THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES IN MEMORY OF Professor William C. Putnam .,. (1908-1963) PRESENTED BY Professor Claude Jones (Ztohtmbta Htttnrrutitj STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE LITERATURE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS SALES AGENTS NEW YORK : LEMCKE & BUECHNER 30-32 WEST 27TH STREET LONDON : HENRY FROWDE AMEN CORNER, E.G. TORONTO : HENRY FROWDE 25 RICHMOND STREET, W. THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION BY SAMUEL LEE WOLFF, PH.D. THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS 1912 All ri-hts retervtd Copyright, 1912 BY THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS Printed from type January, 1913 PRESS or THE New ERA PRINTING COMPANT LANCASTER PA. This monograph has been approved by the Department 0} English and Comparative Literature in Columbia University as a contribution to knowledge worthy of publication. A. H. THORNDIKE, Secretary. PREFACE The subject of this book has not, as far as I know, been treated before. Though the influence of Greek fiction upon the fiction of the Renais- sance has been noticed at some length by Dunlop and by Professor Warren; and though Herr Brunhuber, Herr Oeftering, and Mr. Moody have observed a portion of Sidney's indebtedness to the Greek Romances; yet no other attempt has been made, I believe, to disengage the char- acteristics of Greek Romance and to trace them into English fiction of any period. The present attempt results in the discovery of a distinct vein of influence in Elizabethan literature, and in some interesting specific discoveries : viz., that Heliodorus and Longus are respectively a sec- ondary and a primary source of Shakespeare; that Lyly's " Euphues " probably occupies a place in a long tradition that goes back to Greek Romance ; and that both Sidney and Greene were steeped in the matter and the style of Greek fic- tion. The further discovery that Sidney went so far as to remodel his "Arcadia" upon the pattern of Heliodorus's narrative structure would have been impossible but for Mr. Dobell's find of manuscripts of the "Old Arcadia." To all my known predecessors I make grateful acknowl- edgment, both here and in the text. The present study has been confined to the five chief writers of Elizabethan fiction, Lyly, Sid- ney, Greene, Nash, and Lodge. Minor writers like Sanford and Warner, even when known to vti vitl have used the Greek Romances, have received only passing mention; nor has the Catalogue of the British Museum been searched for titles sug- gestive of Greek Romance. My bibliography, thus, does not profess to be complete; it was com- piled upon a frankly utilitarian basis, and con- tains very few titles not actually referred to in the book. With the same design of usefulness to the reader, the Index has been made rather full. I am under obligations to the authorities of the Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and the University of Michigan, for many cour- tesies. To the owner of the " Clifford " and "Ashburnham" Manuscripts of the "Old Ar- cadia," who prefers to remain unnamed, and to Mr. A. T. Porter of London, both of whom most kindly allowed me the free use of their property, my special acknowledgments are due. My friend Dr. S. M. Tucker, Professor of Eng- lish at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, gave me indispensable assistance in seeing this book through the press. To Professor A. H. Thorn- dike, of Columbia University, I am obliged for many excellent suggestions. Professor Woodberry was " the onlie begetter " of the studies which have at last issued in this book ; and my indebtedness to him is greater than I can express or he would own. Professor J. B. Fletcher, of Columbia University, has given freely his valuable advice and criticism, as well as a personal interest and encouragement without which my work, however auspiciously begun, would hardly have been completed. NEW YORK, November 15, 1911. CONTENTS PART ONE THE GREEK ROMANCES CHAPTER PAGE I. Introductory: General Characteristics; Chronology ; Analyses I II. Plot, Character (Humor), Setting; Struc- ture, Style in INTERCHAPTER 237 PART TWO ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION I. John Lyly 248 II. Sir Philip Sidney 262 III. Robert Greene 367 IV. Thomas Nash and Thomas Lodge 459 CONCLUSION 461 APPENDIX A. Textual notes on the relation be- tween Day's and Amyot's ver- sions of " Daphnis and Chloe " 465 APPENDIX B. Notes and transcripts: "Clifford" Ms. of Sidney's " Arcadia "... 470 APPENDIX C. Bibliographical Notes on William Burton's translation of Achilles Tatius 477 BIBLIOGRAPHY 483 INDEX 506 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ELIZA- BETHAN PROSE FICTION PART ONE THE GREEK ROMANCES CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS ; CHRONOLOGY ; ANALYSES The present study assumes the existence of the Greek Romances, and looks forward in time to their influence upon Elizabethan prose fiction. It is therefore concerned with their origin or evolu- tion only in as far as these may help to char- acterize the Greek Romances themselves. It makes no attempt to identify the borrowings of Achilles Tatius from Plutarch or from Aristotle, from Aelian or from Ovid ; it cares not whether Heliodorus lived before or after Xenophon of Ephesus, or which of the two imitated the other ; and it waives the question whether the Greek Romances are an outcome of Greek historiog- raphy or teratology, or of Alexandrian erotic poetry, or of the Ionic novella, or of Oriental 2 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN fiction, or of all. It is content with the certainty that all the Greek Romances were earlier than the writers of Elizabethan fiction, and that cer- tain Greek Romances were known to these writers. The table on pages 8-10 will show concisely what Romances were accessible to per- sons who wrote prose fiction during Queen Elizabeth's reign (1558-1603). It is with the chief of these writers, and with those Romances which are found to have influenced them, that the present study has to do. The long and elaborate form of Greek prose fiction known as the Romance was a late and puny child of the Hellenic imagination. It came into being during the decline of Greek literature, and found a place there only after the greater genres epic, lyric, drama, oration were dead. It rose, too, after the destruction of Greek nationality, and was not inspired, as were the earlier genres, by a broad communal tradition of religion, myth, morals, and polity. So it was at once individualistic the work of writers ex- pressing their own fancies rather than the com- mon imaginative fund of the Hellenic race; and cosmopolitan the work, often, of writers actually not Greek, but African or Asiatic, writers from Pergamon, or Antioch, or Alex- andria. It came, moreover, after the schools of Alex- andria had given their decisive ply to the litera- ture that was to follow. The Alexandrian, whether artist or critic, emphasized the pictur- esque, the rhetorical, the fanciful, elements in ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 3 both life and letters. He was interested rather in diversity than in unity, and cared more for a series of idylls or word-pictures than for an extensive single sustained act of creative imagi- nation. Theocritus (VII. 45-8) and Calli- machus (Epigram 30; Hymn to Apollo, 105 ff.), Alexandrians both, agree for instance in depre- cating the production of long epic poems; and Apollonius Rhodius, who so offended his master Callimachus by writing one, is held to have justified in that very act the opinion of Cal- limachus that the day of the epic was past. 2 In fact, the Alexandrian liked the parts better than the whole, and lingered to elaborate whatever pleased. Admitting everything that would enter- tain, he allowed episode, digression, irrelevancy, to withdraw attention from the principal theme. Life itself would move before him not as a whole, made one by law, physical or moral, but as a series of spectacles and emotions " for to admire and for to see." In the physical world as interpreted by him, event does not produce event ; the bond of causation is loosed, and the door 2 See Couat, " La Querelle de Callimaque et d'Apollonius de Rhodes," in Annuaire. de I' Association pour I'Encourage- ment des Etudes Grecques, vol. n (1877), p. 103 (a paper embodied with some changes in the last chapter of his " La Poesie Alexandrine ") ; Susemihl, " Geschichte der Griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit," I. 169, 208, 3So, 353! 384- "Die meisten alexandrinischen Dichter ver- schrankten sich mit richtigem Gefuhl auf Dichtungen von geringem Umfang, und hier gelang es ihnen wirklich noch manches Neue und acht Poetische zu schaffen, namentlich in der Schilderung individuellen Seelenlebens, in der anmu- tigen Darstellung zarter, sentimentaler und leidenschaft- licher Empfindungen." (Susemihl I. 169.) 4 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN opened to chance. 3 In his moral world, the choices and decisions of life hardly realized as choices or decisions at all are lightly made, un- deliberated, often unmotived. Between the two worlds, inner and outer, there is no vital inter- action: human character does not affect human destiny, indeed scarcely affects environment; nor on the other hand do conduct and environment react upon and develop character. Sentiment, the inward working of emotion, does not issue in action, and so becomes mere sentimentality, to be lingered over, sipped, and degusted, for its own sake. And in the "world of description/' the movements and the sounds and shows of things alien to the nature of conduct, and not human- ized, like the classical " setting " or " back- ground," by the uses of man these too are lingered over for their own sake, because they are picturesque, and take the sense with im- mediate pleasure. The absence of unifying in- teraction between the mental and the physical order has left the Alexandrian either engrossed in sentiment out of all contact with reality, or sunk in matter unspiritualized. As the links of Cause are broken, and Fortune takes direction of the affairs of men, events are no longer calculable, as they had been in any imaginative work based, like the Attic drama for example, upon the ancient myths, and exhibiting " the laws of the gods " ; indeed, their interest 8 A far cry from Anaxagoras's strictly classical and sci- entific view that what we call " chance " is causation as yet unknown: air la ivBpunrlvtf \oyiff /j$ &dr)\os. (Diels, " Frag- mente," I. 306, Frag. 66.) ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 5 comes to lie in their very incalculableness. 4 The reader's pleasure no longer consists in seeing law work itself inexorably out, but in being sur- prised, shocked, made to "sit up," by the unex- pectedness, the queerness of the turns things take. The paradoxical, the bizarre, the inconsistent, the self-contradictory these were stock in trade with the writers of Greek Romance. When it is remembered, too, that these writers were professional rhetoricians, their hunger for paradox is seen to assume quite naturally a second phase: it becomes a sophisticated chase after contrasts. The Greek Romances fairly bristle with pointed sentences turning over ad nauseam some shallow " conceited " antitheton. And such writers, one may be sure, were not too much occupied with ideas to neglect allitera- tion of words, parallelism and balance of the members of the sentence, and many another aid to antithesis. Few professional artists in language, again, can resist their tendency toward a conscious dis- play of their art. Given a world of senti- mentality, the sophist will expatiate upon the " psychology " of it, and tell his reader just how a certain person felt upon a given occasion, and why he wept, or was speechless ; or he will let the person himself, by means of soliloquy or tirade 4 Aristotle (Poet. IX. 11-12) recognizes the value of both these elements : that event, he says, is most effective, which is unlocked for, but at the same time strictly caused. The Greek Romances, in neglecting the second element, give undue force to the first. In fact, the " Poetics," chs. VIII and IX (on Plot), and VI and XV (on Character), constitute by anticipation the most concise and trenchant possible criticism of the Greek Romances. 6 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN or letter or lamentation, set forth the conflict of his own feelings. Given a world of sound and show, the same sophist will make it the subject of a rhetorical set-piece; will insert (relevant or irrelevant, what matter?) long word-paintings, tours de force of descriptive writing; or he may go so far as to envisage the whole course of his plot as a succession of pictures. 8 Himself a talker by trade, he will rejoice in great talking- matches, such as grow out of trials at law; and will give the speeches in full. He will now and again enliven his page with a debat or dubbio, and show what can be said on each side of some question in aesthetics or love. The Greek Romances abound in such irrelevant or episodic matter: glittering disputations, or antithetical letters and monologues ; set-pieces of rhetorical pyrotechny; descriptions of paintings, statues, jewels, utensils, gardens and the like; narratives of local mythology, tales of marvellous beasts puerile accounts of the phoenix and his pious son, of the elephant's sweet breath, and the terrifying aspect of the giraffe with much other "unnatural natural history." Plot and char- acter, minimized and often eclipsed by such di- gressions and episodes, fall far too much under the control, respectively, of Fortune and of senti- mentality, which are in their turn frequently made the subject of lengthy tirades Fortune railed upon in good set terms, sentimentality analyzed to death by means of a shallow and distorted " psychology." 8 Cf. Andrew Lang : " Theocritus and his Age," pp. xxxvii, ff. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION ^ It is not here asserted that the schools of Alexandria originated any of the tendencies that are found in such exaggerated form in the Greek Romances. Pictorial description or word-paint- ing appears as early as the Shield of Achilles, and has a long and honorable life in Greek poetry; "the unexpected" we have seen recog- nized by Aristotle; rhetorical antithesis was the gist of the teaching of the early sophist Gorgias ; puerile marvels are not wanting in Herodotus. What is asserted is that Alexandria fostered all these tendencies together as they had never been fostered before, and that she transmitted them to those later schools which produced the Greek Romance. Furthermore, and this is the main point, these tendencies are, in the Greek Romance, not just combined mechanically; the combination rests upon a new and unclassic view of life, and hence of literature a view which would have been abhorrent to Homer, Aristotle, and Herodotus, and even to Gorgias. The foregoing sketch an attempt at a general characterization of the Greek Romance, may serve to introduce analyses of the three chief specimens of the genre: " The ^Ethiopica," or "Theagenes and Chariclea," by Heliodorus; "Clitophon and Leucippe," by Achilles Tatius, and " Daphnis and Chloe," attributed to Longus ; the only extant Greek Romances which are found to have exercised any influence upon Elizabethan prose fiction. Upon these analyses a more ex- tensive critical discussion will be based. THE GREEK ROMANCES IN First printed, translated, etc. 1893 (Hermes, Vol. XXVIII). Photius: "Bibliotheca" (166). Ed. princ. 1601. i i% IS J ^ i'Ji? 5| '> Pk S g'.--O.2rf3-a""2 v. '^ 2. J3 -ocu-^o MIMiS j""3- ffl s""7: K c-S?!^"'^"^ %j5l8:3ll|S s iO*jSltfrii v~j t, t3 cj " e C " -*- 1 *-' C 1 v ; O.'-CS'^MS.'-'X . ," ' Sf Underdowne, 26. or 3d Ed. , tr. Amyot, Fr. , Latin paraphrase by Lo- izo Gambara. , Day's version of Amyot. Ed. princ. 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" C >- 43 IH .5! a *"* S u 3 H < o "" ^ ^ -S S! &- o rt O 2m K 'S o rt 2 S ^o SP:% H I 1) IM ~V H y s >, S in 2 ^ H i: H 1 " 1 o W . 1 '? 0) .5 43 rt"2 a H > "< ni j c c "o _.. -5 S 1 J,< .| <; p "S rt s ^ 4, O w i*^ r* o a .-g.5 g S'Sog ^ o fe* < S ^* 4> bo v- u 'C o > 43 u -s I! a. Q "*"* X* J3 43 *t3 41 ** .- ") 5 6 8 1 S | .2 - " J3 O .2 ? 3 C - ^ rt 2 g .5 J3 Js ,a <3 *S S * " ^ *n 11 tJ 1C bo ^ x >> v ~' x *o .2* "^ "" ^ 13 *-* C 3 *- - .3 p 13 o 1X1 u , u ^ o ii-i U2 O C 55 J-*-* M n C g "O oo 03 10 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN rt 1 0) C 3 rt 'C .2 1 J 'C u , ' rt rt -a >a CM V 3 "53 rt rt t? . 1| X C C C 00-3 at in S ^ "s ; " o 3 '3 g w ^ B CQ pq (3 o" JS g <> .5 . C ll C 3 " ~ .S 1 o ja *c rt a rt -S 8*1- v< 1- ' o, ft 5, o. *""* ^ J ^ to y J ^1 G ^J K "6 . T3 . >o .5 Jj 4s w W rt g 3 ^ W _w W .2 W /\ fe ^ +"* -fc *O ^* '** ^'C 13 O O\ fx >O IO M OH S d -5 U M t >-( P [ (Nl 5 M HI M to OO OO vO S rt "j* ^a V - s .ti 4* ^3 >-) en U ( M C 'u .iJ ** U I 1 o & a < sflf o EO H) o tf s 1 i! 3 in C rt 1 = .1 1 HH M-i rt n) In "| -2 gfg "o v n o h u 3 ^ W U S H Q & e? ? -b s"^ 3 'tj 3 'u 3'*? 2, c.S a c .S c .5 o +3 o *3 g u c o c C C S rS N _,.. rt _EI rt ^ N ^ N 5 **^ ^ *+-< ^ 1 +-4 X *+< X f* "S PQ "3 PQ 53 PQ -5 pq H H H N ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION II HELIODORUS : , OR THEAGENES AND CHARicLEA 5a A. The daughter of Hydaspes and Persina, King and Queen of Ethiopia, was born white (IV. viii), her mother at the moment of concep- tion having gazed intently upon a painting of white Andromeda. Persina, fearing lest this ex- planation should not satisfy the jealousy of her husband, exposed the child, who was saved (II. xxxi) by Sisimithres, an Ethiopian nobleman and gymnosophist, forbidden by his philosophical tenets to abandon any living thing. "With the child he found and preserved a ring and other jewels (IV. viii), as well as fillets upon which were inscribed the reasons for her exposure. He had her reared by shepherds. When she was seven years old (II. xxx, xxxi) he took her with him to Catadupi the Cataracts of the Nile upon an embassy committed to him by Hydaspes. Oroondates, Viceroy of Egypt under the Great King, was disputing with Hydaspes the title to the City of Philae and to the emerald mines near it on the border between Egypt and Ethiopia. Sisimithres, perhaps fear- ing the consequences to himself and his ward of the uncompromising claims he must make on behalf of Hydaspes, entrusted the child, with her 8 * A, B, etc., designate portions of the story for con- venience in referring to them as wholes. Roman numerals designate book and chapter of the original text. 12 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN jewels and tokens, to one Charicles, a priest of Apollo. As Charicles had recently lost his own wife and daughter (II. xxix), he had left Delphi to seek consolation in travel, and now happened to be at Catadupi. He accepted the charge (II. xxxii). Sisimithres's prudence was justified by the event, for Oroondates ordered him out of Catadupi at once on pain of death. [We hear no more of him till the very end of the story.] With Charicles the child returned to Delphi, re- ceived the name Chariclea, and herself became a priestess of Diana (II. xxxiii). B. (a) When Chariclea had arrived at mar- riageable age, there came to Delphi two persons the Memphian Calasiris, a priest of Isis (II. xxvi), and Theagenes a Thessalian, a descendant of Achilles (II. xxxiv). Calasiris in his temple had been tempted by the charms of Rhodopis a courtesan (II. xxv), and wished to fly from the temptation; moreover, having divined that there would be a deadly combat between his sons, he wished to avoid the fulfilment of the prediction; and, finally, he deemed Delphi an appropriate place of retirement for one of his priestly caste (II. xxvi). Theagenes had come to celebrate memorial rites (II. xxxiv) in honor of his an- cestor Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. Having made friends with Calasiris, Charicles partly told him, and partly by showing him Chariclea's tokens enabled him to discover for himself (IV. viii), the story given in A. Further, he re- quested the wise Egyptian's aid (II. xxxiii) in persuading Chariclea to take a husband prefer- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 1 3 ably Charicles's nephew Alcamenes. But The- agenes and Chariclea had seen each other at the games and ceremonies, and had already fallen in love with each other (III. v; IV. i-iv). Each now confided in Calasiris (III. xvii; IV. iv, v, x-xiii) ; and an oracle (II. xxxv) and several dreams and divine voices (III. xi; IV. xiv, xvi) predicted their ultimate union, and sanctioned their immediate flight under his protection. While Chariclea therefore upon his advice (IV. xiii) feigned consent to her marriage with Alca- menes, Calasiris took passage for the three (IV. xvi) with some Phoenician mariners who chanced to be sailing from Delphi to Carthage. Under his instructions Theagenes abducted Chariclea, and joined Calasiris (IV. xvii-xviii), who put the pursuers on a false scent (IV. xix). The three sailed away together (V. i). The lovers agreed (IV. xviii) to remain virgin till their nuptials could be formally celebrated, and meanwhile gave themselves out as brother and sister, and Calasiris as their father (V. xxvi). B. (b) The captain of the Phoenician vessel became enamored of Chariclea (V. xix), and both she and Calasiris deemed it best to feign consent to the marriage, postponing it, however, till their arrival at Memphis (V. xx). The ship wintering at Zacynthus (V. xviii), our trio lodged with Tyrrhenus a fisherman. Though so near Ithaca, they neglected to pay their respects to Odysseus, whose offended shade appeared in a vision (V. xxii) to threaten Calasiris. Trach- inus, a pirate of the neighborhood, desired both 14 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Chariclea and the richly laden ship, and confided to Tyrrhenus his plan of attack (V. xx). Tyr- rhenus warned his guests, who at once re-em- barked (V. xxi-xxii). Nevertheless Trachinus overtook them, seized the vessel with its freight, and allowing the Tyrian captain and his crew to depart in the boats, kept our trio prisoners (V. xxiv-xxvi). Upon his offering marriage to Chariclea, she again dissembled. A storm drove them to the Heracleotic mouth of the Nile, where they landed, and Trachinus prepared for an im- mediate wedding (V. xxvii-xxix) ; whereupon Calasiris devised a stratagem. He persuaded Pelorus, Trachinus's lieutenant, that Chariclea loved him (V. xxx), and inflamed him with the sight of her in bridal array, so that Pelorus dis- puted with his captain the distribution of the booty, and, as the first to board the captured ship, claimed Chariclea for himself (V. xxxi). The feast turning into a fight, most of the pirates, including Trachinus, were killed; Pelorus in a hand-to-hand combat with Theagenes was sorely wounded and put to flight; and Calasiris was separated from Theagenes and Chariclea, who remained together on the shore (V. xxxii- xxxiii). [Here the story opens, in mediis rebus.] C. (I. i-iii) While Chariclea tended the wounds of Theagenes, there supervened a small band of Egyption robbers, who seized the pair. Very soon, however, a larger band came up, under the command of one Thyamis. D. (I. xix; VII. ii) Thyamis was the eldest ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 1 5 son of Calasiris. Shortly after Calasiris's de- parture from Memphis, Arsace, sister of the Great King and wife of Oroondates, had become enamored of Thyamis. She solicited him, but he resisted. His younger brother Petosiris, desiring to succeed instead of Thyamis to the priestly office of his father, traduced Thyamis to Oroon- dates, who banished him from Memphis. Thya- mis had become chief of the bandits known as " Herdsmen." E. He now took Theagenes and Chariclea from their first captors, conducted them to his retreat among the marshes of the Delta, treated them honorably (I. v-vii), and proposed to marry Chariclea, who again feigned consent (I. xix-xxvi). Their captivity was lightened by the companionship of Cnemon, a young Athenian, who spent the night in telling them F (a). F. (a) (I. ix-xvii) Cnemon was the son of Aristippus, who took Demaeneta as his second wife. Enamored of her stepson, she solicited him, and upon his refusal, plotted to ruin him. First she feigned illness and falsely accused Cnemon of kicking her : thus she had him beaten by his father. Then she made her slave girl Thisbe gain his affection and confidence, and per- suade him to believe that Demaeneta had a para- mour who was to visit her on a certain night. Cnemon with drawn sword broke into the cham- ber and confronted his father. Aristippus in the belief that his son had attempted parricide accused him to the Assembly, which banished him. The love-sick Demaeneta thereupon re- 1 6 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN lented; and desiring his return bitterly blamed Thisbe for having been but too compliant. In fear for herself, Thisbe determined to entrap her mistress. Cnemon, she said, was not abroad, but hiding in the outskirts of Athens, where he kept a slave-girl Arsinoe, a friend of Thisbe's: De- maeneta, if she would, might in the dark take this girl's place. Demaeneta consented to the assignation, and Thisbe actually procured from Arsinoe the use of her house. Meanwhile Thisbe told Aristippus that at Arsinoe's house Demae- neta was to meet a paramour. Aristippus broke in and caught his wife, Thisbe slamming a door and pretending that the lover had escaped. Demaeneta, on the way back to Athens in the custody of her husband, threw herself into a pit and ended her life. Aristippus reported all to the Assembly, which barely exonerated him. F. (b) (II. viii-ix) Now it happened that Thisbe ousted Arsinoe from the affections of one Nausicles, a merchant, and Arsinoe in her jealousy revealed her rival's stratagem to De- maeneta's relatives. They brought the matter again before the Assembly, which found that De- maeneta was innocent, and that, as Aristippus had been instrumental in procuring her death, he must be banished and his goods confiscated. The witness he needed to clear him, Thisbe, was absent, having gone abroad with Nausicles. F. (c) (VI. ii) These facts came to the knowledge of Cnemon, who, faithful to his father, set out in search of Thisbe in order to reinstate him. Cnemon was captured by pirates, ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 1 7 but escaped, and made his way to Egypt, where he was taken prisoner by Thyamis. G. That night Thyamis dreamed (I. xviii) that Isis in her temple appeared to him and said, " I deliver this maiden to you, but though you have her you shall not have her, but shall kill your guest; yet she shall not be killed." This dream he interpreted to suit his wishes. The next day (I. xxvii-xxx) he was suddenly at- tacked by the robbers who had first seized The- agenes and Chariclea, and who had meanwhile gathered reinforcements. For safety he made Cnemon place Chariclea in the cave where he kept his treasure. Desperately pressed by his enemies, and determined that no one else should have her, he entered the cave, and in the dark stabbed a woman whom he took to be Chariclea. H. This woman was really Thisbe (II. xiv). On her travels with Nausicles she had been cap- tured by Thermuthis, the lieutenant of Thyamis, and, like Chariclea, had been placed in the cave. When Cnemon and Theagenes rejoined Chari- clea there, they found on Thisbe's body (II. vi) a letter written by her to Cnemon, whom she had seen to be a fellow-captive, protesting (II. x) the genuineness of her love for him despite her treachery, and imploring him to save her from her barbarous lover. Cnemon thereupon told F (fe) (II. viii-ix). That night (II. xvi) Chari- clea dreamed that a ruffian gouged out her right eye : a dream interpreted by Cnemon as portend- ing the death of her father. K. (I. xxxiii) Thyamis was taken alive by 1 8 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN his enemies, who designed to deliver him to his brother at Memphis for the sake of reward. This reward Petosiris had offered in order both to get Thyamis back into his power and to set at rest the rumor that he had killed Thyamis. L. Thermuthis (II. xii) escaped from the hostile band, found Thisbe dead in the cave, joined Theagenes, Chariclea and Cnemon, told them his part of H (II. xiv), and set out in search of Thyamis (II. xviii). He insisted upon Cnemon's bearing him company, who complied, upon Theagenes's suggestion that he might easily desert Thermuthis whenever he would. So Cnemon, agreeing to rejoin Theagenes and Chariclea at the town of Chemmis, went with Thermuthis, but soon, pretending to fall behind by reason of sickness, contrived to leave him alone (II. xix-xx). Thermuthis falling asleep was stung by an asp, and died. Meanwhile, Theagenes and Chariclea, disguised as beggars (II. xix; V. iv), also set out for Chemmis. M. (II. xxi) On the banks of the Nile near Chemmis, Cnemon encountered Calasiris, who had wandered thither from the Heracleotic mouth of the Nile (see B ad fin.}. Here also Nausicles, in the course of his search for Thisbe, had placed his headquarters, and had taken as a guest Calasiris, similarly engaged in a search for his adopted children (II. xxii). Now Calasiris extended tc Cnemon the shelter of Nausicles's house, and there told Cnemon A and B (a) (II. xxv-xxxvi; III entire; IV entire; V. i). N. Nausicles himself was absent (II. xxiv). ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 19 He had bribed Mithranes, the lieutenant of Oroondates, to send a detachment of troops in search of Thisbe, and was now with them. They met (V. v-vii) and captured Theagenes and Chariclea. Mithranes, designing to send The- agenes as a present to the Great King, dispatched him to his commander Oroondates, then at Memphis (V. ix). Chariclea was promptly claimed as Thisbe by Nausicles (V. viii), who whispered to her that her safety depended upon her acknowledging that name. She did so, and Nausicles took her to his house at Chemmis, un- beknown to his guests. That night (V. ii-iii) Cnemon overheard her lamenting her fate and calling herself Thisbe; and he was sore afraid. Next day she was restored to Calasiris (V. xi- xv), to whose claim Nausicles yielded her. Calasiris told B (&) (V. xvi-xxxiv) ; Cnemon, P (0 (vi. ii). O. (VI. iii-viii) Thyamis managed to make his escape (see K} and to gather another band from the town of Bessa. With this he attacked Mithranes's force, and took Theagenes. These facts were learned by Calasiris, Chariclea, Nau- sicles and Cnemon on their way to redeem Theagenes from Mithranes. They returned to Chemmis. There Nausicles offered Cnemon his daughter to wife. Cnemon took her gladly, and threw in his lot with his father-in-law, who was about to go to Greece. [This is the last of Cnemon and of Nausicles.] P. (VI. xi-xv) Calasiris and Chariclea dis- guised as beggars made their way to Bessa to 20 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN find Theagenes. Arriving at sunset, they learned from an old woman that Mithranes had sought to punish the Bessenes for their attack, but had been defeated and killed: and that the insurgents under Thyamis, in order to strengthen themselves against the Great King, from whom they could no longer hope for pardon, had now proceeded to attack Memphis itself Oroondates being ab- sent upon an expedition into Ethiopia: The- agenes, then, was to be found towards Memphis. The old woman retired, and now believing her- self unobserved, raised the dead body of her son, slain in the fight, and by her spells com- pelled it to prophesy : " She herself should shortly die a violent death ; the priest then pres- ent might if he made haste prevent the fatal outcome of a combat between his sons; the maiden would be united with her lover." Seek- ing to destroy the witnesses to her necromancy, the witch stumbled, and fell upon the point of a spear that stuck up from the field. Thus she died. Q. Arrived before the walls of Memphis (VII. i-iii), Thyamis and Theagenes, now grown friends, called for a parley, and demanded Thyamis's restoration to the priesthood. In the absence of Oroondates, his wife Arsace as regent came to the walls, and beheld the two young men. Straightway her old desire of Thyamis gave place to new desire of Theagenes (VII. iv). Yet she so far favored Thyamis as to grant that his quarrel with Petosiris should be decided by single combat between them. Petosiris re- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 21 luctantly accepted his brother's challenge, tried to run away, and was chased round the walls by Thyamis (VII. v-vi). Theagenes, unarmed, ac- companied Thyamis : so that Arsace became still more passionately enamored of Theagenes's grace as a runner. At the moment when Thyamis was about to strike (VII. vi-vii), arrived Calasiris with Chariclea. The old man threw off his rags, appeared in his sacred garb, stopped the combat, and reconciled his sons. Theagenes not recognizing Chariclea in the beggar-girl before him, rebuffed and struck her when she tried to embrace him ; but she mur- mured their countersign Pythius and exhibited her torch: whereupon he knew her and com- pleted this scene of recognition. Received enthusiastically by the Memphians (VII. viii), who flocked about them, they all entered the city in a sort of triumphal procession. Calasiris now inducted Thyamis into the priesthood, resigned his own robes, and died (VII. viii, xi), perhaps of joy in this consum- mation. (Thus verifying an oracle he had received upon his arrival at Delphi : that he should soon possess a piece of Egyptian ground.) His funeral rites made it unlaw- ful for any but priests to enter the precincts of the temple for seven days. Thus Thyamis was rendered unable to keep Theagenes and Chariclea there under his own protection, and they were left to the designs of Arsace (VII. ix-xv). She lodged them well in the palace, and, assisted by her old chamber-woman, Cybele, 22 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN who acted as go-between, gradually acquainted Theagenes with her wishes. He repeatedly re- fused her (VII. xix, xxii, xxv) despite Chariclea's advice (VII. xxi) to him to feign compliance and at a public audience gave her scant respect. Cybele's son, Achaemenes (VII. xv-xvi), formerly an officer under Mithranes, had been given charge of Theagenes to take him to Oroondates. Now he recognized him; and, seeing Chariclea too, fell in love with her. When his mother, who had failed to persuade The- agenes, was in fear of Arsace's threats, he of- fered Arsace a sure means of forcing Theagenes to comply (VII. xxiii-xxiv), provided she would promise him " Theagenes's sister " to wife. She consented, and he thereupon told her that The- agenes was in reality her slave, as he had been taken in war and destined for her husband to send to her brother the Great King. Arsace now made Theagenes her servant at table. But when she told him that she had granted "his sister " to Achaemenes, he pretended that his re- sistance was overcome (VII. xxv-xxvi), re- quested private audience with only Cybele as wit- ness, revealed Chariclea's real relation to himself, and urged that as Arsace had promised Achae- menes not " Chariclea," but " Theagenes's sister," she might lawfully disavow her supposed promise. He himself, he said, would yield as soon as she did so. Thus he again raised him- self into high favor, still further inflamed Arsace (VII. xxvii) by his grace in serving her at table, and frustrated Achaemenes. Informed by his ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 23 mother (VII. xxviii), Achaemenes at once posted off to Oroondates (VII. xxix) who was then preparing a campaign against the Ethiopians in re the still unsettled question of Philae and the emerald mines (see A). Him he told of Chari- clea's beauty, and of Arsace's conduct toward Theagenes. Oroondates forthwith sent peremp- torily for both the prisoners (VIII. i-iii). Meanwhile Theagenes had resumed his resist- ance, and at the instigation of Cybele had been imprisoned and flogged (VIII. iii, v-vi) by order of Arsace. It was in vain that Thyamis (VIII. iii-v), now at liberty after the period of ritual seclusion, requested Arsace to turn the lovers over to his care. She declined to give them up. Theagenes in his cell continually called upon the name of Chariclea (VIII. vi) ; whereat Cybele conceived the idea that if Chariclea were put out of the way, Theagenes would yield. With Arsace's permission, therefore (VIII. vii-viii), she attempted to poison Chariclea. But the slave-girl who offered the cups accidentally inter- changed them, and Cybele drank the poison. Yet even as she died, her malice worked: by signs she charged Chariclea with poisoning her. Arsace had Chariclea imprisoned (VIII. ix) and on the next day arraigned; who defied her, but declared that if Theagenes were, as she supposed, dead, she would acknowledge the crime, that she too might die. Thereupon she was con- demned to the stake. But the stone Pantarbe in her ring kept her unscathed in the midst of the flames. Pitying her beauty and manifest 24 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN innocence, the people rescued her; but Arsace recaptured her and harangued them to the effect that she had been saved by witchcraft only : next day they should come and themselves should have an opportunity to condemn her upon all the evi- dence. Meanwhile, as an additional torment, that she might behold her lover's sad plight, she was committed to the cell occupied by Theagenes ; but they regarded this course as a favor, and spent the night in talk. Chariclea related (VIII. xi) that on the previous night Calasiris had appeared to her in a vision and bidden her be of good cheer, for Pantarbe would save her. Theagenes related that Calasiris had on the same night ap- peared to him and predicted that on the morrow the lovers should escape and soon reach Ethiopia. The fulfilment of the first prediction made them look confidently for that of the second. Indeed, that very night (VIII. xii-xv) Oroondates's deputy arrived, and, showing his authority, removed the prisoners and conducted them towards Oroondates. On the way a mes- senger overtook them to announce that Arsace upon learning of their removal had killed her- self. Later a messenger from the front met them with the news that Oroondates had gone to Syene, which was threatened by the enemy (VIII. xvi-xvii). Travelling in that direction, the lovers were shortly captured by a scouting party of Ethiopians, who conveyed them to the army of Hydaspes. Hydaspes was besieging Oroondates in Syene (IX. i-xxii). By means of great trenches and ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 5 earthen dykes he surrounded the city with the waters of the Nile, which, insulating it, rose against its walls, and threatened to break through and drown the inhabitants. Oroondates capitu- lated, offering to surrender Syene, as well as Philae and the emerald mines, and to undertake no further hostilities, if he were allowed to de- part with his army to Elephantis. Meanwhile he dispatched two messengers thither. Pending negotiations, Hydaspes granted a truce, and by new feats of engineering led off the waters of the Nile. Then, by night, Oroondates and his army treacherously made their escape by means of planks laid across the mud-ring, and at Ele- phantis joined the main force of Persians, pre- pared by the messengers he had sent. Returning with all his troops, he retook Syene, which was guarded by only a small garrison. Then Hydaspes fought a great battle, and defeated and captured Oroondates, but spared him, forgave his treachery, and (IX. xxv) made him Viceroy under himself. With the other prisoners Theagenes and Chari- clea (IX. xxiii xxiv) were presented to Hy- daspes, who by reason of their exceeding beauty reserved them to be sacrificed when they should reach Ethiopia. Chariclea, though Theagenes urged her, and though Hydaspes related a dream he had had which showed him a daughter of his own like Chariclea in appearance, would not then disclose her identity. She was determined to wait till she should be in her mother's pres- ence, whose instinct could not fail to identify her. 26 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Here and now her tokens might be misunder- stood, and might be supposed to be stolen. To Meroe, then, the prisoners were taken Hydaspes's capital; where they were met by Persina, with the priestly gymnosophists, and great numbers of the Ethiopian people (X. i-vi), all rejoicing in the victory. When led forth to the sacrifice, Theagenes and Chariclea (X. vii) astonished all by their beauty and courageous bearing. Chariclea particularly appealed to the sympathy of Persina, who hoped that in the trial of chastity which was to establish the purity of the victims she might fail and so be saved. Not so (X. viii, ix) : she leaped upon the heated golden bars of the altar, but remained unscathed. So too did Theagenes. And now the president of the gymnosophists no other than old Sisi- mithres declined to make, or to countenance by his presence, a human sacrifice, and with his band was about to withdraw, when Chariclea (X. x-xv), hearing the King address him as Sisi- mithres, saw that the moment had come, and begged him to remain. In his presence she then disclosed her identity; offering in evidence her inscribed fillets, which Persina acknowledged at once; her striking resemblance to the pictured Andromeda; the ring Pantarbe, which Hydaspes recognized as the bethrothal ring he had given his wife; and a black mark which Sisimithres re- membered to have seen on the arm of the child he had found. Chariclea (X. xi) claimed ex- emption, for that only foreigners might be sacrificed. Hydaspes, only too ready to grant it ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 27 upon personal motives, yet felt obliged to offer, in a long speech to his people, to sacrifice his daughter nevertheless for their sake, lest the gods be wroth with them all. But the multitude unanimously refused (X. xvi, xvii). Thus was Chariclea saved. In the most absurdly mock-modest, round- about, underhand, and self -contradictory fashion, she proceeded (X. xviii-xxii) to give her parents incomprehensible hints about her true relations with Theagenes now imploring his preserva- tion, now demanding that she alone might wield the knife to sacrifice him until Hydaspes actually thought her mad. To give her time to recover, he took the opportunity to receive the ambassadors who had come to congratulate him. One of them was his nephew Meroebus (X. xxiii-xxiv), whom he at once bethrothed to Chariclea. Meroebus presented to Hydaspes a gigantic athlete (X. xxv) a champion racer, boxer and wrestler, whose challenge nobody ac- cepting, he received a prize by default. Among the other gifts was a camelopard (X. xviii-xxx). This strange and terrifying creature so frightened a sacrificial bull and two white horses that they broke loose and galloped about. In the con- fusion, Theagenes, whose keepers had relaxed their guard, leaped upon one of the horses, and, without attempting to escape, pursued the bull and drove him in a team with his own mount ; at length, having tired him out, he leaped upon him and dragged him to the ground by the horns. The people shouted acclaim, and demanded that 28 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN he be matched with the wrestler. Him too he felled (X. xxxi-xxxii). The King then crowned Theagenes victor, who made the same petition as Chariclea had made, that she be the one to wield the knife. This request was re- fused, and he was being led to the altar (X. xxxiii), when who should appear but Charicles! Ever since Chariclea's elopement he had been wandering in search of her, and had now traced her to Egypt, whence he had taken this last step by the aid of Oroondates, from whom he bore (X. xxxiv) a letter to Hydaspes. Seizing Theagenes (X. xxxv-xxxvi), Charicles de- manded his punishment for the abduction of Chariclea and the sacrilege done to the temple of Diana at Delphi! Theagenes admitted the charge (X. xxxvii). Chariclea welcomed Chari- cles (X. xxxviii), and begged him to punish her for her disobedience to him, enjoined though it was by the gods. Persina, now convinced that our lovers were man and wife, so assured Hydaspes. He turned for advice to Sismithres, who in a loud voice, that the people might hear and approve (X. xxxix-xli), declared that the gods had manifested clearly their unwillingness to receive this or any other human sacrifice : let the custom, then, be abolished, and this young couple be formally wedded. The people again shouted approval ; and so, with the consent of all, Theagenes and Chariclea proceeded to the cele- bration of their nuptial rites. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 9 LONGUS : DAPHNIS AND CHLOE Pre face ( Procemium ) Hunting on Lesbos, I saw in a beautiful grove a painting representing the incidents of a love- story, " the fortunes of Love " : women in labor, nurses swathing new-born babes; infants ex- posed; animals suckling them; shepherds carry- ing them away; young people embracing; an attack by pirates; an inroad by a hostile force. I procured an explanation of the series, and wrote out these four books an offering to the God of Love, to the Nymphs, and to Pan. Book I i-iii. Lamon, a goatherd upon an estate near Mitylene, found in a thicket one of his she-goats suckling a boy-baby, who lay exposed in a very rich mantle, with a little ivory-hilted sword. He took the boy with the tokens home to his wife Myrtale, who agreed with him to adopt the child. They named him Daphnis. iv-vi. Two years later Dryas, a neighboring shepherd, found in a cave sacred to the Nymphs, one of his ewes suckling a girl-baby, who besides swaddling clothes had gilt sandals, golden anklets and a head-dress wrought with gold. He took her with her tokens to his wife, and they adopted her, calling her Chloe. vii-x. When Daphnis was fifteen and Chloe 30 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN thirteen, their adoptive fathers had on the same night a vision of a winged boy with bow and arrows, to whom the Nymphs presented Daphnis and Chloe, and who, touching them with one of his shafts, bade them follow the pastoral life. So they tended their flocks together in the springtime, and played in childlike peace, until Love contrived a serious interruption, xi-xii. Daphnis pursuing a goat fell into a pit that had been dug to catch a wolf, and was rescued by Chloe with the help of a cowherd. He was so covered with mud and dirt that he must needs bathe. 6 [xiii-xvii. As Chloe helped to wash him, she saw the beauty of his sunburned skin and felt the softness of his flesh, and so first experi- enced love. She languished, lay awake, took no food, and soliloquized with many antitheses and oxymora. Dorco the cowherd became enamored of Chloe, gave her many rustic gifts, and at length vied with Daphnis in argument as to whether Daphnis or he were the more beautiful the prize to be a kiss from Chloe. Daphnis was the winner; and the kiss set his heart on fire. He too languished and grew pale; he too soliloquized] with (xviii) much oxymoron. xix-xxii. Dorco asked Dryas for the hand of Chloe, but was refused, as Dryas hoped for a better match. Thus thwarted, Dorco resolved to carry off Chloe, and, in order to terrify her, clothed himself in a wolf's skin and hid among 8 The passage between brackets is the fragment discovered by P. L. Courier in 1807 ; and is of course unknown to the Renaissance. It is D, p. 135, 1. 13-?. 137, 1. 21, both included. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 3 1 the bushes near her pasture-ground. But her dogs scenting him attacked and bit him sorely, before Chloe, and Daphnis whom she had called, could come to his rescue. Both Daphnis and Chloe thought the disguise merely an innocent jest on the part of Dorco. They collected their flocks, which had been scattered by the barking of the dogs, and, tired by the day's exertion, slept soundly that night despite their lovesickness. xxiii-xxvii. Now Daphnis and Chloe again tended their flocks together in the growing sum- mer heat, which still further inflamed them. Chloe milked her ewes and she-goats, and crowned herself with a chaplet of pine. Daphnis bathed, and Chloe put on his dress. They pelted each other with apples. Daphnis taught Chloe to play upon his pipe, and gained kisses at second hand by touching quickly with his lips the places her lips had touched. Once when Chloe fell asleep at noonday, a grasshopper pursued by a swallow dropped into her bosom, and the swallow fluttering over her awoke her. She screamed; but Daphnis laughed at her alarm, and with his hand took out the happy grasshopper, which she kissed and replaced in her bosom. At the sound of a ring-dove's cooing, Daphnis Ipld Chloe the legend: how the dove was once a maiden, a tender of flocks, sweet-voiced ; and how a youth contending with her in song charmed away eight of her cows. She prayed to be transformed into a bird; the gods granted her prayer; and still she calls her cows, in vain. xxviii-xxx. In the early autumn, some 3 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Tyrian pirates descended upon that coast. After a struggle with Dorco they drove off some of his oxen; and rinding Daphnis alone upon the shore, carried him away too, calling upon Chloe for help. She ran to Dorco, who, sore wounded and about to breathe his last, gave her his pipe, with the direction to play upon it the call his oxen knew. Then he died, taking one kiss from her as his reward. Chloe played the well-known tune; whereupon the oxen thronged to one side of the pirate ship and leapt overboard, capsizing it and precipitating the crew and Daphnis into the water. The pirates, weighed down with their armor, soon drowned ; Daphnis, lightly clad, swam ashore between two oxen, grasping a horn of each. xxxi-xxxii. They celebrated in rustic fashion the funeral of Dorco. Then Chloe bathed Daphnis, and for the first time in his presence bathed herself ; so that he was nigh distracted. Book II i-ii. Now came the vintage ; and Daphnis and Chloe left their flocks and helped. The women admired Daphnis, the men Chloe, who both wished themselves back at the herding. At length, when the grapes were all trodden and the new wine stored in casks, they returned, and rejoiced with their flocks. An old man named Philetas, sitting near, accosted them, and told them this Idyll : iii-vi. " I have a beautiful garden. Today when I entered it about noon, I spied a little ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 33 naked boy under my pomegranates and myrtles, some of which he had plucked. I sprang to catch him, but lightly he escaped; and when I paused exhausted, he came near and smiled so irresistibly that I offered him the freedom of my garden for a kiss. Laughing he replied : ' One kiss from me would only make you run after me for more ; and in vain, for you could never catch me. Child though I seem, I am older than Saturn or old Time; and I have known you, Philetas, of old. I was by when you wooed Amaryllis: she and your sons were my gifts to you. Through me it is that your garden blooms. But just now I am shepherding Daphnis and Chloe.' Like a young nightingale he sprang up among the myrtles, and vanished, but not before I saw wings upon his shoulders, and a bow and arrows between. Depend upon it, you are con- secrated to Love." vii-xi. " What is this Love ? " they asked, " a child or a bird?" Philetas answered in praise of Love, telling of his dominion over all nature and over the gods themselves ; of the pains he inflicts : heat, cold, and desire, loss of appetite and of sleep; and of the remedies : to kiss, embrace, and lie naked together. Hereon they mused ; and, when Philetas had gone and they had returned home, they realized, each of them, that the symptoms he had described were their own. Next morning they tried for the first time the first two remedies, and on the following day a literal version of the third, but without avail. 34 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN xii-xix. At this time some young men of Methymne came to spend the vintage in hunting and fishing along this coast. A peasant having stolen the cable wherewith they had moored their boat, they substituted a twisted willow-withe. The chase frightened Daphnis's goats down to the shore, where finding no other food they gnawed through the osier; so that a rising swell carried away the boat and its contents. The youths found Daphnis, gave him a beating, and were preparing to bind him, when Lamon and Dryas appeared in answer to his cries, and in- sisted upon a fair hearing for both sides. Phi- letas as the oldest man present was chosen as judge, and, having heard the youths and Daphnis plead their cause, decided for Daphnis. En- raged, the Methymnaeans seized Daphnis again, but were beaten off by the countrymen and had to make their painful way home on foot. There they told as much of the story as favored them- selves, and incited their fellow citizens to make war on the Lesbians. xx-xxiv. The invaders with a fleet ravaged the coast, seized Daphnis's herds and carried off Chloe though she had fled for asylum to the grotto of the Nymphs, where she had first been found. Daphnis not finding her at their usual haunts lamented her to the Nymphs, who reas- sured him in a vision, promising the aid of Pan, to whom they recommended him now to pay due honors. So he did, and returned home. xxv-xxx. During that night and the next day the Methymnaean fleet was beset with Panic ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 35 terrors: the earth appeared to be in a blaze, hostile vessels seemed to approach with clashing oars, the goats' horns were wreathed with ivy, the sheep howled like wolves, Chloe herself was garlanded with pine-branches; anchors stuck, oars were split, dolphins leapt from the sea and shattered the vessel's planks; and from the top of a neighboring headland were heard the terrific notes of Pan's own pipe. At length Pan himself addressing the commander in a dream bade him restore Chloe and the goats and sheep, which being immediately landed, Pan's pipes guided, now playing a sweet pastoral measure, over this strange country back to Daphnis. xxxi-xxxiii. Daphnis and Chloe gratefully sacrificed to the Nymphs and to Pan ; Lamon and Dryas, Philetas and his young son Tityrus assisting at the feast. Each of the participants contributed to the entertainment. xxxiv. Lamon related the legend of Pan and Syrinx, and of the invention of the pipes of Pan. xxxv. Philetas on his own great pipe played all the varieties of pastoral melody the tune for oxen, the tune for goats, the tune for sheep and finally the vintage-dance, xxxvi. This Dryas danced in pantomime, imitating every process of the vintage, xxxvii-xxxix. Then Daphnis and Chloe in pantomimic dance enacted Pan and Syrinx Daphnis at length playing so sweetly upon Philetas' pipe his lamentation for the Nymph transformed, that Philetas bestowed upon him the pipe. Daphnis dedicated his old boyish pipe as an offering to Pan; and with 36 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Chloe driving homeward their flocks and herds, so ended the day. Next morning they met earlier than usual, again tried in vain the reme- dies of love, and vowed mutual fidelity. Book III i-iii. Mitylene now sent an army against Methymne, which, by this time, discovering the true cause of the fray to have been the insolence of her own young men, asked for peace and offered to restore all the spoils an offer which was at once accepted. "Thus did the war be- tween Methymne and Mitylene begin and end in an equally unexpected manner." iv-xi. Now winter came, and snow blocked the roads and shut the cottagers within doors to their fireside occupations. Chloe was kept at the spinning and the wool-carding, but Daphnis went abroad to snare birds in the trees near Chloe's cottage, hoping for a pretext to enter and see her. When he had snared a bagful without seeing a sign of life from within, he was just about to depart when Dryas himself in chase of a sheep-dog that had stolen his meat came out and heartily invited Daphnis in. Daphnis and Chloe met and embraced ; she served wine, herself sipping first, and he drank at the spot her lips had touched. Then they all sat by the fire, and at length Lamon and Myrtale invited Daphnis to remain till the morrow. He gladly accepted, and gave them his bag of birds for supper. So they sat round the fire again, drinking and singing and telling stories till bed- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 37 time. Next day Daphnis and Chloe snared birds together, and again exchanged vows, and told of their longing for the spring. Then Daphnis took his leave, but often thereafter contrived occasion for new visits. xii-xx. At last came spring once more, all living creatures loved, and Daphnis and Chloe, themselves shepherded by Love, went forth before all the other shepherds, that they might be together alone. Daphnis now grown bolder in love tried to treat Chloe as he saw the rarns treat the ewes, and the he-goats their mates, but still in vain. And now Lycaenium, the young city wife of their old neighbor Chromis, gave Daphnis a lesson in love. This however he would not practice with Chloe, fearing to hurt her. xxi-xxiii. As they sat together, a fishing-boat passed near them, the boatswain and the sailors singing a rowing song and chorus, which the echo prolonged and redoubled. "Was there another sea behind the hill, and other sailors singing ? " Chloe asked when all was still again. Daphnis smiling told her the legend of Echo stipulating for a reward of ten kisses: ' Echo, the daughter of a nymph and of a mortal, learned from the Muses every kind of music. She refused marriage, and fled the sight of men. Pan in his indignation inspired the shepherds with such frenzy that they tore her limb from limb. Her melodious body, though covered with earth, still preserves its gift of music, and imi- tates all sounds, even those of the pipes of Pan, 38 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN who, when he hears her, rushes over the hills to find his hidden pupil.' Chloe gave him kisses not ten but a thousand. xxv-xxix. This summer Chloe had many suitors, who offered rich gifts; but Dryas still postponed a decision, in the hope of a more brilliant match, aware as he was that Chloe was something above a shepherd's daughter. Daphnis in distress at the chance of losing her, desired to ask her hand, but his foster-parents also disapproved, wishing to reserve him for a less humble bride. Moreover, Daphnis himself was poor. Now he prayed to the Nymphs, who in a vision told him that the boat of the young Methymnaeans had been driven ashore and wrecked, leaving a purse of three thousand drachmas under a bunch of seaweed near a dead dolphin, the smell of which had kept others from finding the treasure. This very smell guided Daphnis to it, who boldly offered it to Dryas as his wooing gift. xxx-xxxiv. Dryas accepted, and went to gain the consent of Lamon. This Lamon gave, sub- ject to the consent of his master, who was ex- pected from Mitylene in the autumn to visit his estate. Joyfully Dryas returned and told the news to Daphnis, joyfully Daphnis received it and ran to tell Chloe. Her he found at the milking and cheese-making, wherein he helped her openly, as her affianced ; and then they went together to look for fruit. One bright particular apple, golden and fragrant, and solitary on the top of the tree, Daphnis climbed for, and plucked, ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 39 and gave to Chloe ; and she gave him a kiss more precious than a golden apple. Book IV i-vi. In preparation for his master's visit, now announced definitely by a neighbor, Lamon set in order his house and his garden. Soon another messenger, Eudromus, came with orders for them to get in the vintage: at the end of the vintage the master would come. Daphnis gave Eudro- mus many gifts, who returned to Mitylene well pleased. vii-x. Lampis an insolent herdsman, and an envious wooer of Chloe, desiring to destroy Lamon's interest with his master and so spoil her match with Daphnis, broke into Lamon's garden at night, and uprooted, broke, or trampled down the flowers. All were in despair until Eudromus coming to announce the arrival of the master in three days, and that of his son the next day counselled them to tell the whole to their young master Astylus. Astylus, who in fact came next day with Gnatho his parasite, heard the story, and promised to intercede for them with his father, promised indeed to lay the blame upon his own horses, which he would say had done the damage. xi-xii. Gnatho now made paederastic pro- posals to Daphnis, who knocked him down. Still Gnatho hoped to obtain him as a gift from Astylus. xiii-xv. Meanwhile, Dionysophanes and Clear- ista arrived, and, well pleased with what they 4 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN saw for they excused the condition of the gar- den promised Lamon his freedom. Then they inspected the herd of goats, which they found to have prospered under Daphnis's charge, and they listened while Daphnis put the goats through a drill, to the sound of his pipe. xvi-xvii. Gnatho now with arguments in favor of paederasty asked Daphnis of Astylus, who promised to beg him of Dionysophanes. xviii. This conversation, overheard by Eudromus and reported to Lamon, determined the latter to re- veal the circumstances of the finding of Daphnis. xix-xx. Accordingly, upon Dionysophanes send- ing for Lamon and telling him that Daphnis would accompany Astylus, Lamon told his story and produced the tokens, xxi-xxiii. These Dionysophanes and Clearista recognized as hav- ing been exposed with their own youngest child; and Astylus at once ran for Daphnis. Fearing that he was to be treated with violence, Daphnis ran to a cliff, ready to throw himself into the sea ; but his brother reassured him, and brought him to their father, who told them the story of the exposure: xxiv. Having married young he had had a daughter and two sons with which issue being content, he had exposed his fourth child ; but the daughter and one son soon thereafter had died on the same day, leaving Astylus the only survivor: so that the parents now rejoiced at finding Daphnis again. xxv-xxix. Daphnis still performed his duties as herdsman. While his friends and parents feasted, and while he said farewell to each of his ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 41 pastoral implements and occupations, Chloe wept, fearing that he would forsake her. Lampis seeing his opportunity and certain that Daphnis would not marry her, gathered a band of rustics and was carrying her off, when Gnatho rescued her, in the hope of thus conciliating Daphnis; who did indeed forgive him when Chloe was restored. xxx-xxxiii. Daphnis now proposed to marry Chloe secretly: but Dryas published the circum- stances under which he had found her. With a view to the happiness of Daphnis, his parents consented to the marriage, and received Chloe, and arrayed her splendidly. She too said fare- well to her flock, and hung up her pipe, her scrip, her cloak, and her milking-pails ; and with the others went to the city. xxxiv-xxxvi. There, on the eve of the mar- riage-feast, the Nymphs and Love appeared to Dionysophanes, bidding him exhibit Chloe's tokens to each of the wedding-guests. So he did, and they were acknowledged by Megacles, a man of high rank in Mitylene. He told the story of Chloe's exposure : She had been born at a time when his wealth had been exhausted ; and he had exposed her in the hope that some wealthier person might adopt her. Then his riches had increased, when he had no heir; but the gods had continually sent him dreams signify- ing that a ewe would make him a father ! With great joy he received Chloe for his daughter. xxxvii-xl. Next morning they all returned to the country ; for Daphnis and Chloe were tired of 42 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN the city, and wished a rustic wedding. And so did they celebrate it, with pastoral splendor ; and at last, too, found the remedy of Love ! To Love, to Pan, and to the Nymphs, indeed, they con- secrated their lives; and their first child, a boy, was suckled by a goat; their second, a girl, by a ewe. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 43 ACHILLES TATIUS: CLITOPHON AND LEUCIPPE Book I i. (Sidon described: its double harbor.) Arriving in Sidon after a storm, I made a thank- offering to Astarte, and then went about the city and looked at other offerings. There I saw a picture of Europa. (Picture of Europa de- scribed.) ii. I exclaimed upon the power of Love, which could master even Zeus; where- upon a young man standing by declared that he had himself experienced that power. We re- tired to the banks of a stream in a grove of plane-trees, where he told his story: iii. I am Clitophon, the son of Hippias of Tyre. My mother died when I was an infant. My father marrying again had a daughter Calli- gone, to whom he wished to marry me ; but Fate decreed otherwise. (Disquisition on fate as pre- figured by dreams, which enable men not to avoid it but only to dull the edge of their suffering.) When I was nineteen years old, Fortune began the drama I shall relate. I dreamed one night that my body from the middle downward was one with the body of a maiden, and that a woman of horrible aspect, with a sickle in her right hand and a torch in her left, cut us apart. This dream I regarded as a portent. My father had a rich half-brother, Sostratus, in Byzantium, from whom there now came a letter, recommend- ing to my father's care during a war between 44 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Thrace and Byzantium, the writer's wife Panthea and daughter Leucippe. iv. The ladies arrived immediately ; and at first sight of Leucippe I fell in love with her. (Leucippe described. Love enters at the eyes.) v-vi. At supper I gazed and could eat nothing, but feasted my eyes like one banqueting in a dream. Thus I languished three days. vii. My cousin Clinias, two years older than I, a love-adept, I had always teased about his passion; but now I sought him and confessed that he had been right in predicting that I too should sometime be love's slave. From the symptoms of my vigil he at once con- cluded that I really was in love. While we were conversing, enter Clinias's favorite Charicles, to whom Clinias had recently given a horse. Chari- cles told us that his father wished him to marry a rich and ugly woman, viii. Thereupon Clinias burst into an invective against women and against marriage ; but Charicles, as his marriage was not to take place for several days, put away thoughts of that calamity, and went to race his new horse to take what was to prove both his first and his last ride. ix-xi. I resumed my complaint to Clinias, who gave me explicit instructions in both the theory and the practice of love. (Ars Amatoria.) "All very well," said I, "but here success may be worse than failure : being betrothed to my father's choice, I cannot wed Leucippe even if I win her. I am torn between necessity and nature, I must decide between Love and my father; and Love with his arrows and his fire coerces the judge." ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 45 xii. At this point a slave rushed in, and re- ported that Charicles had been killed by a fall from his horse: After running two or three courses, he had let go the reins, and, still seated, was wiping the sweat from the horse's back, when upon a sudden noise the horse ran furiously away, rushed haphazard into a wood, dashed his rider off against a tree, and trampled him as he lay entangled in the reins. (Detailed description of the horse in action : he is like a ship in a storm ; his hind feet try to overtake his forefeet, etc., etc.) xiii. Clinias, at first struck dumb by sor- row, now uttered loud cries ; and we went to where the body had been carried all one wound. Charicles's father lamented : " 111 betide all horse- manship ! Others who die, though their soul be fled, preserve at least the beautiful semblance of their body some poor solace to the mourner; but in thee Fortune has destroyed both soul and body, and thou hast died a double death. What now shall be thy wedding-day? Thou hast gone from bridal to burial ; malignant Fortune has quenched the marriage torch, and instead the funeral torch shall be kindled for thee." xiv. Clinias, vying with the father in grief, exclaimed : ' Tis I that have caused his death : to this beau- tiful youth I gave a savage brute. I decked the murderer with gold. Beast ! insensible to beauty, ungrateful to him that fondled and fed thee ! " xv. When the funeral was over, I hastened to Leucippe, who was in the garden (Garden elabo- rately described) with a slave Clio, looking at the peacock, xvi-xix. Just then he spread his tail and showed the amphitheatre of his feathers ; 46 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN this I made the occasion of my speech, as I wished to lead Leucippe's thoughts to love. " The bird," I said to a slave Satyrus, " spreads his tail to attract his mate there under the plane- tree: it is for her that he displays the field of his feathers. But his field is more blooming than the meadow itself; for it has gold, and purple rings, and an eye in each ring." Falling in with my purpose, Satyrus asked ; " Can love kindle even the birds ? " " Why not," I answered, " when he himself is winged? More than that, he kindles reptiles and beasts, plants and stones. The magnet loves the iron ; the male palm droops for love of the female, and his pangs are allayed whe the husbandman engrafts upon his heart a shoot from her. So of waters: Alpheus crosses the sea to Arethusa, bringing to her as wedding- gifts the objects cast into his waters by cele- brants at Olympia. As for serpents the viper, amorous of the lamprey, ejects his poison; and then they embrace." Leucippe seemed to listen not unwillingly to this amatory discourse. Her beauty surpassed that of the peacock, and vied with that of the meadow; her complexion was like the narcissus, her cheeks like the rose, her eyes like the violet, her hair like tendrils of ivy : so that " there was a garden in her face." Soon she went away to practise upon the harp; and Satyrus and I congratulated each other upon our tact. Book II i. We followed, to hear her performance. She sang first Homer's combat of the lion and ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 47 the boar (II. XVI. 823; B 371 n.), then the praises of the rose ; and as she sang, I seemed to see a rose upon her lips, as if the flower's cup had been changed into them, ii-iii. We pro- ceeded to supper. It was the feast of Dionysus patron of the vintage, whom the Tyrians claim for their own god. (Legend of the origin of wine.) On the table was a crystal winecup, of beautiful workmanship : from the vines engraved upon it hung clusters of grapes, unripe and green when it was empty, ripe and red when it was filled: and among them was Bacchus himself as vine-dresser. As the wine warmed us, Leu- cippe and I gazed more boldly at each other ; for wine is the food of Love. Eros kindles the flame, and Bacchus feeds it. Thus ten days passed, neither of us obtaining, or even seeking, aught but glances, iv. Then I confided in Satyrus, who said he had known my secret, but for fear of offending me had dis- sembled his knowledge. " Chance favors us," he continued, " for I have an amorous under- standing with Clio, who has charge of Leucippe's chamber. But now you must do more than look. (Ars Amatoria.) Take courage, Eros is no coward; see how he is armed with bow and quiver, arrows and fire, all virile and daring. I will arrange with Clio to give you an interview alone with Leucippe." v-vi. He departed, and I was soliloquizing, when Leucippe entered alone. I turned pale and then red, but chance came to my assistance, vii-viii. The day before, a bee had stung Clio's hand, and Leucippe had mur- 48 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN mured over it a spell which had relieved the pain. This I had observed. It happened now that perceiving a bee or wasp flying about my face, I conceived the idea of feigning that my lip was stung. The stratagem succeeded: Leucippe ap- proached her lips to mine in order to repeat her incantations, and thus gave me the opportunity to kiss her at first clandestinely, then openly. But my pain, as I told her, was only aggravated ; now the sting penetrated to my heart. "You must carry a bee upon your lips," said I, " for your kisses are both honeyed and stinging." Just then we saw Clio approaching, and parted. I felt encouraged. I guarded Leucippe's kiss upon my lips as if it were a corporeal treasure left there. (The Praise of the Kiss.) ix-x. At supper, Satyrus interchanged my cup with Leucippe's, upon which I kissed the place her lips had touched ; and when the cups were again exchanged, she imitated me. Thus we passed the time in drinking kisses to one another. After supper Satyrus notified me that Leucippe's mother had gone to bed unwell, and that he should draw off Clio. This was my opportunity. Armed with wine, love, hope and solitude, I em- braced Leucippe boldly, and would have done more, when we heard a noise, and parted again. It was made by Satyrus, who, keeping watch, had heard someone coming. xi. My father now made preparations to con- clude my marriage at once : he had dreamed that while he was celebrating the nuptial rites, the torches were suddenly extinguished. He there- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 49 fore hastened the purchase of the wedding- clothes and jewels. Among the latter was a necklace, containing a rosy hyacinth and a golden glowing amethyst and three other stones set together so that they resembled an eye. Among the former was a purple robe bordered with gold. Its dye was the genuine Tyrian, such as dyes the robe of Aphrodite herself. (Description of necklace and of robe. Legend of discovery of the purple-fish.) xii. The marriage being fixed for the morrow, my father was sacrificing, when an eagle swooped down and bore off the victim. By reason of this unfavorable omen, the marriage was postponed ; and the soothsayers prescribed a midnight sacrifice to Zeus Xenios upon the sea- shore, as the eagle had flown that way. xiii. Now before the war there lived in Byzan- tium a young, wealthy and profligate orphan named Callisthenes, who upon hearsay fell in love with Leucippe, though he had never seen her. Her hand being refused him because of his profligacy, he resolved to carry her off. xiv. Then the war broke out, and Callisthenes learned that Leucippe had been sent to us ; but his plan was aided by an oracle rendered to the Byzan- tines : " There is an is 1 \nd whose inhabitants bear the name of a plant; this land makes both a strait and an isthmus with the shore; there Hephaestus rejoices in the possession of blue- eyed Pallas : thither I command you to bear sacrifices to Hercules." This oracle Sostratus himself, who was one of the Byzantine com- manders, interpreted as meaning Tyre: for the 50 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Phoenicians derive their name from that of the palm-tree; the city is in fact connected with the mainland by an isthmus, under which the sea nevertheless flows in a strait; and certain sacred olive-trees (Pallas) nearby, are fertilized by the ashes of fires (Hephaestus) burning round them. This interpretation was approved by Chaerephon, Sostratus's colleague, (who added other mar- vels: a Sicilian spring where fire mingles with the water, the water aot quenching the fire, the fire not heating the water ; a river in Spain, which emits musical sounds when the wind, like a plec- trum upon a lyre, plays upon its surface; and a lake in Libya, so rich in gold, like the soil of India, that the Libyan maidens by merely plung- ing into it a pitch-smeared pole the pitch being hook and bait as it were fish out the gold.) xv. In obedience to this oracle a sacred embassy came to Tyre ; and one of its members was Callis- thenes himself. The sacrifice was most sumptu- ous. Incense of cassia, frankincense and crocus vied with flowers narcissus, roses and myrtle to perfume the air, so that there was a gale of sweetness. (Sacrifice and victims described.) xvi-xviii. As my stepmother was unwell, and as Leucippe feigned illness in order that we might have a meeting, Calligone and Leucippe's mother went together to view the sacrifice. Callisthenes consequently supposing Calligone to be Leucippe (for he recognized Leucippe's mother Panthea, the wife of Sostratus) and in fact much taken with the beauty of Calligone herself, pointed her out to a slave, with directions that she be ab- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 51 ducted by pirates during another ceremony to be performed by the maidens upon the sea-shore. The sacred mission performed, he withdrew in his own ship, with the other Byzantine ships, but put in at Sarapta, not far off. There he bought a small boat, which his slave Zeno himself a sturdy rogue manned with piratical fishermen of the neighborhood and sailed to an island called Rhodope's Tomb, quite near the city. There they lay in ambush. But Callisthenes was not obliged to await the maiden's ceremony. For the event portended by the eagle took place at the very sacrifice which was intended to avert it. We had all gone to the shore to make our offering to Zeus, Zeno observing us closely. At his signal the boat from Rhodope's Tomb sailed in with ten young fellows aboard ; eight others disguised as women, but armed, were among the celebrants. These all together, shouting and drawing their swords, rushed upon us and made off with Calli- gone in their boat, which sailed away like a bird. Off Sarapta, Callisthenes took her aboard and escaped to the open sea. In our confusion we could do nothing. I breathed freely when I found my marriage so unexpectedly broken off, but couldn't help feeling sorry for Calligone ! xix. Now I continued to court Leucippe, and at length persuaded her to receive me at night in her chamber. Panthea, who accompanied Leu-ippe to bed, always had the door locked in- side and out ; but Satyrus had the keys dupli- cated, and gained over Clio. xx. Conops, a slanderous, gluttonous slave in the house, suspect- 52 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ing our plans, kept watch with his door open, so that it was difficult to escape his observation. Satyrus, wishing to win him, joked with him about his name (Gnat). Conops pretended to return the joke, but in fact showed his ill-nature by telling this fable of the gnat : xxi. " The lion complained that, though Prometheus had created him the most formidable of beasts, he was yet afraid of the cock. Prometheus answered that the lion's own cowardice was to blame; whereat the lion wished for death rather than such dis- grace. But then he happened to meet the ele- phant, whose great ears, he observed, were in- cessantly flapping. 'Why not give your ears a rest ? ' asked the lion." ' See that gnat ? ' replied the elephant. ' If he once gets into my ear, I'm done for.' ' At any rate,' the lion thought, ' I'm at least as much luckier than the elephant, as a cock is mightier than a gnat ! ' And he decided to live on. Now you see," concluded Conops, " the gnat is not so inconsiderable after all : even the elephant fears him." Satyrus saw the covert meaning. " By all means make the most of your fable," said he, " but let me tell you another : xxii. The boastful gnat said to the lion: 'You think yourself the most valorous of beasts you that scratch and bite like a woman ! Your size ? Your beauty? to be sure, you have a big chest and shoulders, and a bristly mane but how about the rest of you? As for me, the whole expanse of air is mine; my beauty is that of all the flowery meads, which I put on or off at will when I alight or when I fly. Nor is my strength ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 53 to be despised, for I am all a weapon at once a trumpet and a javelin, at once a bow and an arrow, at once the warrior and his dart. I am there and away in a moment ; in an instant I stay and go. I ride all round my victim, and laugh at him as he dances about to find me. But enough of words ! Come, let's have it out.' And he stung the lion's lips, he jumped into his eyes ; he stung him where the hair was short ! The lion snapped and gasped and writhed in vain : the gnat slipped between his very teeth his empty gnashing teeth! At length, wearied out with fighting shadows, the lion lay down; and the gnat flew off, trumpeting victory. As he circled more and more widely in his triumph, he flew into a spider's web, which he had failed to notice ; but the spider didn't fail to notice him ! So," ended Satyrus with a laugh, " ware spiders." xxiii. A few days later, Satyrus asked Conops to supper, and drugged his last cup of wine, so that Conops fell asleep as soon as he reached his room. Then Satyrus called me, and we went together to Leucippe's chamber. Satyrus re- mained at the door, and Clio admitted me, torn between conflicting hope and fear, joy and pain. At that moment Panthea had a horrible dream: a robber armed with a naked sword threw Leucippe on the ground and disembowelled her. Frightened out of her sleep, Panthea ran to Leucippe's room, which she reached just as I had gotten into bed. When I heard the door open, I leaped out and ran through the door, and Satyrus and I each escaped to his own room. 54 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN xxiv. First Panthea fainted; then she boxed Clio's ears ; then she reproached Leucippe : "What a wedding is this! Better have been ravished in the war ; then your misfortune would have been free from dishonor : as it is, you suffer misfortune and dishonor too. What a fulfilment of my dream! Alas, who did it some slave?" xxv. Sure that I had escaped, Leucippe replied : "Your reproaches are undeserved. I know not who that person may have been whether a god, a demigod, or a burglar; all I know is, I was so frightened I couldn't cry out. But my virginity is intact." Panthea fell down again, groaning. Meanwhile Satyrus and I resolved to get away before day, when Clio under torture would have to confess everything, xxvi-xxvii. Telling the porter we were going to our mistresses, we be- took ourselves to Clinias ; and while we were in the street trying to rouse him, Clio joined us, de- termined to escape the torture. Accordingly Clio was taken off by boat in the care of one of Clinias's slaves ; but we agreed to stay long enough to persuade Leucippe to escape; if she would not, we too should remain, and commit ourselves to Fortune. So we took a short sleep, and returned home at daybreak, xxviii. Pan- thea now demanded Clio for the torture, but couldn't find her. Returning therefore to Leu- cippe, she cried: "Why don't you tell me the trick of this plot? Here's Clio run away!" Leucippe, still further reassured, offered to sub- mit to a test of her virginity. " Yes," said her mother, "and call witnesses to our dishonor!" ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 55 And she flung out of the room. xxix. Leucippe was sorrowful, ashamed, and angry, all at once sorrowful because she had been caught, ashamed at her mother's reproaches, angry because her word had been doubted. (Shame, sorrow, and anger: their causes and effects.) xxx. Hence, when I sent Satyrus to sound her on the ques- tion of an elopement, she anticipated him, beg- ging to be taken from her mother's sight. Dur- ing my father's absence on a journey, we spent two days in preparation, xxxi. At supper on the second Hay, Satyrus drugged Panthea, drugged Leucippe's new chambermaid (whom he had won over by making feigned love to her), and drugged the porter ! ( Conops happened to be absent on an errand.) Then Leucippe and I, Satyrus, and two servants, entered a carriage in which Clinias was waiting for us at the door; and drove to Sidon, and on to Berytus, where we found a vessel ready to sail. Without in- quiring her destination, we embarked, and then learned that she was bound for Alexandria, xxxii-xxxiii. With much confusion she got under way, and left the harbor. A courteous young fellow-passenger, who made common stock of provisions with us, gave his name as Menelaus, an Egyptian. Clinias and I also told him our names and country. Upon his inquiring our reason for this voyage, we asked him to begin by relating his own. (xxxiv. While hunting, he had accidentally killed his favorite ; and he was now returning from banishment for this offense. Clinias wept, remembering Charicles, and upon 56 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Menelaus's inquiry, told him that story) and I told mine. To enliven their sadness, I proposed an amatory discussion, Leucippe being absent, asleep below. " Clinias is lucky," said I ; " always inveighing against women, he now finds in you a companion of similar tastes." (Discus- sion: boys vs. women (xxxvi-xxxviii).) Book III i-ii. On the third day a gale came up. (Storm vividly described.) iii-iv. Wearied out, the helmsman abandoned the tiller, got ready the boat, and ordering the sailors to embark, himself took the lead ( ! ) . They were about to cut loose when the passengers also tried to jump in. The sailors threatened them with knives and axes; the passengers armed themselves with what they could find broken oars and benches; a novel sea-fight ensued. (Fight described.) The ship soon struck a sunken rock and went to pieces. Those who were drowned at once were happier than those who survived to drown later, for a lingering death by drowning is fearful be- yond measure: the eye has death before it con- tinually in a shape vast and overwhelming as the sea itself. Some were dashed against rocks and perished, others were impaled on broken spars like fish ; some swam about half-dead, v. Leu- cippe and I floated upon a fragment of the prow, which some good genius had preserved for us. Menelaus and Satyrus and some other passengers had a bit of mast; and Clinias rode the waves upon a spar, calling " Hold fast, Clitophon ! " ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 57 Just then a wave washed over him, and we cried out; but rolling towards us, by good luck it passed, and we again caught sight of Clinias and the spar on the crest of the sea. I prayed to Poseidon to save us or give us a speedy death ; and if death, then death together and a common tomb even in one fish. Soon the wind abated and the waves subsided. Menelaus and his companions were cast upon a part of the Egyp- tian coast at that time the haunt of brigands. Leucippe and I at evening came by chance to Pelusium, where landing we thanked the gods and bewailed Clinias and Satyrus, believing them to have perished, vi. (Description of the statue of Zeus Casius.) Having made our prayers, and asked tidings of Clinias and Saty- rus, for the god was held to be prophetic, we saw at the rear of the temple two paintings by Evanthes, (one of Andromeda, the other of Prometheus. Their having so much in common had probably led the painter to treat them together : both were prisoners upon rocks ; both had a beast for executioner one marine, the other aerial; both had an Argive deliverer Perseus and Hercules respectively the one aiming at the bird of Zeus, the other at the monster of Poseidon, vii. Andromeda lay in a hollow of the rock as large as her body, a natural hollow, as its surface showed. 'A statue' you would have said, if you looked at her beauty, but if at the chains and the monster ' A tomb.' Beauty and fear were mingled in her countenance, beauty blooming in her eyes, fear 58 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN paling her cheeks; yet were her cheeks not so pale but that they were tinged with color, nor her eyes so lovely but that they languished like fading violets. Thus the painter had adorned her with beautiful fear. Her arms were chained; her wrists and fingers hanging like clusters of the vine; arms white, fingers blood- less; attire bridal, white, of fine silken texture. The monster : only his head was above water, the jaws open to his shoulders; but his body was visible in outline beneath with scales, spines, and tail. Perseus was descending from the sky, his mantle about his shoulders, his body naked ; winged sandals on his feet, and on his head a cap like Hades's. His left hand grasped as a shield the Gorgon's head with its glaring eyes and bristling snakes, his right of weapon half sword half sickle a straight blade in common, then a division into two one proceeding to the point, the other bent round into a hook. viii. Prome- theus was shown chained to the rock ; against his thigh the bird, braced upon the points of his talons and with his beak searching the wound for his victim's liver, which appeared in the open- ing; Prometheus's one thigh was contracted in pain, the other stretched tense to the very toes ; his face convulsed, eyebrows contracted, lips drawn, teeth visible: you could almost pity the picture. Hercules stood armed with a bow, and the shaft already on it. The left hand held the bow ; the right drew the string to his breast all in a moment. Prometheus was divided between hope and fear; with hope he looked toward his ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 59 deliverer, and with fear back to his wounded side.) ix. From Pelusium we were proceeding on a hired vessel up the Nile to Alexandria, when, opposite a town, we heard a shout " The Herds- men ! " and saw the bank thronged with savage- looking men of black complexion, like mongrel Ethiopians. Four of them boarded us, carried away everything on the boat including our money, took us ashore bound, and left us in a hut, with guards who were to take us next day to their chief, x. That night, I silently soliloquized upon the calamities I had brought upon Leucippe : " Our case would be sorry enough had we fallen into the hands of Greeks ; but there at least our supplications would be understood. Here, charm I like a Siren, I plead to deaf ears ; I am reduced to gestures ; I must perform mv lamentations in pantomimic dance. But faithful tender Leu- cippe what preparations are these for thy wed- ding! Thy bridal chamber a prison, the earth thv bed, thy necklace a noose, thy bridesman a thief, tears for thy nuptial hymn. O sea, in sparing: us thoti hast destroyed us." xi. Thus I lamented, tearlessly; (for though tears flow freelv enougfh in ordinary griefs and relieve the swelling of the heart, excessive sorrow turns them back upon their fount, so that, returning, thev exasperate the wound of the soul.) Leu- cippe too being silent. I asked her why she did not speak to me. "The death of my soul," she answered, "has been anticipated by the death of my voice." xii. At daybreak, a shag-haired 60 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN villain on a shaggy horse rode up bareback, with orders to bring away for sacrifice any maiden he might find. Leucippe, who clung shrieking to me, they dragged away. Me they beat, and left with the other prisoners to follow more slowly, xiii. A little way from the village we were over- taken by a body of about fifty soldiers. The brigands resisted, pelting them with rough stony clods of earth, which the heavy-armed troops re- ceived on their long shields with impunity. Then, when their assailants were tired, they opened their ranks, and allowed the light armed troops to issue forth. These, supported by the heavy troops, attacked the pirates with swords and spears. At length the majority of the pirates were cut to pieces by a body of cavalry which came up ; and we prisoners were taken by the soldiers and sent to the rear. xiv. That evening the commander (Charmides: named IV. ii) heard our story, and promised to arm us all, as he meant to attack the pirates' stronghold. At my request he gave me a horse too, which I put through its military paces, to his admiration. Then he made me his guest, listened more par- ticularly to my troubles, and expressed his sympathy by tears. (Sympathy often leads to friendship.) He also gave me an Egyptian ser- vant, xv. Next morning we perceived the pirates before us, on the far side of a trench, which it was our object to fill up. Near it was an extemporized altar of clay, and a coffin. Soon two men, whom I could not make out because of their armor, led Leucippe, whom I saw plainly, ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 6 1 to the altar, a priest all the while chanting, as appeared from the position of his mouth and the distortion of his face. Then all the rest retired from the altar; and one of the two bound Leu- cippe on the ground to four pegs, like an image of Marsyas, and with a sword disembowelled her. They roasted the entrails upon the altar, and distributed them among the pirates, who ate them. Amid the shout of horror that rose from our army, I was thunderstruck into silence. Niobe's fabled metamorphosis may have been some such paralysis by grief. The two men placed the body in a coffin, covered it with a lid, and, after throwing down the altar, hurried back to their companions without looking behind them, as the priest had commanded. xvi. By evening we had filled and crossed the trench, and I went to the coffin prepared to stab myself. " Leucippe," I cried, " thy death is lamentable not only because violent and in a strange land, but because thou hast been sacri- ficed to purify the most impure; because thou didst look upon thine own anatomy ; because thy body and thy bowels have received an accursed sepulchre, the one here, the other in such wise that their burial has become the nourishment of robbers. And this the gods saw unmoved, and accepted such an offering! But now receive from me thy fitting libation." xvii. About to cut my throat, I saw two men running up, and paused, thinking that they were pirates and would kill me. They were Menelaus and Satyrus! Still I could not rejoice in their safety, and I 6a THE GREEK ROMANCES IN resisted their attempt to take my sword. " If you deprive me of this sword, wherewith I would end my sorrows in death, the inward sword of my grief will inflict deathless sorrows upon me. Let me die: Leucippe dead, I will not live." " Leucippe lives ! " said Menelaus, and, tapping upon the coffin, he summoned her to testify to his veracity. Leucippe actually rose, disembowelled as she was, and rushed to my embrace, xviii. " Soon," Menelaus replied to my astonished ques- tions, "you shall see her intact; but cover your face: I'm going to invoke Hecate." I did so; whereupon he muttered words of marvel ; at the same time removing certain contrivances from Leucippe's body. Then, " Uncover," said he, which I did fearfully, for I thought to see Hecate. But I saw only Leucippe, unharmed ! Menelaus now began to satisfy my curiosity: xix. " I am, you remember, an Egyptian : in fact, I own property about this very village, and know the people there. After I had been cast ashore and taken to the pirate chief, some of the pirates recognized me, struck off my chains, and begged me to join them. I consented, and claimed Satyrus too as my slave. He, they said, would be granted me if I first gave proof of courage in their cause. They had just received an oracle bidding them offer up a maiden, taste her liver, put her body in a coffin, and retire so that the enemy might take the site of the sacri- fice." xx-xxii. Satyrus now took up the story. " The day before the sacrifice, the pirates took a ship on which was travelling a theatrical reciter ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 63 of Homer. When the crew had been killed and the ship sunk, there floated ashore to us a chest, unperceived by the pirates. Among its contents was a stage-sword, whose blade could be pushed almost wholly into the hollow hilt. It had doubt- less been used to inflict mimic wounds. I at once proposed to Menelaus to procure a sheepskin bag, stuff it with guts and blood, and conceal it under Leucippe's dress, which, according to the oracle, was not to be removed for the sacrifice. Mene- laus, in proof of his courage and devotion, as demanded by the pirates, was to perform the sup- posed slaughter the blade to protrude at first only far enough to rip up the bag, but afterwards, for the benefit of the spectators, to appear at its full length, covered with blood, as if it had actually pierced Leucippe's body. We could then lay her safely in the coffin, as no one was to approach. Menelaus agreed to take the risk for friendship's sake, especially as we learned, both from Leucippe and from the pirates, that you, Clitophon, still lived. Fortune co-operated with us ; for when Menelaus approached the pirate chief to volunteer, the chief imposed the task upon him the pirates' law requiring new- comers to be the first to make sacrifice and even entrusted the victim to our care. All was carried out as we had planned, and as you saw." xxiii. I next inquired what had become of Clinias. " I don't know," said Menelaus ; " when I last saw him, he was clinging to the spar." In the midst of my joy I lamented : my happiness could not be entire, as long as he whom I loved 64 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN next only after Leucippe, was lost; and I be- wailed his fate, not only dead but unburied. Then we returned to my tent, where we passed the night. Our adventures soon became known. xxiv. At dawn I introduced Menelaus to Char- mides, who received him well, and who, inquiring the strength of the enemy, learned that there were about ten thousand. These, he said, could easily be beaten by his own five thousand, who besides, were to be reinforced by two thousand more from the Delta and from Heliopolis. At that moment messengers arrived to say that the reinforcements from the Delta would delay their start five days, because the Sacred Bird, bear- ing its father's sepulchre, had appeared among the troops just as they were on the point of marching, (xxv. This sacred bird, they told me, was the Ethiopian Phoenix. He is of the size of a peacock, but of yet more gorgeous plumage. He owes allegiance to the sun, as a mark of whose dominion he wears upon his head a radiant circle. When after many years he dies, his son hollows out a mass of myrrh for the sepulchre, wherein he bears the body to Egypt, attended by many other birds as a guard of honor. Upon arriving at the City of the Sun Heliopolis he waits for the priest to appear, who bears from the sanctuary a book containing a picture of the Phoenix, and thereby identifies the corpse, which the young Phoenix aids him by exhibiting, and so argues for its burial : eo-rtv e7riTd$to 5 irpovolq, Ocwv tff&Oi]*). The evil the death of the older children is ascribed to Fortune ; the good the saving of Daphnis to Providence. Both, being outside the action of the story (part of r& Ufa rov SpdfjMTos), form no exception to the rule of Eros within it. Of this passage, which Amyot translates plainly, Day makes a hash. For the rest, it may be said, his para- phrase gives to Fortune much more scope than either the Greek, or his original Amyot, will warrant. (So at Da, pp. p8, 99, 151, 153, 153-4, none of which are in Amyot or in the Greek.) 124 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN of its pastoral theme as well as of the dominion of Eros. Just as the pastoral element is wanting in Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, so is the ele- ment of travel wanting in Longus. His lovers remain quietly in their home fields : they do not " look for trouble," like the errant Theagenes and Chariclea and Clitophon and Leucippe, but let trouble come to them, if come it must. And the incursions of pirates and other marauders have for Daphnis and Chloe no consequences beyond temporary distress; unlike the corresponding in- cidents in the other Romances, they do not put the lovers in any new situation or set afoot any fresh train of adventures. After each inter- ruption the pastoral goes on as peacefully as before ; indeed the interruptions serve an artistic purpose, in deepening by contrast the charm of the quiet life. 8 Finally, this minimizing of the control of For- tune carries with it a rather remarkable result : In " Daphnis and Chloe " causation resumes its sway in a measure quite unknown to Heliodorus or Achilles Tatius. Longus works out carefully even minor incidents like the admission of Daphnis to Dryas's cottage (III. vi-vii) : Daphnis would not have been admitted if Dryas had not come out; Dryas would not have come out if a sheep-dog that had stolen a piece of meat had not run out with it. So of the bath of Daphnis, led up to by a double line of causes (I. xii-xii) ; which may be illustrated thus: Cf. Croiset, " Hist, de la Litt. Grecque," V. 800. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION A. A wolf has been carry- ing off lambs. The shepherds dig a pit, and hide it with brushwood. B. Two of Daphnis's goats fight, and the victor pursues the van- quished. Daphnis pursues pursuer. the Daphnis falls into the pit, is soiled, and must bathe. The events in the two converging lines get under way simultaneously but independently ; the train is laid; and Eros touches it off. So that this chain of causes is particularly notable; for it is the elaborate means by which Eros contrives to start the children upon their love-adventure. Daphnis's bath, it will be remembered, is what kindled love in Chloe. We have here, then, the initial impulse of the tale, given not by Fortune, but by Love employing natural causes. For one of his " retarding moments," the war between Mitylene and Methymne (II. xiii-xvii, xix), Longus employs the same device again, and still more elaborately. And if the larger scale of this event an event not pastoral but political does not in itself excuse his somewhat over-studied construction, let his excuse be that he saved Shakespeare trouble (see post, pp. 453- 455). After all, too, the result is quite plausible. 126 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN A. Countryman breaks the old rope from which was hung his grape- crushing stone. I He steals rope from Methymnaeans' boat. I Methymnaeans use osier to moor boat. B. Methymnaeans' hunting makes a great noise. I Daphnis's goats, fright- ened from their pas- ture, are driven down to the seashore. i Finding no food there, they gnaw the osier through. The boat floats away. I The Methymnaeans beat Daphnis, but are them- selves beaten. 4 They incite their city to make war on Mitylene. Such is the part played by Fortune in the plot of the three chief Greek Romances. All-power- ful in Achilles Tatius, she is subordinated to Providence in Heliodorus, and in Longus, under the limitations of the pastoral theme, gives way almost wholly to the sway of Eros and of ordi- nary causation. In general, her control is evi- denced by the prominence of the element of travel and adventure, and is naturally at its minimum in the pastoral, where travel and adventure are wanting. There remains for discussion the second principal ingredient of the plot of these Romances the element of Love. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 127 It need scarcely be said that love in the Greek Romances is sensual love. The whole genre is saved from being a tribute to "the great god- dess Aselgeia " not by any exalted conception of love itself, but by the shifting of a large portion of interest and emphasis away from love altogether. Such dignity as these love-stories possess is a dignity for the most part alien to the theme of love. What are its sources? A feature common to the Romances is the preservation of the heroine's chastity to the end of the story. Chariclea is of a type essentially celibate, is by principle and inclination opposed to marriage (II. xxiii ; U 73-4), and yields to her overmastering passion for Theagenes (III. vii, xix; IV. iv, v, vii, x, xi) only so far as to con- sent to an ultimate union with him under the formal auspices predicted by the oracle (II. xxxv). This engagement both she and The- agenes keep throughout their trials; trials which in Chariclea's case indeed are most re- spectable, 9 as all her lovers the Tyrian ship captain (V. xix), the pirate Trachinus (V. xxviii), the chivalrous bandit-chief Thyamis (I. xix-xxi), and even the treacherous Achaemenes (VIII. xxiii) offer her marriage. Her very beauty has about it something sacred and virginal : Savez vous combien elle (i. e., Mundane, in " Le Grand Cyrus") a etc enlevee de fois ? Pluton: Ou veux tu que je 1'aille chercher? Diogene : Huit fois. Minos: Voila une beaute qui a passe par bien de mains. Diogene: Cela est vrai : Mais tous ses ravisseurs etaient les scelerats du monde les plus vertueux. Assurement ils n'ont pas ose lui toucher. Pluton: J'en doute. (Boileau, "Les Heros de Roman," ed. Crane, p. 182.) 128 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN (I. ii, iv) ; and, at the close of the story, her beauty and her chastity together are vindicated with eclat by the ordeal which she so triumph- antly undergoes (X. ix). Theagenes too resists both the wooing of Arsace and the tortures that she inflicts upon him, and of course keeps in- violate his oath to respect Chariclea. But all this, exalted and laudable though it be, is not so much love in our sense of the word as abstention from love in their sense of the word. In all of it there is no sign that love is anything but physical desire, of which the lovers are simply postponing the satisfaction. Their love at first sight is, obviously, not evolved from any previous acquaintance, or based upon any ripen- ing friendship. 10 In " Daphnis and Chloe " in- deed the love is quite frankly sensual, occasioned in the one lover by a kiss, in the other by the softness of Daphnis's body ; in " Clitophon and Leucippe " there is a period of courtship to be sure, ending in what? the rendezvous. Even the lofty-minded Theagenes and Chariclea are overcome instant er by this static undeveloping passion of theirs. Are they really congenial? Are their tastes alike, or complementary, or op- posite? Would they laugh at the same things, and weep at the same things? Who knows? There is not a hint of spiritual companionship between them; not a hint that the character of each is to be rounded out by that of the other; not a hint that theirs is to be a "marriage of true minds." So much by way of caveat; for 10 Cf. Koerting, op. cit., I, p. 30. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 129 there is danger of mistaking the rarefied atmos- phere, the lofty speeches, and the grandiose framework of the "yEthiopica" for something that they are not. 11 There is no such danger in the case of Achilles Tatius. In the actual preservation and vindica- tion of her maidenhood Leucippe resembles Chariclea, but there the resemblance ceases. In fact, like Mile, de Maupin, Leucippe has re- tained rather a physical than a moral virginity. She was quite ready to yield to Clitophon before their flight; and it is only ex post facto that this wanton elopement of theirs, brought about by a carnal passion which they would have un- thinkingly satisfied, gains divine sanction from the interest taken in it by Artemis and Aphrodite (IV. i) and thenceforth becomes a trial of chastity. But even had Leucippe entered upon her adventures pure in heart, these are of such a gross and revolting nature, they involve so much physical and moral exposure, that Artemis herself could hardly have come through them untainted. The brigands and the false belly (III. xv), which, with all its loathsomeness, Leucippe keeps on her body until nightfall (III. xviii) ; Charmides (IV. ix) ; Gorgias (IV. xv), and Leucippe's unseemly fit (IV. ix) ; Chaereas and his pirates, and the poor butchered harlot (V. vii ; VIII. xvi) ; Sosthenes and Thersander and their tender mercies (VI. passim) : what a set! Unfortunate as Leucippe is, one can but feel that she is akin to those errant dames who, 11 De Salverte (" Le Roman dans la Grece Ancienne," pp. 382-4) has not escaped this danger. 10 130 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN to their regret, become "the Helen of so many Parises" 12 that their pristine bloom is gone. Chloe, like the others, reaches the end of the story still a maid ; but, radically as Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius differ in their treatment of chastity, Longus differs still more radically from both together. For whereas they both enlist the reader's interest in favor of the heroine's efforts to preserve her maidenhood, Longus enlists the reader's interest in favor of his heroine's efforts to lose hers. At least, we say if, in the other romances, love is not spiritual but fleshly at least, it is not indulged ; and what might have been an orgy is turned into a trial of chastity. But what can possibly make this romance other than salacious? It may be admitted at once that " Daphnis and Chloe " does not wholly escape the charge. What almost saves it is the inno- cence and the inexperience of the children, 13 together with the charm of the country, and of country doings, and of the procession of the sea- sons. But the point of the story still remains in the piquancy of the children's experiments, a piquancy heightened by this very simplicity, this very naivete of theirs, and by the charm of their surroundings. If the fruit they are trying to pluck were not fruit that the reader knows to be generally regarded as forbidden, where so we may fancy the sophist asking where would u " Elle cut regret d'etre 1'Helene D'un si grand nombre de Paris." La Fontaine, " La Fiancee du Roi de Garbe." 13 Cf. F. Jacobs, Einleitung to his translation of " D. and C.," PP. 11-12. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 1$! be the fun in watching them? Longus with all his art did not, or rather did not try ! to take his emphasis off the teasing succession of Daphnis and Chloe's attempts, and place it wholly or even preponderantly 14 upon their idyllic sim- plicity, their idyllic environment. They are simple enough, but we are not; and Longus knows it. One reader at least confesses to a feeling of distinct relief when Daphnis has had his lesson, and when Chloe is no longer in the uncertain care of his ignorance but in the more trustworthy care of his knowledge and his con- siderateness (III. xx). As Senor Menendez y Pelayo says, 15 " this is neither the true and sacred antiquity, nor the grace and simplicity, of the young world, but rather a pretty painting on a fan, recalling those of France in the eighteenth century." In a word, though Daphnis and Chloe are entirely unsophisticated, Longus is sophisticated through and through. All this is but to say that the Greek Romancers could not jump off their shadow, and that love in their works is not modern love. At the same time it ought not to be overlooked that love in the Greek Romances is a genuine attachment, capable of waiting, of constancy, and of sacrifice. Furthermore, as has often been remarked, both the love and the adventure are such as to take women out of the seclusion of the gyna'ceum and make them for a while the companions sometimes even the leaders of the men they are 11 As Raphael Collin has done in his charming illus- trations. 18 " Origenes de la Novela," I, Introduction, p. x. 132 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN to marry. So much dignity the element of love in the Greek Romances must be allowed to pos- sess ; but apart from this, the " love-interest " is nowhere based upon a sufficiently exalted concep- tion of love, or upon a sufficiently sound "psy- chology," or upon a sufficiently profound under- standing of human character, to be in itself ennobled. One apparent exception is found of all places joined to the romance of the gross-minded Achilles Tatius. It is not too much, I think, to say that the novella of Callisthenes and Calligone (II. xiii-xviii; VIII. xvii-xix) anticipates chivalry. Not only does Callisthenes offer mar- riage to his captive mistress, and scrupulously respect her honor all without being bound by any oath, or actuated by a regard for the designs of a delaying Providence ; but he professes him- self her slave (AoOXoy ovv fie crectim)? airo raim;? TT}s irpbs TLp6icvr]v r^v d5<-W ^tXo/u^XTj The rubric of Book IX is 'APXH TfiN EniAEIKTIKON 'EIIirPAMMATQN showing that this sort of thing was regarded, as part of the rhetoric of display. 144 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN The late Greek rhetoricians called this exercise Ethopoieia, inappropriately, for, as we have seen, it expresses not character so much as the emotion appropriate to a "posited" situation that is, to use Aristotle's terminology again, not ^00? but Trades. "May the Deity grant me" prays the author of " Daphnis and Chloe" (Pro- osmium ad fin.}, "May the Deity grant me, un- disturbed myself, to describe the emotions of others." The interest of the rhetoricians who wrote the Greek Romances is not in the ethical choices and avoidances of life (remember again Achilles Tatius's weakness in dealing with the crucial moment of choice) so much as in senti- ment or emotion, with the rhetorical express : on of it in set speeches, and the sophistical accounting for it in comment and analysis. Hence the long accounts of Daphnis and Chloe's " symptoms " of precisely how they felt when they fell in love, and precisely how each soliloquized in rhetorical antitheses (I. xiii, xiv; xvii, xviii) ; and the repetition by Philetas of the symptoms of love (II. vii). Hence the cor- responding accounts of Theagenes's symptoms (III. v, x, xviii), of Chariclea's (III. v, vii, xix; IV. iii, vi, vii, x, xi) and of Clitophon's (I. vi). So, at " A. T.," III. iv, we are instructed as to the 7ra#o9 of a lingering death by drowning; at III. xi and VII. iv we have a half physiological, half- psychological account of the 7ra#o? of excessive grief, and of why it is tearless; at VII. vii, we learn precisely how the tears of beauty operate upon a sensitive soul like Thersander's ; and at ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 145 VI. xix and VII. i we are asked to follow that same " schone Seele " through its fluctuations of rage, grief, deliberation and desire. Twaddle ! Perhaps even shallower, both in morals and in psychology, is the rhetorical show-piece to which we are treated by way of an analysis of Leu- cippe's emotions under her mother's reproof (II. xxix). As if the feelings of shame, sorrow, and anger were necessarily occasioned by some other person's words, and never by the conscience it- self! Or granted that another's words occa- sioned them as if they never convicted one of his own sin, so that no amount of " back-talk " would cure them ! This is the view of the mere sophist, with whom words count for everything. Again, this is a mere show-piece in that the analysis of Leucippe's state of mind is needless nothing being made of its ingredients. If for in- stance shame had tended to make her do one thing, and anger another, and we had been shown how her action was due to one or the other of these emotions, or to some composite of them then the analysis might have been justified. As it stands, it is a piece of sentimentalizing for sentimentalizing's sake. Clitophon's apostrophe at Leucippe's coffin (III. xvi) and his lament over the headless body supposed to be hers (V. vii) are inconceivable except as exercises in rhetoric, pieces of etho- poieia or pathopoiela, or not even that. For neither is in any sense an outburst of grief. In both alike, the purpose seems to be, not to express the sorrow of a bereaved lover, but to find anti- ii 146 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN thetical things that may be said about the bizarre physical circumstances of Leucippe's death, as that the sea possesses her head and Clitophon her trunk, or that one part of her is buried in the coffin and the other part in the brigands ! 26 The artifice defeats its own purpose; the emotion is lost in a crackle of antithesis, and the reader is merely disgusted. But to leave speeches and analyses of emotion, and to return to character as a whole: it will be useful to examine some of the personages and types which issue from the rhetorical con- ception of character just set forth, or which the romancer found at hand already adapted to his superficial treatment. A synthesis of the char- acter of Clitophon proves to be of special in- terest. His tendency to blame Fortune for his troubles has been observed (ante, p. 118); and from the garish superficiality of his grief (ante, p. 145) may be argued the shallowness of his feelings in general. This mere sentimentality is nowhere more evident than in the passage where he really does show his only bit of decent filial feeling. When he hears that his father is on the way to Alexandria (V. xi) he exclaims: "With what face can I look upon him, I who ran away so shamefully, and who corrupted the charge he had received from his brother?" 27 Does the reader look for an act of real piety from this youth who so humbly acknowledges his former impiety? Surely this now dutiful son 28 Cf. pOSt, p. 220. v Cf. VIII. iv, where he is ashamed to face Leucippe's father. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 147 will see that he must face his father and make atonement? Well, the outcome is: "I can't face him. I'll run away. In fact, I'll run away with the widow." Here again, at this second of his great choices, Clitophon has " caved in," lament- ably. Clitophon possesses physical courage when no moral question is involved, but he is wholly un- supported by a good conscience. He rushes un- armed into the midst of the pirates who are carrying off Leucippe (V. vii) ; but he allows Thersander to beat him ad lib., not only after his offense with Melitta, when he has richly deserved his beating, but even before his offense, when his sense of righteousness ought to have made him bold despite appearances (V. xxiii). When Leucippe's father punches his head (VII. xiv) he not only does not resist, but actually offers him- self to his assailant. Here again the apparent cowardice may be explained away as due to reverence for Sostratus's gray hairs, and to Clitophon's feeling that he really has wronged Leucippe's father. But what shall be said of a hero who is placed no less than three times in a position where his apparent cowardice needs to be explained away at all? He really is a trifle too abject, and, if he gets more kicks than half- pence, certainly invites them. The height of his absurdity is reached when Thersander, having given him a bloody nose, happens to hit Clito- phon's teeth and wound his own hand, so that, as Clitophon triumphantly narrates (VIII. i), " My teeth avenged the injury done to my nose." Risum teneatis, amid? 148 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN What of his conduct towards Leucippe and towards Melitta? The abduction of Calligone (II. xviii), rendering impossible the marriage between her and Clitophon, ought, one would sup- pose, to open the way for him to ask Leucippe in marriage. Clitophon himself has thought of his engagement to Calligone as an obstacle to a mar- riage with Leucippe, and has thus by the plainest implication indicated that marriage was what he wished (I. xi). Yet no sooner is the obstacle removed than he at once (II. xix) caps his dishonorable intrigue by persuading Leucippe to give him the assignation in her room. Granted that assignation, elopement follows, naturally if not inevitably; for the lover would in all prob- ability have been discovered, and in any case Leucippe's mother would have plagued the life out of her. But why the assignation at all? Clitophon, though of course he could not have known that the letter offering him Leucippe's hand was at that very moment on the way, just as certainly had no reason to suppose that Leu- cippe's hand would be refused him. However, we know by this time what to expect of a Clitophon. His ethos in this affair, though, is actually less unmotived, or less perverted in its motivation, if possible, than his ethos towards Melitta. As long as both Leucippe and Thersander are be- lieved to be dead, as long as Clitophon is sup- posed to be a widower and Melitta a widow, and both together lawfully husband and wife, as long, that is to say, as Clitophon might, in right ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 149 feeling and right morals, have been justified in yielding to Melitta , just so long does he refuse to yield ; alleging arguments about the sacredness of his bond to the dead Leucippe, his horror of desecrating her tomb the sea; and the laws of ocean itself enjoining chastity (V. xiv-xvi). Then Leucippe is found, and we hear (V. xxi) that Clitophon feels he cannot even look at another woman ; and then Thersander reappears too ; and it becomes plain, not only that Clitophon is a married man, but that Melitta is a married woman; so that now any surrender on either part would indeed be a double adultery. Well this is precisely when he does yield (V. xxvii). 28 And later, this perversion of all decent feeling and morals is made the very essence of the quibble whereby the guilty pair are saved: viz. that they had not offended during Thersander's absence (VIII. xi). The fact is that Achilles Tatius is simply in- capable of depicting, we will not say lofty, but reasonably well-behaved character, even in his hero and his heroine. He is far more at home among the low characters whom he gets from the " New " Attic and the Roman comedy, and whom he hands over to the fabliau, and to Renaissance comedy and novella: his Satyrus and Clio, in- triguing servants ; his Sosthenes, a pimping slave ; his Thersander, a husband not only jealous, but violent and foolish, and therefore, as by a law of nature, cuckolded and fooled to the top of his * Cf. Passow, in Ersch und Gruber's " Encyclopaedic," I, p. 304, quoted by Jacobs, " Prolegomena " to his edition of Achilles Tatius, pp. xiii, xvi. 150 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN bent. It is significant of the viciousness of Ach- illes Tatius's method, however, that he seeks to give to even this great oaf a certain sentimental interest, by making him weep sympathetic tears for Leucippe, and by tracing his delicate motives for weeping (VI. vii). But all is vain; Ther- sander puts the capstone to his folly when he himself frames his challenge with the qualifica- tion "during my absence" (VIII. xi) ; and so he is fully stultified, e al fine rimase beffato e schernito. Critics have often remarked that in the Greek romances the women are superior to the men, both in character as persons and in characteriza- tion as personages. The remark is, on the whole, justified. Its exact value may be tested by a com- parison of the "best" of the heroes, Theagenes, with the "best" of the heroines, Chariclea, and by a concluding examination of the characters of Leucippe and Melitta. Theagenes possesses active courage, of a theat- rical, spectacular sort. He is ready to fight, and when he fights he wins : witness his victory over the pirate Pelorus (V. xxxii) and over the cham- pion wrestler (X. xxx-xxxii). He resists the torture, and continually calls upon Chariclea, and wishes that she may hear of his fortitude (VIII. vi). About to be sacrificed, he performs aston- ishing feats of strength and address, with a smil- ing countenance, and before numerous specta- tors (X. xxviii-xxx). Nor is he without moral fortitude (cf. ante, p. 141). Let not his willing- ness to commit suicide (II. iv-v) be imputed to ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 151 him for cowardice ; it was a pagan courage. But evidence it certainly is of the kind of courage he possesses his total lack of that fundamental cheerful toughness which characterizes the real hero. He is ready to " cave in," not, like Clito- phon, in moral ignominy, but in mere gloom and Acedia. What's the use? he asks, when, having escaped the brigands, he and Chariclea see them- selves about to fall into the hands of Mithranes's troops (V. vi-vii) : "Let us yielde to fortune, and withstand no longer the violence which is ready to assault us, for what els shall we gaine, but fruitless travell, and banished life, and from time to time be scorned of the Goddes?" (Ui29). Of the pair, Chariclea is by far the tougher and more cheerful. That virtu of hers, so promptly exercised in fooling her suitors, is quite as prompt to encourage her lover. While he always takes the gloomiest view of the situation, she is always hopeful. In answer to his last-quoted bit of pes- simism, she " allowed not all that he had said. Mary she thought that he justly accused fortune, but not that it was any point of wisedome to yielde themselves willingly into the enimies hands. . . . Measuring our hope of time to come, with experience of that which is past, howe wee have bene diversely preserved at such time as is not credible" (U 129; V. vii). She it is who keeps him reminded that they are under providential guidance. When they have been taken by Hy- daspes, and Theagenes breaks his bitter jest about their golden chains (IX. ii), " Cariclia smiled . . . and brought him in remembrance of that 152 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN which the Gods had foreshewed unto them, and so put him into better hope" (U 234). She is a good fighter withal. The pirates having fallen out, " she when she sawe the battaile begonne, shotte out of the shippe in such sort as she never missed one" (U 151, V. xxxii). Her leadership is recognized by Theagenes quite early in their acquaintance. Upon leaving Delphi he swears not merely to respect her honor, but " that he would doo all thinges in such sorte, as Cariclia would have him" (U 117; IV. xviii). Accord- ingly she takes the initiative in telling their story to Thyamis (I. xxii) ; and she soothes and ad- monishes Theagenes (I. xxv-xxvii), who doesn't in the least understand her drift or relish her apparent willingness to marry the robber chief. When they are about to be taken by the troops of Mithranes, " after Theagenes had saide, Let us do as you will, she went be fore and he folowed her, as if he had bene tied to her " (U 129 ; V. vii, KaOciTrep eXtcdfjievos literally 'as if dragged!'). And, towards the end, despite his natural desire that she shall disclose her identity, it is her policy of concealment that prevails (IX.xxiii). Through- out the " ^thiopica," at least as far as concerns the action of the lovers, within the small scope left to them by Providence and Fortune, dux femina facti. No such function of leadership is assigned to Leucippe or to Melitta. As Leucippe is separated 28 There are but two slips in the characterization and motivation of Chariclea : her calling herself Thisbe (V. iii ; ante, p. 142 n. 24), and her overdone underhandedness in the denouement (X. xix xxii ; ante, p. 140). ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 1 53 so much from Clitophon, and the story is told by him, we see comparatively little of her, and do not know, for instance, how she felt or con- ducted herself in those crises of her career the apparent disembowelment and the apparent de- capitation. From the fact, however, that her physical sufferings are far greater than his ; from what we see of her ability to take care of herself by way of cheerful lying (I. xxv, xxviii) ; and from her seldom wasting words in vain lamenta- tion; we may well infer the truth of the assertion that her hopefulness and cheer was habitual (VIII. xiii, # a/ao-o? Kal e\7Tt5 rj avvij0r) ^Lo\ojov/j,va olKiav, oiovel Tt? ecrriv rjdoXoyovpevi).) It might, then, be assumed almost a priori that the epic-tragic main plot of the "^Ethiopica" would offer little place for humor. The assump- tion is justified; such humor as Heliodorus is capable of, he places almost wholly in his epi- sodes. It centres about the figure of Cnemon, who not only is often rallied about his cowardice (ante, pp. 138-139) , but is himself, in more senses than one, a sad wag. He gibes at Theagenes for being agitated at the sight of Thisbe's corpse: " though you had a swoorde by your side, yet you, like a stoute and valiante warriour, were afraid of a woman, and shee deade. . . . Hereat they [Theagenes and Chariclea] smiled a little" (U 49). Again, when the young couple have agreed to disguise themselves as beggars, he shrewdly nippeth them: " That will be well (saide Cnemon) for ye be very evell favoured people, but moste Cariclia, whose eye was lately pulled out [in her dream, II. xvi], wherefore me think- eth you will not onely aske peeces of breade, but coverletes and caldrons. Hereat they smiled a litle, so that their laughter moved but their lippes ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 159 onely" (U 58-9). And very polite at that, we should say. Encountering Calasiris near Chem- mis, Cnemon asks the old priest who he is, and Calasiris returns the question ; whereupon, " That were a mery jeste in deede, saide Cnemon." These specimens of the young man's humor will probably suffice; if not, others may be found at U 65, 79-80, 156. The conversation of Calasiris with the deaf fisherman Tyrrhenus (V. xviii; U 137-8; cf. post p. 196-197 n. 64) also an epi- sode affords a gleam of humor in the deaf man's answers at loggerheads. There is still an- other humorous episode the meeting of Calasi- ris, Nausicles and Cnemon with an anonymous youth whom Heliodorus creates merely to tell them news. Incidentally this " messenger " appears to be in love with a girl named Isias, who is leading him a merry dance to satisfy her caprices. Nausicles indulges in a bit of pleasan- try at the lover's expense ; who hastens off to his mistress, and the incident is closed (VI. iii, iv; cf. post p. 196-197 n. 64). From the main plot I recall but three humorous passages, likewise of a very mild order. Calasiris and Chariclea dis- guised as beggars jest at their own appearance (VI. xi, xii) ; Calasiris rallies Chariclea upon her expertness in inventing schemes to put off her suitors (VI. ix; cf. ante, p. 139) ; Theagenes jokes ironically about the golden fetters placed upon him and Chariclea by the Ethiopians (IX. ii; U 234, quoted post, p. 214, q. v.}. On the whole, humor is not Heliodorus's strong point. 33 33 There is a bit of unintentional fun in Underdowne's version of one of Chariclea's laments : " But O Theagenes, l6o THE GREEK ROMANCES IN The realistic humor of Achilles Tatius has already been observed at its best in the scenes of high comedy that centre about Melitta (ante, pp. 154-155). Hardly below these is the passage at V. xx, where Clitophon protests that he is not really Melitta's husband, and Satyrus answers ' Tush, man, you sleep with her ! ' the sort of answer that is all-conclusive in Comedy, and can be warranted to bring down the house. Repeated once or twice, it would become a true Moliere- esque catchword, like " Mais que diable allait-il faire dans cette galere?" or "Sans dot!" In fact, the whole scene is richly humorous, from the moment when Satyrus declares that he has mollified Leucippe by telling her that Clitophon has married Melitta against his will absent- mindedly as it were to the composition of Clito- phon's silly answer to Leucippe's letter. Very funny too is the solemn beginning of the supper- party in the temple (VIII. iv) : Clitophon with a black eye and a bloody nose is ashamed to meet the eye of Sostratus across the table ; while Sos- tratus, having given Clitophon that same black eye, is too much embarrassed to look at him. The horseplay implied here is more prominent in the broadly comic genre-picture of " The Husband's Return" (V. xxiii). Clitophon and Melitta be- ing at dinner, in comes Thersander, and boxes and buffets the young gentleman about 34 who ... if them be dead ... it is time I offer these funeralls to thee (and herewithall she pulled off her haire, and laid it on her bed)" (U 163; VI. viii). 84 On this, and the other scene of fustigation in the tem- ple (VIII. i) cf. ante, p. 147. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION l6l meanwhile philosophizes! (Quaere, whether this be not a burlesque of those same domestic scenes in the Odyssey which displease Longinus?) Achilles Tatius's fondness for low intrigue pro- duces several genre pictures of the same Flemish or Hogarthian realism. Leucippe's mother " takes on like anything " ; faints ; recovers ; boxes Clio's ears ; scolds Leucippe ; Leucippe trumps up a story; and her mother again "takes on" (II. xxiv-xxv). The talk is like a popular Italian ballad-dialogue between a strict mother and a gay daughter, or like that of the peasants in some of Fortini's novelle. Again (II. xx-xxii), two in- triguing slaves swap fables, of which the second has much of the spirit of Uncle Remus. Or Cli- tophon and Satyrus go by night to Clinias's lodg- ing and try to rouse him ; while they are under his window clamoring in the dark street, they are joined by Clio the slave-girl (II. xxvi) : a vivid bit of genre. Even more masterly is the pica- resque scene at the inn, as described by the decoy- prisoner (VII. iii). Either of these last might figure creditably in " Roderick Random " or " Gil Bias." The antics of Clitophon in love (I. vi), the further talk between Leucippe and her mother (II. xxviii),Thersander's precipitate retreat, "to avoid a third ordeal" (VIII. xiv), are all dis- tinctly amusing ; but the modern reader will hardly force a smile at Menelaus's mummery (III. xviii), or at Leucippe's unseemly kicking in the convulsions with which her derangement began (IV. ix), or at the priest's " Aristophanic " in- vective against Thersander (VIII. ix). Nor will 12 162 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN he find to his taste the misogynistic passages, which undoubtedly amused the Greek and prob- ably amused the Renaissance reader : the cynical view of Sosthenes (VI. xvii) ; Menelaus's argu- ments and propensities (II. xxxv-xxxviii) ; Clin- ias's invective against women and marriage (I. viii). It is of interest, however, to find such con- siderable portions of the argument de conjuge non ducenda worked out at this early date. Satire against women, apparently a convention of Greek as of mediaeval literature, finds a place not only in Euripides and in Lucian, but in Achilles Tatius as well. Longus offers few specifically humorous pas- sages like the vintage-scene, where Daphnis and Chloe are each jealous of the attentions paid to the other (II. ii), or the wedding ( I V. xxxviii-xl) where the smell of the goats and the rudeness of the rustic chorus are gently laughed at. His humor is rather pervasive, inhering as it does in the incongruity between the children's innocence and the piquancy of their experiments. Unlike the humor of Heliodorus, which is verbal, re- siding in comment or gibe, it is more like that of Achilles Tatius, a part of the situation itself, inherent in the relations of the persons to each other as the plot evolves. So much for the humor of the Greek Ro- mances. We turn to a study of their Setting their background in time (historical) and in space (geographical), and their general mise en scene of descriptive circumstance. Among the Greek Romances known to the ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 163 Renaissance none possesses an historical back- ground that is at all definite, accurate or consis- tent, or that vitally affects the course of the tale. 35 The events of the "^Ethiopica " are supposed to occur while Egypt is still a satrapy of Persia i. e., before the conquests of Alexander and at a time when the Satrap is at war with the half- legendary King of Ethiopia. Within these shad- owy limits there occur plenty of anachronisms and historical inconsistencies (Rohde 452-455), but nothing to date the story. Of " Clitophon and Leucippe " all we know is that its events take place after the time of Alexander, or at least after the foundation of Alexandria and the build- ing of the Pharos, and before the final destruc- tion of the temple of Diana at Ephesus. Here again a supposed war between Thrace and Byzan- tium pushes its way into the plot, and takes Leu- cippe to Tyre. But that is all. As for Daphnis and Chloe, for all we know, they may have loved any time this side the Golden Age. The geographical setting, despite specific names, is hardly less vague than the historical. On Lesbos there are undoubtedly hills and streams, shores, caves and harbors such as those described by Longus ; but so there are elsewhere. Helio- dorus, whose detailed accounts of matters Egyp- 35 The Ninus-fragment (discovered 1893) and the romance of Chariton ("Chaereas and Callirhoe," first publi c hed 1750) may be properly termed historical fiction, the first because of its historical hero and heroine (Ninus and Semiramis) and its prominent and (comparatively) consistent histor- ical setting ; the second because of its historical personages (Artaxerxes, etc.). Both may be dated before 200 A.D. As both were unknown to the Renaissance, they will re- ceive no further notice here. 164 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN tian have been supposed to prove personal ac- quaintance with Egypt, has been shown to be inaccurate. (Naber, in Mnemosyne, N. S., I. (1873), P- T 46 ff-> cited by Rohde, 456, n. i.) What matter? The face of the earth, built of spaces that hold its regions apart, and diversified by cities, islands, winds, waves and strange in- habitants, is for Heliodorus, as well as for Achilles Tatius, just the board on which the powers play their game, no more. Any space whatever will do to separate two lovers, any storm to throw out of its course the ship that bears them, any city to receive them. What happens may have happened almost anywhere. 36 In the absence of real local color, both Helio- dorus and Achilles Tatius employ geographical setting largely as a source of instruction and en- tertainment, by way of the remarkable misinfor- mation and of the numerous descriptions it plaus- ibly affords. A glance at some of the glosses in Underdowne's version of the "yEthiopica " will suggest the prominence of this instructive matter. "A pretty discourse of Achilles countrie with the arguments that the Aenians have to prove that they are of Achilles bloud" (75). "The Calidonian sea, is very troublesome" (136) ; and Calasiris at great length explains why. Comply- ing with the request of his new acquaintances at 36 The geographical background, like the historical, ap- pears, in the Romances we are here concerned with, to have declined from an earlier state of much greater impor- tance. " The Marvels Beyond Thule " of Antonius Diogenes is the very type of Reiseroman. In the " Babylonica " of lamblichus, the local color, Oriental at least in intention, is sometimes essential to the story (Rohde, 378-9). ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 165 Delphi, he gives various information about Egypt its religions, the construction of its tombs and pyramids, the source of the Nile, and the causes of the flood (68-9). "Wherefore soever yron serveth in other countries, gold serveth in ^Ethi- opia" (234). "Howe the Persian horsman is armed." . . . " How a steele coat is made" (245). " How the Trogloditae weare their arrowes " viz. radiating from their turbans ; . . . "Whereof the Trogloditae make their arrowes " : viz. " from a bone out of the dragons backe . . . they sharpen the same, and make a naturall head thereof" (248). " Nylus, Asasoba, and Astabora, flouds of ^Ethiopia beside Meroe " (261 ). " The length and breadth of the Hand wherein Meroe is "... " Wheate and other fruite of ^Ethiopia." . . . " The reedes of ^Ethiopia are great belike " (262) this last a cautious observation to temper the account of Hydaspes' bamboo pavilion, which was "made of foure reedes . . . so that at everie corner stoode a reede to stay it up insteede of a pillar " : rather too tall a story to be swallowed without a gloss. That the Blemmyes stabbed the Persian horses in the belly, and then having thus brought down both horse and rider, proceeded to hamstring the latter, is advertised as " A notable fact of the Blemmies " (247). Hydaspes' recep- tion of ambassadors and gifts from various peo- ples offers an unusual opportunity for the intro- duction of "notable facts" (278-9); and his sojourn at Syene enables its people to show him a Kilometer, and sundials which at the solstice cast no shadow Syene being on the tropic and 1 66 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN to discuss again the course of the Nile, its pecu- liar plants and animals, and its functions of fer- tilizing, of making alluvial land, and of serving as a calendar (250-251). Achilles Tatius likewise loses no opportunity to tell of strange lands and strange beasts: the Hippopotamus (IV. ii-iii) ; the Elephant and his sweet breath (IV. iv-v) ; the Phoenix and his pious son (III. xxv ) ; the Crocodile, whose teeth extend back almost to his belly (IV. xix) ; a Sicilian spring, where fire and water mingle; a musical river in Spain, played upon by the wind ; a Libyan lake from which gold is fished up by means of poles smeared with pitch (II. xiv). Indeed, so far from losing an existent oppor- tunity, he creates opportunities where they do not exist. Not one of the passages just cited has the slightest relevancy. Longus is saved from such geographical digres- sions, just as he is saved from the domination of Fortune by staying at home. And in describ- ing that home, he exhibits, far more than either Heliodorus or Achilles Tatius, a true artist's ap- preciation of the intrinsic beauty of his setting. The thicket and the grotto where Daphnis and Chloe respectively were found (I. ii, iv) ; the sights, sounds, and occupations of summer (I. xxiii), of winter (III. iii-iv), and of spring (III. xii-xiii) ; the garden of Philetas (II. iii) and the garden of Lamon (IV. ii-iii) the latter with its distant view of meadows and grazing sheep and cattle, and of the sea with ships sailing by; the vintage (II. i-ii) and the gathering of the fruit ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 167 (III. xxx-xxxiv) ; these are some of the fea- tures, truly imagined, of that old rustic world in which Longus's boy and girl shepherded their flocks. Certainly, as has been said, neither this landscape nor this country life is peculiar to Lesbos ; but whether in Lesbos or in Sicily, " in Tempe or the dales of Arcady," it breathes the same Theocritean charm a charm with which there is nothing at all comparable in either of the other Romances. Still, when Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius consent to forego their puerile delight in " hearing or telling some new thing," and soberly endeavor to make a real background for real events, they are not without success. Heliodorus's account of " The habitation and place, where the thieves of Egypt aboade, . . . with their common wealth, and trade of life " (U 14) ; the corresponding and partly imitative passage in " Clitophon and Leucippe " describing the Nile and its floods and the buccaneers' islands (IV. xi, xii) ; Heliodorus's grandiose account of the ceremonies at Delphi (III. i-v) ; Achilles Tatius's lively description of the gay traffic on the Nile (IV. xviii) and of the city of Alexan- dria (V. i-ii) ; do succeed in imparting to the reader some sense that the action of the story is taking place in this world. But such passages are rare. For the most part, the geographical setting of these two Romances is made to serve the sophist's turn for pseudo-science and improv- ing misinformation, for marvel and paradox, and for set description. An excess of description, in particular, is one 1 68 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN of the most striking faults of the whole genre. Here again, Longus offends least, kept safe by that artistic feeling which among these rhetori- cians fell to his share alone. Yet even he over- describes ; inserting, for example, into his de- scription of the garden of Lamon an irrelevant list of the paintings or sculptures in the temple of Bacchus that stood there. We may well, how- ever, be " astonished at his moderation " when we remember that the whole of " Daphnis and Chloe" the very story purports to be an ex- planation of a series of pictures. 37 Pictures he does give us, in plenty, not confining these to background, either (ante, pp. 166-167), but en- visaging the incidents themselves pictorially: Chloe girdled with a fawn-skin and crowned with pine meets Daphnis and offers him a drink of milk (I. xxxiv) ; Daphnis swims ashore sup- ported on the horns of two cows (I. xxx) ; Daphnis as the strangers from town first behold him (IV. xiv) or as Gnatho describes him (IV. xvii) ; and many others. Nor does he confine his art to visual impressions alone ; he gives a wide range of lovely sensuous images the sounds and motions and odors of his idyllic world, as well as its sights. There is the sailors' song and chorus and its echo, coming broken and diversified by the varying conformation of land and water (III. xxi) ; Philetas's piping (II. xxxv) ; Dryas's pan- tomimic dance of the vintage (II. xxxvi) and 3T This conception of the story as a succession of Idylls (eJ3i/X\ia little pictures) is accepted by M. Raphael Collin, who has re-translated " Daphnis and Chloe " into the lan- guage of pictorial art. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 169 Daphnis and Chloe's dramatic dance of Pan and Syrinx (II. xxxvii) ; the piping of Daphnis and Chloe, the nightingale's responsive song, and the bleating of the flocks a chorus of springtime (III. xii-xiii) ; and the rich autumnal garner of pears and apples, with all the color and fragrance of the fruit especially that golden apple for which Daphnis climbed to the topmost bough (III. xxxiii-xxxiv). But with all this abund- ance of pictures and golden profusion of sensu- ous imagery, Longus has spared us the tedious descriptions which his Proem may well have led us to expect. He stops well within the bounds of that older Greek moderation which the other Romancers seem to have unlearned. His pas- toral theme and his sense of measure, together with his instinct for beauty, keep him from ex- cess, and, despite his elaborate style, let him rest in an effect of simplicity. This richness in sim- plicity is what constitutes his peculiar charm. In Achilles Tatius the excess of description, like the excess of " psychologizing " (ante, p. 145), is a trick of the rhetorician's trade. The descriptive show-pieces of which he is so fond were, like the ?}#o7ro(eiat, a regular exercise of the schools, known as e/cpd Kai TrpoeurdSiov, IX. xvii). The unexpected meeting and recognition of Chariclea, Calasiris and Cne- mon is wondered at by Nausicles as a tcaddirep eVi aicrjvfis avayvw pianos, (V. xi). Cnemon re- calls Calasiris to the point by the impatient re- mark, " You have introduced an episode foreign to your main action " ('E,7reiaivovaSeiai/re9, Kal rbv ravTr)<; rpo(f>a KadaTrep K fjitj^avf]^ IK pecrr)? rr?9 'E\\a8ot\^/J,ara. A. T., II. xxxiv. Menelaus at the death of his favorite feels . (3) X verb modified by Y adverb, or its equivalent. A. T., V. xiv. Melitta jested in earnest er A. T., V. xx. Clitophon's answer to Leu- cippe's letter : I am unhappy in my happiness : Panthea to Leucippe : a8oet? ev ol? Syo-ru^et?. (4) X verb takes object Y noun. ^th., VI. viii; U 162-3. " Lette us singe teares . . . and daiince lamentations": acro)- JJLGV Bprfvovs Kal 7001*9 VTrop%r]a'cb[j,0a. A. T., III. x. rj8r) rov Opfjvov e^op^a-0/J.ai. ibid. fjLfji(f)OfjLai trou Trj <$i\.av6pa>irlq. A. T., IV. ix. " We fear even good luck " : 324 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN (5) X and Y adjectives both modify the same noun. A. T., V. xx. " I see you present as if ab- sent " : ere Trapovcrav &>? cnroSrjfjLova-av opot. (6) X (noun) is said to be the Y (noun) of x (noun closely associated with X e. g., the genus of which X is a species, the material of which X is made, etc.). A. T., II. i. The rose is the eye of flowers avOeav, 82 and the blush of the meadow epvQr]fj,a. 82 A. T., I. xv. The peacock's tail shows flowers of feathers avOr) 62 TrrepStv. (7) X and Y verbs have the same subject or object. A. T., V. iii. Philomela and Procne in the pic- ture simultaneously laugh and fear: yeXwo-i 8' afj.a Kal o{3ovvTai,. A. T., III. x. ^fta? Be ffdxracra paXXov cnreK- reivas. 82 " Je ne vous parle pas du Cavalier Marin, . . . qui appelle la rose I'aril du printemps la prunelle de I'Amour, la pourpre des prairies, la fleur des autres fleurs ; le ros- signol, une voix emplumee, un son volant, une plume har- monieuse ; les etoiles. les lampes d'or du firmament, les flambeaux des funerailles du jour, ... les fleurs immor- telles des campagnes celestes. (Quotes the phrases in Italian, but without giving references to the passages in Marino. Italics mine.) . . . Selon votre gout, ajouta-t-il (viz., Eudoxe to Philanthe), c'est quelque chose de fort beau que ce qu'on a dit d'une belle chanson, que c'est un air qui vole avec des ailes de miel ; de la queue du Paon, que c'est une prairie de plumes; and de 1'Arc-en-ciel, que c'est le ris du ciel qui pleure, un arc sans fleches, ou qui n'a que de traits de lumiere, & qui ne frappe que les yeux. Ah que cela est joli, s'ecria Philanthe ! " Bouhours, op. cit., 3me Dialogue, pp. 353~4, 355. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 2 25 A. T., II. xxii. The gnat speaks: '70) Be vrapwv ov Trdpeifit ofiov Be /cal e/jeiryo) Kal /ueW. (8) X and Y nouns both predicates of one sub- stantive verb. A. T., II. xxii. The gnat again: crd\7ri Karei\Tj(f)ev. ' Silence pos- sesses that prophetic mouth; and darkness has seized her that bore the flame'). (10) X in a phrase modifies a clause contain- ingY. yth., V. xxiv ; U 143-4. At the approach of the pirates, "all the hulke was moved . . . and in a calme iveathcr had it a great tempest" : ev re yaXrjvr) K\vB(0vos eveTrXrja'TO. Ibid. xxv. U 145. After the encounter be- tween the pirates and the crew, there followed Tro'Xe/io? 6/97019 6 ^aXeTTWTaTO?, elpr)vr)S ovdpaTt vdda) 7rapa\vdfj.evo<>, (JvvOriK^ fiapvTepas TrXeov rj T^? /t*a%^9 opiofjievr)s : " for all the counterfeited name of peace, it was cruell warre in deed, by reason of the truce . . . more intolerable than the battaile it selfe." A. T., I. xiv. Clinias to the horse of Chari- cles : ' In the very act of being praised, you killed him ' : B' ctTreKretvas eTraivovpevos. JEih., I. xxix. Cnemon concealing Chariclea in the cave, weeps ' because he has delivered over 16 226 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN to night and darkness that most radiant thing among men Chariclea ' : cm TO c/xu ev avOpwTrois Xapi/c\eiav VVKTI KCU (u) X noun receives attribute of Y noun, and Y receives attribute of X. A. T., II. xiv. A city at sea and an island ashore. A. T., IV. xiv. A land-battle in the water and a shipwreck on the land. (12) X in sub-clause modifies main clause con- taining Y. A. T., IV. ix. *fl 8vo-TV%eis ^/zefc orav evTV%r)- %pov(0, TOCTOVTOV et? fj.e'yeQos e/cretVerat A. T., IV. xii. *O TreTrXeftfa?, ^ureuei?, KOI ft ^)i/Teuei9, TOUTO TreXayos yewpyovfjievov. " Where you have sailed, you sow ; and where you sow is an arable sea." (13) X and Y in co-ordinate clauses or sen- tences. A. T., I. xv. eyivero TCO KITTO) o^ijfjLa ro $VTOV, ar(f>avo/3vyo?, awijyayev ew ovpavov TOV <&pvya TO Se /coXXo? T pier /AUTO, el ', oirep Kal atcorjv \d6oi Tr]V fJLT)V, eTTLTV^Qia. A. T., V. viii. Clitophon over the headless trunk supposed to be Leucippe's : " In the guise of thy greater part (*. ?., the trunk), there is left to me thy smaller part ; but the sea, in the little it possesses (i. e., the head), has thee all." Mixpov poi crov pepos tcaTaXeXenrrat ev ox/ret rov pci^ovos avrrf [sc. r) OdXatrcra] 8' ev 0X176) TO irav . A. T., II. xxxvii. 'HpdaQrj [sc. 6 Zew] peipatciov pvyb<*, avtfyayev etV ovpavbv TOV <&pvya, TO Be /caXXo? TWV yvvaitcwv avrbv TOV A /a Karrfyayev e ovpavov. 83 A , T , , /TO) KITTW OV77/ia TO Al>TOI/, A. T., I. xv. eyiveToS ,, -i/T \(TT(f)aVO<; /CiTTO? TOU A. T., II. xxxvi. f f e fi \-\ <-' ' ' J XTO^TOUTOI/ et? w 6ea o< ~ , , Q \ry TOJV opviuwv A. T., VI. xiv. TT;Z> -^rv^rjv etyov eVt rpvrdvr)opou,< \ J^ %. 0. /D / '\/cai r)\7ri<, TO (popovfjievov. A. T., II. xxiii. eVw S' ela-rjeiv, Tpepav rpo- fj.ov SnrXovv, %aoa? awa KOI <}>d/3ov / o nev yap TOV KIV^VVOV 0o'y3o? edopvftei Ta? T^5 \ J S' e\7rt9 TOU TVelv eTreKaXvTTTeiv ySovj TOV 6/3ov. ** " He raised a mortal to the skies, She drew an angel down." ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 231 /Kai TO <>( \ ,r v . / \/cai e%aipe TO AVTTOV pevov, A. T., VIII. viii. *OTav u( TOV ftev jap elSov, tcevoyd- piov 8' ov (part-repetition of word ; assonance, cor- respondence). V. xx. AVCTTU^W pev ev ol? euru^w (part-repeti- tion; rhyme; correspondence) on ae Trapwv ira- povcrav o>5 aTroBrj/Aovaav 6pS) (rhyme; correspon- dence). V. xviii. Tlolov yap otyov JJLOI TroXvreXe? i) Troto? olvos Tt/zttwre/ao? T?}? err}? o^reo)? ; (alliteration ; cor- 86 From the frequency of these figures of balance it must not be inferred that the style of the Greek Romances is uniformly or even prevalently periodic. Short word-groups of the same rank balance as readily as longer combinations of sentence-members of different ranks. In fact, much of the body of the narrative excluding &c0/>d/ioi (rhyme; correspondence). ^Eth., X. xxix. T049 o-vverois ar) (alliteration; rhyme; correspondence). 'Thy entrails ' sepulture is the robbers' nurture.' III. xxv. 7i5)v fjiev ovv At^toi/r earl T rj ra(f)fj. (Parallel structure; assonance; rhyme; corre- spondence). VIII. viii. 8iKr)v SeSwKax; ov SeSwicev ( repetition forming group; alliteration between group and outside word). II. xxiv. aSogels ev ot? Svcrrv^ei^ (rhyme; cor- respondence). II. xxii. Trapcov ov Trdpeifjii' O/AOV Se fcal teal fjievw (repetition; correspondence). IV. ix. *Ii 8ucm;^et9 ^/iet? OTO.V ( correspondence ; repetition ) . I. xiii. Ta' >, !l ^^ ^ 1578- > ^^03 u * Zn-S < w o o <* < Sir "I homas Elyot : The Governor. V* ^ >, V V* V V 1531- Bk. II, ch. 12. Boccaccio : Decani. ^ v X. 8: Tito and r*J* ^ ^ \^ "^X^ Nfc Gisippo. 1353. O o o o A this et Prophilias. x x v x Circ. 1200. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ r^ ^^ ^ ^ P-* o o O O O El Cavallero Cifar. Early i4th Cent. V- V^ Nicolaus Perga- menus : Dialogus Creaturarum. I3th or i4th Cent. " De duobus sociis, quorum unus concessit alteri " sponsam suam uxorem." Thomas de Cantim- ^ ^ pre : De Proprieta- tibus Apum. After 1251. Gesta Romanorum ^ (Acknowledges Disc. Cler. as source). Petrus Alphonsus : =Lo- : - Disciplina Cleri- >~^0 i 23 o ^fc calis. Circ. 1106. ^ _n OS "1 i. T3 i OT O 9* ^ $ < g S 1 ^ tu 'o 4? * CU ^ *- . ^^ ^JO ^2 , OJ X 3-^ InH^^G tu ^ ^ b^3 ^ r-^lS ^ S -c 1 - ^ "^ c3.fi """^S^dS 4) >S a: " p> ^ j= " .5? &' -t "" U _ S? 3 M^tuto d, * "3 o ts 2 r- .2 0,^2 -. _r V C >H- C '- <. J5i S g S-S>- I G ^ J- P5 2 g -^.S E" 13 ^ N 5^ S > -SIS* -I s " Stn c ^ i^* w *2 eS T3 O *> 2 oj ^> ^-j; ^j- 4-O 5J . tn >-^'C * J< ^Oto^^5 fe n . " C .fe o QJ *- tu rt o = j; j= i; ^ '-5 o-.fc o i - gs&g-sjli'g.^-is! HO < H < CQ < H gls:sl*JlSj.s&i H* C-c a> " De duobus sociis, quorum unus concessit alteri sponsam suam uxorem." ^ *-a ." S o o cux .. ~ n aj <- <" T3 *- s 1 ^ s 4) W T3 >> t! u -* B n 2 S..2 ,^ c D js . Oj PQ u 5 "5 *- -C 1 fr CJ +j t) U - n t C 09 , w .2 0*3 o > a ot> A v " 9 ' i T< s ^.tjs a a ,. ^sJTsr-^g SJ?82 2 Lyly : Euphues. 1578. Sir Thomas Elyot : The Governor. 1531. Bk. II, ch. 12. Boccaccio : Decam. X. 8 : Tito and Gisippo. 1353. Athis et Prophilias. Circ. 1200. El Cavallero Cifar. Early I4th Cent. Nicolaus Perga- menus : Dialogus Crcaturarum. i3th or i4th Cent. Thomas de Cantim- pre : De Proprieta- tibus Apunt. After 1251. v o 2 , o 01 w s <: > 7T M o m in s O - M i5 oS *; HI Q C/7 * 3>i 85 ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 26 1 1* E w< s-s" 2 e e S J< "Sin S^ III court. In a torn! "jjjl St g|" OJ3 > \; and o then doe recogniz< ^^3 1-S -5(1 v SJ v> v v^ v^ g " 8 >v V o o > V v 3 * * * Q* 2 c > \ N. ^ 'S o y U ~' : 9 S.B V "o S Isl s S 0.3 o be V^- > sn'S _u go M cd c* ^v *V ^^^x ^2 S w ra^ m v> ja S B ^ O * * > O * > i t> V O hi U) '3 S) "*< 15 in means V w c E i* is c 1 ** in At the time, B and his wife ing for a ride on horsebac .t: t/) 3 W o J3 S *-" in 2 o< fc^ t3 rt ^f> ^ 'o A murder is committed. A is apprehended, and in his confesses in order to die; J place of judgment, recogn and accuses himself. A and B contend as to whic die for the other. Murderer confesses. Murderer is pardoned. Murderers are discovered by of their own talk overhean are executed. - "o 1) 'o j: u OJ .fi < CA 1 C with him, or returning to city, enriched. A remains and becomes a ci B's city. A marries B's sister. A returns to his own city, en A is restored to his city by gathers an army and punis kinsmen. CHAPTER II SIR PHILIP SIDNEY In view of the detailed discussion, in the pres- ent chapter, of the plot, motifs and narrative structure of Sidney's " Arcadia," it seems well to give here a rather full analysis. 1 MAIN PLOT A. Basilius, the aged King of Arcadia, receives in Delphos an Oracle (mentioned, I. iii-iv, 12-16; given in full II. xxviii, 225v.), which declares that his elder daughter shall be stolen from him and yet not lost; that his younger shall embrace an unnatural love; that their husbands shall plead at his bier though he be not dead; that a foreign prince shall sit on his throne; and that, before all this, Basilius shall commit adultery with his own wife. To avoid fulfilment of this oracle, he retires to the forest with his family, leaving as regent his faithful coun- cillor Philanax. His younger daughter Philoclea he keeps in his own lodge guarded by himself and his young Queen Gynecia; his elder daughter Pa- 1 References containing chapter-numbers, e. g., " I. xvii, 75v.," are to book, chapter and folio of the Quarto of 1590. After folio-numbers, "v." indicates verso; its absence, recto. References not containing chapter-numbers, e. g., " IV. 419," are to book and page of the Folio of 1627. Cross-references within the analysis are based on the fol- lowing system : portions of the Main Plot are lettered A, B, etc. ; portions of the Previous History of the Princes are lettered a, b, etc. ; Episodes are numbered /, 2, 3, etc., with subdivisions lettered a, b, etc. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 263 mela he commits to the guardianship of his chief shepherd Dametas, who lives in another lodge with his wife Miso and daughter Mopsa. All men of rank are forbidden access to the princesses (I. ix, 36). B. (I. xiii-xiv, 57-64V.) Pyrocles, Prince of Mace- don, having fallen in love with the picture and de- scription of Philoclea, disguises himself as an Amazon and betakes himself to the neighborhood of Basilius's lodge. The King, in love with the fair Amazon at sight, asks her to remain. Gynecia pene- trates Pyrocles's disguise, and falls desperately in love with him. Though she is jealous of her daughter, her love prevents her disclosing her dis- covery. His name as the Amazon is Zelmane. C. (I. xviii, 76v.~79v.) Musidorus, Prince of Thessalia, and Pyrocles's cousin and friend, beholds Pamela, and falls in love with her. Not long there- after Pyrocles finds him disguised as a shepherd. His shepherd's weeds he has bought from the herdsman Menalcas, who, he feels, must now be put out of the way, lest he betray him. So Musidorus says he is a fugitive from Thessaly, where by chance he has killed a favorite of the Prince; and he sends Menalcas to Thessaly with a letter to his friend and servant Calodoulus osten- sibly inquiring about the chances for his return, but really directing Calodoulus to detain Menalcas, as a prisoner, and treat him well. (For Calodoulus as deus ex machina, see V. 417, ed. 1627.) Upon the occasion of the annual pastoral games (I. xix, 8ov.-85v.), he offers his service (and a sum of money) to Dametas, feigning himself to have been recommended to D. by his elder brother the shepherd Menalcas, and by his father, both dead. His own name, he says, is Dorus. Dametas agrees 264 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN to take him if he that day prove acceptable to the King. A lion attacking Philoclea is killed by Zel- mane; a bear attacking Pamela is killed by Dorus. The King willingly grants Dorus permission to re- main with Dametas. Thereupon they all go to hear The First Eclogues. Both Gynecia and Basilius (II. i, 100, loiv.) make a declaration of love to Zelmane. Dorus pretends to court Mopsa in order really to court Pamela (II. ii, IO4V.-IO7V.), who gives him such signs of favor as to encourage him to tell her the story of his life (II. iii, IOQV.-III), purporting to be the story of Musidorus, a prince of Thessaly. He ends his very brief recital (of the early portions of a, and of d) by asserting that the Prince is disguised as a shepherd for love of the Princess Pamela, and that the end of his story is not yet, but belongs to the destinies and to astrology. When the two sisters are abed together (II. v, I2I-I22V.), Pamela confesses to Philoclea her love for Musidorus, whose indirect self-revelation and courtship she has of course understood without let- ting him see that she has done so, or giving him any mark of favor. On the morrow (II. vi, I25v., II. x, I47v.) she calls him to give an account of the parentage and early life of Pyrocles and Musi- dorus. He relates a, lapsing once (f 137) into the first person, to his confusion and Pamela's amuse- ment. D. (II. xi, I47V.-I55) The princesses bathe in the river Ladon. A water-spaniel [see I. xi, 49 (^&)] which has been playing among the reeds, runs off with Philoclea's glove; and leads Zelmane to his master Amphialus, who in his solitary wanderings has chanced upon this spot, and been taken captive by the charms of his cousin Philoclea. Zelmane in ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 265 a jealous fury forces him to fight, and wounds him in the thigh, promising that her near kinsman Pyrocles shall further uphold that quarrel. The Princesses now being dressed come up and recog- nize their cousin. He excuses himself, restores the glove, and retires to nurse both his wounds. Pyrocles reads Plangus's plaint for Erona (II. xii, !56-i58v.), as written down by Basilius when Plangus recently passed through Arcadia. At his request (II. xiii, i6o-i62v.) Philoclea tells 50 (which Pyrocles knows already, as he has been a chief actor in these events) ; and he calls upon Pamela to tell the story of Plangus; but is interrupted (II. xiv, 163-166) by Miso with an account of an em- blematic picture she once saw of Love as a monster, and by Mopsa with a clumsy fairy-tale. Philoclea having induced Mopsa to reserve the ending of the tale (II. xv, 166-172), Pamela tells 6a. She is just coming to the story of Antiphilus's treason to Erona, when Basilius comes in, and again puts off the con- clusion. Basilius commissions Philoclea to plead his cause (II. xvi, I72v.-i75v). Pyrocles-Zelmane is lamenting on Ladon's bank and writing his plaint on the sand, when Philoclea finds him (II. xvii, I76-I79V.) and begins Basilius's plea. He interrupts her with his own, reveals his love, and is assured of hers. He also declares his name and rank. At her request, he then takes up the narrative of the adventures of Pyrocles and Musidorus, from the point where Musidorus left off a (II. x, 147) and where Philoclea herself had suspended the account she had received from Plan- gus, 50 (II. xiv, :62v.). Pyrocles's continuation is b. E. Pyrocles having finished his narrative (II. xviii-xxiv), Philoclea resumes Erona's story (II. xxiv, 212), but he interrupts her with his love mak- 266 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ing, and Miso interrupts with scolding and threats. Gynecia (II. xxv, 213-214) has just had an ill- boding dream, when Miso tells her that Zelmane and Philoclea have been together alone. Love and jealousy conflict in Gynecia's heart; she soliloquizes, and, hastening to the young people, sends Philoclea away to Basilius. Gynecia is beginning to declare her passion to Pyrocles (II. xxv, 2i4v.-2i6), when a rout of drunken and rebellious clowns comes up and attacks them. Pyrocles keeps the rebels at bay until the ladies have made good their retreat to the lodge. Musidorus comes to his cousin's assistance, and together they perform prodigies of valor. The populace attack the lodge with axe and fire (II. xxvi, 216-220) ; Zelmane goes out, mounts the throne near the gate, and in a long and eloquent harangue brings them to the point of submission. At this (II. xxvii, 220-224), one Clinias, a sly, plausible fellow with a smattering of education and a gift of words, who has been an actor, who is now Cecropia's tool to stir up sedition in Arcadia for the advancement of her son Amphialus, and who indeed has incited this very insurrection, sees his chance to swim with the stream; he loudly admon- ishes the insurgents to lay down their arms, and behave as he and other faithful subjects have all along advised ! A certain young farmer, who has become enam- ored of Zelmane, has hopes that if the insurgents win, Zelmane will be granted to him. Now he strikes Clinias a great wound upon the face, who scrambles to the throne and is protected by Zel- mane. At the farmer's blow, the mob is in an uproar. Every man's hand is against his neighbor; the leaders are soon killed, the farmer among them; and Zelmane, Basilius and Dorus complete their rout ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 267 Clinias now accounts for the insurrection as merely a piece of drunken folly, the result of the people's excessive potations the day before in honor of the King's birthday. He is believed and dismissed. Basilius sends to Philanax for a conference, and to other noblemen to investigate the insurrection. (II. xxviii, 224-227) Clinias hurries away to warn Cecropia that the investigation bodes danger to her, and that she had better take some speedy resolution. Basilius contemplates returning to public life, as he considers that the most threatening portions of the oracle the text of which he now (225v.) for the first time gives Philanax (and the reader) have already been happily fulfilled: princely Zelmane by occupying his mind has taken from him the care of his elder daughter Pamela, who yet is not lost; his younger has come to love Zelmane at his command, but that love was hated by Nature viz., by Gynecia's natural jealousy; the sitting in his seat he dreams already performed by Zelmane when she mounted his throne to confront the insurgents ; the adultery he hopes to commit with Zelmane, whom afterwards he will have to wife. As for his daughters' mar- riage to such dangerous husbands, that he will pre- vent by keeping them unmarried. So he sings a Hymn to Apollo, bids the shepherds prepare for rural pastimes, and relates to Zelmane (II. xxix, 227v.-233v.) the story, so long deferred, of Erona's distress (56). The shepherds open their "Second Eclogues." (III. i, 244-247V.) Moved by Musidorus's recent danger, Pamela gives him signs of her love; by which encouraged he offers to kiss her. She puts him away in deep disdain and offense. Despairing he retires to the forest. [Now follows the long Episode of the Captivity: 8. The Main Plot is afterwards resumed in the 268 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Folio of 1627, which is not divided into chapters; so that the absence here of references to chapters will suffice to show that the citation is from this edition.] BOOK III F- (347-35 ) After Basilius has received his daughters and Zelmane back from their captivity (see 8), and has returned to his retirement at the lodges, Zelmane and Dorus tell each other their ad- ventures ; and the latter discloses a plan that he and Pamela have formed to elope from the nearest sea- port, and remain virgin till he can invest her with the Dukedom of Thessalia. The Princes, with much courtly protestation of friendship, resolve to part. Zelmane (351-354) on her way to Dorus's lodg- ing enters a cave, and perceives a lady lying pros- trate in a corner and dolefully soliloquizing. In the course of her lament, the lady names herself: it is Gynecia ! Zelmane hastily retreating makes a noise and is discovered. Gynecia holds Zelmane back, pleads for love, declares that she has penetrated Pyrocles's disguise, and threatens that if he still disdains her, her vengeance shall involve Philoclea as well as him and herself. Pyrocles decides that his only course is to yield. Meanwhile (355-6) Musidorus has hired a ship at the port, and a carriage to go there: all that re- mains is to get Dametas, Miso and Mopsa out of the way. To Dametas he tells a tale of one Aristo- menes's treasure which he has partly unearthed, at a place ten miles away in a direction opposite that of the seaport : there are rich medals, and a cypress chest, and, further down, a stone whose hollow sound promises a still richer vault. Thither Da- metas betakes himself, and is duly encouraged by finding the medals with which Musidorus has " salted ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 269 the mine." To Miso (357-9), as soon as her hus- band is gone, Musidorus tells how he has seen Dametas dallying with a pretty shepherdess Charita. They have made an assignation for that very night in Oudemia Street, Mantinea ! Off hurries the jealous shrew. Now for Mopsa, whom Musidorus would readily tie up if Pamela did not say No. So he tells Mopsa (360-361) that Apollo, after his servitude to Admetus, having been received back by Jupiter from the top of a neighboring ash tree, has made it a wishing tree. Whoever in the state of a shepherd will sit in this tree, muffled in a scarlet cloak, shall have his wish, as sure as Musidorus loves Mopsa! He leaves her perched on the tree-top, so muffled that she can not undo the cloak, and so high that she can scarce get down without help. There she is to remain till a voice calls her three times: then she is to answer boldly. The lovers (361-5) ride off through the forest, till Pamela, tired out, rests her head on Musidorus's knee and falls asleep. While he contemplates her charms a crew of clownish villains comes shout- ing in. Pyrocles in the cave with Gynecia (365-7) con- fesses himself a man and a Prince, acknowledges his love for Philoclea, but feigns that it can not compare with his passion for Gynecia; who gives a half promise that her daughter shall be the price of his complaisance. This Pyrocles promises, and then draws Gynecia from the cave lest she insist upon an immediate consummation. Pyrocles muses (372-4) all night how to rid him- self of his two unwelcome lovers, till he begins to see the outlines of a stratagem. At dinner that day, in the presence of both King and Queen, he gives such signs of favor that the King (375-377) asks 270 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN the Queen to look after Philoclea, who has taken to her bed in despair at Pyrocles's pretended aban- donment of her. Alone with Basilius, Pyrocles ap- points that night for a rendezvous in the cave. Then he steps to Philoclea's room, and, still feign- ing indifference toward her, takes Gynecia aside into a bay window and appoints for her the same time and place. Each both King and Queen is to make sure that the other is asleep. After supper, which all three hasten through, Gynecia pretends to be unwell, and goes to bed, in order to set Basilius a good example who is indeed well pleased at her early retirement. But now Pyrocles takes her once more aside (378-380), and as if by way of after- thought, suggests that she may with greater ease be first in the cave ; she is to take his outer garment, let she rouse suspicion; he himself, muffled in her garments, as a sick woman might plausibly be, will lie by Basilius's side until the King sleeps, and then will steal away to the cave and to her. Confused by the suddenness of the plan, and his quick offer of his outer garments, and induced by the thought that the grantor must be allowed his own way of granting, she yields, giving him, as is needful, the key of the lodge, the object of his stratagem. So Pyrocles lies down in the King's bed with head and face hidden. Gynecia happening upon an old love-philtre, which she has never used, now pours it into a jewelled cup to make sure of Pyrocles, and goes with it to the cave, where she lies ex- pectant. Meanwhile Basilius, who has waited in Philoclea's room till Gynecia should be asleep, creeps darkling to his chamber, treading softly, collid- ing with sharp corners everywhere, and in fear at every creak he makes. Where assuring himself that his bedfellow sleeps, he steals forth to the cave. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION *7l He enters the bed and, calling upon the name of Zelmane, embraces her he finds there; who dares not reveal who she is, and so receives him gently. As soon as Basilius is gone, Pyrocles bars the gate, (381-387), and fortifies the lodge as well as he can impromptu, in order that his and Philoclea's preparations for escape may not be interrupted. Then he hastens to her chamber, which being open, he overhears her sing two sonnets and speak a soliloquy lamenting his desertion of her and accus- ing him of inconstancy. He enters, hears her direct charge, gives his justification in his plan for their escape together, and upon her still expressing dis- belief falls into a swoon. She repents, but is too weak to endure a journey. Then he realizes his folly in not sooner acquainting her with his device, her sudden knowledge whereof has rendered impos- sible its execution. So he lies down by her side, and they both fall asleep. ( End of Book III. " The Third Eclogue " follows.) BOOK IV Dametas digs all day, until, when he at last turns over the great stone, he finds naught there but a mocking couplet. Returning in disgust and weari- ness (404-409), he finds his house deserted, and so fares forth again at his wits' end. There he beholds Mopsa in her ash tree, and calls her, first joyfully, then impatiently, then with curses; who at the third call throws out her arms to Apollo, loses her hold, and comes tumbling down. To all his questions about Pamela's escape she keeps repeating her wish to Apollo that a King may be her husband; till Dametas thinks her mad, and lays hands upon her to shake her back to her wits. At this moment arrives Miso, after a vain search for Dametas in THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Mantinea where no such girl as Charita and no such street as Oudemia are known! Finding him with a young woman in his arms, she soundly cudgels them both. Still thinking and talking at cross purposes, the three return to their lodge, and now begin to realize the prospect of serious punish- ment for Pamela's escape. At last Dametas, think- ing that Pamela may have gone to spend the night with her sister, betakes himself to the King's lodge, and, though to his astonishment he finds the gate barred, yet lets himself in at a cellar-door which has escaped the notice of Pyrocles. In Philoclea's chamber he finds the sleeping lovers, takes from the room all weapons, and fast bars the door. Then he bruits abroad what he has seen ; until a shepherd comes running to him crying "The King is dead." In fact (409-416), as morning approaches, Ba- silius has left his wife's side to go to his wife's side. While he stands in the mouth of the cave, she rises and discloses herself to him, and overwhelms him with shame and repentance, but is very willing to forgive his offense. This magnanimity delights him, and the two are perfectly reconciled, when Basilius espies the potion, and despite Gynecia's remonstrances, drinks it off. He falls apparently dead. Gynecia feels herself morally guilty of his death, and recalls her dream (II. xxv, 2I2V.-2I3) which she interprets to mean that she too must die. She therefore tries to give herself up a prisoner to the shepherds who soon arrive. For all her con- fessions of guilt they are scarcely prevailed upon to take her into custody. Their lamentations reach the ear of Philanax, who, more resolute, places Gynecia under strong guard. Dametas and Miso too he causes to be imprisoned and flogged for their negligence. He sends out a search for Pamela, and then proceeds to the King's lodge. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 273 Pyrocles wakes immediately after Dametas leaves the place, and finds himself disarmed and both him- self and Philoclea prisoners (417-426). After a survey of the chamber, he is able to break out only a bar from the window, sufficient for a weapon but not for escape. He hears too the loud voice of Dametas without, proclaiming the disgrace of Philo- clea, and realizes that, according to the Arcadian law, he has brought death upon her. The only alternative he can think of is to kill himself, that she may seem to have killed him in defence of her honor. He does indeed fall upon the iron window bar, which, however, is too blunt to do more than pierce his skin and bruise his ribs. The noise of his fall wakes Philoclea, who runs to him in horror, and implores him to give up his fell intent. He tells her why he has chosen this course, and the two discuss suicide. At last, upon her threat that if he kill himself she will kill herself too, he consents to live, announcing, however, that he expects her to support his assertion that he came thither to violate her chastity but failed, and to withhold his real name, for the honor of his house. Both are now taken into custody by Philanax. The boors who (III. 365) waked Pamela are those remnants of the Arcadian rebels who did not submit but retired to hide in the forest. They now recognize Musidorus as having made such havoc among them during their revolt, and (427-433) Pamela as a valuable means whereby to purchase their peace with the King. Accordingly they cap- ture the lovers, whom they decide to return to Basilius. Next day, Musidorus has almost suc- ceeded in persuading their captors to go along with them to Thessalia and gain great reward, when the whole party meet a troop of Philanax's horsemen, 19 374 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN and the boors' present fears overcome their cupid- ity; so that they go forward. But it is to their death. For the horsemen, learning who they are, and desiring for themselves the credit of bringing in Musidorus and Pamela, kill the rebels every one. The prisoners they deliver to Philanax just as Pyro- cles is being taken into custody. Pyrocles breaks from his guards and embraces Musidorus. Phila- nax, in order to sift the matter, has them confined together under surveillance. Pamela claims to be her father's heir, even under the Arcadian law that a female heir must be either twenty-one or mar- ried; for, she says, she is married. But Philanax confines her in the lodge with Philoclea. Now arises great dissension (434-438) as to the polity and the ruler to be chosen for Arcadia; amid all of which Philanax moves quietly onward to his purpose of bringing the King's murderers to jus- tice. Timautus, an ambitious nobleman, whose pro- posal that Philanax shall marry one of the Prin- cesses and he himself the other has been scornfully rejected by Philanax, attacks him openly in a speech to an assemblage of the nobles. While Philanax is answering, news comes of a fresh insurrection. Kalander, seeing the Princes imprisoned, has been by his old love and admiration for them fired with desire not only to set them free, but to commit Arcadia to their rule. He has persuaded the citi- zens of Mantinea to support his enterprise. Phi- lanax considers the uprising so dangerous as to warrant him in secretly removing the Princes, even in having them killed at once. But their custodian, Simpathus, will not consent to either course. Thus the day ends in tumult. The shepherds begin their Eclogues at sunset. (End of Book IV. "The fourth Eclogue" follows.) ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 275 BOOK V In the midst of these troubles (444-453), Evar- chus, King of Macedon, father of Pyrocles and uncle of Musidorus, arrives with a troop of twenty horsemen, purposing to visit his old friend Basil- ius. But hearing of the King's death, he sends to Philanax, offering to remain and take part in the funeral. In the arrival of this King, renowned for his justice even more than for his victories, Philanax sees the salvation of Arcadia. To him he will commit jurisdiction. Evarchus is to sit in judgment the very next day. To this the assem- blage agrees, only Timautus opposing, whom the mob thereupon attacks with sticks and stones, so that with the loss of an eye he is forced to seek the protection of Philanax. Evarchus consents to take jurisdiction of the cause in hand; and with Philanax rides to the lodges, where the people, who are still assembled though it is late at night, receive him with acclaim. After addressing them and setting the trial for the morrow, he bids them retire. That night (453-458) Gynecia spends in painful thoughts and dreams ; the Princesses in mutual con- fidences and in writing letters to their prosecutors; the Princes in protestations of friendship, in depre- cation of each other's sorrow, in declaration that their loves were worth all this grief and more, in high thoughts of the life to come, and in a brave sonnet against the fear of death. Kalander has brought them their princely garments, which they don. Just before dawn they fall asleep, and sleep until their summons comes. The trial begins (458-463). Evarchus clad in black sits upon Basilius's throne, which has been placed in the midst of the green; the people about it, all silent and orderly; the King's body on a bier 376 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN before it; and Philanax as prosecutor. The Prin- cesses, it is decided, need not be sent for. Gynecia is led forth first, ill-apparelled and dejected; then come the two Princes, most splendidly arrayed, and with erected countenances. As Musidorus passes among the Arcadians, he harangues them in favor of Pamela, for he does not know that she is not to be tried; and as soon as Pyrocles stands before the judge he pleads for Philoclea, again taking upon himself whatever blame may be supposed to rest upon her, and begging to know what is to be her fate. Evarchus at once decides that she is to be a life-long prisoner "among certaine women of re- ligion like the Vestall Nunnes"; whereat Pyrocles rejoices, both that her life is safe, and that none else shall ever enjoy her. When Philanax is open- ing his case against the Queen, she stops him and repeats her confession. Thereupon Evarchus con- demns her to be buried alive with Basilius. Next (464-472) the Princes are arraigned, and their denial of the Arcadian jurisdiction is over- ruled. Philanax then inveighs against Pyrocles; and Pyrocles answers, telling the truth, except that he shields Gynecia by declaring that he told her of her husband's assignation with Zelmane, and sent her to the cave to take Zelmane's place. That ex- plains, too, the Queen's wearing Zelmane's garment. He demands a trial by combat with Philanax, who is willing; but Evarchus refuses to grant it. The court proceeds to try Musidorus (472-475). Philanax inveighs against him. Musidorus replies, reminding the court of the service he and Pyrocles have rendered against the insurgents, and suggest- ing finally that the way out of the difficulty is to marry the Princesses to the Princes. Evarchus now gives judgment (475-477). Both ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 77 the question of jurisdiction and the questions of fact he decides against the Princes. Finally he sentences Pyrocles to be thrown from a tower, and Musidorus to be beheaded. As the Princes are being led away (477-478), Kalander comes rushing up, bringing with him Calodoulus the Thessalian, that friend of Musi- dorus to whom Musidorus sent Menalcas to be de- tained (I. xviii, 79~79v.). Calodoulus has thus been informed of the Princes' whereabouts (the only person so informed except Pamela and Philo- clea) ; and auguring ill of the undertaking, espe- cially when Menalcas told him of Musidorus's disguise, has written to Evarchus and has himself come from Thessaly to Arcadia to do what he can. From Kalander he has just learned of the trial, and has identified the shepherd Dorus as his own Prince. Now he tells Evarchus who the pris- oners are. Philanax is mollified (479-481) ; not so Evarchus, who confirms the sentence. Thereupon Musidorus defies his uncle as far as he himself is concerned, but pleads for the life of Pyrocles. Pyrocles gently stops Musidorus's harsh words to Evarchus, and gently begs Evarchus to spare the life of Musidorus. Thus the two continue to vie with each other in gen- erosity ; till Evarchus agains commands that they be led away. But now (481-482) those near the bier of Basilius hear him groan, and perceive his body stir. He is alive : the supposed love-potion was only a sleeping- draught. Timed for thirty hours, it has kept the weak frame of Basilius rather longer under its influence ; but he is quite revived. He now sees that the oracle is fulfilled indeed. He sends for Gynecia, asks her pardon, clears her of all charges against her, and with great honor 278 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN restores her to the throne. Pyrocles is married to Philoclea, Musidorus to Pamela. Philanax, Calo- doulus, Kalander, Clitophon, and Sympathus, are all fully rewarded. The stories of Artaxia and Plexirtus; of Erona and Plangus; of Helen and Amphialus; of Menalcas and the daughter of Calo- doulus; of Strephan and Klaius; of the son of Pyrocles and Philoclea, named Pyrophilus, and of the daughter of Musidorus and Pamela, named Mel- idora these some other pen may write: mine is weary. HISTORY OF PYROCLES AND MUSIDORUS BEFORE THEY ENTER THE MAIN PLOT (a) (II. vi, 126-129). Evarchus, King of Mace- don, gave his only sister in marriage to his friend Dorilaus King of Thessalia. Their son was Musi- dorus. The soothsayers at his birth predicting that he should overcome certain Kingdoms, the Kings of Phrygia, Lydia and Crete combined to destroy him, and to that end invaded Thessalia, but were re- pulsed by the aid of Evarchus. Evarchus now mar- ried the sister of Dorilaus, and by her had a son Pyrocles, for whom also there were wonderful prognostications. Pyrocles was sent (II. vii, I29v.-i33v.) to be reared with his cousin Musidorus. When Evarchus was besieging Byzantium, he sent for the two cousins, now grown friends as well, who prepared a fleet and set sail. A storm scattered the fleet and drove their ship upon a rock. (II. viii, I34~i38v.) Pyrocles was cast ashore upon the coast of Phrygia, and was quickly taken to the King, a cruel, suspicious tyrant; who learn- ing how his captive came thither and suspecting that the fleet had been gathered against himself, ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 279 made preparations to take his life. Musidorus, rescued by a fisherman of Pontus, heard of his friend's peril, and through a nobleman of that coun- try offered himself in the stead of Pyrocles to be executed. The King, very glad to kill his chief enemy, accepted the offer and set Pyrocles free. In disguise, Pyrocles procured his acceptance as the executioner's assistant, and upon the scaffold ap- peared not only armed himself, but bearing the executioner's sword as well. This he put into Musi- dorus's hand, saying " Die nobly." The two quickly cleared the scaffold, but would soon have been over- powered, if a quarrel between two soldiers had not just then issued in a general riot of the troops. Hereupon the King fled from his post of observa- tion; a rumor of his death went about; and some of the younger nobles cried " Liberty," routed the citi- zens, overpowered the guard, and took possession of the city. The insurgents made Musidorus their chief and crowned him on the scaffold! But (II. ix, 139-x, 142) the Princes left Phrygia to seek fresh adventures. In Galatia (II. x, I42v.- 147) they succored the King (unnamed) and his true-born pious son Leonatus, against his wicked bastard son Plexirtus. (See 4, a and &.) In Lycia (II. x, 147-xiii, i62v.) they came to the assistance of Queen Erona, whom (Tiridates) the King of Armenia, aided by Plangus, Barzanes, and Evardes, was besieging. (See 50.) (6) Evardes having been slain by Pyrocles (II. xviii, 181-185), Anaxius, the eldest and proudest of Evardes's three nephews, sought to avenge his death. He challenged Pyrocles to single combat; who ac- cepting departed from Queen Erona and from Mu- sidorus too, that he might try the adventure alone. But Musidorus followed, to be at hand in time of need. On the way, Pyrocles witnessed the adven- ture of Pamphilus (7a). 280 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN After making peace, as he supposed, between Pam- philus and Dido, Pyrocles (II. xix, iSsv.-ipo) rode on to his meeting with Anaxius, who attacked him at once. The combatants broke their lances at the first encounter, then for a while fought with swords, until Anaxius's horse was impaled upon a broken lance. At that both champions dismounting con- tinued to fight on foot, when, Dido passing by as Pamphilus's captive, Pyrocles rode off to her rescue, despite the taunts and jeers of Anaxius and the country folk a 1 , out. This rescue accomplished, he lodged that night at the house of Dido's father, Chremes, whose treachery next day (/&) resulted in Pyrocles being rejoined by Musidorus. The King of Iberia, coming thither by chance, stopped the fray and invited the Princes to his court (II. xx, 191-194), where they were presented to his Queen, Andromana. (See 6b.) Andromana fell in love with them both, and scrupled not to show her passion to both, soliciting them openly. But being continually repulsed, she thought to force them, and so upon a false charge that they were plotting to overthrow the Kingdom (as they had done in Pontus and Phrygia) she had them imprisoned, but con- tinued to implore their love. It happened that Pal- ladius, son of the King and Queen, loved his cousin Zelmane (daughter to his mother's half-brother, Plexirtus, who had left her at the Iberian court to avoid the insecurity of his own estate). But she loved Pyrocles, and begged Palladius to have the Princes set free. Palladius pleaded with his mother in vain. But another opportunity favored them. In Iberia, jousts (II. xxi, I94v.-I98v.) are held each year at the anniversary of the royal wedding day. On this occasion the Knights of Queen Helen of Corinth bade fair to carry off the honors; and ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 28 1 at length Palladius persuaded his mother to let Py- rocles and Musidorus take part in the tournament for the honor of Iberia. They were sworn to go no further than Palladius went, and to attend him wherever he did go. When, therefore, he rode away from the lists, they went with him unresisted, and made good their escape into Bithynia. But now Andromana sent a troop in pursuit, and herself came with it. The Princes and Palladius easily put it to flight ; and Palladius rashly pursued. One of his own subjects one who had been a favorite of Andromana and was jealous of the Princes mis- took Palladius for one of them, and slew him. An- dromana stabbed herself on her son's body and died. Parting thence (II. xxii, I99-2O3V.), the Princes learned from the lament of Leucippe the end of the story of Pamphilus. (See /c.) Further on they were overtaken by Zelmane, disguised as a page under the name Daiphantus, who for love of Pyro- cles had followed him thus, and now offered him her services. Not recognizing her, he accepted, and she served him devotedly for two months. On the border of Galatia they witnessed the fatal combat, incited by the wiles of Plexirtus, between his faith- ful friends, the brothers Tydeus and Telenor (see 40} ; and they got the story from the leader of the band which was to have killed whichever brother should survive. The news of her father's treachery so smote Zel- mane (II. xxiii, 204-208), that, languishing as she was for love, she now pined away. Her fatal stroke was the further news that her father was in danger of losing his life, unless he were rescued at once. Hereupon she disclosed her identity, confessed her hopeless love, and begged a last boon of the Princes: Pyrocles was to rescue her father, and upon his 282 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN return to Greece was to take the name Daiphantus, in her memory; Musidorus at the same time was to take the name Palladius, in memory of her hapless lover; and they were to bury her obscurely, not suf- fering her friends to know her fate. Then she died. Pyrocles rode off, much against his will, to rescue Plexirtus, leaving Musidorus to help the King of Pontus against Otaves, brother to that Barzanes whom Musidorus slew in defence of Erona (xiii, 161). Both these adventures the Princes accomplished successfully. Pyrocles set Plexirtus free by killing the monster that was to have devoured him. Musi- dorus slew Otaves's giant allies and took Otaves prisoner, but spared him and made him a friend. Then the Princes hastened to take ship (II. xxiv, 2o8v.-2iiv.) for Greece. They wished to return to their parents ; to resume the interrupted combat with Anaxius (II. xix, i86v.), who sought Pyrocles throughout Peloponnesus, defaming him as he went; and to visit Arcadia, famous for the valor of Arga- lus and Amphialus and for the beauty of its prin- cesses. Their ship was royally furnished by Plex- irtus, who made such professions of repentance and goodwill that they actually began to trust him, and set sail. But when they began to look for land, an old man whom Plexirtus had sent with them as guide disclosed to them that he and the Captain had been commissioned by Plexirtus to murder them in their sleep: thus Plexirtus hoped to gain the hand of Artaxia and her Kingdom of Armenia, which she had promised to whosoever should kill the Princes. When the ship neared Greece, they saw the Captain whisper the old man that the time was come, and the old man try to dissuade him. Thereupon the Captain commanded his crew to take the Princes ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 283 alive or dead, and, the old man commanding them the contrary, the Captain gave him a blow. Thus the mellay began ; friend and foe indistinguishably fought in that narrow space ; the old man was killed by one of his own side; some of the crew joined to defend the Princes; and a little remnant took to a boat, which others again leapt into and swamped. At last a fire broke out, stopped the fighting, and engaged the efforts of all the survivors. In vain. The Princes leapt overboard. Pyrocles finding the Captain cling- ing to a floating mast, killed him, and bestrode the mast himself. [Here the "Arcadia" opens, in mediis rebus.] (c) On the coast of Laconia (I. i, 1-6), Pyrocles and Musidorus escape from the burning ship. Musi- dorus, cast ashore and revived by the shepherds, sails out to rescue Pyrocles, who is found riding a mast. Just then pirates frighten off the rescuers, and take Pyrocles. Musidorus gives up the rescue perforce. (rf) Musidorus is conducted by the shepherds to Arcadia (I. ii, 6-iv, 18), where Kalander, a gentle- man of that country, entertains him under the name Palladius, and tells him A. Kalander now hears (I. v, 18-24) that his son Clitophon, who is about to be married, has been taken prisoner by the Helots, then in revolt against the Laconians. To account for Clitophon's partici- pation in that fight, Kalander's steward tells Musi- dorus in. Musidorus and Kalander head an expedition (I. vi, 24-28) to rescue Clitophon. By M.'s direction the Arcadians disguise themselves as rebellious peas- ants, and, placing chains upon the gentlemen of their army, offer, to make common cause with the Helots. These, in the absence of their leader, admit the Arcadians to Cardamila, their city, where the 284 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN gentlemen are soon released and lead an attack from within the walls. In this fight the Helots are about to be worsted, when their leader Daiphantus (= Py- rocles) returns, rallies them, and confronts Musi- dorus, whose helmet he strikes off. Thereupon he recognizes his friend and declares himself. (e) Pyrocles is kept in the hold by the pirates (I. viii, 34-35V.) until they are hard pressed by a Laconian galley, when they arm him and other pris- oners, promising them liberty as a reward for a good defense. In the fight Pyrocles kills the commander of the galley, but is himself taken, and lodged in prison at Tenaria. The revolting Helots make a jail-delivery and release him. His valor in several minor combats leads them to choose him, under the name Daiphantus, to their leadership, just left va- cant by the slaying of Demagoras. (See Jo.) Here he gains so many victories that he is able to nego- tiate a very advantageous peace with the Spartans. These negotiations are what cause his absence at the time of the Arcadian attack upon Cardamila. But at the critical moment he returns, rallies the Helots, and fights with Musidorus until he strikes off his friend's helmet and recognizes him (d ad fin.). The fight is stopped (I. vi, 26-28). Pyrocles persuades the Helots to give up Clitophon and Argalus, who return with the Princes and Kalander to the latter's house. There they all witness ib. (/) Musidorus and Pyrocles now (I. viii, 33-35) tell each other d and e respectively, thus bring- ing their adventures up to the moment of the narra- tion itself; and Musidorus repeats A for the benefit of Pyrocles, at the same time showing him the pic- ture of Philoclea on the wall of a pavilion in Ka- lander's garden. Kalander at Pyrocles's request also gives him information about A. With this and with ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 285 the picture, Pyrocles falls in love (I. ix, 35V.-38; I. xiii, 57) ; partly confesses his passion to Musidorus, and takes occasion of a hunt (I. x, 40) to slip away secretly to the Arcadian court. [He thus enters the Main Plot, at B.] A letter which he leaves for Musidorus (I. x, 4ov.-4iv.) tells only that he goes because of love, but tells not whither. Musidorus and Clitophon de- part to seek him. In the valley they find the scattered pieces of a suit of armor (I. x, 42-43V.), which Clitophon rec- ognizes as that of his cousin Amphialus. Musidorus puts it on. Soon they are attacked by the armed escort of a coach, and valiantly defending them- selves, kill or rout their assailants. They find in the coach a beautiful lady (Queen Helen of Corinth) gazing intently upon a picture (that of Amphialus). Addressing Musidorus by the name of Amphialus, she begs him to end her woes. He discloses him- self and asks her to tell her story. She relates 20 (I. xi, 44-48). Scarcely has she concluded, when Ismenus, Am- phialus's page, dressed in Musidorus's armor, attacks Musidorus (I. xi,48v.~49v.) for wearing Amphialus's armor. Clitophon recognizing Ismenus, explains matters and ends the attack. Ismenus promises to return his master's armor as soon as he dare venture to approach him. He relates 2b. Queen Helen pro- ceeds on her journey, attended by Clitophon. Musi- dorus continues his quest. After traversing Laconia, Sicyonia, Corinth, Elis and Achaia (I. xii, 5o~56v.) he returns to Arcadia, for he remembers that Philoclea's picture recalled to Pyrocles his old love (Zelmane). And there he finds him disguised as an Amazon. His remonstrance against such an ignoble course, and more generally 286 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN against women and love, almost brings on a quarrel ; but soon the cousins resume their friendship, and Pyrocles (I. xiii, 57~xiv, 64v.) gives an account of his love affair up to the time of the actual narration : B. He begs Musidorus to remain concealed in an arbor private to Pyrocles, in order that Pyrocles may receive his counsel and help, and show him Philo- clea. As Pamela is with Philoclea, Musidorus sees her too, and falls in love with her. [Thus he too enters the Main Plot, at C.] EPISODES j. Argalus and Parthenia (a) (I. v, 19-24) Argalus, a knight of Cyprus and cousin to Queen Gynecia, accompanies her to the Arcadian court, where he becomes the friend of Clitophon and is by him presented to Parthenia, Clitophon's cousin. Argalus and Parthenia fall in love, but Parthenia's mother favors a wealthy suitor, Demagoras, and does all she can to thwart Argalus. After her death, Demagoras, realizing that his suit must fail, rubs poison on Parthenia's face, and spoils her beauty. Though Argalus remains faithful, she will not consent to his sacrificing himself, and, de- clining to marry him, secretly escapes. Banished for his crime, Demagoras becomes leader of the rebellious Helots. In their chief city Argalus seeks him out, slays him, and is captured. Clitophon leads an expedition to rescue his friend, but is taken him- self. The two are kept safe from the vengeance of the Helots by the influence of the latter's new leader (Daiphantus = Pyrocles). (&) (I. vii, 31-33) Argalus is released as a result of Kalander's expedition, and is taken to Kalander's house. There appears a lady closely resembling ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 387 Parthenia. She declares that she is a kinswoman of Queen Helen of Corinth, and that she bears Par- thenia's dying wish that Argalus and she shall wed. Upon his refusal, she reveals herself as Parthenia indeed, cured by a skillful physician of Queen Helen. Argalus and Parthenia are married (I. viii, 35) at Kalander's house, amid the rejoicing of the noble guests. (c) (III. xii, 290-295) Amphialus, having taken the princesses captive and being besieged by Basil- ius, defeats many of Basilius's knights. At length Basilius sends for Argalus, who at once leaves his nuptial bliss at the call of honor. After a terrible combat he receives a mortal wound. Parthenia comes too late to do aught but receive his last words. He is buried with military pomp; she, inconsolable, vows to follow him. (d) (III. xvi, 3oSv.-3iiv.) Disguised as "The Knight of the Tomb " she challenges Amphialus, who after a short and one-sided combat wounds her mortally. She dies calling the name of Argalus, and is buried in his tomb with great pomp and lamen- tation. (Their epitaph, not given in the ed. of 1590, is given at p. 288 of the ed. of 1627.) 2. Amphialus and Queen Helen (a) (I. xi, 45-48) Amphialus, son of Basilius's younger brother (unnamed), and of the unworthy Cecropia, Princess of Argos, was reared by Timo- theus, a great Corinthian lord, with whose son Philoxenus he formed a close friendship. When Philoxenus courted Queen Helen of Corinth, he in- troduced his friend to her to further his suit. Though Amphialus was faithful to his trust, the Queen fell in love with him, and told him so. Indignant, he 388 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN left her court. Philoxenus coming to woo in per- son heard from her of her preference for Amphialus. He overtook him, and forcing a fight upon him was slain. Timotheus, who presently arrived, fell dead upon his son's body. Overcome with grief, Am- phialus threw away his armor, retired to the forest, and declared undying hatred against Queen Helen, cause of all this woe. She now seeks him that she may die at his hands. (6) (II. xi, I53V.-I55) In his solitary wanderings he chances upon the spot where Pamela and Philo- clea are bathing in the river Ladon ; he falls in love with Philoclea; his spaniel betrays his presence; Pyrocles wounds him; and Amphialus retires to nurse his wounds. (c) (III. xxiv, 342v.-xxv, 346) In consequence of Cecropia's wicked attempt to force Philoclea to marry Amphialus, Amphialus has been sorely wounded by Musidorus, and, now attempting suicide, re-opens these wounds and stabs himself besides. Queen Helen takes his almost lifeless body to be cured by a surgeon of hers at home. [Episode left unfinished.] j. Phalantus and Artesia (a) (I. xv, 66-xvii, 76) Phalantus, a bastard brother of Queen Helen, is as shallow-hearted as he is brave and courteous. Returned from the war against the Helots, he fancies himself in love with Artesia. She is really angling for Amphialus, but she, too, is shallow, is not deeply in love with any- one, and is content to accept the lip-worship of Phalantus for the credit it brings her. Desiring that her fame may reach Amphialus, she entraps Phalan- tus into a promise to maintain by challenge the supremacy of her beauty. He has never been over- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 289 thrown, but has defeated many adversaries and taken from them as prizes the portraits of their ladies, which, to the number of eleven, he bears in tri- umphal procession at the Arcadian court. After he has there unseated several knights, among them Phebilus, who champions the beauty of Philoclea, he is himself at last overthrown by Pyrocles, who disguised as an ill-appareled knight, champions that same beauty. Artesia thereupon leaves Phalantus in scorn, but he is glad of his riddance. (&) Later, Artesia acts as Cecropia's tool to en- trap the Princesses of Arcadia (III. ii, 248, 252) ; plots treachery against Cecropia (III. xiv, 301-304) ; and is executed at her command (III. xxi, 332; xxiii, 339). See 8. 4. The Galatica (Paphlagonica) (a) (II. x, i42-i46v.) Infatuated by the wiles of his bastard son Plexirtus, the (unnamed) King of Galatia (Paphlagonia) ordered his servants to kill Leonatus, the true-born heir to the throne; but they spared him and allowed him to escape to a foreign country. There he was just gaining advancement when he heard that Plexirtus had deposed and blinded his father. Leonatus returned to succor the old man, who begged to be led to the top of a high rock, that he might throw himself from it and die. His plaint being overheard by the Princes Pyro- cles and Musidorus, engaged their interest. They defended him and Leonatus against an armed troop headed by Plexirtus himself, who came to take his brother's life. With the aid of the new King of Pontus they forced Plexirtus to retreat to a for- tress, where they besieged him. The old King crowned Leonatus and died. Plexirtus surrendered, but dealt with Leonatus so cunningly that he was pardoned. 39 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN (&) (II. xxii, 20IV.-2O3) Now he plotted to poi- son Leonatus, who in his mistaken piety refusing to kill his father's son, assigned to him instead (that Plexirtus's ambition might find a field elsewhere) his own right to the conquest of Trebizonde. This city Plexirtus's faithful allies, the brothers Tydeus and Telenor, soon acquired for him. But, once seated on the throne, he began to fear them, and plotted to put them out of the way. He told each of them separately and secretly that he had been challenged by the King of Pontus to single com- bat, a tale which was plausible by reason of the old grudge between the kings. (See II. x, 145 supra.) When the appointed day drew near, he feigned himself ill and again secretly and separately requested each brother to go in his place, making each swear to keep the secret even from his brother. And " he told Tydeus, the king would meet him in a blew armour; & Telenor, that it was a black armour; & with wicked subtiltie (as if it had bene so appointed) caused Tydeus to take a black armour, & Telenor a blew; appointing them waies how to go, so as he knew they should not meet, til they came to the place appointed, where each had prom- ised to keep silence . . . ; and there in await he had laied . . . murtherers, that who ouerliued the other, should by them be dispatched." Pyrocles and Musidorus came up towards the end of this combat and parted the brothers, but too late to prevent their death. From the chief of the mur- derers, who had attacked the Princes when they first appeared, the Princes learned this story. A messenger sought Tydeus and Telenor (II. xxiii, 204V.-2O7V.) to tell them of the danger of Plexirtus, who unless rescued at once would suffer death. The messenger told his tale to the Princes; ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 29! and Pyrocles, having pledged himself to the dying Zelmane to succor her unworthy father, unwillingly undertook the task. An ancient knight, he learned, whose kinsman Plexirtus had murdered, had now for revenge entrapped Plexirtus in his castle by means of a forged letter purporting to be from Artaxia, in which she promised marriage to Plex- irtus and begged him to come to her in secret. Plexirtus on his way with a small escort had been captured by the old knight, who threatened to de- liver him to a monster, but yet proclaimed that if any so loved Plexirtus as to attempt to slay that monster, Plexirtus should be saved if they suc- ceeded. Pyrocles slew the monster and set Plex- irtus free to practise new villainies. For instance (II. xxiv, 2O9v.), in order to gain Artaxia's hand, and add Armenia to his kingdom, Plexirtus hired the captain and the crew of the vessel on which the Princes were returning home, to murder them both. Thus he hoped to gain the price that Artaxia had set upon the Princes' heads. His expectations were fulfilled: he married Artaxia (II. xxix, 232V.-233) and was crowned King of Armenia. [Episode left unfinished; Plexirtus left unpun- ished.] 5. Erona, Antiphilus, and Plangus (a) (II. xiii, I59v.-i62v.) Erona, Princess of Lycia, contemning Love, caused Cupid's images to be defaced. He punished her by causing her to fall in love with Antiphilus, her nurse's son. Endeav- oring to dissuade her from this love, in favor of her suitor Tiridates, King of Armenia, her father pretended that Antiphilus had fled the country, pretended to have executed him, etc. Thereupon she made attempts at suicide, which broke her 292 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN father's heart, so that he died, leaving her queen. She was about to marry Antiphilus, when Tiridates besieged her. He was accompanied by his sister Artaxia, and aided by Plangus, Evardes, and Bar- zanes. To the aid of Erona came Pyrocles and Musidorus. Tiridates offered to match his three champions against the two princes and Antiphilus. In the ensuing combat, Musidorus slew Barzanes and Pyrocles slew Evardes, but Antiphilus was taken alive by Plangus. Tiridates gave Erona three days in which to yield to him : otherwise Antiphilus should be beheaded. Meanwhile, if she did herself any hurt, Antiphilus should be tortured. Thus hemmed in, she know not what to do. At length, upon a message from Antiphilus beseeching her to save his life, she sent a message of compliance ; but immediately repented, and sought counsel of the Princes. In ignorance of her previous message they issued from the city, found Tiridates negli- gently guarded, slew him, and brought off Antiphilus, who was soon married to Erona. Artaxia, aided by Plangus to escape, and now Queen of Armenia, "pro- claimed great rewards to any priuate man and her selfe in manage to any Prince, that would destroy Pyrocles and Musidorus " ; for she considered that her brother had been by them treacherously slain. (b) (II. xxix, 227v.-233v.) Soon after Erona's marriage to Antiphilus, his natural baseness, together with the flattery of his courtiers, puffed him up with pride. He began to despise his wife, and feigning that she was barren, purposed a second marriage. He even, in his insolence, made polygamy legiti- mate, and asked for the hand of Artaxia, who hated both him and Erona. Infatuated by her love, Erona assented to all these negotiations, willing even to be second to Artaxia if she might only keep An- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 293 tiphilus; and she wrote to Artaxia to speed his wooing. Artaxia hid her hatred in order to get them into her power; and appointed an interview. There she took Antiphilus and Erona prisoners, meaning to sacrifice them upon her brother's tomb. Antiphilus weakly begged for mercy; Erona pleaded only for Antiphilus. Her noble bearing, her beauty, and her affliction now won the love of Plangus, who still in his exile sojourned at Artaxia's court. He declared his love, and Erona desired him to show it by saving Antiphilus. So he tried to per- suade Artaxia to spare her prisoner, but in vain. Equally vain was his attempt to gather a rescuing army in Lycia: there the throne had already been usurped by the next heir, who had set the Lycians against their queen because of her unworthy match, and who now urged Artaxia to execute her. Fi- nally he arranged with Antiphilus to make possible his escape, but Antiphilus wanted the spirit to carry out the plan: he had a notion that if he disclosed it, he should be pardoned ! He did disclose it, and begged for his life again. When Plangus came at the appointed time to deliver Antiphilus, Artaxia's troops were there ready to take Plangus, but his friends among the army kept him safe. As for Antiphilus, the women of that city begged him from Artaxia ; and, mortally hating him for having insti- tuted polygamy, forced him to throw himself down from the pyramid on Tiridates's tomb and so to end his false-hearted life. Plangus gathered his friends, and in an encounter defeated the troops of Artaxia, taking as hostage a son of Tiridates. By threatening to make this nephew of Artaxia suffer the same fate as Erona, Plangus contrived to post- pone Erona's execution. And now it was agreed that Erona was to be placed in the strong castle of a great nobleman for safe-keeping. If within two to 394 THE GREEK ROMANCES IK years after Tiridates's death Pyrocles and Musi- dorus should overcome two champions chosen by Artaxia, Erona should be set at liberty; if not, she should be burned. To this, both sides took solemn oath; Plangus being willing because he knew the courtesy and prowess of those princes, who would surely consent to fight for Erona, but Artaxia being willing because Plexirtus had just informed her that he had caused both the princes to perish at sea. Plangus taking leave of the afflicted Erona, who wished only for death to join her to Antiphilus, went to Greece to notify the princes. On the way he intercepted letters from Artaxia to Plexirtus, accepting Plexirtus as her husband and alluding to the Princes' death in such a way that Plangus in- quired further in Laconia, and found that their ship had indeed been lost. He concluded that they must have perished; else their presence would surely be known in Greece. Now came word from Erona's warden, that Artaxia had broken faith and was besieging his castle. He could not hold out long, and begged Plangus to come to his aid, for now that Plexirtus was King of Armenia too and their own party consumed in the war, he felt that he could not resist. Plangus as a last resort determined to ask aid of Evarchus of Macedon, who would cer- tainly wish to avenge the death of his son Pyrocles. On his way, Plangus passed through Arcadia and told his story to Basilius and the princesses. (c) (V. 446-448) Plangus moved towards By- zantium, where, he understood, Evarchus after his victorious siege still remained. In fact, Evarchus had undertaken a new enterprise. The Latins were threatening him on the West and he was engaged in making all ready against them. On a progress through Macedon to see that his orders were car- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION *95 ried out, he met Plangus who had turned to seek him at home. Plangus told him the sad news of the death of Pyrocles and Musidorus, and of Erona's plight. Evarchus swore never to return to Macedon till he had pursued to death the murderers of his nephew and his son, and at once dispatched a ship to Byzantium with orders to the governors to pre- pare for war in the East. On this ship Plangus sailed. But as news now came that the Latins had given up their purpose of war against Macedon, Evarchus himself with a fleet set sail for Byzan- tium. A storm scattered this fleet and cast his own ship upon the coast of Laconia. Learning there that after Daiphantus's departure the King of the Mace- donians had broken treaty with the Helots, and that these, again at war, hated the very name of King, Evarchus sought the nearest place of safety and hospitality, Arcadia, the realm of his old friend Basilius. [Evarchus enters Main Plot. Episode left un- finished.] 6. Plangus and Andromana (a) (II. xv, i66v.-i7iv.) Plangus, the son of the widowed King of Iberia, had an intrigue with a citizen's wife (Andromana), with whom his father one day found him. But Plang'is convinced his father that she was chaste, indeed, convinced him so thoroughly that he fell in love with her himself and sent Plangus away to the wars. During Plan- gus's absence her husband died, and she so managed the old King that by the time Plangus returned, it was to find her his stepmother and the mother of a son and a daughter by her second marriage. She knew him conscious of her guilt, and moreover she now again solicited him, but in vain; so that she became his bitter enemy and began to plot his ruin. 29 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN To this end she took the help of " a seruant neere about her husband," an ambitious courtier who played on the King's fears and pretended to be himself in fear of Plangus. After many machinations her tool informed Plangus as was indeed the fact that his stepmother was conspiring with the King against his life; and offered to take him to a secret place where he might overhear them. Plangus was led thither, armed. When his stepmother knew he was there, she cried and grovelled till the King came, whereupon she told him with feigned reluctance that Plangus had solicited her, and had offered to kill his father and marry her as soon as he should be King. At that, in ran the tool, and besought the King to save himself, for there was one armed in the next room. Plangus was taken prisoner, his father meaning to execute him the next day. But a little army of his friends rescued him, and if he had so chosen, would have given him the crown. Plangus, however, chose voluntary exile at the court of his cousin Tiridates, King of Armenia. As an ally of Tiridates, Plangus besieged Erona, after eleven or twelve years of exile. During all this time his father's hatred remained unabated. He sent the tool to poison Plangus; and the villain being apprehended confessed all before his execu- tion. But even this confession sent in writing to the King failed of its effect, for he had so com- pletely resigned his government to his wife that she intercepted the document. And now Plangus's long absence made it possible for her to have Palladius, her son by her second marriage, proclaimed heir to the kingdom. (&) (II. xx, ipo-xxi, ig8v.) But Andromana and Palladius were not destined to prosper. The end of Pyrocles's adventure with Pamphilus and Dido ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 297 brought the two princes Pyrocles and Musidorus to the Iberian court. Here Andromana fell in love with them, and being repulsed, imprisoned them. Still she allowed them to take part in the tourna- ment upon the anniversary of her marriage; for Zelmane, who loved Pyrocles and was loved by Palladius, persuaded her lover to gain this favor for her beloved. The Princes took the opportunity to escape with Palladius. They routed the pursuing party sent by Andromana, but in the melee Pal- ladius was slain. Andromana killed herself upon his corpse. 7. Pamphilus and Dido (a) (II. xviii, i8iv.-i85) Pamphilus was an ac- complished courtier and a conqueror of ladies, whom he would deceive and then disdain. When at length he bethrothed himself to one (Leucippe), his former mistresses conspired to punish him. Inveigling him to a lonely spot, they set upon him and bound him with garters, and pricked him sore with bodkins, Dido showing the greatest spite and trying to put out his eyes. Pyrocles, just then passing on his way to fight Anaxius, heard Pamphilus's cries and put to flight all his assailants save Dido. From her he heard this story. When she would have returned to mangle Pamphilus, Pyrocles restrained her; but when certain friends of Pamphilus coming up would have killed her at Pamphilus's request, Pyrocles pro- tected her; so that in the end peace was promised faithfully on both sides, and Pyrocles rode on. (&) (II. xix, i86-i9ov.) Dido on her way home with an insufficient guard was again attacked by Pamphilus and his friends, and captured. Bound before him on his horse and beaten by him with rods, she was borne towards her father Chremes's castle, where Pamphilus meant to kill her in her 298 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN father's sight. On their way they passed where Pyrocles and Anaxius were fighting; and, in order to rescue Dido, Pyrocles left the combat despite the jeers of his enemy. He overtook the crew, from whom he quickly liberated her; but Pamphilus es- caped. Dido took Pyrocles to pass the night as the guest of her father, a rich miser. His unwillingness to maintain his daughter had driven her to the pro- tection of Cecropia, which, however, had exposed her to the arts of Pamphilus. Unwillingly admitted and grudgingly received by Chremes, Pyrocles upon Dido's inquiry told his name and estate; whereupon his wretched host, who knew that Artaxia had set a price upon the head of Pyrocles, sent word to the commander of an Iberian garrison near by that Pyrocles would next morning be betrayed into the commander's hands at a certain place of ambush agreed upon. Next day Chremes accompanied his guest to make sure of the success of the treachery, and Dido to prolong her farewell. Pyrocles was attacked and would have been taken but for Musi- dorus, who in his extremity came to the rescue. He had been directed thither by Chremes's neigh- bors, whose hatred had led them to burn his house during his absence, and who knew that Chremes's escort could bode no good to Pyrocles. The combat was ended by the arrival of the King of Iberia, by whose orders the Captain was beheaded and Chremes hanged. Dido, in attempting to save Pyrocles by placing herself between him and his enemies, had been slain. (c) (II. xxii, 199-200) Worse than death was the fate reserved for Pamphilus. From the lament of Leucippe, to whom Pamphilus had been betrothed, Pyrocles later learned that the inconstant one had deserted her too, and had married Baccha, an ira- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTIOX 299 perious wanton. Pyrocles let him live, considering that to kill him would rather be to spare him the punishment that life with such a woman would in- flict. Leucippe retired to a house of " Vestall Nunnes." 8. Cecropia; or the Captivity (III. ii. 248-25ov.) Six pretty country girls in- vite the royal party to attend rural sports at a place in the woods about half a mile from the lodges. Pamela, Philoclea, and Pyrocles (as Zelmane) go to the appointed place, take refreshment, and wait for the " devises " ; instead of which, armed men rush from the woods and take them prisoners before Zelmane can draw. Their captors place them on horseback and carry them to a castle upon a high rock in the midst of a lake, the castle of Cecropia, who receives them with mock courtesy at the gate. They are placed in separate lodgings. Cecropia, going to her son Amphialus, who is still in bed tending the wound that Pyrocles gave him (II. xi, 154), tells him who are her captives. As he knows nothing of her wicked devices, he begs her to tell him the whole story. She complies Basilius lived unmarried till he was nearly three score, and led everybody to believe that he never would marry. So his younger brother (unnamed) was regarded as heir to the throne of Arcadia, and as such obtained the hand of Cecropia, daughter of the King of Argos. As Princess-Apparent she re- ceived great homage; and in this felicity her son Amphialus was born. Just when the couple had laid a plot to shorten the life of Basilius, her hus- band died. She still had much honor as mother of the new heir. But soon Basilius married Gynecia, then a young girl, and brought her to queen it over 300 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Cecropia; nor was this all, for now the birth of Basilius's daughters cut off all hope of the throne for Amphialus, and stripped Cecropia of her honors. She tried several ways to destroy the house of Arcadia: it was she that let loose the lion and the bear that attacked the Princesses; it was she that procured Clinias to stir up the recent insurrection; and the leader of the supposed country girls who had just enticed the Princesses into her hands was her protogee Artesia, disguised. Had it not been that Amphialus loved Philoclea, Cecropia would, she says, already have had the Princesses killed. As it is, he may easily have his will, for his mistress is his captive. (III. iii, 253~-255v.) The gallant Amphialus depre- cates his mother's course, requires that Zelmane, though his enemy, be honorably treated, and goes to plead his cause with Philoclea. Though he admits that by not redressing her injury he makes himself an accessory to it, yet he deprecates her anger, and blames all on the tyrant Love. She refuses to yield ; he vows that no violence shall be used ; she threatens to kill herself if her honor be jeoparded. (III. iv, 256-259V.) Amphialus departs to prepare for the siege he knows he must stand. Throughout all his activity Love harasses him, with many con- tradictions and antitheses, till at length he asks his mother to intercede for him. (III. v, 26o-262v.) Cecropia finds Philoclea weep- ing, and rallies her upon spoiling her beauty. With much sophistry she leads up to her plea for Am- phialus; and when Philoclea answers that she has vowed virginity, proceeds to set forth the joys of matrimony. Philoclea replies that she cannot con- sider any proposal as long as she is a prisoner. So (III. vi, 263~265v.) the conference ends. Now Ce- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 3OI cropia bethinks her that Pamela may be more tract- able, and that if so, Amphialus may be content with her instead. Going to Pamela's door Cecropia listens and overhears Pamela praying for a mind steadfast, pure, and to the will of God submiss. Abashed by her captive's virtue, Cecropia yet attempts her, too, with eloquence and gifts, but in vain. (III. vii, 266v.-III. ix, 277) Now follow alarums and excursions; of which the chief incidents are an indecisive combat between Amphialus and a Black Knight (=Musidorus) and the capture of Philanax, who is afterward released by Amphialus at the prayer of Philoclea. Cecropia continues to woo both the Princesses sepa- rately, " determining that whome she coulde winne first, the other shoulde (without her sonnes knowl- edge) by poyson be made away." Today, having vainly tried to persuade Philoclea by praising Am- phialus for his mercy (III. x, 278-284) to Philanax, Cecropia goes to Pamela, who refutes all Cecropia's atheistic arguments. Meanwhile Basilius slowly prosecutes the siege (III. xi, 284v.-289v.), and the sallies of Amphialus are vain. Phalantus now challenges any gentleman on Amphialus's side to single combat; Amphialus accepts the challenge, fights him incognito, van- quishes but spares him, and exchanges with him pledges of friendship. (III. xii, 289V.-296) Cecropia lays before Philo- clea this victory as a homage from Amphialus, who now proclaims a general challenge. When he has defeated and killed many of the King's bravest champions, the King sends for Argalus. Him the messenger finds with Parthenia a pair of wedded lovers; but Argalus putting aside his wife's remon- stances goes at the call of duty, In a terrible com- 302 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN bat Amphialus at last gives Argalus a mortal wound. Parthenia receives her husband's dying breath. He is buried with military pomp; she is inconsolable. (III. xiii, 296v.~30i) Clinias's reputation for cowardice has reached the ears of Dametas, who thinks to gain honor cheaply by challenging him. Egged on by several young gentlemen, he sends his challenge, which Amphialus compels Clinias to ac- cept. The two cowards meet in the island, where retreat is impossible, and fight a comical combat, in which by accident Dametas gains the victory. (III. xiv, 301-304) The consequent disgrace to Clinias sets him plotting vengeance against Am- phialus. To this end he finds an ally in Artesia, who, having been induced to entrap the Princesses by the prospect that they should be killed and that she should then marry Amphialus, now sees herself scorned for the sake of one of those very Princesses whom she herself has brought thither. Artesia, ready for anything, confides in Zelmane, who wishes no more than to be provided with a sword; but Clinias is for opening a gate to the enemy and for having Amphialus poisoned. Clinias and Artesia agree upon the latter plan, and decide to disclose it to the Princesses in order to be saved by them from the fury of the entering soldiers, and to secure to themselves future reward. Clinias therefore tells Philoclea, who be^s him to give up the plan, but promises not to betray him. Artesia tells Pamela, who loudly denounces both the plan and the traitress. Cecropia overhearing the conversation inquires what it is all about, and is referred to Artesia, who under threat of torture confesses all. Clinias is executed, Artesia locked up in her chamber. (III. xv, 304v,-JII. xvi, 31 iv.) The proud Anax- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 303 ius, after several fights with Amphialus, has on one occasion saved his life and has consequently become his friend. Searching for Pyrocles to finish their combat (see b; II. xix, 186), Anaxius has heard of the siege and now comes to aid Amphialus. With his two strong brothers, Lycurgus and Zoilus, he breaks through Basilius's camp from the rear, but is being repulsed by Philanax, when Amphialus also sallies forth, takes one of Basilius's outposts, and receives Anaxius and his brothers. The "Knight of the Tomb," challenges Am- phialus but will not reveal his identity. In the fight, Amphialus wounds him mortally, and pulling off his helmet reveals Parthenia. With the words " I come, I come, my Argalus," she dies. Amid the lamentations of all she is buried in the same tomb with Argalus. (III. xvii, 312-314) Amphialus retires in deep melancholy, breaks his sword, and recalls his fate in killing against his will both Philoxenus and Par- thenia, and in keeping Philoclea captive without any chance of success. Cecropia rallies him upon his soft-heartedness, and counsels violence. (III. xviii, 3I4V.-III. xix, 325v.) A challenge from the " Forsaken Knight " is delivered and accepted. Amphialus meets upon the island his adversary, who is no other than the Black Knight (=Musidorus). There ensues a tremendous battle, in which each wounds the other so sorely that Amphialus falls in a swoon, and Musidorus is driven by his faintness to give over fighting. He is taken away unconscious and kept secretly in a castle near by to recover of his wounds. Cecropia finding herself in full control as long as her son is disabled, resolves to force the Princesses' consent. First, to rid herself of con- straint from without, she announces to Basilius that 304 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN if he does not raise the siege she will cause the three prisoners to be beheaded before his eyes; and she places a scaffold on the walls, where she exhibits the captives ready for execution. The King decides to raise the siege. Leaving Philanax in general charge, Basilius retires to a castle with the Queen. (III. xx, 325V.-III. xxi, 332) After again trying flattery and suasion upon the Princesses, Cecropia resorts first to threats, then to indignities, then to hardships, and at length to scourgings and other bodily tortures. All is vain: Philoclea begs only for death ; Pamela will not even do so much. Ce- cropia resolves to break the resolution of the one by threatening the death of the other if she will not yield. Philoclea, unmoved by this threat, only asks that she herself be chosen for execution. Cecropia refuses, and bids her prepare to see Pamela be- headed. Zelmane and Philoclea looking inward upon the hall of the castle from the windows of their chambers, behold the execution of a lady dressed in Pamela's clothes, but with most of her face cov- ered (really Artesia: III. xxiii, 339). (III. xxii, 332v.~336v.) Learning of the attach- ment between Zelmane and Philoclea, Cecropia threatens Zelmane that unless she persuades Philo- clea to yield, Philoclea shall also be beheaded. After a night of conflicting emotions and councils, Zelmane resolves that Philoclea's life must be saved at all costs; and advises her to feign submission; in consideration whereof he may be set at liberty and perchance get a sword. Submission may also gain delay which will give him the opportunity to gather a rescuing force. But she firmly declines all dissimulation. Roused by an unusual noise in the night, Zelmane goes to the window overlooking the hall and sees ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 305 there upon the scaffold Philoclea's head in a bloody basin. In his frenzy he tries to brain himself against the wall, but slips and falls into a swoon; whence recovering he resolves to live for vengeance, and laments most grievously. (III. xxiii, 337-111. xxiv, 343v.) About dawn as he lies tossing on his bed he hears a rustling in his room, and a voice answers his challenge. It is Philo- clea's, who explains that neither she nor Pamela is dead : Artesia it was who was executed in Pamela's dress; and Philoclea's living head was thrust through a hole in the bottom of a basin. Now, owing per- haps to Amphialus's discovering, despite his mother's secrecy, something of her treatment of the Prin- cesses, Philoclea and Pamela have been allowed together and Philoclea has been allowed to come to Zelmane. The lovers mingle their joy and their tears. Philoclea returns to Pamela's chamber, where soon Amphialus appears. Kept in the dark by his mother, he has nevertheless had misgivings about her treatment of the captives. Now Pamela's words leave him in no doubt. By threatening torture, he gets the dreadful details from one of his mother's women. In despair he seizes a sword, meaning to kill himself in the sight of his mother, who is on the leads of the castle meditating how she may secretly poison the Princesses. When she sees him coming she thinks his drawn sword meant for her, and retreating hastily, falls to the ground. Even as she dies, she directs that the Princesses be killed, but none obeys. Amphialus recalls his evil destiny in causing the deaths of Philoxenus, Timotheus, Parthenia, Ismenus, and his own mother, and in procuring the torture of his beloved. He falls upon his sword, which slipping kills him not. His old wounds reopen, and with Philoclea's knives he stabs himself. He is taken up almost dead. 31 306 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN (III. xxv, 344-248v.) Anaxius takes command of the castle, forces the inmates to swear allegiance to him, and vows he will kill the Princesses as causers of his friend's death. Queen Helen of Corinth ar- rives and with Anaxius's permission takes away the almost lifeless body of Amphialus to be cured by a surgeon of her own. (III. xxvi, 349v.-352v.) Anaxius announces to the Princesses that upon his return from escorting Queen Helen he will cut off their heads. They face him with fortitude. At the sight of Pamela's beauty he pauses, and receives from Zelmane a challenge to mortal combat. At this, as coming from a woman, he smiles; whereupon Zelmane declares herself the equal of Pyrocles who slew Anaxius's uncle Evardes, nay, the closest possible kinsman to that same Pyro- cles, and invites Anaxius to avenge upon her the wrongs he considers Pyrocles to have done him: otherwise Zelmane brands him as a dastard. Though Anaxius declines the challenge he yet of his own accord spares the lives of the Princesses, and makes odious love to Pamela. Summarily rejected, he goes away for the time, leaving Lycurgus to court Philo- clea and Zoilus to court Zelmane. (III. xxvii, 353-355V.) When the brothers are gone, Zelmane persuades the Princesses to gain time by promising to yield if Basilius shall consent. Accordingly, Anaxius sends a flattering messenger to the King, who, irresolute, again refers the ques- tion to Apollo's oracle. This time the answer comes plain: He is to deny his daughters to their present suitors, for they are reserved for such as are better beloved of the Gods; he is to have no fear, for they will return to him safely and speedily ; he is to con- tinue his retired life until both he and Philanax agree as to the meaning of the former prophecy. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 307 Anaxius's messenger takes back a resolute negative, which he dresses up flatteringly to tell his master. Anaxius, however, resolves to use violence; but, word being brought of the approach of an armed force, he orders the soldiers to the walls, and with his brothers remains within to carry out his intent. (III. xxviii, 356-III. xxix, 36ov.) Zoilus an- nounces to the Princesses a version of Basilius's answer distorted so as to appear favorable, and pro- ceeds towards Zelmane, who begs that he allow her to perform a vow of hers never to marry but such an one as can withstand her in arms. Turning this to a jest, he tries to embrace her; she trip's him up, takes his sword from him, pursues him to the pres- ence of his brothers, and there kills him. Anaxius disdainfully leaving to Lycurgus the task of revenge, goes down and locks that part of the castle off from the rest. Zelmane snatches a shield from the wall and quickly induces Lycurgus to beg mercy. She would grant it did she not see on his arm a garter which she has given Philoclea, and which Lycurgus has forced from her. At that she runs him through, just as Anaxius returns. Anaxius and Zelmane fight till both are out of breath, and having rested, resume the fight. [End of quarto of 1590 The later eds. continue the story, after a gap. See F.] Reduced to lowest terms, the "Arcadia" amounts to this: Having received a paradoxical oracle, a king endeavors to prevent its accom- plishment; nevertheless the oracle is accom- plished, and under circumstances issuing in the following catastrophe: at a public spectacular trial, a father not knowing his own son condemns 308 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN him to death; the son's identity is declared by a deus ex machina who arrives just in time ; women's chastity is vindicated ; and the conclu- sion is a double marriage of princely lovers, the vicissitudes of whose Fortune have been so ordered by Providence as to unite them at last. It is evident that we have here the grandiose Heliodorean framework. la The attribution to Greek Romance is confirmed by detailed exami- nation of several motifs and incidents of this plot, as well as several of its episodes. Not especially attributable to any one of the Greek Romances is Sidney's employment of the stock incidents of shipwreck (I. i; II. vii) and of what Herr Brunhuber (p. 22) calls " Das Eros Motiv " : A youth or maid who formerly scoffed at Love becomes the slave of Love. So it was with Clitophon before he met Leucippe, so with Rhodopis and Euthynicus before they met (A. T., I. vii ; VIII. xii) , so with Theagenes and with Chariclea (JEih., II. xxxiii). So it is with Musidorus, who, before he has seen Pamela, sharply reproves the love of Pyrocles for Philo- clea (Arc., I. xii, SIY.) and later falls a victim himself, affording Sidney opportunity for a richly humorous scene (Arc., I. xviii, 77v. ; see post p. 330). So it is too, and seriously, with Erona, whose sad story (Arc., II. xiii, I59v.) begins with her ill-starred love for Antiphilus, a punishment la If external evidence that Sidney knew the "^thiopica " were needed, it would be supplied by the allusions in his " Apologie for Poetrie " (ed. Collins) : "... so true a louer as Theagenes " (p. 8) ; " Heliodorus in his sugred inuention of that picture of loue in Theagenes and Chari- clea" (p. 12). ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 309 inflicted upon her by Cupid for her sacrilege in seeking to abolish his cult. 2 More definite is the provenance of the follow- ing incidents. Musidorus (Arc., III. 347) tells how " Pamela, upon his vehement oath to offer no force unto her, till hee had invested her in the Dutchie of Thessalia, had condescended to his stealing her away to the next sea port." Lovers elope in both Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius; but only in Heliodorus does their vow of chastity precede the elopement; and only in Heliodorus does it look to their formal entry into a kingdom. In the "Arcadia" as in the "^Ethiopica" this abduction is structural: it is essential to the main plot, and leads through the capture of the lovers, straight to the denouement, where it figures as one of the charges brought against Theagenes and against Musidorus alike. Again, in each denouement, as has been briefly noted (ante, p. 307), a father condemns to death his own child, restored to him after many wan- derings; in each, the father is unaware of the identity of the child, who maintains a preter- natural silence on this point ; in each, the recogni- tion is brought about by the arrival, in the nick of time, of a person (Charicles, Calodoulos) who has travelled from a distance to the place of trial. If Calodoulos were a priest, the parallel would be complete. Several minor incidents and situations in the " Arcadia," less structural than the foregoing, are no less unmistakably borrowed from the 2 Herr Brunhuber (p. 22) mentions the case of Erona. 310 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN "JEthiopica." Herr Brunhuber (p. 20) calls at- tention to one of them an incident of the previ- ous history of Pyrocles : his leadership of the in- surgent Helots (Arc., I. vi, 28; I. viii, 34v.), parallel to Thyamis's leadership of the Herdsmen. The parallel is repeated in the case of Demagoras (Arc., I. v) perhaps somewhat more closely, for both Demagoras and Thyamis have been ban- ished before they become captains of outlaws. Another situation which Sidney has used twice is in Heliodorus's passage (^th., V. iii) about the nocturnal fright of Cnemon: overhearing Chariclea's soliloquy in which she names herself Thisbe, Cnemon is panic-stricken, and beats a hasty retreat in the dark, groping and stumbling and bumping his head and stubbing his toes till he reaches his own chamber. So Pyrocles (Arc., III. 353) in the darkness of a cave overhears a woman soliloquizing and at last naming herself Gynecia ; he retreats in a panic, and stumbling in the dark makes so much noise that she discovers him. Again (Arc., III. 379), Basilius about to go to his rendezvous with Zelmane, waits eagerly till he thinks his wife asleep; then "he came darkeling into his chamber, forcing himselfe to tread as softly as hee could. But the more curi- ous he was, the more he thought everything creaked under him, and ... his eyes not seruing his turne in that darke place, each Coffer or Cup- bord hee met, one saluted his shinnes, another his elbowes." In order to make clear the borrowings next to be mentioned, a preliminary observation is neces- ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 311 sary. For the travels of the two lovers in Greek Romance, Sidney substitutes the travels of the two princely friends and kinsmen who are his heroes. The substitution probably is due to mediaeval influence, particularly that of the " Legend of Two Friends " (see ante p. 250 ; post, p. 364 n. 37) and of the romances of chivalry; 3 and offers Sidney a chance to lead his heroes on a tour of knight-errantry through Asia. But at the same time this is his " Reiseroman " ; and it is diversified with the usual incidents of these wan- derings. Like the Greek lovers, the friends are shipwrecked (Arc., I. i ; II. vii) ; just as pirates capture the lady in Greek Romance, and separate her from her lover, so do pirates capture one of the friends and keep him for awhile from his fellow (Arc., I. i) ; and as the lovers are imprisoned together, so are the friends (./Eth., VIII. x; Arc., IV. 433 ; II. xx, IQ2V.). Narrative material from Heliodorus is used by Sidney for three of his episodes. In the "^Ethiopica" (VII. xviii, xxi, xxv) Theagenes and Chariclea are the prisoners of Arsace, who desires him. He is tortured, and threatened with death if he will not yield. Chariclea advises him to feign compliance in order to gain time. He refuses to dissemble. In Sidney's episode of the Captivity (Arc., III. xxii, 333~334v.) Pyro- * For Sidney's borrowings from " Amadis of Gaul " the chief portions of the episodes of Phalantus and Artesia and of Pamphilus and Dido ; the fight of Musidorus and Ismenus about the armor of Amphialus ; the disguise of Pyrocles, and his double qui-pro-quo with Basilius and Gynecia see Moody, pp. 34-47 ; Brunhuber, pp. 14-19, and post, pp. 318-319. 312 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN cles and Philoclea are the prisoners of Amphia- lus, who desires her. She is tortured, and threatened with death if she will not yield. Pyrocles advises her to feign compliance in order to gain time. She refuses to dissemble. In the other two cases Heliodorus furnishes the main body of Sidney's whole episode. The first is the episode of the " Paphlagonica " or " Gala- tica" (Arc., II. x, I43V.-I46), founded upon Heliodorus's story of Calasiris, Petosiris, and Thyamis (^Eth., I. xix; VII. ii, vi, viii, xi) : One of two brothers (Petosiris; Plexirtus) by slander usurps the birthright of the other (Thyamis ; Leonatus), causes his banishment, and attempts his life. Their father too (Calasiris; unnamed King of Paphlagonia) goes into exile. The injured brother returns to his native country, fights for and regains his birthright, and forgives the usurper. The father also returns, formally invests the true heir with his rights, and im- mediately dies. Sidney added greatly to the point and pathos of Heliodorus's tale by having the King himself turned against the good son and seeking his life; by having the King blinded by the wicked son; and by inventing the passage where the old man begs to be led to the top of a rock that he may end his life by leaping down. Sidney also ministered to the surviving mediaeval and chivalric ideas of his time by. making the wicked son a bastard. He thus somewhat recast his original, or at least gave it a tone foreign to Heliodorus. Probably it was this new tone which attracted Shakespeare, who, in the underplot of ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 313 Gloucester and his sons, in " King Lear," re- tained, though with changes again, the features which Sidney added, and added besides much new matter of his own. The result is a complete transformation of the plot and personages of the Greek Romance. In Shakespeare's underplot, and in the characters of Gloucester, Edgar and Edmund, it is difficult to trace any part of the story as told in the "^Ethiopica," or to recognize the old priest of Memphis and his two sons. The third of Sidney's episodes shows still greater indebtedness to Heliodorus. It is the episode of Plangus and Andromana, derived from the stories of Heliodorus's two amorous women, Demaeneta and Arsace. 4 Andromana combines these in her own story and character. Like Demaeneta (^th., I. x-xvii), she solicits her stepson (Cnemon; Plangus), and being rejected ruins him by means of low intrigue in which she employs a servant as her tool (Thisbe ; unnamed). In each case the stepmother slanders the son to his father. In each case she arranges a ren- dezvous in the dark, where the son is made to appear as an intended parricide. In each case the son is exiled ; and the intriguing servant later confesses and dies. Like Arsace, Andromana at another time is in love with two of the heroes of the story (Theagenes and Thyamis; Pyrocles and Musidorus) the affairs being successive in the "yEthiopica," simultaneous in the "Arcadia." Rejected by both heroes, she vainly tries the effect of imprisonment and continued solicitation. * Oeftering, p. 94, and Brunhuber, p. 20, recognize in it the story of Demaeneta only. 3 H THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Finally, like both Arsace and Demaeneta, Andro- mana kills herself. The derivation of Andro- mana and her story from a deliberate combination of Arsace and Demaeneta is corroborated by the history of the growth of this episode under Sid- ney's hand (post, p. 348 ff.). It is from Achilles Tatius that Sidney takes his other amorous woman, Queen Gynecia. Her fully rounded character, 5 among the compara- tively pale types surrounding her, would lead the reader to suspect her kinship with Melitta. The suspicion is confirmed by parallel incidents. Her passionate pleading for the love of Pyrocles (Arc., III. 353-4, 365-7 ; cf. A. T., V. xxv, xxvi) at length results in a promise of compliance a promise of which Pyrocles, like Clitophon, puts off the fulfilment, and which, again like Clito- phon, he means not to fulfil. In Clitophon's case this intention is melted by Melitta's flame, while Pyrocles remains steadfast; but Clitophon and Pyrocles each exchange garments with their re- spective innamoratas; and each is afterward arrested in these garments (A. T., VI. i, iii, v; Arc., III. 378, 408, 423). Other incidents or situations borrowed from Achilles Tatius are the following: Pyrocles at a feast with Philoclea, like Clitophon at his first meal with Leucippe, can look only at her. His eyes, he confesses later (Arc., I! xiv, 62v. ; cf. A. T., I. iv, v. ix ; II. ix ; V. xiii) " dranke much more eagerly of her beautie, then my mouth did 1 " Unter den vielen Charakteren, die haufig jede psy- chologische Vertiefung vermissen lassen, ragt nur die starke Personlichkeit Gynecias hervor." Brunhuber, p. 9. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 315 of any other Hcour. And ... as I dranke the wine, and withall stole a looke on her, me seemed I tasted her deliciousnesse." The heroic spectacle, and the spectacular heroics, of shipwrecked Pyrocles riding the waves upon a mast (Arc., I. 4V.-5), Sidney elaborated from the similar passage about Clinias (A. T., III. v). Musidorus and the Laconian shepherds sail out towards the wreck to recover Pyrocles; when " Vpon the mast they saw a yong man . . . his haire . . . stirred vp and down with the wind . . . himselfe full of admirable beautie, set foorth by the strangenes both of his seate and gesture : for, holding his head up full of vnmoued maiestie, he held a sworde aloft with his faire arme, which often he waued about his crowne as though he would threaten the world in that extremitie." The rescuers (Arc., I. i, 5-5 v.) sail towards Pyrocles, " when one of the saylers descried a Galley which came with sayles and oares directlie in the chase of them; and streight perceaued it was a well knowne Pirate. . . . Which when the Maister vnderstood, he commanded forthwith to set on all the canuasse they could, and flie home- ward, leaving in that sort poore Pyrocles so neere to be reskewed. But what did not Musidorus say? What did he not offer to perswade them to venture the fight ? " In vain ; the captain turns back. This incident is closely parallel to that in A. T., V. vii : The governor of Pharos, with Clito- phon, puts out t& rescue Leucippe ; but at the approach of a galley full of pirates he returns to shore despite the entreaties of Clitophon. 316 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN When the two Princes are returning from Asia, Plexirtus commissions the Captain of their ship to murder them. The Captain resists all attempts to dissuade him, and Sidney explains this bloody- mindedness by recalling the fact that he "had bene a pyrate from his youth, and often blouded in it" (Arc., II. xxiv, 210). Similarly, the action of Chaereas in hiring pirates to kidnap Leucippe, is explained by his earlier association with the pirates of Pharos (A. T., IV. xviii; V. iii). In Sidney's episode of the Princesses' captivity, the brutal Anaxius, forcing his caresses upon Pamela, takes her by the chin (Arc., III. xxvi, 352). "Putting him away with her faire hand, Proud beast (said she) yet thou plaiest worse thy Comedy, then thy Tragedy." Thersander, forc- ing his caresses upon Leucippe, also takes her by the chin, and also receives a sharp reproof (A. T., VI. xviii). Achilles Tatius's trick of a pretended execu- tion, which he employs twice (A. T., III. xv; V. vii), Sidney employs three times, twice in this episode of the Captivity, again in the episode of Antiphilus and Erona. 6 To make Philoclea yield her hand to Amphialus, Cecropia threatens to be- head Pamela ; and actually has beheaded before Philoclea's eyes a woman dressed in Pamela's clothes. This is Artesia (Ar.c., III. xxi, 331). The original is evidently the pretended decapita- tion of Leucippe. To induce Pyrocles to persuade Philoclea to yield, Cecropia has him informed that unless he succeeds in this persuasion, Philoclea shall die. The attempt at persuasion proving vain, This indebtednew is noticed by Brunhuber, p. ai. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 317 Cecropia lets Pyrocles see a bloody basin contain- ing Philoclea's head. In fact this is Philoclea's living head thrust through a hole in the bottom of the basin (Arc., III. xxii, 332v., 335). Erona being in love with the low-born Antiphilus, " Many wayes her father sought to withdraw her from it ; ... lastly, making a solemne execution to be dene of another, under the name of Antiphilus, whom he kept in prison" (Arc., II. xiii, I59v.). To return to the denouement of the main plot, Achilles Tatius contributes several important elements to Sidney's Heliodorean trial scene. At the trial in " Clitophon and Leucippe " (A. T., VII. vi-xiii ; V. iii, ix) Clitophon, wishing to die, accuses himself of the murder of Leucippe and is condemned to death. She is all the while alive, and is part of the time present in court ! In the same bizarre fashion, Gynecia, so overwhelmed with a sense of guilt that she wishes to die, ac- cuses herself of the murder of Basilius and is condemned to death. He is all the while alive, and present in court in a trance ! And so, too, the Princes must plead to the charge of having murdered this living man : a situation foretold by the oracle (Arc., II. xxviii, 225v.). Moreover, the multiplicity of charges against Pyrocles rape, murder, and adultery, makes the opening of Thersander's invective against Clitophon (A. T., VIII. vii) a model which Sidney can follow closely in the opening of Philanax's invective against Pyrocles (Arc., V. 464) : " That which all men, who take upon them to accuse another, are wont to desire . . . to haue many proofes of 318 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN faults in them they seeke to haue condemned: that is to me in this present action, my greatest comber, and annoyance. For the number is so great, and the qualities so monstrous, of the enormities this wretched yong man hath com- mitted, that neither I my selfe can tell where to begin (my thoughts being confused with the hor- rible multitude of them) neither doe I think your vertuous eares will be able to endure the report." The double rendezvous of Pyrocles with the king and the queen, and the double qui-pro-quo by which he leaves them together, were perhaps suggested by three separate passages of " Amadis of Gaul" 7 : (a) In Bk. XI, cap. 3, Agesilan of Colchos, who, like Sidney's Pyrocles, has been reared with his cousin, falls in love, like Pyrocles again, with the picture of Diana, daughter of Queen Sidonia. Upon his cousin's advice he as- sumes female disguise in order to enter Sidonia's service; and he now calls himself Daraide. (b) In Bk. XI, cap. 83, he has reached the land of Galdap. Here he is taken captive by King Gali- nidis, to whose Queen, Salderne, he yields his" sword. He gives himself out as a maiden from Sarmatia, and both King and Queen proceed to fall in love with him. As Daraide refuses to yield to the Queen, she has him thrown into prison. (c) In Bk. IX, cap. 3, Arlande, Princess of Thrace, having fallen in love with Florisel de Niquea, who loves the shepherdess Silvia and re- * As I have not read the later books of the " Amadis," I follow Herr Brunhuber, pp. 16-18. Mr. Moody, however, was, I believe, the first to point out Sidney's borrowings from the " Amadis." ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 319 jects Arlande's advances, visits him at night in the garments of Silvia, and is welcomed. That Sidney combined (a) and (b) (rejecting, of course, the imprisonment) to make the situa- tion in which Pyrocles finds himself with relation to Basilius and Gynecia, seems likely enough. But as a suggestion of the way out of that situa- tion, a suggestion for his ruse, (c) does not seem so plausible as the story of Cnemon (^th., I. ix-xvii, esp. xv-xvii), which possesses at least this additional point of similarity to the ruse of Pyrocles: a wife expecting a gallant, is found by her husband. With this, Sidney needed only to compound a theme that stared him in the face from a hundred fabliaux and novelle: a husband expecting his mistress finds his wife. The com- bination produces the ruse of Pyrocles. But the whole question is exceedingly doubtful, for the very reason that the novella-literature of the Re- naissance is so full of qui-pro-quo's. Whatever its source, the inclusion of the whole story in the frame of Greek Romance rests on surer ground. The female disguise of Pyrocles, and the escapade of Basilius and Gynecia, even supposing them to have been suggested by the "Amadis," are both of them, together with the bisarreries of the trial-scene, which are taken from Achilles Tatius, predicted by the oracle : " Thy elder care shall from thy careful face ) By princely meane be stolne, and yet not lost. } x Thy younger shall with Natures blisse embrace ) An uncouth loue, which nature hateth most. } 2 320 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Both they themselues vnto such two shall wed ~) Who at thy beer, as at a barre, shall plead V 3 Why thee (a Hiring man) they had made dead. ) In thy owne seate a forraine state shall sit. ") And ere that all these blowes thy head do hit, > 4 Thou with thy wife adultry shall commit." ) (Arc., II. xxviii, 22$v.} (i), as has been seen, is the elopement of Pamela and Musidorus, as in the ".^Lthiopica " ; (2), the love of Philoclea for a supposed maiden, may have been suggested by the "Amadis"; (3) is from Achilles Tatius; and (4) possibly sug- gested by Heliodorus's story of Cnemon, though this is doubtful. But the point is that Sidney has conceived his story in the frame of Greek Ro- mance the Romance of Heliodorus ; and that, whencesoever he derives his material, he keeps it within that frame by including it in the oracle, the announcement of the intentions of Providence regarding his personages. The point is made clearer by a consideration of the motive forces of the main plot, Providence, Fortune, and the like. Sidney's own opinion of oracles would appear to be embodied in the letter of Philanax to Basilius touching this one (Arc., I. iv, I4v.) : " Wisdome and vertue be the only destinies appointed to me to follow, whece we ought to seeke al our Knowledge. . . . These kind of soothsayers [i. e., oracles] ... be nothing but fansie, wherein there must either be vanitie, or infalliblenes, & so, either not to be respected, or not to be preuented." That is, the prediction is either false, and therefore to be disregarded, or ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 321 true, and therefore inevitable: in either case, oracles are to be eschewed. In fact, the fulfilment of the oracle is, as it were, a punishment in- flicted upon Basilius for consulting an oracle at all. For the prediction is fulfilled by the very course that he takes to prevent its fulfilment. Had he remained at court, and allowed princely suitors access to his daughters, the one would not have needed to be " by princely meane . . . stolne"; the other would not have embraced an apparently unnatural love, for Pyrocles would not have needed to disguise himself as a woman in order to court her; and for the same reason there would have been no Zelmane for Basilius to fall in love with, and hence no rendezvous, no qui-pro-quo, no adultery, no potion, no apparent death of the King, and no trial of the princes at his bier. As Kalander says (I. iv, 16) in com- menting upon the King's retirement : " The cause of all hath beene the vanitie which possesseth many, who . . . are desirous to know the cer- taintie of things to come." The same sentiments are repeated in comment upon the full text of the oracle (II. xxviii, 22^-226}. Providence will work out its plans either way : if not searched into or resisted, then perhaps smoothly; if searched into and resisted, as here, then ironically and with pain to men. The arrangement by which the Princes are brought to their destined wives is part of this providential plan. At their birth it is predicted (II. vi, I28v.-i29) that they will conquer certain Asiatic Kingdoms. The Kings of these lands 22 322 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN therefore invade Macedonia; hence Pyrocles is sent to be reared with his cousin in Thessaly; hence, too, Evarchus makes war in the East. It is on their way to join him at Byzantium that the Princes are shipwrecked on the coast of Asia; their tour of the East follows, 8 involving inci- dentally the conquests predicted for them ; and it is on their way back to Greece that they are ship- wrecked on the coast of Laconia, whence Pyro- cles, after his adventures with pirates and Helots, is conducted to Kalander's house, and, falling in love with the portrait of Philoclea, resolves to go to her lodge in the Arcadian woods. This is hardly the nearest way from Thessaly to Arcadia ; but 'twill serve; and the chain is complete, with Fortune intervening only here and there, to con- duct such minor matters as shipwrecks and pira- cies her immemorial prerogative. After the Princes have joined the royal party in the forest, the control of Providence is further .manifested in Gynecia's dream (it. xxv, 2I2V.-2I3), and in the second oracle to Basilius (III. xxvii, 354v.) which bids him " to denie his daughters to Anax- ius and his brothers, for that they were reserued for such as were better beloved of the gods." The providential plot thickens, as it were, to- ward the close. When the remnants of the rebel band, hiding in the forest, happen upon the elop- ing Musidorus and Pamela (IV. 426), the en- * In the course of this tour, the Princes, beset by Plex- irtus with overwhelming numbers and about to be over- come, are saved by the opportune arrival of the King of Pontus (II. x, 145) whom a dream has sent to their assist- ance. Evidently, supernatural powers are taking care of them. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 323 counter is by no means the work of chance. "They were guided by the euerlasting Justice, vsing themselues to be punishers of their faults, and making their owne actions the beginning of their chastizements . . ." Evarchus having ar- rived in Arcadia, Philanax says (V. 445) : " Surely, surely the heavenly powers have in so full a time bestowed him on vs, to vnite our .diuisions." At the trial (V. 458), "So extraor- dinary a course had the order of the heauens pro- duced at this time, that both nephew and son, were not only prisoners, but unknown to their vncle and father, who for many years had not seen them. And Pyrocles was to plead for his life before that throne, in which throne lately before he had saued the Kings life." Accord- ingly, both the Princes were resolved (V. 464) " that . . . they would as much as they could, couer the shame of their royall parentage . . . wherein the chiefe man they considered was Evarchus: whom the strange and secret working of iustice had brought to be the iudge over them. In such a shadow, or rather pit of darkenesse, the wormish mankind lives, that neither they know how to foresee nor what to feare: and are like tenisbals, tossed by the racket of the higher powers." And at the last stage of the denoue- ment, when Basilius wakes from his long sleep (V. 482), Sidney makes a final reassertion of the providential control of his plot, and connects that control with the fulfilment of the oracle: "At length remembring the Oracle, which now in- deed was accomplished, [and] considering all had falne out by the highest providence." 324 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN The scope thus left to the agency of chance is narrow. Indeed, Sidney is refreshingly free from the Renaissance slavery to the notion and the word Fortune. His attitude is rather that of a strong intellect that will condescend to the habits of speech prevalent in his time. Fortune, there- fore, as a vera causa is rare in the " Arcadia," though she appears frequently as a more or less faded metaphor. In the former capacity she in- troduces Parthenia at the house of Kalander (I. vii, 3 iv.) : " Fortune (that belike was bid to that banket, and ment then to play the good fellow) brought a pleasant aduenture among the " ; she permits the defeat of a Laconian Knight who championed the beauty of Andromana against Phalantus (I. xvi, 69): "therein Fortune had borrowed witte, for indeede she [Andromana] was not coparable to Artesia " ; and she is blamed by Phalantus for his own defeat (I. xvii, 75 v.- 76) : " He excusing himself, and turning over the fault to Fortune, Then let that be your ill For- tune too (said she [Artesia]) that you haue lost me." Again, in the first fight between Pyrocles and Anaxius (II. xix, 186), both spears having been broken, Anaxius's " horse happened to come vpon the point of the broken speare, which fallen to the ground chaunced to stand upward ; so as it lighting upon his hart, the horse died. 9 He [A] driuen to dismount, threatened, if I [P] did not the like, to doo as much for my horse, as For- tune had done for his. But whether for that, or because / would not be beholding to Fortune for Cf. the death of the witch of Bessa. JEth., VI. xv. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 325 any part of the victorie, I descended." Finally, she decides who shall tell a story : " Pamela pleas- antly persisting to haue fortune their iudge, they set hands [to 'draw cuts'] . . . and blind For- tune . . . gave [Mopsa] the preheminence " (II. xiv, 165). It is notable that all these cases ex- cept the last occur in episodes, not in the main plot; while the last is an incident of the most trivial kind. Sidney puts Fortune in her place, and keeps her there. 10 He is not even sure that she exists. Among the matters pondered by the student (III. ix, 273v.) are "The euer-turning spheares, the neuer-moving ground ; What essence dest'nie hath; if fortune be or no." The same intellectual point of view is exhibited in Pamela's refutation of Cecropia's atheistic argument that the world was created by chance (III. x, 28iv.-282) : "Perfect order, perfect beautie, perfect constancie, if these be the chil- dren of Chaunce, or Fortune be the efficient of these, let Wisedome be counted the roote of wickednesse." But, as has been said, Sidney uses the language like other people. He speaks of Fortune and Na- ture (I. xvi, 70; II. v, 1 24v. ; II. xvii, 183; II. 236v. ; IV. 437), Fortune and Love (II. iv, 119), and their gifts, as well as of the "mazes of for- tune " (I. ix, 36), the " labyrinth of her fortune " 18 On two additional functions which he allows her, that of creating a bizarre situation, and that of conducting a " tragedy," see post, pp. 355-357. 326 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN (III. 350), the "course of my ill happe" (III. 349), and of parting "from the greatest for- tunes" (II. vii, I32v.), suffering "eyther a like or a worse fortune" (I. v, 19), and trying in battle "each others fortune" (I. vi, 27), in the conventional fashion of his time. And in the same conventional fashion he personifies Fortune to point a conceit (II. v, I2ov.) which explains why the excellent Dorus is poor : " Belike For- tune was afraide to lay her treasures, where they should be stained with so many perfections." In her relations to the forces of personality, Fortune becomes at once more real and more weak. Here Sidney departs from the conception of Fortune underlying the Greek Romances, and coincides with the Renaissance in its antithesis of Virtu and Fortuna. He uses the word " virtue " in its Italian sense of virtu. Cecropia explains that she and her husband desired to succeed Ba- silius speedily on the Arcadian throne (III. ii, 251): "to that passe had my husbands vertue (by my good helpe) within short time brought it with a plot we laide, as we should not have needed to have waited the tedious worke of a naturall end of Basilius." This is of course the extreme Machiavellian meaning; elsewhere the word has the classic Roman meaning of " valor." Amphialus and the Black Knight (III. xviii, 317) fought "a long space . . ., while neither vertue nor fortune seemed partiall of either side." Some- times the antithesis actually takes the form of Fortune versus "Valor" (III. viii, 272) or "cour- age" (III. xviii, 3i7v. ; II. Hi, IOQV.) ; sometimes ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 327 that of Fortune versus "ones owne choice" (II. ix, 141 v.) ; sometimes that of Fortune and "de- serving" or "desert" (II. i, 99; II, x, I44V. ; V. 459) ; sometimes that of Fortune and wisdom (II. xx, 191 v. ; IV. 429). In general, virtue sums up the forces of personality, moral or otherwise, fortune those of environment or circumstance. Philanax praises not a fugitive and cloistered virtue. " O no," he protests, against the King's plan to keep his daughters from temptation (I. iv, I5v.) : " O no ; he cannot be good, that knowes not why he is good, but stands so farre good, as his fortune may keepe him vnassaied." Only a coward will depend upon chance, as Clinias does (III. vii, 266) ; but even a brave man will adapt himself to it, nay seize it and wring from it suc- cess. "Maister Dorus (saide the faire Pamela) me thinks you blame your fortune very wrong- fully, since the fault is not in Fortune, but in you that cannot frame yourself to your fortune" (II. ii, 106). And Pyrocles, biding his time of ven- geance for the indignities heaped upon him and the Princesses during their captivity, resolves (III. xxviii, 356v.) "to attend the uttermost oc- casion, which cue then brought his hairie fore- head 11 vnto [him]." Until that time came, how- ever, even he was helpless, his valor left un- armed, and (III. xx, 327v.) "all troden vnder foot by the wheele of senselesse Fortune." These passages illustrate, without beginning to exhaust, Sidney's employment of the antithesis " Virtue versus Fortune." 12 They may be summed up, u " Fronte capillata, post cst Occasio calva." "Other passages: II. ii, I07V. ; II. x, 144; II. xiii, 160; III. xvi, 310; III. 348; III. 354; IV. 428. 328 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN together with Sidney's general attitude on the subject of Fortune as under the control of Provi- dence, in the sentiment of Pyrocles upon parting with his friend (III. 349) : "Farewell my Musi- dorus, the gods make fortune to waite on thy vertues." And so they do. Such is the plot of the "Arcadia." Its mate- rial, motif, situation, incident, episode comes chiefly from the " Amadis " and the Greek Ro- mances; the material it gets from the former being fitted into the frame of the latter. For its actuating force is the will of the gods, working itself out partly through the agency of Fortune, partly through the agency of human personality " Virtue." And this dominant force shapes the frame of the story into the monumental form which Heliodorus applied to prose romance. 13 Some considerations upon the narrative technique and structure of this plot, as distinguished from its material and its actuating forces, are reserved for a later portion of this chapter (post, p. 343 ff . ) . The minor part assigned to Fortune in the " Arcadia " leaves rather free play to human per- sonality, and, if Sidney had been not a romancer but a novelist, might have resulted in some nota- ble studies of character. As it is, his interest lies chiefly in plot and in setting, the true interests 13 Brunhuber, p. 23 : " Die Hauptgrundlage des englischen Romans [5. e., Sidney's ' Arcadia '] bildet die Amadis- dichtung, sowie der griechische Liebesroman. In ihnen fand Sidney sein Muster und Vorbild ; alle anderen Ein- fliisse und Einwirkungen erweisen sich als von entschieden untergeordneter Bedeutung." P. 20 : "... all das weist direkt oder indirekt auf Heliodor bin, wie uberhaupt der Geist Heliodors uber der Arcadi* schwebt." ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 329 of romance and, next, in structure and style; so that his personages, with the exception of Gynecia, remain types. But they are types well differentiated. Philoclea and Pamela are quite distinct from each other, and from Gynecia; Pyrocles is distinct from Musidorus. Each shows the rudiments of characterization. The younger princess is soft and gentle of manner and tem- perament and yielding in love, though virtuous; the elder, lofty and majestic in temper, dignified in manner, and of a virtue whose high principles tend to express themselves not only in action but in moralizing. There is excellent " psychology " in the account of Philoclea's growing affection for Zelmane : her soliloquy is sweet, and both subtle and true (II. iv, ii5-H9v.). Of the two Princes, Pyrocles is of the slender, delicate, half- feminine, but wholly courageous, high-strung, and " thoroughbred " type ; Musidorus more mature, more masculine, more used to the world's com- promises, and himself an adept in dissimulation for good ends. (I. xviii, 79~8ov. : a most elabo- rate deception of his, invented to account for his presence in Arcadia ; cf. too his pretended court- ship of Mopsa.) The only characters directly traceable to Greek Romance are the two amorous women: Gynecia an imitation of Melitta; Andromana an imitation of Arsace and Demaeneta combined (cf. ante, pp. 313-314). Other personages are merely there to play their part in the Greek Romance plot, and in so far are types from Greek Romance: the eloping hero and the eloping heroine ; the King as 33 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN judge condemning his own child. In these cases Sidney spares his reader the tedious and super- ficial " psychology " of Greek Romance ; when he has not penetrated to the springs of human con- duct, he does not pretend that he has. Seldom interested in character, he will not feign an in- terest he does not possess. Among his remaining personages (there are in all eighty-eight named personages 14 in the "Arcadia") the majority of such as are not names and nothing more (like the Knights named only when they are killed) are types set forth with a half-moralistic purpose hinted by their Greek names : Clinias " a verball craftie coward," Philanax a model counsellor, Evarchus a model King, Calodoulos a model servant, Anaxius a pattern of pride, Antiphilus a dastard lover, Chremes a miser, etc. Of unusual interest in conception though only rudimentary in execu- tion, is the character of Amphialus, doomed to bring misery and death upon all he loves. But Sidney's interest in character, and power to de- pict it, stop short of adequacy, here as elsewhere. His humor, too, is rather the humor of situa- tion and of words than that of character. Pyro- cles discovering that Musidorus is in love, rallies him (I. xviii, 77v.) by repeating some of the moralizing to which his friend previously treated him upon the like occasion ; and when Musidorus passionately recants this heresy, and shows un- mistakable symptoms of lovesickness, Pyrocles 14 Herr Brunhuber (p. 21) notes Sidney's adoption of the names Clitophon, Leucippe, and Clinias, from Achilles Tatius. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 331 pretends to think that all this is done to mock at him until he induces Musidorus to assure him gravely that he really is in love! This scene is the high-water mark of Sidney's humor. One wonders why some dramatist has not " conveyed " it into a comedy. Sidney's other humorous pas- sages are less fine. Dametas upon the attack of the she-bear (I. xix, 84) bravely sticks his head in a bush. Dametas and Clinias are egged on to fight each other in an island ; and this " Combat of Cowards" (III. xiii, 296v.~3Oi) affords comic relief after the account of Argalus's death : the fun lies in Dametas's abusive challenge, his im- prese and motto, his awkwardness in managing his horse and weapons, and in his continual fear : " he cast his eye about, to see which way he might runne away, cursing all Hands in being euill scit- uated." But in all this there is physical absurdity that almost amounts to horseplay. And on the other hand, in Sidney's would-be funny accounts of the slaughter wrought by his heroes upon the Arcadian rebels, there is an ugly vein of cruelty that spoils the verbal quips (II. xxv, 215-216) : Pyrocles cuts off the nose of a tailor, who stoops to pick it up. " But as his hand was on the grounde to bring his nose to his head, [Pyrocles] with a blow sent his head to his nose." This in- human contempt for the rabble one of the seamy sides of the chivalry even of a Sidney is hardly to our modern taste. There is rather gross horse- play again in the situation where Dametas return- ing from his futile hunt for buried treasure finds Mopsa up a tree, holds her when she comes turn- 33 2 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN bling down, talks with her at cross-purposes, and gets a beating from Miso for his pains (IV. 405-7). An interesting passage of humor in the peasant vein (II. xiv, i62v.-i66) intervenes be- tween the chivalrous, courtly, tragic episode of Erona and Antiphilus, related by Philoclea, and the similar episode of Plangus and Andromana, related by Pamela. Miso interrupts the Princesses to give her view of love, as she heard it from an old woman ; an unchivalrous, clerkly, peasant view of love in contrast with the views suggested by the Princesses. Then Mopsa proceeds to tell an old wives' tale in fact .a fairy-tale. The fun comes from the contrasting views of love, from Miso's conceit of her former beauty, from her prolixity, 15 from Mopsa's homely peasant phrases, and from the formulae, repetition, and allitera- tion of her mediaeval narrative. 16 At last Philo- 15 " Which when this good old woma perceiued (O the good wold woman, well may the bones rest of the good wold woma) she cald me into her house. I remember full well it stood in the lane as you go to the Barbers shop, all the towne knew her, there was a great losse of her : she called me to her, and taking first a soppe of wine to com- fort her hart (it was of the same wine that comes out of Candia, which we pay so deere for now a daies and in that good worlde was very good cheape) she cald me to her; Minion said she," etc., etc. Is Miso an ancestress of Dame Quickly? 19 " So one day, as his daughter was sitting in her win- dow, playing vpon a harpe, as sweete as any Rose, and combing her head with a combe all of precious stones, there came in a knight into the court, vpci a goodly horse, one haire of gold, and the other of siluer. . . . And so in May, when all true hartes reioyce, they stale out of the Castel. . . . But hauing laien so (wet by the raine, and burnt by the Sun) fiue dayes, and fiue nights, she gat up and went ouer many a high hil, and many a deepe riuer. . . . And so she went, & she went, & neuer rested the ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 333 clea " stints " Mopsa of her tale much as the Host stints Chaucer of his" drasty" tale of Sir Thopas, and for much the same reasons. Here again the humor lies somewhat deep in the incongruity between the courtly and the peasant views of love, and in the suggested incongruity between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The sources of Sidney's humor are thus quite foreign to Greek Romance. Even that humoristic motif which is to be expected in any Elizabethan writer misogyny, and for which Sidney might have taken something from Achilles Tatius ap- pears in the "Arcadia" only to be condemned. Musidorus remonstrates with Pyrocles against falling in love (I. xii, 5iv. ff.), but the tables are turned upon him (I. xviii, 77v.). Geron and Histor hold an amoeboeic pastoral debat de con- jitge ducenda (I. 93V.-95), the former out of his age and experience arguing pro, the latter out of his disappointment in love arguing contra; and though the contest is left undecided, the old shep- herd has the best of it. A certain Knight (III. xii, 29O-29OV.) maintains "blasphemies against womankinde; that namely that sex was the ouer- sight of Nature, the disgrace of reasonablenes, the obstinate cowards, the slaue-borne tyrants, the shops of vanities, the guilded wethercocks; in whom conscience is but peeuishnes, chastitie way- wardnes, & gratefulnes a miracle." But Amphia- lus vanquishes him. Sir Philip's chivalry renders evening, where she wet in the morning. . . . With Dayly Diligence and Grisly Grones, he wan her affection. . . . And so she went ... til she came to a second Aunt, and she gaue her another Nut." 334 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN impossible his adoption of the misogyny of Achilles Tatius. Characterization in the "Arcadia" is thus but slightly indebted, and humor in the "Arcadia" not indebted at all, to the Greek Romances. Where Sidney himself is somewhat meagre, he draws least from this source. It is otherwise with his employment of setting, or descriptive background. The moment the Princes are received by Kalander, Sidney indulges in a burst of pictorial writing an eiepa/Aa>8t'a9 r/icova-a^ev, a 8e fiera rqv tcw/AwSiav erpajyBrja-ev ijBrj) . When Pyrocles retired to the cave, Gynecia was joyful ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 357 (III. 373), "holding her selfe assured that this was but a prologue to the play [Pyrocles] had promised." Earlier (III. 354) when she found him cold, she theatened: "Trust to it hard hearted Tygre, I will not be the only Actor of this Tragedie: since I must fall, I will presse down some others with my ruines." And later (IV. 413), when Basilius after drinking the po- tion has fallen apparently dead, Gynecia, con- templating her own approaching death, exclaims : " O Zelmane . . . there is a f aire stage prepared for thee, to see the tragicall end of thy hated lover." Fortune not only brings about tragedy and comedy; it is her special function to contrive those bizarre situations and engineer those sud- den turns, which being " contrary to expecta- tion," produce paradox, antithesis, and oxymoron in style. 35 Musidorus, about to be put to death by the King of Phrygia, is saved by Pyrocles, who places in his hand the very sword that was to have cut off his head ! The two Princes clear the scaffold; rioting ensues among the soldiers; the friends of liberty rise, overpower the guard, take the city, and choose Musidorus King! (II. viii, 138) " whom foorthwith they lifted up, For- tune (I thinke) smiling at her worke therein, that a scaffold of execution should grow a scaf- fold of coronation." 36 Here are the usual in- K rj ri vapdSo^a ical rb d$6/C7jTa (pi\ovoi (ante, p. 220). The captors of Musidorus and Pamela have not heard the news that the king is dead. Returning with their captives (IV. 432) they are met by a troop of horsemen " marvelling who they were that in such a general mourning, durst sing joyfull tunes, and in so publique a ruine weare the lawrell token of victory [cf. yEth., VI. viii, and A. T., Ill, x, as above, for antithesis of mourning and rejoicing]. And that which seemed strangest, they might see two among them unarmed like prisoners, but riding like Cap- taines." Heliodorus furnishes this last antithesis (^th., I. iv). Thyamis having captured Thea- genes and Chariclea treats them with deference (U 13-14) : "hee, who was their maister, waited upon them, and he who tooke them prysoners, was content to serve them." Sidney uses it again when Gynecia has difficulty in persuading the shepherds to make her their prisoner for the supposed murder of the King (IV. 414). They hesitated " till she was faine to lead them, with 32 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN a very strange spectacle, either that a Princesses should be in the hands of shepherds, or a pris- oner should direct her guardians." Musidorus seeing Pyrocles taken by pirates ex- claims (Li, 5 v.) : "Alas . . . deere Pyrocles shall that bodie of thine be enchayned? shall those victorious handes of thine be commaunded to base offices? Shall vertue become a slave to those that be slaves to viciousness? " The original may be either JEth., V. ii ; U 126 : "Art thou [Thea- genes] . . . bounde, which has a free minde . . .?" (cf. also JEth., I. xxix; II. iv), or A. T., III. xvi: "Shalt thou (Leucippe) pure as thou art, be food for the most impure ? " Sidney em- ploys it again. Embarrassed by the peculiar con- straints of his position towards the royal family, Pyrocles exclaims (II. xvi, 173) : " Alas, incom- parable Philoclea, thou ever seest me, but dost never see me as I am :; thou hearest willingly all that I dare say, and I dare not say that which were most fit for thee to heare. Alas, whoever but I was imprisoned in liber tie, and banished being still present?" The last antithesis is from Achilles Tatius. The gnat in the fable (A. T., II. xxii) : iraptov ov Trdpeijjii; Clitophon's letter (A. T., V. xx ) : ae irapovaav o>5 aTroStjfjLova-av opw. Musidorus blames the storm for not ending his life, but letting him live to suffer the pains of love (Arc., II. iii, 109) : " O cruell winds in your unconsiderate rages, why either beganne you this furie, or why did you not end it in his end ? But your cruelty was such, as you would spare his life for many death full torments." In the same ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 363 way Clitophon (A. T., III. x), apostrophizing the sea, exclaims : " I blame your kindness ; in saving us you have rather killed us." Achilles Tatius's mannerism of attributing mixed or conflicting emotions, especially as shown by persons represented in a painting (A. T., III. vii, viii; V. iii) gives Sidney the antithesis he needs for his description of the pictures in Ka- lander's garden house (Arc., I. iii, 10) : " There was Diana when Act aeon sawe her bathing, in whose cheekes the painter had set such a colour, as was mi.vt betweene shame and disdaine : & one of her foolish Nymphes, who, weeping and withal lowring, one might see the workman meant to set forth teares of anger." Again (Arc., I. i, 2) : Urania " because of her parting [bore] much sorrow in her eyes, the lightsomenes whereof had yet so natural a cherefulnesse, as it made even sorrow seem to smile." To this last passage the exact parallel is in A. T., VI. vii : ra Be Sdfcpva In Clitophon's garden (A. T., I. xv) "the tree was a support to the vine, and the vine was a garland to the tree." In Kalander's garden (Arc., I. iii., 9v.) there were beds of flowers under the trees, so that " the trees were to them a Pavilion, and they to the trees a mosaical floore." Leu- cippe singing the praises of the rose (A. T., II. i) calls it " the blush of the meadow." Sidney in describing the meadow where the shepherds' games were to be held (Arc., I. xix, 81) says " the Roses added such a ruddy shew unto it, as though the field were bashfull of his owne beautie." 364 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Sidney's paraphrase here of the one word " blush " into a conceit about the meadow's bash- fulness, is typical of the freedom with which he treats his borrowings. In the foregoing examples it can hardly have escaped notice that he fre- quently imbeds the borrowed antithesis among antitheses of his own conceived in the same spirit. Elsewhere he shows abundantly that he has learned the trick; so that he infuses into the whole "Arcadia" a subtle flavor of Greek Ro- mance, often without borrowing any particular passage. For example, Pyrocles and Musidorus nobly contend (II. viii, 136) as to which shall die to save the other. 37 At length, " in this notable contention, (where the conquest must be the con- querors destruction, and safetie the punishment of the conquered), Musidorus preuayled." Again, in the battle between Amphialus and the royal army, many horses were killed (II. vii, 268) : " Some lay uppon their Lordes, and in death had the honour to be borne by them, who in life they had borne. The earth it selfe (woont to be a buriall of men) was now (as it were) buried with men: so was the face thereof hidden with dead bodies." Again, Pyrocles complains (II. i, IO2V.) : "To her whom I would be knowne to [viz. Philoclea] I Hue in darknesse: and to her [viz. Gynecia] am revealed, from whom I would be most secreat." Basilius in the course of the 87 The same motif again in the trial scene (V. 480-481). It is not in the Greek Romances preserved to us, but came to Sidney, perhaps, from Boccaccio's Tito and Gisippo (Dec., X. 8) and so, mediately, through the " Legend of Two Friends," from a lost Greek Romance. (Cf. ante, p. 358 ff.) ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 365 siege of Amphialus's castle digs trenches leading to forts (III. xi, 285) "in such sort, as it was a prettie consideration in the discipline of warre, to see building used for the instrument of mine, and the assayler entrenched as if he were be- sieged." The remnant of the rebels having taken Musidorus with Pamela (IV. 428), "All resolved to kill him, but now onely considering what maner of terrible death they should inuent for him. Thus was a while the agreement of his slaying broken by disagreement of the maner of it; and extremity of cruelty grew for a time to be the stop of cruelty." When Musidorus has been re- vived by the shepherds (I. i, 3v.) he tries to throw himself into the sea again in order not to survive Pyrocles : " a strange sight to the shep- heards, to whom it seemed that, before, being in appearance dead had yet saved his life, and now, camming to his life shoulde be a cause to procure his death." The great frequency of such passages 38 pro- duces, as has been said, an effect of rhetorical strain throughout, and in the reader's total im- pression quite eclipses the other characteristics of Sidney's style. Once more the reader receives the impression that Sidney has learned the very accent of Greek Romance; once more he feels that Sidney has deliberately written Greek Ro- mance in English. w Others of the same sort: I. ii, 7; I. iii, lov. ; I. vi, 27-27V. ; I. vii, 3ov. ; I. x, 42V. ; I. xvi, 70; II. iv, Ii6v. ; II. xiii, 160; II. xxv, 2I3-2I3V. ; III. viii, 26QV. ; III. xviii, SXS-S'Sv. ("a braue raggednesse, and a riche povertie ... a disgraced handsomnesse, and' a new oldnes"), III. 379, V. 450-1. $66 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN And this is the abiding impression. The sepa- rate conclusions reached upon analysis of the "Arcadia" into its elements are confirmed upon a retrospect of the whole. Its material in plot and character, however diffuse and various, is held firmly within the Heliodorean frame; its descriptive matter is strongly flavored with the Greek Romance eacn9; its structure has been deliberately recast in the mould of Heliodorus ; its style speaks with the voice of the Greek Ro- mancers. Sidney has domesticated the genre. (To pp. 312, 313) Heliodorus's story of Calasiris and his sons looks like a degenerate version of the myth of Oedipus, a version with a happy ending as far as the sons are concerned. If Calasiris is Oedipus travestied, we have a remarkable tradition, from Sophocles or earlier, through Heliodorus and Sidney, to Shakespeare. Not without deliberate intent, we feel, did Shakespeare choose this descendant of the story of Oedipus as a foil to the story of that other Oedipus, King Lear. (To p. 360) The antithesis " Banquet turns to Battle " also seems to be the subject of a remarkable tradition. Heliodorus's immediate source may well have been Ovid (Met. XII. 222-244), who also emphasizes the mingling of blood with wine, and the use of the wine-jars as missiles. Now it was at the wedding of Pirithous and Hippodamia that this sudden turn occurred, the misconduct of the Centaurs changing the feast into a fight. It is thus sug- gested that the antithesis and its concomitant details are conventions associated with the treatment of the combat between the Centaurs and the Lapithae ; and, sure enough, in the representation of this combat on the metopes of the Parthenon, a Centaur appears in the act of hurling a wine-jar. We may reasonably suppose that the motif was often repeated in subsequent sculpture, gem-engraving, vase- painting, or wall-painting, if not in Alexandrian pictorial poetry. Thus it would reach Ovid, and, through him, Heliodorus, Sidney, and Sir Walter Scott (" Ivanhoe," ch. xli). Once more, the tradition handed on to modern times by Greek Romance dates bacfc to a period of pure classicism. CHAPTER III ROBERT GREENE The popular request for rapid work from Greene's pen, and the versatility of his own imi- tative talent for story-telling, sent him to many sources and subjected him to many influences. One of the most widely-read of the writers of his time, he was always in the fashion of the moment. He would, as Nash tells us, 1 "yark up " a pamphlet " in a night and a day " to meet a publisher's demand for a "best seller"; and he was nothing if not up to date. " Euphues " ap- peared in 1578 and '79, and in 1580 Greene was ready with " Mamillia" (licensed 1580; published 1 583 ) , which out-Euphuizes " Euphues." Thence- forth the Euphuistic strain ran through all his books with greater or less strength, till he ex- cluded it abruptly and consciously from his " Conny Catching " series and from " The Black Bookes Messenger." His love of stylistic tinsel enabled him to appropriate easily the character- istics of Euphuism, and sometimes, in " Carde of Fancie," for instance, to add absurdities of his own. As with "Euphues," so with Sidney's "Arcadia." By the time the "Arcadia" in manuscript had made its way out of Sidney's own court circle into the Universities and the City 1 " Foure Letters Confuted," Works, ed. Grosart, II. 221 ; ed. McKerrow, I. 287. 367 368 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN (that is, into the circle of Greene's readers) and had created a demand for its like, Greene was prepared to meet the demand. " Menaphon," pub- lished 1589, and "Philomela," published 1592, but, he says (Epistle Dedicatory, p. 109), "writ- ten long since," are his chief tributes to its popu- larity; the first satisfying the demand raised by the manuscript, the second that raised by the first edition (1590). Apart from the influence of the "Arcadia," Greene's own predilection for lowly and rural life would have sufficed to make him fall in with the pastoral taste of his time ; but his natural tendency toward pastoral was strength- ened by Sidney's work, and, like Sidney, he used his pastoral not as an independent tale, but either as an ornament to some inclusive story or or as a solvent for the complexities and a remedy for the troubles which afflict his personages in city or court. This scene of courtly people in the country belongs to the mediaeval stock of literary material quite as much as to that of the Renaissance ; and is one of many mediaeval motifs in Greene. His virtuous shepherdess sends her highborn wooers about their business like any pastorela; 2 into a story of Roman times he inserts the mediaeval rivalry of Knight and Clerk ; 3 several "situations" he takes from "Huon of Bordeaux " ; 4 now and again he uses the con- * " Francescos Fortunes" (VIII), 184 ff, esp. 1936: The Host's Tale. "'Tullies Loue" (VII). * " Arbasto " (III): Captor's daughter falls in love with captive and releases him. " Carde of Fancie " (IV) : Cap- tive released fights gigantic enemy of captor, and gains captor's daughter to wife. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 369 ventional Vision-form of the Middle Ages, 8 once together with the usual allegory of a garden, its variety of trees and birds, and Dame Venus stand- ing there; 6 but usually in combination with a debat. 1 So Greene ministered to the lingering mediaeval taste of Elizabethan readers. And here once more he was on common ground be- tween the Middle Ages and the Renaissance: for, regarded as a social diversion, the debat becomes the dubbio. The popularity of this Italian form was enhanced by the popularity of " Euphues," which made such large use of it ; and Greene employed it, too, but as a frame for narrative, which, after all, is his specialty. Many of his stories are told in social gatherings to illustrate some point in morals or love raised in a dubbio or dialogue. 8 He thus gave an edifying frame to novelle which are only incidentally edifying in themselves. The demand of Puritan- ism for stories that should be edifying in them- selves he satisfied by turning into novella-form the parable of the Prodigal Son, 9 and the apocry- phal book of Susanna the latter twice. 10 His readers, in fact, must have the novella, which by 8 "Quip for an Vpstart Courtier" (XI); "Greenes Vis- ion" (XII); " Orpharion " (XII); " Carde of Fancie" (IV), 74-6 (Allegorical Dream). "Mamillia" (II), 275. 7 So in all the cases cited in notes 4 and 5 (supra). Greene uses a debat without a vision, in " Debate between Folly and Love" (IV), and " Planetomachia " (V). 8 " Morando " (III); "Censure" (VI); "Penelopes Web" (V); " Perimedes " (VII); "Mourning Garment" (IX); "Farewell to Folly" (IX); and elsewhere. '"Mourning Garment" (IX). 10 " Mirrour of Modestie " (III) ; " Francescos Fortunes '" (VIII). 25 37<> THE GREEK ROMANCES IN means of its single " situation," its emphasis upon what happened, its want of profound character- ization, its want of complication in plot, and its simple setting, made a broad popular appeal. It is for these same reasons that the novella fell within Greene's powers. He, too, lacked " la longue haleine " ; he could never manage a plot of any considerable length or complication ; his char- acterization was nearly always shallow and un- motived ; and he was almost wholly destitute of the feeling for "background." Accordingly, Italian novelle were among his chief sources ; and in time he learned from them how to make very good novelle of his own. 11 Meanwhile he borrowed novelle, mainly from Boccaccio; and it is interesting to observe what he borrowed. Not counting allusions and minor resemblances, there are two tales which Greene took over bodily from the Decameron, with slight changes ; and a well-rounded incident, complete in itself, which he took from a third tale and em- bodied as an incident in a story of his own. 11 * These, as far as I am aware, are his only borrow- ings from the Decameron, and every one of these is, in all probability, like the plot of "Euphues," based upon some lost Greek Ro- mance. The first is Decam., II. 6, which Greene used as the first story in " Perimedes " (VII.) 23-42. The following is a summary of his version. 11 E. g., Chaucer's story of Tomkins and Kate, in "Greenes Vision" (XII), and Roberto's story of the Farmer Bride- groom, in " Groats ,-orth " (XII). "* Koeppel, pp. 52-54. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 371 Mariana is the wife of Prestines, formerly gover- nor of Tyre, but now the prisoner of Voltarus, King of Sidon. Escaping from her husband's enemy, she is wrecked on the shore of Decapolis, while her sons are carried off by pirates. She lives in a cave, whither chance brings the Despot of Decapolis and his wife. She tells her story and is taken to live with them. The sons and their nurse are sold by the pirates to Lamoraq, governor of Japhet and brother to the Despot of Decapolis. The elder es- capes, comes at length to Decapolis, enters the Despot's service, and gets his daughter with child. Thrown into prison, he hears that Voltarus is being attacked, and exclaims upon his hard fate in not being able to help against his father's enemy. The jailor overhears him and gets his story, which he tells to the Despot. Upon confirmation of the story the young people are married; the younger son, sent for from Japhet, is likewise married to the daughter of the Governor; and Voltarus having been over- thrown and Prestines restored, his wife and his sons and their wives rejoin him at Tyre. This is, substantially, Boccaccio's story of " Madonna Beritola Caracciola, moglie di Ar- righetto Capece (chi sotto il re Manfredi fu stato governatore di Sicilia ma fu fatto prigioniere dal re Carlo)." It is scarcely necessary to point to the familiar marks of Greek Romance. In the original there is an additional motif, which looks like a tortured Byzantine imitation of " Daphnis and Chloe." In her loneliness on the desert shore, Madonna Beritola finds two nezv-born kids, which she nurses. The Governor (Greene's Des- pot) and his wife come to hunt; and his dogs chase the kids, who flee to their foster-mother 37 2 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN and thus lead to her rescue. This is apparently an inversion and a perversion of Longus's motifs: "she-goat gives suck to human infant, and by retiring to place where infant lies, brings about its rescue ; goats are chased by hounds." Greene omits it, merely saying that when Mariana was found, she had with her a fawn which she had nursed up; but he leaves all the other evidences that the tale is based on Greek Romance. Per- haps an instinctive feeling that it is in this genre makes him change its locus to Tyre and Sidon, etc., and reunite the parents and the two newly married couples at Tyre, in reminiscence of the end of " Clitophon and Leucippe." That Boc- caccio likewise classified the tale correctly is shown by his placing it in the Second Day, among stories of evil Fortune turning to good, and by his introducing it individually with remarks upon the beneficial effect of hearing tales about the vicissitudes of Fortune. Landau ("Quellen," p. 296) after mentioning the stock motifs of the Greek Romances, adds " mit denen [d. h. mit den griechischen Romanen] Boccaccio's Novellen von den drei Schwestern und ihren Liebhabern (IV. 3), von Pietro Boccamazza (V. 3) and von der Familie Capece (II. 6) verwandt sind." Greene's next borrowing from Boccaccio is the Second Tale in " Perimedes " (VII.), 47-55: On the island of Lipari, Constance and Alcimedes fall in love, but cannot wed because of his poverty. Desperately resolved to make his fortune, he becomes a corsair, but is taken by the Saracens and carried to Tunis. Rumor reports that he has been drowned. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 373 Constance seeking death in like manner sets herself adrift in a small boat, but is wafted to the Barbary Coast, and makes her way in time to the city where, unknown to her, her lover is confined. Now a rebel- lious nobleman lays claim to the kingdom of Tunis, and Alcimedes in prison offers the King his services as general. These are accepted, and he defeats the rebel and is made a Duke. When the fame of this stroke of fortune brings Constance the news that he is alive, she discovers herself to him, and they are married. This, with unimportant changes, is Boccaccio's tale of Martuccio Gomito and Gostanza (Decam., V. 2). The story has a mediaeval tinge over- lying its probable Greek origiri; and the motif " released prisoner assists his captor against an enemy," is found in " Huon of Bordeaux," as well as in the " Babylonica " of lamblichus (ch. XX). 12 The stories of the Fifth Day, like those of the Second, concern lovers who have met good fortune after ill ; and Fortune is active through- out this tale. The flavor of Greek Romance is strongest, per- haps, in the story of which Greene borrows the first incident the story of Cimone and Efigenia (Decam., V. i) : Cimone, a clownish youth of Cyprus, beholding Efigenia asleep on the grass, is by love of her trans- formed into an accomplished gentleman. As she is betrothed to a Rhodian, Cimone cannot gain her "Greene uses it again in " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 164, 166, 191. Neither Greene nor Boccaccio could have taken it from lamblichus (see table, ante, p. 8 ff.), unless, as is very unlikely, they saw a Ms. of Photius. 374 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN hand by peaceful means. When she is sailing to be married in Rhodes, he attacks her ship, steals her away, and after several changes of Fortune (which constitute the bulk of the story), marries her. Boccaccio says that the story is "si come noi nelle antiche istorie de' Cipriani abbiamo gia letto"; and Rohde (pp. 538-542) plausibly con- jectures that it comes from a lost Greek Romance, perhaps called the " Cypriaca." In any case it bears the unmistakable stamp of its kind ; and we actually possess, in the episode of Callisthenes and Calligone (A. T., II. xviii; VIII. xvii), the same combination though in reverse order of transformation by love with piratical abduction of the beloved. Greene uses only the first of these motifs transformation by love 13 for his episode of Fabius and Terentia, in "Tullies Loue " (VII.), 185-9; an d he accounts for Fabius's change of character by a literal trans- lation of Boccaccio's corresponding account of Cimone's change: "Ye high vertues of the heauens infused into this noble breast, were im- prisoned by ye enuious wrath of Fortune, within some narrowe corner of his heart, whose bandes went asunder by loue, as a Lord to[o] mightie for fortune." Here Love conquers envious For- tune, but in the remainder of the story Fortune is said to be, and is, busy at every turn. Possibly unconscious of what he was choos- ing, Greene has thus chosen from the Decameron 18 He has used it again in "Card* of Fancie " (IV), 48- 49. He alludes by name to " Boccaccio " and his story of "Chimon" in " Morando " (III), 91. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 375 only Greek Romance material, and has used it almost exactly as he found it. Indeed, his talent in general has a distinct affinity to Greek Ro- mance. His unresisted tendency towards the pastoral lays him open to the influence of " Daphnis and Chloe." His peculiar combination of a love of pure plot, of events for the sake of events, regardless of their spring in character and of their reaction upon character his com- bination of such a love of plot with a weak sense of motive and causal nexus, strongly inclines him to employ Fortune as the mover of his plot. His pleasure in gaudy stylistic ornament exposes him to the infection not only of Euphuism, but of the rhetorical diseases inherent in the style of Achilles Tatius. Moreover, from the great spec- tacular ensemble scenes so frequent in Helio- dorus, he learns how to turn his rhetoric to ac- count, in long harangues and arguments, and in analysis of the emotions and facial expressions of the spectators. So that, amid Greene's variety of sources, it would be rather strange if he had not drawn upon Greek Romance. His indebtedness is primary as well as second- ary. As has been seen, Achilles Tatius was ac- cessible to him in Latin, Italian, and French translations, while Heliodorus and Longus may fairly be said to have become current English fic- tion during the time of his literary activity (1580-1592). In fact, as with "Euphues" and the "Arcadia," so with the Greek Romances, Greene's versatility and timeliness serve him well. " Daphnis and Chloe " in Day's version, and the THE GREEK ROMANCES IN "^Ethiopica" in Underdowne's second or third edition, come out in 1587; and in 1588, Greene is on the spot with his best known story, " Pan- dosto" ("Dorastus and Fawnia") which is full of matter from both of them, and which draws somewhat upon Achilles Tatius as well. " Pan- dosto" thus possesses a two- fold interest first, and chiefly, as the main source of " The Winter's Tale"; secondly, as exhibiting with the greatest fulness the influence of the Greek Romances upon Greene. Under both these aspects it will later be treated in detail, together with " Menaphon," each integrally as well as topically ; for each is a work whose various topics and sources should be as- sembled in order that justice may be done to the whole. Evidence of the influence of the Greek Romances upon Greene's other works will be arranged not according to the works in which it may occur, but partly according to its contents, that is, topically (as in the treatment of the Greek Romances themselves in Part First of the present study), and partly according to its sources among the Greek Romances. Despite Greene's leaning toward the pastoral, and fondness for pathetic ensemble-scenes, it is Achilles Tatius who affects him at the largest number of points, and is his first and latest love. Greene is particularly predisposed to take what Achilles Tatius can give. As a rhetorician, he shares the Renaissance fondness for antithesis and paradox. His only method of characteriza- tion is an antithetical soliloquy, dialogue, or letter by his personages, or antithetical comment by ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 377 himself. He is not, of course, interested in char- acter, but such characterization as he does attempt resolves itself thus into an analysis of " conflict- ing emotions." 14 The mania for antithesis viti- ates his "psychology" by breaking up character into striving opposites. It vitiates both his style and the speech of his personages by turning both into a Euphuistic balancing of conceits and argu- ments. Wit and Will ; Virtue and Fortune ; Na- ture and Fortune; Nature and Necessity; Fancy and the Fates ; Love and Destiny ; Nature and Nurture; Desire and Despair; Beauty and Bounty ; Beauty and Virtue ; the Sore and the Salve ; Outward Favor and Inward Valor ; Rea- son and Passion ; Bliss and Bale ; Hand and Heart; Weal and Woe; Excellence, not Birth; Wit before Wealth; Mirth and Mourning; Love and Law; these and a hundred other allitera- tive couples are forever see-sawing through his pages. 18 Like Achilles Tatius, he several times employs the device of rivalry; 16 he calls attention to a surprising event by means of the familiar jrapa 8oay 17 ; and he gives to his "unnatural 14 Conflicting Emotions: " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 55, 180, 190; " Alcida " (IX), 94 (Hope vs. Fear); "Philo- mela" (XI), 203, and many other passages. 15 "Mamillia" (II), 17, 19, 79, 91, 134, 140; " Francescos Fortunes" (VIII), 223, 227, 228; "Mourning Garment" (IX), 131; "Farewell" (IX), 250; " Coosnage " (X), 6-7; " Blacke Bookes Messenger" (XI), 35: some passages on Wit and Will alone. On this cliche, see Mr. Sidney Lee's "Life of Shakspeare," p. 416 ff. 18 " Tullies Love" (VII), 106; "Mourning Garment" (IX), 127; "Farewell" (IX), 256. ""Censure" (VI), 194: " Comming thither, contrary to his expectation hee found that Time the mother of muta- bilitie, had made a strange metamorphosis." THE GREEK ROMANCES IN natural philosophy" the peculiar animistic turn which has been observed in Achilles Tatius, 18 and which is not present in Lyly. It is difficult, too, to resist the feeling though only a detailed examination of the styles in question can deter- mine its correctness that Greene's homeophony is distinctly more elaborate than Lyly's, and may have had another model besides "Euphues." Such passages as the following seem to push "transverse" alliteration further than Lyly's furthest reach, and to use certain alliterative and assonantal " stanza-forms " or " rhyming schemes," so to speak, which he did not attempt. "Carde of Fancie" (IV.), 66: "Wert thou of late a defter of Venus, and art thou now a de- fender of vanitie?" (de f er of vn de f er of vn). ib., 92. " not his Barfing riches, but his renowned vertues." (ntvd r ch s;trnd vrchs) ib., 46. " As the ioye of her presence procureth my delight, so the annoie of her absence breedeth my despight" " Planetomachia " (V.) 73: "No, hee had rather prevent her with untimely death then pre- tend such an unlikely ctemande : (pre en un I ly de pre en un I ly de) he would sooner consent to payn her with some hellish miserie then place her in such a /tap/ess ""Arbasto" (III), 237. Doralicia's froward answer to Arbasto's letter : " As by instinct of nature there is a se- crete hate between the vine and the cabash, between the boxe and the goord, and between the iron and ye Thea- mides, so in my mind I feel a secret grudge between Ar- basto and Doralicia." Cf. A. T., I. xvii, xviii ; ante, p. 210. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 379 Carriage." (pa her su hi m r p a her su hi m r). The resemblance to Antike Kunstprosa may be only accidental; Greene could not have seen the original Greek of Achilles Tatius 'in print, and it is unlikely that he saw it in Ms. I give the impression as such. Certainly not accidental, however, is the fact that Greene shares with Achilles Tatius the same faults in narrative technique. " Arbasto " con- sists of a " frame-tale " about the narrator's ship- wreck, and an inner tale really the substance of the whole told by Arbasto to the narrator. Both are related in the first person. But this plan is violated, first by Arbasto's report of the feelings and soliloquies of other persons (III. 195-8, 215-217, 217, 223-226, 229, 245-248) ; next by his lapses into the third person when he speaks of himself (227) ; finally by the failure of the author, the supposed narrator of the frame-tale, to recur to it when Arbasto's story is done. He does not " envelop " Arbasto's story at the end, as he does at the beginning, by resum- ing the account of himself. As will shortly ap- pear, 19 the resemblance to " Clitophon and Leu- cippe " 20 is more than accidental. Finally, Greene the rhetorician never spares his readers a speech if he can help it. In "Garde of Fancie " (IV.) the two hostile kings harangue their respective troops at length (174-6). In "Penelopes Web" (V.), 81, "Egistus Oration to the Lords of 19 Post, p. 393- "Ante, p. 199. 380 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Egypt" is thrown into prominence by a title of its own. In " Censure " (VI.), 224, " Cleophanes Oration to the Citizens " persuades them to admit besiegers to their city; (228-9) Cimbriana ex- horts her ladies to revenge; (257-8) Frontinus harangues his troops ; (273) Roxander pacifies the people " with this briefe Oration " ; and (276) one of the Senators seeing the soldiers careless and discouraged, " calling them all into the market made them this oration." In " Peri- medes" (VII.), 52-3, Alcimedes repeats to the King of Barbary's troops the speech of Frontinus. In "Tullies Love" (VII.) there is a tremendous talking-match, which ends with (213) "Tullies Oration to the Senate." In "Farewell" (IX.), 345, Rustico in a speech rouses the citizens against their besotted Duke. In " Philomela " (XI.) there are no less than three trial scenes (1646*., i86ff. and 203 ff.), all adorned with " Orations." All things, it would seem, are pos- sible to Eloquentia. Greene's fondness for speechmaking he shares with his time, but he shares it too with Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius. The occasion for all this Eloquentia, the para- doxical or antithetical situation which gives rhetoric its opportunity, is by Greene, as by Helio- dorus and Achilles Tatius, often attributed to Fortune, or as by Longus, to Fortune and Love. " Fortune loves to bring about things unexpected and things contrary to expectation," 21 and when Greene speaks of her he tends naturally toward antithesis and oxymoron, balance and alliteration. "Aelian, " Var. Hist.," XIII. 33 (quoted ante, p. 357, n. 35.) ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 381 " O Fortune, how constant art thou in thy in- constancie ? " 22 In "Censure" (VI.), 196, Mae- dyna, the faithless wife of Polymestor, having refused to return to him, his nobles "thought their kinge happy that Fortune by ill fortune had at hazard giuen him such good fortune." Those who are down need fear no fall ; but those in high places are especially subject to vicissitude ; hence, in " Pandosto " (IV.), 249, Queen Bellaria exclaims to herself : " How unfortunate art thou, because fortunate." In " Carde of Fancie " (IV.), 153, Gwydonius cries: "Who a late so floated in the flouds of felicitie as I, which now by the sinister meanes of frowning Fortune am sowsed in the seas of sorrow." And Castania (ib., 182): "Let froward fortune favor whom she please, so I may ioy and safelie inioy my onelie ioy." Greene's subjection to the concept, nay to the word, *' Fortune," far surpasses that of Achilles Tatius. Greene is Fortune's abject slave; he suffers from lues fortunae, or tychomania, a dis- ease which once having gripped its victim, blinds him to the true course of human affairs, and renders him incapable of ever building more than a novella-plot, or depicting a consistent character. Fortune has him in thrall. He attributes to her the plainest effects of a line of causes already begun effects which are perfectly calculable and which exhibit not the slightest element of chance. 23 2J " Morando " (III), 127-8; again "Penelopes Web" (V), 178. 13 " Never too Late " (VIII), 101. Francesco in the snares of Infida has been living riotously. " Wallowing thus in THE GREEK ROMANCES IN He attributes to her the gifts which, according to a distinction that was one of the commonplaces of mediaeval and Renaissance thought, really came from " Nature." 24 He drags her in at every possible or impossible place, simply as a cliche, the foldes of their owne follies, Fortune . . . dealt thus " : Francesco's money gave out ! There was no interference by Fortune nothing but continued causation. In " Dispu- tation " (X), 246, the reformed courtesan says that as a young girl she had many suitors, but " either my fortune or destenie droue me to a worser ende, for I refused them all " : an act of human choice. In " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 134, "Fortune . . . brought it to pass" that Orlanio withheld his accustomed tribute, and so occasioned a war. But there was nothing fortuitous about it ; it originated in Orlanio's will. In " Planetomachia " (V), 89, Rodento and Pasylla having been betrothed, " Fortune grudging at this happy successe, crossed their sweete and delicious favours with bitter and despairing frowns. For Valdracko (Pa- sylla's father) . . . began to thinke " that this betrothal gave him an opportunity for vengeance upon the formerly hostile house of Rodento. But Valdracko had promoted the betrothal between his daughter and his enemy's son for that very purpose. Fortune was active only in his acci- dental finding of the young people's letters, which showed him that they were in love. Valdracko's own motive and agency, not Fortune, brings about the remainder of the tale. In "Philomela" (XI), 155, Philippe's jealous sus- picion of his wife is said to be the work of Fortune and this after Greene has done his best to depict Philippo as suspicious and jealous by nature. In "Arbasto" (III), 222, 231, 245, 252, the hero repeatedly ascribes to Fortune the clear effects of his own duplicity, ingratitude, and folly ; the story has for sub-title " the Anatomic of For- tune," and at the beginning we behold Arbasto, now in retirement after his troubles, robed in white satin and crowned with gold, weeping while he gazes upon a " coun- terfeit of Fortune," his scapegoat. ""Penelope's Web" (V), 227. Ariamenes's eldest son, praising his wife, classifies her excellences as " the gifts of nature " and " the gifts of fortune " a stereotyped dichot- omy. Then, among the gifts of fortune, he places the fact that she is " descended of honourable parentage " a gift which of all gifts comes by birth, by natura. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 383 meaning no more than "condition in life" or " change of affairs " or " difficulties or obstacles to be overcome " or " some reason or other why things happen as they do some reason which I don't care to take the trouble to find out." 25 This intellectual laziness leads Greene to employ " drag-net " or " blunderbuss " formulae when he wishes to be sure of including the true cause of his event: thus he often couples Fortune with Fate, the Destinies, the Gods, Time, Chance, Providence, Nemesis, Occasion, Opportunity, the Stars, Necessity, Nature and the like, indiscrimi- nately, without even attempting a distinction be- tween their respective agencies. 26 It would be hard to exaggerate the prominence of Fortune as an empty formula throughout the works of Greene. Quite apart from the numerous pas- sages to be next discussed where she is a vera 28 It is hardly worth while to classify the passages that exemplify these cliches. A few by no means all are re- ferred to here. " Mamillia " (II), 61, 236. " Arbasto " (III), 203, 211, 215, 217, 226, 228, 239, 245, 246, " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 112, 28-9, 54-5, 93, 117, 120-1, 124, 141, 144, 153, 182, 183, " Penelope's Web " (V), 151, 168, " Cen- sure " (VI), 192, "Pandosto" (IV), 283, 285, 308. **"Alcida" (IX), 23. " Liuing thus contentedly, and as I thought armed against fortune, in that we foregarded our actions with vertue, the Fates, if there be any, or the des- tinies, some star or planet in some infortunate and cursed aspect, calculated ... ill hap to all my daughter's natiui- ties." " Morando " (III), 119 : " Men can neuer purely and simply enjoy the ease of any great prosperitie : but whether it bee Fortune, or the enuie of Destinie, or els the naturall necessitie of earthly things, their ease is allwaies inter- mingled with evil among the good." " Orpharion " (XII), 14 : " Time hath many chaunces, the Fates their Canons tied to opportunity : Fortune her decrees variable, and love, many accidents." 384 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN causa, and moves the plot or is the subject of a formal disquisition, or of a genuine personifica- tion with picturesque attributes ; quite apart from these, she appears on nearly every page. 27 Space fails for a fuller exposition of this subject. Any reader who opens Greene's works anywhere can see for himself how nearly Greene's tychomania amounts to an obsession. Apart from these empty or distorted uses of the word or concept " Fortune," there is a much more important and perhaps quite as bulky class of cases where Fortune is really used by Greene's imagination or his intellect. Now his intellect gives the subject a formal discussion as in "Morando" (III), 127-141, where after dinner several members of the company discourse at length of the ways of Fortune. Now it expresses or hints at plausible relations between Fortune and Fate, Fortune and Providence, Fortune and Justice, Fortune and Nemesis, Fortune and Op- portunity, or, in general Fortune and other non- human forces. 28 Now it brings Fortune into rela- ZT " Farewell" (IX), 256-264: eight pages, Fortune men- tioned fifteen times. " Menaphon " 45-52 : seven pages, Fortune mentioned twenty times. 21 " Garde of Fancie " (IV), 147, 184: The Fates or Dts- tinies are opposed to Fortune ; she is unfavorable, but they are favorable and stronger and will prevail. Ib., 78 : The Destinies are unfavorable, but the Gods favorable. Cf. " D. & C.," IV. xxiv, and ante, p. 123, n. Ib., 1712: For- tune, the Destinies, the Fates, even the Gods must yield to justice and human desert. " Pandosto " (IV), 285 : " For- tune windeth those threedes which the Destinies spin " : assigns to Fortune a position of real power, but subordi- nate to the Destinies. So " Perimedes " (VII), 24-54. " Fortune, or some contrarie fate aboue fortune " and " Menaphon" (VI), 89: " Where God and fate hath vowed ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 385 tion with man by assigning expressly or im- pliedly the varying functions of Fortune and Nature. 28 Now it touches more deeply the rela- felicitie, no adverse fortune may expel prosperitie." " Pene- lope's Web" (V), 150: "Fortune . . . having commission from angry Neptune to showe her inconstancie, kept (Ulysses) still from the end of his desires." " Planeto- machia " (V), 106: The eagle drops Rhodope's shoe into the lap of Psammetichus, " not by chance, but by some infortunate and dismall destiny " ; Aelian (" Var. Hist.," XIII, 33) expressly attributes it to Fortune. " Penelope's Web" (V), 190: Fortune as Nemesis: " Thoughtes aboue measure are either cut short by tyme or fortune." But on the other hand, "Censure" (VI), 172: "Men determine, but the Gods dispose : humaine actions are oft measured by will, but the censures from above are iust and per- emptorie : Fortune is a goddesse but hath no priviledge in punishing of faultes." Fortune controls Occasion or Op- portunity: "Censure" (VI), 185, 254; "Perimedes" (VII), 38; "Tullies Love" (VII), 113. 29 Meaning by " Nature " all those powers that make the human estate, especially at birth, but to a less degree throughout life, exclusive of " environment." " Environ- ment " is the province of Fortune. " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 107: "In despight of Fortune, Nature hath given you a loving heart." " Morando " (III), 135: Hannibal's hatred of the Romans was " nothing diminished through olde age, neither yet through the alteration of his estate and fortune, because the nature and qualities of manners (viz. moral qualities) continueth alwaies." " Mamillia " (II), 14: After enumerating Gonzaga's advantages of birth and station : " And yet for all these golden giftes of Na- ture, he was more bound vnto Fortune, which had bestowed vpon him one only daughter." But in "Censure" (IX), 211, it is Nature that bestows the daughter. In "Mourn- ing Garment" (IX), 127, 128, Nature and Fortune vie with each other to confer gifts. "Farewell" (IX), 237: Far- neze's daughters " were beholding to Nature for beauty, to Fortune for wealth, and to the Gods for Wisdom and vertue." "Vision" (XII), 260: " Fayre Mistresse, whom Fortune hath made as miserable, as Nature hath formed beautifull. ... I praise Nature for her workmanship, [and] accuse Fortune for her tyrannic." Other passages : " Fran- cesco's Fortunes" (VIII), 195; "Farewell" (IX), 256; 26 386 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN tions between human character or personality on the one hand and the forces of environment on the other, by way of the formula ancient but informed by the Renaissance with new vitality of Fortune and Virtue. 30 Now his imagination "Mamillia" (II), 97, 109, 282, 287; "Censure" (VI), 183-4- 30 Virtue meaning the powers of personality, thought of either as passively resisting or as actively opposing the force of circumstances. As before, circumstances or en- vironment are the province of Fortune. "Mamillia" (II), 162: "The incomparable constancie of Mamillia, which was so surelie defenced with the rampier of vertue, as all the fierce assaults of fortune could no whit prevaile." " Vir- tue " may thus be associated or identified with any strong human quality : Constancy in love, as in the passage just quoted, and in " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 183, 184, 186. Courage: "Spanish Masquerade" (V), 258. Counsel: " Planetomachia " (V), 125; "Penelope's Web" (V), 172-3; Prowess: " Censure " (VI), 243. Fortitude: "Cen- sure" (VI), 257; "Perimedes" (VII), 52-3; Wit: "Sec- ond Part of Connycatching " (X), in. Foresight: " Philo- mela " (XI), 115. Valor: " Orpharion " (XII), 84. Wisdom: "Mamillia," II, 288; "Censure" (VI), 202, 208. Though these qualities, summed up as " Virtue," are occasionally said, like " Nature," to cooperate with Fortune, they gen- erally resist her. One of Greene's favorite thoughts, closely connected with his tendency toward the pastoral and the simple life, is that Fortune can be "spited" by a silent and contented endurance of her flouts : she rejoices to hear her victims complain, but is grieved by their patient, con- temptuous silence. So "Perimedes" (VII), 12, 26; " Ar- basto " (III), 180-1, 250, 253; "Farewell" (IX), 262, 264; "Censure" (VI), 217. The thought grows naturally out of Greene's favorite " situation " a high born person in retirement or adversity. This is the genre " De Casibus Virorum Illustrium " ("Orpharion" (XII), 91-92: "The chaunces of fortune, and fall of Princes ") ; which Greene removes from its mediaeval association with tragedy, by giving it a happy ending and adorning it with classical sentiments about Fortune. The antithesis of virtus and fortuna, indeed, goes back at least as far as Sophocles, appears formally in Cicero and Virgil, as well as in Plu- tarch and later writers, and is exemplified in literally ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 387 gives visual form, conventional or bizarre, tradi- tional or peculiar, to Fortune 31 personified. Fi- nally, his imagination, like that of Achilles Tatius, employs Fortune as a vera causa, the mistress of his plot, to begin his action, work its peripeteia, furnish its moments of suspense, and accomplish its denouement or catastrophe. Beyond this, Greene's use of Fortune cannot go, nor is it skil- innumerable passages in the literature and inscriptions of the Renaissance. A few instances of its formal occurrence in Greene may be noted: " Morando " (III), 130, 142, hints that Greene may have known of the antique origin of the formula. The Romans, it is said, " thought them- selves more beholding unto Fortune for the greatnesse and prosperitie of their Empire then to vertue," but '' the Athen- ians placed vertue above Fortune." Other passages, in "Pandosto" (IV), 273; "Penelopes Web" (V), 159; " Menaphon " (VI), i (title-page); " Perimedes " (VII), 61 ; "Tullies Love" (VII), 211 ; "Neuer too Late" (VIII), 59, 61 ; "Mourning Garment" (IX), 122; " Alcida " (IX), 23, 89, 93; "Philomela" (X), 169. The history of the formula strikes deep into the history of literature and of ideas, and is a subject rather for a volume than for a foot-note. 31 Fortune's wheel is no longer, as it was in Roman art, a mere symbol, an attribute for an august goddess to hold quietly in her hand or to lean upon. It has become during the Middle Ages, and it remains in Greene, an active in- strument upon which Fortune raises and lowers her vic- tims. So "Perimedes" (VII), 55-6; "Censure" (VI), 174; " Arbasto " (III), 231 ; " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 123, 125; "Morando" (III), 133-4. In the last-cited passage, and in "Alcida" (IX), 82, she stands upon a globe, and is zvinged (cf. Diirer's engriving known as " Die grosse Fortuna ") ; in "Pandosto" (IV), 274, she is "plumed with Times feathers"; in "Farewell" (IX), 256, she is " like the picture of lanus, double faced " ; ib., 264, she is blinded by her own spite; in " Mamillia " (II), 78, she is blind again; in "Arbasto" (III), 179, her "counterfeit" shows her " with one foot troade on a polype fish, and with the other on a camelion, as assured badges of ... mutabilitie." This is a pure " emblem." 388 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ful or consistent as it stands; but so far it cer- tainly does go ; and not all his trumpery can con- ceal the fact. The only one of these intellectual or imagina- tive uses of Fortune that need occupy us further is the last. Greene uses three times the device of a soliloquy overheard : in " Carde of Fancie " (IV), 153 ; in " Perimedes," and in " Philomela " a device distinctly fortuitous. In the first in- stance, he says, " frowarde Fortune brought it so to passe, that Valericus [who was Gwydonius's rival and sought occasion to ruin him] coming by the chamber of Gwydonius," heard him reveal the fact that he was the son of the Duke's enemy. A cruel father's finding of his daughter's love- letters is also contrived by Fortune. " Planeto- machia" (V), 81 : Rodento having told his love to Valdracko's daughter Pasylla, and received from her a not unfavorable reply, " Fortune . . . thought to lift him up to ye skies, yt she might wt more violence push him down lower than hel, and to bring this to passe she thus laid her plat- forme. It fortuned" that Valdracko found Ro- dento's letter and a copy of Pasylla's an event which set him plotting the atrocities that lead on to the remainder of the tale. Fortune is here a vera causa. So she is in "Perimedes" (VII), 27 (Boccaccio's story of Madonna Beritola). Whereas Boccaccio had brought about his peri- peteia by means of a semblance, at least, of nat- ural causes, letting the hounds drive one of Beritola's kids to her protection, and thus effect- ing her discovery and rescue, Greene left this ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 389 matter to pure chance : " Fortune not brooking her owne bitterness, seeing how patient the Ladie [Mariana] was in her miserie, determined to add some relief to her passions, which she brought to passe in this manner. The Despot of Decapolis and his wife . . . being one day rode on hunting, by chaunce . . . lost their way, and happened into that desert, where they . . . met Mariana." Earlier in the story, Fortune had charge of the ship- wreck. Ib., 23 : " fortune who ment to make her a mirrour of hir inconstancie, as it were entring into a league with Neptune, drove hir upon the coast of Decapolis." It is, of course, one of the inalienable rights of Fortune to cast people upon strange shores. She does this likewise in "Al- cida" (IX), 15, according to one of Greene's drag-net or blunderbuss assertions : " Whether our unhappy Fortune, the frowardnesse of the Fates, the constellation of some contrary Aspect, or the particular destinie of some unhappy man had so decreed . . . our barke by chance fell upon the coast of Taprobane." This prerogative of For- tune is well recognized by all who take ship. In "Philomela" (XI), 172, "As the poore Coun- tesse . . . little regarded to what port of Christ- edom the bark made, . . . she slipt awaie . . . and getting aboorde vnder saile, commit [ted] her selfe to God, the mercie of the Seas, and to the husband [ry] of manie hard fortunes." So did Achilles Tatius's eloping party (II. xxxi). Fortune uses her control of wind and wave in a spirit of irony. In "Censure" (VI), 189, when Maedyna and Vortymis planned to elope, " For- tune willing under the suppose of their felicitie 39 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN to hide the very substance of their myserie, brought the wind about . . . faire for Samos." She seems to possess a sort of grim sportiveness. Maedyna had nursed her guilty passion for Vor- tymis in secret (ib.~), 185, "till at last fortune willing in a sweete figge to present hir bitter wormewoode, found such fit opportunity, that Vortymis and shee met alone." The same pas- sage is repeated almost verbatim, about Procidor and Marcella, in " Perimedes " (VII), 38. After the death of Cimbriana's father, in " Censure " (VI), 217, " Fortune seeing the Lady not greatly checked with this mate, thought to sport [her] selfe in the tragicall mishappe of this young prin- cesse," and so brought fresh troubles upon her. A courtier, a shepherd, and a clown love the shep- herdess Mirimida, and each writes her a letter. "Francescos Fortunes" (VIII), 204: "Thus had Fortune (meaning to be merrie) . . . brought it to passe that the three letters from the three rivals were deliuered at one instant." Fortune brings about a serious coincidence as easily as a comic one. Philomela living in retirement in Palermo is being sought by her father, her husband and her friend. "Philomela" (XI), 193 : " It chaunced that either by Fortune or destinie" all three ar- rived in that city at the same time. So malevo- lent is the goddess in her grim irony that she baits traps for mankind. In " Penelope's Web " (V), 189, the dethroned Queen sends warning verses to the usurper. " Take heed, Ambition is a sugred ill, That fortune layes, presumptuous mynds to spill." But if she is " varium et mutabile semper," that ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 391 very fact brings consolation ; for she will change as well at her worst as at her best; hence, in misery men may look for a happy turn. It is thus that Lamedon comforts Sephestia after their shipwreck ("Menaphon" (VI), 45-7); and it is thus, in " Carde of Fancie" (IV), 160, when Valericus and Thersandro are sent separately to apprehend Gwydonius as a traitor, that " For- tune, who after euery chip of mischaunce sendeth some lot of good lucke, and after euerie storme of adversitie, sendeth a quiet calme of prosper- itie," arranged for him to be met and arrested not by his enemy but by his friend, who let him escape. Typical of this real activity of Fortune is an important incident in "Pandosto" (IV), 296. The shepherd, Fawnia's foster-father, has left home meaning to disclose to the King (Dorastus's father), the circumstances under which Fawnia had been found. Had this errand been accom- plished, the King would have learned of Fawnia's royal birth and would doubtless have consented at once to her marriage with his son. " But as [Porrus] was going, fortune (who meant to showe him a little false play) prevented his pur- pose in this wise. He met by chaunce" the Prince's servant, bound for the ship on which Dorastus and Fawnia were already embarked. The servant feigning that the King was on the ship, persuaded the shepherd to come aboard; 32 and of course kidnapped him and prevented the disclosure. Hence neither of the kings knew Fawnia, and her own father was about to put M Autolycus, meeting the shepherd, performs the same function in " Winter's Tale," IV. iv, 824. 39 2 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN her to death. The moment of last suspense in the tale (see post, p. 426) is thus directly brought about by the agency of Fortune, both in kidnap- ping Porrus and in wrecking the lovers upon the coast of Bohemia. Such are some of the aspects which Fortune never, one may say, absent from Greene's mind assumes according as she is more or less removed from his " focus of consciousness." Far from the focus, and seen with the tail of his eye, she is a word, ready to be applied anywhere, anyhow, either without a meaning or with a meaning con- trary to the realities of the case. Approaching the focus, she becomes a gwa^'-reality, half visible and related with some plausibility to other ab- stract quasi-realities, human and non-human. In the focus, she is a genuine force, very skilful indeed to make things happen, and to put Greene's personages into interesting situations : she is the mistress of his plot. In all these aspects, in the breadth of their range, and, throughout that range, in the enormous frequency of Greene's mention of Fortune, there is a strong resemblance to Achilles Tatius. 33 Were there no certain evidence of direct bor- rowing by Greene, the similarities just set forth similarities in rhetoric and style, and in the use and abuse of Fortune would at least prove a strong mental kinship between the two writers, would show that Greene was inclined, was ready, to be influenced by Achilles Tatius. They would probably do more : their cumulative effect would M Other aspects of Fortune in Greene seem to be derived from Heliodorus, and still others from Longus. They will be treated hereafter. See pp. 409 ft. and 435 ff. ELIZABETHAN P&OSE FICTION 393 be to raise at least a presumption of actual in- fluence. However this may be, the matter is placed beyond doubt, and the probability ren- dered a certainty, by the direct borrowings now to be set forth. It was said (ante, p. 379), that the presence in " Clitophon and Leucippe " and in " Arbasto " of the same faults in narrative method, was no accident. The simple fact is that Greene took his framework bodily from the Greek romance. In both, the narrator is tempest-tossed ; arrives at Sidon; makes a thank-offering; makes it to the . I " citizens " \ .. . , goddess whom the ("g-j \ call Astarte; then goes about looking at the sights ; sees a pic- , f" Fortune"! ture exhibiting the power of < r ,, f ; sees, close by, a man moved by the sight of that pic- ture; asks the man to tell his story; meets with some reluctance on the part of the stranger; but at length hears the story, which is a story of tt j v f " Fortune " } sufferings occasioned by < (f r " [ Following are the passages arranged parallel: "ARBASTO" (III). 178 ff. "CLITOPHON AND LEU- ( Opening of story.) CIPPE," I. i, ii. (Opening of story.) li I - 1 1/~ \ -T O J / Saylmg towards Can- die,** after that I had long 2i8o>v firl 6a.Xa.rrri TroXi? time been tossed with in- 'EvravOa TJKWV IK iro\- fortunate tempests, forced Xov xeiju,oi>vos, 84 The phrase " sayling towards Candie," is Greene's trans- lation of a part of Achilles Tatius's Zicfipt r)v [viz. of the Rape of Europa. When I exclaimed upon the power of love,] K05 KCU avros ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 395 him for his story, and 'Eyio TO.VT av eSeucvw, though he rebuffed me, I Ifa, roo-avVas v/3ps e persisted.] p. 183: If the eptoros -rraOwv. Kai ri praier of a poore stranger ire-n-ovOas, C'TTOV, uyaOe; might preuaile to per- He hesitated ; but soon swade you to vnfold the told me what he had cause of these your sud- suffered at the hands of den passions, I shoulde Love, thinke my former trauels counteruaile[d] with this your friendly curtesie." Finally, he did tell me what he had suffered at Fortune's hands. "Arbasto" was published in 1584; and so, probably, were " Carde of Fancie " and Part I of "Morando." "The card of phantasie" ap- pears in the Stationers' Register on April n, 1584. Of "Morando" Grosart mentions (Greene, Works, III. 44) a "Part 1st, of 1584, in the Bodleian"; and Storojenko (ibid. I. 75) argues against any later date for the first edition, as the Earl of Arundel, to whom it is dedicated, " was committed to the Tower for high treason in the following year." Both books were cer- tainly printed in 1587; but if they first appeared in 1584, that year saw the publication of all of Greene's work containing direct transcription from Achilles Tatius. In " Carde of Fancie " one of the heroines is Lewcippa; her father, the Duke of Metelyne, is Clerophontes. 35 Her brother makes his way to 88 If Greene used an Italian version of Achilles Tatius, the name Clerophontes may have come, with the change of one letter, from Clitofonte or Cletofonte. " Thersandro " points to an Italian form. 39 6 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN Alexandria, enters the service of the Duke there, and becomes the friend of the Duke's son Ther- sandro, who afterwards marries Lewcippa. The daughter of the Duke of Alexandria is placed in charge of a widow named Melytta. In " Mo- rando " Greene uses the names " Panthia," " La- cena," and " Sostrata." In " Carde of Fancie " Greene puts into the mouth of Valericus, as a soliloquy, the invective of Clinias against women. "CARDE OF FANCIE" (IV), 37, 39-40 ..." Call to minde what miseries, what mischiefes, what mishappes, what what woes, what wailings, murthers, what care, what calamities haue happened to such as haue beene be- sotted with the balefull beautie of women. . . . What careless inconstan- cie ruled Eriphilaf What currish crueltie reigned in Philomela f How incestu- ous a life led A euro pa f And how miserable was that man that married Sthuolea? What gaines got Tereus in winning Progne, but a loathsome death for a little delight? Agamemnon in possessing the beautie of Crecida, "CLITOPHON AND LEU- CIPPE," I. viii lyyvoeis av TO. rSiv yv- vaixwv 8pdfJiaTa ' vvv Se KO.V aAAois Ae'yots, ocrwv eveVXT/crav fivOutv ywatxcs rrjv crKTfjvrjv. 'O op/xo? 8ia/?oA>/, K\oirr), HpoKvvjs 17 Av TO Xpvo-TyfSos Ayajjiffjivaiv iroQfj, XOI/MOV TOIS EAA^crt Troiet- av TO ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 397 caused the Grecian armie most grieuouslie to be plagued. Candaules was slaine by his murthering wife whom so intirely he loued. Who was thought more happie than the hus- bande of Helena, and yet who in time lesse fortu- nate ? What hapless chances insued cf the chas- titie of Penelope? What broiles in Rome by the vertue of Lucreciaf The one caused her sutors, most horrible, to be slaine, and the other that Tar- quine and all his posteritie were rooted out of their regall dignities. Phaedra in louing killed her hap- less sonne Hippolitus, and Clitemnestra in hating slewe her loving husband Agamemnon. Alasse Va- lericus, how daungerous is it then to deale with such dames, which if theyloue, they procure thy fatall care: and if they hate thee, thy finall calamitie? Bprr;t8os KoAAos ' Aevs, irevBos avruJ fvu eav fxy 7 wawca Kav- yvvrf. To p.ev yap 'EAci/rys TCOV yafjuav irvp avfj^if. Kara TTJS Tpotas aAAo Trvp 6 Sf. II^veAo- Trr^s ya/xos T^S 7TOCTOVS 'ATTOCTCIVCV ' AVTOV 6(3ov 66a\p.ovs tTTt TOV /Jovv w/jcyov. E7T/?aivov OK/TO; 7-775 0aAaTTTis, oo-ov v-jrepd- vcu /jLLKpov rS>v Tapo~S)v \nrep- e\uv TO Kvpa. ewKto-av Be (3ov\eo-$ai p.ev ws CTTI TOV ravpov Spa/jteiv, o(3(Zv- Oai 8e rfj OcL\a.TTr] Tr/ooo-eA.- 6uv . Tavpos ev /Metry rfj $a\a.TTrj fyeypairTO TOtS KVfJLCHTlV CTTO^OV/XCVOS 'H wapOevos /xeVois jTO TOIS VWTOIS TOU Ty Aaia TQV Kf.pu><> YI ^Xatva Trop- SlCTC- vpa Al TttVTO, 17 fJifV 7Tl K/3aS, 17 S' CTT' ovpdv . Tiepl Be TOV ftovv wo^ovvro 8f\- TOV /3ovv- TraiStov f/irXtaKU TO 7TTC/3OV, apfTpav, eKpa/rci TO in>p' eirecrrpaiTTO 8' is eirl TOV ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 401 Ai'u KUI VTrc/xetSta, Sxnrep avrov KarayeAwv. on Si* UVTOV ylyove /8ovs. ii. 'Eyw 8e /cat raAAa /U,V wards lupiter seemed to smile at his follie, and to despise his deitie, that by this means he had made such a strange Metamor- phosis. Signior Peratio hauing long gazed on this gor- geous picture, both praised his perfect skill that had so cunningly made a coun- terfeit of Nature by arte, and also mused at the force of Loue that had by conquest caught so wor- thie a Captiue, that at length as* one forced by affection he sighing said: O Gods that a childe should rule both the heauen, the sea and the land. Don Silvestro see- ing Peratio so sodainlie passionate with the view of a simple picture, taking occasion herupon to enter into further parle began to crosse him on this maner . The foregoing passage is notable, as being the only i=K(f>pa(n<; in Greene. Later in the same novel, "Morando" (III), 133-4, there is, to be sure, a formal description of Fortune, which pro- fesses to reproduce a painting of her " in the 27 are 8' v/-> Si 'S "1 3 T3 *> vO "1 vO vOvCvOvOvO ^3jvO g^Su vOvO vO NNNNN rt-COl ^ O J* N M oo * -g ,i ^^5 X A j OO(7\O\ONO r ^"S *" *^ "- 1 vo'vb" t^ ^ O vo a ^ u T3 o g & 18 e 2 > f, 's ^ > s- _ >- :a >. : => := 5 :=!> : : = i ii i >- 1 1> i \\j i i Vi bfl ' ro O 1) J.T 1) ^ w T3 .5 -a : : : 3 15 "o "^ >^ - S "5 : : : " 5 *1 *" le - tf> 3 'E o I?" SQ-U s = f-^. >-,3i> ^x5{ .s aiitfiEig ' n bC 1/ ' i jt) o U o >-c u 5 -Jo l^f^ -e -^B"" s^s. !. Mc^-n js .-s'HcCrt x- ^fco>-ic - -"j: a a a ^ - "2 3 1 ^ 2 SoS! | i ^j- fc 15 u * "2 132 2 '2'2a5 (j;ui-.'iS | u^ ',2 ucxSSeJ3 < esMtnu u - ~~ 5 x o. c. ;: a, a u ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 449 - oo vO vO O NMM ** OOO OOOO H * * * * wtn iiro * CT> M N O M (f) M *"* J< " a 1 ^ 30 45 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN _j #? S s||lf s H 7 ^o *- S .^ '." to S Ov \o * 8 * .Si.'en S "o " vo"_2 ' J' ^ en h . -a 3 > ** iT 2 a hH E* >' A . o ^ 6 S a s " o ^J " ft S S o" O ON ON ON ro ^4" t>.vO NO NO ON ON t^ I"" 1 " rt rt ."> J (ft N N N N N N IM O o * .. 1 Q B5 ** ^ 3 O\ N "> ^ C *T-i r^ O Q 0, * s* *> K "Si S r?"o. "^ a o"J S. rt Ji -cT b rt tfl X "O -g rt ^ * 3 3 4) 41 T3 o ^722 2 ^^ * T3 G, J O. C >> 2 o >H 41 41 rt 2" u c O S 43 g 3 o 1* r* O *"^ * J " 3 b .3 tn ..1 5 6 * 1 vo tt> ; O . o iS-Sl**** 1 i a si- N 1 O 1 ro I oe 1 Si C ^ ^~ *O c Q ro ^*- S j^ x S a. M M >^M 5,5 *X3 0. bA tt EL *S w c c 3 i a -a 3 .2 1 I !>:- x - H * * * 'S 'S ! S *'*d d > > s .. C "S J3 * ^41 js * v a .Ji'S S> -7! O " [? S u. o - 13 2 h ' > *- c ^ "^ zi en O rt C c 41 , 1- O. O 3 C ' s 5 il-S ,;2 41 <-> O 'p ; S- S * * . ^ ^5 "^."" S '* o 5 SJ g .J: l^ 1 !!?! rt ^-. to ^ M u i c^ u c a 2 a i M"S 1 5 ^ ^ |1^'il ^^l-s:-; 5 "l|s|2 .2 Mg,^*-2.c rt l *.^-g l w^2*' U e '^ .S j. 13 'C rt -o .S -ti ? a || |f|||||^|1| 5 S *,- M- * U;43 M ej O 4, ^ |I lilllll^iis .all ! * J^ 1 1 "i 1 s | '? '^ 1 .s 1 -c 5 uos HK n 5 s illlll ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 451 Between the shepherd's resolve and his dis- closure (see last two entries in the Table), Dorastus and Fawnia elope on shipboard, and are at first favored by Fortune with fair winds, but are soon overtaken by a storm and driven to Bohemia, a country at that time hostile to them (302). The shipwreck of eloping lovers upon a hostile shore is of course an inevitable incident of Greek Romance, and occurs both to Clitophon and Leucippe (III. i-iv) and to Theagenes and Chariclea (V. xxvii-xxviii). Next, before Fawnia is identified by means of the shepherd's disclosure of the circumstances under which he found her, Pandosto, not knowing who she is, woos her brutally, with threats and insults like those of Thersander to Leucippe (A. T., VI. xx). And now appears a motif from Heliodorus again : King Pandosto not knowing his daughter Fawnia, who after her exposure has been re- stored to him, orders her to be put to death (314- 315). The incident comes from the "^Ethio- pica " : King Hydaspes, not knowing his daughter Chariclea, who after her exposure has been re- stored to him, orders her to be put to death (X. vii ff.). In each story this incident occupies the same position and performs the same struc- tural function: it gives a "moment of last sus- pense " before the final disclosure, recognition, and happy ending (ante, pp. 426 ff). Much of the foregoing material, taken by Greene from the Greek Romances, and embodied in " Pandosto," Shakespeare in turn takes over into "The Winter's Tale." He discards the 45 2 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN borrowings from Achilles Tatius the brutal wooing for he is not going to let Leontes woo Perdita. But he utilizes some of Greene's bor- rowings from Heliodorus and most of those from Longus. The exposure with tokens, the express commitment to Fortune, ("W. T.," II. iii, 179 if), and the trial scene, with its oracle and peripeteia, are in Shakespeare as in Greene. How largely the pastoral details borrowed by "Pandosto" from "Daphnis and Chloe" figure again in " The Winter's Tale " appears from the Table already referred to. Shakespeare may, indeed, have taken most of these details directly from " Daphnis and Chloe " quite as well as from " Pandosto." The Table shows that all but two ( ) are in Day as well as in Greene. Moreover, there is in "The Winter's Tale " one detail hitherto unmentioned, which Shakespeare might have found in Day, but could not have found in Greene at all. These facts point to the probability that Day's " Daphnis and Chloe " is not only a secondary but a primary source of " The Winter's Tale." The detail just mentioned is that of the hunt (W. T., III. iii) ; and it is important because it is more than an ornament, like Chloe's and Fawnia's garland, and Perdita's flowers ; it is structural to the play an essential of its dramatic economy. If one may be permitted to reason such a matter out a priori, the hunt appears to be necessitated in some such way as this: Shakespeare seems to have desired to employ, in " The Winter's Tale," normal causation and human motive wherever ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 453 possible, instead of chance. This desire would render him dissatisfied with Greene's easy fashion of letting mere Fortune cast the child on the coast of the very country where reigns the un- justly suspected friend of her father, the country where that friend's son will afterward fall in love with this very child grown to girlhood. Shakespeare perhaps realized that while a ro- mancer might properly ask such a favor of For- tune notoriously the guide and mistress of Ro- mance, yet a dramatist was bound more closely to probability. For the purpose, then, of getting the child exposed in Bohemia and nowhere else, he invented Antigonus. Leontes commissions Antigonus to expose it somewhere, and Anti- gonus's own belief in Hermione's guilt together with the request of Hermione's phantom in a dream supposed to be sent by Apollo leads him to expose it in Bohemia, the country of the child's supposed father: Ant. " I do believe Hermione hath suffered death, and that Apollo would, this being indeed the issue Of King Polixenes, it should here be laid, Either for life or death, upon the earth Of its right father." (W. T., III. iii, 41 ff.) Once invented, however, Antigonus must be killed as soon as he has performed his task of exposing Perdita; and this both for the sake of poetic justice, because he is willing to carry out his King's cruel behest, and for the sake of put- 454 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ting him completely out of the way, that Leontes may not learn from him of Perdita's fate. Something is needed to kill Antigonus. Together with this need arises the need for some plausible means of inducing a shepherd, who would not ordinarily walk along the beach, to go thither and find the exposed child. In " Daphnis and Chloe " the children are found inland, in a thicket and a cave respectively ; there is no question of the seaside or of any reason why the herdsman should walk there; and, furthermore, the straying of the she-goat and the ewe, which leads the herdsman to the child, is motived by the desire to give it suck. Greene had eliminated this motive, but at the same time had given himself a new problem in having the child cast ashore, and thus requiring that the shepherd be led thither. This problem he slurred over, simply letting the sheep stray for no par- ticular reason and letting the shepherd hear the child cry. With such careless motivation and de- pendence upon chance Shakespeare was appar- ently as dissatisfied as he was with the fortuitous casting of the child upon just the shore where it would later be required. Both problems he finds solved at once in an- other passage of "Daphnis and Chloe," a passage which gives him both the means to punish Antigonus and the means to drive the sheep to the seaside. This is the incident ("D. and C.," II. xiii) of the young Methymnaeans' hunting, the noise of which frightens the sheep and goats from their upland pastures down to the shore. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 455 What more consonant with dramatic economy than that Shakespeare should have borrowed this hunt, and have used it both to send the bear that devours Antigonus, and at the same time to frighten the sheep away from the hills so that the shepherd must seek them along the shore and there find the child ? This, at any rate, is the use Shakespeare has made of the hunt. Now, the motif of the hunt is not in Greene. There is no reason to suppose that Shakespeare invented it, when it lay ready to his hand in Day's version of " Daphnis and Chloe" (64-65). Shakespeare has thus substituted natural causa- tion and human agency in the place of Fortune, to bring about first Perdita's exposure in Bo- hemia, and next the finding of her by the shep- herd. In the same way he rejects the storm, which, in "Pandosto" (302), by chance again, sent Dorastus and Fawnia to the land of her hostile father; and substitutes for it Camillo's deliberate advice and Florizel's avowed decision to visit Leontes in Sicillia ("W. T.," IV. iv, 546 ft). At no less than three points, then, all of them structural, the TV^TJ of Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, the overworked Fortune of Greene, gives place, in Shakespeare, to motive and probable cause. The familiar material of Greek Romance, selected haphazard by the writer of English fiction, has undergone at the hands of the dramatist a second process of sifting, this time with full artistic intent. Considered at large, the influence of the Greek Romances upon Greene exhibits a definite chron- THE GREEK ROMANCES IN ological movement. It begins with mere tran- scripts from Achilles Tatius in "Arbasto" (1584), "Morando" (1587; ? 1584) and "Carde of Fancie" (1587; ? 1584) a stage of imma- turity and superficiality, which, in the main, bor- rows non-structural ornament. " Philomela," which seems to fall in immediately after this group, shows Greene taking less from Achilles Tatius (only the trial at the end), and more from Heliodorus, chiefly by way of incident, not yet by way of structure. The influence of the Greek Romances reaches its height in " Pan- dosto" (1588), which takes a little from Achilles Tatius, but now gets structure as well as matter from the solid Heliodorus, together with incident and ornament from the decorative Longus. The influence degenerates at once in " Menaphon " (1589), which, though structurally based upon Heliodorus, is a tissue of absurdities apparently one of those pamphlets that Greene " yarkt up in a night and a day"; a "pot-boiler" in imitation of the "Arcadia" and of his own successful " Pandosto," many of whose motifs it repeats in thin disguise. Almost ceasing in the realistic pamphlets of Greene's last years, the influence of Greek Romance flickers up for a moment in his half-realistic, half -autobiographical " Groats- worth" (1592) appropriately enough in the form of a suggestion from Achilles Tatius (ante, p. 406), who is thus, as has been said, Greene's first and latest love among the Greek Romancers. If it be asked what was the effect of the Greek Romances upon Greene as a literary artist, the ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 457 answer must in general be negative. Despite his appropriation, for the nonce, of their material and their structure, Greene never assimilated these, as he assimilated Euphuism and as he assimilated the Italian novella, so as to be able to originate them. Unlike Sidney, he never learned to invent Romances of his own, as he did learn to invent novelle of his own. The nearest he can come to Greek Romance is in some of its faults its tychomania, its general dearth of character, its distorted " psychology," its labored antitheses. When he attempts the sustained elaborate oracle- guided plot of Heliodorus, he fails even with the "Arcadia" before him as model. When he at- tempts the Heliodorean setting, he fails again. The best he can do with Longus is to take over his motifs directly; the best he can do with Achilles Tatius is to transcribe almost verbatim his adventitious ornament. To the English novel, therefore, the Greek Romances make only an inconsiderable contribu- tion through Greene. It would be interesting, though idle, to speculate what might have been the result had Greene been ready to learn from Greek Romance what Lyly learned at second or third hand, the lesson of articulation of material, a lesson spread upon every page of Boccaccio ; or had he, like Sidney, been capable of acquiring at first hand the full practice of Heliodorus's technique. One might as well wonder what would have been the result had Greene possessed a strong sense of causal nexus, of motive, of character, and of setting. In the first case, he 45$ THE GREEK ROMANCES IN would have produced, like Sidney, Greek Ro- mance in English; in the second he would have produced an English novel. Needless to say, he did neither. The best of Greene, and the best of what Greene found in Greek Romance, is in "The Winter's Tale." CHAPTER IV THOMAS NASH AND THOMAS LODGE Nash makes no use whatever of the Greek Romances. Lodge alludes twice to the "^Ethiopica." At the beginning of " Forbonius and Prisceria " (published with "An Alarum against Usurers," 1584) he places the scene "In Memphis (the chiefest citie of Aegypt) ... at such time as Sisimithres was head Priest of the same, & Hidaspes gouernour of the Prouince " ; and he makes his heroine the daughter of " Valduuia, daughter and heire of Theagines of Greece, the copartener of sorrowe with Carlcleala, the straunge borne childe of the Aegyptian King" (Hunterian Club ed., I, 53, 54 modern paging). So that Prisceria is a granddaughter of Helio- dorus's hero and heroine. Her pedigree argues the popularity of the "^Ethiopica " ; Lodge would have no motive for professing to continue a story that was not widely and favorably known. Lodge's own story, however, shows no other trace of Heliodorus. In the "History of Robert, Second Duke of Normandy" 1591 (Hunterian Club ed., II, 52), the Soldan of Babylon, in love with Emine, daughter of the Emperor of Rome, asks his peers not to disapprove the match: "Princes woonder not, Theagines a Greeke, 459 460 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN loued Cariclia a Moore, & your Souldan a Ma- hometist, his Emine a Christian." The remainder of this tale, like " Forbonius and Prisceria," shows not the slightest indebted- ness to Heliodorus. Nor does Lodge in general exhibit the influ- ence of Greek Romance. An incident or two, an antithesis, a habit of using the pastoral to bring about the happy ending of an urban story, these, which might be attributable to the "yEthio- pica" or to "Daphnis and Chloe" if their evi- dence were corroborated, fall short of probative force, and are not worth citation. Lodge's prose fiction on the whole is mediaeval, Euphuistic, and Italianate rather than Hellenistic. CONCLUSION The influence of Greek Romance is variously felt by the chief writers of Elizabethan prose fiction. Lyly feels it as a tradition of certain conventions of form adapted to the treatment of the theme of Two Friends; and it thus econo- mizes his effort in developing and articulating the plot of " Euphues." Lodge scarcely feels it ; Nash feels it not at all. Greene gets from it a quantity of ornament and tinsel, and an abortive impulse towards structure. Only in Sidney does Greek Romance find a talent both receptive and constructive. Sidney alone moves freely among the materials and the structures offered him by Heliodorus and Achilles Tatius, selecting, com- bining, separating, adding matter of his own or from other sources; working, when he will, in the spirit of his original, without borrowing a specific thing; working, when he will, in a spirit of his own that transforms even specific borrow- ings. He alone exhibits the untrammelled stride of the literary artist who, having closed the books that constitute his " sources," has their contents in his mind, remembered abundantly, but not re- membered so exactly as to be inflexible. Above all, he alone among the Elizabethans has devel- oped further on his own account, and has actually brought nearer perfection, the complex architec- tonics of Greek Romance. 461 46z THE GREEK ROMANCES IN And it was in this direction that English fiction was tending. The novella had had a magnificent, a double " fortune " in England. It had inspired similar English novelle, so easily turned, for ex- ample, by Greene; and then it had found upon the Elizabethan stage the form most completely expressive of that single dramatic situation wherein the essence of the novella consists. But now, in the Seventeenth Century, its vogue was passing away. The drama was declining; and fiction was turning to the more elaborate, expan- sive, and structural form of the romance, from which it was acquiring the longue haleine that is the condition precedent to the novel. As Rohde has suggested, the relation of the novella to the romance of the Seventeenth Century and, we may add, to the modern novel is much the same as the relation of the Milesian Tales to the "^thiopica." In neither case does the greater form build itself up out of the lesser: the differ- ence is a difference in kind. It is probable that during the Seventeenth Cen- tury the chief influence of Greek Romance form upon English fiction came rather through the French romances than through any Elizabethan work. Yet to assert that, as far as later English fiction is concerned, Elizabethan fiction is a closed system, with its only issue opening into the drama, would be a hard saying indeed. Sidney's "Ar- cadia," long surviving the vogue of " Euphues " and of Greene's tales, remained popular through- out the Seventeenth Century, and alive well into the Eighteenth. Categorically to deny to it a ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 463 share in building up the novel that was to come would be extremely rash. It seems safer to say that when at length character and personality entered English fiction, the frame had been pre- pared for them, at least in part, by the labors of Sidney. Certain it is that Richardson, 1 certain it is that Scott, 2 knew the "Arcadia," and used it; more, that they used somewhat in the " Arcadia " which the "Arcadia" got from Greek Romance. In general, then, it appears not only that the Greek Romances contributed variously to Eliza- bethan fiction itself, but also that, mediately, by way of Elizabethan fiction, they made two dis- tinct further contributions to English literature. The one contribution, which is quite beyond doubt, is a contribution to the drama: it can be definitely identified at its highest in " King Lear " and in " The Winter's Tale." The other contri- bution the contribution to the development of the novel will remain somewhat problematic 1 Richardson's indebtedness to Sidney does not seem to have been thoroughly investigated. All that has been noticed is, I believe, the borrowed name " Pamela " (Gassmeyer, p. u ; Poetzsche, p. 41). A quite desultory examination turns up two interesting parallels, of which the second is very significant. (i) Clarissa's threat of suicide to save her honor (" Clarissa," IV, p. 160) may be an imitation of Philoclea's similar threat in a similar situa- tion viz. captivity in the house of a lover (" Arcadia," III. xxiv). (2) Miss Byron's abduction by Sir Hargrave Pollexfen ("Grandison," v. I, Letter xxii ff.) another ab- duction meant to force a lady to yield to a lover, is apparently a reminiscence of the similar abduction of the Arcadian princesses (" Arcadia," III) ; it takes place at a masquerade, to which Miss Byron goes as " an Arcadian princess." 1 Wolff, " Scott's Ivanhoe and Sidney's Arcadia." Kerlin, " Scott's Ivanhoe and Sidney's Arcadia." 464 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN until the exact nature of the influence of Eliza- bethan fiction upon the Eighteenth Century is cleared up. Meanwhile it seems not too much to suggest, tentatively, as a proposition not yet fully established but not lightly to be denied, that the Greek Romances, partly through French Ro- mance of the Seventeenth Century, partly through a single Elizabethan Romance the "Arcadia," helped to give to the English novel that gift which Greek literature has so often conferred, the gift of sustained and complex form. Just as the "Arcadia," the only work of Elizabethan fiction possessing such form, was also the only work of Elizabethan fiction to exert a lasting influence, so whatever of the Greek Romances may survive in the modern novel is not their illu- sion, but that architectonic power in them which despite themselves makes against illusion and toward law. APPENDIX A TEXTUAL NOTES ON THE RELATION BETWEEN DAY'S AND AMYOT'S VERSIONS OF " DAPHNIS AND CHLOE " (Arabic numbers at left refer to pages in Da.) PROOEMIUM Da omits the Prooemium. BOOK I 13. Inserts stanza of prayer to the winged god. 19-25. Inserts in the hiatus (not filled authen- tically until 1809 by P. L. Courier) an inter- polation apparently his own. It begins p. 19: " The louely shepehard thus raized up from so depe a dongeon," and ends, p. 25, "... hee brake into these farther complaints." In- formation given by the preserved text after the lacuna enabled Day to supply several points in the lacuna itself, viz. that Dorco was the name of the cowherd who had helped to rescue Daphnis from the pit ; that Dorco was in love with Chloe ; that Dorco had given Daphnis 1 a calf; that love 1 The authentic passage found by Courier makes the calf a gift to Chloe (" D. & C," I. xv, D 136, line 21 sqq.). Daphnis's soliloquy, without the light shed on it by the fragment, leaves the recipient unindicated (" D. & C.," I. xviii, D 137, line 25-6). Amyot, in doubt, made Daphnis the recipient : " J'ay souvent baise . . . le petit veau que Dorcon w'a donne " (A 23). Day followed him : " Often have I kissed . . . that fine speckled calf that Dorcon did give me" (Da 25); and accordingly made his reconstruc- 31 465 466 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN had arisen between Daphnis and Chloe ; and that Chloe had given Daphnis a kiss. But the re- mainder Day must have cut out of the whole cloth : the sentiments of Daphnis ; the gifts, other than the calf, brought by Dorco to Daphnis and Chloe ; 2 and Dorco's efforts to make himself agreeable by becoming neater in person and at- tire. For this last a hint may have come to Day from Amyot's version of the end of Daphnis's soliloquy: "Dorcon a la fin deviendra plus beau que moy" (23). 33-34. Expands the account of D. and C.'s emotions upon their meeting after the night of sleep induced by fatigue; and adds much of his own thereto. (I. xxii-xxiii ; A 28 ; B 278.) 35-6. Expands comparison of Chloe to a nymph. (I. xxiv; A 29; B 279.) Omits D. & C.'s sport- ive pelting of each other with apples. (I. xxiv; A 30; B 279.) 36-7,37-8. Inserts two songs sung by Daphnis. Omits Daphnis's kissing the stops of the flute touched by Chloe's lips. (I. xxiv; A 301; B 279.) 47. Inserts at the end of his First Book, a prose paragraph beginning " And thus continuing in these variable fits liued pore Daphnis"; and an amoeboeic duo in verse between D. and C. BOOK II 49-52. Expands the vintage-scene, especially the women's commendation of Daphnis's beauty, tion of the missing portion consistent : " To Daphnis be- sides gave hee (sc. Dorcon) a yoong fatte calfe from the damme " (Da 23). 3 By a happy chance, he hit upon cheeses and flowers. ELIZABETHAN PROSE FICTION 467 and the incident of the kiss bestowed on him by one of them. (II. i-ii; A 41-3; B 285.) 61-62. Greatly abridges the musings of D. & C. upon the remedies for love as suggested by Philetas, their dreams thereon, and their attempts to find these remedies. (II. viii-xi, incl. ; A 49- 53 ; B 290-1 ; from the end of Philetas's speech to the beginning of the episode of the Methym- naeans.) Omits the accident that somewhat for- wards these attempts. (II. x-xi; A 52-3; B 291.) 62. Inserts a set of verses a love-plaint to be carved by Daphnis upon the bark of trees. 66. Abridges the pleas of the Methymaeans and of Daphnis. (II. xv-xvi; A 57-8; B 293-4.) 69-70. Inserts set of verses the complaint of Daphnis to the Nymphs. 72. Expands and pads out the speech of the nymph in Daphnis's vision. (II. xxiii; A 65 ; B 297.) Omits the nymph's attribution of the care of D. & C. to Love; and inserts statements at- tributing it to the Nymphs. 82. Inserts a "rufull complaint" in verse, "chaunted forth by Daphnis." BOOK III 98-100. Omits Daphnis's drinking from the same cup as Chloe. (Ill, viii; A 89; B 310.) Shortens Daphnis's winter visit by omitting all account of the second day thereof. (Ill, x-xi; A 90-91 ; B 311.) (This second day he makes the shepherds' holiday.) 100-123. Omits from his Third Book every- 468 THE GREEK ROMANCES IN thing in A from the end of Daphnis's winter visit to the end of the Book (onward from III. xii; D 158; A 91 ; B 310) nearly three quarters of the original Book. The omitted portion includes (a) the coming of spring; (&) the lesson in love; (c) the sailors' song; (d) the myth of Echo; (?) Daphnis's dream of the treasure, his finding of it, and his suit for Chloe with it; (/) the idyl of the apple. Inserts in place of these " The Shepherds' Holiday " a barren and frigid inven- tion of his own in praise of Queen Elizabeth ; and so fills out and concludes his Third Book. BOOK IV 124-135. Transposes to the opening of his Fourth Book most of the matter omitted from his Third viz. (a), (c), (d), (*), (/). 124-5. Abridges (a). (III. xii-xiv; A 91- 95; B 311-313.) Omits (&). (III. xv-xx; xxiv; A 95-100; 103-4; B 313-16; 318.) 125. Abridges (c). (III. xxi; A 100-102; B 316-17.) 125-7. Gives (eAcia, 232 n. 86 Apollonius of Tyre, to n. i a Apollonius Rhodiug, 3 Aristotle, i, 5 n. 4, 7, 143, 144, 1 88 Ars Amatoria, 136 Articulation of Plot, in Lyly's Euphues, same as in Tito and Gisippo and Athis et Pro- philias, and (probably) as in lost Greek Romance, 248- 251. 255-256, 258-261, 458, 461 Assonance, 231-233, 378-379 Athis et Prophilias, 248, 250- 253, 255-256, 258-261 Atkins, J. W. H., 442 n. 60 Background, see Setting Balance, Syntactical, 222, 229- 232, 377-379, 380-381 Balzac, Honore de, 157 Banished Nobleman heads Out- laws, 3x0 Banquet and Battle, see An- tithesis Batrachomyomachia, 172 Beaumont and Fletcher, 344 Belleforest, 246 Bestiaries, 208, 209 n. 75 5o8 INDEX Bigot, Charles, 171 n. 41 Boccaccio, in contact with Greek fiction, 248, 370-375. De Casibus Virorum Illus- trium, 386 n. 30 Tito and Gisippo (Dec. X. 8), a source of Lyly's - phues, 248-250, 255; derived from Athis et Prophilias, 248, 250-251, 255, 258-261 (Table), or directly from lost Greek Romance, 248, 250, 252-253, 256; may have sug- gested portions of Sidney's Arcadia, 364 n. 37 All the novelle that Greene takes from, probably from lost Greek Romances, 370-375 : Perimedes, first tale, from Decam. II. 6, 370-372, 410; Perimedes, second tale, from Decam. V. 2, 372-373; Tul- lies Love, episode of Fabius and Terentia, from Decam. V. i, 373-374 Employs natural causation in Decam. II. 6 to bring about peripeteia, 388 And see Animal Mother; Articulation of Plot; Fortune; Hunt; Straying Animal Boileau, 127 n. 9 Boissier, Gaston, 170 n. 40 Boissonade, edd. prince, of Constantinus Manasses and Nicetas Eugenianus, 10 Bouhours, Dominique, 218 n. 79, 220 n. 80, 224 n. 82 Bridal and Burial, see An- tithesis Brooke, Lord, 344 Brunei, J. C, 237 n. 3 Brunhuber, K., 308, 309 n. 2, 310, 311 n. 3, 313 n. 4, 314 n. 5, 316 n. 6, 318 n. 7, 328 n- 13. 330 n. 14, 334 n. 17, 344 nn. 24, 25, & 26, 413 Burton, William, translation of Achilles Tatius, 9, 246 347, 477-482 Callimachus, 3 Callistratus, 170 Cambridge History of English Literature, 343 n. 22, 442 n. 66 Cantimpre, Thomas de, 258- 261 Caro, Annibal, 240 Causation, 4, in. Longus discards Fortune in favor of, 124-126. In Greene, wronged by false attribu- tions to Fortune, 381 and n. 23; discarded in favor of Fortune, 388-389; weak sense of, 458. In Boccaccio, 388. Shakespeare discards For- tune in favor of, 453-456 Cavalier o Cifar, El, 258-261 Character, in Greek Romances, degenerates into sentimental- ity, 6; causation and, not the only motive forces of plot, in; less prominent than Plot, 137; 138-157: created despite romancer's want of interest, 138; timorous or de- ceitful, because always yield- ing to circumstances (For- tune) or squirming out of them, 138-140; distorted by love of paradox, 141; menda- cious, 141-143; displaced by rhetorical display of senti- mentality, 143-146; Clitophon, 146-149; from Comedy, Sa- tyrus, Clio, Sosthenes, Ther- sander, 149-150; Theagenes, 150-151; Chariclea, 151-152; Leucippe, 152-153; Melitta, 154-157: Greeks generally moderate, barbarians passion- ate, 153 n. 30; characteriza- tion at its best in Melitta, i57' suggested by descriptive Pathos, 179; in general, to- gether with Plot and Setting, tends to degenerate into mere spectacle, 191; general dearth of, 457 In Achilles Tatius, dis- torted by control of Fortune, 117-118; disconnected from INDEX 509 consequences of its moral choices, 138; mendacious, 142; displaced by rhetorical display of sentimentality, 143- 146; Clitophon, 146-149; from Comedy, Satyrus, Clio, Sos- thenes, Thersander, 149-150; Leucippe, 152-133; Melitta, 154-157; irrelevancies of characterization, 206 In Heliodorus, timorous or deceitful, 139-140; sometimes falsely motived, 140-141 ; sometimes displaced by pa- thos, 144; Theagenes, 150- 151; Chariclea, 151-152 In Longus, cowardly, 139; mendacious, 141 ; sometimes displaced by rhetorical dis- play of sentimentality, 144 In novella, not profound, 370 In Lyly's Euphues, set forth as in Tito and Gisippo and Athis et Prophilias, and (probably) as in lost Greek Romance, 249, 251, 258-261 In Sidney, (q. v.), 314, 328-330 In Greene, often shallow and unmotived, 370, 429- 432; rendered inconsistent by subjection to Fortune, 381; set forth by means of antithesis, 376-377; drawing of, not within Greene's powers, 407; weak sense of, 458; dearth of, as in Greek Romance, 457 Love transforms, 132, 373- 374, 438 n. 65 In English novel, finds structural frame prepared, in part, by Sidney's Arcadia, 463 Charadrius, 208-209 Chariton of Aphrodisias, Chae- reas and Callirrhoe, 8, 163 n. 35 Chastity, Fortune and, 120 n. 5; dignifies sensual love, 127. In Achilles Tatius, superficial, 117, 128-130. In Heliodorus, genuine, 127-128. In Lon- gus, aim not to preserve but to lose, 130. In Greene, a phase of philogyny, 411. Preserved till entry into kingdom, end of voyage, or fulfilment of oracle, 127, 309, 424, 432, 445. Vindi- cated by trial or ordeal, 128, 175. 308, 418-423, 426-428, 446 Christ, Wilhelm, 8, 133 n. 16, 198 n. 66 Chrysocephalus. Macarius, compiler of 'Potiiavia, 10 Cicero, 256 n. 3, 386 n. 30 Cocchi, ed. princ. of Xenophon of Ephesus, 8 Coccio, Angelo, translation of Achilles Tatius, 9, 246 Code of Love, 136 Collin, Raphael, 131 n. 14, 168 n. 37 Colonna, Francesco, Hypnero- tomachia Poliphili, 172 n. 45, 334 n. 17 Comedy, " New " Attic and Roman, low characters from, in Achilles Tatius, 149-150. Of the Renaissance, 149. Achilles Tatius's affinity to, 155, 157, 160, 183 n. 55, 200. Realism and, 157-158 Complication, 195, 198-199, 349-350 Comingeois, B., translation of Achilles Tatius, 9, 246 Commelin, Jerome, ed. princ. of Achilles Tatius, 9, 246 Confession of crime not com- mitted, 217, 317, 319-320, 406, 419 Conflicting Emotions, real, 155; device to produce antithesis, 6, 145, 228-229, 256 n. 3, 335, 363, 377. 405 Constantinus Manasses, Arts- tander and Callithea, 10 Coordinate sentence-structure, 232 n. 86 Cosmopolitanism, z, 153 n. 30 INDEX Couat, Auguste, 3 n. 2 Courier. Paul Louis, 30 n. 6, 205 n. 72, 241, 465 n. i Croce, Annibale della, trans- lation of Achilles Tatius, 9, 246 Croiset, A. and M., 8, 124 n. 8 Daniele, Francesco, 240 n. 9 Dante, 135 n. 20 Day, Angel, paraphrase of Daphnis and Chloe, 8. 122 n. 6, 237; critical discussion of, 240-243; 375-376, 433- 434. 447-450 (Table, 448- 450) ; a direct source of Greene's Pandosto, and prob- ably a direct source of Winter's Tale, 452-455; tex- tual notes on relation of, to Amyot's version, 465-469 Debat, 6, 133, 205 n. 72, 369 De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, 386 n. 30 Denouement, brought about by arrival of distant (hieratic) person as deus ex machina, (Heliodorus) 112-113, n6> 141 n. 23, 183, 309; (Greene's Menaphon) 427-428; (Sid- ney) 308, 309, 340; by Eros as deus ex machina, (Longus) 121,122. Paradoxical. (Helio- dorus) 140, 213; (Greene), 419. Theatrical, (Heliodorus) 182-183; (Greene) 417-418. Ensemble-scene, (Helio- dorus) 184, 187; (Sidney) 37. 34o; (Greene) 417-419. Retarded, (Heliodorus) 198. Charge of abduction leads to, (Heliodorus) 213, (Sidney) 309. Ironical, (Heliodorus) 215. Balanced against open- ing scene, (Heliodorus) 213, 216. Father condemns child, (Heliodorus, Sidney) 309, 329-33; (Greene) 392, 426- 427, 441, 445, 451-452. Ar- ranged by Providence, (Heli- odorus) 182-183, (Sidney) | 322-323- Told in chrono- logical order, (Sidney) 352. Oratorical, (Sidney) 355, (Greene) 418. Brought about by Fortune, 387. A vindi- cation of chastity; see Chas- tity. A trial scene; see Trial- scenes. A recognition; see Recognition. A restoration of children; see Restoration. Fulfilment of an oracle; see Oracle Description, in Greek Romances, excess of, 6, 167-168 In Longus, least offensive, 1 68; pictorial treatment of incidents, ibid.; wide range of sensuous imagery, 168- 169; moderation, 169; "rich- ness in simplicity," ibid. In Achilles Tatius, excess of, 169-176: a trick of rhet- oric, 169-170; pictorial, 170- 174; Europa, painting of, r 7 1-173; irrelevancy, 173- 176; his relevant exceptions have broader range of im- agery and form part of nar- rative, 174-175 In Heliodorus, 176-191; spectacular, and relevant, 176-177, 181; "pathetic op- tics," 177-179. 184, 189; " hieratic epiphany," 179- 180, 188-180: theatrical con- ception and terminology, 181- 184, 189; spectacular en- semble-scenes, 184-189, 307, 340, 402, 417-422 In Sidney, 334-342, 366: imitations of Achilles Tatius, 334-335; nothing from Lon- gus, 335; imprest and Em- blems not from Greek Ro- mance, 335-337; imitations of Heliodorus, trionfo, jewel, horsemanship, 337- 338; "pathetic optics," 338- 342, esp. at the trial, a spec- tacular ensemble-scene, 340- 342 INDEX Greene, deficient in talent for, 402-403, 407, 421 Range of sensuous im- agery in, 168-169, 172-176, 184, 242, 244, 403. And see "EK<)> pao-it ; Setting Dickens, Charles, 193, 197 n. 64 Digression, 6, 166. 175, 176 n. 48, 203, 350 n. 32 Dissimulation, 139-143, 311- 312, 329, 412 & n. 43, 444 Dobell, Bertram, 239 n. 6, 344, 345 Dolce, Lodovico, translation of Achilles Tatius, 9, 246 " Dolce stil nuovo," 135 n. 20 Donne, 135 n. 20 D'Orville, ed. princ. of Chari- ton, 8 Drama, Attic, 4. English, in- fluenced by Greek Romance through Elizabethan fiction, 463; see Beaumont and Fletcher, Shakespeare. And see Comedy; Theatrical con- ception; Theatrical terminol- ogy ; Tragedy Dryden, 230 n. 83 Dunlop, John Colin, 135 n. 19, 138 n. 21, 187 n. 56, 237 n. 3 Dubbio, 6, 133, 205, 369 Diirer, Albrecht, .187 n. 31 "EKppacrt?, 177; " pathetic optics," 177-179, 184, 189; "hieratic epiph- any," 179-180, 188-189; the- atrical conception and ter- minology, 181-184, 189; spec- tacular ensemble-scenes, 184- 189; spectacular heroics, 190- 191; lack of spirituality, 190- 191 Narrative structure, 192- 198: epic plan, 192; compli- cation, 195, 198; involution, 193-194, 198; effects of the- atrical conception, 194-1951 197 & n. 65, 198 n. 67; loose threads, 195; obscure time-arrangement, ibid., ir- relevancy, 195-196, 201; dra- INDEX 519 matic retardation, interpola- tion, suspense, 197-198 Pseudo-science, 195, 208- 209. Paradox, 211-213. Irony, 214-215. Antitheses: see Antithesis Style, less artificial than that of Achilles Tatius or Longus, 222 n. 81 Hcptameron, 353 n. 34 Heraclitus, 234 Herford, C. H., 432 n. 56 Herodotus, 7, 415 n. 47 Heroics, Spectacular, 150, 190- 191, 3iS Heroine, Suffering, (Helio- dorus, Greene) 408, 411-412 Hieratic Element, in Helio- dorus, pervades main plot, 111-113; 4 2 8, 445; in Achil- les Tatius, confined to epi- sode, 117; in Greene, 422, 427-428, 445; and see " Hier- atic Epiphany " " Hieratic Epiphany," 179-180, 188-189 Hippocrates, 234 Hippolytus, 413, 416 Historic Background, etc. See Setting " Homeophony," 231-234, 378- 379 Homer, 117; Iliad, 7, 158, 170; Odyssey, 158, 161, 170, 193 Horace, 172 Howard, W. G., 171 n. 41 Howell, Thomas, 343-344 Humor, in Greek Romances, IS4-I5S; 157-162= realism and, 157-158; Heliodorus's, mostly in episodes, weak, largely verbal, 158-159, 162; Achilles Tatius's, realistic, strong, often masterly, in- herent in situation, 160-162; Longus's, pervasive, 162; Sidney's not influenced by Greek Romance, 308, 330- 334 Hunt, drives poats (Longus) ' 2 5. 37 2 . (Boccaccio) 371- 372, 388; motif not in Greene, probably borrowed d i r e c t ly by Shakespeare (Winter's Tale) from Day, 452-455 Huon of Bordeaux, 368, 373 Hyfwerotomachia Poliphili, see Colonna, Francesco lamblichus, Babylonica,oi Rho- danes and Sinonis, 8, 164 n. 36, 205 n. 72, 254, 357 . 36. 373 Idyll, 3, 168 n. 37, 244 Illusion, 191, 408, 464 Imagery, Sensuous, Range of, see Description [mprisonment together of lov- ers or friends, (Heliodorus, Sidney) 311-312, (Helio- dorus, Greene) 426, 445 Interpolation, 197, 198, 202, 350 Inversion, 193-194, 198-199. 351-352 Involution, see Inversion Irony, in oracle, 112; as a species of paradox, 213-217; dramatic, 214; in Heliodorus, 214-215; in Longus, 215; in Achilles Tatius, 216-217; omitted by Day, 245; in Sid- ney, 321; in Greene, 389- 390 Irrelevancy, 6, 166, 168, 173 n. 46, 174, 175. 177. 196 n. 64, 198. In Achilles Tatius, 201- 210: of Plot, 202-206; of Characterization, 206; of Set- ting, 206-207; of Science and Pseudo-Science, 207-210. Ir- relevancy and paradox, two phases of the Unexpected, 210. Significant of a base view of life, 234-235. Al- most absent in Sidney, 350 n. 32 Jacobs, Friedrich, 130 n. 13, 149 n. 28, 157 n. 32, 197 n. 65. 237 n. 3, 241 n. it Jacobs, Joseph, 239 n. 7, 241 nn. 10 & 12 520 INDEX Jahn, Otto, 172 n. 42 Johannes Secundus, 134 Jonson, Ben, 134 n. 18, 240 n. 8 Kerlin, Robert T., 463 n. 2 Kiss, worship of, 134-135 Koeppel, Emil, 344, 370 n. na Koerting, H. K. O., 120 n. 4, 128 n. 10, 237 n. 3 La Fontaine, 130 n. 12 Land and Water, see Antithesis Landau, Marcus, 251 n. 2, 372 Lang, Andrew, 6 n. 5, 170 n. 40 Lapidaries, 208 Lauchert, Friedrich, 209 n. 75 Law, 6, 7, 8, 235, 464 Lee, A. Collingwood, 251 n. 2 Lee, Sidney, 377 n. 15 Lenglet du Fresnoy, Nicolas, 273 " 3 246 nn. 23, 26, 27 Lessing, 176 Living Tomb, see Antithesis Lodge, Thomas, 239, 247, 433; allusions to Heliodorus the only evidence of influence of Greek Romances, 459-460; 461 Longinus, 157-158, 161, 220 Longus, Daphnis and Chloe, 7, 8. Editions and transla- tions, 8, 239-240, 375-376; Amyot's and Day's versions, see Amyot; Day. Analysis, 29-42 Plot controlled by Eros, 121 ; decreed to be a pastoral, ibid.; but from urban point of view, 122; employs appa- ratus of tragedy, ibid.; ridi- cules rusticity, ibid.; urban "enveloping action," 123; pastoral as interlude in urban story, ibid.; control of For- tune minimized by absence of travel and adventure, and by control of Eros, 124; sway of causation resumed, 124-126. Love frankly sensual, 128, 130; tempered by innocence of children and by charm of country-life, 130-131; instruc- tion in, 136; sophisticated treatment of pastoral, 122- 123; of love, 130-131. Inci- dent of the hunt, borrowed by Shakespeare, 125, 453- 455 Character, cowardly, 139; mendacious, 141 ; partly dis- placed by rhetorical display of sentimentality, 144. Hu- mor, pervasive, 162 Setting, in time, undefined, 163 ; geographical, though denned, lacks " local color," ibid.; but relevant and in- trinsically beautiful, 166-167; description, excessive, a fault of Greek Romances, least of- fensive in Longus, 168; his pictorial treatment of inci- dents, ibid.; wide range of sensuous imagery, 168-169, 242, 244; moderation, 169, 199; richness in simplicity, 169, 242; restraint, 176 Narrative structure, simple, 199. Paradox, 211. Irony, 215. Style, artificial, 222 n. 81; artificially simple, 232 n. 86. Theatrical conception and terminology, 183 n. 55. Spec- tacular heroics, 190-191. Lack of spirituality, ibid. Love, in Greek Romances, 127- 137: sensual, but dignified by chastity, 127; genuinely in Heliodorus, 127-129; super- ficially in Achilles Tatius, 129-130; not at all in Longus, 130-131. A genuine attach- ment, emancipating women, yet not noble per se, 131-132. Anticipations of later treat- ment of love, 134-137; the Kiss, 134-135; spirit-theory and image-theory, 135; code, 136. In Heliodorus not a spiritual relation so much as abstention from a sensual INDEX 521 relation, 128. In Longus, love, instead of Fortune, con- trols plot, 121, 435-436; frankly sensual, 128, 130; to be taught to reader, 136. In Achilles Tatius, exceptionally noble in episode of Callis- thenes and Calligone, 132. In Greene, closely associated with Fortune, 436; like For- tune, brings about bizarre situations, 437-438; miscel- laneous similarities to Greek Romance, 438 n. 65. Trans- formation of character by, 132. 373-374, 438 n. 65. Pla- t' lie love-doctrine, parodied, 1J3-I34; traces of, 134 n. 17. Fortune and, 374, 380, 436- 438, 444 Lucian, 170, 172 " Lues Fortunae"; see Fortune Lyly, John, 239, 247, 248-261: Campaspe, Mother Bombie, Gallathea, affected by Helio- dorus and Achilles Tatius, 248 n. i. Style of Euphues possibly affected by style of Achilles Tatius, 248 n. I, 256 n. 3 Eupliues probably derived mediately from lost Greek Romance, 248-261, 370; de- rived directly from Boccac- cio's Tito and Gisippo, 248- 250, 255. Tito and Gisippo derived from At his et Pro- philias, 248, 250-251, 255, 258-261 (Table) ; or directly from lost Greek Romance, 248, 250, 252-253, 256. Athis et Prophilias probably de- rived from lost Greek Ro- mance, 248, 251-252, 256. Goldsmith may have used this lost Greek Romance, 253-256, 258-261 (Table). Popularity of Euphues shorter-lived than that of Arcadia, 462. Allusion to Rhodope, 416 n. 49. " Con- trarieties," 437 n. 63. Gen- eral influence of Greek Ro- mance upon, 461. Artic- ulation of material in, see Articulation of Plot Machiavelli, 326, 412, 429 Maffei, Scipione, 172 n. 45 Mahaffy, J. P., 170 n. 40 Marino, 134, 172 n. 45, 224 n. 82 Marriage and Death, see An- tithesis Menendez y Pelayo, Marcelino, 131 Milesian Tales, 462 Misogyny, 133, 162, 333-334. 396-398, 411 & n. 42 Moliere, 160 Moody, William Vaughn, 311 n. 3, 318 n. 7 Moschus, 170, 172 Motivation, falsified by love of paradox, 141; perverted, 148; of Chariclea, 152 n. 29; of Melitta, 155-156; of pre- tended fellow-prisoner of Clitophon, 156 n. 31. In Greene: Menaphon, 425-426, 428, 430-432; Pandosto, 426 n - 5 1 , 454> Mamillia, 429-430; generally weak, 458 Muzio, Girolamo, 172 n. 45 Mystery Plays, 153 n. 30 Naber, S. A., 164 Narration by participant, 193- 194, 199, 349-350, 351, 353, 379, 393-395 Nash, Thomas, 247, 335 n. 18, 367; not influenced by Greek Romances, 459, 461 Nicetas Eugenianus, Charicles and Drosilla, 10 Nicolaus Pergamenus, 258-261 Ninus- fragment, 8, 163 n. 65 Nonnus, 172 Norden, Eduard, 218 n. 79, 220 n. 80, 222 n. 81, 234 n. 87 Novel, English, receives from Greek Romances nothing through Greene, 457-458 English fiction develops to- 522 INDEX wards, away from novella, by way of romance, 462; sus- tained complex form of, may be partly the gift of Greek Romance, by way of French Romances and of Sidney's Arcadia, 462-464 Novella, Ionic, I. In Achilles Tatius, 117; Callisthenes and Calligone, 132-133, 201, 372, 374. In Heliodorus, Cnemon, 133. 195. 201, 313, 319-320, 416 & n. 48. In Greene, fre- quent, 369-375; falls well within his powers, 369-370; Boccaccio's novelle borrowed by Greene, all probably from lost Greek romances, 370- 3751 Greene's subjection to Fortune keeps his plot in no- vella-iorm, 381; Greene in- capable of sustaining plot be- yond novella-length, 407; The Farmer Bridegroom, 416 n. 48; Greene assimi- lated the novella-form, 370, 457, 462. Boccaccio's, see Boccaccio. Fortini's, 161. Of the Renaissance, 149, 156, iS7. 319-320, 370, 457; its success and decline in Eng- lish literature, 462; does not evolve into romance, ibid. Oeftering, Michael, 187 n. 56, 192 n. 59, 238 n. 5, 313 n. 4, 433 - 57 Opsopoeus, Vincentius, ed. princ. of Heliodorus, 8, 237 "Optics, Pathetic"; see "Pa- thetic Optics " Oracle, in Heliodorus, 112, 113, 114, 127, 188, 410, 428, 443-445, 446, 457. In Achil- les Tatius, 117. In Sidney, 37, 319-321, 323, 347, 348, 352, 443-444. In Greene, 408, 410, 420-424, 428, 432, 443-445, 446, 457- In Guarini, 433. In Winter's Tale, 452 Oratory, 6, 196 n. 64, 205, 254- 255, 354-355, 375, 379~38o, 418 Overbeck, J. A., 171 n. 41 Ovid, i, 134 n. 18, 136, 170, 172, 220, 366 additional note, 413 Oxymoron, distinguished from Antithesis, 221-222; once gen- uine expression of philosophic dualism, in Greek Romances mere artifice, 234; in Sidney, 354, 357. 365 n. 38; in Greeene, 380-381, 437-438 Painting, Alexandrian, 170; lit- erature and, 170-176; 334- 335 | Paradox, 5 ; love of, falsifies mo- tivation, 140-141; irrelevancy and, two phases of the un- expected , 210; sought con- sciously, 2 1 1 ; brought about by Fortune, 211-212; 214- 215: 357 & n. 35, 35?; irony a species of, 213, 307, 319-320, 376-377, 380-381, 398-399, 423-424, 431-432, 443 Parallel Structure, 5, 222, 229-231 Paratactic Structure, 232 n. 86 Paris, Gaston, 248, 252, 256 Passow, F. L. K. F., 149 n. 28 Pastoral, in Longus, 121-124, 169, 408, 448-450 (Table). In Heliodorus, 122, 446. Achilles Tatius lacks, 122. In Greene, 368, 375, 408, 411, 432-435, 438-456. In Lodge, 433, 460. In Winter's Tale, 448-450 (Table), 452. In Tasso, 432-433. In San- nazaro, 433. In Warner, ibid. Urban aspect of, 122- 123, 368, 432-434, 460 " Pathetic Optics," in Helio- dorus, 177-179, 184, 189; in Sidney, 338-342; in Greene, 375- 419 & " 5. 445 " Pathopoieia," 145 Pathos, 144, 156, 177-182, 184, 186, 189, 242, 249, 250 n. ia, INDEX 5 2 3 446 338-34*, 375. 417-422, Peripeteia, brought about by Fortune in Greene, 387, 388- 389, 446; by natural causes, in Boccaccio, Decant. II. 6, 388; by oracle, in Greene, 424, 429, 446, (and in Wint- er's Tale) 452 Petrarchism, 221-222, 354, 437 Petrus Alphonsus, 251, 258-261 Pettie, George, 437 n. 63 Phaedra, see Hippolytus Philostratus, 134 n. 18, 170, 171 n. 41 Photius, 8, 337 n. 36, 373 n. 12 Physiologus, 209 n. 75 Pindar, 170 Piracy, 311, 315-316, 322, 371, 372, 374, 438-439, 445 Piscatory Eclogue, 122 Plato, 133-134 Pliny, 415 n. 47 Plot, 6; in Greek Romances, 111-137; together with char- acter and setting, tends to degenerate into mere spec- tacle, 191; irrelevancies of, in Achilles Tatius, 202-206. More prominent than charac- ter, in Greek Romances, 137; in Sidney, 328; and innovella, 369-370; but in novella not complicated, 370. In Lyly's Euphues, articulated as in Tito and Gisippo and Athis et Prophilias, and (probably) as in lost Greek Romance, 248-251, 255-256, 258-261. In Sidney, 307-328: material partly from Amadis, 318-320, 328; but mostly from Greek Romances, 307-318; and wholly kept within Helio- dorean frame, 307-308, 319- 320, 328; because dominated by Providence, 320-323; which manifests itself in oracles, visions, etc., ibid.; greatly reduces the activity of Fortune, 324-328; and uses both Fortune and Virtu as its agents, 328. Greene incapable of sus- tained or complicated plot, 370, 407, 429, 457; often omits necessary links, 429-432; prevented by his subjection to Fortune from composing any but novella-plots, 381; plot of Pandosto structurally affected by oracle, 422-424; of Menaphon only entangled and retarded by oracle, 423- 424. Activity of Providence, 111-117, 126, 188, 320-323, 328; of Fortune, in, 113-20, 123 n. 7, 124, 126, 324-328, 383-384, 387-392; of Eros and of love, 121, 126, 127- 137; of Causation in Longus, 124-126; in Shakespeare (Winter's Tale), 453-456 Plutarch, i, 133 n. 16, 209 n. 75, 386 n. 30 Poetzsche, Erich, 463 n. i Poliziano, excerpt from Xeno- phon of Ephesus, 8, 10 n. i; La Giostra, 172 n. 45, 413; Miscellanea, 8 Porter, A. T., 246, 481 Pretended execution, 316-317 Propertius, 436 n. 59 Providence, in Heliodorus, con- trols main plot, 111-113, 114, 116, 117, 151, 188; in Achil- les Tatius, a minimum, 117, 119 n. 2, 120, 132; in Longus, good ascribed to, 123 n. 7; in Sidney, controls plot, 308, 320-323, 328; Fortune and, 123 n. 7, 137, 383 Pseudo-science, 135, 167, 195, 207-210 Psychology, 5, 6, 132, 144-145, 169, 176, 206, 207, 242, 245, 329, 330, 377, 457 Qui-pro-quo, 133, 319, 321, 347, 416 Raphael, 186, 187 Realism, Comedy and, 157-158; 524 INDEX in Achilles Tatius, 157, 160- 161 Recognition, in Longus, 121; in Heliodorus, 182, 187, 189, 410, 427-428, 445, 452; in Sidney, 308, 309, 342, 347; in Greene, 408, 410, 418, 427- 428, 445, 452; in Guarini, 433 Reinach, Salomon, 172 n. 43, 436 n. 59 Reiseroman, 164 n. 36, 255, 311 Reni, Guido, 172 n. 45 Repetition, 231-233 Restoration of Child, in Helio- dorus, 113, 114, 410, 424, 427-428, 444, 446, 451-452; in Sidney, 309, 342, 347; in Greene, 371, 372, 410, 423, 424, 427-428, 444, 446, 451- 452; in Guarini, 433 Retardation, 197-198, 199, 202, 423 Rhetoric, displays of, 6, 202 nn. 70 & 71, 204-207, 354- 355; substituted for charac- terization, 143-146, 157; in Melitta, justified, 155, 156; descriptive show-pieces, 169- 177: " Europa," 171-173; less excessive in Heliodorus, 176- 177, 222 n. 81; in Longus, 222 n. 8 1 Antithetical situations af- fording opportunity for dis- play of: Banquet and Battle, 212-213, 360; Captor serves Captive, 212, 214, 361-362; Native land more dangerous than foreign, 213, 415, 444; Confession of murder of person still alive, 217, 317, 319-320, 406, 419; Bridal and Burial, 217-218, 221, 256 n. 3; Land and Water, 218, 220, 221, 359; Water and Fire, 218 n. 79, 339-360, 398- 399; Living Tomb, 220, 361; Dead men the possessors of rich spoil, 358-359 Artificial and largely verbal devices of, 221-235: Antithesis and Oxymoron, 221-229, 354, 3S7 & n. 35, 358-366, 376-377; Rivalry, 227-228, 377; Conflicting Emotions, 228-229, 2 56 n. 3, 335, 363, 377, 4S; Multiple Antithesis, 229; Balance, 222, 229-231, 378-379; Homeo- phony, 231-233, 378-379 In Euphuism, 256 n. 3; in Sidney, 354-366 (see Sidney, Style); in Greene, 376-378: " Wit and Will," " Virtue and Fortune," etc., 377; oc- casion for, furnished by For- tune, 380-381; and by Love, 437-438; similar to that of Achilles Tatius, 392. (And see Antithesis; Oratory; Style) Rhodope (Rhodopis), 384 n. 28, 412 n. 45, 415-416 & n. 49, 436 Rhyme, 231-233, 378 Richardson, Samuel, 463 Rivalry; see Antithesis; Rhet- oric Roderick Random, 161 Rohde, Erwin, 163, 164 & n. 36, 248, 252-253, 256, 374, 462 Romances, French, 462, 464; Greek, see Greek Romances; Mediaeval, 153 n. 30, 311, 332-333 Rusticity ridiculed, 122 n. 6, 162, 245, 331-332, 433-434, 445 St. Victor, Hugues de, 209 n. 75 Sainte-Beuve, 170 n. 40 Saintsbury, George, 143, 169 Salverte, Francois de, 129 n. ii, 133 n. 16 Sandys, J. E., 237 n. 3 Sanford, James, 238 n. 5 Sannazaro, 334 n. 17, 433 Schmid, W., 246 nn. 23 & 24 Schwartz, Eduard, 112 n. i, 139 n. 22, 179 n. 51 INDEX 525 Scott, Sir Walter, 366 addi- tional note, 463 Sensuous imagery, range of; see Description Sentimentality, 4-6, 242, 245; rhetorical display of, sub- stituted for characterization, i 43- 146 Setting, in Greek Romances, 162- 192: Historical, vague, 163; Geographical, vague, 163- 164; in Heliodorus and Achil- les Tatius used mostly to in- struct or entertain, but occa- sionally to produce real back- ground, 164-167; in Longus, relevant and intrinsically beautiful, 166-167. Descrip- tive, excess of, a fault of Greek Romance, 168; least offensive in Longus, ibid., his pictorial treatment of incidents, ibid.; his wide range of sensuous imagery, 168-169, 242, 2 44> modera- tion, 169, 199; "richness in- simplicity," 169, 242. Achil- les Tatius's excess of descrip- tion, a rhetorical showpiece, 169-171; Europa, painting of, 171-173; irrelevancy of word- paintings, 173-176, 206-207; exceptions have broader range of imagery and form part of narrative, 174-175; failure to distinguish functions of language and of graphic arts, 176. Heliodorus's spectacu- lar scenes, relevant, 176, 181; omission of eiccfrpacris, 177; " pathetic optics," 177-179, 184, 189; "hieratic epiphany," 179-180, 188-189; theatrical conception and terminology, 181-184, 189; spectacular en- semble-scenes, 184-189. In A this et Prophilias and Tito and Gisippo, 251. In Sid- ney (q. v.), 334-342- In no- vella, very simple, 370. Greene almost lacks, 370, 402, 421, 458; fails when he attempts to imitate Helio- dorus's setting, 421, 457 By means of descriptive Pathos, suggests character, 179. Together with plot and character, tends to degene- rate into mere spectacle, 191 Shakespeare, King Lear: under- plot of Gloucester and his sons, from Heliodorus, via Sid- ney, 312-313, 366 additional note. Romeo and Juliet: an- titheses, 217 n. 78. As You Like It: pastoral as episode of urban story, 433. The Winter's Tale: chief source, Greene's Pandosto, 376, 408, 445-446, (Table) 448-450; uses much that Greene took from Greek Romances, (Table) 448-450, 452; pas- toral as episode of urban story ' n > 433 > probably borrows some pastoral details directly from Day's version of Daph- nis and Chloe, 452; borrows directly from Daphnis and Chloe, probably in Day's ver- sion, the incident of the Hunt, 125, 452-455; largely rejects the agency of For- tune in Pandosto, and sub- stitutes causation and human motive, 453-456; 391 n. 32, 458 Shipwreck, 113, 308, 311, 322, 389, 392, 393, 409-410, 415. 444. 451 Sidney, Sir Philip, 239, 240, 247, 262-366. JEthiopica al- luded to in Apologie for Poetrie, 308 n. la. Mss. of the " Old " Arcadia (" Clif- ford " and " Ashburnham " Mss.), 345; notes and tran- scripts from, 470-476. Atti- tude toward Greek Romance both assimilative and con- structive, 461 Arcadia, long popularity of, 462; influence upon Rich- ardson and Scott, 463; may 5*6 INDEX have helped to transmit from Greek Romance to English novel the gift of sustained complex form, 462-464. An- alysis, 262-307 Plot, 307-328: grandiose framework from Heliodorus, 307-308, 319-320, 328, 366. Incidents from Greek Ro- mance: shipwreck, 308, 311; " E r o s-M o t i v," 308-309 ; elopement under vow of chastity to be observed until entry into kingdom, 309, 319- 320. Denouement: father condemns child, recognition effected by deus ex machina, 309; self -accusation of mur- der of person alive and pres- ent in court, 317, 319-320; multiplicity of charges against hero gives exordium to prosecutor's invective, 317- 318. Banished nobleman heads outlaws, 310; soliloquy overheard causes fright in the dark, 310; " Reiseroman," with shipwreck, piracy, and imprisonment, 311. Episode of "The Captivity"; imprison- ment by lover who tries to force compliance; dissimula- tion refused; 311-312. Epi- sode of "The Paphlagonica": father, good son, and bad son (jEthiopica; Arcadia; under- plot of Gloucester and his sons in King Lear), 312-313, 366 additional note. Epi- sode of " Plangus and Andromana," compounded of Heliodorus's stories of Ar- sace and Demaeneta, 313-314, 348-349, 473-474; Gynecia derived from Melitta, 314; Pyrocles feeds upon the sight of Philoclea, 314-315; rides the waves like Clinias, 315; rescue (of Pyrocles, of Leu- cippe) abandoned at approach of pirate ship, 315; brutal caress (of Anaxius, of Ther- sander) sharply reproved, 316; pretended execution (of Leucippe, of Pamela, Philo- clea, Antiphilus), 316-317; double rendezvous and double qui-pro-quo perhaps sug- gested by Antadis, 318-320; and perhaps by Heliodorus's story of Cnemon, 319-320. All incidents, from whatever source, included by the oracle in the Heliodorean frame, 319-320, 328, 366. Plot thus controlled by Providence, manifest in oracles, visions, etc., 320-323; and using For- tune and Virtue as its instru- ments, 328 Fortune has small scope, 324-325; as a vera causa, rare, and almost exclusively in episodes, ibid.; Sidney free from Fortune's domina- tion, takes intellectual and speculative view of her, ibid., but condescends to contem- porary habits of speech, 324, 325-326; Virtue and, 326- 328: Providence subjects Fortune to Virtue, 328; us- ing both as its agents, ibid. Character, 314, 328-330, 334. 366: less prominent than plot or setting, 328-329; per- sonages mostly types, well differentiated, 329, 330; but Gynecia a fully rounded char- acter, 314, 329; Gynecia (Melitta) and Andromana (Arsace and Demaeneta) the only characters taken from Greek Romance, 329; other personages there merely to play their part in Plot, 329- 330; Sidney's interest in Character, inadequate, 328, 33 Humor, 308, 330-334: not of character, but of situa- tion and word, 330-332; horseplay and cruelty, 331- 332; contrast between courtly INDEX 527 and peasant view of love, 332; prolixity, formulas, etc. of mediaeval narrative, 332- 333; absence of misogyny, 333-334; sources of Sidney's humor foreign to Greek Ro- mance, 333, 334 Setting, 334-342, 366: imi- tations of Achilles Tatius, 334-335; nothing from Lon- S u s, 335; descriptions of im- prese and Emblems, not from Greek Romance, 335-337; imitations of Heliodorus, trionfo, jewel, horsemanship, 337-338; "pathetic optics," 338-342, esp. at the trial, a spectacular ensemble-scene, 340-342 Structure, 343-353. " delib- erately recast in the mould of Heliodorus," 366: date of first version, 343-344; the " Old " Arcadia, the " New " Arcadia, and the Arcadia, 345-347; contents of the Old Arcadia, 347-348; processes by which it was turned into the New, 348-353; a com- plete adoption of Heliodorus's narrative method, 353, 366, 458, 461 Style, 354-366: "epideictic," 354; oratory, 354-355; For- tune brings about tragedy and comedy, 355-357! the- atrical terminology, 354, 355- 357; antithesis and oxymo- ron, 354; Fortune brings about paradox, antithesis, and oxymoron, 357 & n. 35, 358; antitheses imitated from Greek Romance, 358-363, 366 additional note; similar anti- theses invited by Sidney prove that he has caught the style of the Greek Romances, 364-366. {And see Antithesis) Silrayns Orator, 143 Soliloquy, 249, 231; antithet- ical, 144, 376; ending with assumed name, 142 n. 24, 310, 414-415; overheard, 142 n. 24, 310, 371, 388, 404, 414-415 Sophocles, 214 n. 76, 217 n. 78, 366 additional note, 386 n. 30 Spectacle, 150, 176-191, 340- 342 Spectacular Ensemble- Scenes, 184-189, 307, 340, 375, 376, 402, 417-422, 446 Spectacular Heroics, 150, 190- 191, 315 Spenser, Edmund, 172 n. 45 Stage-terms, see Theatrical con- ception, etc. Stepmother, Amorous, 133, 154, 313-314, 348-349, 4i5-4i6, 473-474 Storojenko, 395 Stravoskiadis, Andreas, 134 n. 18 Straying Animal, nurse or suckling of human being, leads to discovery of human being its suckling or nurse, (Longus, Boccaccio, Greene) 371-372, 388-389, 448-450; not its suckling or nurse, (Shakespeare) 448-450, 453- 455 Structure, Narrative, of Greek Romances, 192-220, 234-235; and see Greek Romances. English novel may have ac- quired, partly from Greek Romances, 462-464. Of Eu- phues,Tito and Gisippo,Athis et Prophilias, and lost Greek Romance, 249-256, 258-261 (Table), 458, 461. Of Sid- ney's Arcadia, 343-353, 443- 444, 461, 463-464 Mediaeval, ridiculed, 353. Of Greene's Arbasto, from Achilles Tatius, 379, 393; of portions of Carde of Fancie, Philomela, Ti'llies Lore, Pan- dosto, from Heliodorus, 417- 429, 444, 452, 456; of Menaphon, from the " Old " Arcadia, 443-444; but 528 INDEX Greene's own sense of struc- ture too feeble to utilize his models, 424, 428, 429-432 (Mamillia, Menaphon), 457- 458, 461 Style, of Greek Romances, 216- 235 ; and see Greek Roman- ces, Antithesis, Rhetoric. Of Lyly, see Euphuism. Of Sid- ney, 354-366, and see Sid- ney. Of Greene, 376-379, 380-381, and see Greene Susemihl, Franz, 3 n. 2 Suspense, 193, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 210, 350-351, 353, 421, 446. Moment of last suspense: brought about by Fortune, 387, 391-392; father condemns child (JBthiopica, Menaphon, Pandosto), 426- 429, 445, 452 Tasso, Torquato, 197 n. 65; Aminta, 135, 433; Gerusa- L-mme Liberata, 220 n. 80, 432 Tennyson, 172 n. 45 Thaiin, Philippe de, 209 n. 75 Theatrical courage, 150; con- ception of story, in Helio- dorus, 181-184, 189, 194-195, 197 n. 65, 198 n. 67, 446; in Achilles Tatius and in Longus, 183 n. 55; terminol- ogy, in Heliodorus, 181-183, 189; in Achilles Tatius and in Longus, 183 n. 55; in Sidney, 354, 355-357', in Greene, 410-411, 417-418, 42 1-422 Theocritus, 3, 167, 170 Theodorus Prodromus, Dosicles and Rhodanthe, 10 Time-arrangement, in Helio- dorus, inverted and obscure, 195; in Longus, straightfor- ward, 199; in Achilles Tatius, clear and detailed, 200-201; in Sidney's " Old " Arcadia, straightforward, 348, 352; in " New " Arcadia, in- verted, 351-352; in Greene's Menaphon, straightforward, imitated from " Old " Ar- cadia, 443-444 Titian, 172 n. 45 Tragedy, machinery of, em- ployed by Longus, 122, 183 n. 55; Heliodorus's affinity to, 117, 157, 181-183, 189, 214 n. 76; De Casibus Virorum Illustrium, associ- ated with, 386 n. 30 Travel, element of, in Greek Romance, connected with hieratic element, esp. cult of sun-and-moon gods, 112 n. i; absence from Longus, 124; saves him from geographical digressions, 166; " Reisero- man," 164 n. 36, 255; in Sid- ney, 311 Trial-scenes, 6, :8o, 187, 204- 205, 254, 307, 317-318, 319- 320, 321, 323, 340-342, 347. 355, 364 n. 37, 380, 405-406, 417-422, 446, 452, 456 Tuchert, Alois, 198 n. 67 Two Friends, Legend of, 250- 256, 258-261 (Table), 311, 364 n. 37 T^XTJ, see Fortune " Tychomania ", see Fortune Underdowne, Thomas, Transla- tion of JEtliiopica, 8, 159 n. 33, 164, 173 n. 46, 237 n. i, 238-239, 240, 360, 375-376, 427 n. 52 Unexpected, The, in Greek Ro- mances, 5 n. 4, 10, 210-235; in Greene, 376, 377, 429; and see Irrelevancy, Paradox " Unnatural natural history," 6, 208-210, 377-378 Urfe, Honore d , 135 Veronese, Paolo, 172 n. 45 Virgil, 193, 235, 386 n. 30, 413 Virtu and Fortune, see For- tune Vision, 368-369 Volucraries, 208 INDEX Walden, J. 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