SoMiH Australia 
 
 S :}].] STORY, PRODUCTIONS, 
 
 N ATI) R A L RESOURCES. 
 
 »;:;■/•'■'• V 
 

 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 ^
 
 /:
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 History, Productions, 
 
 N^ATURAL Resources. 
 
 / 
 
 \U 3' §♦ ^^^^. /S': 
 
 «> 
 
 WRITTEN FOR THE CALCUTTA EXHIBITION 
 
 By request of the South Australian Government.'^ 
 
 -ee 
 
 ]':. SPILLER, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, NORTH-TERRACE. 
 
 1883.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Government of South Australia having honored me with 
 a request to prepare a brief sketch of the foundation and 
 progress of the colony, witn some account of its products, 
 industries, natural resources, and climate, this volume is the 
 result. It is intended to give visitors to the Calcutta Exhibi- 
 tion, whose attention has not been directed to South Australia, 
 reliable information with regard to that province. This being 
 its special object, and on account moreover of its publication 
 under official authority, party politics are avoided in its 
 pages. 
 
 In preparing this little work, I have been assisted by my 
 acquaintance with the subject of which it treats, gained during 
 a residence of over forty years in the colony, and by the com- 
 mand of a great collection of materials, in print and manu- 
 script, in my own possession. I have also freely consulted 
 Dutton's, Forster's, and Harcus's histories. Bull's Recollec- 
 tions, Earl's Handbook of Tropical Australia, and other 
 authorities ; and my labors have been facilitated by the assist- 
 ance cordially rendered to me by all departments of the public 
 service. 
 
 J. P. STOW. 
 
 South Terrace, Adelaide, 
 
 August 30TH, 1883. 
 
 RRTTIQn EMPIRE
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Pagi.. 
 
 CHAPTER I. - - - 1 
 
 South Australia — Absurdity of its name — Boundaries — Original limits 
 — No Man's Land — Northern Territory— South Australia proper — 
 Discoverjr^Flinders — His coast exploration — Kangaroo Island — 
 Capt. Sutherland — Disappearance of Kangaroo — Capt. Sturt's 
 voyage down the Murraj^ — Capt. Barker — His ascent of Mount 
 Lofty and crossing the ranges to the Lakes — Capt. John Jones and 
 his discovery of the creek now forming Port Adelaide. 
 
 CHAPTER n. ..-.----- 6 
 
 Establishment of the Colonj- — The Wakefield system — Land inmiigration 
 — No convicts from the Old World — No State Church — The foun- 
 ders of the Colony— First Commissioners. 
 
 CHAPTER ni. .....--.- 12 
 
 The first vessels— Colonel Light— Lieutenant Pullen — Kangaroo Island 
 — Port Lincoln — Encounter Bay — The Murray Mouth -Sir John 
 Jeilcott — Port Adelaide — Adelaide — Discovery of River Torrens — 
 Site of Adelaide — Captain Hindmarsh, the first Governor — Disagree 
 ments about the site of the capital -Delays in surveys — Mr. Kings- 
 ton's scheme of survey— -Colonel Light's death — Governor Hind- 
 marsh's recall — Arrival of Colonel Gawler — Extravagant administra- 
 tion — The colony deeply in debt— Colonists concentrated about the 
 metropolis — Financial crash — Oveilanders with cattle and sheep — 
 Ej're's explorations — His journey to King George's Sound — Captain 
 Grey's arrival — Retrenchment— Distress — Improved condition of 
 affairs — Rapid advance of agriculture — Mineral discoveries— Silver 
 lead mines — The Kapunda Mine — The Burra — General progress — 
 Captain Sturt's explorations, and discovery of Cooper's Creek — 
 Captain Grey appointed Governor of New Zealand. 
 
 CHAPTER IV.— 1845 to 1855 ------- 21 
 
 Major Robe— State aid to religion -The Burra mine -Attempt to impose 
 royalties on mines— Sir Henry Young- First instalment of Repre- 
 sentative Government — Victorian diggings — Bullion Act — Land 
 system of Victoria the salvation of South Australia — Prices of pro- 
 duce — The Murray trade — Goolwa and Port Elliot tramway and 
 harbor works— District Councils' progi'ess.
 
 vi. CONTf:NTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 CHAPTP:K v. — 18r>5 to 1862 ------- 29 
 
 Sir Richard MacDonnell — Xew Constitution — Real Propertj^ Act — Dis- 
 putes between the two Houses — Real Property Act - Mineral disco- 
 veries on Yorke's Peninsula — The Wallaroo and Moonta mines — 
 Exploratoin and Explorers — Gregory, Babhage, and Warhurton — 
 Stuart crosses the continent— Burke and Wills -Their sad fate — 
 McKinlay — Howitt recovers remains of Burke and Wills — Northern 
 Territory annexed to South Australia — First railway — Progress. 
 
 CHAPTER YL— 1862 to 1869 37 
 
 Sir Dominic Daly — The Judges — Mr. Justice Boothby — Invalidity of 
 South Australian Acts — -The ultra vires and "repugnancy" mania — 
 Amo^-al of Mr. Justice Boothby — Validating Acts — Local Courts — 
 Expedition to the Northern Territory to establish a settlement— Dis- 
 putes — Recall of Mr. Finniss, the Government Resident — John 
 McKinlay's expedition — Captain Cadell — The Squatters and Goyder's 
 valuations — Visit of the Duke of Edinburgh — Parliamentary contests, 
 generally about nothing — The Governor's death— Progress. 
 
 CHAPTER YIL— 1869 to 1873 ..---. 43 
 
 Colonel Hamlcy — Strangways' Act — Killing a squatter — Sir James 
 Fergusson— Further amendment of the land system — The transcon- 
 tinental telegraph — Gold discoveries in the Northern Tenitory — 
 Forrest's journey by Eyre's route from Western Australia to 
 Fowler's Bay — Raih^ays — Progress. 
 
 CHAPTER Vni.— 1873 to 1877 51 
 
 Sir Anthony Musgravc — The Chief Justice — The Boucaut policy — Wreck 
 of the Goiheuhurg and loss of life, including Judge Wearing and the 
 Hon. Thomas Reynolds — Mr. R. I. Stow appointed judge- — New 
 Parliament — Increase in number of members — The Blyth Ministry 
 defeated and succeeded by the Boucaut Cabinet — Stamp Duties Bill 
 rejected by the Legislative Council — Second session, and Bill again 
 rejected — Mr. Boucaut refuses to proceed with his Public Works 
 Bills — Education Act — Sir Richard Hanson's death — Mr. Way 
 appointed Chief Justice — Mr. Boucaut constructs new Ministry, 
 without any of his old colleagues — Ejected from oflSce — The Colton 
 Ministry — Stamp duties abandoned— Probate and Succession Duties 
 carried — £3,000,000 bonowed — Railway 15ills carried — First private 
 Tramway Bill — New Tariff — Border Duties Convention — Sundry 
 Legislation — Sii" Anthony Musgrave's departure — Eucla telegraph — 
 Progress.
 
 CONTENTS. vii. 
 
 Page. 
 
 CHAPTER IX.— 1877 to 1883 57 
 
 The Cliief Justice — Arrival of Sir "W. "W. Cairns, and his departure on 
 account of ill-heaith— Arrival of Sir William Jervois — Australian 
 defences— Quarrel between the Colton Ministry and the Upper 
 House — Colton Ministry defeated on a crisis motion — The second 
 Boucaut Ministry — Crown Lands Act — Death of Mr. Justice Stow — 
 Mr. Boucaut, the Premier, appointed Judge — Mr. Justice Gwynne 
 retired several years later and was succeeded hy the Cro^\^l Solicitor, 
 Mr. Andrews— The Morgan Ministry — The Volunteers — The Forts 
 — "War Vessel — Morgan's retirement — The Bray Ministry — Upper 
 House Reform— Eail way Construction — The Naime line— The 
 Jubilee Exhibition — The Transcontinental line — Other Railways — 
 Rise in the Value of Property — Progress — Arrival of Sir William 
 Robinson. 
 
 CHAPTER X. - 66 
 
 The Constitution — Administration of Justice — The Press. 
 
 CHAPTER XL— Adelaide ----- - - 75 
 
 Adelaide — Colonel Light's choice of the site— The Torrens — Wide streets 
 — Post Office — Town Hall — King William- street — Value of frontages 
 — Markets — Terraces — Government Buildings — Park lands — Botanic 
 Gardens — Mount Lofty Range — Suburbs— City Corporation — As- 
 sessment — The Dam — Port Adelaide — Towns lietween the Port and 
 the City — LeFevre's Peninsula — The Semaphore— Largs Bay and 
 jetty — The forts — Glenelg— Henley Beach — The Grange — Brighton 
 — Kensington and Norwood — Unley — Gawler — Kapimda — The 
 Burra — Port Augusta — Port Pirie — ^Yorke's Peninsula, its mines 
 and towns — Wallaroo Bay — The hills and towns east of Adelaide 
 — Mount Gambler and the Blue Lake — Port MacDonnell — Beach- 
 port and other south-eastern towns and ports — Naracoorte and its 
 famous caves— Bordertown. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 84 
 
 The first wheat crops — South Australia the granary of New Holland- 
 Ridley's stripper — Farmers too exclusively stick to wheat-growing 
 — The drained lands of the South- East — Roots, potatoes, and other 
 crops — Progress - Experimental Farm — Scrub lands — Fruit trees and 
 plants — The olive — Sericulture — The wine industry — Raisins and 
 other dried fruits — Forest culture — Government plantations and 
 nurseries — The land system — Concessions to distressed credit pur- 
 chasers of agricultui-al land.
 
 viii. CONTENTS. ^ 
 
 Page. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 93 
 
 Definition of terms — Early importations of live i3tock by sea — The over- 
 landers with cattle and sheep — Mr. Charles Bonney — Mr. Eyre, 
 the explorer — Encoimters of overlanders -with the blacks — The 
 Murray and Coorong routes — The Australian horse — Draught horses 
 — Cattle — Durhams — Herefords — Driving cattle — Richness of the 
 pasture — Cattle from Gulf of Carpentaria and their weight— Effect 
 of fencing the country on travelling stock — Carrying them by rail — 
 Sheep — The Merino — Other breeds — Crossbreeds — Great fall in 
 prices of mutton between 1838 and 1844 — Effect of the diggings 
 — Mutton and beef rise again in value — Demand for store sheep 
 for Queensland— Another fall to lowest rates in 1869 — Since then 
 prices have varied — Statistics — Diseases of the flocks and herds — 
 The land system as applied to the pastoral interest. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. --------- 102 
 
 The Mines and Mineral leases — Fii'st impressions of the early settlers — 
 Mr. Menge — The Glen Osmond and other silver lead mines — Copper 
 mines — The Kapunda Mine— The Montacute— The Bm-ra — The 
 "Wallaroo and Moonta gold mines — The Bird-in-Hand — The Alma — 
 Miscellaneous — Silver, lead, copper, bismuth, gold— Exports — The 
 land system and mining regiilations. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. - - - - 108 
 
 Trade and Revenue — Imports and Exports — Brcadstuffs — Wool — 
 Minerals — Other exports — Manufactures — Tariff — Shipping. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. - - - - 113 
 
 The Rainfall — Climate— Effects on agricultural and pastoral interests — 
 Port Elliot — The Hills— Guichen Bay — Kangaroo Island — Port 
 Lincoln — Scenery — Pichi Richi Pass — Mount Gambler and the Blue 
 Lake — South Australia as a Sanatarium. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII.— Religion and Education - - - 120 
 
 The original voluntaryism of religious bodies — The first clergymen — The 
 grants-in-aid in 1846— Their abolition in 1851 — The first Anglican 
 Bishop — The Catholics — The AVesleyans — The Presbyterians — Other 
 religious bodies — The Lutherans— Progress — The system of State 
 Education— The Education Act of 1875 — Working of the system — 
 Statistics. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. - - - - 126 
 
 Public Works — Telegraphs— The first telegraph — Intercolonial lines — 
 Railways — Roads — Bridges — Waterworks — Public Buildings — 
 Marine improvements — Deepening and improving outports— Jetties 
 — Lighthouses.
 
 
 CONTENTS. ix. 
 
 Page. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX.-The Aborigines 131 
 
 Low mental capacity — Linguistic faculty — Humor — -Comical blunders — 
 Superior attractiveness of the wild to the half-civilised black — 
 Origin — The Malays — Customs — Rites — The corroboree — Dying out 
 of the race — Causes of Mortality — Early conflicts between whites 
 and blacks — Wreck of the Maria, and massacre of all the passengers 
 and crew — The Eufus slaughter — Port Lincoln atrocities — Execu- 
 tions — Peace — Native battles — Weapons and implements— The finest 
 and puniest tribes — -Half-castes — Superstitions and beliefs — Statistics 
 — Mission stations. 
 
 CHAPTER XX.— The Fauna of South Australia - - 141 
 
 The dingo — The kangaroo dog — Marsupials — Other mammalia — Birds — 
 Acclimatised animals — Hares — Rabbits — Deer — Sparrows. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL— Flora of South Australia - - - 145 
 
 CHAPTER XXII.— The Northern Territory - - - 166 
 
 Its discovery — Early explorers — The Portuguese-^-The Dutch — Torres — 
 Modern explorers — ^Cook — Flinders — King — -Stokes — Raffles Bay — 
 Melville Island — Port Essington — Bufi"aloes —Timor ponies and 
 cattle — Gulf of Carpentaria— Adam Bay — Adelaide River — Port 
 Darwin — Anson Bay — Gulf of Cambridge — Victoria River — 
 Leichardt — The Roper and other Rivers — Gregory — The Table 
 Land — Cooper's Creek — Stuart's explorations — Crossing the Conti- 
 nent — Annexation of the Northern Teiritory to South Australia — 
 Settlement of Adam Bay — Government Resident recalled — McKinlay 
 sent up — Narrow escape of him and his party from destruction by 
 floods — The settlement abandoned — Captain Cadell's expedition — 
 Goyder's survey — English and other holders demand return of their 
 money, and get it — Transcontinental telegraph — Port Dar\^in settle- 
 ment — Gold diggings and mania— Regular mining — Tin — Copper — 
 Agriculture — Cotton — Sugar — Pastoral interest — Horses — Land 
 regulations — Appearance and formation of country — Navigable 
 rivers — Trees — Animals — Climate — Coolie labor — Progress — Tariff 
 Revenue. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. - - - - - - - - - 179 
 
 Exhibitions — Calcutta Exhibition^ — Commercial Intercourse between 
 India and Australia— The JubUee Exhibition — Past and Future. 
 
 APPENDICES (Australasian Statistics) - - - - 183 
 
 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS 197
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 -~x-s<9y&-»-^ 
 
 Paue. 
 
 1 . Adelaide in 1837 — Frontispiece — 
 
 2. Fern "Waterfall, in the neighborhood of Adelaide 2 
 
 3. Adelaide Plains, viewed from Mount Lofty Range, looking west 14 
 
 4. The Kapimda Copper Mines 18 
 
 5. The Biin-a Burra Copper Mine, looking south 22 
 
 6. Eiver Murray Steamboat, M-ith Wool Barge in tow 26 
 
 7. Government House, Adelaide 28 
 
 8. Parliament Houses, Xorth-terrace 32 
 
 9. The Local Coiuthouse, Adelaide 40 
 
 10. National Bank of Australasia, King William -street 42 
 
 1 1 . Railway Station-yard, Adelaide 50 
 
 12. Lindsay House, Angaaton, (the residence of the late Geo. Fife Angas, Esq.) 56 
 
 13. The Town Hall, King William-street, Adelaide 64 
 
 14. The Supreme Court, Adelaide 70 
 
 15. GrenfeU-street, with office of Register, the oldest daily newspaper 72 
 
 16. Comer of Waymouth and King AVilliam -streets, with office oi Advertiser 
 
 daily newspaper 74 
 
 17. The Government Offices, King William-street, Adelaide 76 
 
 18. Hindley- street, Adelaide 78 
 
 19. Imperial Buildings, King William-street 80 
 
 20. Wheatfield, showing Reaping Machines at M'ork 86 
 
 21. General view of Farming Implements and Stock on a South Australian Farm 88 
 
 22. The Clarendon Yinej'ard, 18 miles south of Adelaide 90 
 
 23. Flock of sheep, with a magnificent Gum Tree 92 
 
 24. Herd of Mixed Cattle and Bush Scenery 94 
 
 25. Herefordshire cattle and Bush Scenery (near Angaston) 96 
 
 26. Pure Merino Rams 98 
 
 27. Sheep-shearing Operations 100 
 
 28. Burra Burra Copper Mine (view looking north) 104 
 
 29. The Waterfall Gully, in the Mount Lofty Range 112 
 
 30. Group of Cattle, Angaston 114 
 
 31. Gumeracha Bridge 116 
 
 32. Country Scenes, Oullina Gap, near Adelaide 118 
 
 33. " St. Peter's," Episcopalian Cathedral, North Adelaide 120 
 
 34. Model Schools, Adelaide 122 
 
 35. The Hamley Railway Bridge 126 
 
 36. Bridge over Onkaparinga River, at Clarendon 126 
 
 37. The Old Reservoir 128 
 
 38. Aqueduct connecting the old and new Reservoirs 130
 
 xii. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Page. 
 YiEAVS IN THE ADELAIDE BoTAXICAL GaKDENS : — 
 
 39. The Curator's Residence 144 
 
 40. The Lake 146 
 
 41. Large gum tree with Native Shrub Plantation 148 
 
 42. Another view of the Lake 150 
 
 43. The Cockatoo House on the Lake 152 
 
 44. The Conservatory 154 
 
 45. The Hose Garden 156 
 
 46. The Plantation of Medicinal Plants, and keeper's cottage 158 
 
 47. The " Victoria Eegia" House 160 
 
 48. The Centre Walk 162 
 
 49. The General Post Office, Adelaide 178
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 HISTORY, PRODUCTIONS 
 
 AND 
 
 jy'ATURAL RESOURCES.
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 South Australia — Absurdity of its n.amc — Boundaries — Original limits — No Man's 
 Land — Northern Territory — South Australia proper— Discovery — Flinders — His 
 coast exploration — Kangaroo Island — Capt. Sutherland — Disappearance of Kang- 
 aroos — Capt. Stiu-t's voyage down the Murray — Capt. Barker — His ascent of Mount 
 Lofty and crossing the ranges to the Lakes — Capt. John Jones and his disco^"ery 
 of the creek now forming Port Adelaide. 
 
 South Australia is singularly misnamed. Portions of Victoria 
 and Western Australia are south of its most southernmost point ; 
 and since the Northern Territory has been added to South Aus- 
 tralia, its nomenclature has become still more absurd. It is a pity 
 that its original description, Flinders' Land, was not retained, but 
 " Centralia" would convey a fitting representation of the position of 
 the province, for it occupies the centre of the great island conti- 
 nent from the Southern to the Indian Ocean. ( )n the west it is 
 bounded by Western Australia ; on the east, by Victoria, New 
 South Wales, and Queensland, so that it is in territorial and inti- 
 mate communication with every other colony of the group. The 
 original limits were fixed by Act No. XCV., William IV., estab- 
 lishing the colony. This Act declared that part of Australia 
 between the one hundred and forty-first and one hundred and 
 thirty-second degrees of east longitude, and between the twenty- 
 sixth degree of east latitude and the Southern Ocean, with all the 
 bays and gulfs belonging thereto, and all the adjacent islands, a 
 colony to be known as South Australia. Originally, all New Hol- 
 land was under the jurisdiction of New South Wales, and formed 
 part of its territory, but Western Australia was founded in 1829, 
 its eastern boundary being long. 129. Thus between South Aus- 
 tralia and her western neighbor there was a strip of territory, 
 
 B
 
 2 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : 
 
 three degrees in widtli, practically under no jurisdiction whatever. 
 Nominally belonging- to New South Wales, it was cut off from 
 that province by the whole width of South Australia. Western 
 Australia could not govern it, because she had no settlement of 
 an}' kind within a thousand miles. South Australian squatters, 
 however, had their flocks upon the very borders of this piece of 
 country, and it is not surprising that, in response to the reason- 
 able applications of South Australia, the Home Government 
 should, in 1861, annex this No Man's Land to the only province 
 able to make any use of it. Two years afterwards, in consequence 
 of the discoveries of the gallant explorer Stuart, who crossed the 
 continent from Adelaide to the Indian Ocean west of the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, all that portion of the continent north of lat. 26"^., 
 and between Queensland and Western Australia, was added to 
 South Australia. The map attached to this volume shows the 
 exact boundaries of this addition to South Australian territory, 
 which now contains more than 903,690 square miles, i.e., South 
 Australia proper, 380,070, and Northern Territor}^ 523,620 square 
 miles. 
 
 At present, I will confine the attention of my readers to South 
 Australia propei% i.e., south of lat. 26^. Capt. Flinders was the 
 discoverer of the South Australian coast. From the great Austra- 
 lian Bight to Encounter Bay, or rather Lacepede Bay, every island, 
 every cape, every important bay and point, the mountains and 
 eminences within view, Avere named by him ; and considering the 
 rapidity with which this exploration was accomplished, extending 
 as it did onl}' from the 8th December, 1801, to the 9th April, 
 1802, the accuracy with which the geographical positions were 
 fixed, and the soundings taken, was amazing, and has ever been 
 the admiration of mariners who have sailed in those waters. But 
 Flinders was essentially a marine explorer. He travelled but little 
 on la]id. He killed kangaroos on the island, whicli, on account of 
 the immense numbers of these animals he found there, he named 
 Kangaroo Island. Strange it is, that for the last sixty or seventy 
 years not a kangaroo has been seen there. Flinders could not 
 have confounded the animal with a smaller marsupial, as those he 
 killed weighed from 65 to 1201bs. The disappearance of these 
 animals has been attributed to various causes, but the most probable 
 supposition is that they were swept off by some disease. In 1819
 
 Morialta Waterfall, near Adelaide.
 
 Waterfall in Mount Lofty Range.
 
 rrs DISCOVERY AND BOUNDARIES. 3 
 
 Capt. Sutlierland found kangaroos — some weigliing 1201bs. — and 
 emus were plentiful on Kangaroo Island, but both animals, soon 
 after, became extinct. A man named Bates, who has lived on the 
 island ever since 1827, never saw a specimen of either during his 
 long residence there. Capt. Flinders discovered and named Mount 
 Lofty, but did not explore the few miles of plain between the coast 
 and the range of hills, of which that is the highest point. He did 
 not discover the fresh-water streams that in winter time empty 
 their waters into St. Vincent's Gulf, the creek or branch of the sea 
 now forming Port Adelaide, or the two somewhat similar creeks in 
 Spencer's Gulf that accommodate the shipping of Port Pirie and 
 Port Augusta ; no.r did he see the Murray and the lakes through 
 which it passes to the ocean. His work was coast exploration, and 
 he did it well and quickly, leaving others to come after him, profit 
 by the abundant information he supplied, and, by closer examination, 
 make further discoveries. The name of Flinders is regarded by 
 Australians with gratitude and reverence. It appears in the geo- 
 graphy of the continent, in regions so far apart as the Gulf of Car- 
 pentaria and the southern coast. In the very neighborhood of 
 Port Lincoln, first explored by him, the amiable and gallant Sir 
 John Franklin, who had served under Flinders about fortv years 
 previously, erected a monument to the memory of his old com- 
 mander. 
 
 The real discoverer of South Australia, as a country fit for 
 European habitation, was Capt. Sturt. He had already established 
 his name as a great Australian explorer, when he started on a boat 
 voyage down the Murrumbidgee, which had lately been discovered 
 by Sir Thomas (then Major) Mitchell. In a few days the explo- 
 rers found themselves sweeping into a grander stream, which 
 Capt. Sturt named the Murray. It proved afterwards to be iden- 
 tical with the river previously discovered, at a point higher up, by 
 Messrs. Hume and Howell, and called after the first-named of these 
 explorers ; but this fact does not detract from the merits of Capt. 
 Sturt's achievement. He found the junction of the ^Murrumbidgee 
 with that noble river, and soon afterwards passed the mouth of the 
 Darling a great tributary he had himself discovered. Pursuing 
 his voyage through perils by water, perils by snags, and dangers 
 from savages, who had never before seen the face of a white man, 
 he reached Lake Alexandrina, crossed it, and passed into the
 
 4 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Murraj'' again, but could not get through the dangerous mouth, a& 
 he Avished to do, in order to meet a vessel waiting for him in 
 St. Vincent's Gulf. 
 
 Of Capt. Sturt's toilsome journey up the stream, back to his 
 starting point, it does not fall within the scope of this work to 
 speak ; but when about the lakes, the ranges to the westward at- 
 tracted the gaze of the explorer, and he was convinced that there 
 was rich country among and beyond those hills of promise. When, 
 after all his toil and perils, he again reached Sydney, he urged this 
 opinion upon the Government there, and in consequence his friend, 
 Capt. Barker, a man likeminded with himself, who was about to 
 leave King George's Sound for Port Jackson, was requested to call 
 at St. Vincent's Gulf to ascertain whether these impressions were 
 well founded. 
 
 Captain Barker arrived off" Cape Jervis on the 13th April, 1831, 
 with Dr. Davies, Mr. Kent, of the Commissariat, some soldiers, and 
 the crow of the vessel. On the 17th April, having moved the 
 vessel northward, he landed with Mr. Kent, a servant, and two 
 soldiers. Accompanied only by Mr. Kent, he crossed the plains, 
 entered the range, and reached the summit of Mount Lofty. Only 
 those who have enjoyed the view from that eminence can form any 
 conception of the magnificent prospect spread out before the two 
 explorers, and can imagine the effect it must have produced upon 
 their minds, associated as it was with the reflection that they were 
 the first civilized men who had ever beheld it. Five miles west- 
 ward from where they stood, the hills sloped down into the rich 
 plains, parti}' timbered with the lordly eucalyptus and beautifid 
 underwood, partly clothed with forests of mimosa, while alternating 
 with this woodland were areas of open grass pastures. This sort 
 of count r}^ extended to the sea shore westward, and away twenty 
 miles distant to the south-west, where the range sweeps round till 
 it reaches the bay. To the north-west, the view of open plains 
 extends for seventy miles, till it is bounded by the Hummocks, 
 nnmed by Flinders "Hummock Mount." Capt. Barker looked long 
 and earnestly over country- where the City of Adelaide and suburbs, 
 with their population of sixty thousand, now stand; overland no-vv' 
 studded with handsome villas, noble lookhig mansions, and thriving 
 towns and villages, or planted with vineyards and orchards ; over 
 stretches of plain and imdulations where fields have yielded their
 
 ITS DISCOVERY AND BOUNDARIES. 5 
 
 harvests of golden grain, or flocks or herds have grazed and fat- 
 tened. The death of Capt. Barker, a few days after he had viewed 
 this landscape, was a loss to science, to Australia, and to his native 
 country, but it was specially unfortunate in connection with the 
 new region he was exploring, for the particulars furnished by his 
 companion must have been of the most meagre description, other- 
 wise the first South Australian colonists would have been better 
 informed respecting the land they came to occupy. Enough, how- 
 ever, was told to point to the shores of St. Vincent's Gulf as a pro- 
 mising spot for a new colonising settlement. "When Capt. Barker 
 returned from Mount Lofty to his vessel, he stood southward, 
 landed again with some officers and men, and walked to Lake 
 Alexandrina. The whole party were delighted with the ranges they 
 passed through and the country generally. They saw Mount 
 Barker, since named after the gallant leader of the party, and 
 reached Lake Alexandrina. Wishing to trace the passage from the 
 lake to the sea, Capt. Barker swam across a narrow channel, as- 
 cended a sand hillock, descended on the opposite side, and was seen 
 no more. It was afterwards discovered that he had been murdered 
 by the savages, and his body thrown into deep water, where it was 
 washed out to sea. 
 
 After Capt. Barker's ill-fated expedition, Capt. Jones coasted 
 about St. Vincent's Gulf, and from his account of his cruise, must 
 have entered the creek that now constitutes Port Adelaide. He 
 landed at several places, and killed kangaroos. Capt. Jones speaks 
 of four streams flowing into the Gulf. These were probably the 
 Onkaparinga, the Sturt, and one or two brooks between those 
 rivers. He could not have seen the Torrens, which does not 
 directly pour its waters into the Gulf, but, in flood times, spreads 
 out into extensive swamps, stretching in one direction to the Pata- 
 walonga Creek which joins the sea at Glenelg, and in another 
 direction to the Port channel, and so the flooded water reaches 
 the ocean in an indirect way.
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA ■ 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Establishment of the Colony — The Wakefield system — Land immigration — No convicts 
 from the Old World— ISTo State Church— The founders of the Colony— First Com- 
 missionei's. 
 
 The news of Capt. Sturt's latest discoveries excited great in- 
 terest in the old country, and in 1831 there was a movement in 
 favor of establishing a new colony on the shores which Flinders 
 had explored thirty years before. The exact locality was not 
 determined upon by the projectors of the enterprise, but their idea 
 doubtless was that the new settlement should be somewhere about 
 Spencer's or St. Vincent's Gulf, if not at Encounter Bay. The pro- 
 ject was dropped for a time, but fully revived three years later. 
 It was thought desirable that there should be a new colony, not a 
 mere off-shoot of New South Wales ; and the principal reason that 
 the scheme took this shape was, that the projectors desired to start 
 with a better land system than had yet been tried in New Holland. 
 Western Australia, then spoken of as the Swan River Settlement, 
 has furnished a shocking example of v/hat to avoid in the way of 
 land legislation. In that colony immense blocks of land were 
 freely granted to settlers, regardless of their means to profitably 
 occupy such holdings, or the necessity for obtaining some payment 
 for those portions of the public estate the Government thought fit 
 to alienate. The immediate consequence of this unwise policy was 
 that the settlers were without the necessary supply of laborers to 
 tiU the soil, and many, if not most of their large estates lay waste 
 for thirty years, or at most only supported a few sheep or cattle. 
 To this day Western Australia has a population of imdcr 40,000, 
 though she is at last making considerable advance in wealth and in 
 the development of her resources. The lagging so far behind in 
 the race has been attributed to the fact that her good land is in 
 comparatively small patches instead of in large areas of hundreds 
 of miles, as in the other colonies ; but granting that the colony did 
 labor under this disadvantage, the more necessity there was that
 
 ITS ESTABLISHMENT. 7 
 
 these patches should be put to the best use, instead of being mono- 
 polised by persons who either had not the wish or lacked the 
 ability or means to utilise them. 
 
 Perhaps more than any other man, Edward Gibbon Wakefield 
 may be regarded as the founder of South Australia, for the scheme 
 for its establishment seemed in the first instance to be started 
 principally to experiment with his theories of a land system, 
 applied to the circumstances of an entirely new colony. 
 
 The Wakefield system was something more, however, than a 
 land system : it dealt with the supply of labor, and professed to 
 point out the safest and best principles upon which to embark in 
 the colonization of a country hitherto known only to the savage or 
 the adventurous explorer. Wakefield was opposed to grants of 
 land. He proposed that it should be sold at a substantial price, 
 and that the money thus obtained should be emploj'ed to import 
 laborers to till it. Thus the land would be turned to good account 
 at once. Peojile wovdd not give a pound or ten shillings for land 
 they did not intend to make profitable use of, and the labor im- 
 ported by means of the price they did pay would enable them to 
 cultivate the soil. The scheme was watched with interest ; it was 
 enthusiasticalh^ defended, and flippantly decried ; but it worked 
 well till the colony outgrew it. For the first two or three years 
 delays in the surveys of the country lands, official mismanagement, 
 the unwise policy which induced the settlers to remain in Adelaide 
 instead of going into the wilderness to attend to the rich soil only 
 waiting for the plough to make it yield bounteous harvests, pre- 
 vented the Wakefield system from having fair play ; but when 
 there came a wise administration of public afiairs, all that was 
 propounded as the natural result of the system came to pass. Some 
 large estates were bought and paid for in hard cash by the South 
 Australian Company and a few private capitalists, but the greater 
 portion of the land alienated was purchased by bond fide agricul- 
 turists. South Australia became at once an agricultural country. 
 The 41b. loaf fell in price from five shillings to sixpence, and within 
 six years from the proclamation of the colony it exported wheat to 
 other Australian provinces, and has continued to do so ever since. 
 Meat fell from a shilling and upwards to twopence and a penny 
 a pound. The system worked well for the first sixteen or seven- 
 teen years of the colony's history. The capitalists were too few.
 
 8 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 and not sufficiently powerful, to drive the bond fide agriculturists 
 out of the auction room ; and many hardworking, frugal laborers 
 saved enough to purchase one or two eighty-acre sections, and 
 thus in many cases laid the foundation of a respectable fortune. 
 A great change came, however, after the discovery of the Vic- 
 torian diggings in 1851. "Wealth poured into South Australia. 
 Through the rise in the value of live stock the squatters became 
 rich men. Fortunes were made by trade and in speculation. 
 Shepherd kings and capitalists soon contracted earth-hunger. 
 The land-shark came into existence. Persons wishing to buy land 
 for farming purposes, were at first forced to give great prices, and 
 soon gave up the struggle against wealth and jobbery. They had 
 to be satisfied with refuse land, or become tenants, or huy from specu- 
 lators at two, three, four, or five times the price originally given 
 for the land. The public revenue gained nothing by this, agri- 
 culture was retarded, and the colony was injured. It was not till 
 1869 there came a reform that was urgently needed in 1853, and 
 the South Australian Parliament passed an Act with residence and 
 cultivation conditions, in its main principles similar to a system 
 recommended about a hundred years before, by Adam Smith, as 
 suitable to the circumstances of some of the British American colo- 
 nies. The Act was defective in matters of detail, and to some 
 extent was used to defeat the objects of the legislators who passed 
 it ; but it established principles that have been more effectively 
 carried out by subsequent legislation. At another stage of this 
 work, I shall have to deal further with the land system of the 
 colon}^ ; at present it is only necessary to observe that the Wake- 
 field system which worked so well for the first seventeen years of 
 the colony's existence, has necessarily been so altered in its fea- 
 tures since that period, that its author would not recognise it. It 
 may be observed, however,'that auction sales that have been ad- 
 hered to (except for a brief period, during which farming lands 
 were selected bj'- lot) from the year 1842, when an Imperial Act 
 was passed ordaining that mode of sale, are no essential part of 
 the system, and whatever evils may have attended that mode of 
 disposing of the waste lands cannot properly be charged upon 
 Wakefield. 
 
 Originally, the whole of the proceeds of land sales were to be 
 expended in immigration ; but this part of the system has under-
 
 ITS ESTABLISHMENT. 9 
 
 gone serious modifications. The Act just referred to provided that 
 only half the proceeds should be so applied, and this was the law 
 for many years, till it was abandoned as unworkable. "Whenever 
 the working classes experience the slightest difficulty in obtaining 
 full employment at high wages, there is an outcry against State 
 immigration, and what that means in a colony with universal suf- 
 frage, and Responsible Government, I need not say. When em- 
 ployment is abundant, and times prosperous, and the pay of the 
 working man high, the Government may pour immigrants in by 
 thousands without provoking a protest. At last the conclusion 
 seems to have been reached that the best plan is to bring immi- 
 grants to the colony when they are really wanted, and not at other 
 times. At present, free immigration, in practice, is abandoned, 
 and the immigrants who arrive pay a portion of their own passage, 
 and the Government the rest ; or else they come out under what is 
 termed the nominated or land order system, under which a person 
 who nominates and pays for the passage of immigrants certificated 
 suitable for the colony receives a £20 land order for each adult, and 
 a £10 land order for each child under ten. After the immigrants 
 have been in the colony for two years, the land orders are available 
 to the amount they rej)resent in the purchase of Crown Lands, and 
 are transferable. The scale of payments of assisted immigrants, 
 towards the cost of their passage, is as follows : — Under 12 years, 
 £3 ; between 12 and 40 years, £4 ; between 40 and 50 years, £8. 
 I am pushing forward a long way, as far in fact as the legislation 
 of 1872 ; but my object has been to show what our land and immi- 
 gration systems were originally ; how they worked for a few years ; 
 and how they have been altered since. 
 
 There were other important principles besides those relating 
 to land and labor distinguishing the scheme for colonising South 
 Australia. It was resolved that it should be free from the taint of 
 convictism ; that the felonry of the United Kingdom or of any 
 other country should not be poured upon its shores. There were 
 some proposals a few years later to infringe upon this principle, by 
 the introduction of Parkhurst Boys and Pentonvillians ; but the 
 Home Government did not persist in this design against the 
 passionate remonstrances of the colonists. 
 
 It was resolved by the founders of the colony, some of the most 
 influential and energetic of whom were dissenters, that it should
 
 10 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 have no State cliurch. It is true the Act of 1834, establishing 
 the colony, authorised the appointment of " Chaplains and Clergy- 
 "men of the Established Church of England or Scotland " ; but 
 such representations were made to the British Government, that 
 only a colonial chaplain was appointed, and the authority to 
 appoint chaplains and clergymen was repealed b}^ an Act of 18B8. 
 The office of colonial chaplain ceased with the death of the second 
 occupant of the position. Grants-in-aid to religious denominations 
 were established in 1846, but abolished in 1851, in the first 
 session of the Legislative Council, consisting of two-thirds elective 
 members. As soon as the people had a voice in the management 
 of their own affairs, they declared decisively against all State 
 interference with religion. 
 
 The Act of 1834 provided for the aj)pointment of Commissioners 
 to carry it into ettect, and the following were appointed : — Colonel 
 Torrcns, F.R.S. (chairman), W. A. Mackinnon, Esq., M.P., Jacob 
 Montefiore, Esq., W. Hutt, Esq., M.P., George Palmer, jun., Esq.* 
 John "Wright, Esq., George Fife Angas, Esq., Samuel Mills, Esq. 
 The pcj-sojiiiel of this board must have been soon altered, for shortly 
 afterwards Mr. (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill figures in the early 
 records of the colony as one of the Commissioners. The Com- 
 mittee, remodelled in 1834, to carry out the colonisation scheme, 
 consisted of thirty-two gentlemen, including such men as George 
 Grote, Sir W. Molesworth, H. L. Bulwer, J. W. Childers, and 
 others whose names are perpetuated in the street nomenclature of 
 Adelaide. Outside both Commission and Committee there were 
 able men earnestly working in furtherance of the enterprise, and 
 foremost among them may be mentioned Mr. (afterwards Sir) 
 Richard Hanson, the late Chief Justice of the colony ; Mr. (after- 
 wards Sir) John Morphett, who for years filled ^the position of 
 President of the Legislative Council ; Mr, Robert Gouger, the 
 first Colonial Secretary ; Mr. John Brown, and others. The Act 
 was not to come into operation till the Commissioners had raised 
 £35,000 bj' the sale of land, and they were " required to raise 
 " £20,000 by the issue of bonds, to be called South Australian 
 " Government Securities, and invest this sum in the funds as a 
 " guarantee that the colon}^ would at no time be a charge on the 
 " mother countr}'." The Home Government did not guarantee the 
 loan, and it was effected at a very high rate of interest. The
 
 ITS ESTABLISHMENT. 11 
 
 first purchasers of laud paid 12s. per acre, and for the sum of 
 £81 received one town acre and 134 acres of country land. The 
 price was soon afterwards raised to £1. The Commissioners did 
 not receive their appointment till May, J 835, and the first vessel 
 with settlers for the new colony sailed on the 22nd February, of 
 the following year.
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE PIONEERS. — THE FIRST FIVE YEARS. 
 
 The first vessels — Colonel Light— Lieutenant PuUen — Kangaroo Island — Port Lincoln 
 — Encounter Bay — The Mmray Mouth — Sir John Jeffcott — Port Adelaide — 
 Discovery of Eiver Torrens — Site of Adelaide — Cai^tain Hindmarsh, the first 
 Governor — Disagreements about the site of the capital— Delays in surveys 
 — Mr. Kingston's scheme of survey — Colonel Light's death — Governor Hind- 
 marsh's recall — Arrival of Colonel Gawler — Extravagant administration — The 
 colony deeply in debt — Colonists concentrated about the metropolis — Financial 
 crash — Overlanders with cattle and sheep — Eyre's explorations — His jom-ney to 
 King George's Sound — Captain Grey's arrival — Retrenchment — Distress — Im- 
 proved condition of affairs — Eapid advance of agriculture — Mineral discoveries 
 — Silver lead mines — The Kapunda Mine — The Burra — General progress — Cap- 
 tain Sturt's explorations, and discovery of Cooper's Creek — Captain Grey appointed 
 Governor of Xew Zealand. 
 
 The first vessel tliat arrived in South Australian waters with 
 intending settlers was the Duke of York, and the first colonist who 
 stepped upon South Australian territory was Mr. Samuel Stephens, 
 an able man, who came to the colon}^ as Manager for the South 
 Australian Company, and several years afterwards lost his life by 
 a fall from his horse. This pioneer ship anchored on the 27th 
 July, 1836, in Nepean Bay, Kangaroo Island, which was the 
 rendezvous for the early vessels, it beiiig thought not improbable 
 that the capital would be on the island, which was the best known 
 part of the new province. The Lady Marij Pelham and John Firie 
 followed with settlers, including small capitalists, farmers, business 
 men, and laborers. The Rapid arrived on the 20th August, having 
 on board Colonel Light, the Surveyor- General, and his staff of 
 surveyors. Mr. (afterwards Sir George) Kingston followed in the 
 Cugnet, and landed on the 11th September. The Emma and Tam 
 o' Shunter arrived in October, and the Africaine in November. 
 Colonel Light was a man of remarkable attainments, great versa- 
 tility of talent, and high character. He had seen distinguished 
 service in the Peninsidar war, on the staff of the Duke of Welling-
 
 THE PIONEERS. 13 
 
 ton, and eulogistic reference to him is made in Napier's histor}' of 
 that prolonged and brilliant struggle. He was a sailor, havino- 
 held a command in the Egyptian fleet. To his other attainments 
 he added those of an artist, and he had a singularly clear and 
 forcible style of expressing his views. It would have been im- 
 possible to have selected any one more suited for the arduous and 
 difficult task imposed upon Colonel Light, and he proved fully 
 equal to the task. The firmness and determination necessarj' to 
 the discharge of the duties of his position were continued with great 
 patience, a lofty sense of honor and an amiability of disposition 
 that won for him the respect and afifection of the colonists gener- 
 ally, and most of all of those with whom he was brought in contact. 
 
 On arrival at Kangaroo Island, he saw at a glance that was 
 not the place for the settlement, and he lost no time in exploring 
 the coast in order to decide where the capital of the embr\'o State 
 should be fixed. Port Lincoln he carefully examined, and decided 
 that, though the harbor was magnificent, there was nothing in the 
 adjoining country to warrant the establishment of the first and 
 principal settlement there. He visited Encounter Bay, and came 
 to the same conclusion with regard to the country in that locality, 
 and moreover there was nothing in the bay to recommend it as a 
 harbor. The mouth of the Murray he found had a bar which 
 would prevent the passage of large vessels, and the breakers were 
 extremely dangerous. Sir John Jeficott, the first Judge of South 
 Australia, Captain Blackensop, and several seamen were drowned, 
 early in 1837, in the endeavor to pass through in a boat. Lieut. 
 PuUcn succeeded in taking a brig through, and for about eighty 
 miles up the stream to the point on the river known as Blanche- 
 town, where she sunk. 
 
 In St. Vincent's Gulf, Colonel Light searched long and care- 
 fully for a good port, and found some difficulty in recognising the 
 features of the coast from the descriptions of Capt. John Jones. 
 At last a fine inlet or creek was discovered, and Lieut. Pullcn 
 explored it up to and beyond where the wharfs and town of Port 
 Adelaide are now situated. Colonel Light pronounced this to be a 
 fine natural harbor, capable of improvement in the future, Avhen 
 the resources of the colony should justify the outlay. He fixed the 
 port too high up, and the site had to be changed several years 
 afterwards ; perhaps it would have been better and would have
 
 14 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : 
 
 f \ 
 
 saved expense in deepening operations, had the North Arm been 
 chosen ; bat however this may be, there is no doubt that this creek 
 was the proper place for the chief harbor of the colony. 
 
 It was essential that fresh water should be discovered, and 
 Mr. Kingston being requested to make a search, started on foot 
 Math Mr. John Morphctt, and another of the pioneers, and dis- 
 covered the Torrens, coming from the Mount Lofty range of hills 
 to the eastward. Tliis river was soon found to be, in its course 
 through the plains, something like a chain of ponds in the summer 
 time, but in the hills it was and is a constantly running stream. 
 By means of a, weir and two reservoirs, seven or eight miles from 
 Adelaide, the city and suburbs, Port Adelaide, Glenelg, and an area 
 of about fifty miles of country, are supplied with pure water, a large 
 supply coming from the Sixth Creek, a tributary that joins the 
 Torrens in the range. On Colonel Light being informed of this 
 river, he followed it up till he came to rising ground which he se- 
 lected as the site of the metropolis, and to this selection he adhered 
 in spite of all opposition. Nearly fifty years have passed away 
 since then, but time only serves to show more clearlj' the wisdom 
 of his choice. The City is about eight miles from the Port, but 
 only flat low land could have been got any nearer. The ground 
 on whicli the City is built, is from 96ft. to 176ft. above the sea 
 level, and is adniirably situated for drainage. The late Mr. Clarke, 
 the eminent liydraulic engineer, who designed the plan of draining 
 Adelaide now being carried out, stated that there was not a city 
 in the world more easy to provide with a system of deep sewei'age. 
 
 Capt. Ilindniarsh, P.N., the first Governor, arrived at Hold- 
 fast^ Bay on the 28th December, 1830, in J [.M.S. Buffalo, and 
 landing the same day proclaimed the colony, under the shadow of 
 a gum tree, in llic presence of the members of his council and other 
 officers, a few hundred settlers, and a guard of Marines. The 28th 
 'December has ever since been observed as the national holiday. The 
 Governor was one of the veterans who, during tlie close of the last 
 century and the beginning of this, had upheld the lienor of old 
 England on the ocean, lie liad served under Nelson, and had lost 
 an eye at the battle of the Nile, where he greatly distinguished 
 iiraself. As a civilian administrator, he did not achieve success. 
 He wished the city moved a mile or two nearer the Port, on to the 
 
 ground, and Colonel Light yielded for a few days, but then
 
 Ill 
 
 ifi 
 
 '':'l!i ill 

 
 ©
 
 THE PIONEERS. 15 
 
 returned to his original plan, from which he would not afterwards 
 deviate. The Governor managed to quarrel with nearly all his 
 officers, and with the President Commissioner^ Mr. (afterwards Sir) 
 J. H, Fisher. Disagreements took place among the colonists about 
 the site for the capital, a section of them advocating Encounter 
 Bay. A meeting of the purchasers of land was called to consider 
 this matter, early in 1837, when an overwhelming majority decided 
 in favor of Colonel Light's choice, and that question was settled 
 for ever. 
 
 Through this dispute, and afterwards through want of horses 
 or other animal power to shift the survey parties and carry their 
 provisions, the surveys were much delayed, and hence arose great 
 dissatisfaction ; Mr. Kingston returned to England, and submitted 
 to the Commissioners a plan for a more rapid survey on a different 
 system from that on which Colonel Light was proceeding. The 
 Commissioners wrote to the E-esident Commissioner, instructino- 
 him to request Colonel Light to proceed upon this new system, or, 
 if he objected, to hand the survey over to Mr. Kingston, and occupy 
 himself, until that was concluded, with an examination of the 
 country about Lake Alexandriua. Colonel Light replied in indig- 
 nant terms and resigned his office. All the surveyors who had 
 been employed under him also resigned. In consequence of the 
 severe comments on this affair, it was made the subject of Parlia- 
 mentary inquiry in England, and a Committee of the House of 
 Lords reported that Mr. Kingston had not attempted to undermme 
 his superior officer, but, on the contrarj^, had acted lovally to him 
 throughout. Worrj^, anxiety, and a sense of having been subjected 
 to unfair treatment, seriously impaired the gallant Colonel's health, 
 and doubtless brought on the illness which j)roved fatal. lie died 
 on the 5th October, 1839, and five days afterwards was accorded 
 a public funeral, and buried in the square which bears his name, 
 amid the lamentations of a large concourse of colonists. A monu- 
 ment, with a suitable inscription, marks the spot where rests all 
 that is mortal of one to whom the colony owes so much. ^ 
 
 Captain Hindmarsh's disagreements with his officers increased ; 
 the Commissioners addressed lengthy complaints to the Colonial 
 Secretary, Lord Glenelg, and in 1838 the Governor was recalled. 
 He left the colony on the IGth July of that year, and Mr. George 
 Milner Stephen became Acting Governor till the arrival of the
 
 16 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 second Governor, Colonel Gawler, on the 12tli October, 1838. 
 The services of Mr. Fisher, as Resident Commissioner, had been 
 dispensed with, and the office was, on Colonel Gawler's arrival, 
 absorbed in that of Governor, the dual control having worked un- 
 satisfactorily. Some time afterwards the Commissioners in the old 
 country were relieved of their duties. 
 
 The surveys had made considerable progress by the time the 
 new Governor landed. The town lots Avere selected in March, 
 18-37, and the countr}^ sections in Ma}', 1838. Colonel Gawler 
 came with a history and a reputation calculated to command 
 respect and confidence. He had distinguished himself at many 
 of the great sieges and battles of the Peninsula, and led the 
 right Aving of the 52nd Regiment in the grand charge at Waterloo. 
 He was possessed of high attainments, and as a devout Christian 
 his influence on a young community was of the most beneficial 
 character. His great mistake was that of embarking in great 
 public works about the city which were in advance of the times, 
 and not of any utility in developing the resources of the colony. 
 The effect of his policy was that the settlers were induced to 
 remain in Adelaide, instead of engaging in the cultivation of the 
 rich soil all around them. The laborers, too, were occupied in 
 the same unprofitable way, and therefore were not available for 
 those settlers Avho really wished to engage in agricultural opera- 
 tions. Colonel Gawler soon plunged the colony into debt. In 
 1840 the population Avas under 15,000, and considerably more 
 than half the colonists Avere in Adelaide. In the last quarter of 
 that year the expenditure was at the rate of £240,000 per annum, 
 and the debt incurred exceeded £300,000. The bills drawn by 
 His ExcellencA on the Home Government Avere dishonored, and a 
 financial crisis ensued, the great crash, hoAvever, coming in the 
 years 1841-2. Many colonists were absolutely ruined, and some 
 never recovered their position. Poverty and distress were universal, 
 and the utmost despondency prevailed AA'ith regard to the future 
 of the colony. At the end of 1840 Colonel GaAvler was recalled, 
 and on the 10th May, 1841, Captain Grey arrived in the colony, 
 and, walking into Government House, presented his commission 
 as Governor of South Australia. 
 
 During Colonel GaAAder's administration the difficulties of the 
 survey had been OA'crcome. Mr. Kingston having surveyed enough
 
 THE PIONEERS. 
 
 to satisfy the original purchasers, resigned, and Captain 8turt,\ 
 discoverer of the colony, was appointed his successor. He 
 soon transferred to another office, and was succeeded by Captain 
 Frome, R.E., who, with the assistance of a staff of surveyors and 
 a number of sappers and miners, pushed on the surveys with great 
 energy. In August, 1839, o yer 250,000 acres of land had_ been 
 sold, realising nearly i^ ^dU^^OO, and 7,412 settlers had arrived in 
 the colony^ Iu _1838 Messrs. H awden & Bonney brought cattle 
 'iiitO""the colony from New South Wales, by the Murray route ; 
 :ind Mr. Eyre, afterwards celebrated as an explorer, and who 
 subsequently was Governor of Jamaica, followed with a herd in 
 the same year. Next year both sheep and cattle were imported 
 by land. Mr. Bonney was the first overlander who brought 
 sheep by the Coorong route. In 1840 there were 108,700 sheep, 
 7,600 cattle, 800 horses, and 1,700 goats and pigs in the colonj*. 
 The quantity of land under cultivation was 6,722 acres ; the year 
 before it was 2,500 acres. 
 
 It was while Colonel Gawler was Governor that Mr. Edward 
 John Eyre performed the overland journey from this colony to 
 King George's Sound. After exploring the northern country 
 about the waters now known as Lake Torrcns and Lake Ej-re, 
 he struck for the coast, and proceeded from Streaky Ba}^ to 
 Fowler's Bay, Avhich he made his depot and starting point. 
 Here he parted with his friend, Mr. Scott, who had so far accom- 
 panied him, and started with his overseer, named Baxter, a King 
 George's Sound and two South Australian natives on a journey of 
 over a thousand miles, once going 160 miles without any water 
 but what the party carried. The two South Australian boys 
 one night murdered Baxter, while the leader of the expedition 
 was away watching the horses, Mr. Eyre finished the journey 
 with only the Western Australian boy as a companion, and found 
 that the country all along the coast was particularly barren, 
 with no surface water for the greater part of the distance, 
 except what could be got in the sandhills near the beach. Dur- 
 ing the expedition, Mr. Eyre obtained a suj^ply of food from a 
 French Avhaler he found at anchor in Western Australian waters. 
 
 Captain Grey found the expenditure unreduced, the revenue 
 decreasing, and only a few hundred pounds in the Treasury, 
 and two thousand men, women, and children depending on the 
 c
 
 18 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Government for support. For 1842 lie reduced the expenditure 
 to £34,000. AVages lie cut down from Is. 6d. per diem witli 
 ra'-ions to Is. 2d. without, and of course excited great discontent, 
 as did his policy of economj^ gcneralh'. He finished the Avorks 
 Colonel Gawler had left in progress, and then employed the 
 laborers in more useful undertakings, principally in roadraaking, 
 and especiall}^ in the construction of a highway through the 
 Mount Lofty range in the direction of Mount Barker. The 
 colony had to suffer a recover}^ Property fell in value ; money 
 was extremely scarce ; privation was universal ; but the colonists 
 bore their adversities with fortitude, and there was a general 
 movement in the direction of agriculture. In the summer of 
 1841-2 there Avas an abundant harvest ; two years later wheat 
 was 2s. 6d. per bushel. There was a great difficulty in obtaining 
 labor to reap the harvest, but this was met hj the invention of the 
 stripper known as Ridley's machine, which strips the heads off 
 and threshes them. When the machine is full, the contents are 
 taken out and are ready for winnowing, and the machine is started 
 again. Land had been rapidl}^ taken up. Thirty-five si^ecial sur- 
 veys, of 4,000 acres each, had been completed. The price was 
 £1 per acre, and the cost of surve}^ had been reduced to 7jd. 
 There were upwards of 300,000 acres surveyed and open for 
 selection, in addition to what had been sold and occupied. 
 
 The Imperial Parliament had advanced £Lj5,000 to meet 
 Colonel Gawler's dishonored bills, and a further sum of £27,290 
 was also advanced for the same purpose. Captain Grey after 
 this drew on the Home Government for money to pay other 
 debts of Colonel Gawler's, not provided for, but these drafts were 
 dishonored, great distress being thereby occasioned. All these 
 early trials were overcome by the colony, but the losses of indi- 
 viduals were never repaid. 
 
 While South Australia was rescued from insolvency by Gover- 
 nor Grey's policy, and the attention of the settlers turned towards 
 farming and pastoral pursuits, prosperity came also from other 
 .sources. To those of the pioneers possessing any geological or miner- 
 alogical knowledge. South Australia presented the appearance of 
 a country rich in minerals, and the impressions then formed have 
 been amply justified. Within three or four years of the proclama- 
 tion of the colony, several lodes of silver lead were discovered on
 
 iiMiMiiijiMltl
 
 THE PI0XEEK8. 19 
 
 the slopes of the hills overlooking Adelaide, and some thousands of 
 pound's worth of the ore were raised and exported. These work- 
 ings were, however, soon abandoned as unprofitable. In 1842 the 
 Kapunda mine, fifty miles from Adelaide, was discovered by the 
 youngest son of Captain Bagot and Mr. (afterwards Sir) Francis 
 Dutton, late Agent- General, about the same time and independ- 
 entlv of each other. Capt. Bagot and Mr. Dutton secured the land, 
 and after raising a quantity of rich ore, disposed of the property 
 to a company, by whom it was profitabl}' worked for years. Several 
 j^ears ago operations were suspended, but a fresh lode has been 
 found on the mine, and is being worked on tribute. But the great 
 mineral discover}', that contributed a new epoch in the history of 
 South Australian progress, was the world-renowned Burra mine, a 
 hundred miles from the metropolis. This was found by a shepherd 
 named Pickett, who never received any reward, or at any rate any 
 worthy of mention, for the service he thus rendered to the jjrovince. 
 The land on which the mine was situated was purchased of the 
 Government b}' a Company, with a capital of £12,000, in £5 
 shares, and no further call was ever made on the shareholders. 
 The shares rose to £200. and for some time returned £40 per 
 annum in dividends. A large population was settled about the 
 mine ; the town of Kooringa and lesser townships sprung into ex- 
 istence in the neighbourhood. A good market was thus established 
 for agricultural produce ; employment was given to thousands of 
 miners, mechanics, carters, and laborers ; and farmers, in the less 
 busy times of the year, found profitable occupation for their teams 
 in carting the ore to Port Adelaide or Port Wakefield, the former 
 being a little over a hundred, and the latter about seventy miles 
 distant. 
 
 Soon after the opening of the Burra mine. Captain Grey was 
 appointed to the Governorship of New Zealand, then in one of the 
 crises of its history, when one of the Maori wars had to be fought 
 out. He left South Australia amidst the regret of all the colonists 
 but those who could not forgive the retrenchment policy from 
 which they had sufiered, or a few whom in the exercise of his ad- 
 ministrative powers he had personally offended. In 1 845, the year 
 in which he left, the population had risen to 21,759 ; the immi- 
 gration was 2,336, and the emigration 449 ; revenue, £32,443 ; 
 expenditure, £40,775 — the balance being of course drawn from
 
 20 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n 
 
 the land fund ; land alienated during the year 49,658 acres, the 
 amount received for it being £52,902 ; land under cultivation 
 £26,218; cattle in the colon}' 22,911; sheep 355,689; imports 
 £118,915; exports £95,272; staple produce exported £82,268; 
 of which £42,769 was for wool and £6,436 for minerals, The 
 returns were taken earh' in the year and did not include the ex- 
 ports of Burra ore. Heavy port dues were imposed during Captain 
 Grey's rule and created great dissatisfaction, but were abolished 
 before he left the colony. 
 
 Captain Sturt started on his expedition into Central Australia 
 in 1844, and got within 150 miles of the centre of the continent. 
 He discovered Cooper's Creek, watering w^hat for many years past 
 has been a valuable pastoral country. The unfavorable nature of 
 the season, and the illness of several of his party, obliged him to 
 return to Adelaide. One of his party, Mr. Poole, died in the in- 
 terior, and a mountain near where he ended his earthly pilgrimage 
 is named after him. Captain Sturt returned from this expedition, 
 in 1846, after enduring great privations.
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES 21 
 
 CHAPTER IT. 
 
 1845 TO 1855. 
 
 Major Robe— State aid to religion— The Burra mine -Attempt to impose royalties on 
 mines— Sir Henry Young — First instalment of Representative Government — Victo- 
 nan diggings — Bullion Act— Land system of Victoria the salvation of Soiitli Aus- 
 tialia — Prices of produce — The Murray trade — Goolwa and Port Elliot tramway 
 and harbor works— District Councils' progress. 
 
 Major Robe, afterwards promoted to a colonelcy, who succeeded 
 Captain Grey, arrived on the 25th October, 1845. He was a blujff 
 old soldier, of fcAv words, hospitable and kind-hearted, but of tor}^ 
 principles and no civilian experience — in short, a particularly unfit 
 man to rule over such a community as that of South Australia. It 
 was his fate to raise burning questions which set the people by the 
 ears, and produced a great amount of illfeeling. He was persuaded 
 to introduce a measure in 1846 for granting State aid to religious 
 sects. As this was contrary to the principles on which the colony was 
 founded, the scheme provoked the most violent hostility, influential 
 members of the Church of England being among its most pro- 
 minent and determined opponents. The Legislature then consisted 
 of a nominee council of eight, four of whom were official, and the 
 other four non-official members. His Excellencj'' presided, and 
 - when the officials voted on one side and the independent members 
 on the other, he gave his casting-vote for the Government. The 
 arrangement was beautifully simple, but the casting-vote was not 
 necessary in the case of the church grants, as two of the non-official 
 members voted for them, and the Bill was passed in opposition to 
 the will of an overwhelming majority of the people, as expressed 
 by petitions and public meetings. The provision was onlj" for one 
 year, but it was renewed afterwards, and the system lasted till 1851, 
 when it was abolished for ever. 
 
 Major Robe's next embroilment was with the mining pro- 
 prietors. He introduced in his Legislative Council a Bill for im-
 
 22 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ~^ 
 
 posing a royalty on minerals, and his officials voted for it, of course, 
 the non-official councillors oj^posing it. Five councillors were 
 necessary to constitute a quorum, and when the division was called 
 for, the four non-official councillors all walked out of the chamber, 
 so effijctually defeating the Government. His Excellency subse- 
 quently came to the conclusion, presumably after consultation with 
 the xVdvocate-General, who was the only law officer of the Crown 
 in those days, that he could impose this tax without the authority 
 of the Council. The matter was, however, tried in the Supreme 
 Court, when the Government were defeated. There was no appeal 
 in the colony, which, at that time, possessed only one Judge, Mr. 
 Charles Cooper, who was afterwards created Chief Justice and re- 
 ceived the honor of knighthood from Her Majesty. 
 
 His Excellency was liked by people who had the privilege of 
 his acquaintance, but in his gubernatorial capacity he was constantly 
 in hot water. He and the colonists got very tired of each other, 
 and it was at his own request he was removed to another sphere 
 of official activity more suited to his tastes and previous experi- 
 ence. The colony had now reached such a position that it was not 
 possible for its advancement to be stopped by the want of adminis- 
 trative capacity on the part of its rulers. Agricultural settlement 
 had progressed ; the population increased rapidl}'. Large quan- 
 tities of ore were shipped from the Burra and other mines, and 
 there was an immense amount of speculation in new mineral dis- 
 coveries, most of which proved to be worthless. 
 
 The fifth Governor, Sir Henry Edward Fox Young, assumed 
 the reins of Government on the 2nd August, 1848. His advent 
 was unaccompanied by any labored formality or display. He rode 
 up from Port Adelaide to Government House, escorted by two 
 mounted policemen. 
 
 In the Imperial Act of 1834, founding the colony, there was a 
 provision to the effect that when the inhabitants numbered 
 50,000 they should have a constitution. That number was ex- 
 jceeded before Sir Henry Young had been long in the colony, and 
 'the Home Parliament passed an Act abolishing the nominee Legis- 
 lative Council, and establishing one to consist of twenty-four mem- 
 bers, of whom eight were to be nominee and sixteen elected mem- 
 bers. Half the nominees were officials. The colony was divided 
 into sixteen electoral districts, each returning one member.
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 23 
 
 Radical principles prevailed ; but the one question on which the 
 elections hinged \yas that of State aid to religion. The elections 
 caused an amount of excitement never witnessed in political matters 
 in tlie colony in these latter days, and three- fourths of the success- 
 ful candidates were in favor of the purely voluntary system. The 
 Advocate-General, Mr. Smillie, resigned before the elections were 
 over, and Mr. Eichard Davies Hanson, who about twenty years 
 later became Chief Justice, was appointed in his stead, but stipu- 
 lated that he should vote against the Government on this question, 
 and did so. In the first session of the new Council, a Bill for the 
 renewal of the grants-in-aid was rejected on its first reading. For 
 several years afterwards the question was contested at casual elec- 
 tions to fill vacancies in the Chamber, and then the defeated party 
 yielded to the inevitable, and it was accepted as the settled principle 
 that there should be no connection between church and State. An 
 Education Act was passed during the same session, making better 
 provision than had hitherto existed for the secular instruction of 
 the settlers. The Bible was, or might be, read in the State schools 
 without note or comment. 
 
 The period of Sir Henry Young's administration was eventful 
 in the highest degree. During those few years, a great social, 
 political, and commercial revolution swept over Australia, owing to 
 the discovery of the Yictorian goldfields in 1851. Auriferous finds 
 had been made shortly before in New South Wales, but not on a 
 sufficiently extensive scale to cause such a mighty rush of people 
 as followed quickly upon the opening up of the goldfields of Bal- 
 larat. Mount Alexander, and Bendigo, in the younger province. 
 A few months before these discoveries, Victoria, previously known 
 as the Port Philip settlement, was separated from New South 
 Wales, and established as an independent colony, free from the 
 evils of transportation. 
 
 Among the first immediate effects of the gold discoveries was 
 the complete abolition of transportation to any part of Australia, to 
 accomplish which object the Australian Anti-transportation League, 
 with branches in all the colonies, had been formed in 1851. A few 
 years afterwards, the people of Western Australia petitioned for 
 transportation to that colony, as their only hope of rescuing it 
 from its stagnant condition, but owing to the remonstrances of the 
 other colonies, this was stopped finally in 1868.
 
 24 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n 
 
 Late in 1851, a great exodus from South Australia to Victoria 
 commenced, and this increased during the first few months of 
 1852, All the coasting vessels were crowded with passengers to 
 Melbourne, and thousands of people travelled overland, the dis- 
 tance being from 400 to 500 miles, according to the route taken. 
 Men of all classes joined in the rush ; farmers and their laborers, 
 shopkeepers, clerks. Government officials, mechanics, doctors, and 
 schoolmasters, sailed, or rode, or travelled on foot to the neighbor- 
 ing colony. South Australia lost most of her male population ; 
 some townships were left with only one or two adult male residents. 
 Trade was paralyzed ; houses were left empty ; and property was 
 enormously depreciated in value. There was a run upon the banks 
 early in 1852, and the gold in its native state, or in bullion, of course 
 was not a legal tender ; it was j)urchased on the diggings as low as 
 £2 16s. and sent to London to be sold for about £4. In this crisis it 
 was evident that unusual measures must betaken to avert great finan- 
 cial disaster, and a Bill was introduced in the Legislative Council 
 of South Australia making gold assayed and cast into ingots 
 by a Government assay er a legal tender, at the rate of £3 lis. 
 per ounce. The Banks were authorised to issue their new notes 
 against such gold, and pay for the notes with the gold at the 
 rate stated. Sir Henry Young assumed great responsibility in as- 
 senting to this Bullion Act, as it was called, for it was opposed to 
 the currency laws of the British Empire, and repugnant to Impe- 
 rial legislation ; but he hazarded his own position to save the 
 colony, and the Home authorities, recognizing the greatness of 
 the emergency, did not disapprove of the action of the Governor. 
 The Bullion Act was only to be in operation for a year. The 
 banks asked the Government to extend the period of its operation, 
 but this was declined, and a Bill was introduced and passed to 
 legalize gold tokens representing twenty shillings each, calculating 
 the value of the gold at the same rate as the ingots had been 
 valued at. Not many of these tokens were issued, and now one 
 is considered a curiosity. Its intrinsic value is about twenty-four 
 shillings. This legislation raised the price of gold in Victoria, 
 and before long the competition among buyers raised the price 
 pretty nearly up to the full English value. 
 
 To facilitate the desp;jtch of the gold obtained by South Aus- 
 tralians to their own colony, an overland escort, first proposed by
 
 ITS HISTORY AND KESOURCES. 2o 
 
 Inspector Tolmer, an able and daring police officer, was established, 
 and proved of great benefit to the diggers, and their families, and 
 to the colony. During 1852, most of the South Australian dig- 
 gers came back, and remained in South Australia ; others followed 
 in 1853, leaving comparatively few behind them. The reason 
 which operated, perhaps, more than the Bullion Act or the Gold 
 Escort to draw them back to South Australia, was the land system 
 of Victoria. With millions of acres of fertile land in that colony, 
 it was almost impossible to buy an acre. The squatters claimed 
 security of tenure or pre-emptive right, and this claim was upheld 
 by a Government and a Council under squatting domination. But 
 for this system, a large agricultural population would have been at 
 once established, and the farmers would have had, in the diggings 
 and the mining townships, splendid markets for their produce. 
 
 But Victoria's blunder and loss were South Australia's sal- 
 vation. A large portion of the money obtained at the diggings 
 was invested in farming land and farm stock. Ao-riculture made 
 immense strides ; for several years hay was worth £10 a ton in 
 Adelaide, and £40 in Melbourne. Wheat was sold in the former 
 city at from 8s. to 12s. per bushel ; as late as 1856, the higher 
 price named was obtained, and as much as 15s. 6d. was given in 
 that year. Flour rose to £50 and £60 per ton in South Australia — 
 I do not refer particularly to the prices on the diggings, as they 
 were caused by the cost of carriage. In 1852, flour was worth 
 £200 a ton a1 Bendigo. It was sold there at £20 per bag. The 
 flood of prosperitj^ that visited South Australia in those days led to 
 much extravagance, but the beneficial effects to the colony were 
 lasting ; and though there have been dull times since then, there 
 have been no serious panics. 
 
 In 1853 the colon}^ had passed through the crisis caused hj 
 the diggings, and attention was turned to the Murray, or, "to speak 
 more comprehensively, the Riverina trade. More than thirty years 
 before this time, the navigability of the Murray and its tributaries, 
 the Darling and Murrumbidgee, had been ascertained by Capt. Sturt. 
 There is some confusion as to the distances for which these rivers 
 are navigable. Calculating all their windings, 4,000 miles would 
 not be beyond the mark ; but taking their more general course, 
 about 1,500 miles should be deducted from this estimate. Some of 
 their tributaries are navi enable for a considerable distance for small
 
 26 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 craft, bat tlic quantity of water in them varies greatly, according 
 to the seasons, and the Darling even is sometimes unnavigable for 
 a year or two. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the settlers in 
 Riverina have been immensely benefited by the utilization of those 
 rivers for the carriage of their produce. These streams, with their 
 tributaries, drain over half a million square miles of country, prin- 
 cipally in New South Wales and Queensland ; and the trade of this 
 vast region is what the South Australian Legislative Council bid for 
 when it offered a reward of £4,000 for the first two iron steamers 
 of not less than 40 -horse power, and a draught not exceeding two 
 feet of water when loaded, that should navigate the Murray from 
 the Goolwa through Lake Alexandrina, and up to the Darling 
 junction. 
 
 3Ir. William Randall, an old colonist, who arrived in the colonj^ 
 as a boy in the year 1837, launched a little steamer at Mannum, a 
 point above the lakes and about forty miles from Adelaide, and 
 took it up the Murray and Darling, but his craft was too small to 
 entitle him to the reward, which was won by Captain Cadell, who 
 had previously, in a canvas boat, sailed down the Murray from a 
 point above the junction of the Darling, and carefully examined 
 the stream. He and the late Mr. William Younghusband, who 
 subsequently was Chief Secretary of the colony, formed the 
 Murray River Navigation Company, which placed a number of 
 steamers on the Murray. The pioneer was the Lady Augusta 
 named after the wife of Sir Henry Young, and on her first trip 
 His Excellency and Lady Young and a large party of ladies and 
 gentlemen were on board. Captain Cadell being in command. 
 The pioneers in new enterprises are commonly sacrificed, and 
 others enter into their labors, to profit by their mistakes and 
 experience and the information they have given to the world. A 
 few years after the trial trip of the Lady Aiigustd the company 
 owning her was dissolved, and Captain Cadell had lost all he 
 possessed; but the Murray navigation was a great fact, and the 
 trade created thereby has gone on increasing from that day to this. 
 
 In connection with the Riverina trade arose the question of 
 an outlet for it to the sea. The mouth of the Murray was prac- 
 tically unavailable. Small steamers were afterwards taken through 
 it, but not with full cargoes, or loaded barges. It was necessary 
 to land the wool and other produce at Goolwa, a point of the
 
 
 
 
 l> 
 
 •r-{ 
 
 q 
 
 O 
 
 02
 
 ITS HISTORY AND llESOURCES. 27 
 
 Murray after it lias passed through the lake, and then carry it to 
 the nearest ocean harbor. Sir Henry Young fixed upon Port 
 Elliot as the harbor, and had a tramway constructed from Goolwa 
 to that port, a distance of about eight miles. Strange to say, the 
 harbor was reported favorably upon by Captain Lipson, R.N., the 
 harbor-master of Port Adelaide, and Mr. Hill, a civil engineer. 
 Thus encouraged Sir Henry Young expended £20,000 on a break- 
 water, and it was soon found that the place was utterly useless as 
 a harbor, and that the outlay upon it was so much money thrown 
 away. The Legislative Council protested against the whole pro- 
 ceeding, but the money was taken from the land fund, over which 
 the Governor then bad absolute control. Afterwards a little bay, 
 four miles further from Goolwa, and now known as Port Victor, 
 was chosen, and, though small, it is a safe harbor, and lately its 
 safety has been increased by a breakwater a thousand feet in 
 length, constructed at a cost of £120,000. Previously to the 
 commencement of this work there had been a large expenditure 
 on a jetty connecting Granite Island with the main land. 
 
 For some years after steamers were first placed on the Murray 
 and its tributaries, the trade belonged to South Australia, but 
 afterwards it was largely diverted to Victoria, that colony seeming 
 the greater share by the construction of a railway 160 miles in 
 length, from Melbourne to Echuca. Most of the traffic, including- 
 all from the Murrumbidgee and Darling, must go up the stream 
 to reach Echuca, and then there is the cost of the land carriage ; 
 but the attraction in this direction consists in the fact that Mel- 
 bourne is a better market for the sale of wool, and, till lately, 
 was a better port of shipment, having a large command of vessels 
 at the lowest rates of freight. The South Australian trade was 
 discouraged by want of shipping facilities at Goolwa and Victor 
 Harbor, and by the high charges of merchants and agents. To 
 secure the trade, it was proposed, about fifteen years ago, to 
 construct a line of rails from Adelaide to the Murray, but this pro- 
 posal was negatived, and the consequence was the loss of most of 
 the trade. In 1878, a railway from Adelaide to the North-West 
 Bend, a distance of 110 miles, was completed, and has been found 
 a paying line. The river terminus is named Morgan, after the 
 late Chief Secretary, Sir William Morgan, and there is naturally a 
 keen rivalry between it and Port Victor. The imports of wool to 
 
 I
 
 28 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ^ 
 
 both places are largely increasing, but it is certain that Sonth 
 Australia did not begin to recover the trade till this line was laid 
 down. 
 
 Sir Henry Young's regime was distinguished by the establish- 
 ment of District Councils wherever the settlers desired them. 
 These bodies are to the country districts what corporations are to 
 towns, and the district roads throughout the most settled portions 
 of the colony, as distinguished from the main roads — which are con- 
 structed and maintained at the cost of the general revenue, suffi- 
 ciently attest the usefulness of these local representative bodies, and 
 the judgment and economy Avith which the district councillors 
 manage their affairs. On this subject Sir Henry was a great en- 
 thusiast, and though some of his expectations of results to flow from 
 these councils were visionary, it is beyond question that by their 
 establishment an addition that could be ill-spared was made to the 
 institutions of South Australia. 
 
 Sir Henr}' Young was, in 1854, appointed Governor of Tas- 
 mania, and in December of that year, left Adelaide for Hobart. 
 Mr. Boyle Travers Finniss, the Colonial Secretar}^, was sworn in 
 as Acting- Governor, and held that position for nearly six months. 
 The advances made in wealth and prosperity by the colony during 
 the Governorship of Sir Henr}^ Young, mainly owing to the 
 Victorian gold discoveries, were immense. The population in- 
 creased from 38,666 to 92,545 ; the revenue, from £82,911 to 
 £595,o56 ; the land alienated during the former year amounted 
 to 29,200 acres, and in 1854 to 213,925 acres ; land under 
 cultivation increased from 48,911 acres to 129,692 acres ; cattle, 
 from 55,083 to 74,220; sheep, from 838,394 to 1,768,724; 
 imports, from £384,326 to £2,147,107 ; exports, from £504,068 
 to £1,322,822. The staple produce exported, increased from 
 £465,878 to £694,422. Two years later, the export of staple 
 produce had doubled. The balance of exports in 1854 was com- 
 posed mainly of Riverine wool. The export of mineral produce, 
 through tlic closing of the mines, when the male population 
 flocked to the Victorian diggings, sunk from £320,624 in 1848 
 to £94,831 in 1854. Three years later, it had risen to £458,839.
 
 ITS HISTORY AND llESOURC'ES. 29 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 1855 TO 1862. 
 
 Sir Eichard MacDonnoU— Xesy Constitution — Disputes between the two Houses — 
 Eeal Property Act — Mineral discoveries on Yorke's Peninsula — The Wallaroo 
 and Moonta mines — Exploration and Explorers — Gregory, Babbage, Warburton, 
 and Stuart crosses the continent — Burke and Wills — Their sad fate — McKinlaj- — 
 Howitt recovers remains of Burke and Wills — Xorthern Territorj- annexed to 
 South Australia — First raihvay — Progress. 
 
 Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell arrived in the colony on the 8th 
 June, 1855, and retained the Governorship for the unusually 
 long period of nearly seven years. It fell to his lot to take part 
 in the inauguration of Responsible Government. The people were 
 strongly opposed to the principle of nominee legislators, and lost 
 no opportunity of making known their feelings on this question ; 
 but nevertheless the mixed Council in 1853 framed a Constitution, 
 of which one feature was that the Upper House should be com- 
 posed of members nominated by the Crown for life. The protests 
 of the people by petition and in public meetings had the desired 
 effect, and the Constitution Bill was sent back to the Governor by 
 the Secretary of State for the Colonies. In 1^55 Sir Richard 
 MacDonnell dissolved the Legislative Council, so that the voice 
 of the people might be heard as to the sort of Constitution they 
 wished themselves and their children after them to live under. 
 The electors were almost universally in favor of manhood suffrage 
 and vote by ballot, and put a final veto on nomineeism. 
 
 The new Council had a task of great difficulty and responsi- 
 bility before them, but in the main the}' carried out the wishes of 
 their constituents. They decided in favor of two chambers, and 
 passed a Constitution Act and an Electoral Act. The former de- 
 fined the suffrage, the constitution, powers, and privileges of the 
 two Houses ; the latter prescribed the mode of election, and the
 
 :30 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n 
 
 rules afi'ecting the electors, the elected, and the returning officers. 
 The House of Assembly was to be elected on the basis of universal 
 suffrage, that is to say, the franchise was given to every man 21 
 years of age who was a natural born or naturalized subject of Her 
 Majesty, who had been six months on the electoral roll of any dis- 
 trict, and was not under unexpired or unremitted sentence for any 
 felony or infamous crime. Everyone qvialified to be a voter for 
 this House was qualified to be member of it, except that if not a 
 natural-born British subject, he could not be elected unless he had 
 been five years resident in the colony. The elections were to be 
 triennial. The Legislative Council, commonly called also the 
 Upper House, was to be elected on the basis of a property suffrage 
 — consisting of either freehold worth £50 ; registered leasehold 
 of £20 per annum, with three years to run, or right of purchase ; 
 or occupanc}^ of a dwelling-house of the clear annual value of £25. 
 The members were to be elected for twelve years, a third retiring 
 ■every four years, the order of retirement being fixed by lot after 
 the first election, when all were to be returned, and subsequently 
 after each general election of one- third, or a casual election of more 
 than one member. In case of a single election to fill a vacancy, 
 the name of member then elected to be placed last on the roll, 
 i.e., last in the order of retirement. The Assembly was to con- 
 sist of thirty-six members, elected by districts ; the Legislative 
 ^Council was to consist of eighteen members, returned by the electors 
 ■of the whole colou}^ voting as one constituency. 
 
 The salaries of the Governor, the Judges, and certain ofiicials 
 were fixed by this Act, and pensions were settled on those officials 
 required to be in' the ministry, in case of their losing their offices, 
 ■so long as they were deprived of those positions ; if they took other 
 -offices the pensions were merged in their salaries, or if the salaries 
 were smaller, they were merged in the pensions. The Judges were 
 lo hold their offices during good behaviour, but nevertheless might 
 be removed by Her Majesty upon the address of both Houses of the 
 South Australian Parliament. Power was given to the Governor 
 to dissolve the House of Assembly, but not the Legislative Council. 
 All money l^ills were to be initiated iu the Assembly, and such 
 Bills and all money votes, resolutions, or appropriations, must be 
 recommended by the Governor, b}^ message to the House of Assem- 
 bly. Government officials, (except cabinet ministers,) judges, and
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 31 
 
 ministers of religion were not to be eligible for election to either 
 branch of the Legislature. This Constitution continued in force 
 without any important alteration for nearly a quarter of a century ; 
 but in 1881, certain changes, which will be specified in another 
 chapter, were made in the constitution of the Upper House. Minis- 
 terial responsibility is the same as in the old countrj', except that 
 members on obtaining seats on the Treasur}^ benches are not sent to 
 their constituents for re-election. There were originally five Cabi- 
 net Ministers, namely, the Chief Secretary, the Attorney General, 
 the Treasurer, the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Immigration, 
 and the Commissioner of Public Works. A few years ago a sixth 
 was appointed, an Act being passed to authorise this. His title is 
 variable, and he may be appointed either as a Minister of Justice, 
 or of Education, or of Agriculture. The present occupant of the 
 office is Minister of Education, controls the postal and telegraph 
 departments, and has charge of the Northern Territor3\ Tlie Com- 
 missioner of Crown Lands looks after agriculture, and the At- 
 torney General has the administration of justice in his department. 
 
 The Electoral Act of 1855-G provided vote by ballot, pre- 
 scribed the duties of returning-officcrs, dispensed with hustings 
 nominations of the English style, forbad the appearance of any 
 candidate at any election meeting after the issue of a writ for the 
 election for which he was a candidate, except for the purpose of 
 recording his vote, and contained stringent provisions against 
 personal solicitation of votes by a candidate, or briber}- by anyone. 
 Nominations were to be in writing, and were to be read by the 
 returning-officer on the day and at the hour aj^pointed in the writ. 
 This Act was superseded four or five years afterwards bj^ another, 
 and the electoral law has been amended and consolidated several 
 times since then ; but the most important principles of the original 
 Act have been preserved, though there have been great improve- 
 ments in the machinery. Candidates are not debarred now from 
 attendins: election meetings from the time the writ is issued; but 
 they must not attend such meetings within twelve hours before 
 the nomination, and from then until the election is over, except for 
 the purpose of voting. 
 
 The first elections for the two Houses took place in March, 
 1857, and the first Parliament met on the 22nd of the followinjr 
 month. Mr. (afterwards Sir) James Hurtle Fisher, was ajjpointed
 
 32 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n 
 
 President of the Legislative Council, and Mr. George Charles 
 Hawker was chosen as Speaker of the Assembly. The population 
 at -this time was not much over 100,000. During the first session 
 the two Houses of Parliament came to loggerheads over their 
 respective privileges with regard to money Bills. The Constitu- 
 tion Act provided that such Bills should be initiated in the 
 Assembly, but placed no other restriction on the Legislative 
 Council with regard to such measures ; and as the Constitution 
 was the creature of a Statute, the powers and privileges of each 
 branch could only be found within the four corners of that 
 Statute. All attempts to draw analogies between the Council 
 and the House of Lords were rejected by the South' Australian 
 Upi^er House as simply absurd. However, the members of the 
 Assembly were resolute, and a compromise was arrived at. The 
 Council agreed not to make amendments in future, but to " sug- 
 " gest " them, and ask for a conference with the Assembly there- 
 upon. This course has rarely been followed, and the practice 
 will probably be abandoned altogether. Where the Constitution 
 fails to prescribe the same rules with regard to the powers of the 
 Upper House as obtain in the old country over financial measures, 
 the defect has been, or will be, supplied by resolutions of the 
 Assembly and submissions of the Council till the practice is 
 established by custom, if indeed it may not already be regarded 
 as so established. 
 
 The first session under the new Constitution was not entirely 
 occupied in sqviabbles between the two Houses, for it was dis- 
 tinguished by the passing of the Real Property Act, one of the 
 most sweeping and beneficial measures of law reform ever adopted 
 in an)^ countr3% The introducer of this scheme, as everybody 
 knows, was Mr. (now Sir) Robert Richard Torrens, who carried it 
 through Parliament against the powerful, and, in some cases, very 
 bitter opposition of the legal profession. The system was briefly 
 explained by Mr. Torrens as an assimilation of the mode of trans- 
 ferring real property to that of transferring ships, and though this 
 notion was much ridiculed, experience has proved that in the 
 majority of transactions in land the jjrocess is almost as simple as 
 the transferring of vessels. The fundamental principle of the Act 
 is conveyance by registration and certificate instead of deeds. All 
 the retrospect is destroyed. In bringing private lands under the
 
 'I '[(il'V'Jil 
 
 \
 
 ITS HISTORY AND KESOUItCES. 33 
 
 Act, the title is carefully inquired into, but when the authorities of 
 the Lands Titles Office are satisfied about that, a clean certificate 
 is given, and the cumbrous deeds disappear. The title is inde- 
 feasible, except in cases of fraud, or adverse and rightful possession 
 when the certificate or a transfer based thereupon was given. In 
 the former case the title is secure in the hands of an innocent per- 
 son, who has purchased from the holder under a certificate fraudu- 
 lently obtained. The party wronged, under such circumstances, 
 recovers from the assurance fund, constituted by a percentage of a 
 halfpenny per pound, levied on all property brought under the Act. 
 That sum amounts to £75,919 13s. lid. ; only eight claims have 
 been made upon it, and only £2,229 lis. lid. paid in satisfaction 
 of such claims. With regard to defeasibility through someone 
 being in adverse and rightful possession, ordinary precaution 
 would prevent anyone from becoming an unfortunate transferee 
 under such circumstances. In the case of misdescription of boun- 
 daries they are corrected, but otherwise the title is indefeasible. 
 The fees for transfer and mortgages are very small. A certificate 
 of title costs £1 ; registering a memorandum of mortgage, 10s. ; 
 other fees in proportion, the expenses being greater by a pound 
 or two in rescuing land from the old system and bringing it 
 under the new. The assistance of a lawyer is not necessary; the 
 transferor and transferee can act for themselves, or employ a 
 broker licensed to conduct such business. Amending Acts have 
 since been passed, but the cardinal principles of the first Act have 
 been carefully preserved. The system has been adopted in all the 
 Australian colonies, and has long been the subject of serious dis- 
 cussion in the old country, where its introduction is only a question 
 of time. All the Crown lands sold since the passing of the first 
 Act, in 1857, are under the Torrens system, and the quantity of 
 land left under the old system is constantly diminishing, purchasers 
 preferring the simple titles of the Ileal Property Act. 
 
 In 1860 the real value of the Wallaroo mines, on Yorke's Penin- 
 sula, were made known. Copper had been discovered on the land 
 years before by Mr. W. W. Hughes, who was a large sheepowner 
 there. He persevered in his endeavors to develop the mineral dis- 
 covery he had made, and his enterprise and determination were 
 rewarded. Great quantities of ore were raised from the original 
 mine. There was a rush of prospectors to the Peninsula. Other 
 
 D
 
 34 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 mines were found ; speculation commenced ; companies were 
 formed ; shares went up to great prices and Avent down again ; 
 townships Avere proclaimed by the Government, and land sj)ecu- 
 lation was added to dabbling in mining shares. In 1861 the 
 Moonta was discovered, and was richer than the Wallaroo mine. 
 The right to this grand property was a matter of dispute and 
 litigation, but it remained in the hands of the proprietors of the 
 Wallaroo mine and some other persons, with whom they shared 
 their good fortune. The Moonta never cost the original proprietors 
 a farthing, and the shareholders have received in dividends 
 £1,072,000. The dividends from the Wallaroo mines and the 
 smelting Avorks, owiied by the same company, amounts to £372,256, 
 no capital having been paid up. The immediate result of these 
 discoveries AA'as the settlement of about 20,000 people about the 
 mines and the seaport of Wallaroo. Agricultural settlement fol- 
 lowed and extended to the southern point of the Peninsula. 
 
 Great strides Avere made in the exploration of the conti- 
 nent, and especially of Sovith Australian territory, Avhile Sir 
 Richard MacDonnell presided over the destinies of the colonj^. 
 Augustus Gregory, Surveyor- General of Queensland, and formerly 
 of Western Australia, proceeded from Brisbane to the Barco, Avhich 
 he folloAved down to Cooper's Creek, with Avhich stream he 
 found it to be identical, and then came to Adelaide, where he 
 Avas Avarmly welcomed. Mr. Babbage and Major Warburton ex- 
 tended our knowledge of the far north in 1857, the former dis- 
 covering some remarkable freshwater springs to the Avest of Lake 
 Gairdner. 
 
 In May, 1850, ]\[r. Stuart, AA^ho was the draughtsman in Capt. 
 Sturt's expedition fourteen or fifteen years before, started for the 
 north coast, and got as far north as lat. 27"^ 12' 30'. He discoA'ered 
 more springs, several creeks, and good grazing country. In No- 
 vember of the same year he Avent to the Avestward of that line of 
 route, and added to his knowledge of the interior. On the 2nd 
 March of tlic folloAving year, Avith tAA'o men and thirteen horses, he 
 made another start, discovered rivers and mountain ranges, and a 
 remarkable formation, Avhich he named Chambers' Pillar, after his 
 friend Mr. James Chambers, at Avhose expense mainly these explo- 
 rations were conducted ; passed 200 miles beyond the centre of the 
 continent, and then returned prostrated by scurvy. Then the Go-
 
 ITS HISTORY AND KESOI^R('J<:S. 35 
 
 vernment took the enterprise up, and Parliament voted £2,500 to 
 assist tlie gallant explorer in crossing the continent from south to 
 north. In December, 1860, he was at Chambers' Creek, and started 
 from there on New Year's Day, 1861, with eleven men and saddle 
 and pack-horses. In Maj^ he discovered Newcastle Water, in lat. 
 17"" 40' S. situated in splendid pastoral country ; but although he 
 made repeated efforts for six Aveeks to reach the coast, he failed. He 
 returned to Adelaide on the 23rd September ; but three months after- 
 wards he was again at Chambers' Creek with a party of ten, and 
 this expedition was entirely successful. The party found abun- 
 dance of water and reached the River Roper on the 2Gtli June, 
 1801, and bearing to the westward of north came to the ocean on 
 the 24th July. / 8 C^-^ . 
 
 Burke and Wills, the ill-fated explorers, got to the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria with two men named Gray and King in February, 
 3.861, and returning died at Cooper's Creek, their lives being sacri- 
 ficed to mismanagement, and to want of bush knowledge on the 
 part of the gallant but impetuous leader. 
 
 John MacKinlay, with a small part}'', was dispatched by the 
 South Australian Government in search of these explorers, who 
 were supposed to have perished, or at least to be in great peril. 
 Beyond Cooper's Creek he found the remains of Gray, who had 
 succumbed to fatigue and hardships; so, thinking the whole party 
 had perished, he made a dash for the north coast, which he reached 
 some distance to the east of the Gulf of Carpentaria. 
 
 Howitt, from Melbourne, cleared up the mystery attaching to 
 the fate of Burke and his two comrades. When they returned to 
 their depot at Cooper's Creek, having left the body o£ Gray in the 
 wilderness, to the northward, they found that the portion of the 
 expedition that should have remained at that depot had deserted 
 them. They endeavored to reach the nearest squatting stations 
 of our colony, but were obliged to give up the attempt, and 
 return to Cooper's Creek, where Wills and Burke successively died, 
 leaving King the sole survivor, who Avas rescued by Howitt. 
 Howitt afterwards conveyed the remains of Burke and Wills to 
 Adelaide, whence they were taken to Melbourne and honored with 
 a public funeral and a monument 
 
 As a consequence of Stuart's discoveries, the Northern 
 Territory — that is all the countr}- between Queensland and
 
 36 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Western Australia, and north of the 26th parallel of latitude — 
 was annexed to South Australia. 
 
 The first railway in the colony — that connecting Adelaide 
 with the Port — was opened soon after Sir Richard MacDonnell's 
 arrival. Before he left lines were conijDleted to Gawler and 
 Kapunda. 
 
 The colony made great progress during Sir Richard Mac- 
 Donnell's rule. Since Sir Henry Young left, at the end of 
 1854, the population had increased nearly 50 per cent , but the 
 revenue had decreased ; owing to the j)eople having recovered from 
 the excitement and extravagance caused by the diggings, they 
 consumed less duty-paying luxuries, and an alteration in the 
 tarifi' also affected the Customs receipts. There was a slight 
 increase in the quantity of land alienated, but the area under 
 cultivation had increased from 129,692 acres to close upon half 
 a million acres. Cattle had increased from under 80,000 to 
 258,342, and the sheep from about a million and three-quarters 
 to nearly three and a half millions. The staple produce exported 
 rose from £694,422 in value to £1,920,487. Copper exports rose 
 from £316,217 to £633,241 ; two years later they had advanced 
 to £1,464,598.
 
 ITS HISTORY AND TvESOURCES. 37 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 1862 TO 1869. 
 
 Sir Dominic Daly — Tlie Judges — Mr. Justice Boothby— Invalidity of South Australian 
 Acts — The " ultra vires" and "repugnancy" mania — Amoval of Mr. Justice Boothby 
 — Validating Acts — Local Courts — Expedition to the Xorthern Territory to establish 
 a settlement — Disputes — Eecall of 3Ir. Finniss, the Government Resident — John 
 MacKinla}'"s expedition — Captain Cadell — The Squatters and Goyder's valuations — 
 Visit of the Duke of Edinburgh — Parliamentary contests, generally about nothing — 
 The Governor's death — Progress. 
 
 Sir Dominic Daly arrived in the colony on the day on which his 
 predecessor left, March 4th, 1862, his last Governorship previously 
 having been Prince Edward's Island, He had been trained in a 
 constitutionally governed colony, having occupied an important 
 official position in Canada, in the troublous times of Lord Dur- 
 ham's rule. On Responsible Government being granted to Canada, 
 he was chosen, at the first elections, to represent a constituency, 
 and held office in the Ministry for some time. Not exhibiting in 
 any high degree the gifts of a public speaker, he nevertheless 
 possessed great sagacity and firmness as a ruler, and these qualities 
 were required during his tenure of the gubei'natorial office in South 
 Australia, for some of the matters he had to deal with were of no 
 small importance, and special difficulties and responsibility were 
 attached to them. 
 
 The Governor's first great trouble was with the judicial bench ; 
 and as the representative of the Sovereign, and the ruler of a 
 people whose instinct it is to reverence the ermine, he had to avoid 
 even the appearance of impairing the indejaendence of the Judges, 
 while at the same time upholding the principle that the law is 
 above even the Judges, and that their duty is to administer and 
 not to obstruct it. For the first few years of the colony's history 
 there was only one Judge, but as the work of the Supreme Court 
 increased, it was thought desirable to have a second, and in Feb-
 
 38 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 ruaiy of tlie year ]850, Mr. Crawford, aa Irish barrister, was 
 appointed as a colleague of Mr. (now Sir Charles Cooper), who suc- 
 ceeded Sir John JefFcott, the first Judge of South Australia. Mr, 
 Justice Crawford died in the colony in September, 1852, and Mr. 
 Benjamin Boothby, Recorder of Pontefract, was chosen as his suc- 
 cessor, and arrived in the colony in the following year. Soon after 
 his arrival he manifested a dislike to colonial enactments, which 
 he did not attempt to conceal, and this tendency constantly in- 
 creased. 
 
 In 1858 Mr. Gwynne, a leading practitioner at the bar was- 
 appointed Third Judge under authority of an Act of the South 
 Australian Legislature passed in that year. In 1861 Sir Charles 
 Cooj)er resigned the Chief Justiceship ; and Mr. (afterwards Sir) 
 Richard Hanson, who had occupied the office of Advocate-General 
 for six years, and, subsequently to the introduction of responsible 
 Government, that of Attorney- General for several years till the 
 Ministry of which he was a member went out of office, and was 
 recognised as the leader of the bar, and the foremost politician of 
 the colony, was appointed his successor. Against this appoint- 
 ment Mr. Justice Boothby protested as wholly illegal, but his 
 colleagues overruled him. After this his astuteness in discovering^ 
 in colonial Acts repugnanc}^ to Imperial law became intensified 
 till the words " repugnant " and " ultra vires " seemed to figure 
 necessarily in the proceedings of every sittings of the Supreme 
 Court. He declared on the Bench that the appointment of Mr. 
 Justice Gwynne, as well as that of the Chief Justice; was invalid, 
 and that they were not Judges at all. Twice the Parliament 
 passed addresses for Mr. Justice Boothby's removal from the 
 Bench, bvit in vain. He had warm defenders in Parliament, and 
 one Ministry resigned on account of diSerences of opinion in 
 Cabinet with regard to the action to be taken upon addresses for 
 the Judge's removal. Some of his decisions against the validity 
 of South Australian Statutes were confirmed on appeal to the Pri^y 
 Council, and this greatlj^ encouraged him in his warfare against 
 things colonial. Several validating Acts were passed by the Im- 
 perial Parliament to give force to South Australian laws, or 
 remove doubts concerning them. Still the Judge was not more 
 practicable. Suitors suffered seriously from the delays and obstruc- 
 tion in the Supreme Court, and at last business in that tribunal
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 39 
 
 was brought into such a condition that it was necessary for the 
 Executive to take decided action. 
 
 Several j^ears before Mr. Justice Boothby arrived in the 
 colony grand juries had been abolished, the Parliament regarding 
 them as useless. Soon, if not immediately, after his arrival the 
 Judge expressed his strong disapproval of this innovation, but 
 still he tried prisoners without grand juries for about thirteen 
 years, and then at a particularly heavy criminal sittings declared 
 that the accused persons on the calendar could not legally be 
 tried without a grand jury. They were all kept in gaol or had 
 their bail renewed, as the case might be, till the next criminal 
 sittings, when another Judge tried them. This was the occasion 
 of the second unsuccessful Parliamentary Address to the Queen 
 for Mr. Justice Boothby 's removal. He was not allowed to 
 preside at a criminal sittings again ; when his turn came round 
 he was prevented by a Special Commission to the Chief Justice, 
 directing him to try the prisoners. In 1867 the patience of the 
 Judicial Bench, the bar, and the colonists was exhausted. 
 
 Charges were made against Mr. Justice Boothby of obstruct- 
 ing the administration of justice, and of unseemly conduct on 
 the Bench, as exhibited in his demeanor towards his colleagues 
 and towards counsel. These charges were dealt with by the 
 Executive Council under the authority of an Act of George 
 III., the Governor presiding, and the Judge was " amoved." 
 The Crown Solicitor, Mr. Wearing, afterwards drowned in the 
 wreck of the Gothenbunj in Torres Straits, was appointed to suc- 
 ceed him. 
 
 Out of all this trouble some benefit accrued to the colony. 
 The amoved judge had accurately ruled that, owing to some omis- 
 sion in bringing the new Constitution into force, the Legislature 
 itself was invalid, and this defect was remedied by the Imperia 
 Parliament. The repugnancy nuisance was effectually disposed of 
 Nothing can now be ruled repugnant unless it is so to an Imj)erial 
 Act specifically applying to the colonies. The last Imperial vali- 
 dating statute was of a most comprehensive character. "With the 
 exception we have stated, no colonial Act can be ruled invalid after 
 receiving the Queen's assent, or after a proclamation that she has 
 not exercised her power of disallowance. 
 
 The greatest inconvenience and alarm was caused in the year
 
 40 SOUTH AUSTKALIA: ^ 
 
 1865 by a decision of the majority of the Judges— namely (Justices 
 Boothby and Gwynne) that the South Australian Legislature had 
 no power to establish Courts of Judicature. This invalidated all 
 the Local Courts of the colony, they having jurisdiction in civil 
 cases up to £100, and the Insolvency Court. The Imperial Vali- 
 dating Act however, settled this difficidty, greatly to the relief of 
 suitors in particular and the public generally. The powers of the 
 Local Court of Appeal were enlarged by an Act of the South 
 Australian parliament passed in 1861. This anomalous tribunal 
 consisting of the Executive, of whom nearly all are laymen, owes 
 its continued existence to the recollection the colonists have of the 
 "repugnancy" and ^' ultra tires" troubles. 
 
 About two years after Sir Dominic Daly's arrival, the first two 
 expeditions were despatched to the Northern Territory to establish 
 a settlement there. This was a necessary consequence of the an- 
 nexation of that portion of the continent to South Australia, for it 
 was never supposed that the Territorj^ would be allowed to remain 
 undeveloped. In April, 1864, a party of about forty officers and 
 men, under the command of ]Mr. (soon afterwards the Honorable) 
 B. T. Finniss, was despatched by the sailing vessel " Henry Ellis" 
 to the north coast. Mr. Finniss was appointed Government Hesi- 
 dent, and was to go in the first instance to Adam Bay, which was 
 strongly recommended as the site for the capital ; but he was to 
 secure certain advantages in the harbor and the locality chosen for 
 the first settlement, and was free to select any other spot intead of 
 Adam Ba3% He remained there, however, against the protests 
 of the representatives of land order holders, who arrived with a 
 second party of about forty officers and men in December of the 
 same j'ear, and against the opinion of nearly all his officers. Dis- 
 agreements arose in the party ; scarcely any progress was made in 
 the surveys ; and late in 1865 the Hon. B. T. Finniss was recalled 
 and Mr. John MacKinlay was sent to explore the countr5^ Unfor- 
 tunately he was despatched at such a period of the j^ear that he 
 arrived at Adam Bay just before the commencement of the rainy 
 season. He travelled with his party south eastward, and they 
 were imprisoned on the bank of the East Alligator till they had 
 eaten most of their horses. Then iinder the direction of their 
 leader, ever fertile in expedients, and the cleverest bushman Aus- 
 tralia has produced, they killed the rest of the horses, dried the
 
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 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 41 
 
 flesh for food, and with the skins and saplings constructed a 
 launch, with which they sailed down the river and along the coast 
 to Adam Bay. MacKinlay afterwards examined Anson Bay, of 
 which he gave a favorable account. While he was in the Terri- 
 tory, a Commission, appointed to inquire into the whole adminis- 
 tration of affairs at Adam Bay, condemned the site and Mr. 
 Finniss' management of affairs. Mr. Manton, the second in com- 
 mand, remained in charge until it should be decided where to fix 
 the capital. About 15,000 acres of land were surveyed, besides 
 the town, and then nothing more was done for several years. At 
 last the party were brought back, and for a 3'ear not a European 
 was in the Territory. Captain Cadell was sent to explore the 
 coast, and he furnished a rejDort principally relating to the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria. Nothing more was done to settle the Territory 
 during Sir Dominic Daly's life. 
 
 One matter of great consequence that had to be dealt with 
 during Sir Dominic's Governorship, was the rent to be imposed upon 
 the pastoral lands held by the squatters. They had paid a trifling- 
 rent, but the attention of the public and Parliament had been 
 called to the practicability and propriety of the State receiving a 
 fair revenue from the waste lands engaged by the shepherd kings, 
 and Mr. Goyder, the Surveyor- General, was employed by the 
 Government to value the runs, or estimate the rent that should be 
 paid upon them. His valuations were denounced by the persons 
 affected as exorbitant and unjust, but they were confirmed. The 
 disjaute was very warm in and out of Parliament, and several years 
 later the squatters in the district countr}^ to the north, north-east, 
 and north-west received large concessions in the shape of remissions 
 of rent, owing to their heavy losses sustained through a severe and 
 protracted drought. 
 
 In 1867 a notable event in colonial existence was the visit of 
 His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, the first member of 
 the Royal Family who had visited Australia. The Prince was re- 
 ceived with great enthusiasm, and during the few weeks he was in 
 the colonj^, saw a great deal of it. He officiated at various im- 
 portant public ceremonies, and laid the foundation stones of the 
 college which bears his name, and of the post office, which is a 
 noble building, considered by some people too magnificent for the 
 requirements of the colony. It is, however, more than a post
 
 42 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ^ 
 
 office ; it is also the general telegraph office, and furnishes accom- 
 modation for the Education Department. 
 
 The Parliamentary proceedings during Sir Dominic Daly's ad- 
 ministration, as a rule, possessed only ephemeral interest. Apart 
 from the judicial difficulty, there could hardly be said to be any 
 •great questions disposed of. There was brilliant debating, especi- 
 ally in the Lower House, but a stranger at the time witnessing, or 
 a colonist looking back upon those animated contests, could hardly 
 tell exactly what they were all about. Ministries were changed 
 raj)idly, sometimes for not very sufficient causes, but their advent 
 to office or ejection from it did not mark the triumph of any im- 
 portant principle. The Governor was calm and impartial through- 
 out all the strife, and thoroughly loyal to whatever ministry was in 
 power. During the last year or two of his administration, his 
 health failed rapidly, and on the 19tli February, 1868, he died at 
 Government House. The colonists mourned their loss deeply, for 
 Sir Dominic Daly was respected and trusted as a Governor, and his 
 genial though dignified manner, and the evident interest he took 
 in all movements calculated to benefit the colony made him univers- 
 ally popular. 
 
 The colony had continued to progress under Sir Dominic 
 Daly's rule, though not so raj)idly as during the previous half 
 dozen years. The population had grown from 135,329 in 1862, to 
 176,298 in 1868 ; the revenue had increased from £548,709 to 
 £716,004 ; in 1865 it was £1,089,129. It must be observed, that 
 in these statements of revenue proceeds of land sales are included. 
 The land alienated in the first-named year amounted to 129,910 
 acres, and in 1868 to 199,693 acres. Land under cultivation in- 
 creased from 494,511 to 808,234 acres ; cattle decreased from 
 258,342 to 123,213, but sheep increased from 3,431,000 to 
 4,987,024. Exports of staple produce advanced in value from 
 £1,920,487 to £2,603,826. There had, owing to a bad harvest, 
 been a fall in the export of breadstufis, but the wool shipment had 
 risen from £635,270 to £1,305,280. The progress in railway con- 
 struction was sliglit, only four miles more were open for traffic in 
 1868 than eight years previously. The total length of our lines at 
 the end of the last year was sixty miles.
 
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 ITvS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 43- 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 1869 TO 1873. 
 
 Colonel Hamlej' — Sti-angways' Act — Killing a squattei' — Sir James Fergusson — Fiu'- 
 ther amendment of the land system — -The transcontinental telegraph — Gold dis- 
 coveries in the Northern Territory — Forrest's journey by Eyre's route from 
 "Western Australia to Fowler's Bay — Kaih\'ays Progress. 
 
 Sir James Fergusson, Bart., now Governor of Bombaj^, who was 
 appointed to succeed Sir Dominic Daly, did not exhibit any im- 
 petuous haste to enter upon his new sphere of activity, for the 
 Acting Governor, Lieutenant-Colonel Francis Gilbert Hamley, who- 
 was sworn in on the 20th February, 1868, held office for nearly 
 twelve months. Sir James not arriving till the 14th February of 
 the following year. Colonel Hamley won golden opinions from 
 the colonists while he held the reins of power, and he steered safely 
 through the difficulties attending two ministerial crises and changes 
 of Cabinet. During his ride the first substantial reform in the 
 land system of the colony was effected. At this time farmers 
 wished to get their land cheaper than hitherto, but the price 
 obtained for the land by the Government was of minor conse- 
 quence ; the real grievance was the impossibility of the bond fide 
 farmer competing at all with the squatter and the capitalist in the 
 auction room. From the foundation of the colony until the passing 
 of the Waste Lands Act of 1868-9, the average price per acre, in- 
 cluding town lands, obtained by the Government was only £1 5s. 
 6d. ; but the farmers paid to the capitalists and land jobbers £o, 
 £5, and up to £10 an acre, and occasionally even higher rates. 
 The State profited nothing by the existing system ; the farmers and 
 the country suffered greatly. The leading object of reform then 
 was to protect the agricidturists from the competition they had 
 been subjected to at land sales. For this object what is known as 
 Strangways' Act was passed, and, since then, with competition 
 limited to farmers, the average price of land up to the end of 1882
 
 44 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: ^ 
 
 was £1 6s. lOd., so that Is. 4d. more per acre has been obtained 
 under the reformed system for lands inferior in quality or position 
 than was given for the pick of the country at open auction. 
 The legislator whose name this Statute bears had never dis- 
 tinguished himself by any earnestness in the cause of land 
 reform ; but having induced the Assembl}^ to eject a Ministry that 
 was in earnest in its endeavors to accomplish that great object, 
 he formed a Cabinet, and carried through Parliament the first Act 
 that made special provision for the encouragement of agricul- 
 tural settlement. Previousl}^, till within a few years, it was 
 generally held as a sound principle, that all tlie State had to do 
 with the land was to sell it, without troubling about the uses to 
 which it was put afterwards, or whether the progress of agricul- 
 ture was promoted or impeded by the operation. 
 
 " Killing a Squatter," was a favorite device witli impecunious 
 Treasvirers in those days. Money was wanted, so a sheep or cattle 
 run leased from the Grovernment was declared a "Hundred," — the 
 lessor having the right to resume the land for agricultural purjDoses, — 
 surveyed, and offered for sale by auction, when of course the 
 squatter secured all he could afford to purchase ; land-sharks grab- 
 bed the rest, and the farmers, who would have gladly given more 
 than the average price obtained for the land, could not compete 
 with the monej^ed men. In this way, some of the large estates of 
 40,000, 50,000, and 60,000 acres, in this colony, have been ac- 
 quired. 
 
 All this was changed in 1869. Though. Strangways' Act was 
 far from perfect, and led to dummyism, or the acquisition of estates 
 by monopolists, through the medium of sham pui"chasers, still it 
 ■broke up the old system, and further reforms quickly followed. 
 The Act established sales on four years' credit, for the full amount 
 of the purchase money. Five per cent, per annum was charged, 
 and the four years' interest had to be paid in advance at the time 
 of purchase. Land might be so sold, on credit, at auction sales ; 
 but agricultural areas were proclaimed, and the lands within them 
 could not, in the first instance, be offered at auction, but were open 
 for selection, and simultaneous applications for a particular block, 
 were decided by lot. Land that had been passed at auction, might 
 be selected immediately. Lands in the Agricultural Areas that 
 liad been open for selection for two years, at £1 per acre, and not
 
 ITS HISTORY AND Ill<:SOUIlCES. 45. 
 
 taken, might bo sold by auction. In these areas the lands were- 
 classified and priced accordingly. If not selected, the price was 
 lowered once, twice^ or oftener, till the minimum of £1 was 
 reached. No person might hold at one time more than 640 acres 
 on credit. There were residence and improvement conditions. 
 
 Many genuine farmers availed themselves of this Act, which 
 gave a great impetus to agriculture ; but it was soon found that it 
 gave enormous facilities to land monopoly. The term of credit waS' 
 too short, and at the end of four years, the dummies sold to their 
 employers; and perhaps some selectors who had started with the 
 intention of holding their lands as farmers, were tempted by high 
 prices, to sell to the capitalist or squatter. Then, although a per- 
 son might not have more than a square mile on credit at one time, 
 he might, as soon as he had sold it, get another on credit. As a 
 consequence of these Aveak points in the measure, the land jobbers 
 were uncommonly active, and an amending statute was seen to be 
 of absolute necessity. 
 
 A few months after Sir James Fergusson assumed office as 
 Governor, a short amending Act was passed. The term of credit 
 was extended from four to five years, with a right of renewal for 
 three years. The amount of interest to be paid in advance at the 
 time of sale, was reduced from four to three years. The sum to be 
 expended in improvements during the first four years was lowered 
 from 12s. 6d. to 10s. per acre. The selector might complete his. 
 purchase at the end of three years if he had laid out 10s. per 
 acre on imjjrovements, and fulfilled the other conditions of the lease. 
 This little Act, it will be seen, did not heal the defects of the for- 
 mer measure in any material degree, or make dummyism and the 
 accumulation of estates by land monopolists less easy. In the 
 session of 1870-71, another amending Act was passed. It reduced 
 the interest to 31 per cent., and required three 3'ears' interest to be 
 paid in advance at the time of sale. At the end of the three years 
 an equal amount of interest had to be paid in advance. So care- 
 lessly was this statute drafted, that it professed to define the terms 
 "cultivation" or "cultivate" in the Act of 1868-9, whereas nei- 
 ther of those terms appeared in that Act. 
 
 In 1872, an amending Act, on a larger scale, was passed re- 
 lating to the sale of waste lands for farming purposes. It repealed 
 Strangways' Act, and the statutes amending it, and made other-
 
 -46 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 provisions in lieu tliereof. It left untoiiclied the Scrub Lands Act 
 of 1866 — that I have not hitherto referred to — which provided for 
 the leasing of inferior or scrub lands in square mile blocks, for 21 
 years, at 10s. per square mile, with right of purchase at any time 
 during the currency of the lease, at £1 per acre. The minimum 
 price of land was kept at £1 per acre, and the maximum at £2. 
 If offered at any price above a pound, the price was to be reduced 
 by 2s. 6d. per acre every seven days, till the minimum was reached. 
 In the case of reclaimed or improved lands, the cost of reclamation 
 •or improvements was to be added to the price. Selection by appli- 
 cation, and determination by lot, between simultaneous applications, 
 were preserved. The area to be held by any person, on credit, 
 was kept at 640 acres. Six years' credit were still given, there 
 being two pajmients of three years' interest at 83 per cent, in ad- 
 vance. At the end of six years, however, the selector might pay 
 half his purchase money, and obtain four years credit for the other 
 half at 4 per cent, interest, payable annually in advance. Resi- 
 dence, cultivation, and improvement conditions were retained, but 
 -the residence conditions might be relaxed by the Commissioner of 
 ^Crown Lands in certain cases, when substituted residence would be 
 permitted. This Act contained stringent clauses against evasions 
 of its provisions. Auction sales were still continued for cash and 
 •on credit, and there were special provisions in former statutes with 
 regard to town, suburban, arid mineral lands. 
 
 In 1859, the Government determined to survey the land they 
 liad covenanted to convey to the holders of Northern Territory 
 land order holders, and despatched Mr. Goyder for that purpose. 
 As a compensation for the dcilays that had occurred, they were 
 ■offered double the area they agreed to take for the same lumj) sum, 
 but most of the purchasers demanded their money back and got it, 
 .after litigation. I must, however, reserve fuller notice of the 
 Northern Territory for a subsequent chapter, specially devoted to 
 -that portion of the Province. 
 
 It fell to Sir James Fergusson's lot, as Governor of South 
 Australia, to inaugurate the establishment of telegraphic com- 
 munication between Australia and the old world. The honor of 
 first suggesting this bold enterprise undoubtedly belongs to Mr. 
 Todd, Avho, as a consequence of Gregory's journey rom Victoria 
 Iliver across the continent to Adelaide, wrote in the year 1809 to
 
 ITS HISTORY AND llESOUUCES. 47 
 
 the then Governor, Sir Richard ]\racDonncll, urging that the 
 work should be undertaken, setting forth the advantages of the 
 scheme to South Australia and the whole group of colonies, and 
 giving an estimate of the cost, which he considered would bo 
 about £178,000. His project was to start from Mount Remark- 
 able, about 190 miles from Adelaide, and construct the line from 
 that point to the River Victoria. The Governor, in a despatch 
 dated October 10th, 1859, submitted this project to the considera- 
 tion of the Duke of Newcastle, Secretary of State for the Colonies. 
 Two or three years later Mr. Todd read a paper before the Ade- 
 laide Philosophical Society on the scheme, detailing the manner 
 in which he proposed to carry it out. Of course the work was 
 made ranch simpler and easier by Stuart's feat of crossing the 
 continent and reaching the Indian Ocean about Yan Dieman's 
 Gulf in 1862, and by the subsequent annexation of the Northern 
 Territory to South Australia. In 1870 the work was commenced. 
 Queensland had. hoped that the cable would be brought to her 
 territor}', but Mr. Todd, Superintendent of South Australian 
 Telegraphs, successfully negotiated with Mr. Noel Osborne, the 
 representative of the British Australian Telegraph Company, who 
 called at Adelaide on his way to Brisbane^ and an agreement was 
 entered into by which that company undertook to lay the cable to 
 Port Darwin, where it was to be met b}^ the land line from 
 Port Augusta. It was a bold enterprise for a little colony with 
 a population of about 150,000 to undertake the construction of 
 1,800 miles of telegraph through a country most of which was a 
 terra incognita, or at least had not been travelled through by any 
 white men except the explorer Stuart and his gallant band. For 
 a great part of the region to be traversed water was scarce, and 
 the natural supplies manj^ miles apart. Some of the wooden poles 
 had to be carted great distances, up to a hundred miles, and for a 
 large portion of the line iron poles were used. 
 
 The work was divided into three sections. The southern 
 and northern sections, about six hundred miles each, were let to 
 private contractors, the Government undertaking the central por- 
 tion. The whole work was under the superintendence of Mr. 
 Todd. The Government section ■\^■as constructed most rapidly ; 
 it was finished within the period allotted for the completion of 
 the whole line, and the party also constructed about two hundred
 
 48 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 miles of the northern section. The southern contractor was but 
 little behind his time ; but the northern contractor, who had the 
 easiest portion of the line, failed utterly, and it was necessary for 
 the Goyernment to take the work into their own hands. The 
 Assistant- Engineer, Mr. Patterson, was despatched to Port Darwin 
 with a strong party; but selecting that port as a base of operations 
 was a great mistake. The contractors had put up the line for a 
 distance of about seventy miles from Port Darwin inland, and the 
 materials and men to proceed with the work from that point 
 should have been taken to the Gulf of Carpentaria and up the 
 Poper River, so saving about 200 miles of cartage. Mr. Pat- 
 terson's party failed as completely as the contractors had, and Mr, 
 Todd was then placed in charge of another expedition, which 
 he took up the Roper, and after a little delay, through a very wet 
 season, carried on oj)erations with great activity and without 
 further hitch. 
 
 The line was to have been finished in twenty months, and open 
 by the 22nd Aug-ust of that year. The Cable Company had been 
 waiting and complaining, but strange to say, when the land line 
 was finished the cable communication was interrupted and was not 
 restored for two months afterwards. The opening of telegraphic 
 communication with the whole world was celebrated by a banquet 
 at the Town Plall of Adelaide, presided over by Sir James Fergus- 
 son, who announced that Her Majesty had, in honor of the great 
 work completed bestowed upon Mr. Henry Ayers, who was Chief 
 Secretary at the time, a knighthood, and upon Mr. Todd the title 
 of C.M.G. It should be mentioned, that Mr. Strangways was- 
 Premier when it was resolved to commence the work, and that Sir 
 James Fergusson gave his warmest support to the scheme, which 
 was also strongly advocated by the late Mr. John Hart, Mr. Ross, 
 and other prominent public men. 
 
 Since the opening of the line, the interruptions have been 
 rare and brief, especially on the land line, which is the most 
 reliable of any intercolonial wire in Australia. The amount first 
 voted by the South Australian Parliament for the undertaking 
 was £120,000, but it has cost over half a million, the extraordinary 
 excess over the estimate being caused principally by the blunder 
 in sending Mr. Patterson to Port Darwin instead of the Roper, 
 and by the ravages of the white ants rendering it necessary
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 49 
 
 to substitute iron for Avooden poles along hundreds of miles of the 
 line. 
 
 The telegraph does not directly yield revenue enough to pay 
 much more than working expenses and interest on the cost of con- 
 struction, but its indirect benefits have been immense. Apart from 
 the gain to commerce necessarih* arising through the electric wire 
 with Europe and the rest of the world, this line has facilitated ex- 
 ploration, promoted pastoral occupation of the interior, and largely 
 aided in the settlement of the Northern Territory. While the 
 project was warmly recommended by the Governor and several 
 leading politicians of the colony, to Mr. Todd must be awarded 
 the chief merit for carrying to a successful issue so bold and difficult 
 an enterprise. It would be impossible to overpraise the intelli- 
 gence and readiness of resource displayed by his officers, or the 
 qualities of pluck, endurance, determination, and discipline they 
 " exhibited, in common with the men under them, throughout the 
 arduous undertaking by which they laid not only their own colony 
 but all Australia under a deep debt of obligation, that can hardly 
 be exaggerated. 
 
 Some of the men employed on the Northern Territory portion 
 of the work discovered gold, which led to prospecting parties ex- 
 amining the country ; and their reports and finds produced a rush 
 and a mining scrip mania in the years 1872 and 1873, followed 
 naturally by a panic in shares, and a collapse. Since then, how- 
 ever, mining in the Northern Territory has been conducted in a 
 more legitimate manner with considerable success. 
 
 Mr. John Forrest's journey from Xing George's Sound to 
 Fowler's Bay, along the coast, by the route Eyre travelled thirty 
 years before, was accomplished in 1870. The earlier explorer's 
 descriptions of the country were fully confirmed. There was good 
 grass land in some parts of the territor}^ traversed, but a scarcity 
 of water, which was only obtained in the sandhills close to the sea. 
 From Fowler's Bay the explorer and his party proceeded to Denial 
 Bay, then across to Port Augusta, and from there to Adelaide, 
 where they met with a cordial welcome. 
 
 During: Sir James Ferffusson's regime, the railwav from 
 Adelaide to the Burra was completed, ajso the tramway from 
 Strathalbyn to Middle ton, where it joins the line of a similar cha- 
 racter connecting: Goolwa with Port Victor. Sir James saw an
 
 50 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 increase in the length of our iron roads from 60 to 133 miles. In 
 neither total are included the private tramways on Yorke's Penin- 
 sula, several years ago purchased by the Government, and altered 
 so as to bear locomotive traffic. Sir James advocated a bold public 
 works policy, somewhat on the lines followed three years after he 
 left the colony. 
 
 The date of his departure was the 18tli April, 1873. Since 
 1868, the year of Sir Dominic Daly's death, the population had in- 
 creased by about 22,000 persons, and had nearl3^ reached 200,000. 
 The revenue rose from £716,004 to £972,814. Land alienated, 
 199,693 acres in the former year and 357,594 in the latter, show- 
 ing the effect of the amendment of the land system. In the same 
 period the land under cultivation increased from 808,234 to 
 1,225,073 acres. Cattle increased from 123,213 head to 174,381, 
 and sheep from 4,987,024 to 5,617,419. There was an increase in 
 staple exports from £2,603,8 J6 to £4,285,191.
 
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 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 51 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 1873 TO 1877. 
 
 Sir Anthony Musgrave — The Chief Justice — The Boucant policy — AVreck of the Gothen- 
 burg and loss of lives, including Judge Wearing and the Hon. Thomas Reynolds- 
 Mr. R. I. Stow appointed judge — ■Ne^y Parliament — Increase in number of mem- 
 bers — The Blyth Ministry defeated and succeeded by the Boucaut Cabinet — Stamp 
 Duties Bill rejected by the Legislative Council — Second session, and Bill again 
 rejected — Mr. Boucaut refuses to proceed with his Public Works Bills— Education 
 Act — Sir Richard D. Hanson's death — Mr. Way appointed Chief Justice — Mr. 
 Boucaut constructs new Ministry, without any of his old colleagues — Ejected from 
 office — Tlie Colton ^Ministry — Stamp duties abandoned — Probate and Succession 
 Duties carried— £3,000,000 borrowed— Railway Bills carried— First Private 
 Tramway Bill — New Tariff — Border Duties Convention — Sundry legislation — Sir 
 Anthony Musgrave's departure — Eucla telegraph— Progress. 
 
 Sir James Fergusson's term of office expired on the I8tli 
 April, 1873, but he left the colony on leave of absence on the 
 7th December of the previous year. He was succeeded by Mr. 
 Anthony Musgrave, who took the oaths of office on the Oth.June,. 
 the Chief Justice, Sir Richard Davies Hanson, having adminis- 
 tered the govei'nment during the seven months' interregnum. Mr. 
 Musgrave's last Grovernorship previously was of Natal, and before 
 then his official experience had been in the West Indies, During 
 his stay in South Australia he received the honor of knighthood. 
 His rule in South Australia was of an eventful character. The 
 political crises had some interest on account of the issues at stake,, 
 and a new, bold, and comprehensive public worivs policy was in- 
 augurated, from which the colony received a great impetus, and at 
 the same time incurred the responsibility of a heavy debt — which,, 
 however, is nearl}' all represented by substantial improvements,, 
 and of these a large portion return a direct income above working 
 expenses, independently of the indirect advantages arising from 
 roads, railways, telegraphs, and harbor improvements. During 
 the first two years of Sir Anthony Musgrave's rule, Mr. (now Sir)
 
 52 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Arthur Birth's Ministry was in power, and the main ground of 
 attack on the part of the Opposition was that the Government 
 lacked decision and boldness, did not tippreciate the capabilities of 
 the country, and neglected to carry out with energy those great 
 works essential to the proper develojoraent of the vast resources 
 of South Australia. Mr. James Penn Boucaut. now a Judge of 
 the Supreme Court, thougli perhaps not absolutely the originator 
 of the policy which bears his name, and the adoption of which 
 marks an important era in the history and advancement of the 
 colony, nevertheless formulated it, presented it to the consideration 
 of the electors, expounded and defended it, and aroused public en- 
 thusiasm on its behalf. In 1875, at the general election for the 
 Assembh', it Avas evident that Mr. Boucaut and his policy had 
 carried the day, and from that time the Blyth administrat-ion was 
 regarded as moribund. 
 
 In that year a great calamity overtook the colony. Mr. 
 Justice Wearing was despatched by the steamer Gothenburg to the 
 JN^orthern Ttrritory, to hold a circuit court at Port Darwin. He 
 was accompanied by Mr. Pelham, Judge's Associate, and Mr. J. J. 
 Whitby, a practitioner of the Supreme Court, who had engaged to 
 act as Crown Prosecutoi'. On the return voyage there were a 
 number of well-known colonists on board, who were coming back 
 to Adelaide. Among thcni wore the Hon. Thomas Peynolds, who 
 had for years been a leading politician, had held office in a number 
 of Ministries, of two of which he was Premier, and his wife ; Dr. 
 Milner ayid his wife ; the; wife ;ind famih' of the Government Pesi- 
 dent, Mr. Price. All these and other South Australians, whose 
 names were familiar to the public, besides the Judge and Messrs. 
 Pelhani and Whitb}^ were drowned. The captain, though a re- 
 liable able seaman, got out of his course and was too far to the 
 eastward, when, on the evening of the 24th of Februar}^, the 
 steamer sti-uck upon a reef At first, though the weather was 
 rough, danger was not suspected, but tlie wind increasing in 
 violence, heavy seas oroke over the vessel and she became a total 
 wreck. Only twenty-two of the passengers and crew were saved ; 
 they esciped in boats, and the lost nun)bered one hinidred and two, 
 including all the officers of the vessel, and all the women and 
 children. The news created a profound sensation thoughout the 
 colony and wide-spread grief, for bereavement was carried into
 
 ITS HISTORY AND lUvSOURCES. 53 
 
 many domestic circles. The flags were half-masted in the city and 
 at Port Adelaide ; feeling references were made to the calamity at 
 the Supreme Court and in churches ; subscriptions were raised for 
 those of the bereaved who were in want of aid through tiie loss of 
 their protectors and breadwinners, and, when Parliament met, 
 allowances were voted to the families of the Judge and Mr. 
 Wliitby. 
 
 The vacancy on the Judicial Bench was filled by the appoint- 
 ment of Mr. Pandolph Isham Stow, Q.C., who for fourteen years 
 had been the acknowledged leader of the bar, and had also won 
 reputation as a Minister of the Crown and a Parliamentary debater. 
 About fourteen months later Sir Pichard Hanson died suddenly 
 from affection of the heart, and Mr. Samuel J. Way, Q.C., who had 
 led the bar since Mr. Stow's elevation, was fippointod Chief Justice. 
 
 When the new Assen:bly met in I'^TS, no time was lost in 
 turning the Ministry out, Mr. Poucaut moving the motion of no- 
 confidence, and thus formally securing the position, already 
 accorded to him by the majority, of leader of his party and former 
 of the next ]Ministr3\ An Act was passed in 1872 increasing the 
 number of members b}^ ten, and this session of 1875 was the first in 
 which forty- six members sat. The change has been most beneficial 
 in promoting the stability of Governments. With only thirty-six 
 members, a crisis was almost always imminent, and the tactics, 
 ability, and caution of Ministers were constantly strained to the 
 uttermost in the effort to retain their hold of the Treasury benches. 
 This was a sad hindrance to useful legislation ; but the addition of 
 ten members made a wonderful change for the better. The Boucaut 
 Government formed in 1875 would have lasted for three years, but 
 for the breach in its ranks by the appointment of Mr. Way to the 
 Chief Justiceship. The same may be said of the next Boucaut 
 Cabinet, and as a matter of fact substantially the same Ministry, 
 with the same policy, held ofiice for more than three years. Though 
 the Premier in 1^78 was made a Judge, the Chief Secretary, Mr. 
 (now Sir William) Morgan, reformed the Cabinet, with no change 
 of policy, simply taking in another member in place of Mr. Boucaut. 
 The Bray Ministr}' is now in its third session. Perhaps Ministerial 
 crises will be more frequent again lor the next few j'ears, but if so, 
 the reason will be found in acute differences of opinion respecting 
 taxation, not in an overmastering propensitj^ to change.
 
 M SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 In the session of 1875, Mr. Boucaut's policy was to borrow 
 about £-"5, 000, 000 for public works, and impose stamp duties and 
 probate and succession duties, the amount he expected from the 
 new taxes being about £tiO,000. He did not think it right to 
 incur the liability of fresh payments of interest on loans without 
 making some jarovision for revenue to meet the additional expen- 
 diture. This taxation was called by himself the kej'stone of his 
 policy. The proposed taxes were sanctioned by the Assembly, 
 and rejected by the Legislative Council. After a recess of five 
 weeks, the Parliament Avas convened for a second session, when the 
 taxation Bill was ajjain passed by the Lower House and thrown 
 -out by the Upper Chamber. Mr. Boucaut then refused to submit 
 his railway and other public works Bills, and Parliament was 
 prorogued. 
 
 The first session of 1875 had not been completely barren. 
 The most important measure was the Education x\.ct, which placed 
 the system of State education upon a sounder basis than it had 
 previously occupied. This was the first legislation on the subject 
 since 1851, and the xVct of that year had become quite inadequate 
 to the requirements of the times. The new Act abolished the old 
 Board of Itducation, and provided a Council and a Chief Inspector, 
 -who was to bo chiiirman of that body. New life was at once 
 infused into the State schools of the colony. Inefficient teachers 
 •were got rid of; the standard of education was raised ; the in- 
 spection of schools improved ; and method and greater accuracy 
 enforced with regard to i-eturns and discipline. Since then model 
 -schools have been established ; several hundred thousand pounds 
 •have been expended in new school-houses ; a Training School and 
 a Girls' Advanced School have been founded ; and provisions have 
 been made, by scholarships and in otlicr ways, to encourage talented 
 and deserving scholars of all classes of society to acquire the 
 •higher branches of education. Tlie authors of the new system 
 -were determined, they said, to lay open an educational road, even 
 from the gutter to the University. Tlie Council of Education was 
 abolished in 1878 and the control and administration of the 
 department was vested in the Minister of Education, to whom the 
 Chief Inspector is directly responsible. 
 
 During the recess of 1875-6 Sir Richard Hanson's death 
 occurred, and when the Attorney-General, Mr. Way, was ap-
 
 ITS HISTORY AM) RESOURCES. 55 
 
 pointed to succeed him as Chief Jvistice, some difficulties arose in 
 the Cabinet. One Minister wished to retire ; one or two others 
 desired a further change of colleagues; and Mr. Boucaut resolved 
 upon a reconstruction. He met Parliament in June, 1870, with 
 new colleagues selected from the Opposition, or at least from out- 
 side his part}^ This move excited great dissatisfaction, and the 
 new Ministry was promptly met ■s\ith a vote of no-confidence, on 
 the motion of Mr. Colton, who formed a Cabinet constituted of 
 members both of the Opposition and the Boacaut party, the former 
 being represented in the new Cabinet by Sir Henry Ayers, who in 
 the Legislative Council had been the foremost opponent of the 
 Boucaut Ministry during the previous session. The new Ministry 
 abandoned the stamp tax, but carried the probate and succession 
 duties, from which the receipts have been small, not averaging 
 £11,000 per annum since their first imposition. 
 
 During this session Parliament sanctioned the loan of nearly 
 £3,000,000 for public works, and Bills for the following railways 
 were passed : — ]N^arrow gauge (3ft. Gin.) — Port Augusta to Govern- 
 ment Gums, 199 miles ; Gladstone to Jamestown, twenty miles ; 
 Rivoli Bay to Mt. Gambier, fifty -seven miles ; Kadina to Barunga 
 Gap, thirty-three miles. Broad gauge, 5ft. 3in. — Kapunda to 
 North- West Bend of the Murray, fifty-six miles ; Burra to Hallett. 
 eighteen miles. I have omitted fractions of miles, and the total 
 length of the lines authorised in that year was about 380 miles. 
 In the same session, the first Private Tramway Bill was passed. It 
 authorised the construction of a line from King William-street, 
 about the centre of Adelaide, to Kensington and Norwood, the total 
 length being about three miles. Now there are city and suburban 
 tramways going from Adelaide termini in all directions, east, west, 
 north, and south. They are an immense source of convenience to 
 the public, and some of them arc very profitable investments. Soon 
 after Governor Musgrave's arrival he took part in the opening of a 
 private railway connecting Adelaide with Glenelg, the chief water- 
 ing place of the colony, on the shores of Holdfast Bay. The length 
 of the line is about six miles. Several years afterwards a rival lino 
 was opened, taking a difierent route ; but the two concerns have 
 been amalgamated. 
 
 In the same year there was a new tariff", but no radical changes 
 were effected in our fiscal system. The highest ad miorem duty
 
 56 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 was kept at Its old rate of 10 per cent., and there has been no 
 change since in the ad valorem duties, and only small alterations in 
 any other part of the tariff. The criminal law was consolidated and 
 amended, and the same service was performed for District Councils. 
 An Act was passed to authorise a Border Duties Convention with 
 New South Wales ; and other useful measures became law in this 
 memorable session. 
 
 Sir Anthony Musgrave left the colony in January, 1877. It 
 had advanced under his rule, and ho remained long enough to see 
 South Australia started on a career of more rapid progress. When 
 Sir James Fergusson left the colony, there were 133 miles of rail- 
 way open ; at the end of 1>*73, the total length had increased to 
 nearly 200 miles. When Sir Anthony Musgrave's Governorship 
 of South Australia ended, there were y02 miles open for traflSc, 
 and the Parliament had sanctioned the construction of 380 miles 
 more. Adelaide had been connected by telegraph with Western 
 Australia by a land lino along the coast from Port Lincoln to 
 Eucla, just within the boundary of that colony. The revenue had 
 increased from under £1,000,000 to £l,3lf,925 (1876-7). The 
 population between the end of 1872 and the close of 1876, had 
 increased from about 200,000 to 237,090; land cultivated, from 
 1,225,073 to 1,828,115 ; staple exports, from £4,285,191 in 1873, 
 to £4,427,727 in 1876 ; cattle, from 174,381 to 219,441 ; horses, 
 from 87,445 to 106,903; sheep, from 5,617,419 to 6,133,291.
 
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 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 
 
 CHAPTKH IX. 
 
 1877 TO lS8;i. 
 
 The Chief Justice — Arrival of Sir "\V. W. Cairns, and his departure on account oi 
 ill-health— Arrival of Sir "William Jervois — Australian Defences — Quarrel between 
 the Colton Ministry and the Upper House — Colton Ministr}^ defeated on a crisis 
 motion — -The second Boucaut Ministry — Crown Lands Act — Death of Mr/ Justice 
 Stow — Mr. Boucaut, the Premier, appointed Judge — Mr. Justice Gwynne retired 
 several years later and was succeeded by the Crown Solicitor, Mr. Andrews — The 
 Morgan Ministry — The Volunteers— The Forts — War Vessel — Morgan's retire- 
 ment — The Bray Ministry — Upper House Reform — Eailway Construction — The 
 Naime Line — The Jubilee Exhibition — The Transcontinental Line — Other Bail- 
 ways — Rise in Value of Property- -Progress — Arrival of Sir "William Robinson. 
 
 The Hon. S. J. Way, Chief Justice, adiuinistered the CTOvernraent 
 for two months after Sir Anthony ]\[usgraYe's departure, till the 
 arrival of Sir William Wellington Cairns, K.C.M.Gr., on the 24th 
 March, 1877, from Queensland, over which flourishing- province 
 he had been Governor for several years. His Excellency was 
 suffering from ill-health, and befoi-e he had been in South Australia 
 two months had resigned his position and was on his way to Eng- 
 land. At this time, while there were wars and rumors of wars, 
 the defences of the Australian colonies were occupying the serious 
 attention alike of the colonists and the Home Goverjiment, and 
 Sir William Jervois, one of the most eminent military engineers 
 of the day, was employed with Colonel Scratchley to examine the 
 coast and inquire generally concerning the means ot defence in 
 Australia, and report upon the best methods to be taken for 
 fortifying the principal harbors, and in other ways putting the 
 Australian provinces in a position to resist invasion. At such a 
 period the announcement that His Excellency had been appointed 
 Governor of South Australia was received with satisfaction, not 
 onh^ by the people of that colony, but by Australians generally. 
 Sir William Jervois' gubernatorial exj)erience had been contincd
 
 58 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 to a Crown colony, but liis shrewdness and tact enabled liim readily 
 to adapt himself to the peculiar constitutional duties of a ruler over 
 a people enjoying the advantages of responsible government. He 
 did not arrive till the 2nd October, 1877, tlie Government having 
 been again adininistered by the Cliief Justice during the second 
 interregnum in that year. Sir William found the Parliainent in 
 a disorganised condition. The Colton Ministry had got into 
 trouble with the Upper House on a question of privilege relating 
 to the erection of new Parliamentary Buildings, and had not suc- 
 ceeded in making peace with the members of that Chamber, who, 
 in their displeasure, went to the length of deposing the Chief 
 Secretary, Sir Henry Ayers, from his position as leader of the 
 House, and taking the conduct of the Government business from 
 him and handing it over to Mr. William Morgan. The Opposi- 
 tion in the Assembly grew stronger, till, at last, about three weeks 
 after Sir William Jervois' arrival, a motion of want of confidence 
 in the Ministry was carried by the casting-vote of the Speaker, 
 the late Sir George Kingston, who, though favorably disposed 
 tow^ards the Government, acted on the principle that no Ministry 
 should hold office simply at the will of the Speaker. Mr. Boucaut, 
 who was requested to form a Cabinet, selected his colleagues, 
 and returned to ofBce. It was reasonably supjDOsed that a 
 Ministry formed under such circumstances Vv'ould not last long, 
 but this one — or what was substantially the same Ministry, with 
 a change of Premier — retained office for about three years and 
 a half. 
 
 The great measure of the year 1877 was the Crown Lands 
 Consolidation Act, which repealed all the statutes, thirty-one in 
 number, relating to the Crown Lands in South Australia proper, 
 the Northern Territory not being dealt with in this Act ; made 
 material alterations in the mode of disposing of land to agricul- 
 tural selectors, and established some fresh provisions concerning 
 pastoral and mineral leases. It re-established purchase of agricul- 
 tural lands in the first instance by auction, which was limited to 
 agricultural selectors on credit, and they bid for choice of sections. 
 The area of ordinary agricultural lands to be held by one credit 
 selector was fixed at 1,000 acres, reclaimed lands 640 acres, and 
 scrub lands, on lease with right of purchase, at o,.200 acres. The 
 conditions on which mineral lands were leased were also made much
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. ;j9 
 
 more favorable to the lessees, and to tlic proper developTiient of 
 the mineral wealth of the countr}'. In 1878 the Act was altered 
 in some of its minor details, and some fresh advantages wore given 
 to the pastoral lessees with respect to rent and improvements. In 
 1879 another amending Act was passed abolishing bidding for 
 choice, and providing that the bidding should be for each block as 
 it was named by the Government Auctioneer. Since then the 
 terms of purchase have been greatly liberalised. The period over 
 which the payments of purcliase-money were to be spread was 
 extended in 1880 from nine to twenty years. In 1881 there were 
 some further amendments in favor of the agricultural selectors, 
 and last j^ear the most sweejjing changes were made. Agricultural 
 selectors who had suffered from bad harvests were o-ranted remis- 
 sion of one to three years' interest. All who were dissatisfied with 
 their pui'chase might surrender and re-purchase at auction, at an 
 upset price, which, in case of failure, to sell the Grovernment would 
 reduce till it came to 20s. The consequence has been that hun- 
 dreds of farmers who had covenanted to give from £2 to £7 per 
 acre, and even more, for their land, have got it for 2Us. 6d. A 
 stranger purchasing would have to pay in cash to the outgoing- 
 selector three-fourths of the value of the improvements, as decided 
 by official valuation ; but in rare cases did the land pass into any 
 other hands than those of the original selector. Anyone else 
 intending to buy was at a great disadvantage. The former holder 
 had everything to gain and nothing to lose. Three-fourths of the 
 valuation of his improvements represented more than the amount 
 of money he had spent upon them, and if he ran the land up at 
 auction to the price he had agreed to give for it, he would, if it 
 were knocked down to him, be no worse off than if he had not 
 surrendered. Interest payments were also abolished, so that every 
 payment is counted as purchase-money. 
 
 I have in these chapters briefly sketched the histor}' of our 
 land legislation without going too mvich into tedious details, but in 
 future chapters will explain the land system as it affects the several 
 leading interests of the colony separatel3\ In the chapter devoted 
 to agriculture and horticulture, the land laws only as affecting those 
 interests will be expounded ; and mining, and the pastoral industry, 
 severally, will be treated in the same way. The Northern Terri- 
 tory and its land sj^stem will occupy a separate chapter. It may
 
 60 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 be observed that tliere are two great principles governing the land 
 system throughout, one being that the squatter should retire as the 
 plough advances, and the other that the freehold of mineral lands 
 should not be parted with by the Crown. 
 
 In 1878, Mr. Justice Stow died at the age of forty-nine. The 
 Premier in the Assembly, and the Chief Secretary in the Upper 
 House, in announcing the event, expressed their high respect for 
 the deceased gentleman in his judicial capacity, and previously as 
 a member of the Legislature and a Minister of the Crown. Other 
 members of both Houses spoke in the same strain. The remains 
 of the late Judge were accorded a state funeral, which was attended 
 by an immense concourse of people. The Premier, Mr. Boucaut, 
 was appointed to the vacant Judgeship. Mr. Morgan, the Chief 
 Secretar}^ succeeded Mr. Boucaut as Premier ; all the other col- 
 leagues and Mr. Neville Bh^th joined him in forming a Cabinet. 
 Mr, Blyth, some months afterwards, resigned on account of ill- 
 health, and was succeeded by Mr. Pees, who gave way to Mr. T. 
 King, who, wishing to visit England, retired, and his place was 
 taken by Mr. Basedow. 
 
 Sir "William Jervois laid the foundation stone of the Univer- 
 sity buildings, and remained to declare them open for the purposes 
 for which they were intended. The present structure is only part 
 of the design, which, when carried out, will present an imposing- 
 appearance. The University of Adelaide was founded through the 
 munificence of Sir Walter Watson Hughes, who offered £20,000 
 as an endowment for the institution. In 1874, an Act was passed 
 by the Legislature to give efiect to the scheme, and subsequently 
 Sir Thomas Elder endowed the University with £20,000. Parlia-^ 
 ment voted liberal sums towards the building, and set apart public' 
 lands to be leased for the benefit of the institution. | 
 
 In the first year of Sir William's rule, the Rifle Companies Act: 
 was passed, and a very creditable force was established. The first 
 volunteer force of South Australia was formed in 1840, during 
 Golonel Gawler's Governorship, and was provided with a brilliant 
 staff" of officers. History is silent as to the exact number of the 
 rank and file, and it may be assumed that tradition is not far from 
 correct in representing that there was but one private, who was 
 duly reviewed on high days and national holidays. This little army 
 was spoken of irreverently, and gradually died out, though some oi
 
 ITS HISTORY AND IlESOURCES. (il 
 
 the officers were known by tlie rank they acquired in connection 
 therewith to the end of their lives. No further attempt was taade 
 to form a colonial army till the time of the Criniean war, when 
 volunteers were enrolled to the number of about two thousand 
 men, including- artillery and some excellent companies of cavalry. 
 This force was disbanded about fourteen years ago by a Govern- 
 ment of which Mr. Strangvvays was Premier. As in someDther 
 colonies, there has been a great eagerness to provide for military 
 defence during a war scare. The Parliament votes money pretty 
 freely, young men in considerable numbers enlist, and a certain 
 amount of military ardour is displayed ; but as the alarm subsides, 
 so does the soldierly spirit, and it is difficult to keep the volunteer 
 force from wasting away. This should, however, be stated in the 
 past tense, for the present condition of the Volunteer Military 
 Force is satisfactory. The force consists of one troop of mounted 
 rifles, two batteries, and twelve companies of infantr}', numbering 
 in all 1,300 rank and file, besides a small permanent force. In 
 1878, Colonel Downes, P.E., arrived to take command, and with 
 bim Major Godwin of the 103rd Regiment as Adjutant-General. 
 Under their management the force soon acquired discipline, and 
 might be relied upon to meet any body of men likely to be landed 
 with hostile intent on the shores of South Australia. In the begin- 
 ning of 1880, Major Godwin returned to England, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Major Fergusson, of the Rifles, brother of Sir James 
 Fergusson, and private secretary of Sir James during his Gover- 
 norship of South Australia. Major Fergusson, early in the present 
 year, returned to his regiment, and his place is taken by Lieut. 
 Jervois, R.E., son of our late Governor. 
 
 As Port Adelaide was, at the time of Sir Wm. Jervois' arrival, 
 
 "wholly at the mercy of any gunboat that might be employed to 
 
 shell it, the construction of two forts for its protection was a por- 
 
 1 tion of the scheme of defence adopted by the Parliament. One was 
 
 j finished in 1881, and the other is in course of construction, both 
 
 1 being built according to the design of Sir William Jervois ; 
 
 I Colonel (now Major-General) Scratchley carried out the details of 
 
 ' tlie first fort for some time, and then the superintendence was 
 
 placed in the hands of Colonel Downes, under whose directions the 
 
 second fort is beine: constructed. The first is manned and has its 
 
 j guns in position. They consist of two ten-inch twenty-ton guns
 
 62 • SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 canying charges of loOlbs. of powder, and two sixty-four pounders. 
 The second fort will be armed with two nine-inch twelve-ton guns 
 and two eighty-pounder rifled guns. 
 
 A small war vessel has also been ordered, and will be in 
 South Australian waters before long. It must not be forgotten 
 that besides the volunteers, there are the affiliated rifle companies. 
 There were Ave rifle companies from the time of the disbandment 
 of the volunteers, about the year 1869, till the new force was 
 formed, when the riflemen, with creditable patriotism, offered their 
 services to the Government as an auxiliary force, stij^ulating for as 
 much freedom from strict military requirements as was consistent 
 with discipline, effectiveness, and unity of action. Difficulties have 
 arisen as to the relations of the rifles with the Colonel Commandant, 
 but a good understanding has been arrived at upon disputed points ; 
 and the rifles might be relied upon to render valuable service to 
 their country in the hour of need. This force numbers about 800, 
 
 In 1881, the Premier, Mr. Morgan, resigned on the score of 
 ill-health. Previously, in the same year, on the elevation of Mr. 
 Andrews, the Crown Solicitor, to the Judgeship, vacant by the 
 retirement of Mr. Justice Gwynne, Mr. Charles Mann, Q.C, the 
 Treasurer, took the Crown Solicitorship, and the portfolio he relin- 
 quished was handed to Mr. G. S. Fowler, a leading merchant and 
 a clear-headed financier and political economist. He speedily broke 
 down under the strain of his new duties, added to his business 
 engagements, and resigned. Mr. W. B. Rounsevell succeeded him. 
 Mr. Bundoy, Q.C, resigned the Attorney-Generalship through 
 illness, and was succeeded by Mr. J. H. Symon, Q.C .The Ministry 
 was now disorganised by all these retirements and appointments, 
 and at last Mr. Morgan resigned. Mr. George C. Hawker, the Com- 
 missioner of Public Works, endeavored to construct a Cabinet but 
 gave up the task. Mr. Colton was asked to form a Ministry but 
 declined, and the task Avas undertaken by Mr. J. C. Bray, who, 
 with the colleagues he then chose, has held office ever since. 
 
 The great question of reform of the Upper House, that had 
 agitated the colony for many years, Avas set at rest in 1881. That 
 chamber was held to be obstructive. Whether it was so or not can 
 be decided by the simple fact that, excepting the Probate and 
 Succession Duties Bill, it had thrown out, in different years, com- 
 mencing with 1875, every measure submitted to it for taxing pro-
 
 ITS HISTORY AND IIKSOURCES. 63 
 
 perty. It was felt that this state of things must be rercedied by 
 making the Legislative Council, in some measure, amenable to 
 public opinion. To its credit, it may be said, the Council reformed 
 itself, for in the year mentioned it passed a Bill increasiu"- the 
 number of members from eighteen to twenty-four, reducing the 
 period between the retirement of one-third of the members from 
 four to three years ; dividing the colony into four districts for the 
 election of Legislative Councillors, and providing that in case of 
 any Bill being rejected by the Legislative Council, or amended so 
 as to cause its failure to become law, after having been passed in 
 the Assembh" bj^ absolute majorities during two consecutive Par- 
 liaments, it shall be lawful for the Governor either to dissolve both 
 Houses or issue writs for the election of one or two members for 
 each of the Legislative Council Districts. This Bill, it is believed, 
 will afford ample security against deadlocks or Upper House 
 obstructiveness. 
 
 The work of railway construction was carried on with great 
 vigor during Sir William Jervois' rule. Early in 1878, at Port 
 Augusta, he turned the first sod of the railway to be constructed 
 from that terminus for 200 miles northwards to a place known as 
 Government Gums, but now generally spoken of as Farina, the 
 name of a township formed there. Before he left South Australia 
 Sir William took the leading part in the opening of this railwaj^ 
 and when his connection with the colony ceased a short extension 
 northwards of thirty odd miles to Hergott Springs was in progress. 
 Between 1877 and 1883 the railway ia the South-East, connecting 
 Rivoli Bay with Mount Gambier, about fifty miles in length, was 
 opened ; a south-eastern line about the same length from Lacepede 
 Bay to Naracoorte having been completed the year before Sir 
 William's arrival. The railways connecting Wallaroo district and 
 its mines and township and port with Port Wakefield were, by a 
 short branch, linked on to the railway system uniting Adelaide to 
 the north countr}^ ; several smaller lines were also completed. 
 When Sir William Jervois arrived, the longest line of railway was 
 about 120 miles ; when he left, there was an iron road from Ade- 
 laide to Farina, a distance of 400 miles. The total length of the 
 lines open for traffic increased from 302 miles, in the beginning of 
 1877, to nearly 1,000 miles in January, 1883. But the greatest 
 achievement in railway enterprise, since the establishment of the
 
 64 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 colony, will be the construction of a line from Adelaide to^ the 
 Victorian border. This will connect the South Australian capital 
 with the three wealthy colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, and 
 Queensland, with their population of over two millions. An Act 
 to authorise this great work was passed in the session of 1882. 
 The most difficult part of the line is that from Adelaide to Nairne, 
 already constrncted by authority of an Act passed in 1874. The 
 remaining distance can be made very rajjidly, as there is either 
 water or railway connection with four points that may serve as the 
 starting-points of different sections of the work. It is intended to 
 have this line completed in time for the Jubilee Exhibition, to be 
 held in Adelaide in the year 1887 ; and there can be no difficulty 
 in accomplishing the task before that year. Before this book is 
 published the Parliament will have dealt with Bills for branches 
 from the Great Northern line of railway to the New South Wales 
 and Queensland borders ; for an extension of that grand trunk line 
 from Hergott Springs, about 200 miles northward to Primrose 
 Sj^rings ; and for a line coming southward from Port Darwin to 
 Pine Creek, a w^ell known auriferous locality ; and it is the settled 
 intention of the Government, the Parliament, and the country, to 
 bridge over with the iron road the space between Pine Creek and 
 the present northern terminus of the Port Augusta line, so con- 
 necting by rail the Southern with the Indian Ocean. 
 
 The effect of the Boucaut policy was marvellously displayed 
 during Sir William Jervois' rule in the increase of jDopulation and 
 trade, and the enormous rise in the value of property. During 
 the six years following 1876, population increased from 237,090 to 
 about 300,000 ; land under cultivation, notwithstanding bad seasons 
 and consequent distress among the farmers in the north, had in- 
 creased from 1,514,916 to 2,623,195 acres; the revenue increased 
 from £1,331,925 for the year 1876-7, to £2,242,085 for the year 
 1881-2. The value of business sites in Adelaide rose 120 per cent., 
 and of good residence sites 100 per cent. Street property in 
 Adelaide, not worth £200 per foot in 1876, was worth £400 at the 
 end of 1882. A similar rise took place in suburban and seaside 
 property. A wild land speculation was in full flood in 1882 ; 
 numerous townships were laid out all over the Adelaide plains and 
 in the hills, and there was a perfect mania for land syndicates and 
 speculation in real property in all directions within ten or fifteen
 
 
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 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 65 
 
 miles of Adelaide. Of course a severe reaction or stagnation fol- 
 lowed, but this does not affect the value of city and good seaside 
 or other good suburban property. Since the briskness in land 
 transactions was over, a street frontage in Adelaide has been sold 
 at £300 per foot, and other frontages are valued at £100 per foot 
 above that figure. 
 
 Sir William Jervois left the colony in January of IHS-'i, and 
 the Chief Justice was sworn in as Administrator of the Govern- 
 ment during the brief period before the arrival of Sir William 
 Robinson, in the following month, from Western Australia, over 
 the affairs of which colony he had presided for several years. He 
 met with a cordial reception and is apparently fortunate in the 
 time of his promotion, for everything points to the probability of 
 a very prosperous year in 1884. The winter has been very favor- 
 able, copious rains having fallen, and both squatters and farmers 
 confidently expect a rich reward for their labor and outlay.
 
 66 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Constitution — Administration of Justice — The Press, 
 
 Although in previous chapters the various changes in the form 
 of government since the foundation of the colony have been re- 
 corded, and their nature briefly indicated, it will perhaps be well 
 to describe a little more fully the system of Responsible Government 
 as it exists in South Australia. Without very much discussion the 
 colonists, nearly thirty years ago, resolved upon the adoption of 
 the bi-cameral system, though there were not wanting advocates 
 of only one Chamber. A Ministry responsible to the Parliament 
 was insisted upon, and granted by the Imperial Legislature. The 
 Governor of course acts on the advice of his Ministers, except in 
 those special cases pointed out in his instructions, in which he is 
 not to follow that advice, and other cases in which he is to act on 
 his own discretion. It is discretionary with the Governor whether 
 he will exercise the prerogative of mercy in criminal cases, what- 
 ever the Ministerial advice may be ; but it is rarely that a Governor 
 in a colony under Responsible Government rejects that advice. A 
 request from the Ministry for a dissolution is considered by a 
 Governor according to the circumstances in which the request is 
 made, the state of the public business, the condition of parties in 
 Parliament — especially in the Lower House — and the desirability 
 of having the voice of the country upon important questions imder 
 discussion. Sometimes the decision of a Governor in South Aus- 
 tralia with respect to a general dissolution has given dissatisfaction, 
 and invariably the dissolution has proved fatal to the Ministry at 
 whose request it was granted ; but since the establishment of Re- 
 sponsible Government no Governor of South Australia has ever 
 brought himself into serious trouble through disagreement with 
 his Ministers or with either branch of the Legislature, or in any 
 other way through the manner in which he has seen fit to exercise 
 his constitutional functions.
 
 ITS INSTITUTIONS. 67 
 
 Some Acts of the Colonial Legislature he must not assent to, 
 but must reserve them for the Queen's assent. These include all 
 which alter the Constitution, or interfere in any way with the 
 national currency, or affect trade beyond the limits of the colony, 
 or are opposed to Imperial legislation specially applied to colonies, 
 or to laws understood to prevail over the whole of the British 
 Empire. The Bullion Act of 1852 was opposed to British law and 
 the express instructions of the Governor. Now a Governor would 
 be as clearly going beyond his duty in assenting to such a measure 
 as Sir Henr}' Young was ; but he acted in an extraordinary emer- 
 gency, with great benefit to the colony, and the irregularity was 
 condoned. The South Australian Marine Board Act of 1881, 
 affecting as it did British trade and shipping, was reserved for Iler 
 Majesty's assent. The Act legalizing marriages with a deceased 
 wife's sister was also reserved. Acts not requiring to be reserved 
 are assented to by the Governor in Her Majesty's name and left to 
 their operation, and should Her Majesty not disapprove — as the 
 Queen rarely or never does in such cases — an announcement in due 
 course appears in the Government Gazette of the colony to the effect 
 that the Imperial power of disallowance has not been exercised. 
 
 With the exceptions we have indicated, the relation of the 
 Governor to the Legislature and the Cabinet is precisely that of 
 Her Majesty to Her Ministry and Parliament. The Governor's 
 influence on political affairs depends upon his personal character, 
 ability, and the carefulness with which he avoids obtruding his 
 wishes and opinions so as to suggest the idea of interference in 
 matters the people consider they have committed to their represen- 
 tatives. The Governor has opportunities of doing much good by 
 his active sympathy with institutions of a religious, benevolent, 
 and educational character, and with all movements aiming at the 
 moral, material, and intellectual advancement of the community. 
 Socially, his personal example is of no small importance. However 
 republican Australians may be in their sentiments, they are very 
 well satisfied with the system of Governors appointed by the 
 Crown, and very few wish for the privilege of electing their chief 
 rulers. The Governor is the one apparent connecting tie with the 
 old country, and receives their sincere, frequent, and enthusiastic 
 welcomes and toastings as proofs generally of regard for himself, 
 but always and in greater degree as manifestations of their loyalty
 
 68 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 to our Gracious Sovereign and their attachment to the glorious 
 empire of which they form a part. 
 
 The Legislative Council is commonly spoken of as the Upper 
 House, as it is supposed to answer the same purjDOses as the House 
 of Lords in the old countr}'. The framers of the Constitution, 
 nearly thirty years ago, sought to secure the stability of the 
 Upper House by a property qualification for its electors, a longer 
 tenure of their seats by its members, freedom from arbitrary dis- 
 solution by the Governor (which really means the Ministry), and 
 by the whole colony voting as one district, instead of having the 
 members returned like those of the Assembly by separate con- 
 stituencies. The one-district system grew more and more cumbrous 
 and unsatisfactory as time went on. The idea was to keep the 
 Councillors free from merely local influences ; it was thought that 
 being elected by the whole community, they would take broader 
 views of things and be exempt from fear of jeopardising their posi- 
 tion by offending the people of a particular district. The theory 
 was good, but could not conveniently be carried out in practice. 
 Representation is generally supposed to imply some amount of 
 intercourse between the representatives and the represented — at 
 least some knowledge of each other and some interchange of views ; 
 but this is impossible where the district represented has an area of 
 400,000 square miles. 
 
 The absolute freedom from dissolution and the length of time 
 for which Legislative Councillors held their seats —twelve j'ears, a 
 third retiring and their places filled by a general election every 
 four years — rendered the Upper House irresponsible ; and it was 
 necessary to make it somewhat more amenable to public opinion. 
 Hence the Council Reform Bill of 1881, which shortened the 
 tenure of Councillors' seats, divided the colon}" into four Upper 
 House districts, increased the number of members from eighteen 
 to twenty-four, and provided a means of avoiding deadlocks. In 
 other respects the constitution of the Legislative Council was 
 unaltered. 
 
 The qualification of an elector is either freehold of the clear 
 value of £50 ; registered leasehold of £20, with three years to run 
 or right of purchase ; or, occupying dwelling-house of clear annual 
 value of £25 ; and he must have been registered as an elector six 
 months before he can vote. No property qualification is required
 
 ITS INSTITUTIONS. 69 
 
 of a member of the Upper House. He must be thirty years of 
 age, a natural born or naturalised subject of Her Majesty, and 
 must have resided in the colony for three years in the case of 
 a natural-born, and five years in the case of a naturalised British 
 subject. In all future general elections of one-third of the total 
 number of members, two will be elected for each of the four dis- 
 tricts into which the colony Is divided, and the elections to fill 
 casual vacancies will of course be by districts instead of under the 
 old one-district system. The members will be elected for nine 
 years, but as only a third are returned at one time, the country 
 chooses that proportion of the Legislative Councillors every three 
 years. For some j^ears the Upper House will be in a transition 
 state, part of the members holding their seats as representatives of 
 the whole colony, and the rest as representatives of districts ; but 
 at the end of twelve j^ears at farthest, all will have been returned 
 under the new system. The transition will probably be hastened 
 by occasional vacancies, and in those cases it is to be decided by 
 lot In which of the four districts the election shall be held to fill the 
 vacant seat. 
 
 The 16th clause of the Act of 1881 which provides for a dis- 
 solution of the Upper House is as follows : — " Whenever any Bill 
 " for any Act shall have been passed by the House of Assembly 
 " during any session of Parliament, and the same Bill, or a similar 
 " Bill with substantially the same objects, and having the same title, 
 " shall have been passed by the House of Assembly during the next 
 " ensuing Parliament, a general election of the House of Assembly 
 " having taken j)lace between such two Parliaments, the second 
 " and third readings of such Bill having been passed in the second 
 *' instance by an absolute majority of the whole number of mem- 
 " bers of the said House of Assembl}', and both such Bills shall 
 " have been rejected by or fail to become law in consequence of 
 " any amendments made therein by the Legislative Council, it 
 ** shall be lawful for, but not obligatory upon, the Governor of the 
 " said Province, by proclamation to be published in the GovcDnnent 
 " Gazette, to dissolve the Legislative Council and House of As- 
 " sembly ; and thereupon all the members of both Houses of Far- 
 " llament shall vacate their seats, and members shall be elected to 
 " supply the vacancies so created : or for the Governor to issue 
 " writs for the election of one or not more than two new members
 
 70 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 " for each district of the Legislative Council : Provided always 
 " that no vacancy, whether by death, resignation, or any other 
 " cause, shall be filled up while the total number of members shall 
 '* be twenty-four or more." In the event of the Council being 
 dissolved, the order of triennial retirement of the new members 
 will be fixed by lot in the first instance, and afterwards will 
 date from the day of their election. 
 
 It will be seen from these provisions that the Council cannot 
 be lightly or easily dissolved, and that a simpler mode of appealing 
 to the Upper House electorates than dissolution is provided. 
 There is now, it is generally considered, ample provision against 
 deadlocks between the two Chambers, and it is not likely that any 
 further alteration in the constitution of the Upper House will even 
 be agitated for, beyond subdividing the four districts, which are of 
 an inconvenient size, and will make excessive and exhaustive 
 demands upon the Upper House candidates in the way of travelling 
 and platform speaking. 
 
 The Assembly is elected upon the basis of manhood sufirage. 
 Every man being a natural born or naturalised subject of Her 
 Majesty, twenty-one years of age, six months' registered on the 
 electoral roll, unattainted and unconvicted of treason, felony, or other 
 infamous ofience, or having received a free pardon or served his 
 sentence for such ofience, can vote in the election of members of the 
 Assembly. Any person qualified to be an elector of the Assembly 
 is qualified to be a member ; except that if not a natural born 
 British subject, he must have resided in the colony for five years 
 before he can take a seat in that Chamber, and that no Judge, 
 Minister of religion, or Government official, other than a Cabinet 
 Minister, can be a member of either House. Last year an Act 
 was passed increasing the number of electoral districts from twenty- 
 two to twenty-six, and of members from forty-six to fifty-two. 
 There are now several districts returning three members each, and 
 one district returning one member ; under the new Act, which will 
 come into full eff'ect at the next general elections, each consti- 
 tuency will return two members. 
 
 The Council is presided over by a President, and the Assembly 
 by a Speaker, and a clause in the original Constitution Act pro- 
 vides that the salaries of these officials shall be the same, and that 
 there shall also be equality between the salaries of subordinate
 
 
 
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 ITS IXSTITUTIONS. 71 
 
 officers of the two Houses. The Lower House has a Chairman of 
 Committees, but in the Council the duties of this office are dis- 
 charged by the President. 
 
 According to the literal wording of the Constitution Act, the 
 powers of the two Chambers are co-ordinate, except that the Council 
 must not initiate Money Bills ; but from the first the Assembly has 
 resisted any interference with the money clauses of Money Bills by 
 the Upper House, except by way of rejection of the whole measure, 
 and that Chamber has really, if not formally, yielded this point : 
 and the practice corresponds with that of the Imperial Parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 The Ministers of the Crown in South Australia hold office on 
 the same conditions as Her Majesty's Ministers in the old country. 
 They are appointed by the Grovernor, and their retention of office 
 depends upon their ability to keep a working majority in the 
 Assembly. There are now six Ministers, naraelj^, the Chief Sec- 
 retary, the Treasurer, Attorney-General, the Commissioner of 
 Public Works, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, and the Minister 
 of Education — who has postal, telegraj)hic, and Northern Territory 
 affidrs in his department. The salaries of the Ministers were fixed 
 by the Constitution Act, and ranged from £800 to £1,300 per 
 annmn, but now they are all on a level, at a £1,000. This is pro- 
 vided for in the Civil List, which also includes the salary of the 
 Governor, Judges, Crown Solicitor, Under Secretary, and Com- 
 missioners of Audit — the office of Aditor-General, originally pro- 
 vided for, having recently been abolished. 
 
 The Judges hold office during good behaviour, and cannot, 
 except for misconduct, be removed without addresses to Her 
 Majesty from both Houses of the colonial Parliament. . There is a 
 Chief Justice and two Puisne Judges, who hold six criminal and 
 as many civil sittings in Adelaide during the year, and circuit 
 courts in the south-east and the northern districts of South Aus- 
 tralia proper, at longer intervals. The administration of justice in 
 the Northern Territory is entrusted to the Government Resident, 
 with the exception that he cannot try capital cases. The Chief 
 Justice is Judge of the Court of Vice- Admiralty. An Act framed 
 on the lines of the English Judicature Act was passed several 
 sessions ago. It fused the law and equity branches of jurisdiction, 
 and in various ways simplified proceedings in the Supreme Court.
 
 72 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: n . 
 
 The Insolvency jurisdiction is administered by a Commissioner, 
 whose powers are Aery large. He can imprison an insolvent for a 
 stated period, not exceeding three years, for certain offences, and for 
 an unlimited time should he consider the bankrupt is not making 
 a full disclosure of his estate, the release not being obtained till the 
 disclosure is made or the Commissioner is satisfied there is nothing 
 to disclose. 
 
 The most popular and generally satisfactory of our institutions 
 connected with the administration of Justice are the Local Courts, 
 which are established all over the colony in convenient places. 
 They number about seventy, presided over b}' fifteen Stipendiary 
 Magistrates. Adelaide, Port Adelaide, and Port Lincoln, each has 
 a Stipendiary Magistrate to itself ; other Stipendiary Magistrates 
 each take a number of Local Courts in Circuit. The Limited 
 Jurisdiction of a Local Court reaches £30 ; the Full Jurisdiction 
 £400. These Courts answer the purpose of County and Small 
 Debts Courts in the old country, and the processes are even more 
 simple. In Limited Jurisdiction a Stipendiary, or Special Magis- 
 trate, who has the same rank without pay, can sit and decide 
 alone, or two Justices of the Peace may try the cases ; in Full 
 Jurisdiction there must be a Special or Stipendiary Magistrate 
 and two other Magistrates, or, if a Jury is demanded b}" either 
 suitor, a Stipendiary or Special Magistrate and a Jury of four. 
 There is an appeal on questions of law from the Local Courts of 
 Full Jurisdiction to the Supreme Court of South Australia, but 
 there is no appeal from the Limited Jurisdiction. 
 
 Then there is the ordinary jurisdiction of Magistrates apart from 
 civil cases. One Justice may commit for trial for serious offences, 
 and has the power of fine or imprisonment for short periods for 
 petty misdemeanors. A Special Magistrate or two Justices may 
 deal summarilj^ with certain specified classes of felonies and grave 
 misdemeanors, for which the maximum term of imprisonment does 
 not exceed two years ; but they cannot sentence an accused person to 
 a longer term of imprisonment than six months, and cannot order a 
 flogging except in the case of boys under sixteen years of age. In 
 all cases triable by a Special Magistrate, the accused has the option 
 of being tried by a Judge, but it is rarely that this choice is made, 
 as the fear of a heavier sentence than the Magistrates can give 
 operates with the accused. Everj'- Magistrate is a Coroner ; but
 
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 ITS INSTITUTIONS. 73 
 
 there is a city coroner whose duty it is to hold all inquests in 
 Adelaide, and within a radius of ten miles from the General Post 
 Office. 
 
 The new law empowering the Courts to take the sworn 
 evidence of accused persons, and making- them liable to cross- 
 examination if they elect to be sworn, has greatly facilitated con- 
 victions. In most branches of Justices' jurisdiction there is an 
 appeal to the Adelaide Local Court, which is — not necessarily, but 
 as a rule — presided over by a lawyer. In matters relating to the 
 Customs, Magistrates have great powers, which it is not necessary 
 to specify. 
 
 There are Licensing Benches in different parts of the colony, 
 that deal with wine and spirit, publicans', slaughtering, pawn- 
 brokers', and auctioneers' licences. The highest Court of all is what 
 is called the "Local Court of Appeal," which consists of the 
 Governor and Executive Council, except the Attorney-General. 
 The Court is principally, and has at times been entirely, composed 
 of laymen ; but it has been the custom of late years to appoint to 
 the Executive Council persons who have filled the office of Acting 
 Governor, and consequentl}^ at present the Chief Justice is a 
 member of the Court. This tribunal served a good purpose now 
 and then, perhaps, and prevented some amount of individual hard- 
 ship years ago when the Supreme Court was in a disorganised state, 
 but it can hardly be expected to command a great amount of re- 
 spect and confidence among persons who consider that difficult 
 questions of law, concerning which Judges dififer, should be remit- 
 ted to men of eminent legal attainments for their consideration and 
 decision. 
 
 The Fourth Estate naturally comes in for notice in this 
 chapter, intimately connected as it is with the other great insti- 
 tutions of the country and with the proper working of the 
 Constitution. Publicity and free discussion are absolutely essential 
 to good government, and these essentials exist in an eminent 
 degree in South Australia. In Adelaide there are two morning 
 and two evening papers, namely, the Begisfer, the Advertiser, the 
 Journal, and the Express; published daily. In connection with 
 these are two weekly papers, named respectively the Observer and 
 the Chronicle. There is one German newspaper the Australische 
 Zeitung, published weekly in Adelaide. Besides these there are too
 
 74 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 the Licensed Victuallers' Gazette, tiie Farm and Garden, three illus- 
 trated weekly newspapers, several weekly religious periodicals, one 
 or two temperance journals, and a few smaller periodicals. The 
 country districts own about a score of newspapers, of which one or 
 two are published twice and the remainder once a week. Political 
 matters are discussed with vigor and outspokenness in the public 
 journals, and the tone of the press generally is moderate and 
 decorous, though there are exceptions. The oldest journal in the 
 colony is the Register. The first number was published in London 
 on the 18th June, 1836, and the second in Adelaide on the 3rd 
 June, 1837. After the j&rst few months of its existence in the 
 colony it was published once a week ; afterwards for some years 
 twice a week ; but for the last thirty-five it has been a daily 
 journal. The leading newspapers of Adelaide are conducted with 
 great enterprise, and of themselves afford evidence of the progress 
 of the colony. Many columns are devoted to European, foreign, 
 and intercolonial telegrams and lengthy telegraphic reports of 
 important meetings all over Australia are published.
 
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 ITS METROPOLIS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 75 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ADELAIDE. 
 
 Colonel Light's choice of the site — The Torrens — Wide streets — Post Office — Town 
 Hall— King "William -street — Value of frontages— Markets — Terraces — Govern- 
 ment Buildings — Park lands — Botanic Gardens — Mount Lofty Range — Suburbs — 
 City Corporation — Assessment — The Dam — Port Adelaide — To^\■ns between the 
 Portand the City — LeFevre's Peninsula— The Semaphore — Largs Bay and jetty — 
 The forts — Glenelg — Henley Beach — The Grange — Brighton— Kensington and 
 Norwood — Unley — Gawler — Kapunda — The Burra — Port Augusta — Port Pirie — 
 Yorke's Peninsula — Its mines and tOMTis — Wallaroo Bay — The hills and towns 
 east of Adelaide — Mount Gambler and the Blue Lake — Port IMacDonnell — 
 Beachport and other south-eastern towns and ports — Naracoorte and its famous 
 caves — Bordertown. 
 
 The pioneers of South Australia were very fortunate in their 
 choice of a capital. The site of nearly every other metropolis in 
 Australia is a second choice ; but, after nearly fifty years, no one 
 can suggest how Colonel Light's selection of the spot on which 
 Adelaide stands could have been improved. After several months 
 spent in exploring the coast and the country for some miles inland. 
 Colonel Light decided that the principal settlement must be upon 
 the shores of Holdfast Bay. The fine natural harbor formed by 
 what is known as Port Adelaide creek, or river, having been ap- 
 proved, the next consideration was fresh water, and when the 
 river Torrens was discovered, it was at once resolved that the 
 chief city of the new province must be upon its banks. Some 
 little elevation, in order to admit of drainage, was needed, and to 
 secure this advantage it was necessary to go six or seven miles 
 inland. Here itpon some rising ground, mostly of limestone forma- 
 tion, Colonel Light laid out the city on both sides of the river. 
 
 The streets, most which are wide and some of remarkable 
 breadth, run east and west, and north and south. The business 
 part of the metropolis is on the south side of the river ; North 
 Adelaide is more like a fashionable suburb, with its grand terraces
 
 76 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 commanding splendid views, its handsome villa residences and 
 spacious grounds, its streets of well-built residences of all sizes and 
 grades. There are some good shops and not unimportant business 
 establishments of a wholesale character there ; but South Adelaide 
 is what is meant when colonists speak of the city, where the 
 greater part of all the business of the province is transacted, where 
 the great mercantile firms have their stores, and the Government 
 buildings attract attention from their size, and some of them by 
 their architectural pretensions. Adelaide has been called " the city 
 " of churches." In North Adelaide the most notable ecclesiastical 
 edifices, considered architecturally or on account of their spacious- 
 ness, are the Anglican cathedral and the Congregational church ; 
 in South xVdelaide the Catholic cathedral, the Stow Congregational 
 church, the Wesleyan church in Pirie-street, and St. Paul's (Angli- 
 can) are the most noticeable to the visitor. There are many others 
 belonging to various sects, and among them several Presbyterian 
 and Methodist churches attract attention from their lofty spires. 
 King William-street, running north and south, from North-terrace, 
 through Victoria-square, to South-terrace, bisects South Adelaide. 
 Government buildings occupy most of the space on three sides of 
 the square ; on the west side are ofiices, principally of lawyers, 
 architects, and other professional men, an hotel, and some private 
 residences. Rundle-street is the principal street for retail business, 
 and in it are some imposing buildings three and four stories high. 
 The eastern portion of Ilindley- street is growing in importance, 
 and has some fine shops. In Grenfell and Currie-streets are the 
 establishments of the leading merchants and of lesser lights of 
 the commercial world. All these streets run east and west. In 
 King William- street are all the banks, with one exception, grand 
 rows of buildings, occupied by commercial and professional men, 
 shops of all kinds, the General Post Office, with its tower 190ft. 
 above the pavement and about 290ft. above the sea level ; the 
 Town Hall, with a tower having an elevation of 145ft. above the 
 pavement ; the Treasury buildings, and a number of imposing hotels. 
 It is in this street that land has been valued at £500 a foot frontage, 
 but this appraisement is considered by good judges as £100 too 
 high. A few months ago £300 per foot was obtained for Grenfell- 
 street propert3\ What property is worth in Pundle-street it 
 would be difficult to say, probably somewhere between those two
 
 
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 ITS METROrOLLS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 77 
 
 figures. As the population and trade of the colony increase the 
 business area of the city must necessarily extend, and j)rofessional 
 men, merchants, and prosperous retailers have to establish them- 
 selves farther and farther to the south. The object is apparently to 
 keep as near to the central section of King "William- street as pos- 
 sible ; but, as time goes on, and the coveted positions become 
 scarce and more valuable, necessarily trade is pushed westward and 
 eastward as well as sovithward. 
 
 In the heart of South Adelaide, near Victoria-square, is the 
 city market, where vegetables, fruit, dair}- produce and poultry, 
 hay, and wood are sold ; but a far busier market is at east-end of 
 the city, at the head of Rundle-street, and extending a long way 
 towards North-terrace. This market is managed by a private 
 company, and distances, in popularity and the amount of business 
 done, its rival the City Market, which was established years later 
 by the Corporation. On the Park Lands, west of the city and 
 near the river, are the Corporation j^ards, where all the butchers 
 make their purchases of cattle, sheep, and pigs. Still farther west 
 is the slaughter-house, where oxen and calves must be killed, and 
 soon abattoirs will probabl}^ be added for the slaughter of sheep, 
 which may now be killed in the city itself. 
 
 Special features of South Adelaide are the four terraces, east, 
 west; north, and south. West of King AVilliara- street, on North- 
 terrace, are business establishments of different kinds, hotels, 
 Trinity Church — the oldest church in the colony — and some pri- 
 vate residences facing Parliament Houses and the railwa}- station ; 
 east of King W^illiam-street one soft goods warehouse extends 
 from Pundle-street to North- terrace, and farther to the east is 
 Chalmer's church ; but with these exceptions, the terrace is occupied 
 by private houses, some of them of imposing dimensions, and the 
 residences of doctors and dentists. So far I have spoken of the 
 south side of the terrace ; opposite is all Government property. 
 From the west-end for half a mile, more or less, are the railway 
 premises, then Parliament buildings and grounds fill the sjjace to 
 King William-street. East of that, in the order named, are 
 Oovernment House, the Institute, the Art Galler}', the University, 
 open lands, the Hospital, the Botanic Gardens, and the Lunatic 
 Asylum. Standing back from the Institute and the Art Gallery, 
 are the Destitute Asylum, the Police Troopers' Barracks, and the
 
 78 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Military Staff Office. The other three terraces are almost exclu- 
 sively taken up by private dwellings, the most costly and stylish 
 structures being on East-terrace. 
 
 North and South Adelaide are divided from each other, not 
 merely by the river, but by a great width of Park Lands, some 
 portions of which are open and the rest well planted with a variety 
 of trees indigenous and foreign, deciduous and evergreen. Great 
 attention is paid by the Corporation to conserving and extending 
 the plantations, and very much owing to this it is that Adelaide 
 grows in beauty year by year. The Park Lands not only divide 
 the City, but extend all round it, so securing its salubrity and the 
 enjoyment of the citizens in an eminent degree. There are five 
 squares planted and enclosed in South, and one in North Adelaide. 
 
 The Botanic Garden and Park are the delight of the citizens, 
 and secure great admiration from visitors. They have been for 
 many years under the care of Dr. Schomburgk, who combines emi- 
 nent scientific attainments with an enthusiastic fondness for his 
 work. A portion of the Park has been recently handed over to the 
 Zoological and Acclimatisation Society, and the Gardens they 
 have enclosed are well cared for and contain an interesting and 
 increasing collection of animals. In all these grounds the botanist 
 and zoologist will find much to interest and instruct him in con- 
 nection with the fauna and flora of many lands, and conspicuously 
 of Australia. 
 
 The position of Adelaide can hardly be surpassed. From all 
 parts of it there is a splendid view of the Mount Lofty Range of 
 hills, distant four or five miles, and from many portions of the city 
 the sea, six miles aw^ay, is visible. The Park Lands gives free 
 scope for pedestrian exercise and athletic sports of all kinds, and 
 prevent obstruction of the glorious prospect. To the east and 
 south-east, a succession of suburbs with their villas, gardens, vine- 
 yards, and cottages, stretch away to the hills. 
 
 The city and its neighborhood, extending over fifty miles, are 
 supplied with pure water from two reservoirs situated a short 
 distance from where the Torrens leaves the hills. 
 
 The City affairs are managed by a full-blown Corporation, 
 with Mayor, Aldermen, Councillors, and Town Clerk, who bestow 
 great time and trouble upon the work entrusted to them. The 
 city loans have been so wisely applied that the works for which
 
 ITS METROPOLIS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 79 
 
 they were borrowed return a revenue exceeding the interest pay- 
 able to the bondholders. The streets are all macadamized ; mauy 
 miles of the footpaths are asphalted ; the squares are fenced witli 
 iron ; capacious public baths are erected, where the art of natation 
 is taught and swimming matches are held, and where the invalid 
 or the luxuriously inclined can enjoy warm or Turkish baths. The 
 annual value of the city property is appraised by the Corporation 
 valuer at £485,068, but this is notoriously an under-estimate 
 that suits the ratepayers when the collector calls upon them, but 
 which they ridicule at any other time. The city, exclusive of the 
 park lands, comprise 701 acres in the south and 342 in North 
 Adelaide, and the river within city limits is spanned b}- three 
 bridges — not including a footbridge over the strongly-constructed 
 dam near the gaol, on the west park lands. 
 
 By this dam the river, for about a mile and a half, has been 
 converted from a turgid shallow stream into a fine sheet of water, 
 over which numerous pleasure seekers may be seen on any fine 
 day rowing or sailing in private or hired boats of all sorts, from 
 the little dingey to the racing craft that might meet with the 
 approval of the crack rowers of the old country or the colonies. 
 At one time the Torrens was the grand sewer of xVdelaide, but 
 there is now no impure drainage into it. A scheme of deep sewer- 
 age, planned by the late Mr. Clarke, the eminent engineer, who 
 designed the drainage system of Calcutta, is in progress, and the 
 main sewer two years ago received all the contributions of all the 
 drains, and up to that time had carried sewage into the Torrens. 
 The sewage of the city is carried about four miles to the north, 
 where a farm has been established for its reception. The popula- 
 tion of the city at the time of taking the census of 1881, was 
 38,479, and it has considerably increased since. In referring to 
 the population of the towns mentioned in this chapter, the returns 
 of the last census will be given. 
 
 Port Adelaide, the principal harbor of the colony, is about 
 eight miles from the city. Between them are several towns or 
 townships. A group of these just outside the city's western 
 boundary, on the north side of the river, form the corporation of 
 Hindmarsh. Further west are Woodville, and Albertou, the last 
 station before the port is reached. The town of Port Adelaide is 
 all made ground, reclaimed from the swamp ; the population is 3,013.
 
 80 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Great sums of money have been, and will in future be, expended in 
 deepening the stream, up which steamers of 2,000 and 3,000 tons 
 register come to load at the wharves. The wharfage accommoda- 
 tion is constantly increasing, according to the growing demands of 
 the trade, and a company has been formed for the construction of 
 an outer harbor, into which the largest ocean steamers could go 
 without steaming up the creek at all. At present the fine vessels 
 of the Orient Company are loaded at their anchorage off the 
 Semaphore, by means of lighters, and receive and discharge cargo 
 on both sides at once. 
 
 The Adelaide and Port railway crosses the Port river and 
 LeFevre's Peninsula, the latter about a mile and a half in width, 
 and has its terminus at the Semaphore, which is a favorite water- 
 ing place, where rents are high in the summer time. On the 
 Peninsula a branch of the railway goes northward to Largs Bay, 
 which is the rival of the Semaphore, both as a landing-place and a 
 place of residence and summer resort. Here one of the finest 
 hotels in the colony, if not in Australia, and a jetty 2,300ft. long, are 
 erected. On LeFevre's Peninsula are the two forts by which the 
 chief harbor of the colony is to be protected from attack in time of 
 war. A few miles to the south of Port Adelaide is the leading 
 watering place of the colony, the town of Glenelg, where the 
 pioneers encamped, and imder the historical gum tree Captain 
 Hindmarsh read his commission as Governor, and proclaimed the 
 establishment of the colony. There are two railways from Adelaide 
 to this town, which is six miles from the city, and since the open- 
 ing of the first of these lines, the value of land at Glenelg has risen 
 •enormously, and the population greatly. There is a long jetty on 
 -which mails and cargo from the P. & 0. boats are landed, exten- 
 sive swimming baths, a large institute, excellent hotels, mansions, 
 and villas, and well-made streets. The population is 2,724. 
 
 Between Glenelg and the Port, towns are springing up at 
 Henley Beach and the Grange, and there can be no doubt all the sea 
 frontages will be valuable from LeFevre's Peninsula to where the 
 Mount Lofty range, sweeping round to the southwards, touches 
 Holdfast Bay five or six miles from Glenelg. Between that point 
 and Glenelg is Brighton, a favorite seaside retreat for those who 
 prefer it to the gayer and more bustling resort of the votaries of 
 pleasure and fashion.
 
 ITS METROPOLIS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 81 
 
 Eastward of Adelaide are the towns of Kensington and Nor- 
 wood, with a popidation of over 10,000, and forming- an important 
 corporation ; beyond, and in all directions, are towns and villages. 
 Just south of the south park lands are Unley, Parkside, and Good- 
 wood, forming a corporation named after the first- mentioned 
 locality. 
 
 Leaving the metropolitan neighborhood, I will only mention 
 a few of the principal towns. Twenty-six miles to the north of 
 Adelaide is Gawler, which in the old days was termed the key of 
 the north, and for years was the terminus of the railway. It has 
 a population of over 1,800 ; it is the centre of a large agricul- 
 tural district, and is famous for its flour mills, of which the oldest 
 are owned by Messrs. Duffield & Co., and for its machine factories, 
 of which the principal one, and the most extensive in the colony, 
 is that owned by Messrs. James Martin & Co., whose iron foundry 
 and all the other branches of their establishment well repay in- 
 spection. 
 
 About twenty-four miles beyond Gawler to the northward is 
 Kapunda, originally a mining township, but now dependent more 
 upon agriculture for its support ; population, 2,290. The mine is 
 still worked to a small extent by tributers, who have discovered 
 fresh deposits. The railway branches oif between Gawler and 
 Kapunda, and one line leads to the Burra, 100 miles from Ade- 
 laide. The Burra was once a very bustling place, but since the 
 mine was closed is very quiet. The railway leads through a 
 number of northern townships, which have sprung up within the 
 last dozen years, owing to the extension of the railway system and 
 agricultural settlement. Port Augusta has a population of 767, is 
 200 miles from the metropolis, and has a harbor something like 
 that of Port Adelaide, with a large wool trade, and, in good seasons, 
 a considerable wheat export. There is great mineral wealth to 
 the northward awaiting development, and it is confidently hoped 
 that some good lasting mines will soon be regularly worked in that 
 quarter. The port has special importance as the future terminus 
 of the transcontinental railway. 
 
 Port Pirie, about forty-five miles nearer to Adelaide, has a 
 railway system of its own, which, however, has been linked on to 
 the great northern system. More wheat is shipped from this than 
 from any other port in the colony, not excepting Port Adelaide, 
 
 G
 
 82 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 The harbor, like the metropolitan one, is a ci'eek, which is being 
 deepened at the expense of the State ; but craft of considerable size 
 come np the stream. 
 
 On Yorke's Peninsula there are the mining townships of 
 Wallaroo, Kadina, and Moonta. Wallaroo is a seaport town ; it 
 is an agreeable place of residence, with a safe and pretty harbor. 
 The chief exports are copper, wheat, and flour. Kadina is four or 
 five miles inland eastward. Moonta is eight miles to the south- 
 ward, and distant about two miles from the sea, where, at Moonta 
 Bay, there is a small shipping trade. 
 
 To the east and south-east of the Adelaide Plains, through 
 the hills, at from twenty to thirty-five miles distance from the city, 
 are a number of picturesque and healthy towns and townships, of 
 which the principal are Mount Barker, Nairne, Echunga, Hahn- 
 dorf, Lobethal, Blumberg, Gumeracha, and the corporate town of 
 Strathalbj^n. Most of these will soon be connected with the city 
 by rail. More to the southward, washed by the Southern Ocean, 
 is Port Elliot, a place of refuge from metropolitan summer heat. 
 Four miles southward is Port Victor, the harbor in connection 
 with the Murray trade, for which it competes with Port Adelaide. 
 There is a fine breakwater here, extending from Granite Island, 
 and jetties connecting the main land with the island. 
 
 The principal town in the south-east is Gambierton, a corpo- 
 rate town at the foot of Mount Gambier. The country Taere is 
 volcanic, and the soil very rich. The far-famed Blue Lake is the 
 crater of an extinct volcano. There are lesser lakes and number- 
 less caves in the neighborhood. Seventeen miles distant is the 
 open roadstead, known as Port MacDonnell, and to the westward 
 from this, and nearer to Adelaide, are the harbors of Rivoli, 
 Guichen, and Lacepede Bays, with their respective townships of 
 Beachport, Robe, and Kingston. Beachport is connected with 
 Mount Gambier, and Kingston with Naracoorte, by rail. Between 
 Beachport and the Mount is the little township of Millicent, in the 
 heart of the drained lands, which in time will produce great quan- 
 tities of roots and other produce suited to the soil, and will fatten 
 great numbers of live stock. Naracoorte, fifty miles inland from 
 Kingston, is famous for the caves in its vicinity. They are of great 
 extent, and when lighted up their sjjacious chambers and winding 
 galleries, ornamented with stalagmites and stalactites, form a spec-
 
 ITS METROPOLIS AND CHIEF TOWNS. 83 
 
 tacle of wondrous beauty. Great quantities of guano, so called, are 
 procured from some of tlie caves, and valued as excellent manure. 
 It is composed principally of the remains of marsupials. For many 
 years in one of these underground recesses there lay the petrified 
 corpse of an aboriginal, who, it was supposed, had retreated there to 
 die after being shot in an encounter with the early white settlers. 
 Some travelling showman one night carried off this curiosity. The 
 act, though greatly to be deprecated, scarcely came within the 
 description of any offence known to South Australian law, but Mr. 
 Strangways, author of the Land Act bearing his name, is credited 
 with having suggested that the body-snatcher should be proceeded 
 against under a local statute for " removing stone without a licence." 
 At any rate the plunder was recovered, restored to the cave, and 
 enclosed with an iron railing. The showman, however, carried it 
 off again, got safely away, and exhibited the curiosity in Europe. 
 
 Fifteen or twenty miles to the north-east of Naracoorte is 
 Bordertown, where the railway systems of South Australia and 
 Victoria will soon meet. Naracoorte and Mount Gambier are 
 about sixty miles apart, and half way between them, on a fine 
 plain, is the neat looking township of Penola. There are a few 
 minor townships and hamlets in this part of the colony, which need 
 not be particularised.
 
 84 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE LAND — AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE. 
 
 The first wheat crops— South Australia the granary of New Holland — Ridley's stripper 
 — Farmers too exclusively stick to wheat-growing — The drained lands of the South- 
 East — -Roots, potatoes, and other crops — Progress— Experimental Farm — Scrub 
 lands — Fruit trees and plants — The olive— Sericulture — The wine industry — 
 Raisins and other dried fruits — Forest culture — Government plantations and 
 nurseries — The land system — Concessions to distressed credit purchasers of 
 agricultural land. 
 
 As this and the two following chapters will be devoted to the land 
 and its raw products, it will be well here to show briefly what 
 has been done with the territory of South Australia proper up to 
 the latest date at which complete statistics have been furnished. 
 The quantity of land alienated is 10,029,134 acres ; leased for pas- 
 toral purposes, 150,564,000 acres; preferential right claims to leases 
 for pastoral purposes, 15,274,240 acres ; lands under commonage 
 licences, 6,000,000 acres ; leased for miscellaneous and other pur- 
 poses, 1,391,132 acres; granted for education and University 
 295,000, acres ; unoccupied Crown lands (including lakes), 
 59,610,294 acres ; mineral leases and claims, 78,656 acres ; gold 
 leases, 2,344 acres. Total area of South Australia proper, 
 243,244,800 acres. Area under cultivation, 2,623,195 acres. 
 
 From a very early period of its history South Australia was 
 known as an essentially agricultural country. Agriculture was 
 its leading industry, and in fact is so to this day. For years the 
 colony was called the granary of Australia, and now Victoria is 
 the only one of the great Australian provinces independent of 
 South Australian supplies of the stafi' of life. Victoria and 
 Western Australia have both imposed protective duties on wheat 
 and flour to keep the South Australian importations out, but in 
 the case of the first -named of those two colonies the duty is now 
 a nullity, as she exports wheat and flour. In the year 1838
 
 ITS AGRICULTURE. 85 
 
 Captain Sturt advised the South Australian, pioneers not to attempt 
 tillage on the Adelaide plains, or they would meet with grievous 
 disappointment. Within three years of this time heavy crops of 
 wheat were produced in that part of the country, and for many years 
 in the neighborhood of Adelaide harvests of from twenty to thirty 
 bushels, and sometimes more, per acre were gathered. This land is 
 too valuable now for the culture of cereals. There are very few fields 
 of wheat near Adelaide. On some of the land near the city hay 
 is grown, but the greater portion is taken up by towns, villages, 
 vineyards, gardens, and the suburban estates of the merchants and 
 millionaires of the colony. The first crop of wheat was grown in 
 the year 1839, within a mile of Adelaide, and was reaped in 
 December of that year, perhaps part of it late in November. 
 Those are the months for reaping on the plains ; in the hills the 
 harvest is from three to six weeks later. In those days Ridley's 
 stripper, which takes ofi" the heads and thrashes them, had not 
 been invented ; the corn must be dead ripe when that is used, as it 
 has been on almost every farm, except in parts of the South- East, 
 for many years, and therefore the harvest is about a fortnight 
 later than it would be vmder the old system. Still, on the Ade- 
 laide plains and in the north and other districts, a crop of wheat 
 may be garnered in by means of this machine before Christmas. 
 It is only in very dry countries that this machine can be used. 
 Forty years ago the available labor in the colony was insufficient 
 to reap the harvest, and then Mr. Ridley, at that time the leading 
 miller, and possessed of great mechanical ingenuity, constructed 
 the first stripper, which worked successfully. Mr. J. W. Bull claims 
 to have previously submitted to the " Corn Exchange Committee," 
 in Adelaide, a model, with which this invention corresponds, 
 and his claim has never been disproved, in fact hardly disputed. 
 For very many years, however, owing to financial difficulties, 
 he was unable to bring his invention into practical operation, and 
 it is to Mr. Ridley South Australians are indebted for the intro- 
 duction of a machine which revolutionised agriculture, and without 
 which the great harvests of the colony could not possibly be 
 gathered. In the Adelaide Observer, dated :^3rd September, 1843, 
 Bull's model is thus described — " His machine consisted of a long- 
 " toothed comb fixed to a close-bodied cart, the teeth being operated 
 " on by four revolving beaters with square edges, which would
 
 86 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 " have the effect of taking off the ears and depositing them in 
 " the body of the cart," Had the journalist mentioned that th-e 
 ears would be thrashed, his description would be applicable to the 
 stripper of the present day. One of the wheels that bear the cart 
 turns a cog-wheel and band, which work the beaters. One of these 
 strippers, worked hj four horses and a man, reaps ten acres in a day. 
 
 The crop of 1839 was 120 acres, yielding twenty-five bushels 
 per acre, and worth 15s. per bushel. The price two or three years 
 later went down to 2s. 6d., and in 1843 about £10,000 worth of 
 wheat and flour was shipped from Port Adelaide. The history of 
 farming proper since then has been mainly that of wheat produc- 
 tion. Oats only thrive in limited areas, where the climate is 
 cooler and moister than over the average of South Australian 
 country. Barley will yield good crops over a far greater extent 
 of country, but there are not such good foreign markets for it as 
 for wheat ; and, with respect to home consumption, farmers and 
 brewers have disagreed as to how the grain should be gathered : 
 the former wish to use the machine, on grounds of economy, but 
 the maltsters complain that the beaters destroy in too large a pro- 
 portion of the grains the germinating principle, and therefore 
 greatly reduce the fitness of the corn for malting. On Kangaroo 
 Island a considerable quantity of barley is grown, and thrashed 
 with grooved rollers. One of these rollers — 10ft. or 12ft. long, 
 tapering from 2ft. to 2ft. Gin. or more at one end to a much 
 smaller diameter at the other — is fastened at its small end by a 
 ring to a stake or post, and drawn round by horses or bullocks 
 attached to the large end. It makes very neat work where there 
 is a good thrashing floor. The total production of Kangaroo 
 Island, however, is small, and the brewers import the greater 
 part of their malt. 
 
 The farmers, like other persons, will produce what pays them 
 best for the present, without regarding the future ; they are wrong 
 in sticking so exclusively to wheat, but will find out their mistake 
 in time, and correct it. About Moimt Gambier they produce large 
 quantities of potatoes. And there and about the drained lands 
 to the westward, the agriculturists are turning their attention to 
 grazing and fattening cattle and sheep. The drained lauds will 
 not, without proper manures, bear prolonged wheat cropping, 
 though the first two or three crops are very heavy, but the soil
 
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 ITS AGRICULTURE. 8T 
 
 will yield immense crops of roots and grasses. Potatoes should be 
 an important product there. The area of these lands reclaimed 
 and in the course of reclamation from the condition of marsh is 
 about 100,000 acres, and 67,945 acres have been sold, the mini- 
 mum upset price being £2 per acre — the value previous to drainage 
 being next to nothing. An English farmer would be much more 
 at home in dealing with this land than with any other in the 
 colony. There have been some defects in the drainage, but these 
 will doubtless be soon remedied. 
 
 In the Barossa district, north-east from Adelaide, some far- 
 mers are turning their attention to flax cultivation, which has also 
 been tried in other parts of the colony. 
 
 Returning to the wheat product, which was about 3,000 
 bushels in 1839-40, we have a rapid increase up to the year 
 1850-51, when it reached about 400,000 bushels. The Victorian 
 diggings then gave the great impetus to South Australian agri- 
 culture, and in three years the wheat production had more than 
 quadrupled. The value of breadstuffs exported in 1854 was 
 £316,217 ; in 1861 it was £712,789, though the price of wheat 
 was much lower than in the former year ; in 1867 it was 
 £1,037,085 ; and in 1869 £890,843. Then Strangways' Land 
 Act was passed, followed in after j^ears by statutes further amend- 
 ing the land system. In 1876 breadstuffs to the value of £1,988,716 
 were exported, and the figures rose to £2,469,720 in the year 
 1880. Since then we have had bad harvests, and the exports of 
 breadstuffs for 1882 amounted in value to £1,533,442. 
 
 The average wheat yield, taking one year with another, may 
 be stated at about 8 bushels per acre ; and it would be more, 
 but for the lands taken up by farmers in the north, beyond the 
 line where the rainfall is reliable and generally sufficient to pro- 
 duce fair crops. Last year the average was 4 bush. 13 lbs., that 
 being the third consecutive year in which it was under 5 bush. 
 The harvest of 1875-6 yielded only 3 lbs. under 12 bush, per acre, 
 and the average for ten harvests commencing with 1871-2 was 
 8 bush. 16 lbs. The area under wheat crop last year was 1,746,864 
 acres. 
 
 That the style of farming must alter no one doubts, and atten- 
 tion is constantly being turned to other products than wheat. A 
 mixed system of farming and grazing is coming into favor, and
 
 88 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 land legislation in the future is likely to facilitate this. In the 
 older districts the farmers make good profits out ol dairy produce, 
 pork, hams, poultry, &c., and within reach of the metropolis and 
 other large towns hay is a profitable product. Considerable 
 quantities of chaffed hay and bran are sent up the Murray and 
 Darling, principally to supply the townships and settlers on the 
 banks of the latter river. 
 
 There is a State experimental farm in the South-East, which 
 has not been managed very well. One under the immediate care 
 of Professor Custance has been established at Roseworthy, in the 
 Barossa District, and much information of a useful character is to 
 be gathered from the operations there ; with a rainfall of only 
 fourteen inches, the Professor reaped 26 bushels per acre ofi" one 
 plot of ground, through the use of artificial manures. The farm is, 
 with regard to soil and climate, a fair sample of average South 
 Australian country, so that the results of the experiments will be 
 of general utility to the agriculturists of the colony. 
 
 Owing to the climate and the stripping machine, there is no 
 country in the world where a crop of wheat can be grown and 
 gathered so cheaply as in South Australia. Next in importance to 
 the stripper, as a labor saving implement, is the stump-jumping 
 plough, which, when it comes to a root, stump, or large stone, 
 instead of sticking fast or breaking, gently rises, through the 
 action of a balance weight, over the obstruction, and drops into its 
 work easily and effectually on the other side. The value of this 
 contrivance is owing to the quantity of scrub lands brought under 
 cultivation. These scrubs are principallj^ composed of what is 
 called mallee timber, that is to say, small eucalypti, varying in 
 the diameter from a man's wrist to his thigh, and sometimes his 
 body. Of course it is of prime importance to clear this land as 
 cheaply as possible, and the timber is felled or pulled down in 
 various fashions, principally by animal power, and then burnt. 
 Under the old system it would be necessary to grub up the stumps 
 and roots, but the stump-jumping plough renders this expense 
 unnecessary, and in the course of a few years those roots and 
 stumps which have not been burnt or pulled up by the harrows and 
 difierent implements, and removed, have completely rotted away. 
 
 The colony is eminently suited to horticultural enterprise. In 
 South Australia proper all kinds of fruits, except those essentially
 
 ITS AGRICULTURE. 89 
 
 of a tropical character, can be grown. The vine thrives on hill and 
 plain. Strawberries, raspberries, and other fruits found in perfec- 
 tion in cold climates, flourish in the mountain ranges. Apples and 
 pears grow well almost anywhere, if there is a fair rainfall. The 
 orange tree luxuriates in certain localities, where irrigation is 
 practicable, and under those conditions bears an immense quantity 
 of fruit. The olive will one day be a source of wealth to the 
 colony. It grows almost anywhere, bears freely, and is not much 
 affected by drought. Unlike wheat, the olive harvest would not be 
 half ruined by a dry July or August, or two or three daj^s of hot 
 wind in September. Olive oil of the finest quality is made by 
 several persons who have faith in this industry, and at the Adelaide 
 Gaol, where there is a flourishing olive plantation. Connoisseurs 
 pronounce the oil to be equal to any in the world. A few years 
 ago there was some stir about sericulture, but little has been heard 
 of it lately. The mulberry, however, to feed the worms, grows 
 luxuriantly in the colony, and the climate is favorable ; the industry 
 will probably be established when labor is cheaper, and small 
 farmers and gardeners have learned how to turn to the best account 
 the time and labor of their families and those of the young people 
 they are able to hire. 
 
 Foremost in the horticultural line is the vine, which undoubt- 
 edly finds congenial soil and climate in the colony. To establish 
 such an industry as that of wine-making must necessarily, in a new 
 country, require time, patience, and intelligence, and manj" disap- 
 pointments and failures must be expected. But the tentative stage 
 has now passed. The vines of South Australia have secured the 
 approbation of the best judges in Europe, and there will be good 
 markets in the old world for the produce of her vintages as soon as 
 wines of certain qualities are made in sufiiciently large quantities, 
 so that heavy stocks can be kept. The exports steadily increase, 
 and last year their value was £36,744. The home consumption is 
 very great, and continually increasing ; in fact, the colonial wine 
 has largely supplanted the colonial beer in the harvest field, in 
 cafes, and in private houses. 
 
 Raisins and currants are produced in perfection, and there is 
 no reason why they should not be exported largely. Associated 
 with these luxuries may be mentioned almonds, which grow almost 
 anywhere, and can be gathered at small expense. Figs thrive,
 
 90 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 but the art of drying and preparing them for market has not yet 
 been mastered. 
 
 Probably scarcely any form of rural enterprise would be more 
 profitable in the colony than forest culture, if those embarking in 
 it would be content to wait from five to twenty years for returns. 
 A few years ago the rapid disappearance of our native timber 
 created much uneasiness, and the attention of the Legislature was 
 directed with great persistency to the subject by Mr. Krichauff — a 
 member of the Assembly, and one of the most prominent and 
 useful of the German colonists, who are acknowledged to be a 
 valuable class of settlers, who harmonize, as in America, with 
 those of British race, and are true citizens, whose aim it is to 
 promote the progress of their adopted country. An Act to 
 encourage the planting of forest trees was passed in 1873. This 
 was extended in its scope in 1876, and two years later an amend- 
 ing and consolidating Act was passed, providing for the protection 
 of timber in the native forests from wanton destruction, and for 
 the establishment of new forests and nurseries. A forest board 
 was appointed ; Mr. J. Ednie Brown, of great experience in 
 Canada and elsewhere, was appointed as forest conservator ; and 
 a number of blocks of the Crown lands in difierent parts of the 
 colony were proclaimed as forest reserves. The board was abolished 
 a year or two ago, and its duties handed over to the Commissioner 
 of Crown Lands, to whom the forest conservator is directly res- 
 ponsible. Mr. Brown's report for the year 1881-2 is of the most 
 encouraging description. By the sale of waste timber, or licences 
 to fell and remove it, and by letting portions of the reserves for 
 grazing, the forest department more than pays its M'ay. At the 
 close of the year named the total area of the different forest 
 reserves was 239,336 acres. There were planted, during the 
 year, 189,710 trees; of these 112,000 survived, and those grown 
 from seed and those which sprung up naturally, with existing 
 saplings pruned and made available for timber trees, brought the 
 grand total to 212,560. These, with the trees planted in previous 
 years, made up about 800,000 under the care of the department. 
 The greater proportion of the trees planted are indigenous to 
 Australia. Foremost among them are many species of the euca- 
 lyptus. Then come pines and mimosas. Of the last-named the 
 wattle well repays cultivation, coming to maturity in about five
 
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 ITS AGRICULTURE. 91 
 
 years, when its bark is valuable for tanning and the wood is 
 excellent for domestic fuel. Great numbers of English and foreign 
 trees are also planted, including the oak, the ash, the elm, poplars, 
 osiers, sycamores, walnuts, and many other trees, the object aimed 
 at being to discover which species are best suited to particular 
 localities. Encouragement is given by the department to public 
 bodies and individuals to engage in forest culture. Young trees 
 from the nurseries are given to corporations and district councils, 
 to farmers, and other persons in the country districts. 
 
 In this chapter it is fitting that an account of the land system 
 of the present day, as affecting the interests herein dealt with, 
 should be given. The upset price of all country lands belonging 
 to the Crown is £\ per acre, exclusive of the value of any improve- 
 ments there may be, or of the cost of reclamation by drainage. 
 The purchaser must pay ten per cent, of the purchase-money at 
 the time of sale, ten per cent, three years afterwards ; and then 
 five per cent, yearly till the whole is paid, all these payments 
 being considered purchase-money, no interest being charged. 
 Should the credit selector fall into arrears with these payments, 
 five per cent, is charged upon the arrears. The purchase may be 
 completed at the end of ten years, or any time thereafter. The 
 maximum area that may be held under credit selections is 640 acres 
 of reclaimed, or 1,000 acres of other country lands. The mode of 
 sale is auction, restricted, however, to agriculturists ; that is to say, 
 persons covenanting to cultivate and improve the land. In the 
 first instance the competition is limited to persons undertaking to 
 reside on the land, three months during the first, and nine months 
 during each subsequent year, till the purchase is completed ; after 
 they are all satisfied, persons who will cultivate but do not under- 
 take to reside on the land may compete. Before the end of the 
 second year the purchaser, or credit selector as he is commonly 
 termed, must expend 5s. per acre in improvements ; Ts. 6d. in all 
 before the end of the third, and 10s. in all before the end of the 
 fourth year. The improvements are " to consist of all or any of 
 " of the following — erecting a dwelling-house or farm bu.ildings, 
 *' sinking wells, constructing water tanks or reservoirs, fencing, 
 " draining, clearing and grubbing the land." Fallow land in 
 excess of one-fifth of the holding is counted an improvement. 
 During the first year a tenth of the land must be ploughed, and
 
 92 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 # 
 during every subsequent year a fifth must be under cultivation. 
 On drained lands two-fifths planted with non-indigenous grasses 
 are equivalent to one-fifth of ordinary agricultural cultivation. 
 One acre planted with certain fruit and other trees, or vegetables, 
 or such other trees as may from time to time be proclaimed by the 
 Governor in Council for that purpose, counts as equal to six acres 
 of ordinary farming cultivation. A breach of any of these condi- 
 tions renders the land liable to forfeiture. The Commissioner of 
 Crown Lands may waive the cultivation condition when, from the 
 nature of the soil, he may consider it desirable. These agricul- 
 tural holdings give right of commonage, originally at the rate of 
 about twenty-six cattle or 160 sheep to each eighty acres ; but 
 this commonage grows small by degrees, and beautifull}'^ less as the 
 lands are sold. Inferior lands — most commonly scrub lands — may 
 be leased for twenty-one years at a minimum annual rent of ten 
 shillings per square mile, with right of purchase at any time during 
 the last eleven years of the term, at £1 per acre. The maximum 
 area to be held of these lands is 3,200 acres, the holder being re- 
 quired to clear one-fortieth of the land yearly of timber, till one 
 half is in a fit state for agriculture. These holdings give no right 
 of commonage. Lands that are specially proclaimed, or that have 
 been oSered at auction and remained unselected for two years, are 
 dealt with in this way. These leases with right of purchase are 
 ofiered at auction, the buyers naming or bidding the annual rent 
 they will pay. It will be seen that the terms on which agricultural 
 lands can be obtained are easy, but probably they will be still further 
 liberalised by the abolition of the auction system, which has 
 harassed agricultural selectors without benefiting the State. This 
 change is the more probable, considering that some seven hundred 
 of the selectors have, during 1883, been released from their agree- 
 ments, and on their lands being again ofiered at auction, they have 
 in nearly all cases repurchased them at 20s. 6d. per acre — the 
 original prices ranging up to £7 and even more.
 
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 ITS FLOCKS AND HERDS. 93 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE PASTORAL INTEREST AND THE LAND SYSTEM. 
 
 Definition of terms — Early importations of live stock by sea — The overlanders Math 
 cattle and sheep — Mr. Charles Bonney — Mr. Eyre, the explorer — Encounters of 
 overlanders with the blacks — The Mun-ay and Coorong routes — The Australian 
 horse — Draught horses — Cattle — Durhams — Heref ords — Driving cattle — Richness 
 of the pasture — Cattle from Gulf of Carpentaria and their weight — Effect of 
 fencing the country on travelling stock— Carrjdng them by rail — -Sheep — The 
 Merino — Other breeds — Crossbreeds — Great fall in prices of mutton between 
 1838 and 1844 — Effect of the diggings — Mutton and beef rise again in value — 
 Demand for store sheep for Queensland — Another fall to lowest rates in 1869 — 
 Since then prices have varied — Statistics — Diseases of the flocks and herds — The 
 land system as applied to the pastoral interest. 
 
 In commencing to speak of the pastoral interest, it is well to 
 define terms. A large sheep or cattle breeder is ordinarily termed 
 a "squatter," but the term strictly is applied only to pastoral 
 occupants of lands leased from the Crown. The block he leases is 
 called indifferently a run or a station, but the latter term is very 
 commonly applied to the principal or a branch homestead. Thus 
 people speak of the head-station or an out-station. The runs range 
 from a few square miles up to several hundred in extent, and there 
 are cases of a squatter or a squatting firm leasing one or more 
 thousands of miles of pastoral country. 
 
 The pioneers of South Australia paid very dearly for their 
 beef and mutton. The first importations of live stock were made 
 seaward, principally from Tasmania and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 In April, 1838, Mr. Charles Bonney, afterwards Commissioner of 
 Crown Lands, whose name for nearly forty-six years has been asso- 
 ciated with the history of South Australia as that of one of the 
 most useful colonists, arrived at Adelaide, with the first " mob " of 
 cattle overland from ITew South Wales. He started from the 
 river Goulburn and followed the Murray down to the North West 
 Bend, when he left the river, and, striking across country, met
 
 94 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 with the first white men on the river Onkapariuga, at a bend 
 known as the Horseshoe, about twenty miles south of the infant 
 metropolis. The cattle were in splendid condition, and scarcely 
 one had been lost on the way. A few months afterwards Mr. 
 E. J. Eyre, who subsequently distinguished himself as a daring 
 explorer, and was Governor of Jamaica during the last outbreak 
 among the colored population, followed with another mob. Other 
 " overlanders/' as they were called, with their mobs of sheep 
 and cattle, quickly succeeded the pioneers. Mr. Bonney, after 
 his Murray trip, brought cattle and sheep along the coast or 
 Coorong route, and by the Lakes, crossing the Murray at or near 
 what was soon afterwards recognized as the regular crossing-place. 
 A small township, named after the Iron Duke, which has not 
 grown very much . was established there, and provided with a punt 
 for the use of travellers on horse cr foot, or in vehicles. The over- 
 land routes were soon well-known, and cattle and sheep by 
 hundreds and thousands poured into the country. The aborigines 
 were troublesome to the overlanders for some time; serious con- 
 flicts took place; some of the whites were murdered and their 
 cattle scattered ; but in the year 1841, on the Murray route, the 
 blacks were taught such a terrible lesson by a combined force of 
 South Australian police and volunteers, and a New South Wales 
 party of overlanders, that they have never given any trouble since 
 to travellers in that region, either with or without live stock. 
 
 Besides sheep and cattle, horses were brought over in consi- 
 derable nunibers, and of the kind best suited to the wants of the 
 pastoral settlers. The Sydney stock horse — the colonies were gene- 
 rally described by the name of the capital — for pluck and endu- 
 rance could not be surpassed in the world. He had a strong dash 
 of Arab in him, and was capable of an immense amount of fatigue, 
 with no food beyond the natural grasses. For a week together one 
 would, on a pinch, travel from fifty to seventy miles a day. A 
 hundred miles a day has often been covered by the Australian 
 horse. The journey from the Burra to Adelaide is that distance, 
 and more than one or two of the old colonists have accomplished it 
 within twelve hours with a single horse. The New South Welsh- 
 men, as Dr. Lang called them, were fond of racing, and as that 
 sport was in its infancy in South Australia, the pedigree of a racer 
 was considered fairly good if, with a sire of recognized English
 
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 ITS FLOCKS AND HERDS. 95 
 
 blood, it could claim a "Sydney mare" for its dam. Heavier 
 horses came later, and it was some years before they were used 
 generally for the plough ; this work was performed by bullocks, 
 four or six being used, according to the character ol the virgin soil 
 to be broken up. They of course required, besides the ploughman, 
 a man or a youth to drive them. Double-furrow ploughs were 
 unknown then, and oxen being slow movers, an acre was the 
 utmost that could be turned over in a day. Now, with the double- 
 furrow plough and three horses, one man ploughs from two to 
 three acres a day. The draught horses came more from Tasmania 
 than anywhere else, and the breed has been kept up or improved 
 hj costly importations from the United Kingdom. Clydesdales 
 have been most in favor, but some Suffolk Punches have been 
 imported, and a few Lincolnshire horses. 
 
 Of cattle, Durhams have all along been most in favor ; but 
 there are some remarkably fine herds of Herefords. Mr. Price, of 
 Hindmarsh Island, has been about the most noted breeder of these 
 animals, and Mr. John Angas, who spent great sums of money in 
 stud stock for the farmer and grazier, has produced some very 
 grand specimens of the breed. The Durham, or shorthorn, ap- 
 pears to thrive in all climates, tropical, temperate, or cold, if the 
 feed be plentiful. They are driven across the continent, and gain 
 iiesh on the journey, till they get into the agricultural districts, 
 where the land is fenced. Some years ago, among a fine herd 
 driven from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Adelaide, a distance of 
 twelve hundred miles, a cow killed fresh after the journey, 
 weighed l,0001bs. She was not a large-framed beast, but the fat 
 was of great depth. The time for di-iviug cattle or sheep great 
 distances to market, however, is passing away. Where the pas- 
 ture is good, if the drovers are careful and understand their 
 work, the stock do not lose flesh in travelling, and the expense 
 of droving is trifling ; but now that for hundreds of miles the 
 land is fenced, leaving only " travelling stock reserves," always 
 kept bare of feed by trespassing animals, the case is entirely 
 different, and it is more profitable to send sheep and cattle by 
 rail than to ofier them in low condition to the butchers. The 
 railways, too, are especially needed by squatters in bad seasons. 
 Beyond wide belts of drought-afflicted country, across which it 
 would be impossible to drive fat stock, are " runs " where sheep
 
 96 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 and cattle are fit for the knife, and not the best but the only way 
 to deliver them in condition fit for the butcher is to send them by 
 rail. This is the case not merely in South Australia^ but more or 
 less in all the colonies of New Holland, so that the live stock traffic 
 on the railways, already extensive, must grow to enormous propor- 
 tions. Cattle from Queensland are sent to Adelaide by the Port 
 Augusta railway. 
 
 Sheep are, generally speaking, more profitable than cattle, 
 which they supplanted many years ago over an immense extent of 
 territory. The principal breed, as every one knows, is the Merino, 
 first introduced into Aiistralia by Capt. John MacArthur, of New 
 South Wales, at the close of last century. In all these colonies 
 the breed has been brought to a pitch of excellence unprecedented 
 in the world ; squatters have long ceased to import stud Merinos 
 from Europe, as the}^ are certain they could not introduce foreign 
 blood into their flocks without injuring them. Wool and carcass 
 have improved. The weight of a good Merino is about GOlbs., but 
 heavier sheep of the breed are killed. The wool in the European 
 market is the most valuable of any fleece in the world. A con- 
 siderable number of stud Merinos are exported from South Australia 
 yearly. Twenty years ago Queensland squatters imported largely, 
 not simply stud sheep, but many flocks for their new runs from 
 South Australia, the numbers amounting to several hundred thou- 
 sand in one year. 
 
 On stations within tolerably easy reach of Adelaide, and 
 where the country and pasture are suitable for sheep of a heavier 
 kind, long-wooled sorts, principally Lincolns and Leicesters, are 
 bred. They thrive, and are quite a feature at the agricultural and 
 pastoral exhibitions of the colony. Their wool of course is not so 
 valuable as that of the Merino, but then there is more of it, and 
 the carcass is twice the size. The lambs are a special source of 
 profit, as they are large enough for the butcher earlier than the 
 Merinoes are. Cross-bred sheep are in favor with some graziers, 
 and there are a few South Downs, and fewer Cotswolds. Australians 
 do not prize themselves specially on any sheep but the Merino, 
 which must remain most in favor as the best suited to the greater 
 part of New Holland, and the most profitable. 
 
 In 1838, the year in which the first live stock were brought 
 overland, there were 28,000 sheep in the colony. The number
 
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 W
 
 ITS FLOCKS AND HERDS. 97 
 
 was nearly quadrupled next year, and in 1844 had increased to 
 450,000. During the same six years horned cattle increased from 
 2,500 to 30,000; horses from 480 to 2,150; goats and pigs from 
 780 to 12,000. The market was, soon after the last-named year, so 
 glutted with sheep that they were boiled down by thousands for 
 their tallow. Muttoa was about l^d. per pound, but at the boiling- 
 down establishment fine legs could be bought for 6d. each. The 
 freezing process of preservation had not been introduced then, and 
 steamers did not trade between the old country and her distant 
 dependencies in the South Seas. The discover}^ of the Victorian 
 diggings made a complete revolution in the squatting interest and 
 the meat trade. Mutton rose to three or four times its previous 
 value, and the price of beef advanced in proportion. Squatters 
 became suddenly wealthy in all the colonies ; and some of those 
 who soon after parted with their stations, at what seemed immense 
 prices, subsequently found that had they waited a few years they 
 would have obtained from twice to five times as much as they 
 accepted. For some years, in South Australia, the price of meat 
 was kept up by the drain upon the country for store sheep for the 
 new runs established in the distant j)arts of the colony itself and 
 in Queensland. In 1869, however, prices came down to the old 
 ante-diggings level. A side of a fat sheep was bought in the 
 retail market for half-a-crown, and boiling-down once more came 
 into fashion. Since then prices have varied with the seasons, and 
 probably they will be low during 1884, the abundant rains of the 
 past year having been so favorable to the pasture. But the estab- 
 lishment of the frozen meat trade must prevent sheep and cattle 
 from becoming a drug in the market, as in years gone by. 
 
 In 1881 there were 6,810,856 sheep', 314,918 cattle, and 
 169,678 horses in the colony. All through Australia, excepting 
 Western Australia, the flocks are absolutely free from scab. In 
 South Australia, as elsewhere, footrot is troublesome in damp 
 pasture land, but it is onh' within limited areas this disease pre- 
 vails. In much the same sort of country fluke is a source of 
 anxiety and loss. There is also what is known as the coast disease, 
 prevailing, as its name implies, near the sea. The principal 
 symptoms are giddiness and staggering ; and a removal of the 
 aflected flock farther inland effects a cure. Altogether the total 
 amount of ovine disease is very small in proportion to the numbers 
 
 H
 
 98 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 of sheep in the colony. At times there is pleuro -pneumonia 
 among the cattle in some parts of the country, but, as a rule, the 
 herds are healthy. Horses are rarely troubled with epidemics. 
 The losses of live stock through poisonous herbs are, on the whole, 
 very small. 
 
 The terms on which land has been leased for pastoral purposes 
 have been reasonable as far as they applied to country fairly 
 watered, and within reasonable distance of the seaboard or of 
 markets ; but more liberal regulations are needed for the distant 
 country. From the foundation of the colony the principle was 
 recognized that the shepherd kings and cattle breeders leasing the 
 waste lands must retire as the plough advanced. Their rents were 
 trifling, ten shillings per square mile, but they were expected to 
 move back at six months' notice. For some years they simply 
 shifted farther away from the metropolis or seaboard, perhaps to as 
 good pasture as they left ; but in later times — as the rich grazing 
 country available became scarcer 'and more distant, and lands 
 they had occupied being always sold at auction — they purchased 
 the freehold, the farmers having no chance in the competition 
 against these nabobs. This system was greatly abused by impe- 
 cunious Treasurers. The process was called "killing a squatter." 
 Perhaps the land was not even asked for by farmers ; but money 
 was wanted for roadmaking or to cover a deficit, and a squatter 
 received six months' notice to quit, as his run was to be sold ; 
 the consequence often being that he bought most or all of it 
 himself. In this way some of the large estates of the colony were 
 created. 
 
 A better mode of dealing with the Crown lands followed. 
 The principle came to be accepted that as a rule the freehold of 
 land should hot be parted with for pastoral purposes, and from the 
 time of the passing of Strangways' Act, in 18G9, not much land 
 has been sold outright, except to agriculturists. For several years 
 after that Act was passed, some squatters, by means of dummy 
 agricultural selectors, evaded the law, and acquired considerable 
 quantities of land ; but this abuse was checked by legislation, and 
 large estates can only be built up now by a slower process, and 
 principally of lands more or less exhausted by cropping. Now 
 most of the good country within two hundred miles of Adelaide is 
 freehold, or held by the agricultural purchaser on credit from the
 
 ITS FLOCKS AND HERDS. 99 
 
 Crown. Beyond is country within a reasonable distance held by 
 the squatters, whose leases will expire four or five years hence, 
 and what is to be done with this land has yet to be determined by 
 the Legislature. The question to be decided is, whether the runs 
 shall be let at a valuation, or the leases put up to auction, as may 
 be done under the present law. All these leases can be resumed 
 after twelve months' notice, the lessee getting reimbursed for 
 improvements if the land is sold. Farther away is country which 
 from its distance is not so valuable, and this will doubtless be let 
 with greater security o£ tenure and on easier terms than have 
 hitherto prevailed. The carrying capability of South Australian 
 pasture land in its natural state ranges from forty sheep to the 
 square mile to a sheep to the acre. On the drained lands in the 
 south-east several sheep might be reared and fattened on an acre, 
 probably eight or ten, if the land were planted with the best 
 foreign grasses. 
 
 Pastoral leases are granted for twenty-one years at a rental 
 of one shilling per head on the average number of cattle, or two- 
 pence on the average number of sheep. The minimum rent per 
 square mile is 2s. 6d. At the end of the term the land reverts, 
 with all improvements, to the Crown .Should it be resumed during 
 the currency of the lease, the lessee is reimbursed for improvements 
 to the full extent of their value if the resumption is during the 
 first half of the term of the lease, half their value if during the third 
 quarter of the term, and one-fourth value if during the last quarter 
 of the term. Even at the expiry of the lease, if the Grovernment 
 resumes the land, dams, tanks, and wells of a permanent character, 
 available for the use of cattle or sheep, are paid for by the Govern- 
 ment. Some of these lands may be resumed after twelve months', 
 and others after three years' notice, according to their position. To 
 distinguish them, they are classed and scheduled. Annual leases of 
 unsold pastoral lands that have been resumed for agricultural 
 purposes, and declared as "hundreds," may be granted for grazing 
 cattle or sheep, but not so as to interfere with the commonage 
 rights of agricultural holders. The squatter whose land has been 
 resumed and declared a hundred, has a preferential right to an 
 annual lease. The object of the annual leases is that the land shall 
 be profitably occupied simply for grazing till the farmers want it, 
 and no longer.
 
 100 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 The more distant or inferior country may be let for fourteen 
 years with right of renewal for an equal term. The rent is, for the 
 first fourteen years, 2s. 6(1. per square mile, and a penny per head on 
 the average number of sheep, and sixpence per head on the average 
 number of cattle ; this is all doubled for the second fourteen years. 
 All improvements of any kind revert absolutely to the Crown at the 
 end of the second lease. There must be three years' notice of re- 
 sumption. If the resumption occurs during the currency of the 
 first fourteen years, the lessee must be paid the full value of all 
 improvements and for the loss sustained by the resumption — or, in 
 other words, the market value of his lease, except that he is not to 
 be paid for the increase of value arising from natural waters or 
 expenditure on roads or railways, or upon adjoining lands. If the 
 resumption takes place during the second term of fourteen years, 
 the lessee must be paid the full value of all improvements, but not 
 for loss by such resumption. If there is no resumption, the lessee 
 will be paid the full value of all wells, dams, and reservoirs of a 
 permanent character which increase the stock-carrying capabilities 
 of the lease. 
 
 These provisions are not considered sufficiently liberal to 
 encourage the pastoral occuj^ation of the dry country, where great 
 sums of money must be expended in well-sinking and water con^ 
 servation in order to make the land available. On one run in 
 the colony £150,000 have been expended in this way, and when 
 so much capital is expended something like security of tenure for 
 a long term is needed, or ample compensation for resumption. 
 Bills for liberalising the law dealing with the pastoral interest 
 have been unsuccessfully submitted to Parliament during the last 
 two or three sessions, but their rejection has been connected simply 
 with matters of detail, and there is no doubt that a measure dealing 
 comprehensively with the question will be introduced early in the 
 first session of the new Parliament, which will meet a few mouths 
 hence. Anyone can take out a preferential right to a lease of 
 dry country on which he is intending to sink for fresh water. 
 This right is for twelve months, and may be renewed by the 
 Oommissioner of Crown Lands if he is satisfied that the holder 
 has honestly endeavored to obtain fresh water, but has been 
 hindered by drought or other circumstances beyond his control. 
 The maximum area to be hold under such right is 1,000 square
 
 ITS FLOCKS AND HERDS. 101 
 
 miles ; but it is obvious that this provision is easily evaded by per- 
 sons combining together to monopolise large tracts of country. 
 Complaints have been made of monopolists holding thousands of 
 miles of pastoral land on speculation without stocking it ; but this 
 evil can be checked by stocking conditions, strictly enforced. There 
 are provisions for resuming portions of runs for roads and railways. 
 The Government has power also, to search for water, sink wells, 
 and resume the land to the extent of not more than one square 
 mile on which water has been so obtained, paying the lessee for 
 any improvements on the land. Anyone has full right to mine or 
 search for minerals on nny run, and any portion of a run may be 
 resumed for mineral purposes. 
 
 In the year 1881 the sheep numbered 6,810,'^56 ; cattle, 
 314,918 ; horses, 159,678. It is confidently believed that if the 
 settlement of the distant country is encouraged by liberal and 
 judicious legislation these numbers may by quickly doubled. The 
 extension of the Gieat Northern Ptailway will materially aid in the 
 development of the fine pastoral country of Central Australia.
 
 102 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE MIXES AND MINERAL LEASES. 
 
 The mines and mineral leases — First impressions of the early settlers — Mr. Menge — 
 The Glen Osmond and other silver lead mines— Copper mines : The Kapunda 
 mine ; The Montaeute ; The Burra — The Wallaroo and Moonta gold mines ; The 
 Bird-in-Hand ; The Alma — Miscellaneous— Silver, lead, copper, hismuth, gold- 
 Exports— The land system and mining regulations. 
 
 To those of the first settlers of South Australia who possessed any 
 knowledge whatever of geology, or the features of mineral country, 
 the new land to which they had come presented the appearance of 
 one rich in minerals, that would some day, sooner or later, be 
 developed. Among the pioneers was a Mr. Menge, remarkable for 
 his linguistic and other attainments, and a clever and enthusiastic 
 mineralogist. He from the first prophesied a great mineral future 
 for the colony, and spent months at a time wandering over the hills 
 and plains, camping at night by himself in the bush, or finding 
 hospitable shelter at the early settlers, widely- scattered homesteads 
 and huts. During his wanderings he collected a great number of 
 mineral specimens of various kinds, including gold and precious 
 stones. He declared that on Yorke's Peninsula there were great 
 deposits of copper, and a quarter of a century later, the Wallaroo 
 and Moonta mines were discovered there. The eccentric old 
 savant did much to excite interest and sustain belief in the vast 
 mineral resources of the country. On the discovery of the gold 
 diggings in Victoria, he went to that colony, and was the first man 
 who worked an auriferous quartz reef there, the attention of the 
 diggers, up to that time, having been confined to the alluvial. He 
 died in his tent on the diggings in the year 1852. 
 
 The first mine opened was at Glen Osmond, on the face of the 
 range overlooking the city, about the year 1840. From this con- 
 siderable quantities of silver lead were soon taken, and smelting-
 
 ITS MINES. 103 
 
 works were established. The Wheal Watkins and Wheal Gawler 
 silver lead mines, both on the same slope of the range, and both 
 within a mile or two of the first find, were discovered a few mouths 
 afterwards, and worked for some time ; but all these mines were 
 abandoned as unprofitable. There have lately been rumors of a 
 company being about to be formed to work one or more of these 
 properties. It is not unlikely that the speculation would prove 
 remunerative, for mining machinery and processes have greatly 
 improved during the last forty years, and capitalists embarking in 
 such enterprises have more patience — or perhaps it would be more 
 correct to say more ample means, to wait for good results than the 
 early settlers in a new country can be expected to possess. 
 
 The Kapunda copper mine, about fifty miles from Adelaide, 
 was found in 1842, and made the fortunes of its discoverers. Ore 
 is still being raised from it, and fresh deposits may at any time be 
 met with on the property. The Montacute cojDper mine, in the 
 Mount Lofty E,ange, about a dozen miles from Adelaide, was dis- 
 covered about the end of 1843, and early next year the land was 
 sold by the Government at auction. During 1844, 600 tons of 
 rich copper were raised from this property, and for some years 
 there was a good output, but the lodes were apparently worked 
 out, and the proprietors would not risk the cost of exploratory 
 working. 
 
 But the mineral discovery that marked a new era in the 
 history of the colony was the Burra, which at one time supported 
 a large population ; afforded employment to thousands of miners, 
 mechanics, laborers, carters, and tradesmen ; attracted population 
 from abroad, and gave a wonderful stimulus to South Australian 
 progress. This mine, a hundred miles from Adelaide, in a 
 northerly direction, was discovered in 1845. The capital invested 
 in it was £12,320 in £5 shares, and no subsequent call was ever 
 made upon the shareholders. The shares at one time were worth 
 £200, and returned £40 each in a year in dividends. Altogether 
 the mine paid £800,800 in dividends. Some years ago the property 
 was sold to a new company, and it is not now being worked. The 
 lodes ran out, and the company grew tired of the expenditure 
 incurred in trying to pick them up again. This was the last im- 
 portant mine of which the Government parted with the freehold. 
 It was worked with grand results till the Victorian diggings drew
 
 104 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 the miners away in 1851-2 ; was re-opened after the gold fever 
 subsided, and worked for more than twenty years. 
 
 During 1860 and the two following years the great cupreous 
 discoveries of Yorke's Peninsula were made. The Wallaroo mine 
 was found by the lessee of the sheep run on which it was situated, 
 Mr. (now Sir) William Watson Hughes ; and there quickly set in 
 a mining mania, most of the discoveries disappointing expectations 
 sooner or later. The far-famed Moonta was opened a year or two 
 later. These mines have been working more than twenty years, 
 but neither shows signs of exhaustion. Neither mine ever cost the 
 proprietors a farthing. They had debts o£ magnitude on the pro- 
 perty, and thereby ran risk of loss, but no capital was ever paid up. 
 From the Wallaroo mines 391,549 tons of ore have been raised, 
 containing 37,710 tons of copper, and the dividends paid amount 
 to £372,256 ; but it is rather a long time since this mine returned 
 a dividend. But the large smelting works owned by the same pro- 
 prietors at Wallaroo Ba}^, and near Newcastle in New South Wales, 
 and worth £100,000, have been built out of the profits, and con- 
 tributed to the dividends. The Moonta has yielded 424,993 tons 
 of ore, representing 83,826 tons of copper, and paid £1,072,000 in 
 dividends. Next to this mine is the Hamley, belonging to another 
 company, which has paid dividends for many years. The Para- 
 matta was at one time a dividend-paying property, and many others 
 have yielded copper, though not in satisfactor}^ quantities, or for a 
 sufficient time to make a return for the money invested in them. 
 
 In the North, high hopes in da3^s gone by were entertained 
 of the Yudanamutana, the Blinman, and other copper mines, some 
 of which are now in the hands of an English company that is 
 spending money freely in their development, while others are 
 being tested by smaller associations. Operations are proceeding 
 on one property near Farina, and the Great Northern Railway 
 from Port Augusta will render it practicable to work profitably 
 mines that otherwise would be wortli nothing. 
 
 As a rule, the best mines of the colony have been either, like 
 the Wallaroo and Moonta on a plain, or like the Burra and 
 Kapunda among low ranges, or in a gently undulating country. 
 Where the locality is mountainous the lodes do not last, and there 
 is great uncertainty where to look for them. This applies 
 especially to copper and gold, but of the latter metal South
 
 o 
 O 
 
 pq 
 
 pq
 
 ITS MINES. 105 
 
 Australia has not yet turned out large quantities. The Bird-in- 
 the-Hand, in the Woodsidc district, twenty-six miles from Adelaide, 
 has yielded a considerable quantity of gold from its quartz reefs, 
 the percentage of the precious metal ranging from 6d\vts. to about 
 loz. to the ton. Over two hundred miles, in a north-easterly direc- 
 tion from Adelaide, in the Waukaringa district, about £15,000 
 worth of gold has been taken from the Alma mine, the yield 
 varying from 5dwts. to ITdwts. to the ton of stone. Want of a 
 good supply of water for crushing purposes has been the principal 
 trouble, and should this difficulty be overcome, the mine and others 
 on the same line of reef will become payable investments, as the 
 quantity of gold-bearing stone is apparently unlimited. In Victoria 
 6dwts. of the precious metal to a ton of stone is considered a fair 
 paying result, guaranteeing dividends if the yield is lasting. 
 
 I have not mentioned a twentieth of the mines that have been 
 formed and worked during the history of South Australia. Near 
 Cape Jervis the Talisker, and other silver lead mines, were worked 
 for some years. The Balhannah mine, in the Mount Lofty range, 
 yielded copper, gold, and bismuth. In the Barossa district, from 
 the Lady Alice and the Malcolm's Barossa mines, copper and gold 
 were obtained. Silver lead was raised in promising quantities at 
 the Almanda mine a dozen years ago, and the discovery caused one 
 of those manias which set in every few years in South Australia. 
 The Almanda lode ran out, and a general argentiferous collapse 
 followed. About Callington, nearly twenty miles from Adelaide, 
 on the route to be taken by the railway to the Victorian border, 
 copper mines were worked for many years, and it is hoped that 
 some of them will be well tried again when the iron road reduces 
 the cost of transport. 
 
 Mining in South Australia, as in other countries, gives many 
 blanks to one prize ; but the community as a whole profits by the 
 lottery. The Moonta or the Burra has paid several times over for 
 all the expenditure that has been wasted in working man}^ dis- 
 appointing discoveries. 
 
 The value of minerals exported in 1843 was £127 ; in 1866 
 it was £821,501. The exports have always fluctuated in value, 
 falling to £574,090 in 1870, and rising to £806,364 in 1872 ; in 
 1880 the value was £347,246 ; the following year £420,558. The 
 supply of minerals is inexhaustible, but the output and export
 
 106 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 value will var}' with the rate of wages and the price of copper in 
 the European market. 
 
 The terms upon which mineral lands can be leased from the 
 State are on the whole easy. For nearly forty years it has been a 
 recognised principle that mineral lands should remain in possession 
 of the Crown, so that they shall not be monopolised, and, perhaps, 
 locked up instead of being developed. The main object is to have 
 them giving forth their riches, so furnishing employment to work- 
 ing men, creating internal markets for produce, stimulating trade, 
 and, by swelling the exports, adding to the wealth of the colon3\ 
 
 The law relating to mineral leases and licences, so far as the 
 baser metals are concerned, is contained in the Crown Lands Con- 
 solidation Act of 1877 and one clause of the amending Act passed 
 in 1882. Gold mining is dealt with in Act No. 26 of 1870-71. 
 The Grovernor may grant leases for any period not exceeding ninety- 
 nine years, of any Crown lands in blocks not greater than 640 
 acres, for the purpose of mining for any minerals except gold. The 
 rent is one shilling per acre, and a further sum of sixpence in the 
 pound on all net profits. The lessee is bound to expend, in every 
 two years during the term, a sum equal to £6 for each and every 
 acre, or during nine months in each year to employ not fewer than 
 three men for every eighty acres of land in mining thereupon. A 
 breach of any of these conditions renders the lease liable to for- 
 feiture. 
 
 The Commissioner of Crown Lands may, on the payment of a 
 fee of twenty shillings, grant a licence for twelve months to any 
 person to search for and remove from any Crown lands any metals 
 and minerals, except gold, for samples and analysis only ; the 
 quantity not to exceed one ton. The licencee may choose eighty 
 acres on which to work for the period named, and remove without 
 restriction an^^ metals and minerals except gold, and he will have a 
 preferential right to a lease of the ground at any time during the 
 currency of the licence. 
 
 For gold mining, smaller blocks of land are allowed, and a 
 " prospector " or miner may go, not only on land leased by pastoral 
 tenants, but on land held under mineral leases granted for the pur- 
 pose of mining for the baser metals ; gold-miners' rights, in force for 
 twelve months, arc granted for five shillings, and authorise the 
 holder to raise gold and reside on any waste lands of the Crown,
 
 ITS MINES. 107 
 
 holding to his own use a small block of land, of which the area is 
 prescribed by regulations. A special prospecting licence secures 
 larger area of ground, of which the proprietor has a right to a lease. 
 The area included in any gold mining lease must not exceed forty 
 acres. By regulations the lessees are required to keep men em- 
 ployed on the ground leased, and a lease or " claim" may be for- 
 feited if abandoned or not worked. Under special circumstances, 
 permission to suspend operations may be obtained. 
 
 The Governor may grant to any person or company a fifteen 
 years' lease, at a peppercorn rent, of Crown lands not included in 
 any pastoral or mineral lease, " for the purpose of mining, sinking, 
 '' boring for and obtaining coal, petroleum, or other mineral oil ;" 
 and the lessee has a right of purchase at any time during the last 
 thirteen j^ears at £1 per acre. Should neither coal nor oil be 
 found within the first two years, the land absolutely reverts to the 
 Crown. The discovery of coal on the land included in one of these 
 leases would not entitle the lessee to any special reward offered for 
 the discovery of a payable coalfield.
 
 108 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 TRADE AND REVENUE MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Trade and Revenue — Imports and Exports — BreadstufFs — Wool — Minerals — Other 
 Exports— Manufactures — Tariff — Shipping. 
 
 The trade of South Australia is wonderfully large in proportion 
 to the population. In 1881 the imports amounted to £5,224,063, 
 or about £17 per head; and the following- year to £6,707,708, 
 equal to about £22 per head. The exports were about £15 per 
 head in the former year, and about £18 in the latter. The staple 
 exports, the produce of the colony, amounted to £3,463,402 in 
 1881, and £4,187,840 in 1882. The trade, especially in exports, 
 has fallen off, owing to several consecutive bad harvests. In 1880 
 the exports amounted in value to £5,574,405, or £20 6s. 8d. per 
 head. The imports in all the years mentioned were in excess of 
 the exports ; but while bad seasons are mainly accountable for this 
 fact, it is also in some considerable degree owing to the large im- 
 portation of material for the railways, waterworks, and other public 
 undertakings. From the year 1856 to 1877, inclusive, with the 
 exception of the j-ear 1858, the exports were in excess of the im- 
 ports, in several years the excess being more than £1,000,000, and 
 in one year more than £1,500,000. The imports no less than the 
 exports are the sign if not the cause of prosperity, for the more 
 prosperous the people, to the greater extent will they purchase 
 articles of comfort or luxury, not of home production, or which 
 can be bought more cheaply or of better quality from abroad. 
 
 The staple produce exported amounted in value, according to 
 official statistics, to £3,363,625 in 1881 ; it was over £4,000,000 
 in 1882. In the former year the breadstuffs contributed £1,336,761, 
 wool £1,606,306, and copper £420,558. From 1846 to 1852 the 
 export of minerals exceeded in value those of the breadstuffs and 
 wool combined ; but the Victorian diggings gave such an impetus
 
 ITS TRADE AND HEVENUE. 109 
 
 to farming that wheat and flour took the lead, wool coming next, 
 and minerals a short way behind wool. In 1852, the year when 
 most of the male population had gone to Victoria, most of the 
 copper ore and metal on hand was shipped, bringing- the mineral 
 exports to £374,778, the highest amount reached up to that period ; 
 the breadstuifs, which in the previous year amounted to £7''3,'359, 
 rose to <£212,566, find these figures do not include considerable 
 quantities of flour taken overland. The wool exports were to the 
 value of £115,036. In 1854 mineral exports had sunk to £94,831 ; 
 the wool shipments were worth £liS2,020.. and the wheat and flour 
 shipments had risen to £316,217. In 1857 mineral exports were 
 worth £458,839, the highest figure before the discovery of the 
 Wallaroo and Moonta mines ; breadstuffs £755,840, and wool 
 £504,863. The mines first mentioned were discovered in 1860 
 and 1861, and in 1866 the largest export of minerals ever recorded 
 took place — £824,501 ; the value of the wool sent out of the colony 
 in the same year was £990,482. The harvest of that year was 
 poor, owing to a rainfall of only 14*75 inches, so that exports of 
 breadstuffs were worth only £645,401, about half the value of the 
 preceding year. 
 
 In 1869 the Strangways' Land Act was passed. The rainfall 
 in that year was under fourteen inches, and the exports of bread- 
 stufis consequently in 1870 dropped to £470,828 ; next year it was 
 nearly three times that amount. In 1871 there was a rainfall of 
 twenty-three inches ; but red rust injured the crops, and the 
 exports decreased to £860,202 ; they nearly doubled this sum next 
 year, with the rainfall only a fraction of an inch greater than that 
 which brought on the previous harvest. There was a greater area 
 of land under cultivation, but this increase would only account for 
 a small portion of the increase in exports. The following figures 
 show the comparison between the two harvests: — Season 1871-2, 
 acres under wheat, 692,508 ; produce, 3,967,069 bush. ; average 
 per acre, 4 bush. 20 lbs. ; price per bushel, 5s. 6d. Season 1872-3, 
 under wheat, 759,811 acres ; produce, 8,735,912 bush. ; average 
 per acre, 11 bush. 30 lbs. ; price, 5s. 5d. The next harvest yielded 
 nearly 8 bush, per acre, that of 1874-5, llf bush.; 1875-6, 
 11 bush. 57 lbs. ; next year there was a fall to 5 bush. 24 lbs; 
 1877-8, the yield was 7 bush. 46 lbs ; 1878-9, 7 bush. 9 lbs. ; 
 1879-80, 9 bush. 47 lbs.
 
 110 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 The last three years the average has been brought below five 
 bushels. It must be remembered that latterly the farmers have 
 been pushing out into country where the rainfall is less abundant 
 and far less certain than in the older settled districts ; and these 
 lands in the very dry country pull down the harvest average very 
 greatly, though in a good year they will give fine crops. Probably 
 this harvest will give an average of ten bushels to the acre, in 
 which case our surplus of breadstuffs for export will amount to 
 between £2,500,000 and £3,000,000 in value. Our largest export 
 of breadstufis has been £2,469,720, in 1880 ; of avooI, £2,010,843 
 in 1877 ; minerals, £824,501 in 1866. 
 
 Other exports, altogether, are not yet very large ; but there is 
 every reason to expect they will be greatly increased, as they 
 include articles which can bo produced in unlimited quantities in 
 the colony. The statistical summary of South Australia gives the 
 erroneous idea that they amount to nil; for the only articles of 
 staple produce it mentions, or includes in the total, are wheat, flour, 
 wool, and minerals, whereas South Australia exports wine, tallow, 
 fruits, jams, live stock, chaffed hay, bran, and other items. 
 
 South Australian manufactures are naturally confined, pretty 
 nearly, to articles for home consumption ; but they have made 
 considerable progress, and articles for which the colony long relied 
 solely on importations are now made within its borders. In this 
 last category may be mentioned bricks and pipes for deep drainage 
 operations. Some splendid marble quarries have recently been 
 opened at Kapunda, and will furnish an inexhaustible supply of 
 stone for ornamental architecture, and not improbably will find 
 markets abroad. About Victor Harbor there is granite enough to 
 last for ages, if all the building in Australia were carried on with 
 this rock exclusively. At that port, Granite Island, as its name 
 indicates, is composed principally of this stone, which could there- 
 fore be shipped at a minimum of cost. 
 
 The woollen industry, which flourishes at Sydney and in 
 Victoria, is about being started in South Australia, a factory 
 having been established at Lobethal, a picturesque village in the 
 hills, about twenty miles from Adelaide. This is the second 
 attempt ; but in the first instance the appliances were inferior, and 
 the management not all that it should have been. Of course 
 South Australians cannot expect to become large exporters of
 
 ITS TRADE AND REVENUE. HI 
 
 manufactures for a long time to come. In young countries the 
 price of labor, independently of the difficulties attending the 
 establishment of industries requiring a great amount of skill and 
 experience, and a large capital, restricts the enterprise of the 
 countr}^ very much to the raising and export of raw material, and 
 supplies of and luxuries for the table ; other interests follow as 
 changing circumstances permit. That there is a considerable 
 amount of skill among the mechanics and artisans of the colony 
 is shown by the horse vehicles and railway carriages, farniino 
 machinery and implements manufactured, and by the work 
 involved in the buildings, public and private, constantly beino- 
 erected. Excellent work is turned out of the iron foundries of 
 Adelaide, Gawler, and Port Adelaide ; and creditable specimens 
 of naval architecture are yearly turned off the slips at the Port. 
 In the artistic productions of the goldsmith, the silversmith, and 
 the jeweller, Adelaide exhibits have won honorable mention at 
 various Exhibitions, European and Australian. 
 
 The tariff is only slightly protective. There are fixed duties 
 on some articles, and ad valorem duties of 5 and 10 per cent, on 
 others. Spirits pay 12s. per gallon proof; sparkling wines 10s., 
 and other wines 5s. ; beer, 9d. per gallon ; tobacco, 2s. per lb. 
 manufactured, and in leaf Is. ; cigars and snuff, 5s. ; suo-ar, 3s. 
 per cwt. ; tea, 6d. The only excise duty is on colonial spirits, 
 which pay 8s. per gallon, so that they are protected to the extent 
 of 4s. per gallon. The protected articles are those which are, or it 
 is supposed can be, produced in the colony. The revenue for 
 1882-3 amounted to £2,170,315, including proceeds of land sales. 
 Of the total revenue, taxation yielded £675.902 Is. 4d. ; services 
 rendered, ie., railways, postal department, marine dues, education 
 the telegraphs, waterworks, licences, &c,, £749,506 ; fines, fees 
 and forfeitures, £52,890 ; land sales, £365,793 ; rents, &c. 
 £100,737 ; business licences, £27,658 ; reimbursements, interest 
 and exchange, and miscellaneous receipts make ujj the balance. 
 Of the amount received from taxation, only £17,175 16s. repre- 
 sents direct taxes, and these are the probate and succession duties. 
 In 1838 the revenue amounted to £1,448 ; in 1864 to £775 838 • 
 in 1866, owing to the system of forcing land into the market it 
 reached £1,089,129, and this amount was not reached ao-ain till 
 just ten years later, when the figures were £1,143,312.
 
 112 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 In some years the expenditure has exceeded the outlay, and 
 in others has been kept within it. There was a surplus for each of 
 the financial years 1880-81 and 1881-2, and a deficit at the end 
 of the financial year ended June 8()th, 1883 ; but this deficit was 
 caused by changes in the land system and concessions, on account 
 of bad harvests, to the farmers who had purchased land on credit 
 from the Government. The taxation per head of the population 
 in 1881 was £1 i8s. 7d., the lowest rate of any of the Australasian 
 colonies. Of course this is independent; of local taxation for 
 municipal and district council purposes. The public debt amounts 
 to £12,453,400, making about £41 13s. per head of the popula- 
 tion. Three-fourths of this is invested in public works returning 
 a direct revenue. 
 
 This chapter should not conclude without reference to the 
 shipping trade. The number of ships inwards and outwards in 
 1836 was nine, with a total tonnage of 2,592 ; in 1881 the number 
 was 2,153, and the tonnage 1,269,491. In that year seventy-three 
 steamers with a tonnage of 6,564, and 217 sailing vessels with a 
 tonnage of 23,367, belonged to Port Adelaide. Three vessels were 
 built with a total tonnage of 112. Larger craft are sometimes 
 constructed at the Port. In 1876 there were twenty launched 
 with a total tonnage of 2,0::'3.
 
 ITS CLIMATE AND SCENERY. 113 
 
 CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 THE RAINFALL — CLIMATE — SCENERY — SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 AS A SANITARIUM. 
 
 The Eainfall — Climate — Effects on agricultural and pastoral interests — Port Elliot — 
 The HiUs — Guichen Bay — Kangaroo Island— Port Lincoln— Scenery — PicM 
 Eichi Pass — Mount Gambler and the Blue Lake — South Australia as a Sani- 
 tarium. 
 
 Five or six more inches rain a year, it is commonly observed, 
 would enormously increase the productive capabilities of South 
 Australia ; and the meteorological records of the colony, studied in 
 connection with the harvest returns, the shipments of wool, and the 
 price of beef and mutton, show how much and how closely our 
 leading interests depend upon the pluvial supply. The wiser 
 course, however, is not to perpetually find fault with the climate, 
 but having ascertained what products and industries are most 
 suited to it, to turn attention especially to them as most likely to 
 afford the greater return for capital, skill, and labor. The average 
 annual rainfall in Adelaide from 1839 to 1880, inclusive, was 
 21 '338. For more than forty years the record was kept by the 
 late Sir George Kingston ; for about a quarter of a century it has 
 been kept at the West-terrace Observatory, under the direction of 
 Mr. Charles Todd, C.M.G., Government Astronomer, Superin- 
 tendent of Telegraphs, and Postmaster-General. At every tele- 
 graph station throughout the colony a gauge is also kept, and thus 
 the difference between different localities in the amount of moisture 
 with which they are favored is constantly under notice, and ought 
 to serve as a guide where fair harvests may be expected to reward 
 the agriculturist, and where the cultivation of cereals can only be 
 expected to result in disappointment. According to Sir George 
 Kingston's record, the heaviest rainfall was in 1875, when 31 '45 
 inches fell. Next comes 1851 with 30-63 inches ; in 1847, 1852,
 
 114 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 and 1853, the fall was over 27 inches. The lowest register was 
 13*43 inches in 1876; in 1869, 13*85 inches was the record; in 
 1859 and 1865, less than fifteen inches fell. In 1882 the fall 'was 
 under 16 inches. 
 
 These figures relate to Adelaide. In the hill districts the fall 
 is much heavier. At Mount Lofty it is fully twice that of Ade- 
 laide. In the far north, especially in the plain country, the rainfall 
 is lighter and more uncertain. In much of the squatting country 
 about 8 inches is the ordinary annual supply, and occasional dry 
 years occur when even this moderate allowance is withheld. About 
 two hundred miles north from Adelaide this dry region commences, 
 and forms a wide belt between the fertile agricultural and the best 
 pastoral lands in the southern portions of the province, and that 
 portion where the tropical rains are more or less experienced. 
 Along the west coast, from Streaky Bay towards Eucla, which is 
 just on the Western Australian side of the border, the rains are 
 light, from seven to ten inches being the ordinary supply. The 
 pasture is good, and after the rains the live stock in the north 
 and west fatten very rapidly. Wheat growing in such a country 
 is out of the question. 
 
 As a rule it may be said that, not including exceptionally 
 wet portions of the hill districts, there is never too much rain in 
 South Australia either for jDastoral or agricultural purposes ; unless 
 some special foe to the farmer appears — in the shape of red rust in 
 the spring, as the crops are coming to maturity, or storms or 
 violent winds in reaping time — the yield of wheat is proportioned to 
 the rainfall ; the wettest season is followed by the heaviest crop. 
 The result depends somewhat upon the distribution of the rain over 
 the different months. In the squatting country of the north the 
 rains come in the fall and the spring of the year, in March or 
 April, and in September or October ; the winter months intervening 
 are generally dry. Farming under such conditions would be 
 impossible. If heavy rains come to the end of June, and July is 
 dry, the harvest prospects are doubtful ; if July and August are dry 
 a failure of the crops is certain. After a fair supply of rain up to 
 September, should that month be quite dry, the farmers have cause 
 for anxiety. In September of 1882, hot winds blew for several 
 days, a most unusual thing for that period of the year, and by this 
 means the wheat yield was diminished by three or four bushels.
 
 ^^ 4viiim\iA:t^M^
 
 ITS CLIMATE AXD SCENERY. Ho 
 
 It is suggestive of the climate that drainage of farm lands is 
 not only not practised, but carefully avoided, except in the south- 
 east, where a large area of country has been and more is being 
 reclaimed from a condition of swamp. In New South Wales, 
 orangeries are drained ; in South Australia they are irrigated. 
 With her rainfall, however, South Australia produces heavy crops 
 wherever farming is conducted on a proper system. The virgin 
 soil in some parts of the colony produced from twenty to thirty 
 bushels of wheat per acre, and forty to fifty of barley. What 
 can be done with proper farming has been shown by Professor 
 Custance in his experiments at Roseworthy. The climate is better 
 suited than a moist one would be to the vine, the olive, and to 
 other fruit-bearing trees and plants. Whenever from drought the 
 grape crop is light, the quality of the must is better. 
 
 The temperature of South Australia is a subject upon which 
 there has been much misconception among persons who derive 
 their ideas from the casual statements of visitors. It has been said 
 that Adelaide is the hottest city in the world, and the thermometer 
 does occasionally record a degree not to be exceeded anywhere. As 
 high as 116° Fahrenheit, in the shade, has been reached ; but this 
 has been the highest, and a very rare record. It must be borne in 
 mind, too, that the dryness of the atmosphere renders the heat 
 more endurable than it is in a tropical or any moist climate. A 
 temperature of 100° in Adelaide is not near so oppressive as 80° is 
 in Calcutta, or even in London. Then there is the consolation 
 that the heat is not continuous, even in the summer months. Leav- 
 ing out exceptional years like 1872 and 1880 when the extreme 
 heat lasted for several weeks at a stretch, it may be said that as a 
 rule the limit of the hot spells when the mercury is above 90° at 
 noon is ten days, and in some summers they do not last more than 
 five or three days. Then the wind goes round to the south, and 
 there comes a refreshing change, with the thermometer felling 
 twenty or thirty degrees, and sometimes more. 
 
 It is said there are four hot months in South Australia, the~ 
 climate for the remaining eight being perfection. But of the four 
 months, December, January, February and March, the extremely 
 hot days — when, as Sydney Smith says, it would be a relief to take 
 oS your flesh and sit in your bones — do not, all added together in 
 an ordinary year, make up more than a month. In the hot season
 
 116 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Adelaideans can find much cooler si^ots than the metropolis or the 
 surrounding plains. At the Government House on Marble Hill, 
 the thermometer in the hottest days does not rise above 70° 
 indoors. Mount Lofty is naturally cool, but there are gullies not 
 far from the Mount where grapes will not ripen for want of suffi- 
 cient warmth. In some winters snow is seen in the Mount Lofty 
 range, but it has never been seen in Adelaide, and only once has it 
 been visible from the city ; that was in 1841, when it covered the 
 eastern slope of part of the range. In the north, beyond the 
 Burra, snow has been seen, the high elevation of the country there 
 accounting for the comparative coldness of the winters. Last 
 winter there was a fall of snow at Terowie, and snow was also 
 visible from Jamestown, both these places being in the north. 
 The most favorite place of resort for those who can afford to leave 
 their nsual residences in summer time is Port Elliot. Though 
 this watering place, on the shores of Encounter Bay, is only sixty 
 miles from Adelaide, the change of climate experienced in leaving 
 one for the other is very great. Even when days are warm at 
 Port Elliot the nights are ver}^ pleasant, like the evenings in the 
 temperate latitudes of Europe. Summer visitors stay from two to 
 three months there. Many people are as contented to stay in the 
 hills in the hot season, iu sucli places as Mount Barker, or even 
 nearer to the city. All along the coast to the south-east the 
 climate is particularly temperate, even in January and February. 
 Guichen Bay may be specially mentioned as a spot where the 
 summer is rarely oppressive, and the nights agreeable and chilly 
 enough to make a couple of blankets necessary. 
 
 Kangaroo Island is likely to be a place of summer resort largely 
 patronised some day, as swept by the ocean breezes from the west and 
 south, while even the dreaded north winds before reaching it must 
 pass over a considerable expanse of water, it cannot but be cooler 
 than it generally is on the mainland. There is a little shooting to 
 be obtained on the island, and good fishing around it, and in the 
 American Hiver, a salt arm of the sea w'hich nearly divides the 
 island in two. The scenery viewed in sailing up this river is 
 varied and attractive, and pepetually changing. The banks are 
 clothed with stunted timber ; the stream is constantly altering in 
 width and form ; the stream, now winding then stretching out in 
 long straight reaches, suddenly expands into large lagoons, studded
 
 •iH 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 O
 
 ITS CLIMATE AND SCENERY. 117 
 
 with picturesque islets, and tlien narrows again till the yachtsman 
 finds himself within two or three miles of the opposite side of the 
 island to that at which he entered. C3'gnet river is a fresh-v.'ater 
 stream on another part of the island, and of sufficient depth and 
 width to allow of boating for miles were some of the timber that 
 obstructs the passage cleared away. There is rich farming land 
 along this river. The island is much better watered than is com- 
 monly supposed. 
 
 Port Lincoln is much in favor for pleasure excursions. From 
 the character of the surrounding country there is little trade there, 
 though the harbor, which could accommodate the British navy, is 
 one of the finest in the world, and is classed with Port -Jackson, 
 Cork, and St. Jago. The coast and islands leave an indelible 
 impression upon the memories of all visitors who have auj' taste 
 for the grand and the beautiful. Here in yachting, fishing, and 
 visiting the various points of interest about the harbor and neigh- 
 bouring country, and among the islets, a very enjoj^able month or 
 two may be spent. 
 
 It is sometimes said that Australian scenery is monotonous, 
 and doubtless one might ride for many days about some portions 
 of the continent onl}^ to be confirmed in this opinion ; but the same 
 thing might correctly be said of most countries. Of late years the 
 paintings of that now eminent artist, Mr. Johnston, have done 
 much to remove any impression that may have existed that New 
 Holland is open to the reproach of everlasting sameness. It cannot 
 deserve such a description as far as the settled portions of the 
 continent are concerned. It has its woodland and open pasture, 
 hill and dale, mountain ranges and wide stretcliing plains, lake and 
 river and rivulets innumerable ; timber and herbage varying with 
 different climatic conditions and difierent soils — all, in short that is 
 required to give a rich variety of prospect. In South Australia 
 there certainly is a vast amount of dreary-looking country, but 
 there is a ver}'' great extent that it is pleasant to travel over. All 
 through the ranges that sweep round the Adelaide plains, from 
 north to south-west, the scenery is attractive. Anyone may travel 
 from thirty to fifty or sixty miles in any direction from Adelaide 
 through the Mount Loft}^ and Barossa ranges without seeing any 
 country that is not pleasant for the eye to look upon. In the 
 north there is Mount Remarkable, with its fertile and pretty
 
 118 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 country about it, and a glorious view from its summit. After leav- 
 ing Port Augusta by rail for Farina, within about fifteen miles the 
 train ffoes throuo-h Pichi Ptichi Pass, and some ruo-o-ed mountainous 
 country — affording grand views, in which precipitous heights, 
 strange rock formations, and magnificent gorges form the striking 
 features, which are at times relieved by the prospect of green 
 slopes and rich open valleys. In a previous chapter. Mount Gambier 
 and the Blue Lake have been referred to. Southward, across 
 smiling cornfields and fat pastures, is Mount Schanck, about which 
 is the bed of an extinct volcano, now overgrown with grass and 
 shrubs and small timber, among which the smaller marsupials 
 gambol and afford game for the sjjortsman. Generally speaking, 
 there is a deficiency of water scenery, but the king of Australian 
 rivers flows through the province, and the lakes Alexandrina and 
 Albert are of considerable extent, and abounding with fish and 
 game. The land around these lakes is almost all used for pastoral 
 purposes ; the greater portion is freehold, and most of the wealthy 
 proprietors dwell there in good houses, eitlier the whole year or in 
 the summer months. The heights of the principal mountains in 
 the colony are :— Mount Lofty, 2,334ft. ; Mount liarker, 2,331ft. ; 
 Mount Bryan, 3,012ft. ; the Razorback, 2,922ft. ; Black Ptock 
 Hill, 2,750ft. 
 
 Australian country presents very different aspects at different 
 seasons of the year. The trees are alwa\'s green, but in the summer 
 months the grass looks brown and parched. After the first rains 
 the whole face of nature seems to be changed, and emerald verdure 
 meets the eye on hill and j^laiii. The best time to view the land is 
 in October, when the corn is about its full height, and there is no 
 sign as yet of the russet brown of autumn in the fields and 
 pastures. 
 
 South Australia is a sanitarium alike for the delicate patient of 
 old England, whose constitution cannot bear the east wind — which, 
 notwitlistanding all his admiration for it, killed Charles Kin gsley — 
 and for the soldier whose liver is disordered by a long residence 
 in tropical climates. How far the atmosphere is a cure for 
 consumption, or at what stage that disorder may be arrested 
 by the sufferer seeking relief in the genial climate of the colony, 
 are questions upon which medical men are hardly agreed; but it 
 is very certain that persons who thirty years ago left the United
 
 ITS CLIMATE AND SCENERY. 119 
 
 Kingdom suffering from this malady, and with the assurance that 
 they had not long to live, are now in the enjoyment of good health, 
 with apparently years of useful existence before them. Professional 
 men whose health, or that of some member of their family, has 
 broken down, have experienced the curative effects of this southern 
 climate, and have at the same time been able to establish them- 
 selves in their own profession, which would have been difficult, if 
 not impossible in Italy, or any other foreign country. The colony 
 is within easy reach of India, and those Indians who seek in South 
 Australia to recruit their health and energies, and recover from 
 the enervating effects of years of moist heat, are not disappointed. 
 There is everything to facilitate recovery. Railways, steamboats, 
 and coaches are available, and make it easy to see a great deal of the 
 country in a very brief period. The sport to be obtained Indians 
 might be inclined to despise, and yet, if unexciting, there would be- 
 novelty in kangaroo hunting and wallaby shooting ; and in some 
 seasons the Murray, the lakes, and the Coorong are swarming with 
 wild fowl, while the wild turkeys afford excellent sport for the rifle. 
 In the early days quail swarmed all over the settled districts, but 
 now they are scarce, and very rarely afford a day's shooting. Any- 
 one, sportsman or not, can spend a few months very pleasantly in 
 the colony, where rural amusements are always plentiful, while the 
 bright sky and clear atmosphere, and, if wished for, constant 
 change of scene make the mere consciousness of existence a 
 pleasure.
 
 120 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 CHAPTER XYII. 
 
 RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 
 
 The original voluntaryism of religious bodies— The first clergjTnen — The grants-in-aid 
 in 1846— Their abolition in 18-51 — The first Anglican Bishop— The Catholics — The 
 Wesleyans— The Presbyterians— Other religious bodies — The Lutherans — Progress 
 — The system of State Education — The Education Act of 1875— Working of the 
 system — Statistics. 
 
 The colony of South Australia was founded upon the voluntary 
 principle, the only exception being the appointment of a Colonial 
 Chaplain of the Church of England, This appointment was given 
 to the Rev. C. B. Howard, who arrived in the colony with Captain 
 Hindmarsh, the first Governor, in 1836, He was respected and 
 beloved as a laborious pastor, a good colonist, and a simple-minded 
 amiable gentleman. In the following year the Rev. T. Q. Stow, 
 a member of the Conarrecrational denomination, arrived. He was 
 at once recognised as an eloquent earnest preacher, and by his 
 character and talent he exercised a great influence in the com- 
 munity for many years. In 1838 the Rev. William Longbottom, 
 a Wesleyan minister, on his way from Hobart Town to Western 
 Australia, was, with his wife and only son, wrecked on the southern 
 coast of South Australia, and after many hardships and perils, 
 arrived safe in Adelaide, having been well treated by a tribe of 
 natives that afterwards, in Colonel Gawler's time, massacred the 
 crew and passengers of another vessel, a crime for which the ring- 
 leaders were tried by martial law and executed. The Wesleyans 
 had formed a congregation and their religious services were con- 
 ducted by laymen. Mr. Longbottom was warmly welcomed and 
 remained in the colony. In the same year Pastor Kavel (Lutheran) 
 arrived with German immigrants, who had left their native homes 
 on account of the religious persecution to which they had been 
 subjected for clinging to the old form of Lutheranism instead of 
 joining what was called the Reformed Church. The Rev. Ridg-
 
 
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 RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 121 
 
 way William Newland, Congregational, also arrived in 1838, and 
 settled at Encounter Bay, where for nearly forty years he preached 
 without any earthly reward beyond the esteem of his neighbors, the 
 gratitude of his own congregation, and the approval of his own 
 conscience. The Rev. Halph Drummond, a worthy divine of the 
 old John Knox stamp, of the United Presbyterian persuasion, 
 reached the colony in 1839 ; the Rev. Robert Haining of the 
 Church of Scotland a year or two later. All the Presbyterian 
 bodies have long ago amalgamated under the name of the Presby- 
 terian Church of South Australia, with the exception of the Free 
 Presbyterian Church, founded in the colony twenty-five years ago, 
 more or less, and one congregation in the country which still 
 sticks to the Old Kirk. 
 
 Dr. Ullathorne was the first Roman Catholic clergyman who 
 arrived in the colony. He came from Sydney in the vear 1840, 
 on a missionary visit, preached in Adelaide and at country settle- 
 ments, organised the Catholic body, and after a few months 
 returned to ]^ew South "Wales. The Rev. Mr. Benson was 
 appointed as priest, and arrived early in the followins: year. All 
 these pioneer ministers of religion have passed awa}^ and while 
 engaged in their ministrations in the colony they were joined by 
 other clergymen of their own and other persuasions, their numbers 
 increasing with the progress of the colony. In 18-44, Dr. ]\[urphy, 
 the first Roman Catholic Bishop of Adelaide arrived, and the Angli- 
 cans welcomed their first Bishop, Dr. Short, three years later. 
 
 In the early da)^s there was great harmony between the 
 different religious denominations, and this was not disturbed till 
 1846, when state grants to religion were made, contrary to the 
 popular will. At this time there were three Anglican clergymen 
 besides the Bishop ; several Catholic priests and their Bishop, 
 several Wesleyan ministers, a clergyman of the Scotch Kirk, 
 one United Presbyterian, three Congregational ministers, one or 
 two of the Baptist persuasion, the Lutheran clergy, and some 
 preachers of the lesser sects. The Congregationalists possessed 
 great influence at this time, and were foremost in their opposition 
 to the grants-in-aid, which were abolished in 1851, and with them 
 disappeared all occasion for anything like sectarian strife. The 
 voluntary system has worked well, and those who regret the 
 severance of Church and State are few indeed. Under the able
 
 122 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 management of the late Bishop, Dr. Short — who has retired on the 
 score of ill-health, and lives full of years and honors in his native 
 land — the Anglican See became very prosperous, and the missionary 
 energy that of late years has been manifested by the Church of 
 England in the old country is displayed in South Australia. The 
 Wesleyans and Roman Catholics have also progressed wonderfully 
 in the numbers of churches and church attendants. Tlie g-rowth 
 has not been so great with other sects. 
 
 In 1881 there were sittings in churches or chapels for 163,242 
 persons — more than half the population. Of these sittings official 
 returns credit the Wesleyan Methodists with 35,000 ; Church of 
 England, 27.432; Roman Catholics, 20,000; Bible Christians, 
 16,835; Primitive Methodists, 16,799; Lutherans, 10,000; Con- 
 gregationalists, 9,250 ; Baptists, 8,926 ; Presbyterian Church of 
 South Australia, 6,250 ; Christian Brethren, Disciples, &c., 5,000 ; 
 Church of Christ, 2,560 ; Christian Church, 1,670 ; other sects, 
 under 1,000 sittings each. The total number of churches and 
 chapels Avas 811. The average number of children attending 
 Sunday Schools was 46,005, not including the Roman Catholics, 
 from whom no returns have been received. The teachers num- 
 bered 5,488. 
 
 The State from the first gave aid to the education of the 
 young, but as time went on it was found that the system adminis- 
 tered was behijid the age, and that in many of the schools the 
 standard of teaching efficiency was not very high. In 1875 a new 
 Education Act was passed; a Council of Education, with an 
 Inspector- General of Schools as President, replaced the old board ; 
 the qualifications of teachers were tested by examination ; new 
 schools were built all over the colony ; model schools were estab- 
 lished ; the number of inspectors was increased. A Training 
 College for teachers was founded as an essential part of the system. 
 The Girls' Advanced School has no necessary connection with the 
 system, but this academy pays its wa}^, the fees being about the 
 same as are paid for boys in private schools of the same class. 
 
 In 1878 the Council was abolished and the department was 
 made directly responsible to the Minister of Education. The 
 standard of the teachers is high, and at some of the State schools 
 a pupil can learn enough to qualify himself for matriculation at 
 the University or for a Civil Service examination. The road from
 
 RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 123 
 
 the gutter, it is said, is open to any clever industrious boy right 
 through the State schools to the University. Poor but ambitious 
 scholars have the prizes and encouragement of bursaries and 
 scholarships offered to them. But it is by the success with which 
 the general work of imparting an English education to the bulk of 
 the juvenile population is carried ou^ that the system will bo judged ; 
 and, so far, the results show a great improvement upon those attained 
 under the old order of things, though there may still be room for 
 further amendment. The fees are 4d. per week for children under 
 live years, and 6d. for pupils above that age. It is compulsory for 
 parents to send their children to some school, and "visitors" are 
 appointed to see that they do so. If the law is evaded or disobeyed, 
 the " visitor " warns the offending parent or guardian ; and should 
 he remain obdurate, there is a summons to a " School Board of 
 Advice," by whom this summons is heard ; the offender is again 
 warned. As a last resort there is a summons before a magistrate, 
 who, if the case is proved, imposes a fine. 
 
 The education is secular ; but the head master of a school 
 may, if he likes, and must if requested by ten parents of pupils, 
 read a portion of the scriptures, without note or comment, for at 
 least a quarter of an hour before the regular time for commencing 
 school business. 
 
 In the year 1881 there were in the province 384 Government 
 and 363 private schools. In the former there were 768, and in 
 the latter 767 teachers. There were on the rolls 31,892 scholars 
 at the Government, and 13,626 at the private schools. The atten- 
 dance on a day on which the return was taken was 23,343 at the 
 Government, and 12,528 at the private schools. The private schools 
 are of varied quality", ranging from the old-fashioned dames' schools, 
 where even the three E,'s are imperfectly taught, to the collegiate 
 institutions in which the leading citizens and politicians of ihe 
 future obtain the education which fits them for business and public 
 life, and where not a few obtain the knowledge and training that 
 enable them to acquit themselves with credit in the Universities of 
 Cambridge, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, or London. The oldest 
 of the high schools of the colony is St. Peter's Collegiate School, 
 founded in 1848 by old colonists, some of whom, including promi- 
 nently the late Dean Farrell, handsomely endowed it. It was 
 established in connection with the Church of England, but from
 
 124 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 the first was open to scholars of all denominations. The Prince 
 Alfred College, established by the Wesleyans, but open to boys of 
 all religious denominations, came into existence about sixteen 
 years ago ; the foundation stone was laid by the Duke of Edinburgh 
 in 1867. It is regarded as a rival to St. Peter's, and has out- 
 stripped the older seminary in the number of its scholars. 
 
 There are a number of other academies in which the higher 
 branches of instruction, including the classics and mathematics, are 
 taught, besides the usual subjects embraced in a sound commercial 
 education. Young ladies' schools are numerous. In the mode and 
 matter of the instruction imparted, some of these seminaries leave 
 little to be desired ; but the high charges have driven many jDarents 
 of moderate means to send their daughters to the Government 
 Advanced School for Girls, where they are instructed, if desired, in 
 languages, music, and all the usual branches of a young lady's 
 education. This school has naturally excited some amount of 
 jealousy, and it has been condemned as being outside the ordinary 
 scope of a Government system of education. But when the State 
 has undertaken the duty of caring for the instruction of the young, 
 it is difficult to define exactl}^ the point where that duty ends. The 
 Advanced School for Girls supplied a great public want ; it costs 
 the country nothing, and some girls pass from it into the Training 
 College to prepare themselves for the duties of teaching in the 
 Government schools. 
 
 The Adelaide University was founded about nine years ago. 
 Some clergymen, who were endeavoring to start the Union College 
 — open to all Protestant Trinitarian sects — for the training of candi- 
 dates for the christian ministry, asked Mr. W. W. Hughes, the 
 leading proprietor of the Wallaroo and Moonta mines and a Pres- 
 byterian, for a donation; and when he offered them the munificent 
 sum of £20,000, they suggested that this should be devoted to the 
 founding of a University instead of a Union College, which, how- 
 ever, was afterwards established and still exists. Mr. Hughes con- 
 sented, with the condition that he should nominate the two first 
 professors. The Parliament liberally supported the scheme, 
 endowing the University with 50,000 acres of land, besides granting 
 a building site of five acres on North-terrace, and five per cent, 
 annually from the public funds on all moneys contributed to the 
 University. It was stipulated that there should be no religious
 
 RELIGIOX AND EDUCATION. 125 
 
 tests for students or professors, and that the Governor sliould 
 appoint the first Council. Some time afterwards, the Hon. Thomas 
 Elder, then a member of the Legislative Council, gave £20,000 for 
 the same object without any conditions. The Hughes Professors 
 were the Rev. John Davidson, appointed to the chair of English 
 Language and Literature and Mental and Moral Philosophy ; and 
 the Eev. Henry Pead, M.A., who filled the chair of Classics and 
 Comparative Philology. The former of these gentlemen died two 
 years ago, and Mr. Read had previously resigned. The Professors 
 and lecturers now are J). F. Kelh^, Esq., M.A., Hughes Professor 
 of Classics ; E. Vaughan Boulger, Esq., Hughes Professor of 
 English Language and Literature and Mental and Moral Philosophy ; 
 Horace Lamb, Esq., M.A., Elder Professor of Mathematics ; Ralj)h 
 Tate, Esq., F.Gr.S., &c., &e., Elder Professor of Natural Science ; 
 Edward Charles Stirling, Esq., M.A., M.D., Lecturer in Physi- 
 ology ; William Barlow, Esq., B.A,, Dean of the Faculty of Law ; 
 Walter Phillips, Esq., B.A., Lecturer on Laws. Assistant Lecturers, 
 Aretas Young, Esq., B.A., on the Law of Real Property ; and 
 R. W. Moore, Esq., on the Law of Obligations. The examination 
 of applicants for admission to the South Australian Bar has recently 
 been handed over to the University. There are in the colony 
 already graduates who have won coveted degrees in this new seat 
 of learning. It admits female students. The University buildina: 
 already erected gives ample accommodation, and is but a portion of 
 what, when completed, will be an architectural structure of wliich 
 Adelaide may be jaroud. The Chief Justice is the Chancellor, and 
 the Rev. Roby Fletcher, M.A., Vice- Chancellor. 
 
 The two gentlemen to whose munificence the colony owes its 
 University have, since its foundation, both received from Her 
 Majesty the honor of knighthood. 
 
 Recently a National Art Gallery has been erected in connection 
 with the South Australian Institute, and space has been found for 
 the Museum with its splendid collection of geological, botanical, 
 and other specimens. Associated with the Institute are schools of 
 painting and design, and private classes for instriiction in languages 
 and other subjects. i\Ir. H. B. Gill, one of the South Kensington 
 masters, gives lessons in the School of Design, and Mr. Tannert 
 holds classes in the School of Arts. Upwards of a hundred country 
 Institutes receive support from the State.
 
 126 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Public "Works — Telegraphs — The first telegraph intercolonial lines — Railways — Roads 
 — Bridges — Waterworks — Public buildings — Marine improvements — Deepening 
 and improving outports — Jetties— Lighthouses. 
 
 The great transcontinental telegrapli of Australia has, more than 
 almost anything else, brought South Australia into world-wide 
 notice as a colony of astonishing enterprise, considering its youth 
 and population. It is fitting therefore that in treating of the public 
 works of the province, telegraphs should have a foremost place. 
 The first line constructed in the colony was from Port Adelaide to 
 the metropolis. It was a private line erected under the superin- 
 tendence of Mr. James MacGreorge, and opened in November, 
 1855. The Government erected another line which was opened in 
 January, 1856, and purchased the private one, which was after- 
 wards pulled down. It was determined that all the telegraphs 
 should be in the hands of the State, and Mr. Todd, who was 
 engaged as Superintendent, arrived from England in 1855. Since 
 then the erection and working of all the lines have been under his 
 management. The overland telegraph to Victoria was completed 
 in July 1858, the late Mr. "Walter Thompson, one of the early 
 settlers, being the contractor. There were on the 30th June, 1882, 
 5,130f miles of telegraph in the colony, and 6,748^ miles of wire. 
 
 The construction of the line from Port Augusta to Port 
 Darwin has been referred to at some length in a previous chapter. 
 This great work cost a little over half a million pounds. Several 
 years later the colony was connected by wire with Western Aus- 
 tralia, at a cost of £2 1 8,530. The next work of special importance 
 in this department was the laying of a cable from the mainland to 
 Kangaroo Island, the object being that vessels may be signalled 
 some eight hours earlier than had been practicable previous to that 
 time. Besides the telegraphs there are forty-nine telephones, their 
 total length of wire being 275 miles.
 
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 ITS PUBLIC WORKS. 127 
 
 About 980 miles of railway are open ; about eighty miles are 
 in course of construction, and lines having a total length of about 
 340 miles have been sanctioned by Parliament, and have yet to be 
 commenced. By the time this book is through the press a Bill to 
 authorise the construction of a railway from Port Darwin to Pine 
 Creek, a distance of 148| miles will probably have passed through 
 Parliament, having already been carried by the Assembly. On the 
 30th June, 1882, there were 945 miles open, and the average for 
 the year ending on that date was 825f miles. The revenue was 
 2*57 per cent, on the cost of the line above working expenses, and 
 towards the payment of interest over the capital cost of the lines. 
 The receipts were largely diminished by the bad harvest. The total 
 cost of the railways open on the 30th June, 1882, is £6,121,615, and 
 the cost per mile, £7,411 . Most of the lines are on flat or tolerably 
 easy country, but the one in course of construction to the Victorian 
 border, after the first three or four miles from Adelaide, passes for 
 fifty miles through hilly countr}^ with deep cuttings, severe 
 gradients, tunnels, gullies spannel by viaducts and heav^^ earth- 
 works. The tunnels, the principal bridges, and the deepest cuttings 
 are within twenty miles of Adelaide. 
 
 The roads of the colony are under three different systems of 
 management. The corj)orations manage all the roads within their 
 limits. The district councils construct and maintain the highways 
 within their boundaries, except the trunk lines, or " main roads ; " 
 these main roads are under the care of road boards, of which there 
 are eight, each having an extensive district under its care. All 
 the exjaenditure on main roads throughout the colony, and on all 
 roads outside the limits of corporations and district councils, is 
 paid for out of the general revenue. The expenditure on roads 
 within the limits of corporations and district councils is paid for, 
 half out of proceeds of rates, and the other half by a subsidy from 
 the general revenue. " Main roads" can only be created so, as 
 distinguished from district roads, by Act of Parliament, and as 
 the change of a " district " road into a " main" road is a relief to the 
 local rates, there is a constant eSbrt by deputations and petitions 
 to induce the Government and Parliament to increase the number 
 of these conversions. Whatever may be thought of the system, 
 economically considered, it has given South Australian highways 
 which, for construction, smoothness, and durability cannot be sur-
 
 128 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 passed in the world. JN^otwithstanding the thousand miles of 
 railways, there is an immense amount of coaching in South Aus- 
 tralia ; and this mode of travelling, owing to the excellence of the 
 roads, is most enjoyable, carrying back the memories of those who 
 are far down in the A'ale of years to a period before South Aus- 
 tralia was founded, when they liked nothing better in the old 
 country than a box seat on a mail coach— rlistening, perhaps, to 
 connoisseurs discussing with the driver the merits of the splendid 
 " cattle" in front of them. 
 
 There are 1,692 miles of macadamized main roads, constructed 
 at an average cost of £1,923 per mile. There are 1,916 miles 
 proclaimed, but not yet made. The district councils have many 
 miles of excellent roads, but having to come on the ratepayers for 
 funds they woi'k more economically than the road boards do, and 
 only construct where really the natural surface needs meddling 
 with. In. the j^ear ended June 30th, 1882, the corporations and 
 district councils expended on roads and bridges £144,254, of 
 which the Government contributed half. 
 
 The principal bridge in the colony is one spanning the 
 Murray, over which the railway is to run. This is a splendid 
 structure, which cost £130,000. Adelaide is well sujjplied with 
 strong and handsome bridges over the Torrens ; and many in 
 various parts of the colony are a credit to the engineers Avho 
 designed them and superintended their construction. 
 
 The waterworks have of late years become a very important 
 branch of the public undertakings of the province. The Adelaide, 
 Port, and Suburban waterworks had cost up to June 30th, 1883, 
 £735,465 in actual expenditure, and for the financial year ended 
 on that date yielded a revenue of 52 per cent, on cost of construc- 
 tion, after paying for woi'king expenses. The reservoirs will hold 
 770,775,(J00 gallons— sufficient to supply 28 gallons per head per 
 diein to 75,000 persons for twelve months. The amount expended 
 on the city sewers up to June 30th, 1882, was £215,936, and the 
 outlay has since been and still is going on. The water supply of 
 various suburban places, unconnected with the reservoirs which 
 furnish Adelaide with the pure element, had cost £77,025 19s. 8d. 
 At more distant places, including Ports Pirie and Augusta and 
 Mount Gambicr, £172,715 had been expended. A number of 
 little towns are being supplied at a cost of about £30,000. The
 
 
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 i ■ 
 
 
 I
 
 ITS PUBLIC WORKS. 129 
 
 sum of £1,265,970 lias been invested in waterworks, independent 
 of large amounts spent in Avell-sinking. 
 
 The expenditure on buildings is somewhat lavish, and some o£ 
 the public structures have considerable architectural merits, while 
 others appear to have been designed with rather a severe regard to 
 utilit}'. The school-houses, quarantine station, and new Govern- 
 ment offices, built within the last few years, have cost close 
 on £420,000 ; and to these must be added older undertakings, 
 including the General Post Office, which cost £60,000, the Supreme 
 Courthouse, and the buildings of an earlier date, among which 
 must be mentioned the residences of the Governor in Adelaide 
 and at Marble Hill, the old Treasury offices, the hospitals, gaols, 
 lunatic asylums, and other structures. 
 
 The harbor improvements at Port Adelaide had cost, at the 
 end of 1882, £606,095, and the quantity of silt raised is 2,663,284, 
 yards. There are two bars, the outer and the inner, which have 
 caused most of the outlay. The former is composed of sand 
 and shell, and the cutting through this, at the end of 1882, 
 was 3,500ft. in length by 250ft. in width at bottom, the depth 
 having been increased from 13ift. to 20ft. at low water; the 
 depth at high water is 28ft. The inner bar is composed of lime- 
 stone and had at the date mentioned been removed for a length 
 of 9,500ft. by a width of 150ft. at bottom, excepting for about 
 an eighth of a mile, for which distance the width was 100ft., 
 but the widening of this to the uniform width of 150ft. is 
 nearly completed. The depth has been increased from 9Jft. to 
 18ft. at low water. There has been a great amount of dredging 
 besides that effected at the bars. The Port channel, from the 
 Lighthouse to the Commercial Wharf, is about nine miles in 
 length, and the depth at low water ranges from 18ft. to 22ft., 
 and at high water from 26ft. to 31ft. Deepening operations 
 have been carried on ever since 1849. Out of two and a half 
 miles of wharf frontage the Government possesses 2,413ft., and 
 for nearly half this extent wharves have been constructed. 
 The patent slips are in private hands. Fletcher's is capable 
 of taking a vessel of 1,500 tons register ; the others will take 
 ships of from 400 to 700 tons. 
 
 The outports have not been neglected. At the close of 1882 
 there had been laid out at Port Augusta £14,590 ; at Port Pirie, 
 
 K
 
 130 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 where more wheat is shipped than from any other port in the 
 colony, £83,504 ; at Ports AValcefield and Broughton, £20,866 ; 
 and about other outports and the River Murray, £22,628. 
 
 The jetties, of which there are a great number, have cost 
 £63,540 of borrowed money, and a large amount taken from the 
 revenue. 
 
 The coast and the islands near tlie mainland are admirably 
 supplied with lighthouses, which number twenty-one, exclusive of 
 eras beacons at the entrance to the Port Adelaide river. There 
 are also three lights on the lakes. The lighthouses have cost 
 between £200,000 and £300,000. The expense of their main- 
 tenance in 1881 was £7,443, and the amount received for light 
 dues £8,411 19s. 3d. The lighting of the coast is now so perfect 
 as to render navigation very safe, and of the few groundings that 
 take place on South Australian shores, the causes are to be found 
 in almost every instance in want of caution or grave errors of 
 judgment on the part of the navigators. The shijjping casualties 
 of a serious character since the foundation of the colony have been 
 very few, the most tragic being the wreck of the steamer Admella, 
 in 1859, not far from Cape Northimiberland, and of the sailing 
 vessel Geltwood near Rivoli Bay, in 1876. Over eighty passen- 
 gers and crew of the tirst-nained vessel were lost ; all hands 
 perished on board the Gclhrood. There was no lighthouse at 
 Itivoli Bay at that time, but one was erected there soon after.
 
 THE ABORIGINES. 131 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE ABORIGINES. 
 
 Low mental capacity — Linguistic faculty — Humor — Comical blunders — Superior 
 attractiveness of the wild to the half- civilised black — Origin — The Malays- 
 Customs — Rites — The corroboree — Dying out of the race — Causes of mortality — 
 Early conflicts between whites and blacks — Wreck of the Maria, and massacre of 
 all the passengers and crew — The Rufus slaughter — Port Lincoln atrocities — 
 Executions— Peace — Native battles — Weapons and implements — The finest and 
 pimiest tribes — Half-castes — Superstitions and beliefs — Statistics — Mission 
 stations. 
 
 Notwithstanding some varieties of custom and great differences 
 of dialect, and diversities of form and stature, tlie aborigines of 
 New Holland have common physical and mental characteristics. 
 Their perceptions up to a certain degree are lively, but their 
 intelligence is of a very low order. Their arithmetical knowleige 
 is limited by the number of their fingers ; in fact it is a disputed 
 point whether it extends so far. Missionaries and other persons 
 who have taken much interest in the Australian blacks say that in 
 their uninstructed state they can only count four or five, and that 
 when they hold up both hands with all the fingers outspread they 
 mean to signify a large and indefinite number, perhaps a score, or 
 hundreds, or thousands. They have no words expressing abstract 
 ideas, such as truth, justice, chastity, patience, though these ideas 
 are conveyed as applying to individuals by adjectives and nouns, 
 apart or in combination. They may be considered good linguists. 
 An Australian aboriginal boy will accpiire far more knowledge of 
 English in three months than a smart English boy of the same age 
 will of Latin in as many years ; but of course it may fairly be 
 urged that this fact is to be accounted for by the different modes 
 in which the instruction is imparted. Still, apart from this com- 
 parison, it is certain that the natives, especially the young ones, do 
 pick up the language of their conquerors very readily. Their
 
 132 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 habit of speaking pigeon English is not so common in the settled 
 districts now, as in former times, and was always owing to the 
 whites being possessed with the notion that such a style of lingo 
 was most suited to aboriginal tastes and comprehension. As a 
 specimen, the following will puzzle anyone not accustomed to Aus- 
 tralian natives and the sort of European instructors with whom 
 they associate: — "You mene old lubra plour bag pony strike a 
 " light 'long a wheelbarrow." This is a Fowler's Bay native's 
 form of inquiring as to whether you have seen an old grey mare 
 passing with a dray. When the natives are accustomed to be 
 addressed in ordinary English, they make use of it themselves in 
 their discourse, and many speak Chatham's tongue, as far as ihe}^ 
 have need to use it, much more correctly than the provincial 
 laborer of England, though of course their vocabular}^ is limited 
 by the subjects with which they are likely to have any concern. 
 
 In their impulsive moods the}^ express themselves with an 
 engaging frankness that is sometimes irresistibly amusing. Nearly 
 ty\'enty years ago, near Guichcn Bay, Sir Richard MacDonnell was 
 on foot on a rifle-shooting excursion, with only a black boy as his 
 companion. During their ramble the native in a subdued voice 
 exclaimed " There kangaroo, Gubner," but His Excellency was 
 unable to distinguish tlie animal among the thick scrub. At last 
 he asked the boy to point to it with the rifle, so that he could 
 discover the object by looking along the barrel. The aboriginal 
 complied, but unfortunatel}^ the temptation was too strong for the 
 j'oung savage ; he pulled the trigger, and the marsupial rolled 
 over dead. The Governor was displeased, and in an irascible 
 manner asked his sable attendant what business he liad to shoot. 
 
 " Well, what por you b stupid ? " was the reply. Sir 
 
 Richard, with his Irish appreciation of the comical, could not be 
 angry any longer, and used to relate the occurrence with great 
 gusto. Occasionally aboriginal blunders are much like the pro- 
 verbial Irish bull. Thus one who was sent by the manager of a 
 cattle run to tin out-stnlion with some tobacco and a letter in 
 which the quantity' was mentioned, on being charged with having 
 taken one or two sticks of the fragrant weed, asked his accuser 
 how he knew, and being told that the letter disclosed the theft, 
 
 replied " Him liar ; me put em letter long a tree, put em 
 
 *' stone ; he no ses me take em bacc}'." The aborigines have a
 
 THE ABORIGINES. 133 
 
 keen sense of the ridiculous, and a story like this would send them 
 into convulsions of laughter. Sarcasm is a gift of which they are 
 by no means destitute. " My money in bank," said one in answer 
 to a question. " Yes, that one bank," observed a companion, 
 pointing to a public- house. 
 
 In their natural condition — hunting, fishing, tree-climbing — 
 they are an interesting people in their fashion ; but after being 
 partially civilised, they in time lose much of their attractive 
 physical qualities, and acquire all the vices that it is in the power 
 of the whites to teach them. They become beggars, and loaf about 
 the towns and farms as much as they are allowed. Missionaries in 
 South Australia and other good people still talk in a sanguine strain 
 of raising these poor creatures into a higher life ; but there can be 
 no doubt that the race is doomed, and all experience shows that 
 they are incapable of acquiring permanent civilised habits. Were 
 all the mission stations abolished they would leave little result 
 behind them ;' in a very short time the natives gathered at those 
 locations would be dispersed, seeking their livelihood either in the 
 way of their forefathers, among the woods or in the waters, or 
 wandering about the European settlements working a little and 
 begging more. The natives are very useful to the squatters and 
 agriculturists, especially to the former in new country. The skill 
 of the savage in following the tracks of stray beasts makes his 
 services of great value in the bush. The boys learn to rid(} easily, 
 and become good stockkeepers. They are excellent shepherds, and 
 in some parts of the colon}' do a great deal of the shearing ; there 
 are grazing farms on which all this work is performed by them. 
 They are like children, however, in all their ways, and have no 
 idea of settled, continuous, industry. After shearing season is 
 over they take a long holiday, and often squander their wages on 
 drink ; for although it is forbidden by law to give alcoholic liquor 
 to an aboriginal, there are always depraved whites who will supply 
 them with intoxicants, and the orgies that take place at the native 
 camps when the savages are under the influence of strong drink are 
 sometimes shocking. 
 
 The Australian aboriginals appear to be a mixed race, the 
 Malay element having a large share in the composition. Some are 
 shades darker than others, the prevailing colors being a few degrees 
 short of jet black. The pure bred infants are of a dark copper color.
 
 134 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 and the same may be said of the palms of the hands of the adults, 
 when they are washed. Near the seaboard of Northern Australia, 
 even of late years, the lower sorts of Malays have sometimes mixed 
 with the natives as though recognising them as kinsmen. This 
 fact is referred to in Captain (now Sir George) Grey's interesting 
 account of his explorations on the north-west coast. The differences 
 in dialect between neighboring tribes many years ago created no 
 small amount of surprise to missionaries, and " protectors of the 
 aborigines," who found that when they had mastered a dialect it 
 was only spoken by three or four hundred people. Some words, 
 however, are common to tribes hundreds of miles apart, indicating 
 a common original language. For instance, "cowee " or "cowie," 
 was the name for water among the now extinct Adelaide tribe, 
 as it is with the blacks about Fowler's Bay and the Great Bight, 
 though explorers and other authorities about the two last-mentioned 
 places spell the word " kauwe." It has been noticed, too, that in 
 some cases there is a greater affinity between the dialects of tribes 
 far apart than between those of other tribes occupying adjoining 
 territories. 
 
 The customs of the natives vary, but some seem common to 
 all. E\ery where they practise rites initiating youths into the privi- 
 leges and responsibilities of manhood. These rites are in all cases 
 very painful. In some of the northern tribes they include the 
 knocking out of two front teeth, but this has never been prac- 
 tised by any natives within many miles of Adelaide. Along the 
 west coast to beyond the Bight they circumcise, and, in addition, 
 subject their young men to another operation of a verj'' extraor- 
 dinary character, described in Latin by Eyre in the account 
 of liis perilous journey from Fowler's Bay to King George's Sound 
 more than forty years ago.* It is supposed that this operation 
 checks the increase of population. The practice of circumcision 
 extends into the far north, but is entirely imknown among the 
 tribes Avithin eighty or one hundred miles of Adelaide, and along 
 the Murray, the Lakes, and the Coorong. 
 
 The style of tattooing differs in different tribes : funeral cus- 
 toms vary greatly. The custom of wearing a reed through the 
 cartilage of the nose is observable in some parts of the country but 
 not in others. 
 
 * " Finditus usque ad uicthram ;i parte infera penis."
 
 THE ABORIGINES. 135 
 
 The corroberee, so familiar to pioneer colonists, is now seldom 
 witnessed except in the form of miserable imitations of the grand 
 performances of the old days, in which from three to six hundred 
 natives sometimes joined. The corroberee is a dance to aboriginal 
 music, the women beating time with sticks. The vocalism is 
 rather monotonous, but according to scale, and the voices all blend 
 together in harmony, a false note being rarely or never dis- 
 coverable. The men are naked, with the exception perhaps of a 
 small girdle round their loins. The female singers commence in a 
 low tone, as though humming the words of a song, and often at 
 times reach a higher pitch, and gradually soften down only to rise 
 again, the men joining in the livelier parts. The dancing is con- 
 fined to the men, and is perfect in simultaneous agility and wild 
 elegance of movement, the style varying according to the occasion 
 of the performance — -whether it is connected with love, war, or 
 hunting. Some of the corrobereees are obscene. Some of the 
 songs appear to have no meaning, or the natives do not choose to 
 explain it, but there is no doubt they compose ditties for special 
 occasions ; they do this even in broken English, and it cannot be 
 doubted they versify in their own language. Thej^ favor blank 
 verse, and it is very blank. A war-dance, with the accompamnng* 
 song, is a most exciting spectacle. The attitudes of the natives — 
 the men, all warriors, painted in white stripes, soujetimes with 
 small boughs fastened round their knees, are most picturesque, as 
 they advance, retreat, bound in the air, brandish their weapons, 
 and stamp, all with a fiery spirit, but in perfect regularity, and 
 singing their songs of triumph or defiance. The effect in the pale 
 moonlight is greatly heightened by the surroundings ; the fires 
 burning in the front of the wurleys, the children and dogs grouped 
 about, the scrub or forest trees in the background. The song at 
 times deepens into a roar, in which, however, different voices can 
 be distinguished, bi'okeu at times by preconcerted shouts and 
 yells ; and forty-six years ago, to the European newly arrived 
 in the country, the noise at a distance was, at times, in the 
 dead of the night, almost appalling, as the voice of some broad- 
 chested warrior was heard clearly above the mighty volume of 
 sound that he helped to swell. In the infancy of Adelaide there 
 was a black who had obtained from tlie new-comers the name of 
 Tam o' Shanter, whose grandest vocal efforts became familiar to
 
 136 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 the colonists as they sat outside, or reclined in their tents and 
 reed huts. 
 
 Tarn o'Shanter and all his tribe have been gathered to their 
 fathers many years ago, and the same fate has befallen the Mount 
 Barker, Gawler, Burra, and other tribes. Their disappearance is 
 owing to disease consequent on vicious intercourse with Europeans ; 
 to changes in their modes of life, and it may be said even to the 
 kindness of the white settlers. Among the tribes just mentioned 
 few lost their lives through encou.nters with the intruders upon 
 their soil. The disease indicated has had the chief share in sweep- 
 ing them away ; drink contributed slightly to the result ; sudden 
 changes in habitation and clothing did more. It may be said of 
 many of the blacks that they died of blankets ; they slept under 
 them, got wet in them, and walked about with the wet blankets 
 clinging to their bodies, the result being A'iolent colds and con- 
 sumption. Many natives die of pulmonar}' complaints. They 
 know when they are thus afflicted and what the end will be. A 
 young man in the bush will place his hand on his chest and say 
 "Very bad, bine bye crackaback " (die). As a rule they do not 
 fear death, and this has been noticeable in the case of .those 
 executed for murder. They ascend the scaffold, or when a cart 
 does duty for a scaftbld, stand up with a stolid indifference, perhaps 
 throw down a stick of tobacco and a knife, or M'hatever may be 
 about their persons, and generally request that whites may not 
 touch their bodies after death. 
 
 The first settlei's about Adelaide had little trouble with the 
 natives. Two or three Europeans wore murdered — in one case 
 through revenge, in the others from purposes of plunder. Several 
 blacks were accordingly hanged, and no more murders of Europeans 
 took place near the metropolis. A black killed a white man in 
 those early days at Encounter Bay, but the general feeling was 
 that the European got his deserts, and nothing was done in the 
 matter. In I84u a terrible tragedy occured on the south coast; 
 the brig Maria, bound from Port Adelaide to Ilobart, was wrecked 
 near Lacepede Bay, and the passengers, sixteen in number, includ- 
 ing men, women, and children, the captain, mate, and crew of 
 eight men and boys were making their way overland to the mouth 
 of the Murray, when they were massacred by the Milmenrura tribe. 
 Major O'llalloran, having under him Captain Nixon, Lieutenant
 
 THE ABORIGINES. 137 
 
 (now Admiral) Pullen, Mr. Charles Bonney, Inspector Tolmer, 
 and a large force of police-troopers and sailors was despatched to 
 the scene of the outrage or outrages, for the people appeared to 
 . have been murdered in different parties. Two of the blacks were 
 shot at and severely wounded, but whether they died of their 
 wounds was never ascertained. Two ringleaders were captured, 
 tried by drvimhead court martial, and hanged in presence of a 
 number of their tribe, who were compelled to witness the execu- 
 tion. The effect was most salutary. Not a European has been 
 murdered by blacks in that part of the country since then, witli 
 the exception of a man named McGrath in the year 1844, and 
 the principal actor in that crime was tried in Adelaide and suffered 
 the last dread penalty of the law. For several years the Upper 
 Murray blacks attacked the overland parties from New South 
 Wales, but the terrible lesson these savages received on the llufus 
 from a party of police, volunteers, and overlanders, quieted them 
 permanently. It was a long time before, in the Port Lincoln 
 country, they were made sufficiently aware of the hopelessness of 
 carrying on a warfare with the white man, and the c(unmunity 
 was frequently thrown into a state of excitement by the news of 
 some horrible murder being committed by the blacks upon whites 
 in that part of the province. Sometimes the victim was a squatter, 
 sometimes a shepherd, a shepherd's wife, or a child. At last the 
 vigor with which the tribes responsible for these outrages were 
 followed up, and the actual or most guilty murderers captured, and, 
 after trial, executed on the spot where their crimes were com- 
 mitted, had the desired deterrent effect. Higher up the coast 
 near Denial, Venus, and Fowler's Bays, blacks — one or two at 
 each place — were executed, and no murders of whites have taken 
 place in those parts since then, now more than twenty years ago. 
 In the south-east the aboriginals were brought into order by 
 rougher and less regular means ; but for more than thirty-five years 
 they have been at peace with the pale faces. The aborigines are 
 treacherous like other savages ; they are hardly brave, but they 
 endure pain with great fortitude. Their battles are not very san- 
 guinary. There is plenty of noise and action, but little harm is done. 
 Spears are thrown with unerring aim, but eluded by agility or stoi^ped 
 by a shield. Of course with hundreds of missiles hurtling through 
 the air, some one must be hit sooner or later ; but when one or two
 
 138 SOUTH AUSTRALIA : 
 
 heroes have bitten the dust, the side on which the fatalities have 
 taken place make a precipitate fli^^ht, and the victors do not folio w 
 and massacre them after the fashion of barbarous peoples in other 
 parts of the world. Their weapons are simple, consistinj^ of 
 knobbed or plain clubs or sticks called waddles, wooden spears, 
 plain, or barbed with stone, or having the barbs cut out of the 
 wood itself; wommeras, an implement usRd for throwing the 
 spear ; and the far-famed boomerang, a curved weapon, which, 
 thrown with great force, travels a long way and comes back 
 to the feet of the thrower. Other implements, such as the wadna 
 or yam stick, are used for digging up roots, and a sharpened 
 stick for climbing trees. After the Europeans arrived, glass, 
 wherever the blacks could obtain it, supplanted flint and other 
 stones for barbs and sharpening purposes. The weajDons differed 
 in different tribes, and some have entirely disappeared with these 
 tribes. It is doubtful if in Adelaide or Mount Barker a " waddy " 
 could be obtained now for any amount of money. These weapons 
 and implements ; their rugs made of the skins of marsupials, 
 sewn together with thread obtained from the sinews of animals ; 
 twine and cords made from grasses ; bags and baskets, fabricated 
 from similar materials ; nets, bone fish-hooks, and the bark canoes 
 of hike and river tribes, are their only manufactures. Their 
 dwellings or "wurle3's" are composed of boughs, and sometimes 
 are little more than break-winds. The finest and most muscular 
 men arc the Murray and Coorong blacks, though they have 
 degenerated ; the most puny are along the west coast, especially 
 about Fowler's l^iy and the Bight, and in some parts of the far 
 north. 
 
 In these descriptions of native customs and habits, as far as 
 8outh Australia proper is concerned, it would be almost correct to 
 speak in the past tense, for the disappearance of some tribes, the 
 great diminution in the numbers and the change in the habits of 
 others, brought about by forty-seven years of European occupation 
 of the country, have almost banislied tribal war, and the customs 
 esKonliiilly connected therewith over the larger portion of the 
 country. 
 
 The marriage customs of the Ijlacks are peculiar, and in some 
 respects revolting. Polygamy used to be practised, but has gone 
 out of fashion, unless it remains in the far north. Infanticide is
 
 THE ABORIGINES. ]:>,'j 
 
 commonly practised among all natives not much under Kuiojiean 
 influence. The half-castes in the early days of the province were 
 all destroyed ; but this is not the case now ; half-breeds and quad- 
 roons may be seen about the country, and generally combine with 
 some of the intelligence of the white father, the bad ([ualities of 
 both parents. The women are cruelh^ treated, their lot being a 
 hard and degrading one ; but children, when once it is resolved to 
 preserve them, are shown great indulgence by their parents and all 
 the tribe. 
 
 The natives have their superstitions. They believe in demons, 
 apparitions, sorcer}^, and a future state. It used to be a common 
 belief among some tribes that after death they would reappear on 
 earth as white men. Generally they feared to travel at night time. 
 Very rarely, in South Australia, has any murder or other outrage 
 been committed between dusk and dawn. 
 
 The natives in the year 1881 numbered 6,346 including those 
 between the northern boundary of South Australia proper, and 
 Barrow Creek, about latitude 21° 30'. That even so many children 
 of the forest remain is owing in a great degree to the mission 
 stations, where women and children as well as the old blacks have 
 been kindly cared for, and the feeble and sick have at all times 
 found refuge. In all settled districts there are medical men wliose 
 paid duty it is to attend to the natives when required. In their 
 natural condition the savages have their own doctors, whose mode 
 of treatment, generally absurd, is often indescribably disgusting ; 
 but they soon learn to place far greater confidence in European 
 physicians than in their own practitioners. Their ailments of the 
 body are as carefully attended to as are their spiritual needs at the 
 mission stations, and the natives seem happy there. Many of them 
 frequently, however, leave, and after wandering about among the 
 settlers or in the bush, return for a quieter life. The object aimed at 
 by the managers of these stations is, while instructing the natives 
 and teaching them morality, to lead them as far as possible to 
 earn their own living in any honest way most suited to their 
 strength and habits. About the lakes they fish and shoot, for the 
 market, and make mats and baskets for sale. The head quarters 
 of these tribes are the Point Macleay Mission, of which the Siq)er- 
 intendent is Mr. Taplin, whose late father had managed it for many 
 years. The other stations are Poonindie, at Port Lincoln ; Kop-
 
 140 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 peraniana, far north ; and Hermansburgli on the banks of the 
 Finke Ptiver, central Australia. Of the latest official returns of 
 expenditure on these stations, some are for 1881, and others for 
 1882, and the total comes to nearly £10,000 ; but sales of pastoral 
 and agricultural produce brought considerabl}^ more than half 
 this amount. There is a large expenditure upon the aborigines, 
 independently of the mission stations. The Government and 
 colonists alike are swayed b}^ the feeling that if the people whose 
 lands they have taken are fated to disappear, their last years shall 
 be cheered by kindness and sympath}', and that it shall not be 
 said that they passed awaj' without an effort being made to save 
 them from perishing.
 
 ITS FAUNA. 141 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE FAU^^4. OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 The dingo — The kangaroo dog — Marsupials — Other mammalia— Birds — Afclimatisod 
 animals — Hares — Eabhits — Deer — Sparrows. 
 
 Next to the climate and pasture, the absence of formidable carni- 
 vora has been the greatest cause of the rapid growth and the great 
 prosperity of the pastoral interest in Australia. The fauna, are 
 pretty nai^ly the same all through the island continent, though a 
 few animals found in some colonies are not met with in others. 
 The wild dog or dingo is common to all. Naturalists describe it as 
 a small wolf. It is about the size of an ordinary sheep dog, and is 
 not gregarious ; though occasionally small packs of from four or 
 five to a dozen are seen together, it is generally found single or in 
 couples. Its most common color is yellow, but sometimes black 
 dingoes are met with ; a white one may be regarded as a lusiis 
 natunp, and such a curiosity has now and then been killed. The 
 hair is not long nor yet very smooth ; in length it is something 
 between that of a pointer and a setter, but rather coarse. The tail is 
 bushy. The dingo has a dismal howl, that is heard for an immense 
 distance, and has a depressing effect upon some persons who hear it 
 for the first time in the bush. In fact the sounds in the wilds of 
 Australia, especially in the hours of darkness, are sometimes the 
 reverse of cheerful ; biit perhaps the most gloomy way of passing 
 a night is to lie at the foot of a sheaoak tree, of which the branches, 
 when stirred by the faintest breeze, give forth a weird wailing 
 sound, while a chorus of howling dingoes and screaming curlews 
 around completes the bushman's sense of desolation and melancholy, 
 from which perhaps towards daylight he may be aroused by the 
 rich joyous vocalism of the magpie — which, in spite of its name, is 
 a really musical bird.
 
 142 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 There is no sense of danger connected witli the howl of the 
 dingo, for it never attacks man. It is most destructive among 
 sheep, and kills many more than it eats, snapping right and left 
 when it gets into a flock. As a rule when it kills a sheep, it tears 
 it open and takes out the paunch, which it devours first, and often 
 leaves the rest of the carcass for a future meal, or for dogs or car- 
 rion birds that may follow. Of indigenous animals the dingo and 
 the eagle are the only enemies the grazier has to fear, and the royal 
 bird only kills the lambs. Dingoes rarely attack calves, and when 
 they do they are generally led into this mischief by domesticated 
 dogs that have run wild. Though the tame dog as a rule treats 
 the dingo as a natural enemy, and is greatly disturbed by sight or 
 sound of it, yet they do make friends at times and inter-breed, but 
 this cannot take place to any great extent while the dingo is in a 
 wild state, for the breed seems just as pure as when the white men 
 first came to Australia. When the dingoes are tamed, however, 
 they cross freely with all sorts of tame dogs, and the progeny are as 
 fertile as their parents. A cross between a dingo and a collie used 
 to be greatly valued as a cattle dog. Dingoes are destroyed by 
 strychnine, though many are killed by kangaroo dogs, which, when 
 trained, enjoy this sport as much as kangaroo hunting. The 
 dingo defends itself furiously, but does not seize its antagonist and 
 hold on ; it snaps and bites pieces out, sometimes laming the hound 
 seriously. The kangaroo dog, which is peculiar to Australia, was 
 originally a cross between the greyhound and the Scotch deer- 
 hound, and for combined strength and swiftness cannot be sur- 
 passed. It has such a powerful jaw that it often breaks the ribs of 
 a dingo or a kangaroo, when it seizes them about the brisket. 
 
 The mammals by which Australia is most distinguished are 
 the marsupials, or pouched tribe, which are of considerable variety. 
 The kangaroo is the largest and best known. Its greatest weight 
 is 2001bs. It feeds on all fours, but at other times moves only on 
 its hind legs and tail ; without the latter it would be helpless. 
 The tail sometimes weighs 271bs. Some species of kangaroo are 
 red ; these, which are not so common as the grey sorts, are 
 generally by themselves in some parts of the country ; in other 
 parts they mix freely together. The Euro or TJroo is the name 
 given to one species of red kangaroo. The wallaby is a smaller 
 kind of marsupial, and of this there are many species, varying in
 
 ITS FAUNA. 14;) 
 
 size, form, and habits. Some burrow ; others are fond of the 
 rocks ; others are like the kangaroo in their habits. They range 
 in weight from jfive or six to thirty pounds. Some are red, but 
 grey is the prevailing color with all the marsupials. A white 
 kangaroo has been seen now and then, but it is considered a freak 
 of nature. There are small marsupials, that are classed as bandi- 
 coots, rats, mice, -and jerboas, and some of these creatures eat 
 carrion. The native cat, which is carnivorous, the sj^iny anteater, 
 and the duckbill platypus {Ornitliorhynchus paradoxm) are marsu- 
 pials ; another, the native bear, which is not met with in South 
 Australia, is a purely vegetable- eating animal, and resembles Bruin 
 of other countries only in shape and the ability to climb trees. The 
 flying fox is found in the Northern Territory. The wombat is a 
 shortlegged, broad, plump animal, about thirty or forty pounds in 
 weight, so solid and so tough in the hide that a dog can hardly 
 bite it. The wombat burrows, and is a sleepy harmless creature, 
 rarely seen in the daytime, except at dawn or dusk, or just after 
 rain. There are many other species of marsupials. The non- 
 marsupials, which are more numerous than most people suppose, 
 include besides the dingo, rats, mice, bats, and the seal tribe. 
 
 The grandest of Australian birds is the emu, almost as large 
 as an ostrich. The feathers are of no value, but most valuable oil 
 for healing purposes is obtained from between the skin and the 
 flesh. There are eagles, falcons, hawks, kites, and owls ; the 
 native companion, a tall, slender, handsome bird found in swampy 
 localities ; bustards, quail, plovers, black swans, geese, and ducks 
 of man}^ sorts, teal, widgeons, and various other aquatic birds ; 
 landrails, sandpipers, and snipe ; a great variety of parrots and 
 parakeets ; the bronzewing, crested, and other pigeons and 
 doves ; the crow tribe, magpies ; cockatoos, both black and white. 
 Songsters are few, but there are many pretty little birds, some of 
 them beautiful, including the oriole, the silver 03^0, redbreasted 
 and other robins, finches, fantails, kingfishers, swallows, and swifts. 
 The laughing jackass [dacelo (jigantpa) is peculiar to Australia, and 
 owes its popular name to the close similarity of the noise it makes 
 to human laughter of the most vacant type. About the shores, 
 sea arms, and salt lakes, pelicans, gulls, and other marine birds 
 abound. Mr. F. G. Waterhouse, C.M.Z.S., H.M.R.S., and F.L.S. 
 New South "Wales, the late curator of the South Australian
 
 144 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Museum in Adelaide, states that there are nearly 700 species of 
 birds in Australia ; and most of these are to be found in South 
 Australia. The seas abound with fish, and of the palatable sorts 
 the schnapper is the largest, the ordinary weight being from six 
 to ten pounds, but larger specimens are frequently caught. The 
 bream, mullet, butter-fish, garfish, and snook are favorites, but 
 other kinds are palatable. In the Murray and lakes the cod and 
 the muUaway are the largest, weighing frequently fifteen or twenty 
 pounds. In the Upper Murray cod have been caught very much 
 heavier. The native fish of other South Australian rivers are very 
 small, though of exquisitely delicate flavor ; larger kinds from 
 Europe and elsewhere have been placed in some of the streams to 
 breed, and the experiment appears to have been successful. The 
 reptiles include lizards of many kinds, snakes (some sorts being 
 poisonous), scorpions, and centipedes; but it is very rarely that 
 anyone is injured by these creatures. The white ants are des- 
 tructive, but builders and houseowners have learned by choice of 
 timber and other precautions to check their ravages. In the 
 Northern Territory these little creatures have done an immense 
 amount of damage in houses and the plantations. The blacks in 
 some parts of the continent eat them. 
 
 In South Australia a few animals have been acclimatised. 
 The hare is rapidly spreading over the country, and affords fine 
 sport both for the gun and hound. It is much •stronger than in 
 Eno-land, and breeds three or four times as fast. The rabbit 
 increased till it had to be treated as a public enemy. It destroyed 
 wheat crops and consumed so much pasture that it became a 
 question Avhether the farmers and squatters or the rabbits were to 
 occupy the country. The Parliament passed a Rabbit Destruction 
 Act, and the Government has spent many thousands a year in 
 destroying these rodents, at the same time requiring the settlers 
 to aid in the work, or contribute to the expense. The pest is 
 subdued, but probably will never be entirely extirpated. The 
 sparrow, introduced as an insect destroyer, swarms in millions, and 
 prefers corn and fruit to grubs ; therefore the Government pays so 
 much per dozen for heads or eggs of this feathered nuisance. Deer 
 have been bred on an estate about thirty miles from Adelaide, and 
 now and then individuals of the herd are seen a considerable dis- 
 tance from their native preserve.
 
 ITS FLORA. 145 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 For this chapter are used, in a slightly condensed form, a con- 
 tribution to the late Mr. Harcus's book on South Australia, and a 
 portion of the " Report on the progress and condition of the 
 " Botanic Garden and Government Plantations during the year 
 " 1882," by R. Schomburgk, Phil. Dr., Director, Knight of the 
 Imperial Order of the Crown ; of the Order of Merit of Phillippe 
 the Magnanimous, and the Order of the Crown of Italy ; Mem. of 
 the Imperial Carol. Leopold. Academj^ ; Hon. Mem. Bot. Soc, 
 Magdeburg; Cor. Mem. Zool. Soc, London; C.M.R.B.S., Lond. ; 
 C.M.B.S., Edin. ; C.M.G.S., Berl. and Dresd. ; CM. Soc. Nat. 
 Cherb., France ; C.M.H.S. Berl. and Frank-on-M. ; CM. Soc. Phys. 
 Medica, Erlangen ; H.M.R.S., N. S. Wales, &c., &c. 
 
 The most predominant orders of the South Australian flora, like 
 those of the other parts of the continent, are — Leguminosae, Myrtaceae, 
 Compositae, Proteaceae, Criiciferae, Rubiaceae, and Grammeae ; abun- 
 dant in genera, species, and individuals. Very singularly circumscribed 
 are the genera and species in area; many are found in one spot alone, 
 and a diversity in soil and locality brings forth other genera and species ; 
 the rapid succession of forms, and the contrast in this respect between 
 the northern and southern parts being remarkable. 
 
 The bark of most of the trees is usually smooth and of a greyish 
 color, which no doubt is accounted for by the slight atmospheric 
 changes — the contrast not being so sudden and great as in colder 
 climates. Most of the leaves of the trees and shrubs are coriaceous, 
 rigid, and pungent, and of a shining glaucous color, which is especially 
 perceptible in the orders Proteaceae and Epacrideae. Yellow-colored 
 flowers are the most predominant. 
 
 The preponderance of the two great genera of the Australian flora, 
 
 viz.. Eucalyptus and Acacia, also prevails over the whole area of South 
 
 Australia, but with a deficiency in species in comparison with those of 
 
 the west and east flora. The number of species of Eucalypts known at 
 
 L
 
 146 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 present in Australia is about 134; of these only thirty, and of Acacia, of 
 which 300 species are described, only seventy appear iri South Australia,. 
 
 The trees of South Australia do not reach so great a height as those 
 in the east, north, and west, though there are rare specimens of immense 
 girth and height — the average that our tallest trees, the Eucali/pis, obtain, 
 is from 100ft. to 120ft., with a stem of from 4ft. to 5ft. in diameter; 
 and such trees are only found in districts favored by good 8oil, or on the 
 banks of the rivers : but these heights sink into insignificance compared 
 with those of trees indigenous to Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Aus- 
 tralia, where it is stated that the Eucalyptus globulus reaches 300ft., and 
 E. collosn, F. MuelL, of Western Australia, 400ft. ; but more astonish- 
 ing still that a fallen tree of E. amycjdalina. Lab., in the Dandenong 
 Mountains, Victoria, measured 420ft. in length. 
 
 The presence of different species of trees in South Australia is also 
 limited in comparison to the other parts of x\ustralia. According to 
 Baron von Mueller, the list of trees above 30ft. in height in Australia 
 comprises 950 kinds. Of these eighty-eight are found in South-western 
 Australia, only sixty-three in South Australia, 146 in Victoria, 385 in 
 New South Wales, 526 in Queensland, 212 in North Australia, and 
 twenty-nine in Central Australia. Only the Eucahjpts furnish South 
 Australia with timber for building. They are found in all parts over 
 the area of the colony, and constitute most useful timber-producing trees. 
 
 Amongst the eighteen to twenty species of Eucalypts appearing in 
 the extra-tropical part of South Australia, there are only four to six 
 kinds which are most valued. These are distinguished by certain 
 colonial names, such as red, white, and blue gum, stringybark, and 
 peppermint, Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht. ; viminalis, Labil. ; odorata^ 
 Behr. Their timber is highly valued for building, railway, water, and 
 wheelwright work, as naves, felloes, and spokes, and as posts for fencing 
 and other purposes. The stringybark, Eucalyptus obliqua, L'Her., is 
 much valued, being the only kind fit for shingles, and, as a free-splitting 
 wood, the best for forming rails ; but it is not so durable as the other 
 kinds. 
 
 The wood of the Acacia tribe is only useful for cabinet-work and 
 turning, for which purpose the blackwood. Acacia melaiioxnlon, R. 
 Br., is very much valued. The wattle of the colomsii, Acaaa 2ryc7ion- 
 tha, Benth., is very valuable, on account of its freely-exuding gum, 
 and also for its bark, the latter containing excellent tanning qualities ; 
 and both these products form a very important article of export. The 
 wood of the so-called sheaoak, Casuarina stricta. Ait., is of an excellent 
 character, and used for cabinet-work, turning, and handles for tools. 
 
 The tea-trees, a name a2)plied by the colonists to the genera Mela-
 
 ITS FLORA. 147 
 
 leuca and Leptospermum, constitute a class of hard wood usually found in 
 low, moist situations, and on the banks of creeks ; is valuable on account 
 of its imperishable nature when used under ground, or even in water. 
 The timber is remarkably close-grained, extremely hard when dry, very 
 heavy, and generally sound in the heartwood, wliich is not always the 
 case with other hard-wooded trees. 
 
 The pretty mottled wood of the native pines of South Australia, 
 Frenela robiisfa, A. Cun., and rhomboidea, Endl., lack durability, and are 
 mostly used for fencing stuff and fuel. The native cherry, Exocarpus 
 Clip res.sifur mis, Labil., the honeysuckle, B(mhsia mnrginata, Cav., furnish 
 also handsome woods for cabinet-work; and Myoporum acuminatum, R. 
 Br., has a white soft timber, e2f.tremely tough, forming excellent knees 
 for boats. 
 
 A most remarkable fact in South Australian vegetation is the ab- 
 sence of native eatable fruits, of which there are none deserving the 
 name, excei^t a few berry-bearing shrubs belonging to the order of 
 Epacrideae and Sajitaloceae, Astroloma and Leucopogon, the principal 
 species of which, the native currant of the colonists, Astroloma humi- 
 ■ fusum, R. Br., and the so-called native peach, Ficsanus acumiaiialus, R. 
 Br., bearing a globular fruit of the size of a small peach, with a succulent 
 epicarp and a hard, bony, much-pitted endocarp, are all South Australia 
 can boast of. There is also a deficiency in eatable root-bearing plants. 
 
 A great many genera of plants of other countries, which possess- 
 valuable and jiowerful medicinal properties, have numerous congeners in 
 the extra-tropical, and more especially in the intra-tropical portions of 
 South Australia, of which I will only mention the following orders, viz. : 
 — Euphorhiaccae, Urliceae, Campanidaceae, Solaneae, Ajwcineae, 
 Leginninosae, Asvlepiadeae, Gentianeae, Scroplmlarineae, Sec. ; containing 
 numerous genera and species, probably possessing similar valuable 
 properties, which may be considered as so much buried riches hitherto 
 vmheeded, and therefore not utilised. Only lately the wonderful febri- 
 fugal properties of the Eucalypts have been discovered in Europe. The 
 polygonaceous plant, MtiehlenhecJcia adpressa, Meisn., called by the 
 colonists " Native Sarsaparilla," produces the same effects as the true 
 Smilax Sarsaparilla, Lin. ; and the Erythraea Ausfralis, R. Br., contains 
 the same bitter as its congener in Europe, Erythraea centaurium, Pers. 
 There are no doubt many trees of the orders Urticeae and Sapinduceae 
 containing also that valuable substance caoutchouc, especially the species 
 of Ficus, so abundant in the intra-tropical part of South Australia. 
 
 The same ignorance prevails also with regard to the fibrous and dye 
 plants. Of the first I will only mention the Linum maryinale, A. Cun. ; 
 Hibiscus tiliaceus, Lin. ; the Crotalaria dissitijlora, Benth., from the
 
 148 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 fibres of which the natives prepare their fishing nets and cordage. 
 Several other plants are known to possess the same properties, especially 
 Pimelea striata, Meisn. ; axxjiora, F. Muell. ; and microcephala, R. Br. 
 
 Gum and resin bearing trees are also abundant. I have already 
 mentioned the valuable gum of the wattle, Acacia pycnantha, but there are 
 several more species producing gum, as Acacia acuminata, Benth., &c. 
 
 The conspicuous plants which greatly contribute to the interesting 
 character of the Australian flora, the grass trees of the colonists — 
 '^anthorrhoea quadrangulata, F. Muell., and semiplana, F. Muell., 
 exude a resin which contains nitro-picric acid, from which a valuable dye 
 may be prepared. 
 
 The flora of South Australia provides copious material for the manu- 
 facture of the best paper. Not alone a great number of representatives 
 of the Gramineae and Cyperaceae, viz.: — Dichelayne crinita, Hof., 
 Xe/ottis longifolia, R. Br., Cyprus luciilus, R. Br., vayinatus, R. Br., 
 Scirpus lacustris, Lin., but also the bark of Eucalypts, and the leaves 
 and bark of Casuarina, provide splendid material for paper. 
 
 Poisonous plants are known, though there are not many in South 
 Australia. One of the most dangerous to the sheep stock is the Lotus 
 Australia, Andr., which is very generally distributed, and does great 
 injury ; but I consider the poisonous principle lies mostly in the seed. 
 The River Darling Pea, Swainsona Grayana, Lindl., produces also 
 poisonous efl'ects on the cattle, especially on horses. A Lohelia L. 
 pratioide'i, Benth., iortunately is not frequently seen in South Australia, 
 but it appears more plentiful in Victoria, to the great injury of stock. 
 
 Although the injurious weed Svlanum niyrum is common in most 
 tropical and temperate parts of the globe, I think it has been introduced 
 into Australia with cultivation. Laicrencia fijjicata. Hook., is also con- 
 sidered by the stockholders on the Peninsula injurious to cattle and 
 sheep. But as the plant is eaten by the cattle before seeding without 
 injury, I believe that the rigid, pungent, bracteate leaves with which the 
 flower-spike is densely covered, especially in the upper part, and which, 
 as the seed ripens, become more coriaceous and pungent, are the dan-, 
 gerous parts of the plants, and these' parts, when eaten in quantity, will, 
 no doubt, injure the mucous membrane of the stomach and produce 
 inflammation. As the uniform character of the order of Malvaceae is 
 that it abounds only in mucilage, and is totally destitute of all unwhole- 
 some qualities, it would be very peculiar should this species contain 
 poisonous properties. 
 
 A very peculiar phenomenon of the South Australian vegetation is, 
 that most kinds of trees and shrubs, when dying, die from the tops down- 
 wards. It is also a remarkable characteristic that by age the common
 
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 ITS FLORA. 149 
 
 habit of plants is often much cliangcd, which is jjrovcd by the fact that 
 during the period of development and subsequently the individual parts 
 of those which are not flowering and fruit-bearing are different. This 
 anomaly, caused by age and time, not only refers to tlie dimensions of 
 leaves and flowers, but also to their nature. 
 
 If we review the several orders of plants of South Australia, we find 
 that the extra-tropical part is characterised by the remarkable absence of 
 seA-eral orders, although it is not impossible that by further discoveries in 
 the central part — as this part has, as yet, been but imperfectly explored 
 — a few representatives of one or the other order may yet be found ; but 
 probably the number will not be extensive. The extra-tropical part of 
 South Australia is destitute of the following orders, viz. : — Simarubeae, 
 Burseraceae, Meliaceae, Salicineae, Celasti hieae, Ampelideue, Anacar- 
 (llaceae, Magnoliaceae, Bixineae, AraUaceae, Malpighia c^ ae ^ Guttiferae, 
 Ericaceae, Plumbagineae, Myrsincae, Sapotaceae, Ehenaceae, ^Styriaceae, 
 Hydroplvjllaceae, Gfsneriaceae, Biynoniaceae, Saxijrageae, Samydaceae, 
 Elaeagneae, Ciqmliferae, Piperaceae, SeLigineae, Scitamineae. 
 
 Although the order Orchidfae is represented by numerous species of 
 terrestrial ones, there is an entire absence of epiphital Orchids in the 
 extra-tropical part. So are also Cryptogainic plants exremely rare ; even 
 the order Filices is poorly represented. 
 
 The orders most abundantly distributed over the whole area are : — 
 Leguminosap., Myrtaceae, Compositae, Chenopodiuceae, Cruciferae, Pro- 
 teaceae, Guodetioviacene, Euphorhiaceae, Scrophularineae, Ficoideaey 
 Buragineae, Labiatae, Amarantnceae, Convolvulnceae, Epacrideae, 
 Uriiceae, Orchideae, Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Restiuceae, Cyperuceae, 
 and Grammineac. 
 
 Having given a general description of the flora of South Australia, I 
 proceed now to its special peculiarities in the several localities or regions 
 individualised and distinguished by the predominance of one or more 
 families, although the boundary is in no way so sudden &< to preclude 
 certain species from spreading over all regions, especially trees which, 
 at the same time, are equally common in the scrub and grass lands : and 
 also herbaceous plants, a great number of which appear in the grass land, 
 scrub, and forest region. 
 
 Notwithstanding the little apparent difference in the formation of its 
 surface soil and climate, the flora of South Australia introduces itself to 
 the observer in its geographical extension by special and peculiar foi-ms 
 of plants in regions. These are the regions of the forest land, scrubland, 
 grass land, and the intra-tropical region. 
 
 FoKEST Land Region. — The region of the forest land in South 
 Australia occupies mostly the mountainous districts, and extending along
 
 150 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 the base of the mountain chains. The forests have not the fullness and 
 lofty growth of those of other countries. The underwood is of a medium 
 size, more open and less difficult to penetrate ; the forests are of less 
 extent and are intercejited by tracts of grass land. The Eucalypts are 
 the most predominant forest trees — the stringybark forming often whole 
 forests in some mountainous districts, but seldom seen on the plains. 
 Eucalyptus jyanicidata, Sw. ; I'iminalis, Labil. ; rustrata, Schlecht. ; 
 odorata, Behr., are the most prevalent species. 
 
 The trees of the forest do not appear crowded, and seldom do the 
 branches of a tree reach those of a neighboring one. The declivities of 
 the mountain ranges are for the most part similarly timbered, the trees 
 sometimes extending to the summits, often only half or two-thirds of the 
 remaining part being grassed, here and there with copses of low-growing 
 shrubs, and stunted and much ramified trees ; often the whole declivities 
 are grassed without even a shrub or tree. 
 
 Another feature of the table land in the hilly districts is the appear- 
 ance of occasional hills clothed only with a scanty covering of tussocky 
 grasses, among fragments of ironstone, quartz, and sand, destitute of all 
 other vegetation, except small scattered trees of the Casuanna sfric(a. 
 Ait., and glaucn, Sieb., and the peppermint, Eucalyptus odorata., Behr. 
 
 The level tableland is generally covered with grass, but deficient in 
 shrubs. Here, scattered, are to be seen the most stately and majestic 
 trees of Eucaliipits ; such tablelands appearing more like a park— the 
 trees standing seemingly at measured distances, single or in small clumps, 
 as if planted by the hands of a landscape gardener. The soil of such 
 tableland is generally speaking very rich, and produces abundant crops 
 of cereals. The underwood of the forests is mostly represented by the 
 following genera, viz., Correa, Alyxia, Prostranthera, Grevillea, Hakea, 
 Isopuyon, Exocnrpi/s, Acacia, Banksia, Cassia, Calythrix, Pommaderis, 
 Leucdpogon, Leptospermum, Dnviesia, Dillicyma, hutaxia, Platylhicum, 
 Pultenaea, and shrubby Eucalypts. 
 
 The beautiful genus Epacns, which is only represented in South 
 Australia by one species. E. impressa, Labil., frequently covers whole 
 mountain ridges and declivities : when in bloom the different shades of 
 color of its flowers produce an effect not easily described. 
 
 The most prominent and striking efFect of the mountain forest region 
 is produced by the grass trees, XantJwrrhoea qundranyulata, F. Muell. ; 
 and semiplana, F. Muell. These plants have a peculiar grotesque 
 appearance of a type unknown in other countries, at once arresting every 
 traveller's attention by their strangeness. 
 
 They appear mostly on the ridges and declivities of rocky and stony 
 hills, almost devoid of any other vegetation, and are also found on sortie
 
 ITS FLORA. 151 
 
 wooded lands, but never on the plains. Xanthorrhoea qtiadranyulata 
 grows from 10 to 12 feet high, often with a trunk about one foot or 
 eighteen inches in diameter, and the flower stalk from 6 to 10 feet 
 high. Sometimes specimens arc found repeatedly branched in a dicho- 
 tomous manner, all the branches of equal thickness, which gives them a 
 most grotesque appearance. This species appears only in hilly districts 
 on the most rocky declivities ; they drive their straggling roots into the 
 crevices of the rocks several feet down amongst the accumulated 
 vegetable soil. The grass trees are of slow growth ; the largest specimen 
 must be several hundred years old. The second species, Xanthorrhoea 
 semiplana, is often found at the base of the hills in sandy soil ; it forms 
 its stem underground, which extends often two to three feet before the 
 few straggling roots appear, and the leaves lie close on the ground. 
 This species is also of an ornamental character. The valuable brownish- 
 yellow resinous exudation of the root and lower part of the stem I have 
 already mentioned, 
 
 The deep gullies formed by the ridges and hills, in which the dew 
 most frequently supplies the place of rain during the dry season, are 
 covered with shrubs and ferns. The soil is generally formed of black or 
 sandy peat of a very humid nature, being watered by streamlets running 
 throughout the year, and forming, in some rocky situations, picturesque 
 cascades. In such gullies are associated the most delicate and beautiful 
 plants the flora of South Australia produces. Only in such places do 
 we find assembled the handsomest ferns in great profusion, the stately 
 Todea Africana, Willd., with trunks often 5ft. to 6ft. in circumference, 
 often forming impenetrable thickets along the rocky banks of the 
 streamlets; GleicJienia tnicrophylla^ R. Br., thriving luxuriantly in the 
 crevices of the rocks ; with the elegant Adiantuvi Aethiopicum, Lin., 
 BotnjcJiiiini tematutn, Swartz., Lomaria discolor, Willd., and cajyensls, 
 Willd., Aspidiavi molle, Sw., Grammitls leptophylla, Swartz., and 
 Rutifolia, R. Br., interspersed with the lovely Viola hetonicaefolia, Sw., 
 and hederacea, Labil., which border the water edges ; and the blue 
 flowers of Cassia and white of Burchhardia give a great charm to such 
 waterfalls not easily described. 
 
 The declivities of the gullies are mostly taken possession of by the 
 luxuriant-growing Pteris escidevta, Forst., massed together and forming 
 often impenetrable thickets, while the graceful Cheilanthcs tcmiifolia, 
 Swartz., is generally found in the grass-land at the base of the hills, 
 extending even a short distance into the plains. There also grow mag- 
 nificent trees of Eucahjpts. 
 
 In such gullies, with their fertile soil and cool clime, the greatest 
 part of our culinary vegetables are grown for the market to a degree of
 
 152 SOXrrH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 perfection unknown elsewhere, and uninterruptedly supplied throughout 
 the year. Not vegetables alone, but fruits, viz : — Gooseberries, straw- 
 berries, raspberries, and currants, &c., are raised in the same perfection. 
 
 At the base, and also extending further up on the slopes of the hills, 
 generally in spots least covered with underwood, appear the various and 
 beautiful terrestrial Orchids, with their delicate and quaint flowers, 
 together with other monocotyledonous plants, viz : — Patersnnia longi- 
 scapa, Sweet., Hi/poxis glabella, R. Br., Caesia parvifiora, R. Br., 
 Arthropodium laxum, R. Br. 
 
 The most conspicuous Orchids are : — Glossodia major, R. Br., Cala- 
 denia Patersoni, R. Br., latifolia, R. Br., carnea, R. Br., Cyrtrstylis 
 reniformis, R. Br., Pterostylis cucullata, R. Br., reflexa, R. Br., barhata, 
 Lindl., long if olid, R. Br., Thelymitra aristaUi, R. Br., carnea, R. Br., 
 Ditiris palustris, Lindl., maculata, Sm., longifolia, R. Br. The genus 
 Pterostylis is represented by numerous species. This aspect of the forest 
 region applies to the Barossa Range, the most prominent near the coast. 
 Other mountain ranges in the far north may present different features. 
 
 The Scrub Land Region. — The regions of the so-called scrub 
 land appear over the Avhole area of South Australia, extending more or 
 less in the different districts ; but more so in the north and east, 
 occupying about one-eighth of the whole area of the colony. They form 
 long stretches of desolate arid plains— the soil being of the poorest de- 
 scription, and unfit for cultivation, changing from loamy clay to pure 
 sand ; the surface is covered with fragments of siliciousrock, ferruginous 
 sand, and ironstone ; of water in these tracts there is no indication. 
 The vegetation is of a stunted character, and the scrub is nearly destitute 
 of grasses and other herbage ; the few genera of the first are mostly 
 Neurachne, Stijja, Isolepsis, Sjnnifex, the well-known kangaroo grass 
 Anihiaiiria ciliata, and a few Juncaceae, viz., Xerotes glauca, R. Br., 
 diTiAJilliformis, R. Br. ; and these grow only in tufts, considerably apart 
 from each other. The absence of other herbage is as great during the 
 summer ; but this almost entire deficiency is compensated by an endless 
 variety of genera and species of shrubs. The general impression given 
 by the scrub is dismal, although the great variety of shrubby plants 
 associated there make it highly interesting to the botanist. These 
 shrubs reach generally the height of four to six feet, interspersed with 
 stunted and ramified trees of the genera Casuarina, Eucalyptus, San- 
 talum, Melaleuca, Exocarjnis, Camphorotnyrtus, Dodonaea, Frenela^ 
 Banksia, Sec. Smaller shrubs of the genera Pimelea leucopogon 
 Dillicynia, Hibbertia, Acrotriche, Calythrix, cover the ground, and are 
 overtopped by higher gro\ving ones, such as Hakea, Logania, Alyxia, 
 MytipoTum, Stenochilus, Eupihrasia, Thomasia, Bursaria, Pomaderris,
 
 
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 ITS FLORA. iry.i 
 
 Haloragis, Melaleuca, Leptosperinum, Eutaxia, Acacia, Isojiogon, Correa, 
 Rhagodia, Sec, forming sometimes impenetrable thickets ; in other 
 localities the scrub consists only of Eucah/jitus dttmosa, A. Cun. ; some- 
 times formed by other bushy Eucalgpts. vi/., Enralgpdis uncinata, Turcz. ; 
 hicolor, A. Cun. ; and incraasata, Labil., growing only six to oiglit feet 
 high, and extending hundreds of miles. 
 
 The most predominant color of the leaves of the scrub is a glaucous 
 green, interspersed here and there with whitish leaves of the Rhagodia 
 and other shrubs, having reddish-brown leaves. Most of the leaves are 
 ovate, entire, coriaceous, and pungent ; shrubs with jDinnated leaves are 
 seldom met with. 
 
 The monotonous and dismal look of an extensive scrub is depressing, 
 especially when viewed from an eminence. The equal height of the 
 vegetation, the dull glacuous color of the foliage, look in the distance 
 like a rolling sea reaching the horizon — at least the first sight of the 
 Murray scrub, extending hundreds of miles, produced this impression on 
 my mind. Everyone avoids the scrub as much as possible —many have 
 lost their way there and perished for want of w'ater. 
 
 All the scrubs in the different districts produce the same common 
 impression, but the plants comprising them are not the same genera and 
 species, locality and soil affecting the character of the flora. 
 
 Shrubs of one kind or another are found in flower in the scrub 
 throughout the year. Most kinds produce their flowers in September 
 and October ; the rainy season therefore alters the physiognomy of the 
 scrub very little ; but it calls into life numerous terrestrial orchids, of 
 ■which a good many kinds inhabit the scrub, viz. : — Erochilus, Caladenia, 
 Diuris, Prnssophyllum, Dipodium, Microtis, Cgrtostylis, &c. These 
 appear with some perennial and annual plants, viz. : — Helichrysum, 
 Drosera, Helipterum, Scaevola, Brunonia, Thysonanthus, Euphrasia, 
 Goodenia, Hypoxis, Senecio, &c., and annual grasses ; but their duration 
 is short, as with the setting in of the dry season they disappear as rapidly 
 as they appeared. 
 
 A most valuable scrub plant, at least for the pastoral community, 
 and appearing copious in the northern districts, is the so-called salt bush, 
 Atriplex nummularia, R. Br., on which during the summer and in times 
 of drought the sheep subsist. If all other vegetation is suffering from 
 the drought, the salt bush alone withstands the intense heat of the 
 sun and maintains its freshness, and saves thousands of sheep from 
 starvation. 
 
 The Grass Land Region. — The so-called grass land forms the 
 principal part over the Avhole area of South AustraUa, consisting in end- 
 less undulating plains, stretching from the coast towards the north and
 
 154 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 east. Along tha coast and hundreds of miles inland the grass plains have 
 mostly disappeared, and now form agricultural districts producing the 
 finest cereals known — the soil varying from the best to some indifferently 
 good. 
 
 But the grass plains of the interior, especially towards the north, so 
 extensive as to be lost in the horizon, are like deserts, emphatically 
 monotonous and desolate. Only here and there will be found some 
 fertile spots of grass land, but not of large extent, alternating with bare 
 sandstone ridges or rolling sandhills, interspersed with gravelly and 
 waterless flats. Their surface is often saline, covered with sharp angular 
 or weatherworn fragments of various sizes of ironstone, quartz, reddish- 
 colored sandstone, and conglomerate, supporiing only a scanty herbage 
 of Atriplex, Kochia, Salicor^iia, and Salsola, Sjrinifex and other perennial 
 grasses, growing in tufts, tinging the sandy surface. Gr^jups of stunted 
 shrubs and small ramified trees, sometimes of a limited extent, rise from 
 the plains like islands of the ocean. They mostly consist of the shea- 
 oak, Casunrina stricta. Ait., glauca, Sieb., and disli/lu. Vent., Euclypttis 
 octoruta, Behr., dumosa, A. Gun., virgata. Sieb., wattle. Acacia pyc- 
 nantha. The plains near the coast are of a different character, the soil 
 mostly fertile, extending oficn to the sea, and constituting a great part 
 of our arable land. 
 
 The stratum of humus or fertile soil covering these plains occasions 
 also an essential alteration in their vegetation. The grasses consist of 
 more nourishing kinds, viz. : — Poa, Panicicm, Festuca, Agrostis, Atria, 
 Androjiogon, Cgnodon, Stipa, Pennisetmn, Bromus, Eriachne, A?ithis- 
 iiria, Hordeum, kc. Here appear also a great number of low-growing 
 shrubs, such as Bursera, Grerillea, and small ramified trees of pepper- 
 mint, Myoporum, Pitlospnrum^ C'usuarina, and Acacia, either single, or 
 sometimes forming groves, without underwood, like oases in the desert. 
 The banks of the rivers and creeks, which mostly cease running during 
 the summer, are lined with majestic gum trees, often of immense dimen- 
 sions, and shrubs, extending more or less upon the plains, according to 
 the nature of the soil. This vegetation, on both sides of the rivers, 
 appears like green ribbons, following their curves. These banks have 
 their peculiar flora ; here appears T^imiiiaria, Leptospennum, Melaleuca, 
 Myoporum, Hardenhergia, kc. ; herbaceous plants, Sium, Mimulus, 
 Myriogyne, Senecio, Li'belia, Petroselimim, Eryngiimi, Lotus, and the 
 following Juneaceue and Gramineae — Jimcus, Lunula, Xerotes, I^eu- 
 rachne, Dei/cuxia, Slipa, Sec. 
 
 The grass land, in fact the whole configuration of the plains, has a 
 great similarity to the savannahs of British Guiana. Naturally there is a 
 great discrepancy with regard to the two vegetations ; but the savannahs
 
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 ITS FLOKA. l-'jo 
 
 have mostly the undulating ground, the scattered ramified trees, the 
 oases, the rivers lined with a green belt ; and the appearance of the 
 grasses and herbas-e covering the area has, during the dry season, the 
 same sunburnt yellow character, and is destitute of all green herbage. 
 After the setting in of the rainy season, there is the same magic appear- 
 ance of the grasses and herbage. 
 
 In the month of May the rainy season generally commences, which 
 has a magical effect upon the herbage of the plains ; a feAV heavy showers 
 change the aspect of the dried-up grasses and herbage into a green and 
 beautiful carpet. 
 
 The rapidity with which especially the annual grasses spring up is 
 such that in a few days the plains appear clothed with luxuriant verdure, 
 which only northern countries ordinarily produce. With the grass are 
 also recalled to new life the yellow flowers of Rammctdus aquatilisy 
 Lin., lappaceus, Sm., rivularis. Banks, Oxalis coc/nata, Steud., JIi/poxis 
 glabella, R. Br., with the white flowers of Brosera rosulata, Lehm., 
 the blue of the Wahlcnheraia (jracilis, Dec, Anguillaria biylandulosa, 
 R. Br., Stackhousia obtusa, Lindl., with its perfume-spreading flowers. 
 
 Every week adds new colors to the beautiful carpet. The scarlet 
 flowers of Kennedya prostrata, the violet ones of Sivainsona j^yocumhans, 
 F. Muell., and lessertifolia, Dec. ; the delicate flowers of Tlnjxnnotm 
 Patersoni climbing up the dry grass stalks, or overrunning small shrubs. 
 The flowers of the isolated trees or copses of the wattles soon glitter in 
 their yellow clothing. The Lorcmthtts Exocarpi, Behr. ; and Miqucli 
 Lehm., growing parasitical of the Casuarinas and Eucalypfns ndorata, 
 adorned with their red flowers hanging in the air. The small shrubs of 
 Bursera ajrinosa are covered with their white flowers, mingled with the 
 red of different shrubby Grevilleas. Compnsilae are seen blooming over 
 the plains in all colors ; and every week brings new representatives of 
 floral beauty. 
 
 But by the middle of November the number of flowering plants 
 already lessens considerably, the annual grasses and other herbaceous 
 plants begin to dry up, droop, and disappear, and in January the grass 
 land resembles a ripe thinly-sown cornfield, and we find only solitary 
 shrubs covered with a few flowers or a few plants of Convolvulus eruhes- 
 cens. Lobelia yibbosa, Labil, the latter with their leafless and fleshy 
 stalks, and Mesembryantheynum Ausfrale, Soland. In some localities this 
 period appears earlier or later. 
 
 The seeds of the annual plants have been scattered, perennial herbage 
 returned to its dormant state, to awake to new life at the setting in of the 
 following rainy seasons ; and the plains have during the summer months 
 a dismal dried-up appearance.
 
 156 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 There is another kind of grass land, appearing here and there in 
 large tracts, called " Bay of Biscay land." Such tracts have a peculiar, 
 undulating surface, and look like a waving sea which has suddenly 
 become motionless. The soil is considered very good, of a chocolate 
 color, and produces fine wheat crops, but it must be ploughed several 
 years before the surface becomes level. 
 
 The flora of the Bay of Biscay land, too, has its peculiarity. The 
 Eucalypts shunning such tracts, which, however, are rich in Compositae 
 and grasses, but poor in Monocotyledons. 
 
 The seabeach is mostly bordered with a belt of arborescent shrubs 
 and small trees of ramified growth, viz. : — j\Ielaletica Preissiana, Schau, 
 decufisata, E,. Br., Alyxia, shrubby Eucalyjjfs, Myoporum, Pittosporum, 
 and Santalum, interrupted with a thick belt of Avtcennia ojjficinalis, Lin., 
 extending along the coast. The sandy, often saline, tracts stretching 
 towards the plains are covered with Atriplex, Tetragona, Aster, Ajiium, 
 Paliphrasia, Zyynphylliim, Nitraria, Eriyeron, Cotula, Podolepsis, Ero- 
 dht/n, Helichrysum, Leptorhynclius, Dianella, Arthropodium, Salsola, 
 and Mesembryanthemum, Avhich are often supplanted by tracts of Spi- 
 nifex, ^erodes, Juncus, Anthtstiria, Lejoidos2)erma, Isolepis, Chaetospora, 
 Claudmm, and Carex. 
 
 INTRA.-T110PICAL Region. — According to G. W. Goyder, Esq., Sur- 
 veyor-General, the country, especially near the coast, of the intra-tropical 
 part of South Australia consists principally of table land of from 60 to 
 150 feet above the level of the sea, falling thence gently towards the sea, 
 although forming here and there into cliffs, which are fringed with dense 
 thickets of various-sized timber, matted together with bamboo, and a 
 variety of climbing plants and shrubs. The low lands near the sea, 
 especially such as are under the influence of the tide, are covered with 
 dense mangroves, Avtcennia officinalis, Lin., and Rhizophora mucronata. 
 Lam. These, as the land ascends to a higher level, give place to palms, 
 Pandanus, Melaleucas, Lep)tospermums, Grevilleas, Eucalypts, and 
 'Acacias, forming an open forest. Amongst the underwood are found 
 ferns, Aroids as Amorphophalus campanulatus, Decas, and Taccaceae, 
 Tacca Pinnatijida, Lin. 
 
 The grass over the whole, or nearly the whole, of the surface of the 
 ground, grows luxuriantly, of which the most prominent genera are the 
 following : — Ftiirena, Cpprus, Eleocharis, Cimbopogon, Fimbrislylis, 
 Panicuni, Setaria, Sporobolus, Anthisliria, EriacJme, &c. The soil is 
 mostly good, and of a dark-brown color, with small nodules of ferru- 
 ginous sandstone upon the surface. 
 
 Near the sea, and generally upon a watercourse near its junction with 
 the sea, swampy flats occur, containing timber of large growth and rank
 
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 ITS FLORA. 157 
 
 vegetation. The lakes and waterpools iire covered with waterlilies, 
 Nyniphaea gigantea and Nelionhium speciosum, Willd., showin<r their 
 beautiful flowers in various shades of blue, pink, or crimson. The flats 
 on either side of large rivers also contain good soil, except where they 
 join the higher land, where there is a belt of sandy character, poor to 
 look at, though covered with timber and grass. The same kind of open 
 forest, undulating and flat land, exists over the area, sometimes the soil, 
 changing suddenly from a dark brown to a very light loam, the soil 
 improving and the vegetation along the rivers becoming luxuriant. 
 
 Judging from the plants collected by Mr. Schultz, who was employed 
 for about two years there as a naturalist, during which time he obtained 
 about 700 species of plants, the inter-tropical flora of South Australia 
 does not present the luxuriant growth and umbrageous foliage we are 
 used 10 see in other tropical floras. The number of species is also very 
 small, owing, no doubt, to the dryness of the climate ; and from the same 
 cause it is deficient in E2)>p/igtal Orchids, palms, and ferns. Acacias, 
 Eucalypts, Ficus, Bombax ctipania terminalea, Psychotria, Grevillea, 
 form the prevailing tim.ber trees, and line the rivers ; but the Eucalypts 
 and Acacias do not reach the gigantic size of their brethren in the extra- 
 tropical region. The following orders are well represented, viz. : — 
 Euphorhiaccae, Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Rubiaceae, Goodenoviaceae, 
 Leguminosae, Urticeae. 
 
 The representatives of the intra-tropical flora of South Australia 
 seem to extend towards the east, as a great number of genera and species 
 reach to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and even further. A great many species 
 of the Indian flora appear along the coast of the intra-tropical part, viz. : 
 — Kitrychnos, Tamai-indus, tlie Cajaput tree, Melaleuca leucadendron, 
 appear abundant along the banks of the rivers, and even over the dry 
 sandstone table land, but of less luxuriant growth. 
 
 (From the Botanic Garden Report.) 
 THE INTRODUCED PLANTS IN OUR GARDENS AND FIELDS. 
 
 Although having for several years back published a condensed sketch 
 on the subject, more facts derived from experience have been since col- 
 lected, which pre added to the previous sketch, and will no doubt interest 
 the foreign recipients of this report. For these I think it also necessary 
 to give, first, a brief description of our seasons and climate in general, it£
 
 158 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 extremes, and the difficulties we have to contend against with regard 
 to acclimatising introduced plants, especially those from tropical, frigid, 
 or alpine zones ; and the plants from other parts of the globe which will 
 become accustomed to our climate, and will thrive out of doors. 
 
 Our summer season includes the months of December, January, and 
 February, when the temperature on the plains frequently exceeds 100° in 
 the shade, and reaches from 140° to 150° in the sun. In 1876 the 
 thermometer registered, in December, 114° 2' in the shade, and 162° 6' in 
 the sun. This degree of heat has only been exceeded on two former 
 occasions, viz., in 1865, when the thermometer registered, on the 9th 
 January, 116° 3', and on the 14th January, 1862, when the reading was 
 115° in the shade and 165° in the sun; but the maximum in the sun 
 hitherto recorded was on the 18th January, 1882, when the temperature 
 registered in the sun was 180°, and 112° in the shade, the former being, 
 without exception, the highest ever recorded. As the boiling-point is 
 212°, it will be seen that the heat in the sun on the 1 8th January, 1882, 
 Avas within 32° of that temperature. Such temperatures produce very 
 injurious effects on the introduced plants, especially those from cooler 
 climes, and leaves even injurious traces on the native vegetation. 
 
 During the blowing of hot winds, the thermometer and the wet-bulb 
 thermometer often show a difference of 30° to 40°, and it is that which 
 enables persons to bear the heat of our summer and carry out their usual 
 pursuits in the field, or elsewhere, which, in a tropical climate, would be 
 impossible. 
 
 The changes of temperature during the summer are often very sud- 
 den, so that in a short time the thermometer falls from 90° or 100° to 
 70° or 60°. 
 
 Our summer months are characterised bv great heat, hot winds, and 
 dryness. Not a drop of rain falls often for six or eight weeks, and it is 
 during this time that not only the acclimatised but the indigenous vege- 
 tation suffers materially. The ground becomes so hot and cracked that 
 even the occurrence of a fall of rain serves only to clear the leaves from 
 dust, as it again evaporates in a very short time. 
 
 During this period the country wears a desolate, sunburnt appear- 
 ance, and is destitute of all green herbage ; but after the setting in of 
 the rains, there is, I may say, a magic appearance of grasses and 
 herbage. 
 
 The autumn season includes in Australia the months of March, 
 April, and May, and is one of our genial and beautiful parts of the year. 
 The temperature falls rapidly, only reaching 70° to 80° in the shade, the 
 mean being 64° 6', and in the month of May it is only 58° 2'. The 
 northern winds become cooler, the solar radiation is considerably re-
 
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 ITS FLORA. l;-><) 
 
 duced, and heavy dews begin to fall at nif;lit. The indigenous vegetation 
 which has suffered through the summer awakes to new life, and trees, 
 shrubs, and herbage put forth fresh growth, while the leaves of the 
 European deciduous ti*ees get the autumnal tints, and drop. 
 
 June, July, and August constitute our winter — our rainy season — 
 which is usually marked by frequent rain and strong winds ; but it also 
 often happens that we have to contend with remarkably dry winters, the 
 mean temperature during the three months 54° to 56° 7'. Hoar frosts 
 and heavy frosts often appear during the night, which have since the last 
 four years increased in severity, and the lowest temperature experienced 
 was 28° at least in the Botanic Garden. Sucli heavy frosts have most 
 disastrous effects upon the tropical and subtropical plants in the garden. 
 
 The spring season — the most genial and most beautiful in South 
 Australia, I think not surpassed in any other part of the world — includes 
 the months of September, October, and November, the mean temperature 
 during the first two months being 60° to 70° ; at this time of the year 
 the gardens are in their best floral beauty — trees, shrubs, perennials, 
 annuals emulate each other in regard to their flowers, which are of such 
 a size, richness in color, and perfection, as a northern gardener can 
 scarcely imagine. But early-appearing hot winds in November destroy 
 these floral beauties in the course of a few hours. 
 
 The average fall of rain during the year in the plains of Adelaide is 
 twenty-one inches, but the distribution is unequal, even in places not far 
 apart, each often showing a great difference in the rainfall. In the 
 Mount Lofty ranges, about eight miles distant from Adelaide, the average 
 of the rainfall is 40-677 inches. The lowest rainfalls have been in 1850, 
 when only 11-644 inches fell; in 1859, 11-647 inches ; in 1857, 12-650 
 inches; in 1854, 13-437 inches ; in 1871, 14-926 inches; and in 1882, 
 15-742 inches. The highest fall near Adelaide was in 1875, when 31-455 
 inches fell. 
 
 This climatic sketch refers only to the plains round Adelaide. In 
 the southern parts and in the hills the temperature is much cooler, and 
 the rainfall, as already mentioned, much heavier, but in the northern dis- 
 tricts the rainfall is much less. From the foregoing it can be imagined 
 that not all plants from other countries will grow with us. The tropical 
 and alpine ones suffer not only from our dry atmosphere, but the former 
 also from the cold during the winter months. In the hill gullies the 
 alpine plants, and those of other cool countries, grow exceedingly well, 
 while the tropical ones are destroyed by the frosts, which in such locali- 
 ties are even severer than on the plains. 
 
 Not many European and North American forest trees prosper with 
 us in the plains ; only the Elm, Plane, Ash, Poplar, and Willow thrive
 
 160 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 vigorously, while the Oak, Lime, Birch, Horse-chestnut, and Maple 
 thrive only slowly, and suffer materially from the drought. All attempts 
 to grow the beautiful Beech tree in the plains have failed, and even in the 
 gullies of the hills it only grows slowly, while the other trees mentioned 
 thrive most luxuriantly in those localities. It is the same with the 
 coniferous trees. The most vigorous-growing European pines on the 
 plains are only the Aleppo pine, Piiius Jialepensis, Ait., Cluster pine, 
 Pinus Pinaster, Ait., the Italian stone pine, Pinus Picea, Linn.. All 
 other kinds only show a moderate growth. The Scotch fir, Pinus sylves- 
 tris, Linn.), the Corsican pine, Pinus Lnricio, Poir., are of a lingering 
 growth, while the larch, Pinus Larix, Pall, uccusmbs to the slij^htest 
 hot winds and drought. Of this fine tree I have not met with a single 
 specimen in South Australia. 
 
 Of the Californian conifers, only such as appear at an elevation of 
 500ft. to 1,000ft. do remarkably well in the plains of South Australia, 
 especially the showy pine Pinus insic/nis, Dougl., which often reaches, 
 in the course of from fourteen to sixteen years, a height of 50ft. to 
 60ft. Sabine's pine Pinus Suhiniana, Dougl., Bishop's pine Pinus 
 muricata, Don., the elegant Weymouth pine Pimis Strohus, Linn., 
 shows only a lingering growth with us. 
 
 Some of the Californian and European Ciqiressus and Thuyas also 
 thrive luxuriantly, although some species of the former seem to have a 
 short duration of life in South Australia, especially the quick-growing 
 Cuprcssus macrocarpa, Hartw., which, after a very rapid growth, dies 
 suddenly when about twelve to sixteen years old. The same is the case 
 with Lawson's cypress f Cupressus Laxosoniana. Murray), Cupressus 
 sempe7-virens. thurifera, and even the Himalayan Bhotan Cypress {Cup- 
 ressus torulosis, Don.) delight in our climate. 
 
 The Thuyas are also of slow and stunted growth. 
 
 The mammoth tree f WeUingto^iia (/igantea, Lindl.) does not delight 
 in our climate, although growing tolerably well the first years ; but 
 later on it ceases to grow and dies slowly, although the Californian 
 Redwood f Sequoia sempervi^-ens, Endl.) grows well. 
 
 The Canadian pine (Pinus Canadctisis, Willd.) also is a very quick- 
 growing pine with us. 
 
 Very few of the so handsome Himalayan conifers prosper in the 
 plains, especially siich as appear at an elevation of 6ft. to 8,0()0ft., viz. : 
 — The Indian Spruce Fir (Abies Stnithiana, Loud.), the Indian Hemlock 
 Spruce (Abies Brunoniana, Lindl. \ Menzie's Spruce Fir (Abies Menziesii, 
 Loud.), the lofty Bhotan Pine (Pinus excelsa. Wall.), the upright Indian 
 Silver Fir (Picea Pindrow, Loud), Webb's Indian Fir (Picea Webbiana 
 Loud.), Gerard's Vme (Pinus Gerardiana, Wall.\ Sec. Their growth is
 
 ITS FLORA. 161 
 
 very slow, and in a few years they succumb to the drought and hot 
 Avinds ; only the Deodar or Indian cedar fCedrus deodara. Loud.), and 
 the long-leaved pine ( Pimis longifoUa, Roxb.), flourishing well with us, 
 although in their native state appear at 6,000ft. to 12,009ft. of elevation. 
 
 Still more doubtful is the existence of the Japanese and Chinese 
 conifers. None will prosper luxuriantly out of doors with us. All the 
 species of the following genera, viz. : — Thuyopsis, Retinosjoora, C'hamne- 
 cyparis, Cryptomeria^ Cunninghamia, are of a stunted and lingering 
 growth, and much injured by hot Avinds and droughts. The remarkable 
 umbrella pine fSciadopitys verticillata, Siebold) can scarcely be kej^t 
 alive indoors. 
 
 None of the Taxus species, may they be natives of Europe, America, 
 Asia, or India, thrive in the plains, but show a lingering and stunted 
 growth. It is the same with the South American Araucarias, viz., A. 
 imbricata, Pav., and Brasiliana, Lamb. 
 
 Although some of the Junipers become acclimatised here, the trees 
 do not reach the size we are accustomed to see at home. 
 
 I have already pointed out that some of the tropical trees and shrubs 
 do not object to our climate, and thrive tolerably well. I will only men- 
 tion the most noteworthy, viz. : — 
 
 Sophora japonica, Linn., Japan 
 Eriohotrya japonica, Jjindl., Japan 
 Fiais Bcfigkalensis, Linn., India 
 Ficiis clastica, Eoxb., E. India 
 
 lucida, Ait., E. India 
 Schimis Molle, Linn., Peru 
 Fsidium littorale, Kodd., S. America 
 Viburnum Chinense, Leigh, China 
 Schotia latifolia, Ekl., S. Africa 
 Ceratonia siliqua, Linn., Levant 
 
 Paulownia imperialis, Siebold, Japan 
 Laurus camphor a, Willd., Japan 
 Broussonetia papyrifera. Vent., Japan 
 Styllinga sebifera, Michx., China 
 Aralia papyrifera, Hook. , China 
 Ficus Eoxburghii, Wall, E. India 
 
 religiosa, Linn., E. India 
 Ficus sycomorus, Linn., Egypt 
 Jacaranda mimosacfoUa, Don., South 
 
 America 
 Koelmiteria paniculcda, Laxm. , China 
 But the handsome Japanese maple (Acer polymorphum, Spach), in 
 its numerous varieties, despises our climate on the plains entirely. They 
 will not even grow in our shade-houses. 
 
 The following tropical floAvering shrubs thrive well with us in the 
 open air, viz. : — Erythrinas, liaphiolepis, Bauchinias, Lagerstroemias, 
 Guillandia, Brugmansia, Bignonius, Tecomas, Hibiscus, Lantanas, As- 
 trapaea, &c. 
 
 The Chinese, Japanese, East Indian, and North American alpine 
 plants, viz. : — Camellias, Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Gaultherias, Andro- 
 medas, Clethras, kc, as already mentioned, will not stand our dry and 
 hot summer out of doors, but find a congenial climate in the gulUes 
 among the hills, at an elevation of 1,000 to 2,000 feet, where they reach 
 perfection. 
 
 M
 
 162 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 The plants of the Cape of Good Hope flora grow mostly well with 
 us. Very few Palms acclimatise in South Australia out of doors. Of 
 the African Palm flora, the Date Palm f Phoenix dactylifera, Linn., 
 Phoenix recUnata, Jacq., Chamaerops humilis, Linn.) prosper with us. 
 
 From the South American Palm flora, Juhaea spectabilis, Humb. 
 and Bonpl., Sahal Blackburniana, Glzbr. ; from Asia, Chamaerops 
 Ftirttinei, Hook., Corypha Gehanga, Bl., grow satisfactorily. Even of 
 the palms of tropical Australia only Corypha Australis, R, Br., grows 
 with us' in the open air. The Cape of Good Hope Enccphalartos, viz. : 
 — Encephalarlos rillosus,ljehm. ; E. Lehmanni,^ck\.; E. Cycadifolius, 
 Lehm. ; E. horridus, Lehm., thrive out of doors. Also the tropical 
 Australian Macrozamias. 
 
 The South Australian climate suits all the succulent plants, which 
 develop out of doors to great perfection, especially Yuccas, Aloes, Opun- 
 tias, Rhipsalis, Pereskia, Cereus, and Echinocactus. Agave Americana 
 and Fourcroya glgantea grow to an immense size and generally produce 
 their flower in the tenth to twelfth year after planting, their flower-spike 
 reaching the height of thirty to forty feet. 
 
 Only the smaller kinds of the Mamillarias, Epiphylhims, want pro- 
 tection in summer from the scorching sun, and in wiater from the heavy 
 rains. 
 
 The growth and well-doing of the perennials, more particularly 
 those of cooler climes, are very problematical. Only such as root 
 deeply in the ground will withstand our dry summer. 
 
 We do not succeed in the plains with the perennial Phloxes, although 
 he annual Phloxes do remarkably well, even throughout the summer 
 months. Delphiniums, Campanulas, Aconitums, Rudbeckias, and Tha- 
 lictrums — in fact most of our handsome European perennials, succumb 
 to our summer ; but it is the reverse with the annuals, which generally 
 grow most luxuriantly during the winter and part of the spring months, 
 and arrive at great perfection, especially the stocks, which reach an 
 extraordinary size ; but our climate is fatal to the handsome and favorite 
 autumn flower, the China Aster, which even in a very favorable season 
 will only produce small and insignificant flowers, and, strange to say, all 
 the endless varieties, viz.. Quilled, Victoria, Paeony-flowered and Chry- 
 santhemum Asters go back to their original type. The Balsams will not 
 grow out of doors, and even under glass they do not form the bushy 
 plants we used to see them at home, but draw too much, and form only 
 single stem. 
 
 The so handsome Dahlias will not prosper in the plains, the flowers 
 being small, and suffering from the slightest hot winds, but in the hill 
 gullies they attain perfection.
 
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 ITS FLORA. 163 
 
 Indeed the aspect of our gardens during the summer months would 
 be a ver)' dreary one if it were not for the Petunias, Verhetias, Zinnias 
 Tagetes, Amaranthus, Goinphrenas, Portulacas, Chrysanthetnums, and 
 Zonale Ptlaryoniums. These develop their flower, with a little help of 
 water, to a perfection unknown at home. Of the splendor of the Ole- 
 ander, which is in bloom during the summer months, no northern gar- 
 dener can have any conception. The masses, size, color, and fragrance 
 of the fiovvers surpass those produced in their native country. 
 
 The Roses will attain similar perfection if we have a favorable season, 
 but this does not often happen. The Roses have to contend against two 
 great enemies, viz., the hot winds and the rose blight. The latter 
 scourge can be mitigated by cleaning, but we have no remedy against 
 the hot winds. The flowers and even the small buds are destroyed by 
 only moderately hot ones. The dark-colored flowers suffer most, and in 
 a few hours appear as if a fire had passed over them. 
 
 Bulbous and tuberous plants from the Cape of Good Hope thrive 
 with us as vigorously as in their native country, chiefly Gladiolus, Bnins- 
 wigias, Haemanthiis, Watsonias, Ixias, Bahianas, Ornithogalmns, Tricho- 
 nemas, Tritonias, Antholgzas, Lachenalias, Moraeas, &c. ; so also do 
 Hippeastrums, Amaryllis, Criiiums, Pancratiums, Alstroevierias from any 
 part of the globe. Not so, however, the Liliums. Only Lilium can- 
 didum, Linn., L. longifiorum, Humb., and L. eximium, SieboL, thrive 
 out of doors, while all the other species, especially those from Japan, 
 will not prosper. Even the handsome L. auratwn, Lindl., will not thrive 
 in pots, but otherwise is the case in the hills. 
 
 The same dislike to our climate has the Crown Imperial f Fritillaria 
 Imperialis, Linn.), which never produces flowers, and the bulb dies within 
 a year or two after its introduction. 
 
 The Hyacinths and Tulips also find our climate in the plains unsuit- 
 able. The Tulip bulbs will produce flowers for a year or two, but they 
 gradually dwindle away after the second year. 
 
 Hyacinths produce good flowers the first two or three years, but 
 afterwards the bulbs divide into numerous offsets, which produce no 
 flowers until they are separated and planted, requiring two to three years 
 before they flower and again divide into numerous offsets. 
 
 Of the many Crocus varieties, only the yellow one will produce 
 flowers ; all the other, blue, white, &c., never come to perfection. 
 Sternbergia liitea, Ker., comes to great peifection with us. 
 The Ranunculus and Anemones produce during the first two or 
 three years splendid flowers, but the Anemone tubers show the same 
 decay as the tulips, and frequently dwindle away the second or third 
 year.
 
 164 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 All the various kinds of Narcissus delight in our climate, with the 
 exception of the variety of the Narcissus poeticus. 
 
 In the plains it is impossible to grow ferns out of doors in the 
 open ground, not even the few South Australian species which are found 
 growing in the hills and gullies, unless planted in very shady, moist, and 
 protected places. 
 
 Of inter-tropical fruits only a few kinds prosper with us, viz. : — 
 The Loquat fEriohotrya japonica, Lindl.), Guavas fPsidium •pyriferum, 
 Linn., and/)om//en<m), and bananas partially. Even the pineapple must 
 be grown under glass. 
 
 Most of the fruits from other parts of the globe thrive luxuriantly 
 in South Australia, and come to such perfection in size, and frequently 
 in flavor, as is hardly known in other countries, and many fruits are found 
 to improve materially by the change, the climatic conditions being mani- 
 festly favorable to them. 
 
 On the plains grow Apj^les, Pears, Apricots, Peaches, Nectarines, 
 Medlars, Oranges, Citrons, Lemons, Plums, Cherries, Figs, Quinces, 
 Mulberries, Almonds, Olives, and Grapes; while in the hills and gullies 
 are also grown Strawberries, Gooseberries, Currants, Raspberries, Walnuts, 
 Chestnuts, and Filberts to great perfection. 
 
 The Apples grow to a great size, but do not always possess the same 
 fine flavor as at home, and contain more acidity. The apple-trees suff'er 
 much from the attack of the American blight, for which no radical 
 remedy is at present known. The trees which grow in the hills or in very 
 rich soil suffer most, and at last succumb to this scourge. 
 
 The Pears grow to perfection, and maintain the same flavor as in the 
 old country. 
 
 The fruits of the Peaches, Apricots, and Plums reach to a large size, 
 and contain a good flavor. The Cherries do not attain the perfection 
 and flavor of those at home. All the stone fruit producing trees are 
 shortlived, especially those of the Peach, Plum, and Apricot, which 
 scarcely live fourteen to sixteen years. This early decline may be owing 
 to the quick luxuriant growth and early excessive bearing of fruit, circum- 
 stances which produce over-stimulation and early exhaustion. 
 
 The finest grapes are grown on the plains and the slopes of the 
 Mount Lofty range facing the plains. Here they grow to a great size, 
 and the summer months ripen them to the greatest perfection. The 
 wine produced often contains 25 to 30 per cent, alcohol. No doubt 
 the South Australian wine must obtain a character in foreign markets. 
 
 For the last nine years the Oidium has made its appearance m our 
 vineyards, but not with such damaging results as in Europe Also the 
 Phylloxera has appeared in the vineyards of our neighbor colony, Vic-
 
 ITS FLORA. ICo 
 
 toria, in an alarming way, and a good many vineyards have already been 
 destroyed. From this it will be seen that the Australian vignerons, 
 like the European, have to contend against the two greatest scourges 
 which can invade a vine-growing country. 
 
 The cultivation of the Olive is a great success, and the oil is consi- 
 dered perfect. 
 
 All vegetables can be grown during winter and autumn on the plains, 
 but in no comparison so successfully as in the gullies of the hills, where 
 the finest vegetables and other culinary herbs are raised throughout the 
 year in great abundance. Cauliflowers about two feet in diameter are 
 often seen in the market ; Cabbages, Turnips, Asparagus, Artichokes, 
 Leeks, Onions, Beet, Carrot, Endive, Rhubarb, Lettuce, Celery, Cucum- 
 bers, Sweet and Water Melons, and Pumpkins growing to an extraordi- 
 nary size, and of good flavor. 
 
 Cucumbers. Water and Sweet Melons, grow most luxuriantly in 
 virgin soil, but if grown on the same spot several years running (although 
 manured) the fruit degenerates in size and flavor, and ultimately fails 
 altogether. 
 
 The South Australian cereals, especially the wheat, which is consi- 
 dered to be the finest grown in the world, are pretty well known. 
 
 When a new-comer visits for the first time our agricultural and hor- 
 ticultural shows, and observes the fine display of flowers, fruits, vege- 
 tables, and cereals in their utmost perfection, he must consider South 
 Australia a favorable land ; and it is indeed surprising that our fickle 
 climate, with its extremes, drought and hot winds, can produce such 
 developed specimens of Nature's gifts.
 
 166 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY: 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 THE NORTHEKN TERRITOR"^. 
 
 Its discovery— Early explorers— The Portuguese — The Dutch— Torres — Modem ex- 
 plorers—Cook — Flinders — King— Stokes • — Raffles Bay — Melville Island — Port 
 Essington— Buffaloes — Timor ponies and cattle — Gulf of Carpentaria — Adam Bay 
 — Adelaide River — Port Darwin — Anson Bay— Gulf of Cambridge— Victoria River 
 — Leichardt — The Roper and other Rivers— Gregory — The Table Land — Cooper's 
 Creek— Stuart's explorations — Crossing the continent — Aimexation of the Northern 
 Territory to South Australia — Settlement at Adam Bay — Government Resident 
 recalled — McKinlay sent up — Narrow escape of him and his party from destruc- 
 tion by floods — The settlement abandoned — Captain Cadell's expedition — Goyder's 
 survey — English and order holders demand return of their money, and get it — 
 Transcontinental telegraph — Port Darwin settlement — Gold diggings and mania — 
 Regular mining—Tin — Copper — Agriculture — Cotton — Sugar — Pastoral interest — 
 — Horses — Land regulations — Appearance and formation of country — Navigable 
 rivers — Trees — Animals— Climate — Coolie labor — Progress — Tariff — Revenue. 
 
 About eighteen or twenty years ago it was stated that, among the 
 official or scientific archives of Lisbon had been found maps and 
 journals, from which it appeared that the Portuguese were the first 
 navigators who visited the north coast of Australia, their visit 
 being assigned a date more than a century earlier than that of the 
 Dutch explorers, who first saw the coast in 1606. It was further 
 reported that these Lisbon records stated that the Portuguese found 
 gold near a harbor, which from the description of the locality must 
 have been Port Darwin. The Spaniards were contemporary with 
 the Dutch, for Torres passed through the straits which bear his 
 name in 1606. The Dutch continued their coasting discoveries 
 for the next twenty years, and to them is owing much of the 
 geographical nomenclature of the north and west coasts of Aus- 
 tralia. Captain Cook made the world much more familiar with 
 the northern coast of New Holland by his voyage in 1770, when 
 he passed through Torres Straits, and demonstrated the safe and 
 easy navigability of what has become one of the world's great 
 highways of commerce. Flinders explored the Gulf of Carpen-
 
 ITS HISTORY AND KKSOURCES. 167 
 
 taria in 1801. Captain King in 1819 cruised about the coast, and 
 discovered and named Cambridge Gulf, into which the Victoria 
 River debouches. He also named Point Pearce, on its eastern 
 shore and at the mouth of the Gulf, and discovered Liverpool 
 River, about half way between Van Dieraen's Gulf and the Gulf 
 of Carpentaria. 
 
 In 1825 Sir Gordon Bremer took possession, in the name of 
 His Majesty King George IV., of Raffles Bay, at Coburg Penin- 
 sula, north of Van Diemen's Gulf; and, passing on to the west- 
 ward, formed a military settlement on Melville Island, which was 
 abandoned five years later. The island has been neglected ever 
 since, though it is an Anglo- Australian possession, and excur- 
 sionists from Port Darwin occasionally visit it, principally for the 
 amusement of buffalo-shooting. In 1827 troops and convicts 
 were sent from Sydney, under command of Captain Barker, who 
 was afterwards killed by blacks at the mouth of the Murray, to 
 form a settlement at Raffles Bay, but two years later this place 
 was abandoned, and ponies, cattle, and buffaloes were left to breed. 
 The buffaloes increased to thousands, and wild ponies are said to 
 have been also seen in that part of the country, and it also appears 
 that the cattle survived and bred. Lately persons have made a 
 business of hunting and shooting these buffaloes and cattle for 
 their hides. Port Essington, lat. ll"' 10' S. long. ISO'' 5' E., a few 
 miles to the west of Raffles Bay, was next chosen by the British 
 Government for occupation as a naval station, and on its western 
 shore H.M.S. Allujator and Britoniart landed troops and colonists. 
 The harbor was landlocked. Like Raffles Bay, the position was 
 unhealthy, and the mortality was very great. In 1849 this spot 
 was deserted, more live stock being left behind. In 1839 Captain 
 Stokes, by his careful explorations, added greatly to our knowledge 
 of the north coast. He visited Port Essington, discovered and 
 named Adam Bay, the Adelaide River (up which he proceeded for 
 eighty miles), J-'ort Darwin, the Victoria, and the Fitzmaurice 
 rivers. In the following year he explored the west coast of the 
 Gulf of Carpentaria : but it was reserved for Leichardt, the explorer, 
 whose fate on his last expedition still remains wrapt in mystery, 
 to discover the Roper, the Wickham, and other rivers. The 
 Flinders and Albert rivers, discovered in this Gulf by Stokes, are 
 in Queensland territory.
 
 168 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY: 
 
 Leichardt, in his great expedition from Moreton Ba}^ to Port 
 Essington and to Van Diemen's Gulf in 1844, explored much of 
 the Northern Territory now possessed by South Australia, and 
 published accounts of his travels in the new country. In 1847 he 
 started on his journey, from which neither he nor any one of his 
 party every returned, though there have been all sorts of fictitious 
 reports as to relics of the lost travellers having been found and of 
 grey-bearded white men — supposed to be some of the long lost 
 explorers — having been seen among the natives. In 1858 Mr. 
 Augustus Gregory found the letter L, of large size, cut on a tree 
 about the Victoria Eiver, and some camp-poles strewed about near 
 by. On this trip Mr. Gregory crossed the Territory from the Gulf 
 of Carpentaria and the Roper to the Victoria, and traced the 
 •watershed for most of the distance from east to west. He then 
 struck to the south, and coming on a stream followed it down tiU 
 he found it to be identical with Cooper's Creek, discovered bj'' 
 Sturt in J 845, and thence he pushed on into the settled districts of 
 South Australia, and through them to Adelaide. The country 
 about Cooper's Creek has long been occupied by squatters, with 
 their flocks and herds. 
 
 After Gregory's great journey, Mr. Stuart, who had been in 
 Capt. Sturt's expedition, and had made frequent excursions into 
 the far north, was determined to cross the ver}^ centre of the conti- 
 nent from north to south. He made three or four attempts, but at 
 last, in 1862 he reached the Indian Ocean. He supposed that he 
 had struck the Adelaide, and then turning to the eastward a little, 
 came upon the sea at a spot he named Chambers Bay, after the late 
 Mr. James Chambers, who, with his brother and Mr. Finke, pro- 
 vided the means for Stuart's first three expeditions, and rendered 
 great assistance to the two last. It has been thought that Stuart 
 was a little out of his reckoning, for no trace of him could be found 
 on the coast near the Adelaide River, and it is supposed he was 
 rather more to the east, probably near one of the Alligator rivers. 
 There is no doubt, however, that he and all his party viewed the 
 ocean, and their camping-places were found at no great distance 
 from the coast by surveyors and others engaged in the construction 
 of the overland telegraph line seven years later. That line, in fact 
 follows pretty nearly Stuart's tracks through the central and nearly 
 all of its northern section.
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 169 
 
 It will be observed that considerable mformation coiiccniing 
 the Northern Territory had been supplied by different explorers 
 during- the forty odd years before the South Australian Govern- 
 ment resolved to establish a settlement on the north coast. For an 
 unsettled country it was well known, and there was nothing to 
 excuse any great blunder in the selection of a suitable site for the 
 principal location. As a result of Stuart's discoveries, the South 
 Australian Government applied to have the Northern Territory 
 annexed to South Australia, and with this request the Home 
 Government complied. In 1864 the attempt at settlement was 
 made ; 250,000 acres were sold, half in Adelaide and half in Lon- 
 don, at 7s. 6d. an acre, in sections of 160 acres, a half acre town 
 allotment being sold at the same price with each section. 
 
 The first party, numbering about forty surveyors and other 
 officers and men, left Adelaide in April, 1864, under command of 
 Mr. Boyle Travers Finniss, who had filled many offices in the 
 colony from the time of its establishment — including the positions 
 of Treasurer, Chief Secretary, Colonel of Yoluuteers, and Acting- 
 Governor. He landed the party at Adam Bay, and chose that 
 spot as the site for the capital. A second party, equal in number 
 to the first, followed in the same year. On the question of site 
 and other matters he disagreed with most of his officers ; the 
 settlers, who only numbered three, condemned his choice, and 
 after much waste of time Mr. Finniss was recalled, and, as 
 the result of the finding of a Commission appointed to inquire 
 into the circumstances connected with the settlement, resigned his 
 position. Mr. Manton, a surveyor, then acted as Government 
 Resident, with instructions to suspend the surveys till some deci- 
 sion was arrived at with respect to the site. The vessel that 
 brought Mr. Finniss back to Adelaide took to the Northern Ter- 
 ritory the late Mr. John McKinlay, the accomplished bushman 
 who two or three years previously was despatched from Adelaide 
 in search of Burke and Wills, and their party, and having found 
 traces of those unfortunate explorers and supposing them all to 
 have perished, pushed on and struck the north coast east of the 
 Gulf of Carpentaria. McKinlay condemned Adam Bay and ap- 
 proved Anson Bay. But he w^as unwiseh'' sent on his mission 
 just before the wet season set in, and the consequence was that 
 when he started to explore the country he was surrounded by
 
 170 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY: 
 
 floods, lost all his horses, and narrowly saved the lives of himself 
 and his men. 
 
 Next Mr. Manton and all his hands were taken back to Ade- 
 laide, and Adam Bay was finally abandoned ; few if any persons 
 now in the Territory have seen it. The late Capt. Cadell of Murray 
 navigation fame, was sent to explore the coast. He furnished a 
 report which led to nothing, and it was generally supposed 
 the idea of settling the Territory was to be given up altogether. 
 At this time only 15,000 acres of country lands and the capital, 
 named Palme rston, had been surveyed. For a j^ear there was not 
 a white man in the Territory. 
 
 In 1869 the Government determined to survey the land they 
 had covenanted to convey to the holders of the Northern Territory 
 land orders. During five years, 15,000 acres of country land had 
 been surveyed, and the Territory abandoned ; it now appeared 
 possible to survey properly 500,000 acres within twelve months, 
 and the Surveyor-General, Mr. Goyder, was employed to manage 
 this undertaking, having carte hlanche to select his own ofiicers 
 and men. Most of the English land order holders demanded to 
 have their money back. The contract was that the land should be 
 conveyed to them within five years from the issue of the orders, 
 and that period had elapsed before Goyder's survey was commenced. 
 The Government resisted this claim, resting their defence on the 
 ground that the agents of the claimants had asked for further 
 examination of the country than the Government Resident consi- 
 dered necessary, and that the delays arose through attempting to 
 comply with their request. Compliance with such a request did 
 not necessarily involve such delays as had taken place, but the 
 simple answer to the plea was that the plaintifis' agents made no 
 such request as was stated, and that in fact they had no agents. A 
 Judge and jury gave a verdict against the Government ; this was 
 confirmed by the Full Court, and subsequently, on appeal, by the 
 Privy Council. The Government had to pay back about £40,000 
 in principal and interest, besides heavy law costs. 
 
 Years before this litigation was over Mr. Goyder had com- 
 pleted his task. As compensation for the delay, the Government 
 in the Northern Territory Act of 1868-9, offered the land order 
 holders 320 acres instead of 160, so that they would get their land 
 at 3s. 9d. per acre. But most of the purchasers in England were
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 171 
 
 not to be tempted. They were angered by disappointment and 
 thoroughly sick of the enterprise and its mismanagement. More- 
 over they were advised that Goyder's survey would be carried on 
 without regard to the quality of the land, but simply with the 
 object of getting through with it as quickly as possible. Port Dar- 
 win was Mr. Goj^der's base of operations. Here he fixed the 
 capital, and preserved the name of Palmerston. The survey of the 
 town and 500,000 acres of country land was completed in 1870 ; 
 those order holders who demanded their purchase-money back re- 
 ceived it in 1874. 
 
 In August, 1872, the telegraph line between Port Augusta 
 and Port Darwin was completed. In the previous year gold had 
 been found by the first prospecting party sent to the territorj\ 
 They were despatched in consequence of some of the telegraph con- 
 struction men having discovered the precious metal. It was known 
 also that men belonging to Mr. Finniss's expedition had found a 
 few specks, and judging from these discoveries and the character 
 of the country, it was thought most likely that a considerable 
 goldfield would be found there. Many parties were formed and 
 followed the pioneer expedition in 18T2, and the following year. 
 During 1873 a gold mania overtook the people of Adelaide, who 
 were kept in a constant state of excitement by the sensational 
 telegrams received from the El Dorado of the north. The fever 
 spread far beyond the city, and many persons have rued ever 
 since their haste to get rich. Immense sums of money were 
 wasted on machinery that never reached the mines, and on inca- 
 pable or dishonest managers. Of course there wms much dishonesty 
 in the representations that were sent by wire respecting the disco- 
 veries, but many of the mines were honestly described ; the disap- 
 pointment arose in a large proportion of cases from mismanagement, 
 the price of labor, the gold not lasting as the mines went to 
 greater depths, and extravagant expectations. The workings were 
 all in quartz reefs ; alluvial ground was tried successfully after- 
 wards. 
 
 After the mania subsided, the work of mining was carried on 
 more quietly, and last year's export was, according to returns, 
 £80,000 in value, and in these returns there is not included a 
 considerable quantity that the Chinese diggers take away without 
 giving any information to the authorities, in order to avoid the
 
 172 THE XOllTHERX TERRITORY: 
 
 export duty — which was 2s. Gd. per oz. up to September, 1882, when 
 it was reduced to Is. In 1881 the gold export was nearly 
 £112,000. The yield fluctuates, according to the supply of water 
 for washing and crushing purposes, or as alluvial diggings are dis- 
 covered or worked out. 
 
 The laws relating to gold mining are liberal, the only com- 
 j)laints that have been made respecting them being that they favor 
 the monopoly of auriferous land which the holders sometimes do 
 not develop. There are provisions against this, but it has been 
 complained that they are not properly enforced. There are miners' 
 rights for the ordinary gold digger ; prospectors' claims for persons 
 searching- for gold ; a reduced area when the precious metal is 
 discovered ; leases, and conditions which must be complied with or 
 the leases or other tenures become liable to forfeiture. The 
 charges for rights and leases are low, but further particulars might 
 be tedious, and can easily be obtained by anyone intending to 
 embark in the gold mining industry in the Northern Territory. 
 
 Within the last year or two, some large deposits of tin ore 
 have been discovered at Mount Wells and elsewhere, and some tons 
 have been shipped from Port Darwin. Copper and silver have also 
 been found, and when railway facilities are afforded, there is every 
 probability that, independently of its gold, the Northern Territory 
 will take rank among one of the metal producing countries of the 
 world. There is a great deal of iron in the country, and it is said 
 that indications of coal have been met with. 
 
 As an agricultural country, for tropical products especially, 
 the territory presents great attractions. The Chinese cultivate 
 vegetables with great success. Maize grows luxuriantl}' ; forty 
 years ago, heavy crops of this corn were produced at Port Essington. 
 Cotton is indigenous to the country, but not of a sort required for 
 commerce. There is no doubt, however, that the best kinds would 
 thrive, and this has been made evident by experiments on a small 
 scale. 
 
 Several companies and firms have been trying sugar culti- 
 vation, and have met with the disappointments that ordinarily 
 attend new enterjjrises. About 200 bags, crushed on one planta- 
 tion, have been brought to Adelaide, and persons qualified to speak 
 with authority, by their experience in the Mauritius and other parts 
 of the world, have no doubt that this form of industry will be
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESORUCES. 173 
 
 successfully established. Bananas thrive, with many other tropical 
 plants, in the Government garden at Fannie Bay, near Palmerston. 
 Rice would in all likelihood grow well on the large river flats. 
 
 Land is obtainable for agricultural purposes on easy terms. 
 A block of 1,280 acres may be taken on five years' lease at sixpence 
 per acre per annum, which, on compliance with easy cultivatino:and 
 fencing conditions, becomes the property of the selector at the end 
 of the term. Anyone can obtain a special survey of 10,000 acres 
 and receive the fee simple, on paying 12s. 6d. per acre and the cost 
 of survey. Large grants of land have been made to encourao-e 
 sugar growing ; but these are now things of the past. 
 
 Mr. rioltze, the Government gardener at the nursery, Fannie 
 Bay, has shown that sugar cane, indigo, cotton, tapioca, rice, and 
 ■ other tropical products grow and thrive. In his latest report he 
 says : — 
 
 I may state at the outset, that the Fannie Bay experimental nur- 
 sery, covering thirty-two acres, was started under my management in 
 November, 1879, and is, therefore, only about two and a half years 
 old, so that it may be rather premature to pronounce a decided opinion 
 upon the various plants which have been tried in the garden. I think, 
 however, that those which have thriven during the tree-growing 
 season, without being affected by climatic influence or disease, may 
 fairly be said to be suited to the country ; especially when we know that 
 the first two seasons have been unfavorable on account of the weather 
 being unusually diy. and that some of the soil in the nursery is rather 
 poor. To simplify these notes it will be best to class the plants under 
 three heads, viz. : — 
 
 1st. Those proved fully suitable to the country during each of the 
 three past seasons. 
 
 Amongst them I am glad to say that the most valuable j^ortion of 
 those which succeed well includes sugarcane, indigo, tapioca, arrowroot, 
 rice, maize, ramie, ground nut, castor-oil, sesam, and ginger. 
 
 All of these have grown in such luxuriance, and have been so com- 
 pletely free from disease or vermin, that I have not the slightest hesitation 
 in recommenduig their culture. 
 
 2nd. Plants having failed in one of the seasons, through any cause, 
 but otherwise apparently adapted to the climate of the territory. These 
 include cotton, jute, and tobacco, though it is scarcely fair to put cotton 
 in any other than the first division, as the cause of its failure last year 
 was due to the seed being taken from deteriorated plants. I have since
 
 174 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY: 
 
 imported fresh American seed of Upland and Sea Island varieties, and 
 the state of their growth this year leaves nothing better to be desired. 
 
 Jute for the first two seasons was strong and healthy, but this year, 
 probably from the unusual dryness of the weather, the plants have been 
 attacked by borers and have been completely destroyed. 
 
 Of tobacco I had a good crop in the season of '79-80, but '81 was 
 rather too dry to bring it to perfection, though the produce was by no 
 means a failure. Of the present plantation I cannot yet give an opinion 
 as it is yet too young. Tobacco should be grown during the fii'st part 
 of the dry season, it being a s»<5-tropical production, and would best 
 thrive in the moist gullies which are so numerous in the territory, where 
 I believe it would flourish in great luxuriance. 
 
 3rd. Of plants which have not thriven well in the nursery may be 
 mentioned coffee, cocoa, nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, pepper, tea, vanilla, 
 poppy ; but I have not the slightest doubt that in many parts of the 
 coimtry, in sheltered moist gullies, nearly all the above might be success- 
 fully cultivated, though I would not advise any large outlay to be in- 
 curred before a special trial. 
 
 Liberian coffee, which I received only a few months ago, stands very 
 well, but it would be too early to give a decided opinion as to its fitness. 
 It must not be forgotten that our nursery is close to the sea, and 
 exposed to its breezes, and that Avhile many plants are not injuriously 
 affected thereby, the air and saline moisture arc too strong for other 
 kinds. 
 
 I may here refer to another plant tried this season for the first time, 
 and therefore still unproved ; but when I mention that the seed was only 
 put in the ground last September, and has already made a stem over 
 12ft. high and Sin. through, there are grounds for hoping that it will 
 turn out a success. This is the Indiarubber plant fCenra or Manihet 
 glaziniisj, seeds of which, with other valuable products, I received from 
 my greatly esteemed friend Baron F. von Mueller, the celebrated Vic- 
 torian Government Botanist. 
 
 In the foregoing I have only referred to those plants which have 
 a commercial value, and are the common staple produce of tropical 
 countries : but I might add that many tropical and sub -tropical fruit 
 trees are being tried and propagated in the nursery, most of which are 
 doing well — such as the mangoe, jackfruit, breadfruit, custard apple, 
 sweetsop, soursop, orange, citron, lemon, lime, shaddock, fig, peach, 
 pomegranate, luchre, longan, bambootan, jujube, almond, quince, grana- 
 dillar, banana, plantain, pineapple, &c., as well as a collection of fodder 
 plants and grapes, together with ornamental trees and shrubs in con- 
 siderable variety.
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 175 
 
 Intending colonists may feel interested in vegetables as -well as in 
 the above-enumerated productions, so I may in conclusion state that a 
 fair variety of tropical as Avell as European vegetables are successfully 
 grown and sold at reasonable prices by the Chinese market gardeners. 
 
 The latest report dated February 12th, 1883, from the manager of 
 Poett's plantation at Rum Jungle, states as follows : — 
 
 Cinchona. — These require a great deal of attention to raise and grow at first, but 
 after they pass the first five or six months they do wonderfully well — better than in 
 India. Some seed planted here only eleven months ago has given us a few plants 
 whose growth, for cinchona, is splendid. I have never seen it equalled in Ceylon. On 
 the SOth November I marked these plants as 15in. ; to day they top a yard measure. 
 This is a splendid growth for cinchonas, and I am much pleased with such success. I 
 ■was very sanguine of their doing well, but they far exceed my most glowing anticipa- 
 tions. Of younger cinchona plants there are fuUy 10,000 promising splendidly, and 
 probably 200,000 younger still. I never saw better prospects of the growth being 
 successful than I now point to on this estate. 
 
 Co/'tfe.— There are from 150,000 to 200,000 young plants just putting out their 
 fourth leaves, and a prettier, more successful, or more healthy nurseiy I challenge 
 anyone to show any where. 
 
 Cotton. — There are thirty-five plants of this. It is the South Sea Island variety, 
 and grows most beautifully. I will send samples before long. 
 
 Tobacco— Indiarubber. — A small parcel of seeds of both the above have been received 
 and planted with due care. The latter will do well here, and I think tobacco will also, 
 but of this plant I have not much experience. 
 
 The prospects of the estate are most encouraging and satisfactory. 
 
 It may here be mentioned that the mean average rainfall at 
 Palmerston for the past thirteen years is 63'223 inches. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the pastoral industry will attain 
 great dimensions, and be largely profitable much more quickly 
 than agriculture. The grasses of the country are very rich and 
 nourishing, even where from the rankness of the growth this might 
 not be expected ; and the pasture, as in other parts of Australia, 
 will improve with grazing. Live stock fatten rapidly, especially 
 cattle, and they will pay the squatter best : they do not sufier 
 from the heat, and during the dry season they put on beef very 
 fast. There is no reason whatever why there should not, in a 
 few years, be an enormovis export of refrigerated meat from Port 
 Darwin and other ports on the coast. Cattle stations are rapidly 
 being formed, and it cannot be long before the necessity will arise 
 for arrangements being made for the shipment of [Northern Terri- 
 tory beef. 
 
 Sheep are not suited so well as cattle to that portion of Aus- 
 tralia. Their fleece degenerates, but they otherwise thrive, and
 
 176 THE NORTHERN TERRITORY: 
 
 will be bred in sufficient numbers to supjjly the settlers with 
 mutton. 
 
 Horses will form another export. Ten or a dozen years ago 
 Mr. Ross, the present Speaker of the Assembly, urged both in 
 En eland and South Australia that Port Darwin should be the 
 entrepot from which horses could be shipped lor the Indian 
 market. Sir James Fergusson, who both during and since his 
 governorship of South Australia has taken the liveliest interest in 
 the colony and its northern dependency, warmly supported this 
 view. The port is near to India, and the passage smooth. It is 
 likely that hardy horses could not be bred in the most tropical 
 region near the north coast^, but farther south the atmosphere is 
 drier, and is suited to the rearing of horses in perfection as regards 
 form and stamina, and the supply would be unlimited. 
 
 Whatever live stock squatters may prefer to breed, pastoral 
 la nds can be leased on eas}^ terms ; blocks from twenty-five to four 
 hundred square miles can be had for twenty-five years at an 
 annual rent of sixpence per square mile for the first seven years, 
 and two shillings and sixpence for the remainder of the term. 
 They must be declared stocked within three years from the date 
 of application, to the extent of two head of large or ten head of 
 small cattle for every mile of countiy applied for. 
 
 The land near the coast is somewhat dreary, but towards the 
 western boundary high land is visible from seaward at a distance. 
 The formation is principally sandstone and ironstone ; inland, 
 quartz and granite are met with, till the watershed is reached, when 
 sandstone prevails. The table land and hill country range in height 
 from ;300ft. to 800ft., with elevations of about ], 300ft. Near the 
 Victoria River the range reaches an elevation of nearly 1,700ft. 
 There are navigable rivers from east to west of the coast. The 
 Roper was used by Mr. Todd in transporting his telegraph 
 materials. The dashing explorer McKinlay sailed down one of the 
 Alligator rivers in a punt composed of saplings and horsehides ; for 
 this purpose he killed all the horses he had not slaughtered for 
 food on that disastrous expedition. The Adelaide has been well 
 proved by Her Majesty's ships and merchant vessels. The Daly, 
 flowing into Anson Bay, and discovered by some of Mr. Finniss's 
 party, is navigable ; and last not least there is the great "Victoria 
 with its long reaches, windings, and strong currents, besides lesser
 
 ITS HISTORY AND RESOURCES. 177 
 
 streams not to be despised. No country is better supplied with good 
 harbors. The tide in some parts of the coast rises 19ft., but this is 
 18ft. below the rise at Camden Harbor, on the north-west coast 
 of the adjoining colony. 
 
 The largest trees are eucalypts, but there arc pines, blood- 
 wood, cedars, blackwood, the cabbage palm, banksia, and other 
 trees ; in fact, splendid collections of Northern Territory timber have 
 been shown at exhibitions, and are to be seen in Australia in 
 museums. The mangroves grow to a great size, and even the 
 largest on some parts of the coast are under water at high tide. 
 The bamboos are of great diameter and height, and are used for 
 building purposes. 
 
 The rivers swarm with crocodiles, which are also seen in the 
 bays. Turtles are common, but require skill and patience to 
 capture them. Fish abound, but are shy of the hook. Good hauls 
 are obtained with the net. Very small oysters are to be seen in 
 millions, clinging to the rocks, and a larger sort are found in great 
 quantities in some parts of the coast. Reptiles are not so plentiful 
 as in some other portions of the continent. Some of the members 
 of the first Adam Bay expedition ate snakes and lizards, provisions 
 being scarce. Marsupials, including the kangaroo and a red wallaby, 
 are tolerably plentiful ; the emu is not wanting ; geese and ducks 
 of various species, the teal, widgeon, plover, quail, pigeons, and 
 doves of different kinds, parrots, cockatoos, and most of the birds 
 found in other parts of the continent invite the attention of the 
 sportsman or the naturalist. There is a genuine pheasant, but with 
 very plain plumage, in the Territory, Sometimes kites are in 
 countless myriads. Mosquitoes and sandflies are extremely trouble- 
 some in low swampy localities, especially in certain seasons of the 
 year. 
 
 The rain sets in about November or sometimes in the next 
 month, and continues till the end of March. Little rain falls at 
 other periods of the year. The register at Port Darwin for the 
 year 1880 was 58-46 inches, and this is several inches below the 
 average. The rainfall decreases to the southward. Port Darwin 
 is in lat, 12° 28'. At Barrow Creek, about lat, 21° 30', in the year 
 just named, the rainfall was 1074, The climate is tropical, but not 
 so oppressive or enervating as that of most other tropical countries. 
 Europeans go through much exertion in the Territory, and do a
 
 178 • THE NORTPIERN TERRITORY. 
 
 considerable amount of work at the mines ; but it is evident that 
 severe toil does not suit them, and on this account, and because 
 of the enormous wages demanded, it is necessary that for field 
 work colored labor should be obtained. 
 
 With the concurrence of the British and Indian Governments, 
 a South Australian Act has been passed to facilitate and regulate 
 the employment of coolies, from India, in the Northern Territory. 
 The planters have not yet applied for a sufficient number to induce 
 the Government to make arrangements for the introduction of any, 
 but India is the source to which Northern Territory settlers will 
 look for a supply of plodding, manageable field hands, who will 
 find in that country a climate and emplo^'ment suited to their 
 habits and constitution. 
 
 The tarifi" of the Northern Territory is nearly identical with 
 that of South Australia proper, but the duty on opium is 20s. per 
 lb. in the former— just double the South Australian duty. The 
 revenue is in excess of the expenditure. The Customs revenue for 
 1882 amounted to £16,345 ; the land and miscellaneous revenue 
 amounts to about twice that sum. There can be no reasonable 
 doubt that the Territory has entered upon a career of progress, and 
 ofiers a fine field for pastoral, agricultural, and mining enterprise. 
 
 Some thousands of pounds have been expended in buildings, 
 bridges, and roads, but the great demand of the settlers has been 
 for a railway leading from their chief port into the mining country. 
 Their wish is likely to be gratified. With only three dissentients, 
 the Assembly has just passed a Bill for a line from Port Darwin 
 to Pine Creek, a distance of nearly 150 miles, and this measure is 
 before the Legislative Council. In order to meet this line from 
 the south, both Houses bave passed a Bill for the extension of the 
 Port Augusta railway from Ilergott Springs to Primrose Springs, 
 a distance of 180 miles. When these two sections are finished, 
 half the trans-continental railway will be completed, leaving the 
 central portion to be proceeded with ; andthere can be little doubt 
 that in a very few years the Southern and Indian Oceans will be 
 connected by the iron road, as they now are by the electric wire. 
 
 '
 
 <: 
 
 6 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 c 

 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 179 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Exhibitions — Calcutta Exhibition — Commercial intercourse betM^een India and Aus- 
 tralia — The Jubilee Exhibition — Past and Future. 
 
 This is the age of International Exhibitions. Since that one 
 projected by Prince Albert, and held in London thirty-two years 
 ago, there have been many ; in Paris, in the German and Austrian 
 capitals, in Italy, in Amsterdam, and in Philadelphia, the nations 
 have gathered in friendly rivalry-, striving which could show 
 superior excellence or greater novelty or rarity in arts, manufac- 
 tures, and inventions, in the work of the forge and the loom, the 
 products of the field, the mine, and the ocean. All the sanguine 
 hopes that were associated with the first of these great shows have 
 not been realised. They have not banished war and national 
 strife and jealousy. But they have impressed deeply upon men's 
 minds the value of peace, and of free intercourse between the 
 nations. The sum of human knowledge has been greatly increased, 
 race prejudices much diminished, and human enjoyments added to 
 by these shows. The Exhibitions in Sydney and Melbourne, when 
 they were held, were considered by many persons not usually 
 given to despondent or pessimist views of things to be costly 
 vanities, that would never pay for the money lavished upon them. 
 Time, however, has shown that these opinions were mistaken, and 
 they have been recanted by nearly everybody who avowed them. 
 The most solid advantages have been derived from these Exhi- 
 bitions, in the increase of trade, the stimulus given to various 
 branches of industry, and the knowledge acquired respecting the 
 resources and prospects of Australia by persons who previously had 
 taken little interest in the great south land. The benefits were 
 experienced both by those who held and those who visited these 
 shows. Australians had much to learn from the old world, and 
 something to teach. In no other way can a general view be so 
 rapidly obtained of the special products and manufactures in which
 
 180 SOUTH AUSTEALIA: 
 
 different nations excel, and of the progress going on in science and 
 invention, and the improvements in industrial processes. 
 
 The Calcutta Exhibition will doubtless draw great numbers 
 of visitors from all parts of the world, and the Australian colonies 
 have wisely resolved to be represented there. During the last few 
 years the commerce between Her Majesty's grand Indian Empire 
 and " Greater Britain " has largely grown, and the increase will, 
 there is every reason to believe, be more rapid and considerable in 
 the future. Indian teas are supplanting those of the Flowery 
 Land. The number of jDroducts India could supply, that are not 
 produced in the temperate portions of New Holland, might be 
 largely increased. Australian squatters and farmers depend on 
 that source for the greater portion of their bags and bales. In 
 return Australians can send horses, timber, wines, fruits, jams, 
 meat, and many other articles of necessity and luxury. The horse 
 trade alone should assume large dimensions, for in Australia the 
 noble animal finds its natural habitat, where it can be bred in the 
 greatest perfection. None of the colonies is better situated for 
 this trade than South Australia with her territory stretching 
 from the Southern to the Indian Ocean, and fine harbors on 
 the north coast from which to ship chargers, hacks, artillery 
 and carriage horses, in sufficient numbers to meet any demand. 
 
 The refrigerating process, now brought to such a degree of 
 excellence, makes it practicable to ship meat and vegetables and 
 other perishable articles from one side of the world to the other ; 
 and the voyage from Adelaide or Port Darwin to Calcutta is a 
 trifle. In the course of a short time the intercourse between India 
 and the Northern Territory must be constant, for the supply of 
 labor will come from India, as soon as the difficulties associated 
 with the inauguration of a new system are overcome. To the 
 capitalist of enterprise the Northern Territorj^ presents an inviting 
 field for intelligent investment, as good land on which A'aluable 
 products can be raised may be purchased there at a very low price. 
 In Queensland, land that a very few j^ears ago was bought for a 
 few shillings per aci'e is now worth £7 or £8 for sugar growing- 
 purposes. 
 
 Four years hence South Australia will hold her Jubilee 
 Exhibition, to which all the world is invited. It is felt that no 
 more fittino; time could be selected than the vear in which she can
 
 ITS PAST AND FUTURE. 181 
 
 point to the results of half a century of colonial enterprise and 
 labor — to the energy, patience, and sagacit)- that out of a wilder- 
 ness occupied by a few wandering savages, who did not cultivate a 
 rod of ground, have built cities and towns, established harbors, con- 
 structed thirteen hundred miles of railway, and thousands of miles 
 of macadamized road; spanned the continent with the electric wire; 
 raised corn in abundance for a considerable population, and shij^ped 
 a large surplus to distant lands; planted orchards and vineyards; 
 worked valuable mines, that are known throughout the world; 
 stocked the country with millions of sheep ; built up a trade that, 
 in proportion to the population, is hardly equalled by that of any 
 other people ; founded a commonwealth with the institutions of a 
 free and christian people, rejoicing in their privileges, and notwith- 
 standing the defects and inequalities belonging to every human 
 society, possessing the comforts, luxuries, and refinements of older 
 and larger communities. 
 
 While the past gives such ground for satisfaction. South Aus- 
 tralians can look forward confidently to the future, knowing that 
 the industries of their country are yet in their infancy, and her 
 vast natural resources almost untouched. Almost all the great 
 staple exports, both of Southern and Northern Europe, may and will 
 become staple exports of South Australia, for it is a land of corn 
 and wine and oil, where all fruits flourish, some in the hills, some 
 in the plains, and others everywhere. The mineral wealth of the 
 colony is boundless, and onl}- awaits development. With railway 
 facilities for the transport of ore, the capital, perseverance, and 
 and mining knowledge directed to this form of enterprise are cer- 
 tain to meet with a rich reward, both in the northern and southern 
 portions of the province. 
 
 It is natural for the people of young countries to devote their 
 energies to the production of raw materials more than to manufac- 
 tures, which, however, increasing from small beginnings in time 
 grow into importance. What Australians can manufacture and 
 Avhat they can produce — what treasures the earth gives forth in 
 their territories, may be seen by the exhibits they send to Calcutta. 
 Beneficial as International Exhibitions are to the nations generall}', 
 it is specially desirable that the people of the different colonies and 
 dependencies of Great Britain, widely severed by distance as they 
 may be, and, perhaps, greatly differing in customs and occupa-
 
 182 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 tions, should meet, in friendliness and cordiality, in generous 
 emulation in all that tends to increase the sum of human happiness 
 and promote the common prosperity of that glorious empire on 
 which the sun never sets. 
 
 It is commonly said now that Exhibitions are overdone ; but for 
 each new one there is some special reason why it should be sup- 
 ported. The Calcutta show is of particular interest to the Austra- 
 lian colonies ; and it is confidently hoped that the great gathering 
 in the City of Palaces will be repeated in Adelaide when that city 
 will have railway communication with the great capitals to the 
 eastward and with two millions of people, and when Australians 
 and New Zealanders will shake hands on the banks of the Torrens 
 with their fellow subjects from the old conniry, from India and all 
 parts of the globe, and in the true cosmopolitan spirit with people 
 of all nations.
 
 APPENDICES
 
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 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 197 
 
 C^LCXJTTA. 
 
 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 
 
 1883-4:. 
 
 3o\\ih ^iistnilian Committee: 
 
 Honorable R. D. Ross, M.P., Chairman. 
 
 Honorable David Murray, M.L.C. 
 John Harvey, Esq., J. P. 
 E. W. Pitts, Esq. 
 J. CuRxow, Esq., J. P. 
 W. Haines, Esq., M.P. 
 Samuel Davenport, Esq., J. P. 
 
 C. J. CoATEs, Secretary. 
 
 Thomas Hardy, Esq. 
 A. M. Simpson, Esq., J. P. 
 Ad.wi Adamson, Sen., Tlsq., J.P. 
 J. F. CONIGRAVE, Esq., J. P. 
 r. Makin, Esq., J. P. 
 
 H. J. Scott, Representative at Calcutta. 
 
 i5 
 
 ouTH Australian pxHiBiTS. 
 
 1. HAMMER & CO. .. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 2. S. W. SWEET 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 3. M. W. GREENFELD 
 
 Xorwood 
 
 4. GEORGE FREEMAN 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 5. S. A. INSTITUTE 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 6. FRAZER S. CRAWFORD 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 7. E, SPILLER (Government Printer) 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 8. PAUL FOELSCHE 
 
 Northern Territoky, S A. 
 
 9. MRS. GEORGE GRAY 
 
 North Adelaide. 
 
 10. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN COMMITTEE 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 SECTION A. 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Opal Glass Pictures. 
 
 Landscape Photographs. 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Paintings from Photographs. 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Photo-lithographs. 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Models of Fruits in Wax. 
 
 Models of Fruits in Wax.
 
 198 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 SECTION B. 
 
 11. G. W. GOYDER (Sarveyor-General) 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 12. CONIGRAVE & COLLISON . . 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 13. BRADDOCK & SONS 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 Maps. 
 
 Drawings and Maps. 
 
 Printina; Inks. 
 
 14. E. SFILLER (Government Printer) . . Lithography. 
 
 Adelaide. Letter-press Printing. 
 
 Bookhinding. 
 Account-book Ruling. 
 Chromo-lithography. 
 
 15. J. A. HARTLEY 
 
 School Maps. 
 
 Education Department, Adelaide. 
 
 16. H. C. MAIS, C.E Working Drawings and Photos. 
 
 Engineer-in-Chief, Adelaide. of S.A. Railways. 
 
 SECTION C. 
 
 17. BRADDOCK & SONS 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 18. CHARLES CROSS ,. 
 
 Gawler. 
 
 Eucalpytus Oil. 
 
 Medicinal Products. 
 Indigestion Powders. 
 Indigestion Drops. 
 
 SECTION D. 
 
 19. KAPUNDA MARBLE and BUILDING CO. Marble. 
 Kai-inda. 
 
 20. E:APUNDA No. 1 MARBLE CO. .. 
 
 KaI'UNDA. 
 
 21. SIBLEY'S MARBLE CO 
 
 Anga.ston. 
 
 22. THOMPSON PRIEST 
 
 Mintaro, S.A. 
 
 23. HUGH ERASER 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 . . Marble. 
 . . Marble. 
 . . Flagging Slate. 
 
 Carved Mantelpiece.
 
 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 
 
 199 
 
 24. V. NELSON .. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 SECTION E. 
 
 Fanov-work. 
 
 25. Mrs. G. J. NELSON 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 Ornamouts from Seeds. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 26. BRADDOCK & SONS 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 27. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SALT, PLASTER, 
 
 and MANURE CO 
 
 YOKKETOWN. 
 
 28. THE S.A. SALT COMPANY 
 
 SXOAVTOWN. 
 
 29. WILLIAM HAINES, M.P 
 
 Teatree Gully, Adelaide. 
 
 30. F. PFLAUM & CO 
 
 Blumberg. 
 
 31. SAMUEL DAVENPORT . . 
 
 Beaumont. 
 
 32. G. L. BARNARD 
 
 Walkerville. 
 
 33. ANDERSON & ROBERTSON 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 34. J. G. PITCHER 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 Benzole. 
 
 Gold Lacqueiir. 
 
 Brunswick Black. 
 
 Eefincd Salt. 
 Coarse Salt. 
 Gypsum in Crystal. 
 Plaster of Paris. 
 Plaster Ornaments. 
 
 Fine Dried Salt. 
 Fine Undricd Salt. 
 Coarse Salt. 
 Gypsum " Selenite." 
 Plaster of Paris. 
 
 Kaoline (pipeclay) . 
 
 Mimosa Bark. 
 
 Olive Oil. 
 
 Olive Oil. 
 Refined Olive Oil. 
 
 Olives. 
 Olive Oil. 
 Olive Cake. 
 Olive Hair Oil. 
 Olive Oil Blacking. 
 Olive Machinery Oil. 
 Salad Oil. 
 New Dried Soap. 
 
 Pearl Shells.
 
 200 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA; 
 
 Section F— continued. 
 
 35. MAURICE HOLTZE Peanut Oil. 
 
 F.\xxiE Bay, Noktheen Territory, S.A. Teal Oil. 
 
 Pine Fibre. 
 Rhea Fibre. 
 Indiarubber Tree. 
 Upland Cotton. 
 Uncultivated Cotton. 
 Indigo Plant. _ 
 Rhea Plant. 
 
 36. KNOTT & MEYDER Uncultivated Cotton. 
 
 HowLEY, Northern Trruitory, S.A. 
 
 37. G. R. McMINN, Esq. (Acting Government Collection of Indigenous "NYoods. 
 
 Resident) Northern Territory, S.A. : — 
 
 A Collection of Indigenous Woods. 
 
 Stamped No. on Botanical Name. Local Name. 
 
 Specmien. 
 
 I. Acacia (spec.) 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 T. " Tecoma " 
 
 TI. . 
 
 VII. ...... " Cypress Pine " 
 
 VIII. " White Mangrove " 
 
 IX. 
 
 X. "Prickly Ash" 
 
 XI. 
 
 XII. "Blood Wood" 
 
 XIII. " Paper Bark " 
 
 XIV. 
 
 XV. Sterculia (spec.) " Milk Wood " 
 
 XVI. Eucalyptus (spec.) 
 
 XVII. Eucalyptus (spec.) 
 
 XVIII. " Iron Bark " 
 
 XIX. 
 
 XX. "Apple Tree" 
 
 XXI. Eucalyptus (spec.) 
 
 XXII. 
 
 XXIII. Eucalyptus (spec.) 
 
 38. CORPORATION OF COPPER MINES OF Copper Ores. 
 
 S.A. Adelaide. 
 
 39. CAPTAIN HANCOCK Copper Ores. 
 
 MOOXTA. 
 
 40. THE PROPRIETORS OF THE WALLAROO 
 
 MINES, LIMITED Trophy of Copper in Cakes and 
 
 W.VLLAKOo. Ingots.
 
 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 201 
 
 Section F — continued. 
 
 41. ENGLISH AND AUSTEALIAN COPPER 
 
 COMPANY, LIMITED . . . . Copper in Cakes an<l Ingots. 
 
 Port Adelaide. RefincdCopper worked into Fancy 
 
 Designs. 
 
 42. JOHN SIMEON Silver Lead Ore. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 43. UMBERUMBERKA SILVER LEAD MIN- 
 
 ING COMPANY Silver Lead Ore. 
 
 South Australia. 
 
 44. BAROSSA FLAX MILLING CO Flax. 
 
 Lyndoch Valley. 
 
 45. THE HON. J. LANGDON PARSONS . . Collection of Mineral Specimens 
 
 Minister of Education, Adelaide. from tlie Northern Territory. 
 
 46. OLAF JANSEN Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Pine Creek, Northern Territory\ 
 Specimens (two) of auriferous quartz from Eleanor Eeef, Pine Creek. Thick- 
 ness of reef, from Gin. to 2ft. 
 The last 200 to)is of stone crushed averaged 4o:;.s. of gold to the ton. 
 Collection of smaU specimens of aiu'iferous quartz from Eleanor Reef. 
 Sample of auriferous quartz from Telegraph Reef, Pine Creek. Depth of 
 workings, -iOft. ; thickness of reef, 20in. ; average yield, loz. 3dwts. of 
 gold to the ton. 
 
 47. THE ALTA GOLD MINING UNION . . Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Twenty-eight specimens of auriferous quartz from No. 5 North Union Reef. 
 Thickness, 1ft. 
 
 The last crushing o/140 tons yielded 980o:.s. of gold. 
 Sample of auriferous quartz from No. 4 North Union. Thickness of reef, 
 
 from Sin. to 12in. Average yield, 6ozs. of gold to the ton. 
 Three specimens of auriferous quartz from No. 1 South Lady Alice Eeef. 
 Average yield, loz. 8dwts. of gold to the ton. 
 
 48. PING QUE Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Union, Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Seven specimens of auriferous quartz from No. 4 South Union Reef. This 
 reef is vertical, and 8ft. in thickness. Average yield loz. 2dwts. of gold 
 to the ton. 
 
 49. STEPHEN McINTYRE Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Senders Hill, Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Four specimens of auriferous quartz. Reef 2ft. in thickness. Average yield 
 loz. 6dwts. of gold to the ton. 
 
 50. EXTENDED UNION GOLD MINING GO. Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Three specimens of auriferous quartz from No. 3 North Extended Union. 
 Reef flat, 20in. wide. Average yield 2ozs. of gold to the ton.
 
 202 SOUTH AUSTRALIA: 
 
 Section F— continued. 
 
 51. ARNHEIM GOLD MINING CO Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Five specimens of auriferous quartz from Spring Hill Eeef, The Twelve Mile, 
 McKinlay Eiver, 1 20 miles inland. Vertical reef 7ft. to 9ft. in thickness, 
 sunk 72ft., and opened out to a level of 104ft. 1,070 tons crushed 
 averaged loz. Sdwts. to the ton. 
 
 62. D. B. TENNANT Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Two samples of auriferous quartz from the Clifton Reef. Thickness, 2ft. 
 
 Average yield, 6ozs. of gold to the ton. 
 Five samples of auriferous quartz from North Clifton Eeef. Thickness, 1ft. 
 
 6in. Average yield 2ozs. of gold to the ton. 
 Samples of auriferous earth. From a "mullock" leader varying from 6in. to 
 
 12in. in thickness. 
 Although the gold is barely visible when the stuff is crushed, it yields over bozs. 
 
 of gold to the ton. 
 
 53. BEETSON BROS Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Old Hovvley, Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Collection of auriferous quartz. From reef averaging 22in. in thickness, and 
 
 yielding S^ozs. of gold to the ton. 
 Samples of tailings believed to retain a large quantity of gold. Also stirface 
 
 specimens of copper ore. 
 
 54. J. H. LAWRIE Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Eight small specimens of auriferous quartz. From a reef adjoining the Am- 
 
 heim Company's property at S2)ring Hill, McKinlay River. 
 This reef has just been opened, and presents indications of being exceedingly rich. 
 
 55. GROVE HILL GOLD MINING CO. . . Auriferous Quartz. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 
 Specimens of auriferous quartz. From the Margaret and Yam Creek Claim 
 (120 miles inland from Pahnerston). 
 
 The Margaret specimens were taken from about six tons of qtiartz, ivhich, ivhen 
 crushed, yielded over 220o;s. of gold. Those from Yam Creek gave bozs. to 
 the ton. After the extraction of all the free gold from the stone by the 
 usual process, the arsenical pyrites gave by assay from IdOozs. to ISoozs. 
 of gold to the ion. 
 
 56. THE HON. J. LANGDON PARSONS . . Alluvial Gold. 
 
 Minister of Education, Adelaide. 
 
 57. DANIELS & CO Tin Ores. 
 
 Mount "Wells, Northern Terkitory, S.A. 
 Large block of tin ore taken from the surface, and six samples of lode and 
 
 one of stream tin. 
 A large number of lodes have been opened out, and the Mount bids fair to show, 
 
 with further labor and prospecting, that its ichole mass is iiiter stratified 
 
 ■with stanniferous deposits.
 
 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 
 
 20;':^ 
 
 Section F — continued. 
 
 58. CRUIKSHANK & BARRETT . . . . Tin Ores. 
 
 HowLEY, Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Samples of tin in coarse granite. The lode is 25ft. wide, standing 7ft. above- 
 the surrounding surface, and is traceable for a long distance. Assay test 
 gives 37 per cent of tin. 
 
 59. MOUNT WELLS TIN MINING CO. . . Tin Ores. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 
 Seven samples of tin ore. From tbe Company's property at Mount "Wells- 
 (100 miles inland). 
 
 Specimen A taken from grotmd where there is a regular network of lodes vary- 
 ing from \ft. Gin. to Sft. in thickness. Samples of stream tin from land 
 north of Mount Wells. 
 
 60. EMIL MARKER & CO Copper Ores. 
 
 Pine Creek, Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Eight specimens of copper ore from leased property on Copperfield Creek, HG 
 
 miles inland, near Pine Creek. 
 There is a large outcrop of copper at the surface, from Aft. to bft. in thickness- 
 and traceable for a long distance. 
 
 61. ADELAIDE TIN MINING CO Silver Lead Ore. 
 
 Northern Territory, S.A. 
 Six specimens of silver lead ore from the No. 2 Adelaide Company's property 
 at Snadden's Creek, 115 miles inland. Lode about 2ft. in thickness^ 
 with a shaft sunk on it about 20ft. deep. 
 
 62. THE HON. JOHN CROZIER 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 63. THE HON. G. C. HAWKER 
 
 Bungaeee, S.A. 
 
 64. J. H. ANGAS 
 
 COLLINGROVE. 
 
 65. THE HON. A. B. MURRAY 
 
 Magill. 
 
 66. SANDERS, JAMES, & CO. 
 
 Canowie. 
 
 67. E. W, PITTS 
 
 Dry Creek, S.A. 
 
 68. JOHN MURRAY 
 
 Mount Cr.\wford, S.A. 
 
 69. WM. CROZIER 
 
 MooRNA Station, River Murray. 
 
 70. T. S. PORTER | 
 
 O'Halloran Hill. 
 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool. 
 Wool.
 
 204 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 Section F — continued, 
 
 71. DUFFIELD & MAKIN f Wool. 
 
 Koo.NooxA Statiox, S.A. 
 
 72. W. H. BURFORD & SONS Faucy Soaps. 
 
 Adelaide. . . . , Soap. 
 
 Tallow. 
 Oil. 
 
 SECTION G. 
 
 73. T. L. COTTRELL 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 74. CHAMBER OF MANUFACTURES 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 75. A. SIMPSON & SON 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 i^-jn^ ^ 
 
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 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 ) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 \.. 
 
 C Spring Barouche. 
 
 Model of Tramcar. 
 
 Fireproof Safe. 
 Japanned Toilet "Ware, 
 Stamped Tinware. 
 Ice-water Urns. 
 
 ^''' d^ 
 
 [Messrs. A. Simpson & Son are tlie largest manufacturers of tinware in the Southern 
 Hemisphere. The awards obtained by the firm include — isilver Medal of the South 
 Australian Royal Agricultural and Horticultural Society ; Certificate of Honor, at the 
 International Exhibition at Paris, 1878; Silver Medal at the International E.xhibition 
 at Sydney, 1879; Silver Medal at the International E.xhibition, Melboui-ne, 1880; 
 Gold Medal, Perth International Exhibition, 1881. They manufacture iron and brass 
 bedsteads, fenders, galvanized ironware, colonial ovens and boilers, fireproof safes, 
 japanned toiletware, stamped seamless tinware.] 
 
 76. DUNCAN & ERASER 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 77. CLARKE BROS 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 78. THOS. BARLOW & SONS .. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 [T. Barlow & Sons are caniage builders to His Excellency Sir James Fergusson,' 
 Bombay, and have obtained medals at all the exhibitions during the last thirty years.] 
 
 Sporting Dogcart. 
 
 Four-wheeled Drag. 
 
 Wagonette.
 
 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 
 
 205 
 
 Section G — continued. 
 
 79. JAMES DUNCAN Model of Patented Invention for 
 
 Adelaide. Change of Gauge on Eailways. 
 
 [The patent-right for India is for sale. Particulars from II. J. Scott, at his office, 
 ,n the Soutli Australian Court.] 
 
 80. CONIGRAVE & COLLISON Ilullett's Combination Truck, for 
 
 Adelaide. running on two different 
 
 gauges of Eailway, -\Hthout 
 any manipulation. The model 
 is constructed for 3ft. 6in. 
 and oft. Sin. gauges, used in 
 Australia. 
 
 SECTION H. 
 
 81. ALEX. MURRAY & SON .. 
 
 Craiglee, Coromandel Valley. Biscuits. 
 
 82. D. & J. FOTHERINGHAM 
 
 Gawler. 
 
 83. EDWARD HAGUE 
 
 Angaston. 
 
 84. THOS. HARDY 
 
 Bankside. 
 
 85. ANDERSON & ROBERTSON 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 86. C. MARGETTS 
 
 Parkside. 
 
 87. BARTON & CO 
 
 Hackney. 
 
 88. MAGAREY & CO 
 
 HiNDMAESH. 
 
 89. THE ADELAIDE MILLING and MER- 
 
 CANTILE CO. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 90. THE AERATED BREAD CO. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 91. L. CONRAD 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 Jams and JclUes. 
 Sauces. 
 
 Dried Currants. 
 Dried Raisins. 
 
 Vinegar. 
 Tomato Sauce. 
 
 Tomato Sauce. 
 Pickles. 
 Curry Powder. 
 Condiments. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Flour. 
 Biscuits. 
 Preserved Meats.
 
 206 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 Section H— continued. 
 
 92. 
 
 93. 
 94. 
 95. 
 96. 
 97. 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 100. 
 
 101. 
 102. 
 
 THE AUSTRALIAN FRUIT and VEGE- 
 TABLE PRESERVING CO 
 
 Kent Town, S.A. 
 
 H. B. HANTON & CO 
 
 FULLARTOX, S.A. 
 
 THE ANGASTON PRESERVING CO. . . 
 
 Angaston, S.A. 
 
 P. R. ALLEN & CO. 
 
 Daly IIiveh, Xortherx Territory, S.A. 
 
 AH DIN CHIN Sugar Cane. 
 
 Margaret River, Northern Territory, S.A. 
 
 THE DE LISSAVILLE SUGAR CO. . . Sugar Cane. 
 
 Northern Territory', S.A. 
 Estimated to yield three tons of sugar per acre. 
 
 Sugar. 
 Open-pan evaporation and concentration. From eight months' ratoon canes. 
 Grown on very red ironstone land. 
 
 Jams and Jellies. 
 Preserved Fruits. 
 Preserved Yegetahles. 
 
 Jams and Jellies. 
 Tomato Sauce. 
 
 Fruits preserved in Sji'up. 
 Sugar Cane. 
 
 MAURICE HOLTZE 
 
 Fannie Bay, Northern Terri- 
 tory, S.A. 
 
 Preserved Banana and Safflower. 
 
 Tapioca. 
 
 Mandioca, 
 
 Arro^^'root. 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 Dhol. 
 
 Eice. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Pea Nuts. 
 
 Cassava Root. 
 
 Trepang. 
 
 E. C. HUGHES, S.M 
 
 North Adelaide. 
 
 THOMAS HARDY Wines, 
 
 Bankside, S.A. 
 Winner of the Industrial Prize, Adelaide International Exhibi- 
 tion, and upwards of 180 other prizes, medals, and cups, at 
 exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia, Bordeaux, 
 Sydney, Melbourne, and New Zealand. 
 
 B. SEPPELT Wines. 
 
 Sepvelt.sfield, S.A. 
 
 Prizes awarded at London, Paris, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, 
 and Bordeaux. 
 
 THE AULDANA VINEYARD PROPRIE- 
 TORS (W. P. Auld, Manager) . . . . Wines. 
 
 The Auldana wines were awarded the special prize (a silver cup) 
 at the wine show open to all the colonies for the best white wine 
 of a lijfht character; gold, silver, and bronze medals at London, 
 ISGl and 1872: Paris, Vienna, Amsterdam, Sydney, Melbourne, 
 18G7 and 1881 ; Philadelphia, Bordeaux, Adelaide, and New 
 Zealand.
 
 CATALOGUE OF EXHIBITS. 207 
 
 Section H — continued. 
 
 103. SAMUEL DAVENPORT Wines. 
 
 Bk.umont, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded — London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia, Bordeaux, 
 Adelaide, Sydney, Melbourne, and New Zealand. 
 
 104. SIR THOMAS ELDER Wines. 
 
 BiHKSGATE, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded — London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia, Bordeaux, 
 Adelaide, Sydney, and Melbourne. 
 
 105. THE HON. JNO. CROZIER . . . . Wines. 
 
 Oaklands, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded— London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia, Ontario 
 (Canada), Bordeaux, Melbourne, and Sydney. 
 
 106. PENFOLD & CO Wines. 
 
 The Grange, Magill, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded— London, Paris, Philadelphia, Sydney, Mel- 
 bourne, Adelaide, and Bordeaux. 
 
 107. WM. GILBERT Wines. 
 
 Pewsey Vale, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded— London, Paris, Philadelphia, Sydney, Mel- 
 bourne, Adelaide, and Bordeaux. 
 
 108. WM. JACOBS Wines. 
 
 MoouooRoo, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded — London, Paris, Philadelphia, Sydney, Mel- 
 bourne, Adelaide, and Bordeaux. 
 
 109. C. B. YOUNG Wines. 
 
 W.\.LKERVILI,E. 
 Prizes awarded — London, Paris, Philadelphia, Sydney, Mel- 
 bourne, Adelaide, Bordeaux, and New Zealand. 
 
 110. S. SMITH & SON Wines. 
 
 Yalumba, Angaston, S.A. 
 Prizes awarded for full-bodied wines at London, Paris, Phila- 
 delphia, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Bordeaux. 
 
 111. E. SALTER & SON Wines 
 
 Saltram, Ang.\ston, S.A. 
 Winner of the prize cup for full-bodied wines, Adelaide ; 
 London, Paris, Philadelphia, Sydney, Melbourne, and Bordeaux. 
 
 112. PHILLIPSON BROTHERS . . . . Ale and Stout. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 113. J. G. RAMSAY & CO. Stripping Machine. 
 
 Mount Barker. 
 
 114. A. W. DOBBIE Hand-power Seed-so\ver 
 
 Adelaide. Horse-power Seed-sower.
 
 208 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA 
 
 Section I— continued. 
 
 115. J, W. STOTT & SON 
 
 Alm.\. 
 
 116. J. MARTIN & SON . . 
 
 Gawler. 
 
 Stump and Stone Jumping Plough 
 Tenoning Machine. 
 
 117. MELLOR BROTHERS Stripping Machines 
 
 Adelaide, Kapunda, and Quorn. Stump Plough. 
 
 118. THOMAS ASHBY Tuscan Wheat. 
 
 Clare, S.A. 
 
 119. JOSEPH THYER 
 
 Belahe, S.A. 
 
 120. ALLAN BELL 
 
 Mount Barker, S.A. 
 
 121. D. M. McFARLANE 
 
 Port Lincoln, S.A. 
 
 122. J. H. ANGAS 
 
 COLLINGROYE, S.A. 
 
 Lion Defiance Wheat. 
 Piu-ple Wheat. 
 
 White Tuscan Wheat. 
 Purple -straw Wheat. 
 
 White Tuscan Wheat. 
 
 Pui'ple- straw Wheat. 
 White Tuscan Wheat. 
 White Lammas Wheat. 
 Skinless Oats. 
 
 123. E. & W. HACKETT . . 
 
 Adelaibe. 
 
 White Tuscan Wheat. 
 Skinless Barley. 
 White Oats. 
 
 124. S.A. SALT, PLASTER, and MANURE CO. Gypsum Manure. 
 
 YORKETOWN. 
 
 125. SOUTH AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 126. DR. HAACKE 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 SECTION K. 
 
 Stuffed Specimens of Emu and 
 Kangaroo. 
 
 Specimens of Natural History. 
 
 127. W. MALCOLM 
 
 Gawler. 
 
 128. R. E. MINCHIN 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 129. THOMAS BOWMAN 
 
 Cami'bell Park, Lake Albert, S.A. 
 
 Ostrich Feathers. 
 Ostrich Eggs. 
 
 Live Emus. 
 Emu Eggs. 
 
 Ostrich Eggs.
 
 I 
 
 
 SHIPPING— 
 
 
 
 TPLE PRODTICE EXPORTED. 
 
 
 mWARDS and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OUTWARDS. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 "rt 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 g 
 
 ^ 
 1 
 
 C 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 "' 
 
 z 
 
 H 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2,592 
 
 — 
 
 1836 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1837 
 
 
 _ 
 
 770 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1838 
 
 
 — 
 
 350 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 19-84 
 
 1839 
 
 
 — 
 
 8,740 
 
 
 — 
 
 425 
 
 83,787 
 
 24-23 
 
 1840 
 
 
 
 
 35,845 
 
 
 _ 
 
 197 
 
 37,036 
 
 17-96 
 
 1841 
 
 
 — 
 
 22,036 
 
 
 — 
 
 150 
 
 25,354 
 
 20-32 
 
 1842 
 
 
 — 
 
 45,568 
 
 
 127 
 
 104 
 
 15,553 
 
 17-19 
 
 1843 
 
 
 — 
 
 42,769 
 
 
 6,436 
 
 139 
 
 18,489 
 
 1 6-88 
 
 1844 
 
 
 — 72,235 
 
 
 19,020 
 
 225 
 
 26,558 
 
 18-83 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 106,510 
 
 
 143,231 
 
 278 
 
 49,509 
 
 26-89 
 
 1846 
 
 
 — 
 
 56,130 
 
 
 174,017 
 
 301 
 
 62,641 
 
 27-61 
 
 1847 
 
 
 - : 98,582 
 
 
 320,624 
 
 412 
 
 90,956 
 
 19-74 
 
 1848 
 
 
 — 1 108,539 
 
 
 219,775 
 
 549 
 
 155,920 
 
 25-44 
 
 1849 
 
 
 38,312 1 131,731 
 
 
 365,464 
 
 559 
 
 174,455 
 
 19-51 
 
 1850 
 
 
 73.359 148,731 
 
 
 310,916 
 
 538 
 
 155,002 
 
 30-63 
 
 1851 
 
 
 212,566 115,036 
 
 
 374,778 
 
 739 
 
 202,507 
 
 27-34 
 
 1852 
 
 
 198 
 
 9^282 
 
 1859 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 210 
 
 9,843 
 
 i860 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 219 
 
 10,711 
 
 1861 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 227 
 
 11,417 
 
 1862 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 247 
 
 11,769 
 
 1863 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 267 
 
 12,959 
 
 1864 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 279 
 
 13,686 
 
 1865 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 292 
 
 14,690 
 
 1866 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 308 
 
 14,600 
 
 1867 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 325 
 
 15,657 
 
 1868 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 330 
 
 16,328 
 
 1869 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 15,108 
 
 1870 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 307 
 
 15,791 
 
 1871 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 307 
 
 15,123 
 
 1872 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 315 
 
 17,222 
 
 1873 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 17,426 
 
 1874 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 268 
 
 16,765 
 
 1875 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 281 
 
 25,889 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 343 
 
 27,305 
 
 1877 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 341 
 
 34,491 
 
 1878 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 348 
 
 35,276 
 
 1879 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 370 
 
 36,277 
 
 1880 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 405 
 
 36,888 
 
 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H. J. ANDREWS Government Statist.
 
 STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA FROM ITS FOUNDATION. 
 
 
 uns a^BHTEL. 
 
 37,1" 
 
 
 94,9!8 
 
 l»|l39 
 "3.543 
 
 68.307 
 r".4S3 
 7S.9'9 
 
 T«.M« 
 82,869 
 84.951 
 8!,!86 
 88,869 
 
 14.398 
 
 i-3i^ = 
 
 4%\ 
 
 n 
 
 jojiS 
 
 8.464 
 0.782 
 
 ;,>58 
 
 4.374 
 3. "7 
 
 
 30vbl8 
 
 »5.3"9 
 
 3M33 
 
 47,286 
 
 479.978 
 4SS.2" 
 469.63; 
 S".927 
 438.827 
 
 S58.S8; 
 548.709 
 631.700 
 775.838 
 
 949.774 
 716.29s 
 716,004 
 777.351 
 
 ■.143.312 
 1.320.205 
 l-59=-634 
 
 Si8.;;3 
 620,757 
 492,656 
 
 759.4J8 
 700,255 
 »39,1S3 
 
 i.3>3.337 
 1.M3 653 
 1. 620.30.) 
 1.847.255 
 ■.9231605 
 
 60,915 
 
 48!o40 
 .70.8JI 
 15.565 
 
 64.949 
 82,590 
 
 187,451 
 
 IA015 
 188065 
 
 4"3.349 
 409.380 
 319.159 
 362,219 
 572,199 
 
 553.316 
 
 409.730 
 464.615 
 
 640,476 
 
 36.645 
 6.714 
 48,040 
 170^41 
 ■S.565 
 
 383'.470 
 233.745 
 
 510,268 
 
 322.429 
 163,787 
 224,458 
 
 •530.373 
 •515.116 
 •497.467 
 •614.168 
 •797.083 
 
 •748.994 
 •859,181 
 •955.777 
 •584.796 
 •5*5.045 
 
 •784,5*6 
 
 6.721 
 19.790 
 28.690 
 
 33.W 
 36.440 
 48.911 
 
 203.423 
 235.96S 
 264J62 
 361.884 
 428,816 
 
 739.714 
 810.734 
 808.234 
 850.576 
 959.006 
 
 'XS56 
 .225.073 
 .330.484 
 .444.586 
 
 :i;j:?;? 
 
 .574.409 
 
 1,613,905 
 
 550.456 
 533.03s 
 532.135 
 
 223.90s 
 2.8,359 
 
 265.463 
 
 339.247 
 440,564 
 487.109 
 
 78,125 
 82,215 
 87.45s 
 
 93.122 
 
 107,164 
 
 106.903 
 110.684 
 
 121,553 
 130.052 
 157.915 
 
 159,678 
 
 26,146 
 
 56,986 
 56.375 
 55,083 
 
 265.434 
 ■58,342 
 116,166 
 201,892 
 158,057 
 113.820 
 
 123.213 
 119.697 
 136,832 
 
 143,463 
 
 108,700 
 
 331.000 
 
 355,689 
 
 fe 
 
 2,814.811 
 3,038,356 
 
 4,987,024 
 4.436.955 
 4,400,655 
 
 6,179.395 
 6,133,291 
 
 6,463,897 
 6,810,856 
 
 3,032,269 
 3,Sfi,594 
 3.181.536 
 3,163.370 
 3.423,307 
 
 3^9661452 
 4,387,096 
 
 798.81 1 
 2.33^290 
 
 i,'37o^93S 
 
 1,366,529 
 1,613,021 
 1,769.351 
 1.507,494 
 1,639,591 
 
 1.976,018 
 1.820.656 
 2.028,179 
 2.411,931 
 
 104,647 
 
 75,248 
 80,858 
 
 1,665,740 
 1,958,572 
 ■.512.18s 
 
 2,858.737 
 3,164,611 
 
 4,8l6.i;o 
 4,626,531 
 5.355,020 
 
 66,160 
 
 81.16S 
 
 2;s',ii5 
 465.878 
 
 ■.744.^IM 
 ■,355.04^ 
 ■,502,165 
 1,576,326 
 
 ■ ,838.639 
 2!o9si356 
 3.015.537 
 
 2,754,65? 
 
 2.539,723 
 1^6031816 
 2,722,438 
 2,113,297 
 
 3.289,861 
 3.524,0s; 
 4.285.191 
 
 4.198.034 
 3.957,854 
 4,829,577 
 
 3,363,625 
 
 2sr.'44 
 3l^2l7 
 
 556,3:1 
 755,840 
 525,398 
 
 554,265 
 
 !:3» 
 
 64s. 40 1 
 
 1,253.429 
 860.202 
 
 ■,;ii,;46 
 ■,230,33^ 
 ■,680,996 
 
 l,9«8,7i6 
 1,184,168 
 1,671,628 
 >,^8,lll 
 2,4(^7,710 
 
 ■.336,76l 
 
 8.740 
 35.845 
 
 108,539 
 ■3',73^ 
 
 '48,73" 
 
 613,368 
 635,00; 
 715,270 
 775,935 
 
 990.482 
 
 901.696 
 
 ■,833,5^9 
 
 ■ ,547.268 
 2,010,843 
 1,834.071 
 1.694.976 
 1,716,171 
 
 1,606,306 
 
 365,4<4 
 310,916 
 
 ■55,55; 
 408,041 
 
 446,53; 
 
 452,^;2 
 
 547,619 
 
 806,364 
 
 ;:o.s9o 
 
 347,246 
 420,558 
 
 18:% 
 26,558 
 
 49,509 
 62,641 
 90,956 
 ■55,920 
 ■74,455 
 
 ■99,33^ 
 
 339,871 
 343.81s 
 277,871 
 
 373.6=4 
 347,360 
 515.640 
 
 732.330 
 
 9061173 
 032.891 
 l,20O,cjO4 
 
 1,169,491 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 353426 
 384J89 
 303,500 
 
 197,24- 
 200,830 
 255,928 
 
 ■59,699 
 149,942 
 
 211.653 
 
 522J13 
 
 ; 14,106 
 ^^6l5 
 
 55,588 
 71,203 
 94,555 
 
 866,8sc 
 
 l'l74!900 
 2,9*9,750 
 
 3,320,600 
 3.837.200 
 4.737200 
 5329,600 
 6,605.750 
 
 2,850^26 
 3,052,757 
 
 2,196ioi9 
 2.S1S,534 
 2,774A>3 
 
 2.9W,997 
 
 3A«,4S4 
 
 28,756 
 30,257 
 35,744 
 
 86,411 
 106,874 
 
 l1Si% 
 
 ■4,684 
 
 39,347 
 35,247 
 
 ■ ,711,699 
 
 ■ ,362,873 
 ■,496,427 
 
 ■ ,612,774 
 
 ■ .40^,594 
 
 ■ ,252,487 
 
 ■ ,8S9,068 
 1,930,914 
 2,079,957 
 
 3,543.780 
 3.524.412 
 3,509,452 
 4,325,319 
 
 4,736,674 
 
 7,05i',737 
 7,207,814 
 
 ■.306,38; 
 
 944,038 
 ■,030.490 
 ■,043,532 
 
 806,591 
 
 728.796 
 1,024,686 
 
 958.814 
 ■ ,052,322 
 
 2.567 
 3.>4« 
 3,877 
 
 5!^3 
 
 32.124 
 55.342 
 52,512 
 
 51,359 
 
 57.060 
 70.136 
 70.219 
 79.445 
 
 98.016 
 
 ■^■,590 
 ■63.506 
 
 201,205 
 
 245.403 
 
 333,87} 
 405,116 
 
 448,658 
 
 '^^:^ 
 
 845,276 
 
 879,788 
 982,857 
 
 !o32!30i 
 
 :3i:S; 
 
 wnnoiTAimu 
 
 63^1468 
 
 684.095 
 -■9.806 
 787.635 
 867.737 
 940.981 
 
 920.951 
 971.555 
 952,921 
 
 ■,171,624 
 1.296.101 
 ■.450.233 I 
 
 132,918 
 146,165 
 
 192:733 
 
 242,3< 
 
 264, ■< 
 
 410 117 
 431 217 
 455 1 267 
 
 7,400 
 8,217 
 
 25,889 
 27,305 
 3«,49^ 
 
 ^& 
 
 'SS. 
 
 1875 
 ■876 
 
 H, J. AA'DKKWb Oovt
 
 Kew South Wales i 
 
 Queensland 
 
 South Australia 
 
 301. 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 New Zealand'' 
 
 1876 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1874 
 T875 
 187G 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 187Q 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 1876 
 ■ 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1873 
 
 1874 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 1873 
 1874 
 
 1875 
 1876 
 
 1877 
 1878 
 1879 
 1880 
 1881 
 
 S'l 3,840 
 
 546,55'' 
 613,642 
 
 635, (>4i 
 706,498 
 645,068 
 
 64,218 
 70,331 
 
 77,347 
 
 85,5''9 
 105,049 
 1 17,489 
 106,864 
 120,881 
 128,075 
 
 1,225.073 
 1,330,484 
 1,444,586 
 1,514,916 
 1,828,115 
 2,011,319 
 2,271,058 
 2,574,489 
 2,613,903 
 
 51,724 
 45,292 
 47,571 
 45,933 
 50,591 
 51,065 
 
 65,492 
 63,903 '' 
 53,353 
 
 167,931 
 326,486 
 
 332,824 
 332,558 
 348,841 
 
 355,403 
 366,407 
 
 373,299 
 374,374 
 
 376,156 
 549,844 
 607,138 
 
 787,824 
 
 959,528 
 
 t 1,134,185 
 
 1,237,501 
 
 1,029,764 
 
 1,319,460' 
 
 145,609 
 176,687 
 
 233,253 
 233,368 
 252,540 
 221,888 
 
 3-554 
 3,592 
 4,478 
 5,700 
 
 8,744 
 9.618 
 
 3,607 
 
 10.944 
 
 4,708 
 
 784,784 
 
 839,638 
 
 898,820 
 
 1,083,732 
 
 1,163,646 
 
 1,305,851 
 1,458,096 
 
 1,733,542 
 1,768,781 
 
 25,697 
 23,427 
 21,561 
 18,769 
 22,834 
 23,008 
 25,762 
 27,687 
 
 21,951 
 
 58,610 
 57,633 
 42,745 
 38,977 
 46,719 
 48,392 
 
 45,215 
 50,022 
 
 51,757 
 
 132,428 
 105,674 
 90,804 
 141,614 
 243,406 
 
 264,577 
 270,198 
 
 324,933 
 365,715 
 
 '°°'rrncluS^a° d tn^/aUo;Anmost of the colonic.. S-e footnote 3 to 1 
 ^ The lateft available H^ure. relating: to^L.ve^ ?)?5, "V.\ "^r I0 M»
 
 J 
 
 SUMMARY OF AUSTRALASIAN STATISTICS FROM 1S73 TO 1881, INCLUSIVE. 
 
 783.!-4 
 
 l6,8oo 
 
 
 
 
 16.769 
 
 
 16,010 
 
 8sr.439 
 
 26.581 
 
 
 26,839 
 
 
 
 882,i3! 
 
 ';."4S 
 
 006*652 
 
 22.528 
 
 
 
 
 
 6M.;43 
 
 ■5.328 
 
 
 10.26a 
 
 !93.'9? 
 
 10,708 
 
 25.761 
 
 809 
 
 
 876 
 
 
 760 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28,668 
 
 977 
 
 29.019 
 
 933 
 
 30,013 
 
 1,005 
 
 10),2i; 
 
 3,048 
 
 104,176 
 
 
 103,663 
 
 
 105,484 
 
 3.149 
 
 107,104 
 
 3.211 
 
 109.947 
 
 3.S02 
 
 ■ 12,469 
 
 
 114.762 
 
 3.739 
 
 118,923 
 
 3.918 
 
 
 11 212 
 
 341.860 
 375.856 
 
 :;SJ 
 
 399.07S 
 
 
 3o!73» 
 32.744 
 
 13.828 
 13.396 
 
 i|26l'j64 
 
 ,784.056 3,504.953 
 ,896,842 4.177.338 
 
 956.335 
 
 l!404'.19« 
 1.283,520 
 1,382806 
 1 543.820 
 1,678.631 
 1.673.695 
 1.757.654 
 
 2,119.524 
 3.035.711 
 3.431.973 
 
 4,782.850 
 5 =49.350 
 6.43S.»SO 
 6.435.25° 
 
 16,533.856 
 |g.9|3-985 
 
 15'705.3S4 
 16362,104 
 16,161,880 
 15.035.538 
 14.556.894 
 
 1.267,47s 
 1.369.223 
 1,431.144 
 
 6.973.418 
 8.755.663 
 8.374.585
 
 J 
 
 SUMJIARY OK AUSTRALASI.US STATISTICS. FKOM 1873 TO
 
 >-,^oV 
 
 ■ ■^y,"i5y 
 
 ^5/,uy^ 
 
 j,i j4,uou 
 
 i ^t,j"-',5ju 
 
 'yy,y3'-' 
 
 '1, 516 
 
 30,715 
 
 366,703 
 
 3,131,013 
 
 24,503,388 
 
 173,604 
 
 '5,073 
 
 30,360 
 
 328,150 
 
 2,746,385 
 
 20,962,244 
 
 191,677 
 
 0,249 
 
 34,615 
 
 336,468 
 
 2,771,583 
 
 23,967,053 
 
 220,320 
 
 14,644 
 
 35,503 
 
 360,038 
 
 2,914,210 
 
 29,043,392 
 
 256,026 
 
 .2,301 
 
 44,637 
 
 : 395,984 
 
 2,580,040 
 
 32,399,547 
 
 }3o8,205 
 
 5-825 
 
 40,832 
 
 364,306 
 
 2,182,226 
 
 36,591,986 
 
 1,894 
 
 27,306 
 
 1 
 
 99,243 
 
 1,343,093 
 
 7,268,946 
 
 42,884- 
 
 3,359 
 
 22,173 
 
 107,507 
 
 1,610,105 
 
 7,180,792 
 
 44,517 
 
 2,863 
 
 18,354 
 
 121,497 
 
 1,812,576 
 
 7,227,774 
 
 46,447 
 
 4,821 
 
 18,349 
 
 133,625 
 
 2,079,979 
 
 7,315,074 
 
 53,45S 
 
 0,771 
 
 24,513 
 
 140,174 
 
 2,299,582 
 
 6,272,766 
 
 52,371 
 
 6,875 
 
 27,061 
 
 148,226 
 
 2,469,555 
 
 5,631,634 
 
 50,301 
 
 7,585 
 
 27,935 
 
 163,342 
 
 2,805,984 
 
 6,083,034 
 
 64,686 
 
 0,815 
 
 34,214 
 
 179,152 
 
 3. '62,752 
 
 6,935,967 
 
 66,248 
 
 1,634 
 
 41,735 
 
 194,217 
 
 3,618,513 
 
 8,292,883 
 
 56,43» 
 
 7,469 
 
 247,785 
 
 87,455 
 
 174,381 
 
 5,617,419 
 
 87.33'^ 
 
 7,076 
 
 276,697 
 
 93,122 
 
 185,342 
 
 6,120,211 
 
 78,019 
 
 7,261 
 
 313,700 
 
 107,164 
 
 219,240 
 
 6,179,395 
 
 100,56? 
 
 5,268 
 
 276,874 
 
 106,903 
 
 219,441 
 
 6,133,291 
 
 102,29s 
 
 6,265 
 
 375,430 
 
 110,684 
 
 230,679 
 
 6,098,359 
 
 104,527 
 
 0,033 
 
 428,128 
 
 121,553 
 
 251,802 
 
 6,377,812 
 
 103,422 
 
 3,996 
 
 478,879 
 
 130,052 
 
 266,217 
 
 6,140,396 
 
 90,540 
 
 5,763 
 
 500,858 
 
 157,915 
 
 307,177 
 
 6,463,897 
 
 131,011 
 
 8,891 
 
 452,834 
 
 159,678 
 
 314,918 
 
 6,810,856 
 
 120,718 
 
 — 
 
 693 
 
 26,290 
 
 47,640 
 
 748,536 
 
 20,948 
 
 — 
 
 512 
 
 26,636 
 
 46,748 
 
 777,861 
 
 13,290 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 29,379 
 
 50,416 
 
 881,861 
 
 14,420 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 33,502 
 
 54,058 
 
 899,494 
 
 18,108 
 
 — 
 
 594 
 
 30,691 
 
 52,057 
 
 797,156 
 
 18,942 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 32,801 
 
 56,158 
 
 869,325 
 
 16,762 
 
 — 
 
 9,668 
 
 32,411 
 
 60,617 
 
 1,109,860 
 
 20,397 
 
 — 
 
 6,942 
 
 34,568 
 
 63,719 
 
 1,231,717 
 
 24,232 
 
 — 
 
 970 
 
 31,755 
 
 63,009 
 
 1,267,912 
 
 22,530 
 
 1,565 
 
 40,250 
 
 22,612 
 
 106,308 
 
 1,490,746 
 
 59,628 
 
 4,234 
 
 93,608 
 
 23,208 
 
 110,450 
 
 1,724,953 
 
 51,468 
 
 3,167 
 
 100,168 
 
 23,473 
 
 118,694 
 
 1,731,723 
 
 47,664 
 
 4,978 
 
 103,855 
 
 23,622 
 
 124,459 
 
 1,768,785 
 
 60,681 
 
 0,376 
 
 111,950 
 
 22,195 
 
 126,882 
 
 1,818,125 
 
 55,652 
 
 8,478 
 
 108,580 
 
 24,107 
 
 126,276 
 
 1,838,831 
 
 39,595 
 
 8,690 
 
 107,201 
 
 24,593 
 
 129,317 
 
 1,835,970 
 
 38,610 
 
 4,656 
 
 112,003 
 
 25,267 
 
 127,187 
 
 1,783,611 
 
 48,029 
 
 7,681 
 
 102,438 
 
 27,805 
 
 130,526 
 
 1,847,479 
 
 49,660 
 
 5,515 
 
 24,131 
 
 - — 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 196,019 
 
 99,859 
 
 494,917 
 
 11,704,853 
 
 123,921 
 
 0,883 
 
 225,351 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2,459 
 
 369,391 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 440,411 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9,187 
 
 443,907 
 
 137,768 
 
 578,430 
 
 13,069,338 j 
 
 207,337 
 
 8,584 
 
 437,856 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 1,154 
 
 312,914 
 
 • — 
 
 — 
 
 — ' 
 
 — 
 
 1,431 
 
 528,156 
 
 161,736 
 
 698,637 
 
 12,985,085 
 
 1 
 
 200,083 
 
 less in 1880 than in 1879. 
 
 rious crops in 1880, these have been estmiated according to the averages 
 
 ^.colonies is classed with green forage is not considered as under cultiva-
 
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