in quality or position than was given for the pick of the country at open auction. The legislator whose name this Statute bears had never dis- tinguished himself by any earnestness in the cause of land reform ; but having induced the Assembl}^ to eject a Ministry that was in earnest in its endeavors to accomplish that great object, he formed a Cabinet, and carried through Parliament the first Act that made special provision for the encouragement of agricul- tural settlement. Previousl}^, till within a few years, it was generally held as a sound principle, that all tlie State had to do with the land was to sell it, without troubling about the uses to which it was put afterwards, or whether the progress of agricul- ture was promoted or impeded by the operation. " Killing a Squatter," was a favorite device witli impecunious Treasvirers in those days. Money was wanted, so a sheep or cattle run leased from the Grovernment was declared a "Hundred," — the lessor having the right to resume the land for agricultural purjDoses, — surveyed, and offered for sale by auction, when of course the squatter secured all he could afford to purchase ; land-sharks grab- bed the rest, and the farmers, who would have gladly given more than the average price obtained for the land, could not compete with the monej^ed men. In this way, some of the large estates of 40,000, 50,000, and 60,000 acres, in this colony, have been ac- quired. All this was changed in 1869. Though. Strangways' Act was far from perfect, and led to dummyism, or the acquisition of estates by monopolists, through the medium of sham pui"chasers, still it ■broke up the old system, and further reforms quickly followed. The Act established sales on four years' credit, for the full amount of the purchase money. Five per cent, per annum was charged, and the four years' interest had to be paid in advance at the time of purchase. Land might be so sold, on credit, at auction sales ; but agricultural areas were proclaimed, and the lands within them could not, in the first instance, be offered at auction, but were open for selection, and simultaneous applications for a particular block, were decided by lot. Land that had been passed at auction, might be selected immediately. Lands in the Agricultural Areas that liad been open for selection for two years, at £1 per acre, and not ITS HISTORY AND Ill<:SOUIlCES. 45. taken, might bo sold by auction. In these areas the lands were- classified and priced accordingly. If not selected, the price was lowered once, twice^ or oftener, till the minimum of £1 was reached. No person might hold at one time more than 640 acres on credit. There were residence and improvement conditions. Many genuine farmers availed themselves of this Act, which gave a great impetus to agriculture ; but it was soon found that it gave enormous facilities to land monopoly. The term of credit waS' too short, and at the end of four years, the dummies sold to their employers; and perhaps some selectors who had started with the intention of holding their lands as farmers, were tempted by high prices, to sell to the capitalist or squatter. Then, although a per- son might not have more than a square mile on credit at one time, he might, as soon as he had sold it, get another on credit. As a consequence of these Aveak points in the measure, the land jobbers were uncommonly active, and an amending statute was seen to be of absolute necessity. A few months after Sir James Fergusson assumed office as Governor, a short amending Act was passed. The term of credit was extended from four to five years, with a right of renewal for three years. The amount of interest to be paid in advance at the time of sale, was reduced from four to three years. The sum to be expended in improvements during the first four years was lowered from 12s. 6d. to 10s. per acre. The selector might complete his. purchase at the end of three years if he had laid out 10s. per acre on imjjrovements, and fulfilled the other conditions of the lease. This little Act, it will be seen, did not heal the defects of the for- mer measure in any material degree, or make dummyism and the accumulation of estates by land monopolists less easy. In the session of 1870-71, another amending Act was passed. It reduced the interest to 31 per cent., and required three 3'ears' interest to be paid in advance at the time of sale. At the end of the three years an equal amount of interest had to be paid in advance. So care- lessly was this statute drafted, that it professed to define the terms "cultivation" or "cultivate" in the Act of 1868-9, whereas nei- ther of those terms appeared in that Act. In 1872, an amending Act, on a larger scale, was passed re- lating to the sale of waste lands for farming purposes. It repealed Strangways' Act, and the statutes amending it, and made other- -46 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: provisions in lieu tliereof. It left untoiiclied the Scrub Lands Act of 1866 — that I have not hitherto referred to — which provided for the leasing of inferior or scrub lands in square mile blocks, for 21 years, at 10s. per square mile, with right of purchase at any time during the currency of the lease, at £1 per acre. The minimum price of land was kept at £1 per acre, and the maximum at £2. If offered at any price above a pound, the price was to be reduced by 2s. 6d. per acre every seven days, till the minimum was reached. In the case of reclaimed or improved lands, the cost of reclamation •or improvements was to be added to the price. Selection by appli- cation, and determination by lot, between simultaneous applications, were preserved. The area to be held by any person, on credit, was kept at 640 acres. Six years' credit were still given, there being two pajmients of three years' interest at 83 per cent, in ad- vance. At the end of six years, however, the selector might pay half his purchase money, and obtain four years credit for the other half at 4 per cent, interest, payable annually in advance. Resi- dence, cultivation, and improvement conditions were retained, but -the residence conditions might be relaxed by the Commissioner of ^Crown Lands in certain cases, when substituted residence would be permitted. This Act contained stringent clauses against evasions of its provisions. Auction sales were still continued for cash and •on credit, and there were special provisions in former statutes with regard to town, suburban, arid mineral lands. In 1859, the Government determined to survey the land they liad covenanted to convey to the holders of Northern Territory land order holders, and despatched Mr. Goyder for that purpose. As a compensation for the dcilays that had occurred, they were ■offered double the area they agreed to take for the same lumj) sum, but most of the purchasers demanded their money back and got it, .after litigation. I must, however, reserve fuller notice of the Northern Territory for a subsequent chapter, specially devoted to -that portion of the Province. It fell to Sir James Fergusson's lot, as Governor of South Australia, to inaugurate the establishment of telegraphic com- munication between Australia and the old world. The honor of first suggesting this bold enterprise undoubtedly belongs to Mr. Todd, Avho, as a consequence of Gregory's journey rom Victoria Iliver across the continent to Adelaide, wrote in the year 1809 to ITS HISTORY AND llESOUUCES. 47 the then Governor, Sir Richard ]\racDonncll, urging that the work should be undertaken, setting forth the advantages of the scheme to South Australia and the whole group of colonies, and giving an estimate of the cost, which he considered would bo about £178,000. His project was to start from Mount Remark- able, about 190 miles from Adelaide, and construct the line from that point to the River Victoria. The Governor, in a despatch dated October 10th, 1859, submitted this project to the considera- tion of the Duke of Newcastle, Secretary of State for the Colonies. Two or three years later Mr. Todd read a paper before the Ade- laide Philosophical Society on the scheme, detailing the manner in which he proposed to carry it out. Of course the work was made ranch simpler and easier by Stuart's feat of crossing the continent and reaching the Indian Ocean about Yan Dieman's Gulf in 1862, and by the subsequent annexation of the Northern Territory to South Australia. In 1870 the work was commenced. Queensland had. hoped that the cable would be brought to her territor}', but Mr. Todd, Superintendent of South Australian Telegraphs, successfully negotiated with Mr. Noel Osborne, the representative of the British Australian Telegraph Company, who called at Adelaide on his way to Brisbane^ and an agreement was entered into by which that company undertook to lay the cable to Port Darwin, where it was to be met b}^ the land line from Port Augusta. It was a bold enterprise for a little colony with a population of about 150,000 to undertake the construction of 1,800 miles of telegraph through a country most of which was a terra incognita, or at least had not been travelled through by any white men except the explorer Stuart and his gallant band. For a great part of the region to be traversed water was scarce, and the natural supplies manj^ miles apart. Some of the wooden poles had to be carted great distances, up to a hundred miles, and for a large portion of the line iron poles were used. The work was divided into three sections. The southern and northern sections, about six hundred miles each, were let to private contractors, the Government undertaking the central por- tion. The whole work was under the superintendence of Mr. Todd. The Government section ■\^■as constructed most rapidly ; it was finished within the period allotted for the completion of the whole line, and the party also constructed about two hundred 48 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: miles of the northern section. The southern contractor was but little behind his time ; but the northern contractor, who had the easiest portion of the line, failed utterly, and it was necessary for the Goyernment to take the work into their own hands. The Assistant- Engineer, Mr. Patterson, was despatched to Port Darwin with a strong party; but selecting that port as a base of operations was a great mistake. The contractors had put up the line for a distance of about seventy miles from Port Darwin inland, and the materials and men to proceed with the work from that point should have been taken to the Gulf of Carpentaria and up the Poper River, so saving about 200 miles of cartage. Mr. Pat- terson's party failed as completely as the contractors had, and Mr, Todd was then placed in charge of another expedition, which he took up the Roper, and after a little delay, through a very wet season, carried on oj)erations with great activity and without further hitch. The line was to have been finished in twenty months, and open by the 22nd Aug-ust of that year. The Cable Company had been waiting and complaining, but strange to say, when the land line was finished the cable communication was interrupted and was not restored for two months afterwards. The opening of telegraphic communication with the whole world was celebrated by a banquet at the Town Plall of Adelaide, presided over by Sir James Fergus- son, who announced that Her Majesty had, in honor of the great work completed bestowed upon Mr. Henry Ayers, who was Chief Secretary at the time, a knighthood, and upon Mr. Todd the title of C.M.G. It should be mentioned, that Mr. Strangways was- Premier when it was resolved to commence the work, and that Sir James Fergusson gave his warmest support to the scheme, which was also strongly advocated by the late Mr. John Hart, Mr. Ross, and other prominent public men. Since the opening of the line, the interruptions have been rare and brief, especially on the land line, which is the most reliable of any intercolonial wire in Australia. The amount first voted by the South Australian Parliament for the undertaking was £120,000, but it has cost over half a million, the extraordinary excess over the estimate being caused principally by the blunder in sending Mr. Patterson to Port Darwin instead of the Roper, and by the ravages of the white ants rendering it necessary ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 49 to substitute iron for Avooden poles along hundreds of miles of the line. The telegraph does not directly yield revenue enough to pay much more than working expenses and interest on the cost of con- struction, but its indirect benefits have been immense. Apart from the gain to commerce necessarih* arising through the electric wire with Europe and the rest of the world, this line has facilitated ex- ploration, promoted pastoral occupation of the interior, and largely aided in the settlement of the Northern Territory. While the project was warmly recommended by the Governor and several leading politicians of the colony, to Mr. Todd must be awarded the chief merit for carrying to a successful issue so bold and difficult an enterprise. It would be impossible to overpraise the intelli- gence and readiness of resource displayed by his officers, or the qualities of pluck, endurance, determination, and discipline they " exhibited, in common with the men under them, throughout the arduous undertaking by which they laid not only their own colony but all Australia under a deep debt of obligation, that can hardly be exaggerated. Some of the men employed on the Northern Territory portion of the work discovered gold, which led to prospecting parties ex- amining the country ; and their reports and finds produced a rush and a mining scrip mania in the years 1872 and 1873, followed naturally by a panic in shares, and a collapse. Since then, how- ever, mining in the Northern Territory has been conducted in a more legitimate manner with considerable success. Mr. John Forrest's journey from Xing George's Sound to Fowler's Bay, along the coast, by the route Eyre travelled thirty years before, was accomplished in 1870. The earlier explorer's descriptions of the country were fully confirmed. There was good grass land in some parts of the territor}^ traversed, but a scarcity of water, which was only obtained in the sandhills close to the sea. From Fowler's Bay the explorer and his party proceeded to Denial Bay, then across to Port Augusta, and from there to Adelaide, where they met with a cordial welcome. During: Sir James Ferffusson's regime, the railwav from Adelaide to the Burra was completed, ajso the tramway from Strathalbyn to Middle ton, where it joins the line of a similar cha- racter connecting: Goolwa with Port Victor. Sir James saw an 50 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: increase in the length of our iron roads from 60 to 133 miles. In neither total are included the private tramways on Yorke's Penin- sula, several years ago purchased by the Government, and altered so as to bear locomotive traffic. Sir James advocated a bold public works policy, somewhat on the lines followed three years after he left the colony. The date of his departure was the 18tli April, 1873. Since 1868, the year of Sir Dominic Daly's death, the population had in- creased by about 22,000 persons, and had nearl3^ reached 200,000. The revenue rose from £716,004 to £972,814. Land alienated, 199,693 acres in the former year and 357,594 in the latter, show- ing the effect of the amendment of the land system. In the same period the land under cultivation increased from 808,234 to 1,225,073 acres. Cattle increased from 123,213 head to 174,381, and sheep from 4,987,024 to 5,617,419. There was an increase in staple exports from £2,603,8 J6 to £4,285,191. CD c3 I — I CD < O c6 Ph ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 51 CHAPTER YIII. 1873 TO 1877. Sir Anthony Musgrave — The Chief Justice — The Boucant policy — AVreck of the Gothen- burg and loss of lives, including Judge Wearing and the Hon. Thomas Reynolds- Mr. R. I. Stow appointed judge — ■Ne^y Parliament — Increase in number of mem- bers — The Blyth Ministry defeated and succeeded by the Boucaut Cabinet — Stamp Duties Bill rejected by the Legislative Council — Second session, and Bill again rejected — Mr. Boucaut refuses to proceed with his Public Works Bills— Education Act — Sir Richard D. Hanson's death — Mr. Way appointed Chief Justice — Mr. Boucaut constructs new Ministry, without any of his old colleagues — Ejected from office — Tlie Colton ^Ministry — Stamp duties abandoned — Probate and Succession Duties carried— £3,000,000 borrowed— Railway Bills carried— First Private Tramway Bill — New Tariff — Border Duties Convention — Sundry legislation — Sir Anthony Musgrave's departure — Eucla telegraph— Progress. Sir James Fergusson's term of office expired on the I8tli April, 1873, but he left the colony on leave of absence on the 7th December of the previous year. He was succeeded by Mr. Anthony Musgrave, who took the oaths of office on the Oth.June,. the Chief Justice, Sir Richard Davies Hanson, having adminis- tered the govei'nment during the seven months' interregnum. Mr. Musgrave's last Grovernorship previously was of Natal, and before then his official experience had been in the West Indies, During his stay in South Australia he received the honor of knighthood. His rule in South Australia was of an eventful character. The political crises had some interest on account of the issues at stake,, and a new, bold, and comprehensive public worivs policy was in- augurated, from which the colony received a great impetus, and at the same time incurred the responsibility of a heavy debt — which,, however, is nearl}' all represented by substantial improvements,, and of these a large portion return a direct income above working expenses, independently of the indirect advantages arising from roads, railways, telegraphs, and harbor improvements. During the first two years of Sir Anthony Musgrave's rule, Mr. (now Sir) 52 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: Arthur Birth's Ministry was in power, and the main ground of attack on the part of the Opposition was that the Government lacked decision and boldness, did not tippreciate the capabilities of the country, and neglected to carry out with energy those great works essential to the proper develojoraent of the vast resources of South Australia. Mr. James Penn Boucaut. now a Judge of the Supreme Court, thougli perhaps not absolutely the originator of the policy which bears his name, and the adoption of which marks an important era in the history and advancement of the colony, nevertheless formulated it, presented it to the consideration of the electors, expounded and defended it, and aroused public en- thusiasm on its behalf. In 1875, at the general election for the Assembh', it Avas evident that Mr. Boucaut and his policy had carried the day, and from that time the Blyth administrat-ion was regarded as moribund. In that year a great calamity overtook the colony. Mr. Justice Wearing was despatched by the steamer Gothenburg to the JN^orthern Ttrritory, to hold a circuit court at Port Darwin. He was accompanied by Mr. Pelham, Judge's Associate, and Mr. J. J. Whitby, a practitioner of the Supreme Court, who had engaged to act as Crown Prosecutoi'. On the return voyage there were a number of well-known colonists on board, who were coming back to Adelaide. Among thcni wore the Hon. Thomas Peynolds, who had for years been a leading politician, had held office in a number of Ministries, of two of which he was Premier, and his wife ; Dr. Milner ayid his wife ; the; wife ;ind famih' of the Government Pesi- dent, Mr. Price. All these and other South Australians, whose names were familiar to the public, besides the Judge and Messrs. Pelhani and Whitb}^ were drowned. The captain, though a re- liable able seaman, got out of his course and was too far to the eastward, when, on the evening of the 24th of Februar}^, the steamer sti-uck upon a reef At first, though the weather was rough, danger was not suspected, but tlie wind increasing in violence, heavy seas oroke over the vessel and she became a total wreck. Only twenty-two of the passengers and crew were saved ; they esciped in boats, and the lost nun)bered one hinidred and two, including all the officers of the vessel, and all the women and children. The news created a profound sensation thoughout the colony and wide-spread grief, for bereavement was carried into ITS HISTORY AND lUvSOURCES. 53 many domestic circles. The flags were half-masted in the city and at Port Adelaide ; feeling references were made to the calamity at the Supreme Court and in churches ; subscriptions were raised for those of the bereaved who were in want of aid through tiie loss of their protectors and breadwinners, and, when Parliament met, allowances were voted to the families of the Judge and Mr. Wliitby. The vacancy on the Judicial Bench was filled by the appoint- ment of Mr. Pandolph Isham Stow, Q.C., who for fourteen years had been the acknowledged leader of the bar, and had also won reputation as a Minister of the Crown and a Parliamentary debater. About fourteen months later Sir Pichard Hanson died suddenly from affection of the heart, and Mr. Samuel J. Way, Q.C., who had led the bar since Mr. Stow's elevation, was fippointod Chief Justice. When the new Assen:bly met in I'^TS, no time was lost in turning the Ministry out, Mr. Poucaut moving the motion of no- confidence, and thus formally securing the position, already accorded to him by the majority, of leader of his party and former of the next ]Ministr3\ An Act was passed in 1872 increasing the number of members b}^ ten, and this session of 1875 was the first in which forty- six members sat. The change has been most beneficial in promoting the stability of Governments. With only thirty-six members, a crisis was almost always imminent, and the tactics, ability, and caution of Ministers were constantly strained to the uttermost in the effort to retain their hold of the Treasury benches. This was a sad hindrance to useful legislation ; but the addition of ten members made a wonderful change for the better. The Boucaut Government formed in 1875 would have lasted for three years, but for the breach in its ranks by the appointment of Mr. Way to the Chief Justiceship. The same may be said of the next Boucaut Cabinet, and as a matter of fact substantially the same Ministry, with the same policy, held ofiice for more than three years. Though the Premier in 1^78 was made a Judge, the Chief Secretary, Mr. (now Sir William) Morgan, reformed the Cabinet, with no change of policy, simply taking in another member in place of Mr. Boucaut. The Bray Ministr}' is now in its third session. Perhaps Ministerial crises will be more frequent again lor the next few j'ears, but if so, the reason will be found in acute differences of opinion respecting taxation, not in an overmastering propensitj^ to change. M SOUTH AUSTRALIA: In the session of 1875, Mr. Boucaut's policy was to borrow about £-"5, 000, 000 for public works, and impose stamp duties and probate and succession duties, the amount he expected from the new taxes being about £tiO,000. He did not think it right to incur the liability of fresh payments of interest on loans without making some jarovision for revenue to meet the additional expen- diture. This taxation was called by himself the kej'stone of his policy. The proposed taxes were sanctioned by the Assembly, and rejected by the Legislative Council. After a recess of five weeks, the Parliament Avas convened for a second session, when the taxation Bill was ajjain passed by the Lower House and thrown -out by the Upper Chamber. Mr. Boucaut then refused to submit his railway and other public works Bills, and Parliament was prorogued. The first session of 1875 had not been completely barren. The most important measure was the Education x\.ct, which placed the system of State education upon a sounder basis than it had previously occupied. This was the first legislation on the subject since 1851, and the xVct of that year had become quite inadequate to the requirements of the times. The new Act abolished the old Board of Itducation, and provided a Council and a Chief Inspector, -who was to bo chiiirman of that body. New life was at once infused into the State schools of the colony. Inefficient teachers •were got rid of; the standard of education was raised ; the in- spection of schools improved ; and method and greater accuracy enforced with regard to i-eturns and discipline. Since then model -schools have been established ; several hundred thousand pounds •have been expended in new school-houses ; a Training School and a Girls' Advanced School have been founded ; and provisions have been made, by scholarships and in otlicr ways, to encourage talented and deserving scholars of all classes of society to acquire the •higher branches of education. Tlie authors of the new system -were determined, they said, to lay open an educational road, even from the gutter to the University. Tlie Council of Education was abolished in 1878 and the control and administration of the department was vested in the Minister of Education, to whom the Chief Inspector is directly responsible. During the recess of 1875-6 Sir Richard Hanson's death occurred, and when the Attorney-General, Mr. Way, was ap- ITS HISTORY AM) RESOURCES. 55 pointed to succeed him as Chief Jvistice, some difficulties arose in the Cabinet. One Minister wished to retire ; one or two others desired a further change of colleagues; and Mr. Boucaut resolved upon a reconstruction. He met Parliament in June, 1870, with new colleagues selected from the Opposition, or at least from out- side his part}^ This move excited great dissatisfaction, and the new Ministry was promptly met ■s\ith a vote of no-confidence, on the motion of Mr. Colton, who formed a Cabinet constituted of members both of the Opposition and the Boacaut party, the former being represented in the new Cabinet by Sir Henry Ayers, who in the Legislative Council had been the foremost opponent of the Boucaut Ministry during the previous session. The new Ministry abandoned the stamp tax, but carried the probate and succession duties, from which the receipts have been small, not averaging £11,000 per annum since their first imposition. During this session Parliament sanctioned the loan of nearly £3,000,000 for public works, and Bills for the following railways were passed : — ]N^arrow gauge (3ft. Gin.) — Port Augusta to Govern- ment Gums, 199 miles ; Gladstone to Jamestown, twenty miles ; Rivoli Bay to Mt. Gambier, fifty -seven miles ; Kadina to Barunga Gap, thirty-three miles. Broad gauge, 5ft. 3in. — Kapunda to North- West Bend of the Murray, fifty-six miles ; Burra to Hallett. eighteen miles. I have omitted fractions of miles, and the total length of the lines authorised in that year was about 380 miles. In the same session, the first Private Tramway Bill was passed. It authorised the construction of a line from King William-street, about the centre of Adelaide, to Kensington and Norwood, the total length being about three miles. Now there are city and suburban tramways going from Adelaide termini in all directions, east, west, north, and south. They are an immense source of convenience to the public, and some of them arc very profitable investments. Soon after Governor Musgrave's arrival he took part in the opening of a private railway connecting Adelaide with Glenelg, the chief water- ing place of the colony, on the shores of Holdfast Bay. The length of the line is about six miles. Several years afterwards a rival lino was opened, taking a difierent route ; but the two concerns have been amalgamated. In the same year there was a new tariff", but no radical changes were effected in our fiscal system. The highest ad miorem duty 56 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: was kept at Its old rate of 10 per cent., and there has been no change since in the ad valorem duties, and only small alterations in any other part of the tariff. The criminal law was consolidated and amended, and the same service was performed for District Councils. An Act was passed to authorise a Border Duties Convention with New South Wales ; and other useful measures became law in this memorable session. Sir Anthony Musgrave left the colony in January, 1877. It had advanced under his rule, and ho remained long enough to see South Australia started on a career of more rapid progress. When Sir James Fergusson left the colony, there were 133 miles of rail- way open ; at the end of 1>*73, the total length had increased to nearly 200 miles. When Sir Anthony Musgrave's Governorship of South Australia ended, there were y02 miles open for traflSc, and the Parliament had sanctioned the construction of 380 miles more. Adelaide had been connected by telegraph with Western Australia by a land lino along the coast from Port Lincoln to Eucla, just within the boundary of that colony. The revenue had increased from under £1,000,000 to £l,3lf,925 (1876-7). The population between the end of 1872 and the close of 1876, had increased from about 200,000 to 237,090; land cultivated, from 1,225,073 to 1,828,115 ; staple exports, from £4,285,191 in 1873, to £4,427,727 in 1876 ; cattle, from 174,381 to 219,441 ; horses, from 87,445 to 106,903; sheep, from 5,617,419 to 6,133,291. o m ba a o O ?-» rt c3 •T-t o 0) > o bJD •rH ITS PUBLIC WORKS. 127 About 980 miles of railway are open ; about eighty miles are in course of construction, and lines having a total length of about 340 miles have been sanctioned by Parliament, and have yet to be commenced. By the time this book is through the press a Bill to authorise the construction of a railway from Port Darwin to Pine Creek, a distance of 148| miles will probably have passed through Parliament, having already been carried by the Assembly. On the 30th June, 1882, there were 945 miles open, and the average for the year ending on that date was 825f miles. The revenue was 2*57 per cent, on the cost of the line above working expenses, and towards the payment of interest over the capital cost of the lines. The receipts were largely diminished by the bad harvest. The total cost of the railways open on the 30th June, 1882, is £6,121,615, and the cost per mile, £7,411 . Most of the lines are on flat or tolerably easy country, but the one in course of construction to the Victorian border, after the first three or four miles from Adelaide, passes for fifty miles through hilly countr}^ with deep cuttings, severe gradients, tunnels, gullies spannel by viaducts and heav^^ earth- works. The tunnels, the principal bridges, and the deepest cuttings are within twenty miles of Adelaide. The roads of the colony are under three different systems of management. The corj)orations manage all the roads within their limits. The district councils construct and maintain the highways within their boundaries, except the trunk lines, or " main roads ; " these main roads are under the care of road boards, of which there are eight, each having an extensive district under its care. All the exjaenditure on main roads throughout the colony, and on all roads outside the limits of corporations and district councils, is paid for out of the general revenue. The expenditure on roads within the limits of corporations and district councils is paid for, half out of proceeds of rates, and the other half by a subsidy from the general revenue. " Main roads" can only be created so, as distinguished from district roads, by Act of Parliament, and as the change of a " district " road into a " main" road is a relief to the local rates, there is a constant eSbrt by deputations and petitions to induce the Government and Parliament to increase the number of these conversions. Whatever may be thought of the system, economically considered, it has given South Australian highways which, for construction, smoothness, and durability cannot be sur- 128 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: passed in the world. JN^otwithstanding the thousand miles of railways, there is an immense amount of coaching in South Aus- tralia ; and this mode of travelling, owing to the excellence of the roads, is most enjoyable, carrying back the memories of those who are far down in the A'ale of years to a period before South Aus- tralia was founded, when they liked nothing better in the old country than a box seat on a mail coach— rlistening, perhaps, to connoisseurs discussing with the driver the merits of the splendid " cattle" in front of them. There are 1,692 miles of macadamized main roads, constructed at an average cost of £1,923 per mile. There are 1,916 miles proclaimed, but not yet made. The district councils have many miles of excellent roads, but having to come on the ratepayers for funds they woi'k more economically than the road boards do, and only construct where really the natural surface needs meddling with. In. the j^ear ended June 30th, 1882, the corporations and district councils expended on roads and bridges £144,254, of which the Government contributed half. The principal bridge in the colony is one spanning the Murray, over which the railway is to run. This is a splendid structure, which cost £130,000. Adelaide is well sujjplied with strong and handsome bridges over the Torrens ; and many in various parts of the colony are a credit to the engineers Avho designed them and superintended their construction. The waterworks have of late years become a very important branch of the public undertakings of the province. The Adelaide, Port, and Suburban waterworks had cost up to June 30th, 1883, £735,465 in actual expenditure, and for the financial year ended on that date yielded a revenue of 52 per cent, on cost of construc- tion, after paying for woi'king expenses. The reservoirs will hold 770,775,(J00 gallons— sufficient to supply 28 gallons per head per diein to 75,000 persons for twelve months. The amount expended on the city sewers up to June 30th, 1882, was £215,936, and the outlay has since been and still is going on. The water supply of various suburban places, unconnected with the reservoirs which furnish Adelaide with the pure element, had cost £77,025 19s. 8d. At more distant places, including Ports Pirie and Augusta and Mount Gambicr, £172,715 had been expended. A number of little towns are being supplied at a cost of about £30,000. The I i ■ I ITS PUBLIC WORKS. 129 sum of £1,265,970 lias been invested in waterworks, independent of large amounts spent in Avell-sinking. The expenditure on buildings is somewhat lavish, and some o£ the public structures have considerable architectural merits, while others appear to have been designed with rather a severe regard to utilit}'. The school-houses, quarantine station, and new Govern- ment offices, built within the last few years, have cost close on £420,000 ; and to these must be added older undertakings, including the General Post Office, which cost £60,000, the Supreme Courthouse, and the buildings of an earlier date, among which must be mentioned the residences of the Governor in Adelaide and at Marble Hill, the old Treasury offices, the hospitals, gaols, lunatic asylums, and other structures. The harbor improvements at Port Adelaide had cost, at the end of 1882, £606,095, and the quantity of silt raised is 2,663,284, yards. There are two bars, the outer and the inner, which have caused most of the outlay. The former is composed of sand and shell, and the cutting through this, at the end of 1882, was 3,500ft. in length by 250ft. in width at bottom, the depth having been increased from 13ift. to 20ft. at low water; the depth at high water is 28ft. The inner bar is composed of lime- stone and had at the date mentioned been removed for a length of 9,500ft. by a width of 150ft. at bottom, excepting for about an eighth of a mile, for which distance the width was 100ft., but the widening of this to the uniform width of 150ft. is nearly completed. The depth has been increased from 9Jft. to 18ft. at low water. There has been a great amount of dredging besides that effected at the bars. The Port channel, from the Lighthouse to the Commercial Wharf, is about nine miles in length, and the depth at low water ranges from 18ft. to 22ft., and at high water from 26ft. to 31ft. Deepening operations have been carried on ever since 1849. Out of two and a half miles of wharf frontage the Government possesses 2,413ft., and for nearly half this extent wharves have been constructed. The patent slips are in private hands. Fletcher's is capable of taking a vessel of 1,500 tons register ; the others will take ships of from 400 to 700 tons. The outports have not been neglected. At the close of 1882 there had been laid out at Port Augusta £14,590 ; at Port Pirie, K 130 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: where more wheat is shipped than from any other port in the colony, £83,504 ; at Ports AValcefield and Broughton, £20,866 ; and about other outports and the River Murray, £22,628. The jetties, of which there are a great number, have cost £63,540 of borrowed money, and a large amount taken from the revenue. The coast and the islands near tlie mainland are admirably supplied with lighthouses, which number twenty-one, exclusive of eras beacons at the entrance to the Port Adelaide river. There are also three lights on the lakes. The lighthouses have cost between £200,000 and £300,000. The expense of their main- tenance in 1881 was £7,443, and the amount received for light dues £8,411 19s. 3d. The lighting of the coast is now so perfect as to render navigation very safe, and of the few groundings that take place on South Australian shores, the causes are to be found in almost every instance in want of caution or grave errors of judgment on the part of the navigators. The shijjping casualties of a serious character since the foundation of the colony have been very few, the most tragic being the wreck of the steamer Admella, in 1859, not far from Cape Northimiberland, and of the sailing vessel Geltwood near Rivoli Bay, in 1876. Over eighty passen- gers and crew of the tirst-nained vessel were lost ; all hands perished on board the Gclhrood. There was no lighthouse at Itivoli Bay at that time, but one was erected there soon after. THE ABORIGINES. 131 CHAPTER XIX. THE ABORIGINES. Low mental capacity — Linguistic faculty — Humor — Comical blunders — Superior attractiveness of the wild to the half- civilised black — Origin — The Malays- Customs — Rites — The corroboree — Dying out of the race — Causes of mortality — Early conflicts between whites and blacks — Wreck of the Maria, and massacre of all the passengers and crew — The Rufus slaughter — Port Lincoln atrocities — Executions— Peace — Native battles — Weapons and implements — The finest and pimiest tribes — Half-castes — Superstitions and beliefs — Statistics — Mission stations. Notwithstanding some varieties of custom and great differences of dialect, and diversities of form and stature, tlie aborigines of New Holland have common physical and mental characteristics. Their perceptions up to a certain degree are lively, but their intelligence is of a very low order. Their arithmetical knowleige is limited by the number of their fingers ; in fact it is a disputed point whether it extends so far. Missionaries and other persons who have taken much interest in the Australian blacks say that in their uninstructed state they can only count four or five, and that when they hold up both hands with all the fingers outspread they mean to signify a large and indefinite number, perhaps a score, or hundreds, or thousands. They have no words expressing abstract ideas, such as truth, justice, chastity, patience, though these ideas are conveyed as applying to individuals by adjectives and nouns, apart or in combination. They may be considered good linguists. An Australian aboriginal boy will accpiire far more knowledge of English in three months than a smart English boy of the same age will of Latin in as many years ; but of course it may fairly be urged that this fact is to be accounted for by the different modes in which the instruction is imparted. Still, apart from this com- parison, it is certain that the natives, especially the young ones, do pick up the language of their conquerors very readily. Their 132 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: habit of speaking pigeon English is not so common in the settled districts now, as in former times, and was always owing to the whites being possessed with the notion that such a style of lingo was most suited to aboriginal tastes and comprehension. As a specimen, the following will puzzle anyone not accustomed to Aus- tralian natives and the sort of European instructors with whom they associate: — "You mene old lubra plour bag pony strike a " light 'long a wheelbarrow." This is a Fowler's Bay native's form of inquiring as to whether you have seen an old grey mare passing with a dray. When the natives are accustomed to be addressed in ordinary English, they make use of it themselves in their discourse, and many speak Chatham's tongue, as far as ihe}^ have need to use it, much more correctly than the provincial laborer of England, though of course their vocabular}^ is limited by the subjects with which they are likely to have any concern. In their impulsive moods the}^ express themselves with an engaging frankness that is sometimes irresistibly amusing. Nearly ty\'enty years ago, near Guichcn Bay, Sir Richard MacDonnell was on foot on a rifle-shooting excursion, with only a black boy as his companion. During their ramble the native in a subdued voice exclaimed " There kangaroo, Gubner," but His Excellency was unable to distinguish tlie animal among the thick scrub. At last he asked the boy to point to it with the rifle, so that he could discover the object by looking along the barrel. The aboriginal complied, but unfortunatel}^ the temptation was too strong for the j'oung savage ; he pulled the trigger, and the marsupial rolled over dead. The Governor was displeased, and in an irascible manner asked his sable attendant what business he liad to shoot. " Well, what por you b stupid ? " was the reply. Sir Richard, with his Irish appreciation of the comical, could not be angry any longer, and used to relate the occurrence with great gusto. Occasionally aboriginal blunders are much like the pro- verbial Irish bull. Thus one who was sent by the manager of a cattle run to tin out-stnlion with some tobacco and a letter in which the quantity' was mentioned, on being charged with having taken one or two sticks of the fragrant weed, asked his accuser how he knew, and being told that the letter disclosed the theft, replied " Him liar ; me put em letter long a tree, put em *' stone ; he no ses me take em bacc}'." The aborigines have a THE ABORIGINES. 133 keen sense of the ridiculous, and a story like this would send them into convulsions of laughter. Sarcasm is a gift of which they are by no means destitute. " My money in bank," said one in answer to a question. " Yes, that one bank," observed a companion, pointing to a public- house. In their natural condition — hunting, fishing, tree-climbing — they are an interesting people in their fashion ; but after being partially civilised, they in time lose much of their attractive physical qualities, and acquire all the vices that it is in the power of the whites to teach them. They become beggars, and loaf about the towns and farms as much as they are allowed. Missionaries in South Australia and other good people still talk in a sanguine strain of raising these poor creatures into a higher life ; but there can be no doubt that the race is doomed, and all experience shows that they are incapable of acquiring permanent civilised habits. Were all the mission stations abolished they would leave little result behind them ;' in a very short time the natives gathered at those locations would be dispersed, seeking their livelihood either in the way of their forefathers, among the woods or in the waters, or wandering about the European settlements working a little and begging more. The natives are very useful to the squatters and agriculturists, especially to the former in new country. The skill of the savage in following the tracks of stray beasts makes his services of great value in the bush. The boys learn to rid(} easily, and become good stockkeepers. They are excellent shepherds, and in some parts of the colon}' do a great deal of the shearing ; there are grazing farms on which all this work is performed by them. They are like children, however, in all their ways, and have no idea of settled, continuous, industry. After shearing season is over they take a long holiday, and often squander their wages on drink ; for although it is forbidden by law to give alcoholic liquor to an aboriginal, there are always depraved whites who will supply them with intoxicants, and the orgies that take place at the native camps when the savages are under the influence of strong drink are sometimes shocking. The Australian aboriginals appear to be a mixed race, the Malay element having a large share in the composition. Some are shades darker than others, the prevailing colors being a few degrees short of jet black. The pure bred infants are of a dark copper color. 134 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: and the same may be said of the palms of the hands of the adults, when they are washed. Near the seaboard of Northern Australia, even of late years, the lower sorts of Malays have sometimes mixed with the natives as though recognising them as kinsmen. This fact is referred to in Captain (now Sir George) Grey's interesting account of his explorations on the north-west coast. The differences in dialect between neighboring tribes many years ago created no small amount of surprise to missionaries, and " protectors of the aborigines," who found that when they had mastered a dialect it was only spoken by three or four hundred people. Some words, however, are common to tribes hundreds of miles apart, indicating a common original language. For instance, "cowee " or "cowie," was the name for water among the now extinct Adelaide tribe, as it is with the blacks about Fowler's Bay and the Great Bight, though explorers and other authorities about the two last-mentioned places spell the word " kauwe." It has been noticed, too, that in some cases there is a greater affinity between the dialects of tribes far apart than between those of other tribes occupying adjoining territories. The customs of the natives vary, but some seem common to all. E\ery where they practise rites initiating youths into the privi- leges and responsibilities of manhood. These rites are in all cases very painful. In some of the northern tribes they include the knocking out of two front teeth, but this has never been prac- tised by any natives within many miles of Adelaide. Along the west coast to beyond the Bight they circumcise, and, in addition, subject their young men to another operation of a verj'' extraor- dinary character, described in Latin by Eyre in the account of liis perilous journey from Fowler's Bay to King George's Sound more than forty years ago.* It is supposed that this operation checks the increase of population. The practice of circumcision extends into the far north, but is entirely imknown among the tribes Avithin eighty or one hundred miles of Adelaide, and along the Murray, the Lakes, and the Coorong. The style of tattooing differs in different tribes : funeral cus- toms vary greatly. The custom of wearing a reed through the cartilage of the nose is observable in some parts of the country but not in others. * " Finditus usque ad uicthram ;i parte infera penis." THE ABORIGINES. 135 The corroberee, so familiar to pioneer colonists, is now seldom witnessed except in the form of miserable imitations of the grand performances of the old days, in which from three to six hundred natives sometimes joined. The corroberee is a dance to aboriginal music, the women beating time with sticks. The vocalism is rather monotonous, but according to scale, and the voices all blend together in harmony, a false note being rarely or never dis- coverable. The men are naked, with the exception perhaps of a small girdle round their loins. The female singers commence in a low tone, as though humming the words of a song, and often at times reach a higher pitch, and gradually soften down only to rise again, the men joining in the livelier parts. The dancing is con- fined to the men, and is perfect in simultaneous agility and wild elegance of movement, the style varying according to the occasion of the performance — -whether it is connected with love, war, or hunting. Some of the corrobereees are obscene. Some of the songs appear to have no meaning, or the natives do not choose to explain it, but there is no doubt they compose ditties for special occasions ; they do this even in broken English, and it cannot be doubted they versify in their own language. Thej^ favor blank verse, and it is very blank. A war-dance, with the accompamnng* song, is a most exciting spectacle. The attitudes of the natives — the men, all warriors, painted in white stripes, soujetimes with small boughs fastened round their knees, are most picturesque, as they advance, retreat, bound in the air, brandish their weapons, and stamp, all with a fiery spirit, but in perfect regularity, and singing their songs of triumph or defiance. The effect in the pale moonlight is greatly heightened by the surroundings ; the fires burning in the front of the wurleys, the children and dogs grouped about, the scrub or forest trees in the background. The song at times deepens into a roar, in which, however, different voices can be distinguished, bi'okeu at times by preconcerted shouts and yells ; and forty-six years ago, to the European newly arrived in the country, the noise at a distance was, at times, in the dead of the night, almost appalling, as the voice of some broad- chested warrior was heard clearly above the mighty volume of sound that he helped to swell. In the infancy of Adelaide there was a black who had obtained from tlie new-comers the name of Tam o' Shanter, whose grandest vocal efforts became familiar to 136 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: the colonists as they sat outside, or reclined in their tents and reed huts. Tarn o'Shanter and all his tribe have been gathered to their fathers many years ago, and the same fate has befallen the Mount Barker, Gawler, Burra, and other tribes. Their disappearance is owing to disease consequent on vicious intercourse with Europeans ; to changes in their modes of life, and it may be said even to the kindness of the white settlers. Among the tribes just mentioned few lost their lives through encou.nters with the intruders upon their soil. The disease indicated has had the chief share in sweep- ing them away ; drink contributed slightly to the result ; sudden changes in habitation and clothing did more. It may be said of many of the blacks that they died of blankets ; they slept under them, got wet in them, and walked about with the wet blankets clinging to their bodies, the result being A'iolent colds and con- sumption. Many natives die of pulmonar}' complaints. They know when they are thus afflicted and what the end will be. A young man in the bush will place his hand on his chest and say "Very bad, bine bye crackaback " (die). As a rule they do not fear death, and this has been noticeable in the case of .those executed for murder. They ascend the scaffold, or when a cart does duty for a scaftbld, stand up with a stolid indifference, perhaps throw down a stick of tobacco and a knife, or M'hatever may be about their persons, and generally request that whites may not touch their bodies after death. The first settlei's about Adelaide had little trouble with the natives. Two or three Europeans wore murdered — in one case through revenge, in the others from purposes of plunder. Several blacks were accordingly hanged, and no more murders of Europeans took place near the metropolis. A black killed a white man in those early days at Encounter Bay, but the general feeling was that the European got his deserts, and nothing was done in the matter. In I84u a terrible tragedy occured on the south coast; the brig Maria, bound from Port Adelaide to Ilobart, was wrecked near Lacepede Bay, and the passengers, sixteen in number, includ- ing men, women, and children, the captain, mate, and crew of eight men and boys were making their way overland to the mouth of the Murray, when they were massacred by the Milmenrura tribe. Major O'llalloran, having under him Captain Nixon, Lieutenant THE ABORIGINES. 137 (now Admiral) Pullen, Mr. Charles Bonney, Inspector Tolmer, and a large force of police-troopers and sailors was despatched to the scene of the outrage or outrages, for the people appeared to . have been murdered in different parties. Two of the blacks were shot at and severely wounded, but whether they died of their wounds was never ascertained. Two ringleaders were captured, tried by drvimhead court martial, and hanged in presence of a number of their tribe, who were compelled to witness the execu- tion. The effect was most salutary. Not a European has been murdered by blacks in that part of the country since then, witli the exception of a man named McGrath in the year 1844, and the principal actor in that crime was tried in Adelaide and suffered the last dread penalty of the law. For several years the Upper Murray blacks attacked the overland parties from New South Wales, but the terrible lesson these savages received on the llufus from a party of police, volunteers, and overlanders, quieted them permanently. It was a long time before, in the Port Lincoln country, they were made sufficiently aware of the hopelessness of carrying on a warfare with the white man, and the c(unmunity was frequently thrown into a state of excitement by the news of some horrible murder being committed by the blacks upon whites in that part of the province. Sometimes the victim was a squatter, sometimes a shepherd, a shepherd's wife, or a child. At last the vigor with which the tribes responsible for these outrages were followed up, and the actual or most guilty murderers captured, and, after trial, executed on the spot where their crimes were com- mitted, had the desired deterrent effect. Higher up the coast near Denial, Venus, and Fowler's Bays, blacks — one or two at each place — were executed, and no murders of whites have taken place in those parts since then, now more than twenty years ago. In the south-east the aboriginals were brought into order by rougher and less regular means ; but for more than thirty-five years they have been at peace with the pale faces. The aborigines are treacherous like other savages ; they are hardly brave, but they endure pain with great fortitude. Their battles are not very san- guinary. There is plenty of noise and action, but little harm is done. Spears are thrown with unerring aim, but eluded by agility or stoi^ped by a shield. Of course with hundreds of missiles hurtling through the air, some one must be hit sooner or later ; but when one or two 138 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : heroes have bitten the dust, the side on which the fatalities have taken place make a precipitate fli^^ht, and the victors do not folio w and massacre them after the fashion of barbarous peoples in other parts of the world. Their weapons are simple, consistinj^ of knobbed or plain clubs or sticks called waddles, wooden spears, plain, or barbed with stone, or having the barbs cut out of the wood itself; wommeras, an implement usRd for throwing the spear ; and the far-famed boomerang, a curved weapon, which, thrown with great force, travels a long way and comes back to the feet of the thrower. Other implements, such as the wadna or yam stick, are used for digging up roots, and a sharpened stick for climbing trees. After the Europeans arrived, glass, wherever the blacks could obtain it, supplanted flint and other stones for barbs and sharpening purposes. The weajDons differed in different tribes, and some have entirely disappeared with these tribes. It is doubtful if in Adelaide or Mount Barker a " waddy " could be obtained now for any amount of money. These weapons and implements ; their rugs made of the skins of marsupials, sewn together with thread obtained from the sinews of animals ; twine and cords made from grasses ; bags and baskets, fabricated from similar materials ; nets, bone fish-hooks, and the bark canoes of hike and river tribes, are their only manufactures. Their dwellings or "wurle3's" are composed of boughs, and sometimes are little more than break-winds. The finest and most muscular men arc the Murray and Coorong blacks, though they have degenerated ; the most puny are along the west coast, especially about Fowler's l^iy and the Bight, and in some parts of the far north. In these descriptions of native customs and habits, as far as 8outh Australia proper is concerned, it would be almost correct to speak in the past tense, for the disappearance of some tribes, the great diminution in the numbers and the change in the habits of others, brought about by forty-seven years of European occupation of the country, have almost banislied tribal war, and the customs esKonliiilly connected therewith over the larger portion of the country. The marriage customs of the Ijlacks are peculiar, and in some respects revolting. Polygamy used to be practised, but has gone out of fashion, unless it remains in the far north. Infanticide is THE ABORIGINES. ]:>,'j commonly practised among all natives not much under Kuiojiean influence. The half-castes in the early days of the province were all destroyed ; but this is not the case now ; half-breeds and quad- roons may be seen about the country, and generally combine with some of the intelligence of the white father, the bad ([ualities of both parents. The women are cruelh^ treated, their lot being a hard and degrading one ; but children, when once it is resolved to preserve them, are shown great indulgence by their parents and all the tribe. The natives have their superstitions. They believe in demons, apparitions, sorcer}^, and a future state. It used to be a common belief among some tribes that after death they would reappear on earth as white men. Generally they feared to travel at night time. Very rarely, in South Australia, has any murder or other outrage been committed between dusk and dawn. The natives in the year 1881 numbered 6,346 including those between the northern boundary of South Australia proper, and Barrow Creek, about latitude 21° 30'. That even so many children of the forest remain is owing in a great degree to the mission stations, where women and children as well as the old blacks have been kindly cared for, and the feeble and sick have at all times found refuge. In all settled districts there are medical men wliose paid duty it is to attend to the natives when required. In their natural condition the savages have their own doctors, whose mode of treatment, generally absurd, is often indescribably disgusting ; but they soon learn to place far greater confidence in European physicians than in their own practitioners. Their ailments of the body are as carefully attended to as are their spiritual needs at the mission stations, and the natives seem happy there. Many of them frequently, however, leave, and after wandering about among the settlers or in the bush, return for a quieter life. The object aimed at by the managers of these stations is, while instructing the natives and teaching them morality, to lead them as far as possible to earn their own living in any honest way most suited to their strength and habits. About the lakes they fish and shoot, for the market, and make mats and baskets for sale. The head quarters of these tribes are the Point Macleay Mission, of which the Siq)er- intendent is Mr. Taplin, whose late father had managed it for many years. The other stations are Poonindie, at Port Lincoln ; Kop- 140 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: peraniana, far north ; and Hermansburgli on the banks of the Finke Ptiver, central Australia. Of the latest official returns of expenditure on these stations, some are for 1881, and others for 1882, and the total comes to nearly £10,000 ; but sales of pastoral and agricultural produce brought considerabl}^ more than half this amount. There is a large expenditure upon the aborigines, independently of the mission stations. The Government and colonists alike are swayed b}^ the feeling that if the people whose lands they have taken are fated to disappear, their last years shall be cheered by kindness and sympath}', and that it shall not be said that they passed awaj' without an effort being made to save them from perishing. ITS FAUNA. 141 CHAPTER XX. THE FAU^^4. OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The dingo — The kangaroo dog — Marsupials — Other mammalia— Birds — Afclimatisod animals — Hares — Eabhits — Deer — Sparrows. Next to the climate and pasture, the absence of formidable carni- vora has been the greatest cause of the rapid growth and the great prosperity of the pastoral interest in Australia. The fauna, are pretty nai^ly the same all through the island continent, though a few animals found in some colonies are not met with in others. The wild dog or dingo is common to all. Naturalists describe it as a small wolf. It is about the size of an ordinary sheep dog, and is not gregarious ; though occasionally small packs of from four or five to a dozen are seen together, it is generally found single or in couples. Its most common color is yellow, but sometimes black dingoes are met with ; a white one may be regarded as a lusiis natunp, and such a curiosity has now and then been killed. The hair is not long nor yet very smooth ; in length it is something between that of a pointer and a setter, but rather coarse. The tail is bushy. The dingo has a dismal howl, that is heard for an immense distance, and has a depressing effect upon some persons who hear it for the first time in the bush. In fact the sounds in the wilds of Australia, especially in the hours of darkness, are sometimes the reverse of cheerful ; biit perhaps the most gloomy way of passing a night is to lie at the foot of a sheaoak tree, of which the branches, when stirred by the faintest breeze, give forth a weird wailing sound, while a chorus of howling dingoes and screaming curlews around completes the bushman's sense of desolation and melancholy, from which perhaps towards daylight he may be aroused by the rich joyous vocalism of the magpie — which, in spite of its name, is a really musical bird. 142 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: There is no sense of danger connected witli the howl of the dingo, for it never attacks man. It is most destructive among sheep, and kills many more than it eats, snapping right and left when it gets into a flock. As a rule when it kills a sheep, it tears it open and takes out the paunch, which it devours first, and often leaves the rest of the carcass for a future meal, or for dogs or car- rion birds that may follow. Of indigenous animals the dingo and the eagle are the only enemies the grazier has to fear, and the royal bird only kills the lambs. Dingoes rarely attack calves, and when they do they are generally led into this mischief by domesticated dogs that have run wild. Though the tame dog as a rule treats the dingo as a natural enemy, and is greatly disturbed by sight or sound of it, yet they do make friends at times and inter-breed, but this cannot take place to any great extent while the dingo is in a wild state, for the breed seems just as pure as when the white men first came to Australia. When the dingoes are tamed, however, they cross freely with all sorts of tame dogs, and the progeny are as fertile as their parents. A cross between a dingo and a collie used to be greatly valued as a cattle dog. Dingoes are destroyed by strychnine, though many are killed by kangaroo dogs, which, when trained, enjoy this sport as much as kangaroo hunting. The dingo defends itself furiously, but does not seize its antagonist and hold on ; it snaps and bites pieces out, sometimes laming the hound seriously. The kangaroo dog, which is peculiar to Australia, was originally a cross between the greyhound and the Scotch deer- hound, and for combined strength and swiftness cannot be sur- passed. It has such a powerful jaw that it often breaks the ribs of a dingo or a kangaroo, when it seizes them about the brisket. The mammals by which Australia is most distinguished are the marsupials, or pouched tribe, which are of considerable variety. The kangaroo is the largest and best known. Its greatest weight is 2001bs. It feeds on all fours, but at other times moves only on its hind legs and tail ; without the latter it would be helpless. The tail sometimes weighs 271bs. Some species of kangaroo are red ; these, which are not so common as the grey sorts, are generally by themselves in some parts of the country ; in other parts they mix freely together. The Euro or TJroo is the name given to one species of red kangaroo. The wallaby is a smaller kind of marsupial, and of this there are many species, varying in ITS FAUNA. 14;) size, form, and habits. Some burrow ; others are fond of the rocks ; others are like the kangaroo in their habits. They range in weight from jfive or six to thirty pounds. Some are red, but grey is the prevailing color with all the marsupials. A white kangaroo has been seen now and then, but it is considered a freak of nature. There are small marsupials, that are classed as bandi- coots, rats, mice, -and jerboas, and some of these creatures eat carrion. The native cat, which is carnivorous, the sj^iny anteater, and the duckbill platypus {Ornitliorhynchus paradoxm) are marsu- pials ; another, the native bear, which is not met with in South Australia, is a purely vegetable- eating animal, and resembles Bruin of other countries only in shape and the ability to climb trees. The flying fox is found in the Northern Territory. The wombat is a shortlegged, broad, plump animal, about thirty or forty pounds in weight, so solid and so tough in the hide that a dog can hardly bite it. The wombat burrows, and is a sleepy harmless creature, rarely seen in the daytime, except at dawn or dusk, or just after rain. There are many other species of marsupials. The non- marsupials, which are more numerous than most people suppose, include besides the dingo, rats, mice, bats, and the seal tribe. The grandest of Australian birds is the emu, almost as large as an ostrich. The feathers are of no value, but most valuable oil for healing purposes is obtained from between the skin and the flesh. There are eagles, falcons, hawks, kites, and owls ; the native companion, a tall, slender, handsome bird found in swampy localities ; bustards, quail, plovers, black swans, geese, and ducks of man}^ sorts, teal, widgeons, and various other aquatic birds ; landrails, sandpipers, and snipe ; a great variety of parrots and parakeets ; the bronzewing, crested, and other pigeons and doves ; the crow tribe, magpies ; cockatoos, both black and white. Songsters are few, but there are many pretty little birds, some of them beautiful, including the oriole, the silver 03^0, redbreasted and other robins, finches, fantails, kingfishers, swallows, and swifts. The laughing jackass [dacelo (jigantpa) is peculiar to Australia, and owes its popular name to the close similarity of the noise it makes to human laughter of the most vacant type. About the shores, sea arms, and salt lakes, pelicans, gulls, and other marine birds abound. Mr. F. G. Waterhouse, C.M.Z.S., H.M.R.S., and F.L.S. New South "Wales, the late curator of the South Australian 144 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: Museum in Adelaide, states that there are nearly 700 species of birds in Australia ; and most of these are to be found in South Australia. The seas abound with fish, and of the palatable sorts the schnapper is the largest, the ordinary weight being from six to ten pounds, but larger specimens are frequently caught. The bream, mullet, butter-fish, garfish, and snook are favorites, but other kinds are palatable. In the Murray and lakes the cod and the muUaway are the largest, weighing frequently fifteen or twenty pounds. In the Upper Murray cod have been caught very much heavier. The native fish of other South Australian rivers are very small, though of exquisitely delicate flavor ; larger kinds from Europe and elsewhere have been placed in some of the streams to breed, and the experiment appears to have been successful. The reptiles include lizards of many kinds, snakes (some sorts being poisonous), scorpions, and centipedes; but it is very rarely that anyone is injured by these creatures. The white ants are des- tructive, but builders and houseowners have learned by choice of timber and other precautions to check their ravages. In the Northern Territory these little creatures have done an immense amount of damage in houses and the plantations. The blacks in some parts of the continent eat them. In South Australia a few animals have been acclimatised. The hare is rapidly spreading over the country, and affords fine sport both for the gun and hound. It is much •stronger than in Eno-land, and breeds three or four times as fast. The rabbit increased till it had to be treated as a public enemy. It destroyed wheat crops and consumed so much pasture that it became a question Avhether the farmers and squatters or the rabbits were to occupy the country. The Parliament passed a Rabbit Destruction Act, and the Government has spent many thousands a year in destroying these rodents, at the same time requiring the settlers to aid in the work, or contribute to the expense. The pest is subdued, but probably will never be entirely extirpated. The sparrow, introduced as an insect destroyer, swarms in millions, and prefers corn and fruit to grubs ; therefore the Government pays so much per dozen for heads or eggs of this feathered nuisance. Deer have been bred on an estate about thirty miles from Adelaide, and now and then individuals of the herd are seen a considerable dis- tance from their native preserve. ITS FLORA. 145 CHAPTER XXI. FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. For this chapter are used, in a slightly condensed form, a con- tribution to the late Mr. Harcus's book on South Australia, and a portion of the " Report on the progress and condition of the " Botanic Garden and Government Plantations during the year " 1882," by R. Schomburgk, Phil. Dr., Director, Knight of the Imperial Order of the Crown ; of the Order of Merit of Phillippe the Magnanimous, and the Order of the Crown of Italy ; Mem. of the Imperial Carol. Leopold. Academj^ ; Hon. Mem. Bot. Soc, Magdeburg; Cor. Mem. Zool. Soc, London; C.M.R.B.S., Lond. ; C.M.B.S., Edin. ; C.M.G.S., Berl. and Dresd. ; CM. Soc. Nat. Cherb., France ; C.M.H.S. Berl. and Frank-on-M. ; CM. Soc. Phys. Medica, Erlangen ; H.M.R.S., N. S. Wales, &c., &c. The most predominant orders of the South Australian flora, like those of the other parts of the continent, are — Leguminosae, Myrtaceae, Compositae, Proteaceae, Criiciferae, Rubiaceae, and Grammeae ; abun- dant in genera, species, and individuals. Very singularly circumscribed are the genera and species in area; many are found in one spot alone, and a diversity in soil and locality brings forth other genera and species ; the rapid succession of forms, and the contrast in this respect between the northern and southern parts being remarkable. The bark of most of the trees is usually smooth and of a greyish color, which no doubt is accounted for by the slight atmospheric changes — the contrast not being so sudden and great as in colder climates. Most of the leaves of the trees and shrubs are coriaceous, rigid, and pungent, and of a shining glaucous color, which is especially perceptible in the orders Proteaceae and Epacrideae. Yellow-colored flowers are the most predominant. The preponderance of the two great genera of the Australian flora, viz.. Eucalyptus and Acacia, also prevails over the whole area of South Australia, but with a deficiency in species in comparison with those of the west and east flora. The number of species of Eucalypts known at L 146 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: present in Australia is about 134; of these only thirty, and of Acacia, of which 300 species are described, only seventy appear iri South Australia,. The trees of South Australia do not reach so great a height as those in the east, north, and west, though there are rare specimens of immense girth and height — the average that our tallest trees, the Eucali/pis, obtain, is from 100ft. to 120ft., with a stem of from 4ft. to 5ft. in diameter; and such trees are only found in districts favored by good 8oil, or on the banks of the rivers : but these heights sink into insignificance compared with those of trees indigenous to Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Aus- tralia, where it is stated that the Eucalyptus globulus reaches 300ft., and E. collosn, F. MuelL, of Western Australia, 400ft. ; but more astonish- ing still that a fallen tree of E. amycjdalina. Lab., in the Dandenong Mountains, Victoria, measured 420ft. in length. The presence of different species of trees in South Australia is also limited in comparison to the other parts of x\ustralia. According to Baron von Mueller, the list of trees above 30ft. in height in Australia comprises 950 kinds. Of these eighty-eight are found in South-western Australia, only sixty-three in South Australia, 146 in Victoria, 385 in New South Wales, 526 in Queensland, 212 in North Australia, and twenty-nine in Central Australia. Only the Eucahjpts furnish South Australia with timber for building. They are found in all parts over the area of the colony, and constitute most useful timber-producing trees. Amongst the eighteen to twenty species of Eucalypts appearing in the extra-tropical part of South Australia, there are only four to six kinds which are most valued. These are distinguished by certain colonial names, such as red, white, and blue gum, stringybark, and peppermint, Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht. ; viminalis, Labil. ; odorata^ Behr. Their timber is highly valued for building, railway, water, and wheelwright work, as naves, felloes, and spokes, and as posts for fencing and other purposes. The stringybark, Eucalyptus obliqua, L'Her., is much valued, being the only kind fit for shingles, and, as a free-splitting wood, the best for forming rails ; but it is not so durable as the other kinds. The wood of the Acacia tribe is only useful for cabinet-work and turning, for which purpose the blackwood. Acacia melaiioxnlon, R. Br., is very much valued. The wattle of the colomsii, Acaaa 2ryc7ion- tha, Benth., is very valuable, on account of its freely-exuding gum, and also for its bark, the latter containing excellent tanning qualities ; and both these products form a very important article of export. The wood of the so-called sheaoak, Casuarina stricta. Ait., is of an excellent character, and used for cabinet-work, turning, and handles for tools. The tea-trees, a name a2)plied by the colonists to the genera Mela- ITS FLORA. 147 leuca and Leptospermum, constitute a class of hard wood usually found in low, moist situations, and on the banks of creeks ; is valuable on account of its imperishable nature when used under ground, or even in water. The timber is remarkably close-grained, extremely hard when dry, very heavy, and generally sound in the heartwood, wliich is not always the case with other hard-wooded trees. The pretty mottled wood of the native pines of South Australia, Frenela robiisfa, A. Cun., and rhomboidea, Endl., lack durability, and are mostly used for fencing stuff and fuel. The native cherry, Exocarpus Clip res.sifur mis, Labil., the honeysuckle, B(mhsia mnrginata, Cav., furnish also handsome woods for cabinet-work; and Myoporum acuminatum, R. Br., has a white soft timber, e2f.tremely tough, forming excellent knees for boats. A most remarkable fact in South Australian vegetation is the ab- sence of native eatable fruits, of which there are none deserving the name, excei^t a few berry-bearing shrubs belonging to the order of Epacrideae and Sajitaloceae, Astroloma and Leucopogon, the principal species of which, the native currant of the colonists, Astroloma humi- ■ fusum, R. Br., and the so-called native peach, Ficsanus acumiaiialus, R. Br., bearing a globular fruit of the size of a small peach, with a succulent epicarp and a hard, bony, much-pitted endocarp, are all South Australia can boast of. There is also a deficiency in eatable root-bearing plants. A great many genera of plants of other countries, which possess- valuable and jiowerful medicinal properties, have numerous congeners in the extra-tropical, and more especially in the intra-tropical portions of South Australia, of which I will only mention the following orders, viz. : — Euphorhiaccae, Urliceae, Campanidaceae, Solaneae, Ajwcineae, Leginninosae, Asvlepiadeae, Gentianeae, Scroplmlarineae, Sec. ; containing numerous genera and species, probably possessing similar valuable properties, which may be considered as so much buried riches hitherto vmheeded, and therefore not utilised. Only lately the wonderful febri- fugal properties of the Eucalypts have been discovered in Europe. The polygonaceous plant, MtiehlenhecJcia adpressa, Meisn., called by the colonists " Native Sarsaparilla," produces the same effects as the true Smilax Sarsaparilla, Lin. ; and the Erythraea Ausfralis, R. Br., contains the same bitter as its congener in Europe, Erythraea centaurium, Pers. There are no doubt many trees of the orders Urticeae and Sapinduceae containing also that valuable substance caoutchouc, especially the species of Ficus, so abundant in the intra-tropical part of South Australia. The same ignorance prevails also with regard to the fibrous and dye plants. Of the first I will only mention the Linum maryinale, A. Cun. ; Hibiscus tiliaceus, Lin. ; the Crotalaria dissitijlora, Benth., from the 148 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: fibres of which the natives prepare their fishing nets and cordage. Several other plants are known to possess the same properties, especially Pimelea striata, Meisn. ; axxjiora, F. Muell. ; and microcephala, R. Br. Gum and resin bearing trees are also abundant. I have already mentioned the valuable gum of the wattle, Acacia pycnantha, but there are several more species producing gum, as Acacia acuminata, Benth., &c. The conspicuous plants which greatly contribute to the interesting character of the Australian flora, the grass trees of the colonists — '^anthorrhoea quadrangulata, F. Muell., and semiplana, F. Muell., exude a resin which contains nitro-picric acid, from which a valuable dye may be prepared. The flora of South Australia provides copious material for the manu- facture of the best paper. Not alone a great number of representatives of the Gramineae and Cyperaceae, viz.: — Dichelayne crinita, Hof., Xe/ottis longifolia, R. Br., Cyprus luciilus, R. Br., vayinatus, R. Br., Scirpus lacustris, Lin., but also the bark of Eucalypts, and the leaves and bark of Casuarina, provide splendid material for paper. Poisonous plants are known, though there are not many in South Australia. One of the most dangerous to the sheep stock is the Lotus Australia, Andr., which is very generally distributed, and does great injury ; but I consider the poisonous principle lies mostly in the seed. The River Darling Pea, Swainsona Grayana, Lindl., produces also poisonous efl'ects on the cattle, especially on horses. A Lohelia L. pratioide'i, Benth., iortunately is not frequently seen in South Australia, but it appears more plentiful in Victoria, to the great injury of stock. Although the injurious weed Svlanum niyrum is common in most tropical and temperate parts of the globe, I think it has been introduced into Australia with cultivation. Laicrencia fijjicata. Hook., is also con- sidered by the stockholders on the Peninsula injurious to cattle and sheep. But as the plant is eaten by the cattle before seeding without injury, I believe that the rigid, pungent, bracteate leaves with which the flower-spike is densely covered, especially in the upper part, and which, as the seed ripens, become more coriaceous and pungent, are the dan-, gerous parts of the plants, and these' parts, when eaten in quantity, will, no doubt, injure the mucous membrane of the stomach and produce inflammation. As the uniform character of the order of Malvaceae is that it abounds only in mucilage, and is totally destitute of all unwhole- some qualities, it would be very peculiar should this species contain poisonous properties. A very peculiar phenomenon of the South Australian vegetation is, that most kinds of trees and shrubs, when dying, die from the tops down- wards. It is also a remarkable characteristic that by age the common o •rH l-H m > o c3 O ITS FLORA. 149 habit of plants is often much cliangcd, which is jjrovcd by the fact that during the period of development and subsequently the individual parts of those which are not flowering and fruit-bearing are different. This anomaly, caused by age and time, not only refers to tlie dimensions of leaves and flowers, but also to their nature. If we review the several orders of plants of South Australia, we find that the extra-tropical part is characterised by the remarkable absence of seA-eral orders, although it is not impossible that by further discoveries in the central part — as this part has, as yet, been but imperfectly explored — a few representatives of one or the other order may yet be found ; but probably the number will not be extensive. The extra-tropical part of South Australia is destitute of the following orders, viz. : — Simarubeae, Burseraceae, Meliaceae, Salicineae, Celasti hieae, Ampelideue, Anacar- (llaceae, Magnoliaceae, Bixineae, AraUaceae, Malpighia c^ ae ^ Guttiferae, Ericaceae, Plumbagineae, Myrsincae, Sapotaceae, Ehenaceae, ^Styriaceae, Hydroplvjllaceae, Gfsneriaceae, Biynoniaceae, Saxijrageae, Samydaceae, Elaeagneae, Ciqmliferae, Piperaceae, SeLigineae, Scitamineae. Although the order Orchidfae is represented by numerous species of terrestrial ones, there is an entire absence of epiphital Orchids in the extra-tropical part. So are also Cryptogainic plants exremely rare ; even the order Filices is poorly represented. The orders most abundantly distributed over the whole area are : — Leguminosap., Myrtaceae, Compositae, Chenopodiuceae, Cruciferae, Pro- teaceae, Guodetioviacene, Euphorhiaceae, Scrophularineae, Ficoideaey Buragineae, Labiatae, Amarantnceae, Convolvulnceae, Epacrideae, Uriiceae, Orchideae, Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Restiuceae, Cyperuceae, and Grammineac. Having given a general description of the flora of South Australia, I proceed now to its special peculiarities in the several localities or regions individualised and distinguished by the predominance of one or more families, although the boundary is in no way so sudden &< to preclude certain species from spreading over all regions, especially trees which, at the same time, are equally common in the scrub and grass lands : and also herbaceous plants, a great number of which appear in the grass land, scrub, and forest region. Notwithstanding the little apparent difference in the formation of its surface soil and climate, the flora of South Australia introduces itself to the observer in its geographical extension by special and peculiar foi-ms of plants in regions. These are the regions of the forest land, scrubland, grass land, and the intra-tropical region. FoKEST Land Region. — The region of the forest land in South Australia occupies mostly the mountainous districts, and extending along 150 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: the base of the mountain chains. The forests have not the fullness and lofty growth of those of other countries. The underwood is of a medium size, more open and less difficult to penetrate ; the forests are of less extent and are intercejited by tracts of grass land. The Eucalypts are the most predominant forest trees — the stringybark forming often whole forests in some mountainous districts, but seldom seen on the plains. Eucalyptus jyanicidata, Sw. ; I'iminalis, Labil. ; rustrata, Schlecht. ; odorata, Behr., are the most prevalent species. The trees of the forest do not appear crowded, and seldom do the branches of a tree reach those of a neighboring one. The declivities of the mountain ranges are for the most part similarly timbered, the trees sometimes extending to the summits, often only half or two-thirds of the remaining part being grassed, here and there with copses of low-growing shrubs, and stunted and much ramified trees ; often the whole declivities are grassed without even a shrub or tree. Another feature of the table land in the hilly districts is the appear- ance of occasional hills clothed only with a scanty covering of tussocky grasses, among fragments of ironstone, quartz, and sand, destitute of all other vegetation, except small scattered trees of the Casuanna sfric(a. Ait., and glaucn, Sieb., and the peppermint, Eucalyptus odorata., Behr. The level tableland is generally covered with grass, but deficient in shrubs. Here, scattered, are to be seen the most stately and majestic trees of Eucaliipits ; such tablelands appearing more like a park— the trees standing seemingly at measured distances, single or in small clumps, as if planted by the hands of a landscape gardener. The soil of such tableland is generally speaking very rich, and produces abundant crops of cereals. The underwood of the forests is mostly represented by the following genera, viz., Correa, Alyxia, Prostranthera, Grevillea, Hakea, Isopuyon, Exocnrpi/s, Acacia, Banksia, Cassia, Calythrix, Pommaderis, Leucdpogon, Leptospermum, Dnviesia, Dillicyma, hutaxia, Platylhicum, Pultenaea, and shrubby Eucalypts. The beautiful genus Epacns, which is only represented in South Australia by one species. E. impressa, Labil., frequently covers whole mountain ridges and declivities : when in bloom the different shades of color of its flowers produce an effect not easily described. The most prominent and striking efFect of the mountain forest region is produced by the grass trees, XantJwrrhoea qundranyulata, F. Muell. ; and semiplana, F. Muell. These plants have a peculiar grotesque appearance of a type unknown in other countries, at once arresting every traveller's attention by their strangeness. They appear mostly on the ridges and declivities of rocky and stony hills, almost devoid of any other vegetation, and are also found on sortie ITS FLORA. 151 wooded lands, but never on the plains. Xanthorrhoea qtiadranyulata grows from 10 to 12 feet high, often with a trunk about one foot or eighteen inches in diameter, and the flower stalk from 6 to 10 feet high. Sometimes specimens arc found repeatedly branched in a dicho- tomous manner, all the branches of equal thickness, which gives them a most grotesque appearance. This species appears only in hilly districts on the most rocky declivities ; they drive their straggling roots into the crevices of the rocks several feet down amongst the accumulated vegetable soil. The grass trees are of slow growth ; the largest specimen must be several hundred years old. The second species, Xanthorrhoea semiplana, is often found at the base of the hills in sandy soil ; it forms its stem underground, which extends often two to three feet before the few straggling roots appear, and the leaves lie close on the ground. This species is also of an ornamental character. The valuable brownish- yellow resinous exudation of the root and lower part of the stem I have already mentioned, The deep gullies formed by the ridges and hills, in which the dew most frequently supplies the place of rain during the dry season, are covered with shrubs and ferns. The soil is generally formed of black or sandy peat of a very humid nature, being watered by streamlets running throughout the year, and forming, in some rocky situations, picturesque cascades. In such gullies are associated the most delicate and beautiful plants the flora of South Australia produces. Only in such places do we find assembled the handsomest ferns in great profusion, the stately Todea Africana, Willd., with trunks often 5ft. to 6ft. in circumference, often forming impenetrable thickets along the rocky banks of the streamlets; GleicJienia tnicrophylla^ R. Br., thriving luxuriantly in the crevices of the rocks ; with the elegant Adiantuvi Aethiopicum, Lin., BotnjcJiiiini tematutn, Swartz., Lomaria discolor, Willd., and cajyensls, Willd., Aspidiavi molle, Sw., Grammitls leptophylla, Swartz., and Rutifolia, R. Br., interspersed with the lovely Viola hetonicaefolia, Sw., and hederacea, Labil., which border the water edges ; and the blue flowers of Cassia and white of Burchhardia give a great charm to such waterfalls not easily described. The declivities of the gullies are mostly taken possession of by the luxuriant-growing Pteris escidevta, Forst., massed together and forming often impenetrable thickets, while the graceful Cheilanthcs tcmiifolia, Swartz., is generally found in the grass-land at the base of the hills, extending even a short distance into the plains. There also grow mag- nificent trees of Eucahjpts. In such gullies, with their fertile soil and cool clime, the greatest part of our culinary vegetables are grown for the market to a degree of 152 SOXrrH AUSTRALIA: perfection unknown elsewhere, and uninterruptedly supplied throughout the year. Not vegetables alone, but fruits, viz : — Gooseberries, straw- berries, raspberries, and currants, &c., are raised in the same perfection. At the base, and also extending further up on the slopes of the hills, generally in spots least covered with underwood, appear the various and beautiful terrestrial Orchids, with their delicate and quaint flowers, together with other monocotyledonous plants, viz : — Patersnnia longi- scapa, Sweet., Hi/poxis glabella, R. Br., Caesia parvifiora, R. Br., Arthropodium laxum, R. Br. The most conspicuous Orchids are : — Glossodia major, R. Br., Cala- denia Patersoni, R. Br., latifolia, R. Br., carnea, R. Br., Cyrtrstylis reniformis, R. Br., Pterostylis cucullata, R. Br., reflexa, R. Br., barhata, Lindl., long if olid, R. Br., Thelymitra aristaUi, R. Br., carnea, R. Br., Ditiris palustris, Lindl., maculata, Sm., longifolia, R. Br. The genus Pterostylis is represented by numerous species. This aspect of the forest region applies to the Barossa Range, the most prominent near the coast. Other mountain ranges in the far north may present different features. The Scrub Land Region. — The regions of the so-called scrub land appear over the Avhole area of South Australia, extending more or less in the different districts ; but more so in the north and east, occupying about one-eighth of the whole area of the colony. They form long stretches of desolate arid plains— the soil being of the poorest de- scription, and unfit for cultivation, changing from loamy clay to pure sand ; the surface is covered with fragments of siliciousrock, ferruginous sand, and ironstone ; of water in these tracts there is no indication. The vegetation is of a stunted character, and the scrub is nearly destitute of grasses and other herbage ; the few genera of the first are mostly Neurachne, Stijja, Isolepsis, Sjnnifex, the well-known kangaroo grass Anihiaiiria ciliata, and a few Juncaceae, viz., Xerotes glauca, R. Br., diTiAJilliformis, R. Br. ; and these grow only in tufts, considerably apart from each other. The absence of other herbage is as great during the summer ; but this almost entire deficiency is compensated by an endless variety of genera and species of shrubs. The general impression given by the scrub is dismal, although the great variety of shrubby plants associated there make it highly interesting to the botanist. These shrubs reach generally the height of four to six feet, interspersed with stunted and ramified trees of the genera Casuarina, Eucalyptus, San- talum, Melaleuca, Exocarjnis, Camphorotnyrtus, Dodonaea, Frenela^ Banksia, Sec. Smaller shrubs of the genera Pimelea leucopogon Dillicynia, Hibbertia, Acrotriche, Calythrix, cover the ground, and are overtopped by higher gro\ving ones, such as Hakea, Logania, Alyxia, MytipoTum, Stenochilus, Eupihrasia, Thomasia, Bursaria, Pomaderris, o o M o o O r-t I — I o o ITS FLORA. iry.i Haloragis, Melaleuca, Leptosperinum, Eutaxia, Acacia, Isojiogon, Correa, Rhagodia, Sec, forming sometimes impenetrable thickets ; in other localities the scrub consists only of Eucah/jitus dttmosa, A. Cun. ; some- times formed by other bushy Eucalgpts. vi/., Enralgpdis uncinata, Turcz. ; hicolor, A. Cun. ; and incraasata, Labil., growing only six to oiglit feet high, and extending hundreds of miles. The most predominant color of the leaves of the scrub is a glaucous green, interspersed here and there with whitish leaves of the Rhagodia and other shrubs, having reddish-brown leaves. Most of the leaves are ovate, entire, coriaceous, and pungent ; shrubs with jDinnated leaves are seldom met with. The monotonous and dismal look of an extensive scrub is depressing, especially when viewed from an eminence. The equal height of the vegetation, the dull glacuous color of the foliage, look in the distance like a rolling sea reaching the horizon — at least the first sight of the Murray scrub, extending hundreds of miles, produced this impression on my mind. Everyone avoids the scrub as much as possible —many have lost their way there and perished for want of w'ater. All the scrubs in the different districts produce the same common impression, but the plants comprising them are not the same genera and species, locality and soil affecting the character of the flora. Shrubs of one kind or another are found in flower in the scrub throughout the year. Most kinds produce their flowers in September and October ; the rainy season therefore alters the physiognomy of the scrub very little ; but it calls into life numerous terrestrial orchids, of ■which a good many kinds inhabit the scrub, viz. : — Erochilus, Caladenia, Diuris, Prnssophyllum, Dipodium, Microtis, Cgrtostylis, &c. These appear with some perennial and annual plants, viz. : — Helichrysum, Drosera, Helipterum, Scaevola, Brunonia, Thysonanthus, Euphrasia, Goodenia, Hypoxis, Senecio, &c., and annual grasses ; but their duration is short, as with the setting in of the dry season they disappear as rapidly as they appeared. A most valuable scrub plant, at least for the pastoral community, and appearing copious in the northern districts, is the so-called salt bush, Atriplex nummularia, R. Br., on which during the summer and in times of drought the sheep subsist. If all other vegetation is suffering from the drought, the salt bush alone withstands the intense heat of the sun and maintains its freshness, and saves thousands of sheep from starvation. The Grass Land Region. — The so-called grass land forms the principal part over the Avhole area of South AustraUa, consisting in end- less undulating plains, stretching from the coast towards the north and 154 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: east. Along tha coast and hundreds of miles inland the grass plains have mostly disappeared, and now form agricultural districts producing the finest cereals known — the soil varying from the best to some indifferently good. But the grass plains of the interior, especially towards the north, so extensive as to be lost in the horizon, are like deserts, emphatically monotonous and desolate. Only here and there will be found some fertile spots of grass land, but not of large extent, alternating with bare sandstone ridges or rolling sandhills, interspersed with gravelly and waterless flats. Their surface is often saline, covered with sharp angular or weatherworn fragments of various sizes of ironstone, quartz, reddish- colored sandstone, and conglomerate, supporiing only a scanty herbage of Atriplex, Kochia, Salicor^iia, and Salsola, Sjrinifex and other perennial grasses, growing in tufts, tinging the sandy surface. Gr^jups of stunted shrubs and small ramified trees, sometimes of a limited extent, rise from the plains like islands of the ocean. They mostly consist of the shea- oak, Casunrina stricta. Ait., glauca, Sieb., and disli/lu. Vent., Euclypttis octoruta, Behr., dumosa, A. Gun., virgata. Sieb., wattle. Acacia pyc- nantha. The plains near the coast are of a different character, the soil mostly fertile, extending oficn to the sea, and constituting a great part of our arable land. The stratum of humus or fertile soil covering these plains occasions also an essential alteration in their vegetation. The grasses consist of more nourishing kinds, viz. : — Poa, Panicicm, Festuca, Agrostis, Atria, Androjiogon, Cgnodon, Stipa, Pennisetmn, Bromus, Eriachne, A?ithis- iiria, Hordeum, kc. Here appear also a great number of low-growing shrubs, such as Bursera, Grerillea, and small ramified trees of pepper- mint, Myoporum, Pitlospnrum^ C'usuarina, and Acacia, either single, or sometimes forming groves, without underwood, like oases in the desert. The banks of the rivers and creeks, which mostly cease running during the summer, are lined with majestic gum trees, often of immense dimen- sions, and shrubs, extending more or less upon the plains, according to the nature of the soil. This vegetation, on both sides of the rivers, appears like green ribbons, following their curves. These banks have their peculiar flora ; here appears T^imiiiaria, Leptospennum, Melaleuca, Myoporum, Hardenhergia, kc. ; herbaceous plants, Sium, Mimulus, Myriogyne, Senecio, Li'belia, Petroselimim, Eryngiimi, Lotus, and the following Juneaceue and Gramineae — Jimcus, Lunula, Xerotes, I^eu- rachne, Dei/cuxia, Slipa, Sec. The grass land, in fact the whole configuration of the plains, has a great similarity to the savannahs of British Guiana. Naturally there is a great discrepancy with regard to the two vegetations ; but the savannahs fn O -t-> c3 P> 1h O o O o m o P3 ITS FLOKA. l-'jo have mostly the undulating ground, the scattered ramified trees, the oases, the rivers lined with a green belt ; and the appearance of the grasses and herbas-e covering the area has, during the dry season, the same sunburnt yellow character, and is destitute of all green herbage. After the setting in of the rainy season, there is the same magic appear- ance of the grasses and herbage. In the month of May the rainy season generally commences, which has a magical effect upon the herbage of the plains ; a feAV heavy showers change the aspect of the dried-up grasses and herbage into a green and beautiful carpet. The rapidity with which especially the annual grasses spring up is such that in a few days the plains appear clothed with luxuriant verdure, which only northern countries ordinarily produce. With the grass are also recalled to new life the yellow flowers of Rammctdus aquatilisy Lin., lappaceus, Sm., rivularis. Banks, Oxalis coc/nata, Steud., JIi/poxis glabella, R. Br., with the white flowers of Brosera rosulata, Lehm., the blue of the Wahlcnheraia (jracilis, Dec, Anguillaria biylandulosa, R. Br., Stackhousia obtusa, Lindl., with its perfume-spreading flowers. Every week adds new colors to the beautiful carpet. The scarlet flowers of Kennedya prostrata, the violet ones of Sivainsona j^yocumhans, F. Muell., and lessertifolia, Dec. ; the delicate flowers of Tlnjxnnotm Patersoni climbing up the dry grass stalks, or overrunning small shrubs. The flowers of the isolated trees or copses of the wattles soon glitter in their yellow clothing. The Lorcmthtts Exocarpi, Behr. ; and Miqucli Lehm., growing parasitical of the Casuarinas and Eucalypfns ndorata, adorned with their red flowers hanging in the air. The small shrubs of Bursera ajrinosa are covered with their white flowers, mingled with the red of different shrubby Grevilleas. Compnsilae are seen blooming over the plains in all colors ; and every week brings new representatives of floral beauty. But by the middle of November the number of flowering plants already lessens considerably, the annual grasses and other herbaceous plants begin to dry up, droop, and disappear, and in January the grass land resembles a ripe thinly-sown cornfield, and we find only solitary shrubs covered with a few flowers or a few plants of Convolvulus eruhes- cens. Lobelia yibbosa, Labil, the latter with their leafless and fleshy stalks, and Mesembryantheynum Ausfrale, Soland. In some localities this period appears earlier or later. The seeds of the annual plants have been scattered, perennial herbage returned to its dormant state, to awake to new life at the setting in of the following rainy seasons ; and the plains have during the summer months a dismal dried-up appearance. 156 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: There is another kind of grass land, appearing here and there in large tracts, called " Bay of Biscay land." Such tracts have a peculiar, undulating surface, and look like a waving sea which has suddenly become motionless. The soil is considered very good, of a chocolate color, and produces fine wheat crops, but it must be ploughed several years before the surface becomes level. The flora of the Bay of Biscay land, too, has its peculiarity. The Eucalypts shunning such tracts, which, however, are rich in Compositae and grasses, but poor in Monocotyledons. The seabeach is mostly bordered with a belt of arborescent shrubs and small trees of ramified growth, viz. : — j\Ielaletica Preissiana, Schau, decufisata, E,. Br., Alyxia, shrubby Eucalyjjfs, Myoporum, Pittosporum, and Santalum, interrupted with a thick belt of Avtcennia ojjficinalis, Lin., extending along the coast. The sandy, often saline, tracts stretching towards the plains are covered with Atriplex, Tetragona, Aster, Ajiium, Paliphrasia, Zyynphylliim, Nitraria, Eriyeron, Cotula, Podolepsis, Ero- dht/n, Helichrysum, Leptorhynclius, Dianella, Arthropodium, Salsola, and Mesembryanthemum, Avhich are often supplanted by tracts of Spi- nifex, ^erodes, Juncus, Anthtstiria, Lejoidos2)erma, Isolepis, Chaetospora, Claudmm, and Carex. INTRA.-T110PICAL Region. — According to G. W. Goyder, Esq., Sur- veyor-General, the country, especially near the coast, of the intra-tropical part of South Australia consists principally of table land of from 60 to 150 feet above the level of the sea, falling thence gently towards the sea, although forming here and there into cliffs, which are fringed with dense thickets of various-sized timber, matted together with bamboo, and a variety of climbing plants and shrubs. The low lands near the sea, especially such as are under the influence of the tide, are covered with dense mangroves, Avtcennia officinalis, Lin., and Rhizophora mucronata. Lam. These, as the land ascends to a higher level, give place to palms, Pandanus, Melaleucas, Lep)tospermums, Grevilleas, Eucalypts, and 'Acacias, forming an open forest. Amongst the underwood are found ferns, Aroids as Amorphophalus campanulatus, Decas, and Taccaceae, Tacca Pinnatijida, Lin. The grass over the whole, or nearly the whole, of the surface of the ground, grows luxuriantly, of which the most prominent genera are the following : — Ftiirena, Cpprus, Eleocharis, Cimbopogon, Fimbrislylis, Panicuni, Setaria, Sporobolus, Anthisliria, EriacJme, &c. The soil is mostly good, and of a dark-brown color, with small nodules of ferru- ginous sandstone upon the surface. Near the sea, and generally upon a watercourse near its junction with the sea, swampy flats occur, containing timber of large growth and rank o a m o -1-3 O P3 ITS FLORA. 157 vegetation. The lakes and waterpools iire covered with waterlilies, Nyniphaea gigantea and Nelionhium speciosum, Willd., showinp/igtal Orchids, palms, and ferns. Acacias, Eucalypts, Ficus, Bombax ctipania terminalea, Psychotria, Grevillea, form the prevailing tim.ber trees, and line the rivers ; but the Eucalypts and Acacias do not reach the gigantic size of their brethren in the extra- tropical region. The following orders are well represented, viz. : — Euphorhiaccae, Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Rubiaceae, Goodenoviaceae, Leguminosae, Urticeae. The representatives of the intra-tropical flora of South Australia seem to extend towards the east, as a great number of genera and species reach to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and even further. A great many species of the Indian flora appear along the coast of the intra-tropical part, viz. : — Kitrychnos, Tamai-indus, tlie Cajaput tree, Melaleuca leucadendron, appear abundant along the banks of the rivers, and even over the dry sandstone table land, but of less luxuriant growth. (From the Botanic Garden Report.) THE INTRODUCED PLANTS IN OUR GARDENS AND FIELDS. Although having for several years back published a condensed sketch on the subject, more facts derived from experience have been since col- lected, which pre added to the previous sketch, and will no doubt interest the foreign recipients of this report. For these I think it also necessary to give, first, a brief description of our seasons and climate in general, it£ 158 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: extremes, and the difficulties we have to contend against with regard to acclimatising introduced plants, especially those from tropical, frigid, or alpine zones ; and the plants from other parts of the globe which will become accustomed to our climate, and will thrive out of doors. Our summer season includes the months of December, January, and February, when the temperature on the plains frequently exceeds 100° in the shade, and reaches from 140° to 150° in the sun. In 1876 the thermometer registered, in December, 114° 2' in the shade, and 162° 6' in the sun. This degree of heat has only been exceeded on two former occasions, viz., in 1865, when the thermometer registered, on the 9th January, 116° 3', and on the 14th January, 1862, when the reading was 115° in the shade and 165° in the sun; but the maximum in the sun hitherto recorded was on the 18th January, 1882, when the temperature registered in the sun was 180°, and 112° in the shade, the former being, without exception, the highest ever recorded. As the boiling-point is 212°, it will be seen that the heat in the sun on the 1 8th January, 1882, Avas within 32° of that temperature. Such temperatures produce very injurious effects on the introduced plants, especially those from cooler climes, and leaves even injurious traces on the native vegetation. During the blowing of hot winds, the thermometer and the wet-bulb thermometer often show a difference of 30° to 40°, and it is that which enables persons to bear the heat of our summer and carry out their usual pursuits in the field, or elsewhere, which, in a tropical climate, would be impossible. The changes of temperature during the summer are often very sud- den, so that in a short time the thermometer falls from 90° or 100° to 70° or 60°. Our summer months are characterised bv great heat, hot winds, and dryness. Not a drop of rain falls often for six or eight weeks, and it is during this time that not only the acclimatised but the indigenous vege- tation suffers materially. The ground becomes so hot and cracked that even the occurrence of a fall of rain serves only to clear the leaves from dust, as it again evaporates in a very short time. During this period the country wears a desolate, sunburnt appear- ance, and is destitute of all green herbage ; but after the setting in of the rains, there is, I may say, a magic appearance of grasses and herbage. The autumn season includes in Australia the months of March, April, and May, and is one of our genial and beautiful parts of the year. The temperature falls rapidly, only reaching 70° to 80° in the shade, the mean being 64° 6', and in the month of May it is only 58° 2'. The northern winds become cooler, the solar radiation is considerably re- CD bo O jn o CD CD M CO o w ITS FLORA. l;-><) duced, and heavy dews begin to fall at nif;lit. The indigenous vegetation which has suffered through the summer awakes to new life, and trees, shrubs, and herbage put forth fresh growth, while the leaves of the European deciduous ti*ees get the autumnal tints, and drop. June, July, and August constitute our winter — our rainy season — which is usually marked by frequent rain and strong winds ; but it also often happens that we have to contend with remarkably dry winters, the mean temperature during the three months 54° to 56° 7'. Hoar frosts and heavy frosts often appear during the night, which have since the last four years increased in severity, and the lowest temperature experienced was 28° at least in the Botanic Garden. Sucli heavy frosts have most disastrous effects upon the tropical and subtropical plants in the garden. The spring season — the most genial and most beautiful in South Australia, I think not surpassed in any other part of the world — includes the months of September, October, and November, the mean temperature during the first two months being 60° to 70° ; at this time of the year the gardens are in their best floral beauty — trees, shrubs, perennials, annuals emulate each other in regard to their flowers, which are of such a size, richness in color, and perfection, as a northern gardener can scarcely imagine. But early-appearing hot winds in November destroy these floral beauties in the course of a few hours. The average fall of rain during the year in the plains of Adelaide is twenty-one inches, but the distribution is unequal, even in places not far apart, each often showing a great difference in the rainfall. In the Mount Lofty ranges, about eight miles distant from Adelaide, the average of the rainfall is 40-677 inches. The lowest rainfalls have been in 1850, when only 11-644 inches fell; in 1859, 11-647 inches ; in 1857, 12-650 inches; in 1854, 13-437 inches ; in 1871, 14-926 inches; and in 1882, 15-742 inches. The highest fall near Adelaide was in 1875, when 31-455 inches fell. This climatic sketch refers only to the plains round Adelaide. In the southern parts and in the hills the temperature is much cooler, and the rainfall, as already mentioned, much heavier, but in the northern dis- tricts the rainfall is much less. From the foregoing it can be imagined that not all plants from other countries will grow with us. The tropical and alpine ones suffer not only from our dry atmosphere, but the former also from the cold during the winter months. In the hill gullies the alpine plants, and those of other cool countries, grow exceedingly well, while the tropical ones are destroyed by the frosts, which in such locali- ties are even severer than on the plains. Not many European and North American forest trees prosper with us in the plains ; only the Elm, Plane, Ash, Poplar, and Willow thrive 160 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: vigorously, while the Oak, Lime, Birch, Horse-chestnut, and Maple thrive only slowly, and suffer materially from the drought. All attempts to grow the beautiful Beech tree in the plains have failed, and even in the gullies of the hills it only grows slowly, while the other trees mentioned thrive most luxuriantly in those localities. It is the same with the coniferous trees. The most vigorous-growing European pines on the plains are only the Aleppo pine, Piiius Jialepensis, Ait., Cluster pine, Pinus Pinaster, Ait., the Italian stone pine, Pinus Picea, Linn.. All other kinds only show a moderate growth. The Scotch fir, Pinus sylves- tris, Linn.), the Corsican pine, Pinus Lnricio, Poir., are of a lingering growth, while the larch, Pinus Larix, Pall, uccusmbs to the slij^htest hot winds and drought. Of this fine tree I have not met with a single specimen in South Australia. Of the Californian conifers, only such as appear at an elevation of 500ft. to 1,000ft. do remarkably well in the plains of South Australia, especially the showy pine Pinus insic/nis, Dougl., which often reaches, in the course of from fourteen to sixteen years, a height of 50ft. to 60ft. Sabine's pine Pinus Suhiniana, Dougl., Bishop's pine Pinus muricata, Don., the elegant Weymouth pine Pimis Strohus, Linn., shows only a lingering growth with us. Some of the Californian and European Ciqiressus and Thuyas also thrive luxuriantly, although some species of the former seem to have a short duration of life in South Australia, especially the quick-growing Cuprcssus macrocarpa, Hartw., which, after a very rapid growth, dies suddenly when about twelve to sixteen years old. The same is the case with Lawson's cypress f Cupressus Laxosoniana. Murray), Cupressus sempe7-virens. thurifera, and even the Himalayan Bhotan Cypress {Cup- ressus torulosis, Don.) delight in our climate. The Thuyas are also of slow and stunted growth. The mammoth tree f WeUingto^iia (/igantea, Lindl.) does not delight in our climate, although growing tolerably well the first years ; but later on it ceases to grow and dies slowly, although the Californian Redwood f Sequoia sempervi^-ens, Endl.) grows well. The Canadian pine (Pinus Canadctisis, Willd.) also is a very quick- growing pine with us. Very few of the so handsome Himalayan conifers prosper in the plains, especially siich as appear at an elevation of 6ft. to 8,0()0ft., viz. : — The Indian Spruce Fir (Abies Stnithiana, Loud.), the Indian Hemlock Spruce (Abies Brunoniana, Lindl. \ Menzie's Spruce Fir (Abies Menziesii, Loud.), the lofty Bhotan Pine (Pinus excelsa. Wall.), the upright Indian Silver Fir (Picea Pindrow, Loud), Webb's Indian Fir (Picea Webbiana Loud.), Gerard's Vme (Pinus Gerardiana, Wall.\ Sec. Their growth is ITS FLORA. 161 very slow, and in a few years they succumb to the drought and hot Avinds ; only the Deodar or Indian cedar fCedrus deodara. Loud.), and the long-leaved pine ( Pimis longifoUa, Roxb.), flourishing well with us, although in their native state appear at 6,000ft. to 12,009ft. of elevation. Still more doubtful is the existence of the Japanese and Chinese conifers. None will prosper luxuriantly out of doors with us. All the species of the following genera, viz. : — Thuyopsis, Retinosjoora, C'hamne- cyparis, Cryptomeria^ Cunninghamia, are of a stunted and lingering growth, and much injured by hot Avinds and droughts. The remarkable umbrella pine fSciadopitys verticillata, Siebold) can scarcely be kej^t alive indoors. None of the Taxus species, may they be natives of Europe, America, Asia, or India, thrive in the plains, but show a lingering and stunted growth. It is the same with the South American Araucarias, viz., A. imbricata, Pav., and Brasiliana, Lamb. Although some of the Junipers become acclimatised here, the trees do not reach the size we are accustomed to see at home. I have already pointed out that some of the tropical trees and shrubs do not object to our climate, and thrive tolerably well. I will only men- tion the most noteworthy, viz. : — Sophora japonica, Linn., Japan Eriohotrya japonica, Jjindl., Japan Fiais Bcfigkalensis, Linn., India Ficiis clastica, Eoxb., E. India lucida, Ait., E. India Schimis Molle, Linn., Peru Fsidium littorale, Kodd., S. America Viburnum Chinense, Leigh, China Schotia latifolia, Ekl., S. Africa Ceratonia siliqua, Linn., Levant Paulownia imperialis, Siebold, Japan Laurus camphor a, Willd., Japan Broussonetia papyrifera. Vent., Japan Styllinga sebifera, Michx., China Aralia papyrifera, Hook. , China Ficus Eoxburghii, Wall, E. India religiosa, Linn., E. India Ficus sycomorus, Linn., Egypt Jacaranda mimosacfoUa, Don., South America Koelmiteria paniculcda, Laxm. , China But the handsome Japanese maple (Acer polymorphum, Spach), in its numerous varieties, despises our climate on the plains entirely. They will not even grow in our shade-houses. The following tropical floAvering shrubs thrive well with us in the open air, viz. : — Erythrinas, liaphiolepis, Bauchinias, Lagerstroemias, Guillandia, Brugmansia, Bignonius, Tecomas, Hibiscus, Lantanas, As- trapaea, &c. The Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, and North American alpine plants, viz. : — Camellias, Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Gaultherias, Andro- medas, Clethras, kc, as already mentioned, will not stand our dry and hot summer out of doors, but find a congenial climate in the gulUes among the hills, at an elevation of 1,000 to 2,000 feet, where they reach perfection. M 162 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: The plants of the Cape of Good Hope flora grow mostly well with us. Very few Palms acclimatise in South Australia out of doors. Of the African Palm flora, the Date Palm f Phoenix dactylifera, Linn., Phoenix recUnata, Jacq., Chamaerops humilis, Linn.) prosper with us. From the South American Palm flora, Juhaea spectabilis, Humb. and Bonpl., Sahal Blackburniana, Glzbr. ; from Asia, Chamaerops Ftirttinei, Hook., Corypha Gehanga, Bl., grow satisfactorily. Even of the palms of tropical Australia only Corypha Australis, R, Br., grows with us' in the open air. The Cape of Good Hope Enccphalartos, viz. : — Encephalarlos rillosus,ljehm. ; E. Lehmanni,^ck\.; E. Cycadifolius, Lehm. ; E. horridus, Lehm., thrive out of doors. Also the tropical Australian Macrozamias. The South Australian climate suits all the succulent plants, which develop out of doors to great perfection, especially Yuccas, Aloes, Opun- tias, Rhipsalis, Pereskia, Cereus, and Echinocactus. Agave Americana and Fourcroya glgantea grow to an immense size and generally produce their flower in the tenth to twelfth year after planting, their flower-spike reaching the height of thirty to forty feet. Only the smaller kinds of the Mamillarias, Epiphylhims, want pro- tection in summer from the scorching sun, and in wiater from the heavy rains. The growth and well-doing of the perennials, more particularly those of cooler climes, are very problematical. Only such as root deeply in the ground will withstand our dry summer. We do not succeed in the plains with the perennial Phloxes, although he annual Phloxes do remarkably well, even throughout the summer months. Delphiniums, Campanulas, Aconitums, Rudbeckias, and Tha- lictrums — in fact most of our handsome European perennials, succumb to our summer ; but it is the reverse with the annuals, which generally grow most luxuriantly during the winter and part of the spring months, and arrive at great perfection, especially the stocks, which reach an extraordinary size ; but our climate is fatal to the handsome and favorite autumn flower, the China Aster, which even in a very favorable season will only produce small and insignificant flowers, and, strange to say, all the endless varieties, viz.. Quilled, Victoria, Paeony-flowered and Chry- santhemum Asters go back to their original type. The Balsams will not grow out of doors, and even under glass they do not form the bushy plants we used to see them at home, but draw too much, and form only single stem. The so handsome Dahlias will not prosper in the plains, the flowers being small, and suffering from the slightest hot winds, but in the hill gullies they attain perfection. I — I o EH I © I— I- c3 O •r-( O ITS FLORA. 163 Indeed the aspect of our gardens during the summer months would be a ver)' dreary one if it were not for the Petunias, Verhetias, Zinnias Tagetes, Amaranthus, Goinphrenas, Portulacas, Chrysanthetnums, and Zonale Ptlaryoniums. These develop their flower, with a little help of water, to a perfection unknown at home. Of the splendor of the Ole- ander, which is in bloom during the summer months, no northern gar- dener can have any conception. The masses, size, color, and fragrance of the fiovvers surpass those produced in their native country. The Roses will attain similar perfection if we have a favorable season, but this does not often happen. The Roses have to contend against two great enemies, viz., the hot winds and the rose blight. The latter scourge can be mitigated by cleaning, but we have no remedy against the hot winds. The flowers and even the small buds are destroyed by only moderately hot ones. The dark-colored flowers suffer most, and in a few hours appear as if a fire had passed over them. Bulbous and tuberous plants from the Cape of Good Hope thrive with us as vigorously as in their native country, chiefly Gladiolus, Bnins- wigias, Haemanthiis, Watsonias, Ixias, Bahianas, Ornithogalmns, Tricho- nemas, Tritonias, Antholgzas, Lachenalias, Moraeas, &c. ; so also do Hippeastrums, Amaryllis, Criiiums, Pancratiums, Alstroevierias from any part of the globe. Not so, however, the Liliums. Only Lilium can- didum, Linn., L. longifiorum, Humb., and L. eximium, SieboL, thrive out of doors, while all the other species, especially those from Japan, will not prosper. Even the handsome L. auratwn, Lindl., will not thrive in pots, but otherwise is the case in the hills. The same dislike to our climate has the Crown Imperial f Fritillaria Imperialis, Linn.), which never produces flowers, and the bulb dies within a year or two after its introduction. The Hyacinths and Tulips also find our climate in the plains unsuit- able. The Tulip bulbs will produce flowers for a year or two, but they gradually dwindle away after the second year. Hyacinths produce good flowers the first two or three years, but afterwards the bulbs divide into numerous offsets, which produce no flowers until they are separated and planted, requiring two to three years before they flower and again divide into numerous offsets. Of the many Crocus varieties, only the yellow one will produce flowers ; all the other, blue, white, &c., never come to perfection. Sternbergia liitea, Ker., comes to great peifection with us. The Ranunculus and Anemones produce during the first two or three years splendid flowers, but the Anemone tubers show the same decay as the tulips, and frequently dwindle away the second or third year. 164 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: All the various kinds of Narcissus delight in our climate, with the exception of the variety of the Narcissus poeticus. In the plains it is impossible to grow ferns out of doors in the open ground, not even the few South Australian species which are found growing in the hills and gullies, unless planted in very shady, moist, and protected places. Of inter-tropical fruits only a few kinds prosper with us, viz. : — The Loquat fEriohotrya japonica, Lindl.), Guavas fPsidium •pyriferum, Linn., and/)om//eno « o g W r^ -i- S5 0-. fe Tt- fO M « ,N 'd--M h7 OJ o a c: c t^ in ■p^ f~i 00 I-^ 00 10 -1- r^ MO W ■S »c~ <> ^ s q vd* w ^7 10 t^ \o »^ « ON 00 rn 1/-J --o ■,, "^ f-O p i^ t^ F" iiSafi b V 'n- ^ " . 10 r^ r^ ^o y^ pS p c ^ r^ ■^ 5< r^ ^ b "« r^ b "-J- -t- 00 Vj V I S^ 00 CO r-^ 00 00 00 CO S fcn 2 ^ J3 in a 0^ 10 VO N ^ tTj 00 m ^ vo 3 ■^ CS P P" r-'-i IN LO P lO t^ t^ ^ s s *M *M W- M -f- OD rn M a? 3 rtjg M t~l "-l >-* •-< •-* >-* »-* w »— 1 S O 1 m n "T~ 1 rr> 00 { [^ 'rt 1 C q q; 0_ ^ •^ vo" 6 CO c" fo '^ 00 CO "^ £3 ^ 1 N * t^ •-« oq o a t P 1 N N 1 TA t^ N -^ t- -^ \o o^ "3 o> 00 q C^ q Ph a "S "C rO c^ -t- ro q eS p^ ►T _S H T MT) vO 00 O; 0^ ?3 -1- c^ r^ o ^ •^ £"• 00 r^ JO ;7 , 1 00 10 ° 5; .s§^ •rr fo 0. 1-- 0- rn MD < C--H 00 g. "2 xr^ fO \o q; '^ q M "" \^. _ ^ ■3 '0 ^' rt "o [ri .5 1« S •C Eh ■a 2 ir, 2 g 3 i3 3 H .3 u 1 P> ^ M ? H /<; 1 ■a o 2 y^ .3 c • -r3 o >o » J3 - .- ^ „ ^■i « £ " s ^ _ _ _ - be o » ^ ? P c ^ ■3 j; cs § 3 S '5; - S ■5 -3 te c ^00 2 g ■" .2 ••• o s o »r •c 3 § £ c ■" o ca S .3" ^' ;3 o S ^ S^ ^ :^ ^ 3 '"^ a 3 I . (fl ^ ^ S ^ '*' '^■' - -2 „• t3 o c ^ !? « 3 .5 3 ^ -""■2— 'J'o rt 2 O .£ l^ c4 O o o -^ k' N '^ ? g ^ I = iOjjo^(j3o-SJ «'g>-„'30„_3 ■^'^*^ s ^^ g .. (U q >. ■" * 3 "' ■^ -3 -C £ S -S 3 p-yS^ — ^ '7: "> ^ ..^ feT ^ ^"3 3 •=' cK -^ .. ° ^ •" "■^ I' 5 !^ -p 1 " ,r 2 3 3 ._-5''''d '' 5<;5 o g- |3 ° S S s; S S I 3l^S^.3zi'-Si •rfL*- ^ o '^ ^ o ^ •3 p ,2 i; -J-, o be ^ 0:0 S j= !* — S 3 .„ o „ ^ .5 t, 2 o J. 3 o o •£ > ^ ■» Sc Es 3 rt O ■Z 3 S3 r; ^ ^ o 3 3. S 3 ?;; ^ 1 o CO t^ 1 ;^ '{- .i ""^ '*- ■-r NO o ON '-r \ M s p ^ ^ o ^ ^ ^ - u 1 1 J3 'rt 41 O O CO o i r- Hi S8 p a> lo _-3- *o o NO ' ^ ON 1 1/ 5 O o •J- in ki NO 00 :> O « c c c ff o o C O o_ w VO rO ON ro 1 t^ OO 2" ' ° >. .^ ^ c ro _CN y:» On oc M \b K CO 1 b NO •: «-3 ■> NO '^ -^ 'i- CN cT 1 1^ ^ « », o 1 o °Q 1 "^ m r^ \c o ^ ■; i On lO >- i xt ^ s :! oc p. o r^ NO ;o _fO NO Si -^ o «: 6o K NO K* ^s NO ■'^ - .5 3° — ^ >S o A MD c o - S On O u- o r^"^ 'S ■_j_ \j ■) fO W ^ Vo 1 - '-)- M a ■■y 1 M O 1 p 23 II 1 ^ m ■* c ON l^ 1 CO C ».-i 1 oc s *-* Cj ^ NO c _-r On _n \ s ■*-» M OC [^ t^ r* ^ 1/ ^ CO 1^1/ rO rO rO 1 ^ p^ (5 1 ^ NC •i- oc ro r> oc NO ^ 1 - c ^ oc c c o tn CC •^ be'" fo oc 1/ s ^ T NC *" Ni " c -a — li "s c NO C rO H g 2 o< CO C N 1 S ? c ; •<) 1 r^ Ti o 4- fO ^ ot 1 o o «3 J. H ■" CO _i OO r- T CT> to O N -+ to -1 h ! c — u "ea OO VC -, r O N O. nO 1 C "o ^ s u ^ "J- H H „ t NO 13 ■■ %, Q b 1 cu -2 -J- r^ (-J U oc ' S a> O r- ^ •a- c cfi C3 M t^ NC <• ■" W "3 — "o 1/ ■! "> 00 O w ^ ^ oc (S H ■*-• "3 r ON o ^ c r^ f- c •^ CNJ oc o N O ■" c o oc :> C 5 NO a ^ "1 -J- 1/ ^ •4- On W c N CO 1 _3 o o ^ 01 s > ^ c c .3 c_ ^0 %. ^ c a "n ■; £> c 1 i- •d H cd d •a < 3 o H a 1 a 5 H c 03 is c i N3 k ;^ Vj o f- 1 :^ STATISTICS. 187 m »; I ■i'';ox [ 1 ! 1 i 1 ] 1 1 1 1 1 I M § ^ 1 ,j m !- •" =3 S a •saiBinaj i 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 ' 1 1 ; •saiBK 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O 1-1 N~ 00 tj •1- „ CO VO -O t ^ o r^ lO ^ •11!}0X ^ r^ o_ *o q •^ vq O t^ o fO k Tj* in^ c OO o "1 lO CO 00 \o S rt 3 rO O VO ^ 00 c^ r^ •-0 •saiemaj | M " vo" " ^ ^ O^ ^ ^ 1 CI CO OO o- a 1-1 1 1 % -i- •saiBj^ 1 OO t^ ^1 *^ CO Cv "H. 1 lO M3 " "^ OO " O 1 ^ in o o §s i S CO tl 1 ro 1 S, o o VO •I^iox l^ CO o 1 q i c^ ?r >o" o ^ o o o •saiBiM UD -t- ►^ q m 00 CO r^ cq c^ r^ lO r'; '-' " t^ OO O ^ „ 'Ti Ov UO CO .o o r^ ^ VO TOox s~ ■S CO M C? vo' C^ o O ^ f* t? u- ^P ^O CO o •cj- OO ci •saiBinaj ^ lO «-^^ VO_ f^ O; q o O f^ \o" c? H " "^ ^ ^ fO QQ ^ o •* VO ^ 1 ? o CI CC o VO VO •S31BK ^ ^ ,^ ^ 00 vo' VO O "S 1 '-' •^ ^ VO c N M •* o u- ON cS o ^0 OC M t^ o \0 OO 1/- q Si •ib;oi *o oc IN cT a t^ 1 "" ^ •"I " r^ " I? •ra 1 r^ o Cr ^ c^ O o o o o \o "- r- 30 o •s i •sa^Btnaj ri t^ s CI •* OO c*- c CO c3 f^ a ~s r^ C CT -:1- O o 1 o 3 o m "t ^ vq 1 vO ^5 •saiBH ^ oT ^ c tC OO VO 1 ^r 1 ^ rn o 1 " t^ ro M VO 1^ Ov cr- o r^ •»*- u- o O T3 •^ox 1 ^ "^ O; M 'S; c^ vo_ N f*^ t^ t^ ^ lO \D u^ r^ .o V.- , in c vO c^ oo CO VO OO c! •saiBraaj 1 r^ f^ c> vO r^ •« h7 M CO CO _g vO „ 5 M O vO oc -f. t^ VO ^ •saiBK 1 ^ ^ c °S. -»: M N 1 r*i CO i" ~ '5 ^c 1 "a c 3 3 S •3 1 c > O 03 1 -< c c O < e C 'c s o Eh ■a c 03 O 1 I g o ^ ^ a> 2 5 i H o ■§ H O-H 188 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: J s-g ! fl -f o 1/- o 1 •r 1 o VO 1 1 - 1 1° ^1 rt O vf) lb -o P 1 .'^ 1 M b- O b 1 ^ -3- 1 t-5 \0 f-; P. 1 9 1 g -e o> u- Tl- w- o N M o 1 in t 1 . '3 •~-j 1 o o a a •-« w w f-* •-* >-* p. Si ^ r- t^ OO VO o t-5 r~ VO "3 (2 i O ■fe f^ O f N 'J i^ ,o n 1 M 1 C 3g '^ •^ d »5 O \r o OO M M O C4 OO 1 "S ^? VO ; C^ C> 00 " i ■a 1 1 " 1 o • w .2 -a t> u- t^ N r> ^ 00 rr. 1 O 1 OJ 1e »; ^ vO OO „ \ ^ O VO "' Ph " ■- " " " s? « « r-) r- 1 " '" 1 S o u-> Th \o r^ ro r^ 1 r^ I Ov lO o C ^ yD ' 1 " ^ VO I--. 1 o- 1 vj =8 c ^ !? 5 C ^ C g ^ fn oc o t^ M C •3- VO 5 Ov X ^ W ^ ^ 00 00 ^ „ «^ 1 03 VO 00 o 1- t-~ O O ^ o (> CJ o > O- OO ^ 73 ^s rC M "- rn 1/ ^ r^ r^ O o t^ OJ -r o ^ O o VO H "" o IN vc '' 5 d oj ■S.o r>. u- 5 m --d VO o V i VO i o o VO rO M OO ON H t^ -^ -^ 0) •3 « V! ^• (^ -t- \/ ^ \ri \t ; VO rC b c >^ fO M •o t^ 05 cs O VO r*) H ■SH 'O ^ M . ^ 3 ^ p^ fi "-> C vO H O O -t- QC \ as f <\ VO ■3^3 vc C OO VO "5 ° r^ r^ c c c. ^K O 1 C o »/ rt c5 O r^ lo vr: r^l OC <^ PJH H H tc J2 "S"* ^^ ^ _^ ^ s- •w 4J ij •— *o ^ "ce c "f rO --i rO ^ f c S o rt S 8 a o cti S 3 •-5 Q a a c C P t^. c o "o (^ .2 "rt O _0. .S "o o E-l o B £ 1 < 5 « c CI -3 c C3 ca c c "x. e_ c < "7 ^ C (3 3 c is c C ? s >5 61] C t-> o f^ Z i-< .a ■gl.5 13 - WJ o o 3 o p. .2 % ■3 c o 5 s 1 ■3 - . .a 60 r< •" O S .5 VO rt .a C 3 N . i-> cl «»H O. '.^ 3 >0 VO ?r, t3 C3 £ XI S "n^vj "S il > .2 2=* ... w A „• c i ^^-5 <§ i/: '■5 I 3 "S jj M O -3 60 .. -•^ !< &.| =« 2 M *• .2 5 .2 ^ - £ g 3 ^,2 -am'-' »■. ii o s °a o i=- •5 .^ o ^ '-' fc- ■^ S" C tJ -3 -^ ° -* HH P. O' o U ^ ° J3 2 a ;5 s s -5 ^ S.i n> » ^ J3 c ot 3 g g ^ 3 k. .0 1 P •s -3 5 2 S e r 3 iS^ rX ^ ri ° S O I' — ( c, g 5 .a "2 £ '5 VO l^ S3'~a £ s g OJ "3 Oj .250. M S -^ 2,S t: -3 5 S STATISTICS. 189 . OO fo S3 N S OC CC t--. o o o S=«f=i S3 ^" O ID o o ^ 02 C H ^ O ^ .fc; o C ii ON J-* ■^ I ° . .3 S? 2 ^ S. ^ S "= I" -^ rn -^ S3 M O ^O O "I'm E s i £ Eh :t3 c o M OQ \0 r^ o 1 o o o o -^ rJ-O N f^ ON lo -^Qo q r^ r^^q M^ (5 <^ in yd <^ <^ M CO \o ^oo CO CO f^ o H w rnoo od (j; 1 cS 1 o ^ CO t-- ro -^QO O ro t^ o -1- in u~,\o \o OOCO tN Eg T^-rf C4 cT t^ ro in ' r 1 H MMD ceo moo r^ o t^\0 O O G> ^ rrjOO t^ \0 O) \0 O^ CT* ■^ ^ ^ vO_ o 1 w N q ro M vd CO PQ <^ H S o o o S cS r o CJ ^ i-l -3 cS fe "5 1; *« "5 r o 1^5 II o g 3 g j . <3 * r' ;2 W 3C ?? E- y STATISTICS. 191 a 1 « r-^ •^ o '^^ CN 6 c o \i- \o NO_ p vO rC oc h7 od" ^^ o c? .^ >-' fo P. ?- CS 1 he H ON M fr> ID OO ^ [^ ■« o o •+ On o On o- o H O rr* p 1 1 W 1 o -^ a- o c^ 1 O 1 o o s Oh o'o S »/- c c N 1 C- 1 o o ^-« o 2 ^ fl " ;^ i-i 3 '2 s ►J o 1 Cj /5 p. 1 Q o lO o O NO ^ ^ OO t^ c NO O oc w o oo -5- VD " ■^ o o 1 ^ 1 O VO rh r^ r^ w OO CO 1 °^ o Cn ro tt -t- vo ON O t^ ce o H ^ ^ ^ "" ^ ! "' _g ^ "o S .2 3-+^ § C^ f^ M r-5 o o t-, ^ rO CJ -r 1 O O i< 1 ■^2 J -*J O ^ -i 5 O ;z O r- -^ -1 'O O c :z^ o q •"■ -t; O p-» _o "o o o Zj Y-, I? ^ "= a o r 1 < s: < E- 1 O c ^ 1 1 1 N c > S? C t- 1 1 1^ K ■5 J o ^ :^ .3 J3 be "3 M —< .o g •r^ ci ^) if SO S ■ A =» ^_ S ^ a -£"^ c -s^:^ 5£ not con nd of i8 unted a the Cr fe^S^ 2i "i "*^ (>it- 2^ fi tu 5& o S-cJ 8^ ^S 3 S . bo a « S ■? *" 5 O C! 3.2 > s c *^ -y.«. o c:! .2~ « ;iTieH ^ nH != f; 2 S rl o ■a _ 3 fl = SS S ^ •g .S".S "3 S = 115! 0, > « 3 O •" i, « 3 9, o g \o -/I o 5?^ a c3 ^°^3 lS|2 ■ ii C3 ci 3 ^ oii 3 «^ .S o cq .2 ■< 3 O c3 j" " ~ 3 2 5 q-i 72 ^ O i i o § g !- M =H 3 ° O „, T3 a; p=i <-> g c « t: g S o § "^ ia -.2 "^ 0«3§ oH o O cs ce -a "^ 3 § 3 S O d " " ~ O 4J ^ g t^ ^3 3. C? O STATISTICS. 193 O i -J 3 r-QO OC t>- O TT IN Cv "^ CO "^ «" I I O O c^^D I O ^O -O op I \% I 1^ r^ r^oo M o r'^ o « [^ C-l 1 ir.OO rl^ ^ „ \n t^ r^ O r^ N -!J- OOO w CO M I (N OOQO O ir; I r^co t^ i^ O^ VO t^ M 'i^ X „ c S P <^ X' 5 ? ■jj ^£ S-H i; J ?£o 3"? a 0. Ii' ^1 a S£ if !3 oJ a K •-a -5 c i; s a a -? ■2 CO -y fi og ."2 ?! s.s' 5.3 Is a- ^ 13 t^ ^ 3! -a "3 S P « a j; i^ a 3 s %h r^ ^ = f= P 3^ S S: s 7^ p* 0' "§8 ao „ £ -S p u ;> „ £ "-/-C a •3 :? " ■a h lit |gi " •r 3 "o ^ CS_rJ ■3^ ce ^■& M ° ^ °goS ""< ^r^ ^ H"§ ■5 (ii'5 S - 3 iS-a'g ■5% VO vo-^gS |23 S c -t-T ;- g|S gl ^ 2 s b ■3 ^00 c ^1 li^ar tE_r j3 a te i ^ " (S S ■£ c .- i'^-a £ -1 -2 S S - tc p a S g e /5 1^ M '3 ^ .&c^ 3 a< S=.a 3 S ''. p; a c §£§" •A f; ;-• >M S IN Pi f^ 1 S' *^ go fti So' ll lis 1.1' 3 a « ?: a. J^ j2 [it a "=.28) 2 ^ ? a ^ S P 3 2 =H 1 •• |1 = a 3 '.?= a s og ii S =* tr a £ *; a "-jC § -'cio btj |as 3 3'^T3 £ ^g •^ s ■3 •-■ III Ills c ca a J2 '2 a 5 t- a ■- ^ a< ^ *~* M c c3 *"' S'g 7 sa. "S S'3 ci 5 •5 J?: s s- 2-g, §■32 194 SOUTH AUSTRALIA m o oj 1 '73 MOO O M o ^ !^ S Ooo vO M ^ A M ^ O M 1 q^ 1 ; O M o^,ai 1 C? r^ c^ cI 1 1 1 QO" ! r^ M w l-^ ci T i O ^ "^ 1 \0 ^oo o r^ CJ o . 1 ce •> 1 1S GO CO O OOO o -?■ t> o 1 o ro O ^ M h^ "^-CO 13 [^ CO 1 '3 [ 1 B3 n O '-I -+ -i->o r~^ mO 1 ^ o O C>4 U-,0O 1/-J o o o^ VO ci fo ►-< o- in <^ t^ 1 o "o i f rn '-' •S' 1 *^ Ph 1 H. w oo t^ O ^o i j 1 eg N O C< 1 N ' '9 ^ 1 — c2 ^ "^o 1 -^ oo 1 ^ o fn ^h VO " CO [--vo in *>^ 1 o O 1 o »n in r^ N O O VO "^ o o ; do 2J i '^ 1 1 '^ i, CM ' 1 s S ^ rn in t-~ o 1 -o in rn -« . VO M o o o -r t^ Os S' in CM K. w ^^ 1 o ^O t^in r^ en o cf o '3 n O -D o a- H. w w\0 o M j52 ^ ! (5 « >0 CT M O r^ croc M O ►-* f*J t-- >o rr. MOC "S M VO N MOO d r^ - J CO o vO ^ C t^ -^ 4- o ""* r-O d r~ r~ 1 in M O CO r--) u- 5 O r^ r^ >- -a;© H -3- ON« ^» cc cnoo c " 1 o c O ■ «^ o ^^ c e s 1 ■i o rt 1 H t3' 5?; 1 fi.i "d p-'a 7 c nil ■ P c;^ ■2S O liliJ C5 S ca 4 'f ;^ 'J - c V t. / 1 J. 9 < u o s. 3 ^3 1 1 1 "^ ^ r- a tC 00 CM _rn p o i o Pi fnco VO VO O -r i~- _o p _o r r*" r*" .-^^ 1 § •! !i 1 b 1 i " 1 J. o 3 r-^ •T^ r^ fo O o o •^^''9 "O M M N b •^ « CM p 1 3 OS o -1- " b N b '•n cjooo 1 1 _^ o in t~. >- o ^ p in ;^ o 'o- In Vi-oo V~ «^ oo .C?N vb oo CM oo o "o o o T c _c c \ c ■J C 2 3 < g "c 2 C t-1 "3 3 c E- STATISTICS. 195 T >o ^^ c^ t'o OC OO l^ OO IH -t- I^ ■- OO ? ^ o „ ^ ■* o .^ >o' -^ 7: 3 o O cr- X --a . 3 S. u: O '!'■ O g o o .2 5 P - ■S£„ S c . s :r o ^ o a l-s-2 ^?i!?- SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 197 C^LCXJTTA. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1883-4:. 3o\\ih ^iistnilian Committee: Honorable R. D. Ross, M.P., Chairman. Honorable David Murray, M.L.C. John Harvey, Esq., J. P. E. W. Pitts, Esq. J. CuRxow, Esq., J. P. W. Haines, Esq., M.P. Samuel Davenport, Esq., J. P. C. J. CoATEs, Secretary. Thomas Hardy, Esq. A. M. Simpson, Esq., J. P. Ad.wi Adamson, Sen., Tlsq., J.P. J. F. CONIGRAVE, Esq., J. P. r. Makin, Esq., J. P. H. J. Scott, Representative at Calcutta. i5 ouTH Australian pxHiBiTS. 1. HAMMER & CO. .. Adelaide. 2. S. W. SWEET Adelaide. 3. M. W. GREENFELD Xorwood 4. GEORGE FREEMAN Adelaide. 5. S. A. INSTITUTE Adelaide. 6. FRAZER S. CRAWFORD Adelaide. 7. E, SPILLER (Government Printer) Adelaide. 8. PAUL FOELSCHE Northern Territoky, S A. 9. MRS. GEORGE GRAY North Adelaide. 10. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN COMMITTEE Adelaide. SECTION A. Photographs. Opal Glass Pictures. Landscape Photographs. Photographs. Paintings from Photographs. Photographs. Photographs. Photographs. Photo-lithographs. Photographs. Models of Fruits in Wax. Models of Fruits in Wax. 198 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: SECTION B. 11. G. W. GOYDER (Sarveyor-General) Adelaide. 12. CONIGRAVE & COLLISON . . Adelaide. 13. BRADDOCK & SONS Adelaide. Maps. Drawings and Maps. Printina; Inks. 14. E. SFILLER (Government Printer) . . Lithography. Adelaide. Letter-press Printing. Bookhinding. Account-book Ruling. Chromo-lithography. 15. J. A. HARTLEY School Maps. Education Department, Adelaide. 16. H. C. MAIS, C.E Working Drawings and Photos. Engineer-in-Chief, Adelaide. of S.A. Railways. SECTION C. 17. BRADDOCK & SONS Adelaide. 18. CHARLES CROSS ,. Gawler. Eucalpytus Oil. Medicinal Products. Indigestion Powders. Indigestion Drops. SECTION D. 19. KAPUNDA MARBLE and BUILDING CO. Marble. Kai-inda. 20. E:APUNDA No. 1 MARBLE CO. .. KaI'UNDA. 21. SIBLEY'S MARBLE CO Anga.ston. 22. THOMPSON PRIEST Mintaro, S.A. 23. HUGH ERASER Adelaide. . . Marble. . . Marble. . . Flagging Slate. Carved Mantelpiece. CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 199 24. V. NELSON .. Adelaide. SECTION E. Fanov-work. 25. Mrs. G. J. NELSON Adelaide. Ornamouts from Seeds. SECTION 26. BRADDOCK & SONS Adelaide. 27. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SALT, PLASTER, and MANURE CO YOKKETOWN. 28. THE S.A. SALT COMPANY SXOAVTOWN. 29. WILLIAM HAINES, M.P Teatree Gully, Adelaide. 30. F. PFLAUM & CO Blumberg. 31. SAMUEL DAVENPORT . . Beaumont. 32. G. L. BARNARD Walkerville. 33. ANDERSON & ROBERTSON Adelaide. 34. J. G. PITCHER Adelaide. Benzole. Gold Lacqueiir. Brunswick Black. Eefincd Salt. Coarse Salt. Gypsum in Crystal. Plaster of Paris. Plaster Ornaments. Fine Dried Salt. Fine Undricd Salt. Coarse Salt. Gypsum " Selenite." Plaster of Paris. Kaoline (pipeclay) . Mimosa Bark. Olive Oil. Olive Oil. Refined Olive Oil. Olives. Olive Oil. Olive Cake. Olive Hair Oil. Olive Oil Blacking. Olive Machinery Oil. Salad Oil. New Dried Soap. Pearl Shells. 200 SOUTH AUSTRALIA; Section F— continued. 35. MAURICE HOLTZE Peanut Oil. F.\xxiE Bay, Noktheen Territory, S.A. Teal Oil. Pine Fibre. Rhea Fibre. Indiarubber Tree. Upland Cotton. Uncultivated Cotton. Indigo Plant. _ Rhea Plant. 36. KNOTT & MEYDER Uncultivated Cotton. HowLEY, Northern Trruitory, S.A. 37. G. R. McMINN, Esq. (Acting Government Collection of Indigenous "NYoods. Resident) Northern Territory, S.A. : — A Collection of Indigenous Woods. Stamped No. on Botanical Name. Local Name. Specmien. I. Acacia (spec.) II. III. IV. T. " Tecoma " TI. . VII. ...... " Cypress Pine " VIII. " White Mangrove " IX. X. "Prickly Ash" XI. XII. "Blood Wood" XIII. " Paper Bark " XIV. XV. Sterculia (spec.) " Milk Wood " XVI. Eucalyptus (spec.) XVII. Eucalyptus (spec.) XVIII. " Iron Bark " XIX. XX. "Apple Tree" XXI. Eucalyptus (spec.) XXII. XXIII. Eucalyptus (spec.) 38. CORPORATION OF COPPER MINES OF Copper Ores. S.A. Adelaide. 39. CAPTAIN HANCOCK Copper Ores. MOOXTA. 40. THE PROPRIETORS OF THE WALLAROO MINES, LIMITED Trophy of Copper in Cakes and W.VLLAKOo. Ingots. CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 201 Section F — continued. 41. ENGLISH AND AUSTEALIAN COPPER COMPANY, LIMITED . . . . Copper in Cakes an58 4.374 3. "7 30vbl8 »5.3"9 3M33 47,286 479.978 4SS.2" 469.63; S".927 438.827 S58.S8; 548.709 631.700 775.838 949.774 716.29s 716,004 777.351 ■.143.312 1.320.205 l-59=-634 Si8.;;3 620,757 492,656 759.4J8 700,255 »39,1S3 i.3>3.337 1.M3 653 1. 620.30.) 1.847.255 ■.9231605 60,915 48!o40 .70.8JI 15.565 64.949 82,590 187,451 IA015 188065 4"3.349 409.380 319.159 362,219 572,199 553.316 409.730 464.615 640,476 36.645 6.714 48,040 170^41 ■S.565 383'.470 233.745 510,268 322.429 163,787 224,458 •530.373 •515.116 •497.467 •614.168 •797.083 •748.994 •859,181 •955.777 •584.796 •5*5.045 •784,5*6 6.721 19.790 28.690 33.W 36.440 48.911 203.423 235.96S 264J62 361.884 428,816 739.714 810.734 808.234 850.576 959.006 'XS56 .225.073 .330.484 .444.586 :i;j:?;? .574.409 1,613,905 550.456 533.03s 532.135 223.90s 2.8,359 265.463 339.247 440,564 487.109 78,125 82,215 87.45s 93.122 107,164 106.903 110.684 121,553 130.052 157.915 159,678 26,146 56,986 56.375 55,083 265.434 ■58,342 116,166 201,892 158,057 113.820 123.213 119.697 136,832 143,463 108,700 331.000 355,689 fe 2,814.811 3,038,356 4,987,024 4.436.955 4,400,655 6,179.395 6,133,291 6,463,897 6,810,856 3,032,269 3,Sfi,594 3.181.536 3,163.370 3.423,307 3^9661452 4,387,096 798.81 1 2.33^290 i,'37o^93S 1,366,529 1,613,021 1,769.351 1.507,494 1,639,591 1.976,018 1.820.656 2.028,179 2.411,931 104,647 75,248 80,858 1,665,740 1,958,572 ■.512.18s 2,858.737 3,164,611 4,8l6.i;o 4,626,531 5.355,020 66,160 81.16S 2;s',ii5 465.878 ■.744.^IM ■,355.04^ ■,502,165 1,576,326 ■ ,838.639 2!o9si356 3.015.537 2,754,65? 2.539,723 1^6031816 2,722,438 2,113,297 3.289,861 3.524,0s; 4.285.191 4.198.034 3.957,854 4,829,577 3,363,625 2sr.'44 3l^2l7 556,3:1 755,840 525,398 554,265 !:3» 64s. 40 1 1,253.429 860.202 ■,;ii,;46 ■,230,33^ ■,680,996 l,9«8,7i6 1,184,168 1,671,628 >,^8,lll 2,4(^7,710 ■.336,76l 8.740 35.845 108,539 ■3',73^ '48,73" 613,368 635,00; 715,270 775,935 990.482 901.696 ■,833,5^9 ■ ,547.268 2,010,843 1,834.071 1.694.976 1,716,171 1,606,306 365,4<4 310,916 ■55,55; 408,041 446,53; 452,^;2 547,619 806,364 ;:o.s9o 347,246 420,558 18:% 26,558 49,509 62,641 90,956 ■55,920 ■74,455 ■99,33^ 339,871 343.81s 277,871 373.6=4 347,360 515.640 732.330 9061173 032.891 l,20O,cjO4 1,169,491 o 3 353426 384J89 303,500 197,24- 200,830 255,928 ■59,699 149,942 211.653 522J13 ; 14,106 ^^6l5 55,588 71,203 94,555 866,8sc l'l74!900 2,9*9,750 3,320,600 3.837.200 4.737200 5329,600 6,605.750 2,850^26 3,052,757 2,196ioi9 2.S1S,534 2,774A>3 2.9W,997 3A«,4S4 28,756 30,257 35,744 86,411 106,874 l1Si% ■4,684 39,347 35,247 ■ ,711,699 ■ ,362,873 ■,496,427 ■ ,612,774 ■ .40^,594 ■ ,252,487 ■ ,8S9,068 1,930,914 2,079,957 3,543.780 3.524.412 3,509,452 4,325,319 4,736,674 7,05i',737 7,207,814 ■.306,38; 944,038 ■,030.490 ■,043,532 806,591 728.796 1,024,686 958.814 ■ ,052,322 2.567 3.>4« 3,877 5!^3 32.124 55.342 52,512 51,359 57.060 70.136 70.219 79.445 98.016 ■^■,590 ■63.506 201,205 245.403 333,87} 405,116 448,658 '^^:^ 845,276 879,788 982,857 !o32!30i :3i:S; wnnoiTAimu 63^1468 684.095 -■9.806 787.635 867.737 940.981 920.951 971.555 952,921 ■,171,624 1.296.101 ■.450.233 I 132,918 146,165 192:733 242,3< 264, ■< 410 117 431 217 455 1 267 7,400 8,217 25,889 27,305 3«,49^ ^& 'SS. 1875 ■876 H, J. AA'DKKWb Oovt Kew South Wales i Queensland South Australia 301. Western Australia Tasmania New Zealand'' 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1874 T875 187G 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 187Q 1880 1881 1873 1874 1875 1876 ■ 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 S'l 3,840 546,55'' 613,642 635, (>4i 706,498 645,068 64,218 70,331 77,347 85,5''9 105,049 1 17,489 106,864 120,881 128,075 1,225.073 1,330,484 1,444,586 1,514,916 1,828,115 2,011,319 2,271,058 2,574,489 2,613,903 51,724 45,292 47,571 45,933 50,591 51,065 65,492 63,903 '' 53,353 167,931 326,486 332,824 332,558 348,841 355,403 366,407 373,299 374,374 376,156 549,844 607,138 787,824 959,528 t 1,134,185 1,237,501 1,029,764 1,319,460' 145,609 176,687 233,253 233,368 252,540 221,888 3-554 3,592 4,478 5,700 8,744 9.618 3,607 10.944 4,708 784,784 839,638 898,820 1,083,732 1,163,646 1,305,851 1,458,096 1,733,542 1,768,781 25,697 23,427 21,561 18,769 22,834 23,008 25,762 27,687 21,951 58,610 57,633 42,745 38,977 46,719 48,392 45,215 50,022 51,757 132,428 105,674 90,804 141,614 243,406 264,577 270,198 324,933 365,715 '°°'rrncluS^a° d tn^/aUo;Anmost of the colonic.. S-e footnote 3 to 1 ^ The lateft available H^ure. relating: to^L.ve^ ?)?5, "V.\ "^r I0 M» J SUMMARY OF AUSTRALASIAN STATISTICS FROM 1S73 TO 1881, INCLUSIVE. 783.!-4 l6,8oo 16.769 16,010 8sr.439 26.581 26,839 882,i3! ';."4S 006*652 22.528 6M.;43 ■5.328 10.26a !93.'9? 10,708 25.761 809 876 760 28,668 977 29.019 933 30,013 1,005 10),2i; 3,048 104,176 103,663 105,484 3.149 107,104 3.211 109.947 3.S02 ■ 12,469 114.762 3.739 118,923 3.918 11 212 341.860 375.856 :;SJ 399.07S 3o!73» 32.744 13.828 13.396 i|26l'j64 ,784.056 3,504.953 ,896,842 4.177.338 956.335 l!404'.19« 1.283,520 1,382806 1 543.820 1,678.631 1.673.695 1.757.654 2,119.524 3.035.711 3.431.973 4,782.850 5 =49.350 6.43S.»SO 6.435.25° 16,533.856 |g.9|3-985 15'705.3S4 16362,104 16,161,880 15.035.538 14.556.894 1.267,47s 1.369.223 1,431.144 6.973.418 8.755.663 8.374.585 J SUMJIARY OK AUSTRALASI.US STATISTICS. FKOM 1873 TO >-,^oV ■ ■^y,"i5y ^5/,uy^ j,i j4,uou i ^t,j"-',5ju 'yy,y3'-' '1, 516 30,715 366,703 3,131,013 24,503,388 173,604 '5,073 30,360 328,150 2,746,385 20,962,244 191,677 0,249 34,615 336,468 2,771,583 23,967,053 220,320 14,644 35,503 360,038 2,914,210 29,043,392 256,026 .2,301 44,637 : 395,984 2,580,040 32,399,547 }3o8,205 5-825 40,832 364,306 2,182,226 36,591,986 1,894 27,306 1 99,243 1,343,093 7,268,946 42,884- 3,359 22,173 107,507 1,610,105 7,180,792 44,517 2,863 18,354 121,497 1,812,576 7,227,774 46,447 4,821 18,349 133,625 2,079,979 7,315,074 53,45S 0,771 24,513 140,174 2,299,582 6,272,766 52,371 6,875 27,061 148,226 2,469,555 5,631,634 50,301 7,585 27,935 163,342 2,805,984 6,083,034 64,686 0,815 34,214 179,152 3. '62,752 6,935,967 66,248 1,634 41,735 194,217 3,618,513 8,292,883 56,43» 7,469 247,785 87,455 174,381 5,617,419 87.33'^ 7,076 276,697 93,122 185,342 6,120,211 78,019 7,261 313,700 107,164 219,240 6,179,395 100,56? 5,268 276,874 106,903 219,441 6,133,291 102,29s 6,265 375,430 110,684 230,679 6,098,359 104,527 0,033 428,128 121,553 251,802 6,377,812 103,422 3,996 478,879 130,052 266,217 6,140,396 90,540 5,763 500,858 157,915 307,177 6,463,897 131,011 8,891 452,834 159,678 314,918 6,810,856 120,718 — 693 26,290 47,640 748,536 20,948 — 512 26,636 46,748 777,861 13,290 — — 29,379 50,416 881,861 14,420 — — 33,502 54,058 899,494 18,108 — 594 30,691 52,057 797,156 18,942 — — 32,801 56,158 869,325 16,762 — 9,668 32,411 60,617 1,109,860 20,397 — 6,942 34,568 63,719 1,231,717 24,232 — 970 31,755 63,009 1,267,912 22,530 1,565 40,250 22,612 106,308 1,490,746 59,628 4,234 93,608 23,208 110,450 1,724,953 51,468 3,167 100,168 23,473 118,694 1,731,723 47,664 4,978 103,855 23,622 124,459 1,768,785 60,681 0,376 111,950 22,195 126,882 1,818,125 55,652 8,478 108,580 24,107 126,276 1,838,831 39,595 8,690 107,201 24,593 129,317 1,835,970 38,610 4,656 112,003 25,267 127,187 1,783,611 48,029 7,681 102,438 27,805 130,526 1,847,479 49,660 5,515 24,131 - — . — 196,019 99,859 494,917 11,704,853 123,921 0,883 225,351 — — — — 2,459 369,391 — — — — — 440,411 — — — — 9,187 443,907 137,768 578,430 13,069,338 j 207,337 8,584 437,856 — 1,154 312,914 • — — — ' — 1,431 528,156 161,736 698,637 12,985,085 1 200,083 less in 1880 than in 1879. rious crops in 1880, these have been estmiated according to the averages ^.colonies is classed with green forage is not considered as under cultiva- !U GrZ 1883. ti> <^ / / / / / '/ iGH eft c? 1^0- %' \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ C^; 25 ■70^C^y. '75 £. SPILLCfi, GOV P/fWre/f ADILAIDE Weather Map of AUSTRALASIA at 9 a.m. 9/1 UG-I 1883. J G 1 188 5. £. SPILLS fi, COf PftlNTCR ADELAIDt. Weather Map of AUSTRALASIA at 9 a.m. 10 /JUG 1 188 3. I UG I 188 3. £ SPILL£ft OOV PHINTCK ADtLAIDt Weather Map of AUSTRALASIA at 9 a. m. I 3. A UG I 188 3. UG i 188 3. £ SPILLER, GOV P/i/NTe>i AD£LAIDB Weather Map of AUSTRALASIA at 9 a.m. l4.jflUG I 188 3. ~<^ C Ji/i^J '' •■%'! - i 1967 \r. ^^ ANGELES ^^ IPP : II -- ' ' ^■-i ^^sS 0-- if 00474 1 SEE O < FLAN Tiais (Dninr ©if abisilaiiidie -A^- ^ ,,, 4.«,.., 1 A IlilnliiV' mmm^ 00474 97 n w -4-- i i fc \!i|iiiil^ r 4 K g, § ?5 K y 3 t ilSr!;: i« { 1 1 l i LM. 1/1 Vf 11' H^ ^V^ |! l:\ [¥ 4 ■-■ i \ I 1(1,, ' ^ p ' i>iHT,iff^ ii » .= /' ^ 1 tf ^1 +1- I ^ h "ii,n.i i/fJriil' ^Itl t ti f t h 1 — ;_ I tlj J_ I >r ii 1 I B I ^DU Stow- 320 South Australia, S89s ^^^1^00474 9726 _^fV_7jS5i >■ *— < - en < CM oo cc OO CO oo ^ CM o O cc 1 — 2 o =-—----:- o ^ o oo < o A n m