Ex Libria 
 C. K, OGDEN 
 
 INAUGUBAL 
 
 ADDEE SS 
 
 DELIVEBED TO THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ST. ANDREWS 
 
 FEB. 1st 1867 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN STUART MILL 
 
 BBCTOB OP THE TJSIVEBSITT 
 
 PEOPLE'S EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER 
 
 1867.
 
 LONDON : 
 
 SAVILL AND EDWAEDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET, 
 COVENT GARDEN.
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOJ 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
 
 IN complying with the custom which prescribes that the person 
 whom you have called by your suffrages to the honorary presi- 
 dency of your University should embody in an Address a few 
 thoughts on the subjects which most nearly concern a seat of liberal 
 education ; let me begin by saying, that this usage appears to me 
 highly commendable. Education, in its larger sense, is one of the 
 most inexhaustible of all topics. Though there is hardly any sub- 
 ject on which so much has been written, by so many of the wisest 
 men, it is as fresh to those who come to it with a fresh mind, a 
 mind not hopelessly filled full with other people's conclusions, as it 
 was to the first explorers of it : and notwithstanding the great 
 mass of excellent things which have been said respecting it, no 
 thoughtful person finds any lack of things both great and small 
 still waiting to be said, or waiting to be developed and followed 
 out to their consequences. Education, moreover, is one of the 
 subjects which most essentially require to be considered by various 
 minds, and from a variety of points of view. For, of all many- 
 sided subjects, it is the one which has the greatest number of sides. 
 Not only does it include whatever we do for ourselves, and what- 
 ever is done for us by others, for the express purpose of bringing 
 us somewhat nearer to the perfection of our nature ; it does more : 
 in its largest acceptation, it comprehends even the indirect effects 
 produced on character and on the human faculties, by things of 
 which the direct purposes are quite different ; by laws, by forms 
 of government, by the industrial arts, by modes of social life ; nay 
 even by physical facts not dependent on human will ; by climate, 
 soil, and local position. Whatever helps to shape the human 
 being ; to make the individual what he is, or hinder him from 
 being what he is not is part of his education. And a very bad 
 education it often is ; requiring all that can be done by cultivated 
 intelligence and will, to counteract its tendencies. To take an 
 obvious instance ; the niggardliness of Nature in some places, by 
 engrossing the whole energies of the human being in the mere 
 
 A2
 
 preservation of life, and her over-bounty in others, affording a sort 
 of brutish subsistence on too easy terms, with hardly any exertion 
 of the human faculties, are both hostile to the spontaneous growth 
 and development of the mind ; and it is at those two extremes of 
 the scale that we find human societies in the state of most unmiti- 
 gated savagery. I shall confine myself, however, to education in 
 the narrower sense ; the culture which each generation purposely 
 gives to those who are to be its successors, in order to qualify them 
 for at least keeping up, and if possible for raising, the level of im- 
 provement which has been attained. Nearly all here present are 
 daily occupied either in receiving or in giving this sort of educa- 
 tion : and the part of it which most concerns you at present is that 
 in which you are yourselves engaged the stage of education which 
 is the appointed business of a national University. 
 
 The proper function of an University in national education is 
 tolerably well understood. At least there is a tolerably general 
 agreement about what an University is not. It is not a place of 
 professional education. Universities are not intended to teach the 
 knowledge required to fit men for some special mode of gaining 
 their livelihood. Their object is not to make skilful lawyers, or 
 physicians, or engineers, but capable and cultivated human beings. 
 It is very right that there should be public facilities for the study 
 of professions. It is well that there should be Schools of Law, and, 
 of Medicine, and it would be well if there were schools of engi- 
 neering, and the industrial arts. The countries which have such 
 institutions are greatly the better for them ; and there is something 
 to be said for having them in the same localities, and under the 
 same general superintendence, as the establishments devoted to 
 education properly so called. But these things are no part of what 
 every generation owes to the next, as that on which its civilization 
 and worth will principally depend. They are needed only by a 
 comparatively few, who are under the strongest private induce- 
 ments to acquire them by their own efforts ; and even those few do 
 not require them until after their education, in the ordinary sense, 
 has been completed. Whether those whose speciality they are, 
 will learn them as a branch of intelligence or as a mere trade, and 
 whether, having learnt them, they will make a wise and conscien- 
 tious use of them or the reverse, depends less on the manner in 
 which they are taught their profession, than upon what sort of 
 minds they bring to it what kind of intelligence, and of conscience, 
 the general system of education has developed in them. Men are 
 men before they are lawyers, or physicians, or merchants, or manu- 
 facturers ; and if you make them capable and sensible men, they 
 will make, themselves capable and sensible lawyers or physicians.
 
 What professional men should carry away with them from an 
 University, is not professional knowledge, but that which should 
 direct the use of their professional knowledge, and bring the light 
 of general culture to illuminate the technicalities of a special pur- 
 suit. Men may be competent lawyers without general education, 
 but it depends on general education to make them philosophic 
 lawyers who demand, and are capable of apprehending, principles, 
 instead of merely cramming their memory with details. And so 
 of all other useful pursuits, mechanical included. Education makes 
 a man a more intelligent shoemaker, if that be his occupation, but 
 not by teaching him how to make shoes ; it does so by the mental 
 exercise it gives, and the habits it impresses. 
 
 This, then, is what a mathematician would call the higher limit 
 of University education : its province ends where education, 
 ceasing to be general, branches off into departments adapted to 
 the individual's destination in life. The lower limit is more diffi- 
 cult to define. An University is not concerned with elementary 
 instruction: the pupil is supposed to have acquired that before 
 coming here. But where does elementary instruction end, and the 
 higher studies begin ? Some have given a very wide extension to 
 the idea of elementary instruction. According to them, it is not 
 the office of an University to give instruction in single branches 
 of knowledge from the commencement. What the pupil should be 
 taught here (they think), is to methodize his knowledge : to look 
 at every separate part of it in its relation to the other parts, and to 
 the whole ; combining the partial glimpses which he has obtained 
 of the field of human knowledge at different points, into a general 
 map, if I may so speak, of the entire region ; observing how all 
 knowledge is connected, how we ascend to one branch by means of 
 another, how the higher modifies the lower, and the lower helps us 
 to understand the higher ; how every existing reality is a compound 
 of many properties, of which each science or distinct mode of study 
 reveals but a small part, but the whole of which must be included 
 to enable us to know it truly as a fact in Nature, and not as a 
 mere abstraction. 
 
 This last stage of general education, destined to give the pupil a 
 comprehensive and connected view of the things which he has 
 already learnt separately, includes a philosophic study of the 
 Methods of the sciences ; the modes in which the human intellect 
 proceeds from the known to the unknown. We must be taught to 
 generalize our conception of the resources which the human mind 
 possesses for the exploration of nature ; to understand how man 
 discovers the real facts of the world, and by what tests he can judge 
 whether he has really found them. And doubtless this is the croAvn.
 
 and consummation of a liberal education : but before we restrict an 
 University to this highest department of instruction before we- 
 confine it to teaching, not knowledge, but the philosophy of know- 
 ledge we must be assured that the knowledge itself has been 
 acquired elsewhere. Those who take this view of the function of 
 an University are not wrong in thinking that the schools, as dis- 
 tinguished from the universities, ought to be adequate to teaching 
 every branch of general instruction required by youth, so far as it 
 can be studied apart from the rest. But where are such schools 
 to be found ? Since science assumed its modern character, nowhere : 
 and in these islands even less than elsewhere. This ancient king- 
 dom, thanks to its great religious reformers, had the inestimable 
 advantage, denied to its southern sister, of excellent parish schools, 
 which gave, really and not in pretence, a considerable amount of 
 valuable literary instruction to the bulk of the population, two 
 centuries earlier than in any other country. But schools of a still 
 higher description have been, even in Scotland, so few and inade- 
 quate, that the Universities have had to perform largely the func- 
 tions which ought to be performed by schools ; receiving students 
 at an early age, and undertaking not only the work for which the 
 schools should have prepared them, but much of the preparation 
 itself. Every Scottish University is not an University only, but a 
 High School, to supply the deficiency of other schools. And if the 
 English Universities do not do the same, it is not because the same 
 need does not exist, but because it is disregarded. Youths come 
 to the Scottish Universities ignorant, and are there taught. The 
 majority of those who come to the English Universities come still 
 more ignorant, and ignorant they go away. 
 
 In point of fact, therefore, the oifice of a Scottish University 
 comprises the whole of a liberal education, from the foundations 
 upwards. And the scheme of your Universities has, almost from 
 the beginning, really aimed at including the whole, both in depth 
 and in breadth. You have not, as the English Universities so long 
 did, confined all the stress of your teaching, all your real effort to 
 teach, within the limits of two subjects, the classical languages and 
 mathematics. You did not wait till the last few years to establish 
 a Natxiral Science and a Moral Science Tripos. Instruction in both 
 those departments was organized long ago : and your teachers of 
 those subjects have not been nominal professors, who did not lec- 
 ture : some of the greatest names in physical and in moral science 
 have taught in your Universities, and by their teaching contributed 
 to form some of the most distinguished intellects of the last and 
 present centuries. To comment upon the course of education at 
 the Scottish Universities is to pass in review every essential depart-
 
 ment of general culture. The best use, then, which I am able to 
 make of the present occasion, is to offer a few remarks on each 
 of those departments, considered in its relation to human cultiva- 
 tion at large : adverting to the nature of the claims which each has 
 to a pkce in liberal education ; in what special manner they each 
 conduce to the improvement of the individual mind and the benefit 
 of the race ; and how they all conspire to the common end, the 
 strengthening, exalting, purifying, and beautifying of our common 
 nature, and the fitting out of mankind with the necessary mental 
 implements for the work they have to perform through life. 
 
 Let me first say a few words on the great controversy of the 
 present day with regard to the higher education, the difference 
 which most broadly divides educational reformers and conserva- 
 tives ; the vexed question between the ancient languages and the 
 modern sciences and arts; whether general education should be 
 classical let me use a wider expression, and say literary or 
 scientific. A dispute as endlessly, and often as fruitlessly agitated 
 as that old controversy which it resembles, made memorable by the 
 names of Swift and Sir William Temple in England and Fontenelle 
 in France the contest for superiority between the ancients and 
 the moderns. This question, Avhether we should be taught the 
 classics or the sciences, seems to me, I confess, very like a dispute 
 whether painters should cultivate drawing or colouring, or, to use 
 a more homely illustration, whether a tailor should make coats or 
 trousers. I can only reply by the question, why not both ? Can 
 anything deserve the name of a good education which does not 
 include literature and science too ? If there were no more to be 
 said than that scientific education teaches us to think, and literary 
 education to express our thoughts, do we not require both ? and is 
 not any one a poor, maimed, lopsided fragment of humanity who is 
 deficient in either ? We are not obliged to ask ourselves whether 
 it is more important to know the languages or the sciences. Short 
 as life is, and shorter still as we make it by the time we waste on 
 things which are neither business, nor meditation, nor pleasure, we 
 are not so badly off that our scholars need be ignorant of the laws 
 and properties of the world they live in, or our scientific men 
 destitute of poetic feeling and artistic cultivation. I am amazed at 
 the limited conception which many educational reformers have 
 formed to themselves of a human being's power of acquisition. The 
 study of science, they truly say, is indispensable : our present edu- 
 cation neglects it : there is truth in this too, though it is not all 
 truth : and they think it impossible to find room for the studies 
 which they desire to encourage, but by turning out, at least from 
 general education, those which are now chiefly cultivated. How
 
 8 
 
 absurd, they say, that the whole of boyhood should be taken up in 
 acquiring an imperfect knowledge of two dead languages. Absurd 
 indeed : but is the human mind's capacity to learn, measured by 
 that of Eton and Westminster to teach ? I should prefer to see 
 these reformers pointing their attacks against the shameful ineffi- 
 ciency of the schools, public and private, which pretend to teach 
 these two languages and do not. I should like to hear them de- 
 nounce the wretched methods of teaching, and the criminal idleness 
 and supineness, which waste the entire boyhood of the pupils 
 without really giving to most of them more than a smattering, if 
 even that, of the only kind of knowledge which is even pretended 
 to be cared for. Let us try what conscientious and intelligent 
 teaching can do, before we presume to decide what cannot be done. 
 Scotland has on the whole, in this respect, been considerably 
 more fortunate than England. Scotch youths have never found it 
 impossible to leave school or the university having learnt somewhat 
 of other things besides Greek and Latin ; and why ? Because Greek 
 and Latin have been better taught. A beginning of classical in- 
 struction has all along been made in the common schools : and the 
 common schools of Scotland, like her Universities, have never been 
 the mere shams that the English Universities were during the last 
 century, and the greater part of the English classical schools still 
 are. The only tolerable Latin grammars for school purposes that 
 I know of, which had been produced in these islands until very 
 lately, were written by Scotchmen. Reason, indeed, is beginning to 
 find its way by gradual infiltration even into English schools, and to 
 maintain a contest, though as yet a very unequal one, against routine. 
 A few practical reformers of school tuition, of whom Arnold was the 
 most eminent, have made a beginning of amendment in many things : 
 but reforms, worthy of the name, are always slow, and reform even of 
 governments and churches is not so slow as that of schools, for there 
 is the great preliminary difficulty of fashioning the instruments : 
 of teaching the teachers. If all the improvements in the mode of 
 teaching languages which are already sanctioned by experience, 
 were adopted into our classical schools, we should soon cease to 
 hear of Latin and Greek as studies which must engross the school 
 years, and render impossible any other acquirements. If a boy 
 learnt Greek and Latin on the same principle on which, a mere 
 child learns with such ease and rapidity any modern language, 
 namely, by acquiring some familiarity with the vocabulary by prac- 
 tice and repetition, before being troubled with grammatical rules 
 those rules being acquired with tenfold greater facility when the 
 cases to which they apply are already familiar to the mind ; an 
 average schoolboy, long before the :ige at which schooling termi-
 
 nates, would be able to read fluently and with intelligent interest 
 any ordinary Latin or Greek author in prose or verse, would have 
 a competent knowledge of the grammatical structure of both lan- 
 guages, and have had time besides for an ample amount of scientific 
 instruction. I might go much further ; but I am as unwilling to 
 speak out all that I think practicable in this matter, as George 
 Stephenson was about railways, when he calculated the average 
 speed of a train at ten miles an hour, because if he had estimated 
 it higher, the practical men would have turned a deaf ear to him, 
 as that most unsafe character in their estimation, an enthusiast and 
 a visionary. The results have shown, in that case, who was the 
 real practical man. What the results would show in the other 
 case, I will not attempt to anticipate. But I will say confidently, 
 that if the two classical languages were properly taught, there 
 would be no need whatever for ejecting them from the school 
 course, in order to have sufficient time for everything else that 
 need be included therein. 
 
 Let me say a few words more on this strangely limited estimate 
 of what it is possible for human beings to learn, resting on a tacit 
 assumption that they are already as efficiently taught as they ever can 
 be. So narrow a conception not only vitiates our idea of education, 
 but actually, if we receive it, darkens our anticipations as to the 
 future progress of mankind. For if the inexorable conditions of 
 human life make it useless for one man to attempt to know more 
 than one thing, what is to become of the human intellect as facts 
 accumulate ? In every generation, and now more rapidly than ever, 
 the things which it is necessary that somebody should know are 
 more and more multiplied. Every department of knowledge be- 
 comes so loaded with details, that one who endeavours to know it 
 with minute accuracy, must confine himself to a smaller and smaller 
 portion of the whole extent : every science and art must be cut up 
 into subdivisions, until each man's portion, the district which he 
 thoroughly knows, bears about the same ratio to the whole range of 
 useful knowledge that the art of putting on a pin's head does to the 
 field of human industry. Now, if in order to know that little com- 
 pletely, it is necessary to remain wholly ignorant of all the rest, 
 what will soon be the worth of a man, for any human purpose ex- 
 cept his own infinitesimal fraction of human wants and require- 
 ments ? His state will be even worse than that of simple ignorance. 
 Experience proves that there is no one study or pursuit, which, 
 practised to the exclusion of all others, does not narrow and pervert 
 the mind ; breeding in it a class of prejudices special to that pur- 
 suit, besides a general prejudice, common to all narrow specialities, 
 against large views, from an incapacity to take in and appreciate the-
 
 10 
 
 grounds of them. We should have to expect that human nature 
 would be more and more dwarfed, and unfitted for great'things, by 
 its very proficiency in small ones. But matters are not so bad with 
 us : there is no ground for so dreary an anticipation. It is not the 
 utmost limit of human acquirement to know only one thing, but to 
 combine a minute knowledge of one or a few things with a general 
 knowledge of many things. By a general knowledge I do not mean 
 a few vague impressions. An eminent man, one of whose writings 
 is part of the course of this University, Archbishop Whately, has 
 well discriminated between a general knoAvledge and a superficial 
 knowledge. To have a general knowledge of a subject is to know 
 only its leading truths, but to know these not superficially but tho- 
 roughly, so as to have a true conception of the subject in its great 
 features ; leaving the minor details to those who require them for 
 the purposes of their special pursuit. There is no incompatibility 
 between knowing a wide range of subjects up to this point, and some 
 one subject with the completeness required by those who make it 
 their principal occupation. It is this combination which gives an 
 enlightened public : a body of cultivated intellects, each taught by 
 its attainments in its own province what real knowledge is, and 
 knowing enough of other subjects to be able to discern who are 
 those that know them better. The amount of knowledge is not to 
 be lightly estimated, which qualifies us for judging to whom we may 
 have recourse for more. The elements of the more important 
 studies being widely diffused, those who have reached the higher 
 summits find a public capable of appreciating their superiority, and 
 prepared to follow their lead. It is thus too that minds are formed 
 capable of guiding and improving public opinion on the greater 
 concerns of practical life. Government and civil society are the 
 most complicated of all subjects accessible to the human mind : and 
 he who would deal competently with them as a thinker, and not as 
 a blind follower of party, requires not only a general knowledge of 
 the leading facts of life, both moral and material, but an under- 
 standing exercised and disciplined in the principles and rules of 
 sound thinking, up to a point which neither the experience of life, 
 nor any one science or branch of knowledge, affords. Let us un- 
 derstand, then, that it should be our aim in learning, not merely to 
 know the one thing which is to be our principal occupation, as well 
 as it can be known, but to do this and also to know something of 
 all the great subjects of human interest : taking care to know that 
 something accurately ; marking well the dividing line between what 
 we know accurately and what we do not : and remembering that 
 our object should bo to obtain a true view of nature and life 
 in their broad outline, and that it is idle to throw away time upon
 
 11 
 
 the details of anything which is to form no part of the occupation of 
 our practical energies. 
 
 It by no means follows, however, that every useful^ branch of 
 general, as distinct from professional, knowledge, should be in- 
 cluded in the curriculum of school or university studies. There 
 are things which are better learnt out of school, or when the school 
 years, and even those usually passed in a Scottish university, are 
 over. I do not agree with those reformers who would give a regular 
 and prominent place in the school or university course to modern 
 languages. This is not because I attach small importance to the 
 knowledge of them. No one can in our age be esteemed a well- 
 instructed person who is not familiar with at least the French lan- 
 guage, so as to read French books with ease ; and there is great use 
 in cultivating a familiarity with German. But living languages are 
 so much more easily acquired by intercourse with those who use 
 them in daily life ; a few months in the country itself, if properly 
 employed, go so much farther than as many years of school lessons ; 
 that it is really waste of time for those to whom that easier mode is 
 attainable, to labour at them with no help but that of books and 
 masters : and it will in time be made attainable, through interna- 
 tional schools and colleges, to many more than at present. Univer- 
 sities do enough to facilitate the study of modern languages, if they 
 give a mastery over that ancient language which is the foundation 
 of most of them, and the possession of which makes it easier to 
 learn four or five of the continental languages than it is to learn one 
 of them without it. Again, it has always seemed to me a great ab- 
 surdity that history and geography should be taught in schools ; 
 except in elementary schools for the children of the labouring 
 classes, whose subsequent access to books is limited. Who ever 
 really learnt history and geography except by piivate reading? and 
 what an utter failure a system of education must be, if it has not 
 given the pupil a sufficient taste for reading to seek for himself 
 those most attractive and easily intelligible of all kinds of know- 
 ledge ? Besides, such history and geography as can be taught in 
 schools exercise none of the faculties of the intelligence except the 
 memory. An University is indeed the place where the student 
 should be introduced to the Philosophy of History ; where Profes- 
 sors who not merely know the facts but have exercised their minds 
 on them, should initiate him into the causes and explanation, so far 
 as within our reach, of the past life of mankind in its principal fea- 
 tures. Historical criticism also the tests of historical truth are 
 a subject to which his attention may well be drawn in this stage of 
 his education. But of the mere facts of history, as commonly ac- 
 cepted, what educated youth of any mental activity does not learn
 
 12 
 
 as much as is necessary, if he is simply turned loose into an his- 
 torical library ? What he needs on this, and on most other matters 
 of common information, is not that he should be taught it in boy- 
 hood, but that abundance of books should be accessible to him. 
 
 The only languages, then, and the only literature, to which I 
 would allow a place in the ordinary curriculum, are those of the 
 Greeks and Eomans ; and to these I would preserve the position in 
 it which they at present occupy. That position is justified, by the 
 great value, in education, of knowing well some other cultivated 
 language and literature than one's own, and by the peculiar value 
 of those particular languages and literatures. 
 
 There is one purely intellectual benefit from a knowledge of lan- 
 guages, which I am specially desirous to dwell on. Those who 
 have seriously reflected on the causes of human error, have been 
 deeply impressed with the tendency of mankind to mistake words for 
 things. Without entering into the metaphysics of the subject, we 
 know how common it is to use Avords glibly and with apparent pro- 
 priety, and to accept them confidently when used by others, without 
 ever having had any distinct conception of the things denoted by 
 them. To quote again from Archbishop Whately, it is the habit of 
 mankind to mistake familiarity for accurate knowledge. As we 
 seldom think of asking the meaning of what we see every day, so 
 when our ears are used to the sound of a word or a phrase, we do 
 not suspect that it conveys no clear idea to our minds, and that we 
 should have the utmost difficulty in defining it, or expressing, in any 
 other words, what we think we understand by it. Now it is obvious 
 in what manner this bad habit tends to be corrected by the practice 
 of translating with accuracy from one language to another, and 
 hunting out the meanings expressed in a vocabulary with which we 
 have not grown familiar by early and constant use. I hardly know 
 any greater proof of the extraordinary genius of the Greeks, than 
 that they were able to make such brilliant achievements in abstract 
 thought, knowing, as they generally did, no language but their own. 
 But the Greeks did not escape the effects of this deficiency. 
 Their greatest intellects, those who laid the foundation of philosophy 
 and of all our intellectual culture, Plato and Aristotle, are con- 
 tinually led away by words ; mistaking the accidents of language 
 for real relations in nature, and supposing that things which have 
 the same name in the Greek tongue must be the same in their own 
 essence. There is a well-known saying of Hobbes, the far-reaching 
 significance of which you will more and more appreciate in propor- 
 tion to the growth of your own intellect : "Words are the counters 
 of wise men, but the money of fools." With the wise man a word 
 stands for the fact which it represents ; to the fool it is itself the
 
 13 
 
 fact. To carry on Hobbes' metaphor, the counter is far more likely 
 to be taken for merely what it is, by those who are in the habit of 
 using many different kinds of counters. But besides the advantage 
 of possessing another cultivated language, there is a further con- 
 sideration equally important. Without knowing the language of a 
 people, we never really know their thoughts, their feelings, and their 
 type of character : and unless we do possess this knowledge, of some 
 other people than ourselves, we remain, to the hour of our death, 
 with our intellects only half expanded. Look at a youth who has 
 never been out of his family circle : he never dreams of any other 
 opinions or ways of thinking than those he has been bred up in ; or, 
 if he has heard of any such, attributes them to some moral defect, 
 or inferiority of nature or education. If his family are Tory, he can- 
 not conceive the possibility of being a Liberal ; if Liberal, of being 
 a Tory. What the notions and habits of a single family are to a 
 boy who has had no intercourse beyond it, the notions and habits of 
 his own country are to him who is ignorant of every other. Those 
 notions and habits are to him human nature itself; whatever varies 
 from them is an unaccountable aberration Avhich he cannot men- 
 tally realize : the idea that any other ways can be right, or as near 
 an approach to right as some of his own, is inconceivable to him. 
 This does not merely close his eyes to the many things which every 
 country still has to learn from others : it hinders every country 
 from reaching the improvement which it could otherwise attain by 
 itself. We are not likely to correct any of our opinions or mend 
 any of our ways, unless we begin by conceiving that they are 
 capable of amendment : but merely to know that foreigners think 
 differently from ourselves, without understanding why they do so, 
 or what they really do think, does but confirm us in our self-con- 
 ceit, and connect our national vanity with the preservation of our 
 own peculiarities. Improvement consists in bringing our opinions 
 into nearer agreement with facts ; and we shall not be likely to do 
 this while we look at facts only through glasses coloured by those 
 very opinions. But since we cannot divest ourselves of precon- 
 ceived notions, there is no known means of eliminating their in- 
 fluence but by frequently using the differently coloured glasses of 
 other people : and those of other nations, as the most different, are 
 the best. 
 
 But if it is so useful, on this account, to know the language and 
 literature of any other cultivated and civilized people, the most 
 valuable of all to us in this respect are the languages and literature 
 of the ancients. No nations of modern and civilized Europe are so 
 unlike one another, as the Greeks and Romans are unlike all of us ; 
 yet without being, as some remote Orientals are, so totally dis-
 
 14 
 
 similar, that the labour of a life is required to enable us to under- 
 stand them. Were this the only gain to be derived from a know- 
 ledge of the ancients, it would already place the study of them in a 
 high rank among enlightening and liberalizing pursuits. It is of no use 
 saying that we may know them through modern writings. We may 
 know something of them in that way ; which is much better than 
 knowing nothing. But modern books do not teach us ancient 
 thought; they teach us some modern writer's notion of ancient 
 thought. Modern books do not show us the Greeks and Romans ; 
 they tell us some modern writer's opinions about the Greeks and 
 Eomans. Translations are scarcely better. When we want really 
 to know what a person thinks or says, we seek it at first hand from 
 himself. We do not trust to another person's impression of his 
 meaning, given in another person's words ; we refer to his own. 
 Much more is it necessary to do so when his words are in one lan- 
 guage, and those of his reporter in another. Modern phraseology 
 never conveys the exact meaning of a Greek writer ; it cannot do 
 so, except by a diffuse explanatory circumlocution which no trans- 
 lator dares use. We must be able, in a certain degree, to think in 
 Greek, if we would represent to ourselves how a Greek thought : 
 and this not only in the abstruse region of metaphysics, but about 
 the political, religious, and even domestic concerns of life. I will 
 mention a further aspect of this question, which, though I have not 
 the merit of originating it, I do not remember to have seen noticed 
 in any book. There is no part of our knowledge which it is more 
 useful to obtain at first hand to go to the fountain head for than 
 our knowledge of history. Yet this, in most cases, we hardly ever 
 do. Our conception of the past is not drawn from its own records, 
 but from books written about it, containing not the facts, but a view 
 of the facts which has shaped itself in the mind of somebody of our 
 own or a very recent time. Such books are very instructive and 
 valuable ; they help us to understand history, to interpret history, 
 to draw just conclusions from it; at the worst, they set us the 
 example of trying to do all this ; but they are not themselves 
 history. The knowledge they give is upon trust, and even when 
 they have done their best, it is not only incomplete but partial, 
 because confined to what a few modern writers have seen in the 
 materials, and have thought worth picking out from among them. 
 How little we learn of our own ancestors from Hume, or Hallam, or 
 Macaulay, compared with what we know if we add to what these 
 tell us, even a little reading of cotemporary authors and documents ! 
 The most recent historians are so well aware of this, that they fill 
 their pages with extracts from the original materials, feeling that 
 these extracts are the real history, and their comments and thread
 
 15 
 
 of narrative are only helps towards understanding it. Now it is 
 part of the great worth to us of our Greek and Latin studies, that 
 in them we do read history in the original sources. We are in 
 actual contact with cotemporary minds ; we are not dependent on 
 hearsay ; we have something by which we can test and check the 
 representations and theories of modern historians. It may be asked, 
 why then not study the original materials of modern history ? I 
 answer, it is highly desirable to do so ; and let me remark by the 
 Avay, that even this requires a dead language ; nearly all the docu- 
 ments prior to the Reformation, and many subsequent to it, being 
 written in Latin. But the exploration of these documents, though 
 a most useful pursuit, cannot be a branch of education. Not to 
 speak of their vast extent, and the fragmentary nature of each, the 
 strongest reason is, that in learning the spirit of our own past ages, 
 until a comparatively recent period, from cotemporary writers, we 
 learn hardly anything else. Those authors, with a few exceptions, 
 are little worth reading on their own account. While, in studying 
 the great writers of antiquity, we are not only learning to understand 
 the ancient mind, but laying in a stock of wise thought and observa- 
 tion, still valuable to ourselves; and at the same time making our- 
 selves familiar with a number of the most perfect and finished 
 literary compositions which the human mind has produced com- 
 positions which, from the altered conditions of human life, are 
 likely to be seldom paralleled, in their sustained excellence, by the 
 times to come. 
 
 Even as mere languages, no modern European language is so valu- 
 able a discipline to the intellect as those of Greece and Rome, on 
 account of their regular and complicated structure. Consider for 
 a moment what grammar is. It is the most elementary part of 
 logic. It is the beginning of the analysis of the thinking process. 
 The principles and rules of grammar are the means by which the 
 forms of language are made to correspond with the universal forms 
 of thought. The distinctions between the various parts of speech, 
 between the cases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, the 
 functions of particles, are distinctions in thought, not merely in 
 words. Single nouns and verbs express objects and events, many 
 of which can be cognized by the senses : but the modes of putting 
 nouns and verbs together, express the relations of objects and 
 events, which can be cognized only by the intellect; and each 
 different mode corresponds to a different relation. The structure 
 of every sentence is a lesson in logic. The various rules of syntax 
 oblige us to distinguish between the subject and predicate of a 
 proposition, between the agent, the action, and the thing acted 
 xipon ; to mark when an idea is intended to modify or qualify, or
 
 16 
 
 merely to unite with, some other idea ; what assertions are cate- 
 gorical, what only conditional ; whether the intention is to express 
 similarity or contrast, to make a plurality of assertions conjunctively 
 or disjunctively ; what portions of a sentence, though grammatically 
 complete within themselves, are mere members or subordinate 
 parts of the assertion made by the entire sentence. Such things 
 form the subject-matter of universal grammar; and the languages 
 which teach it best are those which have the most definite rules, 
 and which provide distinct forms for the greatest number of dis- 
 tinctions in thought, so that if we fail to attend precisely and accu- 
 rately to any of these, we cannot avoid committing a solecism in 
 language. In these qualities the classical languages have an incom- 
 parable superiority over every modern language, and over all 
 languages, dead or living, which have a literature worth being 
 generally studied. 
 
 But the superiority of the literature itself, for purposes of educa- 
 tion, is still more marked and decisive. Even in the substantial 
 value of the matter of which it is the vehicle, it is very far from 
 having been superseded. The discoveries of the ancients in science 
 have been greatly surpassed, and as much of them as is still valu- 
 able loses nothing by being incorporated in modern treatises : but 
 what does not so well admit of being transferred bodily, and has 
 been very imperfectly carried off even piecemeal, is the treasure 
 which they accumulated of what may be called the wisdom of life : 
 the rich store of experience of human nature and conduct, which 
 the acute and observing minds of those ages, aided in their obser- 
 vations by the greater simplicity of manners and life, consigned to 
 their writings, and most of which retains all its value. The 
 speeches in Thucydides; the Rhetoric, Ethics, and Politics of 
 Aristotle ; the Dialogues of Plato ; the Orations of Demosthenes ; 
 the Satires, and especially the Epistles of Horace ; all the writings 
 of Tacitus ; the great work of Quintilian, a repertory of the best 
 thoughts of the ancient world on all subjects connected with educa- 
 tion ; and, in a less formal manner, all that is left to us of the 
 ancient historians, orators, philosophers, and even dramatists, are 
 replete with remarks and maxims of singular good sense and pene- 
 tration, applicable both to political and to private life : and the 
 actual truths we find in them are even surpassed in value by the 
 encouragement and help they give us in the pursuit of truth. 
 Human invention has never produced anything so valuable in the 
 way both of stimulation and of discipline to the inquiring intellect, 
 as the dialectics of the ancients, of which many of the works of 
 Aristotle illustrate the theory, and those of Plato exhibit the 
 practice. No modern writings come near to these, in teaching,
 
 17 
 
 both by precept and example, the way to investigate truth, on those 
 subjects, so vastly important to us, which remain matters of con- 
 troversy from the difficulty or impossibility of bringing them to 
 a directly experimental test. To question all things; never to 
 turn away from any difficulty ; to accept no doctrine either from 
 ourselves or from other people without a rigid scrutiny by negative 
 criticism, letting no fallacy, or incoherence, or confusion of thought, 
 slip by unperceived ; above all, to insist upon having the meaning 
 of a word clearly understood before using it, and the meaning of a 
 proposition .before assenting to it ; these are the lessons we learn 
 from the ancient dialecticians. With all this vigorous management 
 of the negative element, they inspire no scepticism about the reality 
 of truth, or indifference to its pursuit. The noblest enthusiasm, 
 both for the search after truth and for -applying it to its highest 
 uses, pervades these writers, Aristotle no less than Plato, though 
 Plato has incomparably the greater power of imparting those 
 feelings to others. In cultivating, therefore, the ancient languages 
 as our best literary education, we are all the while laying an admi- 
 rable foundation for ethical and philosophical culture. In purely 
 literary excellence in perfection of form the pre-eminence of the 
 ancients is not disputed. In every department which they attempted, 
 and they attempted almost all, their composition, like their sculp- 
 ture, has been to the greatest modern artists an example, to be 
 looked up to with hopeless admiration, but of inappreciable value 
 as a light on high, guiding their own endeavours. In prose and in 
 poetry, in epic, lyric, or dramatic, as in historical, philosophical, 
 and oratorical art, the pinnacle on which they stand is equally 
 eminent. I am now speaking of the form, the artistic perfection 
 of treatment : for, as regards substance, I consider modern poetry 
 to be superior to ancient, in the same manner, though in a less 
 degree, as modern science : it enters deeper into nature. The 
 feelings of the modern mind are more various, more complex and 
 manifold, than those of the ancients ever were. The modern mind 
 is, what the ancient mind was not, brooding and self-conscious ; 
 and its meditative self-consciousness has discovered depths in the 
 human soul which the Greeks and Romans did not dream of, and 
 would not have understood. But what they had got to express, 
 they expressed in a manner which few even of the greatest moderns 
 have seriously attempted to rival. It must be remembered that 
 they had more time, and that they wrote chiefly for a select class, 
 possessed of leisure. To us who write in a hurry for people who 
 read in a hurry, the attempt to give an equal degree of finish woiild 
 be loss of time. But to be familiar with perfect models is not the 
 less important to us because the element in which we work pre- 
 
 B
 
 18 
 
 eludes even the effort to equal them. They shew us at least what 
 excellence is, and make us desire it, and strive to get as near to it 
 as is within our reach. And this is the value to us of the ancient 
 writers, all the more emphatically, because their excellence does 
 not admit of being copied, or directly imitated. It does not con- 
 sist in a trick which can be learnt, but in the perfect adaptation of 
 means to ends. The secret of the style of the great Greek and 
 Roman authors, is that it is the perfection of good sense. In the 
 first place, they never use a word without a meaning, or a word 
 which adds nothing to the meaning. They always (to begin with) 
 had a meaning ; they knew what they wanted to say ; and their 
 whole purpose was to say it with the highest degree of exactness 
 and completeness, and bring it home to the mind with the greatest 
 possible clearness and vividness. It never entered into their 
 thoughts to conceive of a piece of writing as beautiful in itself, 
 abstractedly from what it had to express : its beauty must all be 
 subservient to the most perfect expression of the sense. The 
 curiosa felicitas which their critics ascribed in a pre-eminent degree 
 to Horace, expresses the standard at which they all aimed. Their 
 style is exactly described by Swift's definition, " the right words in 
 the right places." Look at an oration of Demosthenes ; there is 
 nothing in it which calls attention to itself as style at all : it is only 
 after a close examination we perceive that every word is what it 
 should be, and where it should be, to lead the hearer smoothly and 
 imperceptibly into the state of mind which the orator wishes to 
 produce. The perfection of the workmanship is only visible in 
 the total absence of any blemish or fault, and of anything which 
 checks the flow of thought and feeling, anything which even 
 momentarily distracts the mind from the main purpose. But then 
 (as has been well said) it was not the object of Demosthenes to 
 make the Athenians cry out " What a splendid speaker ! " but to 
 make them say "Let us march against Philip!" It was only in 
 the decline of ancient literature that ornament began to be culti- 
 vated merely as ornament. In the time of its maturity, not the 
 merest epithet was put in because it was thought beautiful in 
 itself; nor even for a merely descriptive purpose, for epithets 
 purely descriptive Avere one of the corruptions of style which 
 abound in Lucan, for example : the word had no business there 
 unless it brought out some feature which was wanted, and helped 
 to place the object in the light which the purpose of the com- 
 position required. These conditions being complied with, then 
 indeed the intrinsic beauty of the means used was a source 
 of additional effect, of which it behoved them to avail them- 
 selves, like rhythm and melody of versification. But these great
 
 19 
 
 writers knew that ornament for the sake of ornament, orna- 
 ment which attracts attention to itself, and shines by its own 
 beauties, only does so by calling off the mind from the main object, 
 and thus not only interferes Avith the higher purpose of human 
 discourse, which ought, and generally professes, to have some matter 
 to communicate, apart from the mere excitement of the moment, 
 but also spoils the perfection of the composition as a piece of fine 
 art, by destroying the unity of effect. This, then, is the first great 
 lesson in composition to be learnt from the classical authors. The 
 second is, not to be prolix. In a single paragraph, Thucydides can 
 give a clear and vivid representation of a battle, such as a reader 
 who has once taken it into his mind can seldom forget. The most 
 powerful and affecting piece of narrative perhaps in all historical 
 literature, is the account of the Sicilian catastrophe in his seventh 
 book, yet how few pages does it fill ! The ancients were concise, 
 because of the extreme pains they took with their compositions ; 
 almost ah 1 moderns are prolix, because they do not. The great 
 ancients could express a thought so perfectly in a few words or 
 sentences, that they did not need to add any more : the moderns, 
 because they cannot bring it out clearly and completely at once, 
 return again and again, heaping sentence upon sentence, each 
 adding a little more elucidation, in hopes that though no single 
 sentence expresses the full meaning, the whole together may give a 
 sufficient notion of it. In this respect, I am afraid we are growing 
 worse instead of better, for want of time and patience, and from the 
 necessity we are in of addressing almost all writings to a busy and 
 imperfectly prepared public. The demands of modern life are such 
 the work to be done, the mass to be worked upon, are so vast, that 
 those who have anything particular to say who have, as the phrase 
 goes, any message to deliver cannot afford to devote their time to 
 the production of masterpieces. But they would do far worse than 
 they do, if there had never been masterpieces, or if they had never 
 known them. Early familiarity with the perfect, makes our most 
 imperfect production far less bad than it otherwise would be. To 
 have a high standard of excellence often makes the whole difference 
 of rendering our work good when it would otherwise be mediocre. 
 
 For all these reasons, I think it important to retain these two 
 languages and literatures in the place they occupy, as a part of 
 liberal education, that is, of the education of all who are not obliged 
 by their circumstances to discontinue their scholastic studies at a 
 very early age. But the same reasons which vindicate the place of 
 classical studies in general education, shew also the proper limita- 
 tion of them. They should be carried as far as is sufficient to 
 enable the pupil, in after life, to read the great works of ancient
 
 20 
 
 literature with ease. Those who have leisure and inclination to 
 make scholarship, or ancient history, or general philology, their 
 pursuit, of course require much more ; but there is no room for more 
 in general education. The laborious idleness in which the school- 
 time is wasted away in the English classical schools deserves the 
 severest reprehension. To what purpose should the most precious 
 years of early life be irreparably squandered in learning to write 
 bad Latin and Greek verses ? I do not see that we are much the 
 better even for those who end by writing good ones. I am often 
 tempted to ask the favourites of nature and fortune, whether all the 
 serious and important work of the world is done, that their time 
 and energy can be spared for these nugce difficiles ? I am not blind 
 to the utility of composing in a language, as a means of learning it 
 accurately. I hardly know any other means equally effectual. 
 But why should not prose composition suffice ? What need is 
 there of original composition at all ? if that can be called original 
 which unfortunate schoolboys, without any thoughts to express, 
 hammer out on compulsion from mere memory, acquiring the per- 
 nicious habit which a teacher should consider it one of his first 
 duties to repress, that of merely stringing together borrowed phrases? 
 The exercise in composition, most suitable to the requirements of 
 learners, is that most valuable one, of retranslating from translated 
 passages of a good author : and to this might be added, what still 
 exists in many Continental places of education, occasional practice 
 in talking Latin. There would be something to be said for the 
 time spent in the manufacture of verses, if such practice were 
 necessary for the enjoyment of ancient poetry ; though it would be 
 better to lose that enjoyment than to purchase it at so extravagant 
 a price. But the beauties of a great poet would be a far poorer 
 thing than they are, if they only impressed us through a knowledge 
 of the technicalities of his art. The poet needed those technicalities: 
 they are not necessary to us. They are essential for criticizing u 
 poem, but not for enjoying it. All that is wanted is sufficient 
 familiarity with the language, for its meaning to reach us without 
 any sense of effort, and clothed with the associations on which the 
 poet counted for producing his effect. Whoever has this familiarity, 
 and a practised ear, can have as keen a relish of the music of Virgil 
 and Horace, as of Gray, or Burns, or Shelley, though he know not 
 the metrical rules of a common Sapphic or Alcaic. I do not say 
 that these rules ought not to be taught, but I would have a class 
 apart for them, and would make the appropriate exercises an op- 
 tional, not a compulsory part of the school teaching. 
 
 Much more might be said respecting classical instruction, and 
 literary cultivation in general, as a part of liberal education. But
 
 21 
 
 it is time to speak of the uses of scientific instruction : or rather its 
 indispensable necessity, for it is recommended by every consideration 
 which pleads for any high order of intellectual education at all. 
 
 The most obvious part of the value of scientific instruction, the 
 mere information that it gives, speaks for itself. "We are born into 
 a world which we have not made ; a world whose phenomena take 
 place according to fixed laws, of which we do not bring any know- 
 ledge into the world with us. In such a world we are appointed to 
 live, and in it all our work is to be done. Our whole working 
 power depends on knowing the laws of the world in other words, 
 the properties of the things which we have to work with, and to 
 work among, and to work upon. We may and do rely, for the 
 greater part of this knowledge, on the few who in each department 
 make its acquisition their main business in life. But unless an 
 elementary knowledge of scientific truths is diffused among the 
 public, they never know what is certain and what is not, or who 
 are entitled to speak with authority and who are not : and they 
 either have no faith at all in the testimony of science, or are the 
 ready dupes of charlatans and impostors. They alternate between 
 ignorant distrust, and blind, often misplaced, confidence. Besides, 
 who is there who would not wish to understand the meaning of the 
 common physical facts that take place under his eye ? Who would 
 not wish to know why a pump raises water, why a lever moves 
 heavy weights, why it is hot at the tropics and cold at the poles, 
 why the moon is sometimes dark and sometimes bright, what is the 
 cause of the tides ? Do we not feel that he who is totally ignorant 
 of these things, let him be ever so skilled in a special profession, is 
 not an educated man but an ignoramus ? It is surely no small 
 part of education to put us in intelligent possession of the most im- 
 portant and most universally interesting facts of the universe, so 
 that the world which surrounds us may not be a sealed book to us, 
 uninteresting because unintelligible. This, however, is but the 
 simplest and most obvious part of the utility of science, and the 
 part which, if neglected in youth, may be the most easily made up 
 for afterwards. It is more important to tinderstand the value of 
 scientific instruction as a training and disciplining process, to fit the 
 intellect for the proper Avork of a human being. Facts are the 
 materials of our knowledge, but the mind itself is the instrument : 
 and it is easier to acquire facts, than to judge what they prove, and 
 how, through the facts which we know, to get to those which we 
 want to know. 
 
 The most incessant occupation of the human intellect throughout 
 life is the ascertainment of truth. We are always needing to know 
 what is actually true about something or other. It is not given to
 
 22 
 
 us all to discover great general truths, that are a light to all men 
 and to future generations ; though with a better general education 
 the number of those who could do so would be far greater than it 
 is. But we all require the ability to judge between the conflicting 
 opinions which are offered to us as vital truths ; to choose what 
 doctrines we will receive in the matter of religion, for example ; to 
 judge whether we ought to be Tories, Whigs, or Radicals, or to 
 what length it is our duty to go with each ; to form a rational 
 conviction on great questions of legislation and internal policy, and 
 on the manner in which our country should behave to dependencies 
 and to foreign nations. And the need we have of knowing how to 
 discriminate truth, is not confined to the larger truths. All through 
 life it is our most pressing interest to find out the truth about all 
 the matters we are concerned with. If we are farmers, we want to 
 find what will truly improve our soil ; if merchants, what will truly 
 influence the markets of our commodities ; if judges, or jurymen, 
 or advocates, who it was that truly did an unlawful act, or to whom 
 a disputed right truly belongs. Every time we have to make a new 
 resolution or alter an old one, in any situation in life, we shall go 
 wrong unless we know the truth abdut the facts on which our 
 resolution depends. Now, however different these searches for 
 truth may look, and however unlike they really are in their subject- 
 matter, the methods of getting at truth, and the tests of truth, are 
 in all cases much the same. There are but two roads by which 
 truth can be discovered ; observation, and reasoning : observation, 
 of course, including experiment. We all observe, and we all 
 reason, and therefore, more or less successfully, we all ascertain 
 truths : but most of us do it very ill, and could not get on at all 
 were we not able to fall back on others who do it better. If we 
 could not do it in any degree, we should be mere instruments in 
 the hands of those who could : they would be able to reduce us to 
 slavery. Then how shall we best learn to do this? By being 
 shewn the way in which it has already been successfully done. 
 The processes by which truth is attained, reasoning and observation, 
 have been carried to their greatest known perfection in the physical 
 sciences. As classical literature furnishes the most perfect types of 
 the art of expression, so do the physical sciences those of the art of 
 thinking. Mathematics, and its application to astronomy and 
 natural philosophy, are the most complete example of the discovery 
 of truths by reasoning ; experimental science, of their discovery by 
 direct observation. In all these cases wo know that we can trust 
 the operation, because the conclusions to which it has led have 
 been found true by subsequent trial. It is by the study of these, 
 then, that we may hope to qualify ourselves for distinguishing truth,.
 
 23 
 
 in cases where there do not exist the same ready means of verifi- 
 cation. 
 
 In what consists the principal and most characteristic difference 
 between one human intellect and another ? In their ability to 
 judge correctly of evidence. Our direct perceptions of truth are so 
 limited ; we know so few things by immediate intuition, or, as it 
 used to be called, by simple apprehension that we depend for 
 almost all our valuable knowledge, on evidence external to itself; 
 and most of us are very unsafe hands at estimating evidence, where 
 an appeal cannot be made to actual eyesight. The intellectual part 
 of our education has nothing more important to do, than to correct 
 or mitigate this almost universal infirmity this summary and 
 substance of nearly all purely intellectual weakness. To do this 
 with effect needs all the resources which the most perfect system of 
 intellectual training can command. Those resources, as every 
 teacher knows, are but of three kinds : first, models, secondly rules, 
 thirdly, appropriate practice. The models of the art of estimating 
 evidence are furnished by science ; the rules are suggested by 
 science ; and the study of science is the most fundamental portion of 
 the practice. 
 
 Take in the first instance mathematics. It is chiefly from ma- 
 thematics we realize the fact that there actually is a road to truth 
 by means of reasoning ; that anything real, and which will be found 
 true when tried, can be arrived at by a mere operation of the mind. 
 The flagrant abuse of mere reasoning in the days of the schoolmen, 
 when men argued confidently to supposed facts of outward nature 
 without properly establishing their premises, or checking the con- 
 clusions by observation, created a prejudice in the modern, and 
 especially in the English mind, against deductive reasoning alto- 
 gether, as a mode of investigation. The prejudice lasted long, and 
 was upheld by the misunderstood authority of Lord Bacon ; until 
 the prodigious applications of mathematics to physical science to 
 the discovery of the laws of external nature slowly and tardily 
 restored the reasoning process to the place which belongs to it as a 
 source of real knowledge. Mathematics, pure and applied, are still 
 the great conclusive example of what can be done by reasoning. 
 Mathematics also habituates us to several of the principal precau- 
 tions for the safety of the process. Our first studies in geometry 
 teach us two invaluable lessons. One is, to lay down at the 
 beginning, in express and clear terms, all the premises from which, 
 we intend to reason. The other is, to keep every step in the 
 reasoning distinct and separate from all the other steps, and to make 
 each step safe before proceeding to another ; expressly stating to 
 ourselves, at every joint in the reasoning, what new premise we
 
 24 
 
 there introduce. It is not necessary that we should do this at all 
 times, in all our reasonings. But we must be always able and 
 ready to do it. If the validity of our argument is denied, or if we 
 doubt it ourselves, that is the way to check it. In this way we are 
 often enabled to detect at once the exact place where paralogism or 
 confusion get in : and after sufficient practice we may be able to 
 keep them out from the beginning. It is to mathematics, again, 
 that we owe our first notion of a connected body of truth ; truths 
 which grow out of one another, and hang together, so that each 
 implies all the rest ; that no one of them can be questioned without 
 contradicting another or others, until in the end it appears that no 
 part of the system can be false unless the Avhole is so. Pure mathe- 
 matics first gave us this conception ; applied mathematics extends 
 it to the realm of physical nature. Applied mathematics shews us 
 that not only the truths of abstract number and extension, but the 
 external facts of the universe, which we apprehend by our senses, 
 form, at least in a large part of all nature, a web similarly held 
 together. We are able, by reasoning from a few fundamental 
 truths, to explain and predict the phenomena of material objects : 
 and what is still more remarkable, the fundamental truths were 
 themselves found out by reasoning ; for they are not such as are 
 obvious to the senses, but had to be inferred by a mathematical 
 process from a mass of minute details, which alone came within the 
 direct reach of human observation. When Newton, in this manner, 
 discovered the laws of the solar system, he created, for all posterity, 
 the true idea of science. He gave the most perfect example we are 
 ever likely to have, of that union of reasoning and observation, 
 which by means of facts that can be directly observed, ascends to 
 laws which govern multitudes of other facts laws which not only 
 explain and account for what we see, but give us assurance before- 
 hand of much that we do not see, much that we never could have 
 found out by observation, though, having been found out, it is 
 always verified by the result. 
 
 While mathematics, and the mathematical sciences, supply us with 
 a typical example of the ascertainment of truth by reasoning ; those 
 physical sciences which are not mathematical, such as chemistry, and 
 purely experimental physics, shew us in equal perfection the other 
 rnqde of arriving at certain truth, by observation, in its most accu- 
 rate form, that of experiment. The value of mathematics in a logical 
 point of view is an old topic with mathematicians, and has even 
 been insisted on so exclusively as to provoke a counter-exaggeration, 
 of which a well-known essay by Sir William Hamilton is an ex- 
 ample : but the logical value of experimental science is compara- 
 tively a new subject, yet there is no intellectual discipline more
 
 25 
 
 important than that which the experimental sciences afford. Their 
 whole occupation consists in doing well, what all of us, during the 
 whole of life, are engaged in doing, for the most part badly. All 
 men do not affect to be reasoners, but all profess, and really attempt, 
 to draw inferences from experience : yet hardly any one, who has 
 not been a student of the physical sciences, sets out with any just 
 idea of what the process of interpreting experience really is. If a 
 fact has occurred once or oftener, and another fact has followed it, 
 people think they have got an experiment, and are well on the road 
 towards shewing that the one fact is the cause of the other. If they 
 did but know the immense amount of precaution necessary to a 
 scientific experiment ; with what sedulous care the accompanying 
 circumstances are contrived and varied, so as to exclude every 
 agency but that which is the subject of the experiment or, when 
 disturbing agencies cannot be excluded, the minute accuracy with 
 which their influence is calculated and allowed for, in order that the 
 residue may contain nothing but what is due to the one agency 
 under examination ; if these things were attended to, people would 
 be much less easily satisfied that their opinions have the evidence 
 of experience ; many popular notions and generalizations which are 
 in all mouths, would be thought a great deal less certain than they 
 are supposed to be ; but we should begin to lay the foundation of 
 really experimental knowledge, on things which are now the sub- 
 jects of mere vague discussion, where one side finds as much to say 
 and says it as confidently as another, and each person's opinion is less 
 determined by evidence than by his accidental interest or preposses- 
 sion. In politics, for instance, it is evident to whoever comes to the 
 study from that of the experimental sciences, that no political con- 
 clusions of any value for practice can be arrived at by direct expe- 
 rience. Such specific experience as we can have, serves only to 
 verify, and even that insufficiently, the conclusions of reasoning. 
 Take any active force you please in politics, take the liberties of 
 England, or free trade : how should we know that either of these 
 things conduced to prosperity, if we could discern no tendency in 
 the things themselves to produce it ? If we had only the evidence 
 of what is called our experience, such prosperity as we enjoy might 
 be owing to a hundred other causes, and might have been ob- 
 structed, not promoted, by these. All true political science is, in 
 one sense of the phrase, & priori, being deduced from the tendencies 
 of things ; tendencies known either through our general experience 
 of human nature, or as the result of an analysis of the course of 
 history, considered as a progressive evolution. It requires, there- 
 fore, the union of induction and deduction, and the mind that is 
 equal to it must have been well disciplined in both. But familiarity
 
 26 
 
 with scientific experiment at least does the useful service of in- 
 spiring a wholesome scepticism about the conclusions which the 
 mere surface of experience suggests. 
 
 The study, on the one hand, of mathematics and its applications, 
 on the other, of experimental science, prepares us for the principal 
 business of the intellect, by the practice of it in the most charac- 
 teristic cases, and by familiarity with the most perfect and success- 
 ful models of it. But in great things as in small, examples and 
 models are not sufficient : we want rules as well. Familiarity with 
 the correct use of a language in conversation and writing does not 
 make rules of grammar unnecessary ; nor does the amplest know- 
 ledge of sciences 9f reasoning and experiment dispense with rules of 
 logic. We may have heard correct reasonings and seen skilful ex- 
 periments all our lives we shall not learn by mere imitation to do 
 the like, unless we pay careful attention to how it is done. It is 
 much easier in these abstract matters, than in purely mechanical 
 ones, to mistake bad work for good. To mark out the difference be- 
 tween them is the province of logic. Logic lays down the general 
 principles and laws of the search after truth ; the conditions which, 
 whether recognised or not, must actually have been observed if the 
 mind has done its work rightly. Logic is the intellectual comple- 
 ment of mathematics and physics. Those sciences give the practice, 
 of which Logic is the theory. It declares the principles, rules, and 
 precepts, of which they exemplify the observance. 
 
 The science of Logic has two parts ; ratiocinative and inductive 
 logic. The one helps to keep us right in reasoning from premises, 
 the other in concluding from observation. Batiocinative logic is 
 much older than inductive, because reasoning in the narrower sense 
 of the word is an easier process than induction, and the science 
 which works by mere reasoning, pure mathematics, had been carried 
 to a considerable height while the sciences of observation were still 
 in the purely e'mpirical period. The principles of ratiocination, 
 therefore, were the earliest understood and systematized ; and the 
 logic of ratiocination is even now suitable to an earlier stage in 
 education than that of induction. The principles of induction can- 
 not be properly understood without some previous study of the in- 
 ductive sciences : but the logic of reasoning, which was already 
 carried to a high degree of perfection by Aristotle, does not abso- 
 lutely require even a knowledge of mathematics, but can be suffi- 
 ciently exemplified and illustrated from the practice of daily life. 
 
 Of Logic I venture to say, even if limited to that of mere ratioci- 
 nation, the theory of names, propositions, and the syllogism, that 
 there is no part of intellectual education which is of greater value, 
 or whose place can so ill be supplied by anything else. Its uses, it
 
 27 
 
 is true, are chiefly negative ; its function is, not so much to teach 
 us to go right, as to keep us from going wrong. But in the opera- 
 tions of the intellect it is so much easier to go wrong than right ; it 
 is so utterly impossible for even the most vigorous mind to keep 
 itself in the path but by maintaining a vigilant watch against all 
 deviations, and noting all the byways by which it is possible to go 
 astray that the chief difference between one reasoner and another 
 consists in their less or greater liability to be misled. Logic points 
 out all the possible ways in which, starting from true premises, we 
 may draw false conclusions. By its analysis of the reasoning pro- 
 cess, and the forms it supplies for stating and setting forth our rea- 
 sonings, it enables us to guard the points at which a fallacy is in 
 danger of slipping in, or to lay our fingers upon the place where it 
 has slipped in. When I consider how very simple the theory of rea- 
 soning is, and how short a time is sufficient for acquiring a thorough 
 knowledge of its principles and rules, and even considerable expert- 
 ness in applying them, I can find no excuse for omission to study it 
 on the part of any one who aspires to succeed in any intellectual 
 pursuit. Logic is the great disperser of hazy and confused thinking : 
 it clears tip the fogs which hide from us our own ignorance, and 
 make us believe that we understand a subject when we do not. We 
 must not be led away by talk about inarticulate giants who do great 
 deeds without knowing how, and see into the most recondite truths 
 without any of the ordinary helps, and without being able to explain 
 to other people how they reach their conclusions, nor consequently 
 to convince any other people of the truth of them. There may be 
 such men, as there are deaf and dumb persons who do clever things, 
 but for all that, speech and hearing are faculties by no means to be 
 dispensed with. If you want to know whether you are thinking 
 rightly, put your thoughts into words. In the very attempt to do 
 this you will find yourselves, consciously or unconsciously, using 
 logical forms. Logic compels us to throw our meaning into distinct 
 propositions, and our reasonings into distinct steps. It makes us 
 conscious of all the implied assumptions on which we are proceed- 
 ing, and which, if not true, vitiate the entire process. It makes us 
 aware what extent of doctrine we commit ourselves to by any course 
 of reasoning, and obliges us to look the implied premises in the face, 
 and make up our minds whether we can stand to them. It makes 
 our opinions consistent with themselves and with one another, and 
 forces us to think clearly, even when it cannot make us think cor- 
 rectly. It is true that error may be consistent and systematic as 
 well as truth ; but this is not the common case. It is no small ad- 
 vantage to see clearly the principles and consequences involved in 
 our opinions, and which we must either accept, or else abandon
 
 28 
 
 those opinions. We are much nearer to finding truth when we 
 search for it in broad daylight. Error, pursued rigorously to all 
 that is implied in it, seldom fails to get detected by coming into 
 collision with some known and admitted fact. 
 
 You will find abundance of people to tell you that logic is no 
 help to thought, and that people cannot be taught to think by rules. 
 Undoubtedly rules by themselves, without practice, go but a little 
 way in teaching anything. But if the practice of thinking is not 
 improved by rules, I venture to say it is the only difficult thing 
 done by human beings that is not so. A man learns to saw wood 
 principally by practice, but there are rules for doing it, grounded 
 on the nature of the operation, and if he is not taught the rules, 
 he will not saw well until he has discovered them for himself. 
 Wherever there is a right way and a wrong, there must be a diffe- 
 rence between them, and it must be possible to find out what the 
 difference is ; and when found out and expressed in words, it is a 
 rule for the operation. If any one is inclined to disparage rules, I 
 say to him, try to learn anything which there are rules for, without 
 knowing the rules, and see how you succeed. To those who think 
 lightly of the school logic, I say, take the trouble to learn it. You 
 will easily do so in a few weeks, and you Avill see whether it is of 
 no use to you in making your mind clear, and keeping you from 
 stumbling in the darjc over the most outrageous fallacies. Nobody, 
 I believe, who has really learnt it, and who goes on using his mind, 
 is insensible to its benefits, unless he started with a prejudice, or, 
 like some eminent English and Scottish thinkers of the last century, 
 is under the influence of a reaction against the exaggerated preten- 
 sions made by the schoolmen, not so much in behalf of logic as of 
 the reasoning process itself. Still more highly must the use of 
 logic be estimated, if we include in it, as we ought to do, the prin- 
 ciples and rules of Induction as well as of Ratiocination. As the 
 one logic guards us against bad deduction, so does the other against 
 bad generalization, which is a still more universal error. If men 
 easily err in arguing from one general proposition to another, still 
 more easily do they go wrong in interpreting the observations made 
 by themselves and others. There is nothing in which an untrained 
 mind shows itself more hopelessly incapable, than in drawing the 
 proper general conclusions from its own experience. And even 
 trained minds, when all their training is on a special subject, and 
 does not extend to the general principles of induction, arc only 
 kept right when there are ready opportunities of verifying their 
 inferences by facts. Able scientific men, when they venture upon 
 subjects in which they have no facts to check them, are often found 
 drawing conclusions or making generalizations from their experi-
 
 29 
 
 mental knowledge, such as any sound theory of induction would 
 shew to be utterly unwarranted. So true is it that practice alone, 
 even of a good kind, is not sufficient without principles and rules. 
 Lord Bacon had the great merit of seeing that rules were necessary, 
 and conceiving, to a very considerable extent, their true character. 
 The defects of his conception were such as were inevitable while 
 the inductive sciences were only in the earliest stage of their pro- 
 gress, and the highest efforts of the human mind in that direction 
 had not yet been made. Inadequate as the Baconian view of induc- 
 tion was, and rapidly as the practice outgrew it, it is only within a 
 generation or two that any considerable improvement has been 
 made in the theory ; very much through the impulse given by 
 two of the many distinguished men who have adorned the Scottish 
 universities, Dugald Stewart and Brown. 
 
 I have given a very incomplete and summary view of the educa- 
 tional benefits derived from instruction in the more perfect sciences, 
 and in the rules for the proper use of the intellectual faculties 
 which the practice of those sciences has suggested. There are 
 other sciences, which are in a more backward state, and tax the 
 whole powers of the mind in its mature years, yet a beginning of 
 which may be beneficially made in university studies, while a 
 tincture of them is valuable even to those who are never likely to 
 proceed further. The first is physiology ; the science of the laws of 
 organic and animal life, and especially of the structure and func- 
 tions of the human body. It would be absurd to pretend that a 
 profound knowledge of this difficult subject can be acquired in 
 youth, or as a part of general education. Yet an acquaintance with 
 its leading truths is one of those acquirements which ought not to 
 be the exclusive property of a particular profession. The value of 
 such knowledge for daily uses has been made familiar to us all by 
 the sanitary discussions of late years. There is hardly one among 
 us who may not, in some position of authority, be required to form 
 an opinion, and take part in public action, on sanitary subjects. 
 And the importance of understanding the true conditions of health 
 and .disease of knowing how to acquire and preserve that healthy 
 habit of body which the most tedious and costly medical treatment 
 so often fails to restore when once lost, should secure a place in 
 general education for the principal maxims of hygiene, and some 
 of those even of practical medicine. For those who aim at high 
 intellectual cultivation, the study of physiology has still greater 
 recommendations, and is, in the present state of advancement of 
 the higher studies, a real necessity. The practice which it gives 
 in the study of nature is such as no other physical science affords 
 in the same kind, and is the best introduction to the difficult
 
 30 
 
 questions of politics and social life. Scientific education, apart from 
 professional objects, is but a preparation for judging rightly of 
 Man, and of his requirements and interests. But to this final pur- 
 suit, which has been called par excellence the proper study of man- 
 kind, physiology is the most serviceable of the sciences, because it 
 is the nearest. Its subject is already Man: the same complex and 
 manifold being, whose properties are not independent of circum- 
 stance, and immovable from age to age, like those of the ellipse and 
 hyperbola, or of sulphur and phosphorus, but are infinitely various, 
 indefinitely modifiable by art or accident, graduating by the nicest 
 shades into one another, and reacting upon one another in a 
 thousand ways, so that they are seldom capable of being isolated 
 and observed separately. With the difficulties of the study of a 
 being so constituted, the physiologist, and he alone among scientific 
 enquirers, is already familiar. Take what view we will of man as a 
 spiritual being, one part of his nature is far more like another than 
 either of them is like anything else. In the organic world we 
 study nature under disadvantages very similar to those which affect 
 the study of moral and political phenomena : our means of making 
 experiments are almost as limited, while the extreme complexity of 
 the facts makes the conclusions of general reasoning unusually 
 precarious, on account of the vast number 1 of circumstances that 
 conspire to determine every result. Yet in spite of these obstacles, 
 it is found possible in physiology to arrive at a considerable number 
 of well-ascertained and important truths. This therefore is an 
 excellent school in which to study the means of overcoming similar 
 difficulties elsewhere. It is in physiology too that we are first 
 introduced to some of the conceptions which play the greatest part 
 in the moral and social sciences, but which do not occur at all in 
 those of inorganic nature. As, for instance, the idea of predis- 
 position, and of predisposing causes, as distinguished from exciting 
 causes. The operation of all moral forces is immensely influenced 
 by predisposition : without that element, it is impossible to explain 
 the commonest facts of history and social life. Physiology is also 
 the first science in which we recognise the influence of habit the 
 tendency of something to happen again, merely because it has 
 happened before. From physiology, too, we get our clearest notion 
 of what is meant by development, or evolution. The growth of a 
 plant or animal from the first germ is the 1 typical specimen of a 
 phenomenon which rules through the whole course of the history 
 of man and society increase of function, through expansion and 
 differentiation of structure by internal forces. I cannot enter 'into 
 the subject at greater length ; it is enough if I throw out hints 
 which may be germs of further thought in yourselves. Those who
 
 31 
 
 aim at high intellectual achievements may be assured that no part 
 of their time will be less wasted, than that which they employ in 
 becoming familiar with the methods and with the main conceptions 
 of the science of organization and life. 
 
 Physiology, at its upper extremity, touches on Psychology, or 
 the Philosophy of Mind : and without raising any disputed ques- 
 tions about the limits between Matter and Spirit, the nerves and 
 brain are admitted to have so intimate a connexion with the mental 
 operations, that the student of the last cannot dispense with a con- 
 siderable knowledge of the first. The value of psychology itself 
 need hardly be expatiated upon in a Scottish university ; for it has 
 always been there studied with brilliant success. Almost every- 
 thing which has been contributed from these islands towards its ad- 
 vancement since Locke and Berkeley, has until very lately, and much 
 of it even in the present generation, proceeded from Scottish authors 
 and Scottish professor. Psychology, in truth, is simply the knowledge 
 of the laws of human nature. If there is anything that deserves to 
 be studied by man, it is his own nature and that of his fellow-men : 
 and if it is worth studying at all, it is worth studying scientifically, 
 so as to reach the fundamental laws which underlie and govern all 
 the rest. With regard to the suitableness of this subject for general 
 education, a distinction must be made. There are certain observed 
 laws of our thoughts and of our feelings, which rest upon experi- 
 mental evidence, and, once seized, are a clue to the interpretation 
 of much that we are conscious of in ourselves, and observe in one 
 another. Such, for example, are the laws of association. Psycho- 
 logy, so far as it consists of such laws I speak of the laws them- 
 selves, not of their disputed applications is as positive and certain 
 a science as chemistry, and fit to be taught as such. When, how- 
 ever, we pass beyond the bounds of these admitted truths, to ques- 
 tions which are still in controversy among the different philosophical 
 schools how far the higher operations of the mind can be ex- 
 plained by association, how far we must admit other primary prin- 
 ciples what faculties of the mind are simple, what complex, and 
 what is the composition of the latter above all, when we embark 
 upon the sea of metaphysics properly so called, and enquire, for 
 instance, whether time and space are real existences, as is our spon- 
 taneous impression, or forms of our sensitive faculty, as is main- 
 tained by Kant, or complex ideas generated by association ; whether 
 matter and spirit are conceptions merely relative to our faculties, or 
 facts existing per se, and in the latter case, what is the nature and 
 limit of our knowledge of them ; whether the will of man is free, or 
 determined by causes, and what is the real difference between the two 
 doctrines ; matters on which the most thinking men, and those who
 
 32 
 
 have'given most study to the subjects, are still divided; it is neither 
 to be expected nor desired that those who do not specially devote 
 themselves to the higher departments of speculation should employ 
 much of their time in attempting to get to the bottom of these 
 questions. But it is a part of liberal education to know that such 
 controversies exist, and, in a general way, what has been said on 
 both sides of them. It is instructive to know the failures of the 
 human intellect as well as its successes, its imperfect as well as its 
 perfect attainments ; to be aware of the open questions, as well as 
 those which have been definitively resolved. A very summary view 
 of these disputed matters may suffice for the many ; but a system 
 of education is not intended solely for the many : it has to kindle 
 the aspirations and aid the efforts of those who are destined to 
 stand forth as thinkers above the multitude : and for these there is 
 hardly to be found any discipline comparable to that which these 
 metaphysical controversies afford. For they, are essentially ques- 
 tions about the estimation of evidence ; about the ultimate grounds 
 of belief; the conditions required to justify our most familiar and 
 intimate convictions ; and the real meaning and import of words 
 and phrases which we have used from infancy as if we understood 
 all about them, which are even at the foundation of human language, 
 yet of which no one except a metaphysician has rendered to himself 
 a complete account. Whatever philosophical opinions the study of 
 these questions may lead iis to adopt, no one ever came out of the dis- 
 cussion of them without increased vigour of understanding, an in- 
 creased demand for precision of thought and language, and a more 
 careful and exact appreciation of the nature of proof. There never 
 was any sharpener of the intellectual faculties superior to the Berke- 
 leian controversy. There is even now no reading more profitable to 
 students confining myself to writers in our own language, and 
 notwithstanding that so many of their speculations are already obso- 
 lete than Hobbes and Locke, Keid and Stewart, Hume, Hartley, 
 and Brown : on condition that these great thinkers are not read 
 passively, as masters to be followed, but actively, as supplying mate- 
 rials and incentives to thought. To come to our own cotem- 
 poraries, he who has mastered Sir William Hamilton and your own 
 lamented Ferrier as distinguished representatives of one of the two 
 great schools of philosophy, and an eminent Professor in a neigh- 
 bouring University, Professor Bain, probably the greatest living 
 authority in the other, has gained a practice in the most searching 
 methods of philosophic investigation applied to the most arduous 
 subjects, which is no inadequate preparation for any intellectual 
 difficulties that lie is ever likely to be called on to resolve. 
 
 In this brief outline of a complete scientific education, I have
 
 33 
 
 said nothing about direct instruction in that which it is the chief of 
 all the ends of intellectual education to qualify us for the exercise 
 of thought on the great interests of mankind as moral and social 
 beings ethics and politics, in the largest sense. These things are 
 not, in the existing state of human knowledge, the subject of a 
 science, generally admitted and accepted. Politics cannot be learnt 
 once for all, from a text-book, or the instructions of a master. 
 What we require to be taught on that subject, is to be our own 
 teachers. It is a subject on which we have no masters to follow ; 
 each must explore for himself, and exercise an independent judg- 
 ment. Scientific politics do not consist in having a set of conclusions 
 ready made, to be applied everywhere indiscriminately, but in 
 setting the mind to work in a scientific spirit to discover in each 
 instance the truths applicable to the given case. And this, at 
 present, scarcely any two persons do in the same way. Education 
 is not entitled, on this subject, to recommend any set of opinions 
 as resting on the authority of established science. But it can 
 supply the student with materials for his own mind, and with helps to 
 use them. It can make him acquainted with the best speculations 
 on the subject, taken from different points of view : none of which 
 will be found complete, while each embodies some considerations 
 really relevant, really requiring to be taken into the account. 
 Education may also introduce us to the principal facts which have 
 a direct bearing on the subject, namely the different modes or 
 stages of civilization that have been found among mankind, and the 
 characteristic properties of each. This is the true purpose of his- 
 torical studies, as prosecuted in an University. The leading facts 
 of ancient and modern history should be known by the student 
 from his private reading : if that knowledge be wanting, it cannot 
 possibly be supplied here. What a Professor of History has to 
 teach, is the meaning of those facts. His office is to help the 
 student in collecting from history what are the main differences 
 between human beings, and between the institutions of society, at 
 one time or place and at another : in picturing to himself human 
 life, and the human conception of life, as they Avere at the different 
 stages of human development : in distinguishing between what is 
 the same in all ages and what is progressive, and forming some 
 incipient conception of the causes and laws of progress. All these 
 things are as yet very imperfectly understood even by the most 
 philosophic enquirers, and are quite unfit to be taught dogmatically. 
 The object is to lead the student to attend to them ; to make him 
 take interest in history not as a mere narrative, but as a chain ef 
 causes and effects still unwinding itself before his eyes, and full of 
 momentous consequences to himself and his descendants ; the un- 
 
 c
 
 34 
 
 folding of a great epic or dramatic action, to terminate in the hap- 
 piness or misery, the elevation or degradation, of the human race ; 
 an unremitting conflict between good and evil powers, of which 
 every act done by any of us, insignificant as we are, forms one of 
 the incidents ; a conflict in which even the smallest of us cannot 
 escape from taking part, in which whoever does not help the right 
 side is helping the wrong, and for our share in which, whether it 
 be greater or smaller, and let its actual consequences be visible or 
 in the main invisible, no one of us can escape the responsibility. 
 Though education cannot arm and equip its pupils for this fight 
 with any complete philosophy either of politics or of history, there 
 is much positive instruction that it can give them, having a direct 
 bearing on the duties of citizenship. They should be taught the 
 outlines of the civil and political institutions of their own country, 
 and in a more general way, of the more advanced of the other 
 civilized nations. Those branches of politics, or of the laws of 
 social life, in which there exists a collection of facts or thoughts 
 sufficiently sifted and methodized to form the beginning of a science, 
 should be taught ex professo. Among the chief of these is Political 
 Economy; the sources and conditions of wealth and material pros- 
 perity for aggregate bodies of human beings. This study approaches 
 nearer to the rank of a science, in the sense in which we apply that 
 name to the physical sciences, than anything else connected with 
 politics yet does. I need not enlarge on the important lessons which 
 it affords for the guidance of life, and for the estimation of laws and 
 institutions, or on the necessity of knowing all that it can teach in 
 order to have true views of the course of human affairs, or form 
 plans for their improvement which will stand actual trial. The 
 same persons who cry down Logic will generally warn you against 
 Political Economy. It is unfeeling, they will tell you. It recog- 
 nises unpleasant facts. For my part, the most unfeeling thing I 
 know of is the law of gravitation : it breaks the neck of the best 
 and most amiable person without scruple, if he forgets for a single 
 moment to give heed to it. The winds and waves too are very 
 unfeeling. Would you advise those who go to sea to deny the 
 winds and waves or to make use of them, and find the means of 
 guarding against their dangers ? My advice to you is, to study the 
 great writers on Political Economy, and hold firmly by whatever in 
 them you find true ; and depend upon it that if you are not selfish 
 or hard-hearted already, Political Economy will not make you so. 
 Of no less importance than Political Economy is the study of what 
 ift called Jurisprudence ; the general principles of law ; the social 
 necessities which laws are required to meet ; the features common 
 to all systems of law, and the differences between them ; the requi-
 
 35 
 
 sites of good legislation, the proper mode of constructing a legal 
 system, and the best constitution of courts of justice and modes of 
 legal procedure. These things are not only the chief part of the 
 business of government, but the vital concern of every citizen ; and 
 their improvement affords a wide scope for the energies of any duly 
 prepared mind, ambitious of contributing towards the better con- 
 dition of the human race. For this, too, admirable helps have been, 
 provided by writers of our own or of a very recent time. At the 
 head of them stands Bentham ; undoubtedly the greatest master 
 who ever devoted the labour of a life to let in light on the subject 
 of law ; and who is the more intelligible to non-professional persons,, 
 because, as his way is, he builds up the subject from its foundation 
 in the facts of human life, and shows by careful consideration of 
 ends and means, what law might and ought to be, in deplorable 
 contrast with what it is. Other enlightened jurists have followed 
 with contributions of two kinds, as types of which I may take two 
 works, equally admirable in their respective lines. Mr. Austin, in 
 his Lectures on Jurisprudence, takes for his basis the Roman law, 
 the most elaborately consistent legal system which history has shewn 
 us in actual operation, and that which the greatest number of ac- 
 complished minds have employed themselves in harmonizing. From 
 this he singles out the principles and distinctions which are of 
 general applicability, and employs the powers and resources of a 
 most precise and analytic mind to give to those principles and dis- 
 tinctions a philosophic basis, grounded in the universal reason of 
 mankind, and not in mere technical convenience. Mr. Maine, in 
 his treatise on Ancient Law in its relations to Modern Thought, 
 shews from the history of law, and from what is known of the 
 primitive institutions of mankind, the origin of much that has lasted 
 till now, and has a firm footing both in the laws and in the ideas of 
 modern times ; shewing that many of these things never originated 
 in reason, but are relics of the institutions of barbarous society, 
 modified more or less by civilization, but kept standing by the per- 
 sistency of ideas which were the offspring of those barbarous insti- 
 tutions, and have survived their parent. The path opened by Mr. 
 Maine has been followed up by others, with additional illustrations 
 of the influence of obsolete ideas on modern institutions, and 01 
 obsolete institutions on modern ideas ; an action and reaction which 
 perpetuate, in many of the greatest concerns, a mitigated barbarism : 
 things being continually accepted as dictates of nature and necessi- 
 ties of life, which, if we knew all, we should see to have originated 
 in artificial arrangements of society, long since abandoned and 
 condemned. 
 
 To these studies I would add International Law ; which I de- 
 
 c2
 
 36 
 
 cidedly think should be taught in all universities, and should form 
 part of all liberal education. The need of it is far from being 
 limited to diplomatists and lawyers ; it extends to every citizen. 
 What is called the Law of Nations is not properly law, but a part 
 of ethics : a set of moral rules, accepted as authoritative by civilized 
 states. It is true that these rules neither are nor ought to be of 
 eternal obligation, but do and must vary more or less from age to 
 age, as the consciences of nations become more enlightened, and the 
 exigences of political society undergo change. But the rules mostly 
 were at their origin, and still are, an application of the maxims of 
 honesty and humanity to the intercourse of states. They were in- 
 troduced by the moral sentiments of mankind, or by their sense of 
 the general interest, to mitigate the crimes and sufferings of a state 
 of war, and to restrain governments and nations from unjust or dis- 
 honest conduct towards one another in time of peace. Since every 
 country stands in numerous and various relations with the other 
 countries of the world, and many, our own among the number, ex- 
 ercise actual authority over some of these, a knowledge of the 
 established rules of international morality is essential to the duty of 
 every nation, and therefore of every person in it who helps to make 
 up the nation, and whose voice and feeling form a part of what is 
 called public opinion. Let not any one pacify his conscience by the 
 delusion that he can do no harm if he takes no part, and forms no 
 opinion. Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than 
 that good men should look on and do nothing. He is not a good 
 man who, without a protest, allows wrong to be committed in his 
 name, and with the means which he helps to supply, because he will 
 not trouble himself to use his mind on the subject. It depends on 
 the habit of attending to and looking into public transactions, and 
 on the degree of information and solid judgment respecting them 
 that exists in the community, whether the conduct of the nation as 
 a nation, both within itself and towards others, shall be selfish, cor- 
 rupt, and tyrannical, or rational and enlightened, just and noble. 
 
 Of these more advanced studies, only a small commencement can 
 l)e made at schools and universities ; but even this is of the highest 
 value, by awakening an interest in the subjects, by conquering the 
 first difficulties, and inuring the mind to the kind of exertion which 
 the studies require, by implanting a desire to make further progress, 
 and directing the student to the best tracks and the best helps. So 
 far as these branches of knowledge have been acquired, we have 
 learnt, or been put into the way of learning, our duty, and our 
 work in life. Knowing it, however, is but half the work of educa- 
 tion ; it still remains, that what we know, we shall be willing and 
 determined to put in practice. Nevertheless, to know the truth is
 
 37 
 
 already a great way towards disposing us to act upon it. What we 
 see clearly and apprehend keenly, we have a natural desire to act 
 out. " To see the best, and yet the worst pursue," is a possible but 
 not a common state of mind ; those who follow the wrong have 
 generally first taken care to be voluntarily ignorant of the right. 
 They have silenced their conscience, but they are not knowingly 
 disobeying it. If you take an average human mind while still 
 young, before the objects it has chosen in life have given it a turn 
 in any bad direction, you will generally find it desiring what is 
 good, right, and for the benefit of all ; and if that season is properly 
 used to implant the knowledge and give the training which shall 
 render rectitude of judgment more habitual than sophistry, a 
 serious barrier will have been erected against the inroads of sel- 
 fishness and falsehood. Still, it is a very imperfect education which 
 trains the intelligence only, but not the will. No one can dispense 
 with an education directed expressly to the moral as well as the in- 
 tellectual part of his being. Such education, so far as it is direct, 
 is either moral or religious ; and these may either be treated as dis- 
 tinct, or as different aspects of the same thing. The subject we are 
 now considering is not education as a whole, but scholastic educa- 
 tion, and we must keep in view the inevitable limitations of what 
 schools and universities can do. It is beyond their power to educate 
 morally or religiously. Moral and religious education consist in 
 training the feelings and the daily habits ; and these are, in the 
 main, beyond the sphere and inaccessible to the control of public 
 education. It is the home, the family, which gives us the moral 
 or religious education we really receive : and this is completed, 
 and modified, sometimes for the better, often for the worse, by 
 society, and the opinions and feelings with which we are there 
 surrounded. The moral or religious influence which an uni- 
 versity can exercise, consists less in any express teaching, than 
 in the pervading tone of the place. Whatever it teaches, it 
 should teach as penetrated by a sense of duty ; it should 
 present all knowledge as chiefly a means to worthiness of life, 
 given for the double purpose of making each of us practically 
 useful to his fellow-creatures, and of elevating the character of the 
 species itself; exalting and dignifying our nature. There is nothing 
 which spreads more contagiously from teacher to pupil than eleva- 
 vation of sentiment : often and often have students caught from the 
 living influence of a professor, a contempt for mean and selfish 
 objects, and a noble ambition to leave the world better than they 
 found it, which they have carried with them throughout life. In these 
 respects, teachers of every kind have natural and peculiar means of 
 doing with effect, what every one who mixes with his fellow-beings,
 
 38 
 
 or addresses himself to them in any character, should feel bound to 
 do to the extent of his capacity and opportunities. What is special 
 to an university on these subjects belongs chiefly, like the rest of 
 its work, to the intellectual department. An university exists for 
 the purpose of laying open to each succeeding generation, as far as 
 the conditions of the case admit, the accumulated treasure of the 
 thoughts of mankind. As an indispensable part of this, it has to 
 make known to them what mankind at large, their own country, 
 and the best and wisest individual men, have thought on the great 
 subjects of morals and religion. There should be, and there is in 
 most universities, professorial instruction in moral philosophy ; but 
 I could wish that this instruction were of a somewhat different type 
 from what is ordinarily met with. I could wish that it were more 
 expository, less polemical, and above all less dogmatic. The learner 
 should be made acquainted with the principal systems of moral 
 philosophy which have existed and been practically operative 
 -among mankind, and should hear what there is to be said for each : 
 the Aristotelian, the Epicurean, the Stoic, the Judaic, the Christian 
 in the various modes of its interpretation, which differ almost as 
 much from one another as the teachings of those earlier schools. 
 He should be made familiar with the different standards of right 
 And wrong which have .been taken as the basis of ethics : general 
 utility, natural justice, natural rights, a moral sense, principles of 
 practical reason, and the rest. Among all these, it is not so much 
 the teacher's business to take a side, and fight stoutly for some one 
 against the rest, as it is to direct them all towards the establishment 
 and preservation of the rules of conduct most advantageous to 
 mankind. There is not one of these systems which has not its 
 good side ; not one from which there is not something to be 
 learnt by the votaries of the others ; not one which is not 
 suggested by a keen, though it may not always be a clear, 
 perception of some important truths, which are the prop of the 
 system, and the neglect or undervaluing of which in other 
 systems is their characteristic infirmity. A system which may be 
 -as a whole erroneous, is still valuable, until it has forced upon 
 mankind a sufficient attention to the portion of truth which sug- 
 gested it. The ethical teacher does his part best, when he points 
 out how each system may be strengthened even on its own basis, 
 by taking into more complete account the truths which other sys- 
 tems have realized more fully and made more prominent. I do 
 not mean that he should encourage an essentially sceptical eclec- 
 ticism. While placing every system in the best aspect it admits 
 of, and endeavouring to draw from all of them the most salutary 
 consequences compatible with their nature, I would by no means
 
 39 
 
 debar him from enforcing by his best arguments his own preference 
 for some one of the number. They cannot be all true ; though 
 those which are false as theories may contain particular truths, 
 indispensable to the completeness of the true theory. But on 
 this subject, even more than on any of those I have previously 
 mentioned, it is not the teacher's business to impose his own judg- 
 ment, but to inform and discipline that of his pupil. 
 
 And this same clue, if we keep hold of it, will guide us through 
 the labyrinth of conflicting thought into which we enter when we 
 touch the great question of the relation of education to religion. 
 As I have already said, the only really effective religious educa- 
 tion is the parental that of home and childhood. All that social 
 and public education has in its power to do, further than by a 
 general pervading tone of reverence and duty, amounts to little 
 more than the information which it can give ; but this is extremely 
 valuable. I shall not enter into the question which has been de- 
 bated with so much vehemence in the last and present generation, 
 whether religion ought to be taught at all in universities and public 
 schools, seeing that religion is the subject of all others on which 
 men's opinions are most widely at variance. On neither side of 
 this controversy do the disputants seem to me to have sufficiently 
 freed their minds from the old notion of education, that it consists 
 in the dogmatic inculcation from authority, of what the teacher 
 deems true. Why should it be impossible, that information of 
 the greatest value, on subjects connected with religion, should be 
 brought before the student's mind ; that he should be made ac- 
 quainted with so important a part of the national thought, and 
 of the intellectual labours of past generations, as those relating to 
 religion, without being taught dogmatically the doctrines of any 
 church or sect ? Christianity being a historical religion, the sort 
 of religious instruction which seems to me most appropriate to an 
 University is the study of ecclesiastical history. If teaching, even 
 on matters of scientific certainty, should aim quite as much at 
 showing how the results are arrived at, as at teaching the results 
 themselves, far more, then, should this be the case on subjects 
 where there is the widest diversity of opinion among men of equal 
 ability, and who have taken equal pains to arrive at the truth. 
 This diversity should of itself be a warning to a conscientious 
 teacher that he has no right to impose his opinion authoritatively 
 upon a youthful mind. His teaching should not be in the spirit 
 of dogmatism, but in that of enquiry. The pupil should not be 
 addressed as if his religion had been chosen for him, but as one 
 who will have to choose it for himself. The various Churches, 
 established and unestablished, are quite competent to the task which
 
 40 
 
 is peculiarly theirs, that of teaching each its own doctrines, as far 
 as necessary, to its own rising generation. The proper business of 
 an University is different : not to tell us from authority what we 
 ought to believe, and make us accept the belief as a duty, but to 
 give us information and training, and help us to form our own 
 belief in a manner worthy of intelligent beings, who seek for truth 
 at all hazards, and demand to know all the difficulties, in order 
 that they may be better qualified to find, or recognise, the most 
 satisfactory mode of resolving them. The vast importance of these 
 questions the great results as regards the conduct of our lives, 
 which depend upon our choosing one belief or another are the 
 strongest reasons why we should not trust our judgment when it 
 has been formed in ignorance of the evidence, and why we should 
 not consent to be restricted to a one-sided teaching, which informs 
 us of what a particular teacher or association of teachers receive 
 as true doctrine and sound argument, but of nothing more. 
 
 I do not affirm that an University, if it represses free thought 
 and enquiry, must be altogether a failure, for the freest thinkers 
 have often been trained in the most slavish seminaries of learning. 
 The great Christian reformers were taught in Roman Catholic 
 Universities ; the sceptical philosophers of France were mostly 
 educated by the Jesuits. The human mind is sometimes impelled 
 all the more violently in one direction, by an over zealous and 
 demonstrative attempt to drag it in the opposite. But this is not 
 what Universities are appointed for to drive men from them, even 
 into good, by excess of evil. An University ought to be a place 
 of free speculation. The more diligently it does its duty in all 
 other respects, the more certain it is to be that. The old English 
 Universities, in the present generation, are doing better work than 
 they have done within human memory in teaching the ordinary 
 studies of their curriculum ; and one of the consequences has been, 
 that whereas they formerly seemed to exist mainly for the repression 
 of independent thought, and the chaining up of the individual 
 intellect and conscience, they are now the great foci of free and 
 manly enquiry, to the higher and professional classes, south of the 
 Tweed. The ruling minds of those ancient seminaries have at last 
 remembered, that to place themselves in hostility to the free use of 
 the understanding, is to abdicate their own best privilege, that of 
 guiding it. A modest deference, at least provisional, to the united 
 authority of the specially instructed, is becoming in a youthful and 
 imperfectly formed mind ; but when there is no united authority 
 when the specially instructed are so divided and scattered that 
 almost any opinion can boast of some high authority, and no opinion 
 whatever can claim all ; when, therefore, it can never be deemed
 
 41 
 
 extremely improbable that one who uses his mind freely may see 
 reason to change his first opinion ; then, whatever you do, keep, at 
 all risks, your minds open : do not barter away your freedom of 
 thought. Those of you who are destined for the clerical profession 
 are, no doubt, so far held to a certain number of doctrines, that if 
 they ceased to believe them they would not be justified in remaining 
 in a position in which they Avould be required to teach insincerely. 
 But use your influence to make those doctrines as few as possible. 
 It is not right that men should be bribed to hold out against con- 
 viction to shut their ears against objections, or, if the objections 
 penetrate, to continue professing full and unfaltering belief when 
 their confidence is already shaken. Neither is it right that if men 
 honestly profess to have changed some of their religious opinions, 
 their honesty should as a matter of course exclude them from taking 
 a part for which they may be admirably qualified, in the spiritual 
 instruction of the nation. The tendency of the age, on both sides 
 of the ancient Border, is towards the relaxation of formularies, and 
 a less rigid construction of articles. This very circumstance, by 
 making the limits of orthodoxy less definite, and obliging every one 
 to draw the line for himself, is an embarrassment to consciences. 
 But I hold entirely with those clergymen who elect to remain 
 in the national church, so long as they are able to accept its 
 articles and confessions in any sense or with any interpretation 
 consistent with common honesty, whether it be the generally 
 received interpretation or not. If all were to desert the church 
 who put a large and liberal construction on its terms of commu- 
 nion, or who would wish to see those terms widened, the national 
 provision for religious teaching and worship would be left utterly 
 to those who take the narrowest, the most literal, and purely 
 textual view of the formularies; who, though by no means 
 necessarily bigots, are under the great disadvantage of having the 
 bigots for their allies, and who, however great their merits may be, 
 and they are often very great, yet if the church is improvable, are 
 not the most likely persons to improve it. Therefore, if it were 
 not an impertinence in me to tender advice in such a matter, I 
 should say, let all who conscientiously can, remain in the church. 
 A. church is far more easily improved from within than from with- 
 out. Almost all the illustrious reformers of religion began by 
 being clergymen ; but they did not think that their profession as 
 clergymen was inconsistent with being reformers. They mostly 
 indeed ended their days outside the churches in which they were 
 born ; but it Aras because the churches, in an evil hour for them- 
 selves, cast them out. They did not think it any business of theirs
 
 42 
 
 to withdraw. They thought they had a better right to remain in 
 the fold, than those had who expelled them. 
 
 I have now said what I had to say on the two kinds of education 
 which the system of schools and universities is intended to promote 
 intellectual education, and moral education : knowledge and the 
 training of the knowing faculty, conscience and that of the moral 
 faculty. These are the two main ingredients of human culture ; 
 but they do not exhaust the whole of it. There is a third division, 
 which, if subordinate, and owing allegiance to the two others, is 
 barely inferior to them, and not less needful to the completeness of 
 the human being ; I mean the aesthetic branch ; the culture which 
 comes through poetry and art, and may be described as the educa- 
 tion of the feelings, and the cultivation of the beautiful. This 
 department of things deserves to be regarded in a far more serious 
 light than is the custom of these countries. It is only of late, and 
 chiefly by a superficial imitation of, foreigners, that we have begun 
 to use the word Art by itself, and to speak of Art as we speak of 
 Science, or Government, or Religion : we used to talk of the Arts, 
 and more specifically of the Fine Arts : and even by them were 
 vulgarly meant only two forms of art, Painting and Sculpture, the 
 two which as a people we cared least about which were regarded 
 even by the more cultivated among us as little more than branches 
 of domestic ornamentation, a kind of elegant upholstery. The very 
 words " Fine Arts" called up a notion of frivolity, of great pains 
 expended on a rather trifling object on something which differed 
 from the cheaper and commoner arts of producing pretty things, 
 mainly by being more difficult, and by giving fops an opportunity 
 of pluming themselves on caring for it and on being able to talk 
 about it. This estimate extended in no small degree, though not 
 altogether, even to poetry ; the queen of arts, but, in Great Britain, 
 hardly included under the name. It cannot exactly be said that 
 poetry was little thought of; we were proud of our Shakespeare 
 and Milton, and in one period at least of our history, that of Queen 
 Anne, it was a high literary distinction to be a poet ; but poetry 
 was hardly looked upon in any serious light, or as having much 
 value except as an amusement or excitement, the superiority of which 
 over others principally consisted in being that of a more refined 
 order of minds. Yet the celebrated saying of Fletcher of Saltoun, 
 " Let who will make the laws of a people if I write their songs," 
 might have taught us how great an instrument for acting on the 
 human mind we were undervaluing. It would be difficult for any- 
 body to imagine that " Kule Britannia," for example, or " Scots 
 wha hae," had no permanent influence on the higher region of 
 human character ; some of Moore's songs have done more for
 
 43 
 
 Ireland than all Grattan's speeches : and songs are far from being 
 the highest or most impressive form of poetry. On these subjects, 
 the mode of thinking and feeling of other countries was not only 
 not intelligible, but not credible, to an average Englishman. To 
 find Art ranking on a complete equality, in theory at least, with 
 Philosophy, Learning, and Science as holding an equally im- 
 portant place among the agents of civilization and among the 
 elements of the worth of humanity ; to find even painting and 
 sculpture treated as great social powers, and the art of a country 
 as a feature in its character and condition, little inferior in import- 
 ance to either its religion or its government ; all this only did not 
 amaze and puzzle Englishmen, because it was too strange for them 
 to be able to realize it, or, in truth, to believe it possible : and the 
 radical difference of feeling on this matter between the British 
 people and those of France, Germany, and the Continent gene- 
 rally, is one among the causes of that extraordinary inability 
 to understand one another, which exists between England 
 and the rest of Europe, while it does not exist to anything 
 like the same degree between one nation of Continental Europe 
 and another. It may be traced to the two influences which have 
 chiefly shaped the British character since the days of the Stuarts : 
 commercial money-getting business, and religious Puritanism. 
 Business, demanding the whole of the faculties, and, whether pur- 
 sued from duty or the love of gain, regarding as a loss of time 
 whatever does not conduce directly to the end ; Puritanism, which 
 looking upon every feeling of human nature, except fear and reve- 
 rence for God, as a snare, if not as partaking of sin, looked coldly, 
 if not disapprovingly, on the cultivation of the sentiments. Dif- 
 ferent causes have produced different effects in the Continental 
 nations ; among whom it is even now observable that virtue and 
 goodness are generally for the most part an affair of the senti- 
 ments, while with us they are almost exclusively an affair of duty. 
 Accordingly, the kind of advantage which we have had over many 
 other countries in point of morals I am not sure that we are not 
 losing it has consisted in greater tenderness of conscience. In 
 this we have had on the whole a real superiority, though one prin- 
 cipally negative ; for conscience is with most men a power chiefly 
 in the way of restraint a power which acts rather in staying our 
 hands from any great wickedness, than by the direction it gives 
 to the general course of our desires and sentiments. One of 
 the commonest types of character among us is that of a man 
 all whose ambition is self-regarding ; who has no higher pur- 
 pose in life than to enrich or raise in the world himself and 
 his family ; who never dreams of making the good of his fellow-
 
 44 
 
 creatures or of his country an habitual object, further than giving 
 away, annually or from time to time, certain sums in charity ; 
 but who has a conscience sincerely alive to whatever is generally 
 considered wrong, and would scruple to use any very illegitimate 
 means for attaining his self-interested objects. While it will often 
 happen in other countries that men whose feelings and whose active 
 energies point strongly in an unselfish direction, who have the love 
 of their country, of human improvement, of human freedom, even 
 of virtue, in great strength, and of whose thoughts and activity a 
 large share is devoted to disinterested objects, will yet, in the 
 pursuit of these or of any other objects that they strongly desire, 
 permit themselves to do wrong things which the other man, though 
 intrinsically, and taking the whole of his character, farther removed 
 from what a human being ought to be, could not bring himself to 
 commit. It is of no use to debate which of these two states of mind 
 is the best, or rather the least bad. It is quite possible to cultivate 
 the conscience and the sentiments too. Nothing hinders us from 
 so training a man that he will not, even for a disinterested purpose, 
 violate the moral law, and also feeding and encouraging those high 
 feelings, on which we mainly rely for lifting men above low and sordid 
 objects, and giving them a higher conception of what constitutes 
 success in life. If we wish men to practise virtue, it is worth while 
 trying to make them love virtue, and feel it an object in itself, and 
 not a tax paid for leave to pursue other objects. It is worth train- 
 ing them to feel, not only actual wrong or actual meanness, but the 
 absence of noble aims and endeavours, as not merely blamable but 
 also degrading : to have a feeling of the miserable smallness of 
 mere self in the face of this great universe, of the collective mass 
 of our fellow creatures, in the face of past history and of the inde- 
 finite future the poorness and insignificance of human life if it is 
 to be all spent in making things comfortable for ourselves and our 
 kin, and raising ourselves and them a step or two on the social 
 ladder. Thus feeling, we learn to respect ourselves only so far 
 as we feel capable of nobler objects : and if unfortunately those by 
 whom we are surrounded do not share our aspirations, perhaps dis- 
 approve the conduct to which we are prompted by them to sustain 
 ourselves by the ideal sympathy of the great characters in history, 
 or even in fiction, and by the contemplation of an idealized pos- 
 terity : shall I add, of ideal perfection embodied in a Divine Being ? 
 Now, of this elevated tone of mind the great source of inspiration 
 is poetry, and all literature so far as it is poetical and artistic. We 
 may imbibe exalted feelings from Plato, or Demosthenes, or Tacitus, 
 but it is in so far as those great men are not solely philosophers or 
 orators or historians, but poets and artists. Nor is it only loftiness,
 
 45 
 
 only the heroic feelings, that are bred by poetic cultivation. Its 
 power is as great in calming the soul as in elevating it in foster- 
 ing the milder emotions, as the more exalted. It brings home to 
 us all those aspects of life which take hold of our nature on its un- 
 selfish side, and lead us to identify our joy and grief with the good 
 or ill of the system of which we form a part ; and all those solemn 
 or pensive feelings, which, without having any direct application to 
 conduct, incline us to take life seriously, and predispose us to the re- 
 ception of anything which comes before us in the shape of duty. Who 
 does not feel himself a better man after a course of Dante, or of Words- 
 worth, or, I will add, of Lucretius or the Georgics, or after brooding 
 over Gray's Elegy, or Shelley's Hymn to Intellectual Beauty ? I have 
 spoken of poetry, but all the other modes of art produce similar 
 effects in their degree. The races and nations whose senses are 
 naturally finer, and their sensuous perceptions more exercised, than 
 ours, receive the same kind of impressions from painting and sculp- 
 ture : and many of the more delicately organized among ourselves 
 do the same. All the arts of expression tend to keep alive and in 
 activity the feelings they express. Do you think that the great 
 Italian painters would have filled the place they did in the Euro- 
 pean mind, would have been universally ranked among the greatest 
 men of their time, if their productions had done nothing for it but 
 to serve as the decoration of a public hall or a private salon ? Their 
 Nativities and Crucifixions, their glorious Madonnas and Saints, 
 were to their susceptible Southern countrymen the great school not 
 only of devotional, but of all the elevated and all the imaginative 
 feelings. We colder Northerns may approach to a conception of 
 this function of art when we listen to an oratorio of Handel, or 
 give ourselves up to the emotions excited by a Gothic cathedral. 
 Even apart from any specific emotional expression, the mere con- 
 templation of beauty of a high order produces in no small degree 
 this elevating effect on the character. The power of natural scenery 
 addresses itself to the same region of human nature which corre- 
 sponds to Art. There are few capable of feeling the sublimer 
 order of natural beauty, suh as your own Highlands and other 
 mountain regions afford, who are not, at least temporarily, raised 
 by it above the littlenesses of humanity, and made to feel the pueri- 
 lity of the petty objects which set men's interests at variance, con- 
 trasted with the nobler pleasures which all might share. To 
 whatever avocations we may be called in life, let us never quash 
 these susceptibilities within us, but carefully seek the opportunities 
 of maintaining them in exercise. The more prosaic our ordinary 
 duties, the more necessary it is to keep up the tone of our minds 
 by frequent visits to that higher region of thought and feeling, in
 
 46 
 
 which every work seems dignified in proportion to the ends for 
 which, and the spirit in which, it is done ; where we learn, while 
 eagerly seizing every opportunity of exercising higher faculties 
 and performing higher duties, to regard all useful and honest 
 work as a public function, which may be ennobled by the 
 mode of performing it which has not properly any other 
 nobility than what that gives and which, if ever so humble, 
 is never mean but when it is meanly done, and when the motives 
 from which it is done are mean motives. There is, besides, a 
 natural affinity between goodness and the cultivation of the Beau- 
 tiful, when it is real cultivation, and not a mere unguided in- 
 stinct. He who has learnt what beauty is, if he be of a virtuous 
 character, will desire to realize it in his own life will keep before 
 himself a type of perfect beauty in human character, to light his 
 attempts at self-culture. There is a true meaning in the saying 
 of Goethe, though liable to be misunderstood and perverted, that 
 the Beautiful is greater than the Good ; for it includes the Good, and 
 adds something to it : it is the Good made perfect, and fitted with 
 all the collateral perfections which make it a finished and completed 
 thing. Now, this sense of perfection, which would make us de- 
 mand from every creation of man the very utmost that it ought to 
 give, and render tis intolerant of the smallest fault in ourselves or 
 in anything we do, is one of the results of Art cultivation. No 
 other human productions come so near to perfection as works of 
 pure Art. In all other things, we are, and may reasonably be, satis- 
 fied if the degree of excellence is as great as the object immediately 
 in view seems to us to be worth : but in Art, the perfection is 
 itself the object. If I were to define Art, I should be inclined to 
 call it the endeavour after perfection in execution. If we meet with 
 even a piece of mechanical work which bears the marks of being 
 done in this spirit which is done as if the workman loved it, and 
 tried to make it as good as possible, though something less good 
 would have answered the purpose for which it was ostensibly 
 made we say that he lias worked like an artist. Art, when really 
 cultivated, and not merely practised empirically, maintains, what it 
 first gave the conception of, an ideal Beauty, to be eternally aimed at, 
 though surpassing what can be actually attained ; and by this idea 
 it trains us never to be completely satisfied with imperfection in 
 what we ourselves do and are : to idealize, as much as possible, 
 every work we do, and most of all, our own characters and lives. 
 
 And now, having travelled with you over the whole range of 
 the materials and training which an University supplies as a prepa- 
 ration for the higher uses of life, it is almost needless to add any ex- 
 hortation to you to profit by the gift. Now is your opportunity for
 
 47 
 
 gaining a degree of insight into subjects larger and more enno- 
 bling than the minutiae of a business or a profession, and for acquir- 
 ing a facility of using your minds on all that concerns the higher 
 interests of man, which you will carry with you into the occupations 
 of active life, and which will prevent even the short intervals of 
 time which that may leave you, from being altogether lost for 
 noble purposes. Having once conquered the first difficulties, 
 the only ones of which the irksomeness surpasses the interest ; 
 having turned the point beyond which what was once a task, 
 becomes a pleasure ; in even the busiest after-life, the higher 
 powers of your mind will make progress imperceptibly, by the 
 spontaneous exercise of your thoughts, and by the lessons you 
 will know how to learn from daily experience. So, at least, it will 
 be if in your early studies you have fixed your eyes upon the 
 ultimate end from which those .studies take their chief value that 
 of making you more effective combatants in the great fight which 
 never ceases to rage between Good and Evil, and more equal to 
 coping with the ever new problems which the changing course of 
 human nature and human society present to be resolved. Aims 
 like these commonly retain the footing which they have once 
 established in the mind ; and their presence in our thoughts keeps 
 our higher faculties in exercise, and makes us consider the acquire- 
 ments and powers which we store up at any time of our lives, as a 
 mental capital, to be freely expended in helping forward any mode 
 which presents itself of making mankind in any respect wiser or 
 better, or placing any portion of human affairs on a more sensible 
 and rational footing than its existing one. There is not one of us 
 who may not qualify himself so to improve the average amount of 
 opportunities, as to leave his fellow creatures some little the better 
 for the use he has known how to make of his intellect. To make 
 this little greater, let us strive to keep ourselves acquainted with 
 the best thoughts that are brought forth by the original minds of 
 the age ; that we may know what movements* stand most in need of 
 our aid, and that, as far as depends on us, the good seed may not 
 fall on a rock, and perish without reaching the soil in which it 
 might have germinated and flourished. You are to be a part of 
 the public who are to welcome, encourage, and help forward the 
 future intellectual benefactors of humanity ; and you are, if possible, 
 to furnish your contingent to the number of those benefactors. 
 Nor let any one be discouraged by what may seem, in moments of 
 despondency, the lack of time and of opportunity. Those who 
 know how to employ opportunities will often find that they can 
 create them : and what we achieve depends less on the amount of 
 time we possess, than on the use we make of our time. You and
 
 48 
 
 your like are the hope and resource of your country in the coming 
 generation. All great things which that generation -is destined to 
 do, have to be done by some like you ; several will assuredly be 
 done by persons for whom society has done much less, to whom it 
 has given far less preparation, than those whom I am now ad- 
 dressing. I do not attempt to instigate you by the prospect of 
 direct rewards, either earthly or heavenly ; the less we think about 
 being rewarded in either way, the better for us. But there is one 
 reward which will not fail you, and which may be called disin- 
 terested, because it is not a consequence, but is inherent in the 
 very fact of deserving it ; the deeper and more varied interest you 
 will feel in life : which will give it tenfold its value, and a value 
 which will last to the end. All merely personal objects grow less 
 valuable as we advance in life : this not only endures but increases. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 INDEX. 
 
 ABBOTT on Sight and Touch 10 
 
 ACTON'S Modem Cookery 2 7 
 
 ALCOCK'S Residence in Japan 2i 
 
 Aumson Formation of Christendom 20 
 
 Alpine Guide (The) 22 
 
 APJOHN'S Manual of the Metalloids 12 
 
 ARAOO'S Biographies of Scientific Men .... > 
 
 Popular Astronomy 10 
 
 ARNOLD'S Manual of English Literature 7 
 
 ARNOTT'S Elements of Physics 11 
 
 Arundines Cami 25 
 
 Atherstone Priory 23 
 
 Autumn holidays of a Country Parson .. 8 
 
 Ay HE'S Treasury of Bible Knowledge 19 
 
 BACON'S Essays, by WHATELY 6 
 
 Life and Letters, by SPEDDINO 5 
 
 Works 5 
 
 BAIN on the Emotions and Will in 
 
 on the Senses and Intellect 10 
 
 on the Study of Character 10 
 
 BAINF.S'S Explorations in S.W.Africa 22 
 
 BALL'S Alpine Guide 13 
 
 BARNARD'S Drawing from Nature 16 
 
 BAYLUON'S Rents and Tillages 18 
 
 Beaten Tracks 22 
 
 BECKER'S Charicles and Callus 24 
 
 BEETHOVEN'S Letters 4 
 
 BBNFEY'S Sanskrit Dictionary 8 
 
 BERRY'S Journals and Correspondence .... 4 
 
 BLACK'S Treatise on Brewing 28 
 
 BLACKI.EY and FUIEOLAMJEK'S German and 
 
 English Dictionary 8 
 
 ELAINE'S Rural Sports 26 
 
 Veterinary Art 26 
 
 BLIGHT'S Week at the Land'sEnd 23 
 
 BUASE'S F>fai on Human Nature 9 
 
 Philosophy of Nature 9 
 
 BOOTH'S Epigrams 9 
 
 BOVKR'S Transylvania 22 
 
 BOURNE on Screw Propeller 17 
 
 BOURNE'S Catechism of the Steam Engine.. 17 
 
 handbook of Steam Eu'-'iue 17 
 
 Treatise on the Steam Engine... 17 
 
 BOWDLER'S Family SIIAKSPKAKE 25 
 
 BOYD'S Manual for Naval Cadets 27 
 
 BHAMLEv-MiioRE'sSixSistersof the Valleys 24 
 BRANDE'S Dictionary of Science, Literature, 
 
 and Art 13 
 
 BRAY'S (C.) Education of the Feelings 10 
 
 Philosophy of Necessity 10 
 
 -on Force. 
 
 BROWNE'S Ice Caves of France and Switzer- 
 land 
 
 Exposition ill Articles 
 
 BHINTON on Food and Digestion 
 
 BRISTOL'S Glossary of Mineralogy 
 
 BRODIK'S (Sir C.B.) Works 
 
 Autobiography 
 
 Constitutional History 2 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 BUCKLE'S History of Civilization 
 
 BOLL'S Hints to Mothers 
 
 Maternal Management of Children. 
 
 BUNSBN'S Ancient Egypt 
 
 BUNSEN on Apocrv pha 
 
 BDHKE'S Vicissitudes of Families 
 
 BURTON'S Christian Church. 
 
 Cabinet Lawyer 
 
 CALVBKT'S Wife'sManual 
 
 Campaigner at Home 
 
 CATS and FAHLIE'S Moral Emblems 
 
 Chorale Book for England 
 
 CLODOH'S Lives from Plutarch 
 
 COLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book 
 
 of Joshua 
 
 COLLINS'S Horse- Trainer's Guide 
 
 COLUMB.S'S Voyages 
 
 Commonplace Philosopher in Town and 
 
 Country 
 
 CONINGTON'S Translation of VIRGIL'S sEiieiil 
 CONTANSEAU'S Pocket French and English 
 
 Dictionary 
 
 Practical ditto 
 
 CONYBEARE and HOWSON'S Life and Epistles 
 
 of St. Paul 
 
 Coon on the Acts 
 
 COOK'S Voyages 
 
 COPLAND'S Dictionary of Practical Medicine 
 
 Abridgment of ditto 
 
 Cox's Tales of the Great Persian \Var 
 
 Tales from Greek M> thology 
 
 Tales of the Gods and Heroes 
 
 Tales of Thebes ami Argos 
 
 CREST'S Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 
 
 Critical Essays ot a Country Parson 
 
 CHIIWE'S History of France 
 
 Ciinsip on Banking, Currency, & Exchanges 
 CUSSANS'S Grammar of Heraldry 
 
 DART'S Iliad of Homer 
 
 DAYMAN'S Dante's DivinaCommeoia 
 
 D AUBIGNE'S History of the Reformation in 
 
 the time of CALVIN 
 
 Dead Shot (The), by MARKSMAN 
 
 DE LA RIVE'S Treatise on Electricity 
 
 DELMABD'S Village Life in Switzerland .... 
 
 DE LA PRIME'S Life of Christ 
 
 DE MOKOANOU Matter and Spirit 
 
 Ds TOCUOBVILLE'S Democracy in America. . 
 
 DOBSON ontheOx 
 
 DO.VCAN and MJLLARD on Classification, &c. 
 
 of the Idiotic
 
 30 
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND 'CO. 
 
 lie . 
 
 DYER'S City of Rome 
 
 EDWARDS' Shipmaster's Gun 
 
 Elements of Botany 
 
 Ellice, a Tale 
 
 ELLICOTT'S Broad and Narrow Way 
 
 Commentary on Ephesians 
 
 Destiny of the Creature 
 
 Lectures on Life of Chri>t 
 
 Commentary on Galatians 
 
 Pastoral Epist... 
 
 Philippians, c. . 
 
 -Thessalonians .. . 
 
 HOWITT'S Rural Life of England 
 
 Visits to Remarkable Places.. 
 
 HUDSON'S Executor's Guide 
 
 Directions for Making Wills.. 
 
 HDGBES'S (A.) Garden Architecture.... 
 (W.) Manual of Geoeraphy.. 
 
 Essays and Reviews 
 
 . on Religion and Literature, edited 
 
 by MANNING 20 
 
 FAIRBAIRN on Iron Shipbuilding 17 I 
 
 FAIRBAIRN'S Application of Cast and 
 
 Wrought Iron to Building 
 
 Information for Engineers. . . 
 
 Treatise on Mills & Mill work 
 
 FAHR AR'J Chapters on Language 
 
 FLACK'S Hunter's Experiences 
 
 FPOOLKES'S Christendom's Divisions 
 
 FKESH FIELD'S Alpine Byways 
 
 Tour in the Grieons 
 
 Friends in Council 
 
 FHOCIJE'S History of England 
 
 HULLAH'S History of Modern Music 
 
 Transition Musical Lectures . 
 
 HUMBOLDT'S Travels in South America . 
 HoMpHREYi' Sentiments of Shakspeare . 
 
 HCTTON'S Studies in Parliament 
 
 Hymns from Lyra Oermcmica 
 
 Icelandic Legends. Second Series 
 IDLE'S Hints on Shooting 
 I.NOELOW'S Poems 
 
 GEE'S Sunday to Sunday 21 
 
 Our Sermons 21 
 
 GILBERT and CHD RCHILL'I Dolomite Moun- 
 tains 22 
 
 GILLY'S Shipwrecks of the Navy 23 
 
 GOETHE'S Second Faust, by Anster 24 
 
 GOODBYE'S Elements of Mechanism 17 
 
 GORLE'S Questions on BROWNE'S Exposition 
 
 of the 39 Articles 18 
 
 GRANT'S Ethics of Aristotle 5 
 
 Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson .... 8 
 
 CRAY'S Anatomy 14 
 
 GREENE'S Corals and Sea Jellies 12 
 
 Sponges and Animalcule 12 
 
 GROVE on Correlation of Physical Forces.. II 
 
 GWILT'S Encyclopaedia of Architecture .... 16 
 
 Handbook of Angling, by EPHEMERA ...... 26 
 
 HARE on Election of Representatives ...... 6 
 
 HARLKY and BROWN'S llistological Demon- 
 
 strations .................................. 15 
 
 HAHTWIO'I Sea and its Living Wonders. ... 12 
 
 __ - Harmonies of Nature .......... 12 
 
 __ Tropical World ................ II 
 
 HAUHHTON'S Manual of Geology ............ 11 
 
 HAWKER'S Instructions to Young Sportsmen 26 
 
 UKALEY'S Chess Problems .................. 28 
 
 Hit ATON'S Notes on Kifle Shooting .......... 26 
 
 1 1 SI.P>'( Spanish Conquest in America ...... 2 
 
 IlmxurL'i Eisays from the Edinburgh 
 
 and Quarterly Reviews .................. 13 
 
 Outlines of Astronomy ........ 10 
 
 Hxwrrron the Diseases of Women ........ H 
 
 HUDIIKIN'S Time and Space .................. 10 
 
 HoUAjrp'i Essays on Scientific Subject!.... 13 
 
 HOLMKS'S System of Surgery ................ H 
 
 UOOKKR and WALKER-ABBOTT'S British 
 
 Flora ...................................... 13 
 
 HOI-KINI'S Hawaii .......................... 11 
 
 lioRKi't Introduction to the Scripture! .... in 
 
 _ Compendium of ditto .............. 19 
 
 HORILKT'S Manual of PoifWU .............. l.'i 
 
 1 1 OIK i MS' s Talim ............................ 18 
 
 - Occasional Enays .............. !l 
 
 How we Spent the Summer ................ 22 
 
 HOWITT'S Australian Discovery ............ 22 
 
 JAMESON'S Legends of the Saints and Mar- 
 tyrs 
 
 Legends of the Madonna 
 
 Legends of the Monastic Orders 
 
 JAMKSON and EASTLAKE'S History of Our 
 Lord 
 
 JOHNSON'S Patentee's Manual 
 
 Practical Draughtsman 
 
 JOHNSTON'S Gazetteer, or Geographical Dic- 
 tionary 
 
 JONES'S Christianity and Common Sense. . . . 
 
 KALISCH'B Commentary on the Bible 
 Hebrew Grammar. 
 
 KELLER'S Lake Dwellings of Switzerland . . 
 
 KESTEVEN'S Domestic Medicine 
 
 KIRBY and SPBNCE'S Entomology 
 
 KUENEN on Pentateuch and Joshua 
 
 Lady'sTour Round Monte Rosa 23 
 
 LANDON'S(L.E. L.) Poetical Works 85 
 
 LATHAM'S English Dictionary 7 
 
 LAWRENCFOU Rocks 11 
 
 LICK r's History of Rationalism S 
 
 Leisure Hours in Town 8 
 
 LEWES' History of Philosophy 3 
 
 LEWIN'S Fasti Sacri 1& 
 
 LEWIS on Early Roman History 6 
 
 Essay son Administrations 6 
 
 Fables of BABKIL-S 6 
 
 on Foreign Jurisdiction 6 
 
 on Irish Disturbances I 
 
 on Observation and Reasoning in 
 
 Politics 6 
 
 on Political Terms 6 
 
 LIDDELL and ScoTr'sGreek-Kntflish Lexicon S 
 
 Abridged ditto 8 
 
 Life of Man Symbolised 16 
 
 LINDLEY and MOORE'S Treasury of Botany l.T 
 LONOHAN'S Lectures on the History of Eng- 
 land 
 
 LOUDON'S Agriculture 1ft 
 
 Cottage, Fiirm , Villa Architecture If 
 
 Gardening \f 
 
 Plants IS 
 
 Trees and Shrubf IS 
 
 lx>wNims' Engineer's Handbook It 
 
 Lyra Domestica 21 
 
 Eucharlstica 21 
 
 (Jermanica 16,21 
 
 Messianlca 2) 
 
 Mystlca 21 
 
 JH LAY'S (Lord) Essayi .'. 
 
 History of England 
 
 Lays of Ancient Rome ":
 
 NEW WOBKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AKD CO. 
 
 51 
 
 , (Lord) Miscellaneous Writings 
 
 Speeches 
 
 Works 
 
 MACDOCCALL'S Theory of War 1 
 
 MACLEOD'S Elements of Political Economy 
 
 Dictionary of Political Economy 
 
 Theory and Practice of Banking S 
 
 McCoLLocn's Dictionary of Commerce '< 
 
 Geographical Dictionary ! 
 
 MACFIE'S Vancouver Island ' 
 
 MiomHE'sLifeof Father Mathew 
 
 Rome and its Rulers 
 
 MALINO'S Indoor Gardener ' 
 
 MAX NINO on Holy Ghost ' 
 
 MARSHMAN'S Life of Havelock 
 
 MASSE Y'B History of England 
 
 (G.) on Shakspeare's Sonnets : 
 
 MASSINOBKHD'S History of the Reformation. . 
 
 MADNDER'S Biographical Treasury 
 
 Geographical Treusury 
 
 Historical Treasury 
 
 Scientific and Li terary Treasury 
 
 Treasury of Knowledge 
 
 Treasury of Natural History .. 
 
 MAURI'S Physical Geography 
 
 MAY'S Constitutional History of England.. 
 
 MELVILLE'S Digby Grand 
 
 General Bounce 
 
 Gladiators 
 
 Good for Nothing 
 
 Holmby House 
 
 Interpreter 
 
 KateCoventry 
 
 Queen's Maries 
 
 MENDELSSOHN'S Letters 
 
 MENIIES' Windsor Great Park 
 
 MERITALK'S ( H. > Historical Studies > . . 
 
 (C.) Fall of the Roman Republic 
 
 Boyle Lectures 
 
 Romans under the Empire 
 
 MILES on Horse's Foot and Horseshoeing... 
 
 on Horses' Teeth and Stables 
 
 MILL on Liberty 
 
 on Representative Government 
 
 on Utilitarianism 
 
 MILL'S Dissertations and Discussions 
 
 - Political Kconomy 
 
 System of Logic 
 
 Hamilton's Philosophy 
 
 MILLER' s Elements of Chemistry 
 
 MONSELL'S Spiritual Songs 
 
 Beatitudes 
 
 MONTGOMERY on Preenancy 
 
 MOORE'S Irish Melodies 
 
 LallaRookh 
 
 Poetical Works 
 
 (Dr. G.) First Man 
 
 MORELL'S Elements of Psychology 
 
 Mental PhilosopHy 
 
 MOSHEIM'S Ecclesiastical History 
 
 MOZART'S Letters 
 
 MOLLER'S (Max) Lectures on the Science of 
 
 Language 
 
 (K. O.) Literature of Ancient 
 
 MITRCHISON on Continued Fevers 
 
 MCBE'S Language and Literature of Greece 
 
 New Testament, illustrated with Wood En- 
 gravings from the Old Masters 15 
 
 NEWMAN'S History of his Religious Opinions 4 
 
 NIOHTINOALB'B Notes on Hospitals 28 
 
 ODLINO'S Animal Chemistry 14 
 
 Course of Practical Chemistry 14 
 
 Manual of Chemistry 14 
 
 O'SHKA'S Guide to Spain 23 
 
 OWEN'S Comparative Anatomy and Physio- 
 logy of Vertebrate Animals 13 
 
 OXENHAM on Atonement Zl 
 
 P ACRE'S Guide to the Pyrenees -23 
 
 PAOET'S Lecturea1>n Suraical Pathology .. 14 
 
 PEREIRA'I Elements of Materia Medica.... 15 
 
 Manual of Materia Medica 15 
 
 PERKINS'S Tuscan Sculptors 
 
 PHILLIPS'S Guide to Geology 11 
 
 Introduction to Mineralogy 12 
 
 PIESSE'S Art of Perfumery 18 
 
 Chemical, Natural, and Physical 
 
 Magic 18 
 
 PIKE'S English and their Origin 9 
 
 PITT on Brewing 23 
 
 Playtime with the Poets 2.' 
 
 Practical Mechanic's Journal 17 
 
 PBATT'S Law of Buildine Societies 28 
 
 PRESCOTT'S Scripture Difficulties 19 
 
 PROCTOR'S Saturn 10 
 
 Handbook of the Stars lo 
 
 PVCROFT'S Course of English Heading 7 
 
 Cricket Field 16 
 
 CricketTutor 86 
 
 Cricketana 
 
 READE'S Poetical Works Zt 
 
 Recreations of a Country Parson 8 
 
 HEILY'S Map of Mont Blanc 22 
 
 RIVERS'S Rose Amateur's Guide 13 
 
 ROOERS'S Correspondence of Greyson 9 
 
 Eclipse of Faith 9 
 
 Defence of ditto 9 
 
 Essays from the Edinburgh Jleview 9 
 
 Fulleriana 9 
 
 Reason and Faith 9 
 
 KOOET'S Thesaurus of English Words and 
 
 Phrases 7 
 
 RONALDS'S Fly-Fisher's Entomology 2b 
 
 ROWTON'S Debater 7 
 
 RUSSELL on Government and Constitution. . 1 
 
 S ANDARS'S Justinian's Institutes 
 
 SCOTT'S Handbook of Volumetrical Analysis 
 
 SCROPE on Volcanos 
 
 SEWELL'S Amy Herbert 
 
 CleveHall 
 
 Earl's Daughter 
 
 Examination for Confirmation ... 
 
 Experience of Life 
 
 Gertrude 
 
 Glimpse of the World 
 
 _ History ofthe Early Church 
 
 Ivors 
 
 Katharine Ashton 
 
 Laneton Parsonage 
 
 Margaret Percival 
 
 Passing Thoughts on Religion.... 
 
 Preparation for Communion 
 
 Principles of Education 
 
 Headings for Confirmation 
 
 -Headings for Lent 
 
 Stories andTales 
 
 Thoughts for the Holy Week 
 
 -Ursula . 
 
 SHAW'S Work on Wine 
 
 SHEDDEX'S Elements of Losic 
 
 SHIPLEY'S Church and the World 
 
 Short Whist 
 
 SHORT'S Church History 
 
 SIEVEKINO'S (AMELIA) Life, by WINKWORTH 
 SMITH'S (SooiHWOoo) Philosophy of Health 
 
 (J.) Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck.. 
 
 iG.HVesleyan Methodism 
 
 (SYDNEY) Miscellaneous Works 
 
 Moral Philosophy 
 
 Wit and Wisdom
 
 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BT LONGMANS AITD CO. 
 
 SMITH on Cavalry Drill and Manoeuvres 2fi 
 
 SOCTHEY'S( Doctor) 7 
 
 Poetical Works 26 
 
 STANLEY'S History of British Birds 12 
 
 STERBINO'S Analysis of MILL'S Logic 6 
 
 STEPHEN'S Essays in Ecclesiastical Bio- 
 
 frraphy 5 
 
 Lectures' on History of France. . 2 
 
 STKPIIENSON'S (K.) Life, by JEAFPRESUN and 
 
 STIRLING'S Secret of Hegel .................. 10 
 
 STONEHENOE on the Dog .................... 27 
 
 -- on the Greyhound ............. 27 
 
 STKANGE on Sea Air ........................ Id 
 
 - on Restoration of Health ........ \t> 
 
 Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church . . 8 
 
 TASSO'S Jerusalem , by JAMRS ................ 24 
 
 TAYIX>H'S (Jeremy) Works, edited by EDEN 20 
 
 TENNBNT'S Ceylon .......................... 12 
 
 - Natural History of Ceylon ...... 12 
 
 -- Wild Elephant .................. 12 
 
 THILWAI,L'S History of Greece ............ 2 
 
 THOMSON'S (ArchbUiop) Laws of Thought 
 
 - 1 J.) Tables of Interest .......... 28 
 
 Conspectus, by BIRKETT ........ 15 
 
 TODD'S Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Phy- 
 
 siology .................................... 14 
 
 - and BOWMAN'S Anatomy and Phy- 
 siology of Man ........................... 15 
 
 TROLLOI-E'S Barchester Towers .............. 24 
 
 - Warden ......................... 24 
 
 Twiss'sLawof Nations .................... 27 
 
 TIMIAI.I.'S Lectures on Heat ................ II 
 
 URE'S Dictionary of Arts, Manufacture!, 
 and Mine* 17 
 
 VAH DER HOETKN'S Handbook of Zoolosr.. 12 
 
 History. 
 
 (R.) Revolutions in English 
 
 WaytoRest 10 
 
 (R. A.) Hours with the Mystics 10 
 
 WM.KER on the Rifle 
 
 WATSON'S Principles und Practice of Physic 14 
 
 WATTS'S dictionary of Chemistry 13 
 
 WEBB'S Objects for Common Telescopes.... 10 
 
 WEBSTER & WILKINSON'S Greek Testament 19 
 
 WELD'S Florence S3 
 
 WELL 
 OLE 
 
 ON'S Life, by BRIALMC 
 
 -byGi 
 
 WEST on Children's Diseases 14 
 
 WHATELT'S English Sy nonymes 5 
 
 Lofric b 
 
 Remains 6 
 
 Rhetoric 5 
 
 -Life and Correspondence 
 
 Paley's Moral Philosophy il 
 
 WHRWELL'S History of the Inductive Sci- 
 
 ences 3 
 
 Whist, what to lead, by CAM 28 
 
 WHITE and RIDDLE'S Latin-English Dic- 
 tionaries 7 
 
 WILBEHPORCB (W.) Recollections of, by 
 
 HARPORD 5 
 
 WIILICH'S Popular Tables 28 
 
 WILSON'S Bryqlogia Britannica 13 
 
 WINDHAM'S Diarv 4 
 
 WOOD'S Homes without Hands 12 
 
 WOODWARD'S Historical and Chronological 
 
 Encyclopaedia 3 
 
 WHIOHT'S Homer's Iliad 25 
 
 YONOE'S English-Greek Lexicon 8 
 
 Abridge^ ditto , 
 
 YOONO'S Nautical Dictionary 27 
 
 YODATT on the Dog 27 
 
 on the Horse 27 
 
 BT SPOTTI8WOODH AK7) CO. 
 KBW-BTBKBT 8QTUBB
 
 325 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
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