THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
ESSAYS 
 
 SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL 
 
 a 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 LECTURES AND PAPERS ON THE 
 HISTORY OF THE REFORMA- 
 TION IN ENGLAND AND ON THE 
 CONTINENT. 
 
 Demy Sz>o, i6s. 
 
 SCIENCE AND THE FAITH: 
 
 Essays in Apologetic Subjects. 
 Crown Svo, 6s. 
 
 "Very able and interesting essays by one of the ablest of our 
 clergymen. . . . Seems to us full of ability and candour, and 
 of largeness of speculative grasp." — Tke Spectator. 
 
 "His grasp on the history of philosophy shows that the fine 
 old Oxford tradition of * Science ' is still understood and main- 
 tained." — The Satiirday Review. 
 
 London : Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Lt° 
 
ES SAYS 
 SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL 
 
 BY THE LATE 
 
 AUBREY L. MOORE, M.A. 
 
 HONORARY CANON OF CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD 
 
 EXAMINING CHAPLAIN TO THB LORD BISHOP OF OXFORD 
 
 TUTOR OF ST, MARY MAGDALEN AND KEBLE COLLEGES 
 
 MEMOIRS OF THE AUTHOR 
 
 LONDON 
 
 KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Lt?. 
 1890 
 
 J^AtJ..J\i 
 
{The rights 0/ translation and 0/ reproduction are reserved) 
 
BTIIOI 
 
 PREFACE, 
 
 The welcome accorded to " Science and the Fatth "" 
 makes it unnecessary to apologize for the publica- 
 tion of a companion volume. If any such apology 
 were needed, it would be found in the fact that 
 Aubrey Moore had in his lifetime contemplated 
 such a sequel, and had set aside about half of the 
 papers contained in this volume for that purpose. 
 
 It is more necessary to say a word in explanation 
 of the choice of the other papers and of their 
 arrangement. They may seem at first miscel- 
 laneous, and but slightly connected ; for they 
 represent Aubrey Moore's work as a reviewer, 
 as a lecturer (papers VII. and VIII. being notes of 
 lectures given in his course upon the Ethics of 
 Aristotle), and as a preacher (the two last having 
 been composed as University Sermons). The 
 arrangement passes from Natural Science through 
 Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy to more definite 
 Theology. But any who look beneath the surface 
 will find a striking unity underlying all. There is 
 
 b 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 in all a clear belief in the power of Reason and in 
 the reality and authority of Revelation. There is a 
 hearty acceptance of Science, and yet a clear insist- 
 ence upon its necessary limitations. On p. 147 
 will be found the author's own statement of the 
 chief problem of the day : " The great metaphy- 
 sical problem of the day is personality, implying 
 self-consciousness and freedom ; " and I believe 
 that this volume will prove a real contribution in 
 defence of those two points, Personality — the Per- 
 sonality of God and of man — and Freedom. One 
 of the strongest statements of Personality will be 
 found in the Sermon on Theology and Law ; the 
 most fearless claim for the Reason in the sermon 
 on " The Pride of Intellect." This will be an 
 adequate excuse for including sermons in such a 
 volume as this. These sermons were, moreover, 
 preached on special occasions, and are philoso- 
 phical rather than hortatory in tone and treatment. 
 My warmest thanks are due to the Editor of the 
 Guardian for permission to republish the reviews 
 which have appeared in his paper ; to the Presi- 
 dent of the Aristotelian Society for leave to print 
 No. IX. ; and to many friends who have helped 
 me in the choice of papers and the revision of 
 proofs, especially to the Rev. J. R. Illingworth, 
 Rev. W. J. H. Campion, and the Rev. T. B. 
 Strong. My task has been made easy and 
 pleasant by the kind help of the Rev. D. Moore, 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 of Holy Trinity, Paddington, and of her who has 
 tended the memory of Aubrey Moore with the 
 same assiduous affection with which she tended 
 him in his lifetime. 
 
 W. LOCK. 
 
( 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Memoir: (i) Rev. E. S. Talbot, D.D. ... ... xi 
 
 (2) G. J. Romanes, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. xxvii 
 
 (3) Rev. W. Lock, M.A. ... ... xxxi 
 
 I. Weismann's Essays upon Heredity, etc. ... i 
 
 Note. — On some Theological Bearings of the 
 
 Doctrine of Heredity ... ... 22 
 
 II. Darwinism ... ... ... ... ... 30 
 
 III. Mental Evolution in Man ... ... 41 
 
 Note. — Evolution and the Fall ... ... 60 
 
 IV. Creation and Creatianism ... ... 67 
 
 V. Types of Ethical Theory ... ... ... 83 
 
 VI. Prolegomena to Ethics ... ... ... 108 
 
 VII. Some Questions about the Will ... ... 134 
 
 "VIII. A Summary of Aristotle's Ethics as com- 
 pared with Modern Ethical Theories ... 145 
 IX. Some Curious Parallels between Greek and 
 
 Chinese Thought ... ... ... 162 
 
 Note.— On the Relation of Taoism to Con- 
 fucianism... ... ... ... ... 197 
 
><k. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Spencer's Ecclesiastical Institutions ... 202 
 
 XI. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture and the 
 Attitude of the Church with respect to 
 War ... ... ... ... ... 218 
 
 XII. Theology and Law ... ... ... ... 230 
 
 XIII. The Pride of Intellect ... ... 250 
 
MEMOIRS 
 
 The Rev. E. S. Talbot, D.D., Vicar of Leeds, 
 
 AND SOMETIME WARDEN OF KEBLE COLLEGE.^ 
 
 The loss of Aubrey Moore claims from the reverent 
 affection of his friends some attempt at a loving 
 estimate of his character and work. In the midst 
 of the grief widely felt by many sorts of men that 
 a life as rich in promise as any in the Church of 
 England, or in the English religious world, should 
 have been so early taken from earth, it moves true 
 thankfulness to remember that the last five years 
 of his life have enabled him to leave a definite con- 
 tribution of clear and marked significance to our 
 deepest spiritual and intellectual life. To cast the 
 eye rapidly over the writings that he has left, few 
 as they are, is to gain a wonderful impression of 
 calm, strong, candid, coherent, clear-sighted work, 
 of much knowledge assimilated and co-ordinated, 
 of blended spiritual and intellectual insight ; but it 
 
 * Reprinted from the Guardian of Jan. 29, 1890, with revisions. 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 is also to realize that he had proved and uttered 
 the message which he had to give, and that future 
 work might have hardly done more than interpret 
 and expand it. The writings referred to are 
 " Science and the Faith " (containing reviews re- 
 published from the Guardian and Quarterly y with a 
 preface defining the general drift of their thought), 
 an "Oxford House Paper" on "Evolution and 
 Christianity," three sermons in " Keble College 
 Sermons, 1877-88," '* Holy Week Addresses " (with 
 a preface on Calvinism, etc.), " Theology and Law : 
 an Assize Sermon," and an essay on " The Chris- 
 tian Doctrine of God" in "Lux Mundi." It is 
 much to be hoped that other pieces of his work 
 may still be issued, possibly his Oxford Reforma- 
 tion lectures which drew so large a class, some of 
 his sermons, and further essays on scientific sub- 
 jects, e.g. on Weismann's modification of the evolu- 
 tion doctrine. His is work of which the unity and 
 the balance made every addition of detail more 
 appreciably interesting and useful.^ 
 
 Moore's life may be very briefly given. He was 
 the second son of the Rev. Daniel Moore, Pre- 
 
 ' The wish here expressed has already been carried out in the 
 main. The Essays on Weismann are included in the present 
 volume, and the Reformation Lectures have been published this 
 year by Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., under the 
 title of " Lectures and Papers on the History of Reformation in 
 England and on the Continent." 
 
MEMOIRS, 
 
 bendary of St. Paul's and Chaplain in Ordinary 
 to the Queen, and his friends know how much 
 his home was to him, and how much he owed 
 throughout his life to his father's stimulating 
 and loving sympathy with his career, of which 
 he used often to speak with playful tenderness. 
 His school was St. Paul's, where he would have 
 won more distinction but for the chance which 
 made him all the way up the school competitor 
 with one who was afterwards to be associated 
 with him at Keble College, and in contribution 
 to " Lux Mundi," Mr. Illingworth. Moore's power 
 seems to have developed slowly ; he did not 
 secure an open scholarship at Oxford, though his 
 First Class in Moderations witnesses to his work 
 at St. Paul's. But a schoolfellow's recollection 
 recalls the promise of future character in the sweet- 
 ness with which he received and quickly overcame 
 the bluntness of school comment on a physical 
 peculiarity, and the blitheness and energy with 
 which unhindered by it he threw himself into 
 cricket. How well this fits with a friend's remark 
 about him in later life in the Oxford Magazine of 
 January 22, that he was "the constant witness to 
 us of the triumph of spirit over matter," and that — • 
 
 "While gifted with a body which could scarcely fail to 
 make a man constantly self-conscious, and which, quickly 
 wearied by physical effort, must have tended to make him 
 fretful and sensitive, he yet bore the burden so that we forgot 
 that he had a burden to bear." 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 At Oxford distinctions in the schools were followed 
 by a Fellowship at St. John's, where he was tutor 
 for three years by the side of a like-minded friend, 
 R. S. Copleston, now Bishop of Colombo. From an 
 interval spent as a parish priest at Frenchay in 
 Gloucestershire he brought away a great affection 
 for the place and people, and the true priest!s_sense 
 of pastoral responsibility, which formed so distinc- 
 tive an element both of his tutorial and intellectual 
 work, and which is seen in the last action of his 
 life, his acceptance of an official Fellowship at 
 Magdalen, carrying with it the religious " cure " of 
 the undergraduates. He never broke his links 
 with Oxford, coming up most terms weekly to 
 give lectures as assistant to Dr. Bright or to attend 
 the meeting of an association of tutors engaged in 
 Oxford work on Church lines, which had then been 
 recently formed as a bond of brotherhood. His 
 true vocation became clear, and it was a great 
 happiness for Keble College that it was the means 
 of bringing him back to the University. Here he 
 found ample scope ; he held tutorships simul- 
 taneously at Magdalen and at Keble; the "com- 
 bined system " of lectures enabled him to become 
 lecturer on the Ethics of Aristotle to a very large 
 number of those reading " Literae Humaniores." 
 Along with this he was always writing on theo- 
 logy, and carrying on his lectures on Ecclesiastical 
 History, of the teaching of which in the Refor^ 
 
MEMOIRS, 
 
 mation period he came to have almost a mono- 
 poly. Thus his professional work assisted and 
 reflected the unifying character of his mind. His 
 examining chaplainship to Bishop Mackarness 
 (continued under Bishop Stubbs), which was matter 
 of great delight and deep interest to him (the 
 dedication of his last book expresses his regret 
 and love for his chief), his honorary Canonry 
 at Christ Church, his preacherships at St. Mary's 
 and at Whitehall, the offer at the same moment of 
 examinerships in " Literae Humaniores " (this he 
 had accepted) and in Theology, and, though last, 
 not least characteristic, the Curatorship of the 
 Botanical Gardens, are the evidence of his powers 
 and of their repute, evidence which received a last 
 pathetic contribution from the gathering of many 
 sorts of men in Keble Chapel and at Holywell at 
 his funeral. A request addressed to him within 
 the last few weeks before his death through Bishop 
 Potter of New York, to go over to America and 
 give a course of lectures on " The Religious Bearings 
 of Modern Science," is a sign how far his repute 
 was spreading. He declined the ofler with extreme 
 regret. It carries no disparagement, for it implies 
 no comparison, of others to say, as was said by 
 the Oxford correspondent of the Guardian, that he 
 "has lately occupied a unique position up here." 
 No one was more respected among undergraduates. 
 Not long ago, when some of them wished to form 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 a small society for the study of economical subjects 
 in a Christian spirit, they turned to Moore, though 
 not a specialist in the subject, for their president 
 and guide. " Science students who wish to believe 
 have lost their best friend," writes one. " I know," 
 so says a very distinguished witness from across 
 the line of ecclesiastical separation, " how the young 
 men loved him, and how he had helped them to 
 rise above their doubts, and take another and more 
 hopeful view of life." But even stronger are two 
 testimonies — one from one of the most experienced 
 and veteran Churchmen in the University, judging 
 with the independence of a senior ; and the other 
 from one of the most eminent of younger scientific 
 writers. The former wrote to a friend : — 
 
 "Among the men resident in Oxford when 1890 began I 
 know no one who was in my eyes more valuable to the 
 Church or to the University. He was, as it seemed, our 
 Christian philosopher, commanding the respect of good 
 intellects, and capable of entering into many lines of thought, 
 social, political, and theological, and getting a hearing from 
 many kinds of men." 
 
 And the latter speaks of — 
 
 "The extraordinary combination of learning, intellect, 
 kindness, and religion, where each was present in the 
 highest degree. It appeared to me that a nature thus 
 endowed in greatest measure with the greatest attributes of 
 humanity was really, in respect of this combination, the 
 most remarkable man I ever met." 
 
 Nor can we withhold the words of a man of 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 high official position in the University, who spoke 
 of his as " the very best, purest, and most potent 
 influence that I have known in any human friend 
 or helper." 
 
 Character and intellectual influence had their 
 share in creating such impressions. And in him 
 the two were singularly alike. In both there was 
 the mixture of strength with tenderness, of a grave 
 and wistful earnestness with a "sweet vein of 
 humour" never far below the surface; of perfect 
 and even retiring modesty with unfaltering firm- 
 ness. To describe character is almost as futile as 
 to describe features. It must suffice to say that 
 Oxford misses to-day not only one of its strongest 
 minds, but one of its most loveable characters, 
 reflected in a countenance marked by a singular 
 and delicate charm of intellectual and spiritual 
 distinction. 
 
 It should be easier to speak of his work, for he 
 had a perfectly distinct and individual place in 
 Oxford and in the Church. He was not an excep- 
 tionally learned theologian or original philosopher ; 
 but he was felt to be the person who could handle 
 both philosophy and theology with the sureness 
 and ease of an expert, and bring them into mutual 
 contact and illumination. He was not a "scientific 
 man," but he was recognized as the theologian who 
 not only knew a good deal of science, but who saw 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 scientific fact as scientific men see it, and not with 
 a mere outsider's interest ; and therefore, here too, 
 in the dealings of science with religion he could 
 do a friend's justice to both sides, and could speak 
 words to help their mutual intelligence, to disarm 
 prejudice, and to reassure anxiety. This task, to 
 which he was first almost accidentally turned, be- 
 came perhaps the most special vocation of his life. 
 He came to it partly through his eager love of 
 botany and flowers, by which so many remember 
 him. When he was on the Kentish coast two or 
 three years ago, staying only some three weeks, he 
 sent to the local paper when he left a list of the 
 local flora prepared by his own collecting, and 
 numbering about three hundred kinds. This love 
 of botany gave him an insight into science through 
 one familiar bit. A happy friendship with one of 
 our ablest young biologists, Mr. E. B. Poulton, in the 
 Keble Common Room, was a great help to him in 
 this respect, and the request to read a paper at the 
 Reading Church Congress on "Evolution" embarked 
 him on the course of serious and responsible utter- 
 ances on these matters, of which the Guardian 
 became the chief channel, and which, as has been 
 said, " lifted a heavy load from many hearts " which 
 had been oppressed by the sound of conflict between 
 God's books of revelation and nature. 
 
 But thd significance of this piece of his work is 
 not seen unless we realize that it was done so well 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 because it was done as part of a treatment of the 
 whole speculative problem of religion and philo- 
 sophy. Many readers of this notice will remember 
 the start of admiration and pleasure with which 
 in the short introduction to " Science and the Faith" 
 they found the evolution teaching fitted into place 
 and interpreted as part of a general and fruitful 
 growth in thought (represented as a change from 
 " mechanical " to " organic " or vital conceptions), 
 and then firmly and quietly limited. In "The 
 Christian Doctrine of God " (" Lux Mundi ") Moore 
 was able to set the same thoughts in a wider 
 and more adequate context, to show that present 
 difficulties run up into and illuminate fundamental 
 questions about the Being of God and His relation 
 to the World (" we owe to science," he said, " the 
 rediscovery of the truth of God's immanence in 
 nature "), to claim for Christian revelation a unique 
 part in solving those questions, and to show that 
 in so doing he was in touch with the best traditions 
 of theology. In that essay (pronounced by a 
 severe and unprejudiced judge to be one of the 
 most brilliant he ever read upon such a subject) 
 we realize the value of the large range and many 
 kinds of work which in God's providence Moore 
 had been led to follow up. The philosophical 
 lecturer's familiarity with speculative issues, ^the 
 theologian's trained intelligence of the real depth 
 of his creed, the ecclesiastical historian's interest 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 in the phases of alliance between Christian beliefs 
 and the rest of human thought, are all there in full 
 activity. But the power of it comes from the fact 
 that all this material is passed through and fused 
 by a mind which in an eminent degree was always 
 itself, always keenly conscious of the issues of 
 truth, and which with all its delight in dialectic, all 
 its ingenuity and brightness, never treated any 
 piece of knowledge, any subject of debate, without 
 a thoroughness and sense of intellectual responsi- 
 bility, due to the remembrance that it was part of 
 a whole of truth which influences in every direction 
 the whole of life. It may not be an unprofitable 
 suggestion to any one who wishes to have a lesson 
 in the way in which such a Christian thinker as 
 Moore was realizes this oneness of truth in the de- 
 partments which we necessarily, but yet shallowly, 
 divide as spiritual, intellectual, etc., that he should 
 read consecutively "The Christian Doctrine of 
 God " and the " Holy Week Addresses." And, 
 whatever the effect upon him, he will hardly regret 
 the suggestion. 
 
 But what, we still need to ask, was the character- 
 istic quality of his work — alas ! that we must add, 
 his distinctive bequest } We may offer for answer 
 that it was the rare combination in him of the 
 deductive and dogmatic mind with openness to 
 every touch of new thought ; a combination in 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 which both sides were entirely and equally genuine 
 and spontaneous, and which therefore (as one 
 result) enabled him to attract with perfect sincerity 
 and naturalness the most opposite kinds of men. 
 He was, on the one hand, one of those whose 
 privilege it is to begin with faith in the Christian 
 Creed, and, so far as man can tell, to walk steadily 
 in its light. We might almost use of himself 
 words which he used of the process by which the 
 Church historically wrought out her theology — 
 " starting with the inheritance of faith, the belief in 
 the Divinity, and trusting in the guidance of the 
 Spirit," he " threw himself boldly into the rational 
 problem." And he would have spoken of this as 
 being intellectually a great gain, the gain which it 
 is in any science to start with the right method. 
 In his Assize sermon he claims kinship between 
 theology and law, on the ground that both are 
 deductive and authoritative in their character. It 
 was natural to him to go straight to theology, and 
 look for its voice, and guide himself by its scientific 
 distinctions and inferences. In this connection is 
 to be noticed his familiarity with the schoolmen 
 and love of the " Blessed St. Thomas," as he used 
 half playfully to call him. " Few men," says a 
 friend, " ever had his grasp of the real issues under- 
 lying * Realistic ' and ' Nominalist ' controversies, 
 and their bearing on the history of the Church." 
 The technical and scientific form did not repel, 
 
 c 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 but attracted him, though the delightful humorous 
 smile as he quoted from them showed how well he 
 knew what everybody knows about " scholastic " 
 limitations. The title of his book, "Science and 
 the Faith," implies at once all that is being here 
 said. "Faith" would have been to him a very 
 different matter. He was a Churchman to the 
 backbone, and he never thought to make things 
 better by abating, even when unpopular, its 
 distinctive language ; 
 
 " The belief in revelation carries with it a belief in dogma, 
 and every true dogma of Christ's holy Church embodies a 
 revelation, a truth about God which, if realized in our life, is 
 a truth which sets us free." 
 
 To separate doctrine from practice is as though 
 we should "fling aside that body of truth which 
 years of scientific research have won from nature, 
 and start afresh in the conflict." "Dogma is not 
 an end in itself, but a necessary means to a good 
 end, the holding fast the sacred deposit of revealed 
 truth." This was to him normal and natural 
 language, and this is the language of a thoroughly 
 and freely dogmatic mind. It was entirely in 
 accord with this that loyalty made him write a 
 firm and explicit refusal to take part in the open- 
 ing ceremonies of a Nonconformist college, and 
 protest against our taking up Luther and Zwingli 
 commemorations. 
 
 But then look at the language which we have to 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 lay alongside of this : — ** We want — which of us 
 does not? — more light on the weary problems 
 which beat and baffle us, and hinder our Christian 
 life." Or in his latest University sermon after 
 pointing out that the sense of stewardship, that 
 is, of ministering what one has received is the true 
 temper alike of priest, philosopher, and scientific 
 investigator, he goes on : — 
 
 " It is in this sense of mission and ministry that we find 
 the strength to struggle on through doubt and difficulty and 
 almost despair, in the search for truth." 
 
 Such words have all the pathos and passion of the 
 
 spirit of quest, and show that the steady believer 
 
 had borne his share of the burthen of "this 
 
 unintelligible world," and could feel with those 
 
 whom it oppressed. But to such evidence of his 
 
 temper we may add the more definite witness of 
 
 his thought. It was the complement (but to him 
 
 the consequence) of dogmatism in the science of 
 
 God, that he should reverence all other teaching. 
 
 He speaks of — 
 
 "The willingness to put ourselves to school with those 
 who in whatever department of life have been in God's 
 purpose the channels by which hitherto He has taught the 
 world. To be teachable it is not necessary to be uncritical, 
 but if ever we are to become true critics we must begin by 
 readiness to learn." 
 
 Such golden words show how entirely he realized 
 that the deductiveness of theology had for him no 
 sense of over-bearingness, and that he would as 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 little reject off-hand in a dogmatic interest what 
 the honest induction of experts in any subject 
 seems to gather as he would ignore the guidance 
 of the Church's Creed in criticizing such new 
 material. Nor was he the least blind to the fact 
 that such inquiry must, in a manner, go behind or 
 take to pieces the very things on which authority 
 rests ; that faith will have to listen patiently to 
 reason's investigation of faith's own nature, or that 
 there is a challenge of religion by reason by which 
 in God's providence religion is cleared and con- 
 firmed. " Reason interprets religion to itself," and 
 a great contribution to the interpretation "comes 
 from the side of a scientific discovery " of the how 
 and manner of revelation, of the genesis of dogma 
 (see for example "Lux Mundi," p. 71). And 
 what underlay all this was, of course, his funda- 
 mental reverence for human reason. " Rationalism " 
 was indeed to him " intensely unscientific " as 
 " assuming " that " human belief is the measure of 
 all truth." But he would allow no limit to the 
 area over which reason was to work. "Every 
 question is a lawful one which human reason, 
 enlightened by the grace of God, can understand." 
 The work of reason in making clear, and ever 
 clearer, the bearings of the faith, and in breaking 
 up what have been mistakenly assumed to be such 
 bearings, was as plain to him as the work of 
 the Faith in illuminating and controlling reason. 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 Nothing better could be desired for the younger 
 men of our time, clerical or lay, than that they 
 should read and re-read what he has said of this 
 in the opening pages of his essay on " The Doctrine 
 of God," noticing as they do so how deeply Moore 
 realized that such reverence for the different 
 sources of truth, such attempt "both to keep and 
 claim " implied " struggle " which " will need the 
 utmost effort moral and intellectual." His firm 
 faith did not send him into these matters "with 
 a light heart." It belonged to the habit of mind 
 thus trained in the discipline of reverence to our 
 several sources of truth, that while he felt the 
 speculative necessity of unity — " philosophy is 
 nothing if it does not completely unify know- 
 ledge ; " " religion and philosophy both demand 
 that God shall fill the whole region of thought and 
 feeling" — he could quite firmly maintain such 
 practical dualism, such parallelism of thought as 
 in her present state reason must submit to. He 
 absolutely refused to explain spirit in terms of 
 matter. He adhered quite firmly to the distinc- 
 tion between " revelation " and nature, even at the 
 time that he was tracing or claiming freedom to 
 trace the natural history of revelation, or at least 
 of the antecedents and development of revelation. 
 He knew "the difference between the religion of 
 Israel and all other religions" to be "a difference 
 not merely of degree, but of kind." He contended 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 that the personality of God is, now and for us, as 
 true a datum as His immanence or infinity. He 
 who had done science such splendid and generous 
 justice refused absolutely to grant to her — shall we 
 not rather say, to credit her true self with demand- 
 ing ? — that " ethics should become a department of 
 biology," and prophesied the day when biology 
 should receive light thrown back from a true moral 
 science : — 
 
 " Christianity is committed to no theory of the universe, 
 but it is committed to a belief which evolution as at present 
 understood is unwilling, or rather unable to justify — the 
 belief, namely, that God is a Personal Being, and in His 
 innermost nature a God of Love, that the world is a moral 
 world. ... It is the Christian's belief in progress and his 
 knowledge gained from experience which justify him in 
 saying that evolution cannot be the last word." 
 
 Nothing is more clearly a part of Moore's teach- 
 ing than that we must often hold truths of which 
 we do not yet know the synthesis, that we must 
 constantly draw distinctions where we are unable 
 to draw sharp lines. 
 
 Such were some of the features of his thought ; 
 but his thought was but a part of the life of his 
 spirit. The temper of that spirit cannot perhaps 
 be better defined than in his own words : — 
 
 " Purity, humility, and gentleness are notes of the scholars 
 of the truth." " Only when we become ' as a little child ' 
 can we hope to enter into the kingdom of the truth. . . . 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 Who are they who have proved themselves sufficient for so 
 great a work as the interpreting of truth to man? Those 
 surely who have most clearly recognized the greatness of 
 the truth they handle and the insufficiency of man to do 
 anything but to receive the truth which is given and truly to 
 reflect the truth he sees." 
 
 To such thought " revelation " is a climax which 
 finds its prophecy in the true character of all 
 knowledge, and the rational Christian believer is 
 the full-bloomed type of the true student. It is 
 the brightest part of what we owe to Moore that 
 he went by God's grace so far to delineate and to 
 realize an ideal so beautiful, so lofty, and so true. 
 
 II. 
 
 G. J. Romanes, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.^ 
 
 Among the other obituary notices which you 
 will probably receive of the late Mr. Aubrey Moore, 
 I should like to supply a few remarks with special 
 reference to the aspect of his many-sided mind 
 which was turned towards physical science and 
 contemporary thought. And I desire to publish 
 these remarks in your columns, inasmuch as we 
 now know that he was the writer of the admirable 
 reviews and essays which from time to time have 
 
 ^ Reprinted from the Guardian^ Jan. 29, 1890. 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 knowledge ; and it is in this sense that I claim for 
 him the peculiar position above assigned. 
 
 The sudden removal of such a man in the prime 
 of his working life is a calamity not only to the 
 University with which he was associated, but to 
 the whole intellectual interests of the generation 
 in which he lived. At Oxford his loss will be 
 lamented by the resident scientific members almost 
 as much as by the clerical ; for, more than any 
 contemporary, he was equally at home among 
 both, and constituted a link of union between 
 these two sections of existing University life which 
 can ill be spared by either. To the country at 
 large his untimely death has removed a rich 
 promise of Christian championship of the order 
 displayed by his essay in " Lux Mundi" — an essay 
 so remarkable in its originality of thought and 
 brilliancy of style, that even those of his country- 
 men who no longer belong to the household of his 
 faith must be poor creatures indeed if they do not 
 grieve at the silencing of his voice. 
 
 In these few words I have sought to convey my 
 high appreciation of Mr. Aubrey Moore as a man 
 of intellect and learning, whose great powers were 
 united with a spirit of tolerant sympathy towards 
 all honest search for truth. Of the other aspects 
 of his character I prefer leaving those to speak 
 
MEMOIRS, 
 
 who from a longer and more intimate friendship 
 are better entitled to do so, although I cannot 
 close without joining my testimony to what, among 
 all his friends, must be, in an unusual measure, a 
 consciousness of personal loss. 
 
 " O strong soul, by what shore 
 Tarriest thou now ? For that force, 
 Surely, has not been left vain ! 
 Somewhere, surely, afar, 
 In the sounding labour-house vast 
 Of being, is practised that strength. 
 Zealous, beneficent, firm." 
 
 III. 
 
 The Rev. W. Lock, Sub-Warden of 
 Keble College.^ 
 
 Students of Theology have had a sad list of 
 deaths to mourn within the last twelve months : 
 Dr. Edersheim, Canon Evans, W. H. Simcox, Dr. 
 Hatch, Bishop Lightfoot, Dr. Littledale, and Dr. 
 von DoUinger have followed each other quickly to 
 " the Eternal School " ; and now, in the death of 
 the Rev. A. L. Moore, we have another loss coming 
 home to us in Oxford very closely, and one which, 
 if we combine performance with promise, is as sad 
 as any of the others. 
 
 ^ Reprinted from the Oxford Magazine, Jan. 22, 1890, 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 Mr. Moore came to Oxford from St. Paul's 
 School in 1867. Strangely enough, he was unsuc- 
 cessful in gaining a Scholarship, though he tried 
 at several colleges ; so he entered as a commoner 
 at Exeter College. There his excellence was 
 early recognized ; he gained a first class in 
 Moderations and in the Final Schools (1871), and 
 was elected in 1873 to a fellowship at St. John's. 
 There he remained as Tutor till 1876, when he 
 took the living of Frenchay in Gloucestershire, 
 which he held till 1880, and then returned to 
 Oxford at the request of the Warden of Keble 
 College, and became a tutor at that college and 
 also at Magdalen College. These offices he re- 
 tained till his death, being also elected in 1889 an 
 Official Fellow at Magdalen as Dean of Divinity. 
 From 1878 he was also Examining Chaplain, first 
 to Bishop Mackarness and then to Bishop Stubbs, 
 the former of whom appointed him to an Honorary 
 Canonry in the Cathedral in 1887 ; since 1880 he 
 has lectured as assistant to Dr. Bright. He was 
 Select Preacher before the University 1885-1886; 
 Oxford preacher at Whitehall, 1 887-1 888 ; Curator 
 of the Botanic Gardens, 1887; and was just ap- 
 pointed as Examiner in the School of Literae 
 Humaniores. It is a striking tribute to his many- 
 sidedness that he was nominated on the same day 
 Examiner in the School of Theology. He wrote 
 frequently for the Guardian^ and at times for the 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 Quarterly Review^ and in 1889 republished the 
 more important of these reviews in a volume 
 entitled " Science and the Faith." In addition to 
 separate sermons and addresses at the Church 
 Congress, he also published a set of " Holy Week 
 Addresses," an " Oxford House Paper " on " Evo- 
 lution and Christianity," and contributed sermons 
 to the " Keble College Sermons," and an Essay 
 on the Christian Doctrine of God to " Lux Mundi." 
 This list of publications is sufficient to show how 
 varied was his work, and that it is not theologians 
 only who have to mourn his loss. The chief 
 characteristic of his mind was indeed its quick 
 versatility : an excellent practical botanist, he was 
 also a real student of the theories and methods of 
 Natural Science, especially on the side of biology ; 
 a good classical scholar, yet his main interest was 
 centred in moral and metaphysical speculation. 
 Full of interest as he was in social and economic 
 problems, he had been pressed by the under- 
 graduates to take a leading part in a society for 
 the discussion of such problems. His theological 
 lectures has been mainly on Ecclesiastical History, 
 and to many of us it seemed that few were more 
 qualified to write a history of the Reformation, yet 
 he himself felt that his real call was to deal with 
 those parts of Theology which border on Science 
 or Philosophy ; and it is no secret that he refused 
 the request of his friends to allow himself to be 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 suggested as a successor to Dr. Hatch in the 
 Readership of Ecclesiastical History. As a con- 
 troversialist he was a keen lover of the fray — lynx- 
 eyed to detect weakness in an opponent's position, 
 trenchant and inexorable in logic, full charged 
 with epigrammatic defiance, yet scrupulously just 
 and with a ready recognition of the difficulties 
 which others might feel in accepting his own 
 position. Many of those whom he criticized 
 most severely recognized this ; e.g. Mr. Cotter 
 Morison expressed his gratitude for, and his high 
 estimate of, his review of the " Service of Man." As 
 a preacher his sermons often contained a thorough 
 sifting of some theological problem, yet, with the 
 instinct of one who had been a parish priest, there 
 flashed out from time to time some piercing 
 spiritual appeal, " quick to discern the thoughts 
 and intents of the heart," and uttered with a clear 
 solemnity of tone which rings in the ears still. 
 
 For behind all the many-sided work, as the 
 determining motive of it all, there lay the deepest 
 sense of intellectual responsibility, and the convic- 
 tion expressed so excellently in his last University 
 sermon, that " truth always and everywhere is a 
 sacred trust from God for the service of man." 
 The belief in Christ and His Church was his by 
 inheritance, but he had accepted it with his full- 
 grown mind, at a time when all such acceptance 
 had to be won through the stress of conflict, be- 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 cause it satisfied at once his passion for righteous- 
 ness and his intellectual craving for unity. Hence 
 he approached questions like that of evolution with 
 a perfect fearlessness about the result, and but 
 lately he was encouraging others to approach the 
 criticism of the Old Testament in the same spirit. 
 
 It is harder to speak of what he was to those 
 who knew him intimately : the patient teacher 
 ever ready to explain difficulties to his pupils, and 
 lavish of his knowledge and of his best thoughts in 
 conversation with his friends : the life and soul of 
 Common-room, and the enlivener of many a dull 
 meeting with his quick repartee and sparkling 
 humour : the constant witness to us of the triumph 
 of spirit over matter : who while gifted with a body 
 which could scarcely fail to make a man constantly 
 self-conscious, and which, quickly wearied by 
 physical effort, must have tended to make him 
 fretful and sensitive, yet bore the burden so that 
 we forgot that he had a burden to bear, and strove 
 with the fretfulness till it seemed almost to have 
 passed away. The most athletic undergraduate, 
 with all his admiration for the prowess of the river 
 and the Parks, yet was moved no less 
 
 " Beside that strong 
 Rare spirit, fettered to a stubborn body. 
 Endeavouring to subdue it and inform it 
 With its own splendour." 
 
 To know him slightly was consistent with being 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 suggested as a successor to Dr. Hatch in the 
 Readership of Ecclesiastical History. As a con- 
 troversialist he was a keen lover of the fray — lynx- 
 eyed to detect weakness in an opponent's position, 
 trenchant and inexorable in logic, full charged 
 with epigrammatic defiance, yet scrupulously just 
 and with a ready recognition of the difficulties 
 which others might feel in accepting his own 
 position. Many of those whom he criticized 
 most severely recognized this ; e.g. Mr. Cotter 
 Morison expressed his gratitude for, and his high 
 estimate of, his review of the " Service of Man." As 
 a preacher his sermons often contained a thorough 
 sifting of some theological problem, yet, with the 
 instinct of one who had been a parish priest, there 
 flashed out from time to time some piercing 
 spiritual appeal, " quick to discern the thoughts 
 and intents of the heart," and uttered with a clear 
 solemnity of tone which rings in the ears still. 
 
 For behind all the many-sided work, as the 
 determining motive of it all, there lay the deepest 
 sense of intellectual responsibility, and the convic- 
 tion expressed so excellently in his last University 
 sermon, that " truth always and everywhere is a 
 sacred trust from God for the service of man." 
 The belief in Christ and His Church was his by 
 inheritance, but he had accepted it with his full- 
 grown mind, at a time when all such acceptance 
 had to be won through the stress of conflict, be- 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 cause it satisfied at once his passion for righteous- 
 ness and his intellectual craving for unity. Hence 
 he approached questions like that of evolution with 
 a perfect fearlessness about the result, and but 
 lately he was encouraging others to approach the 
 criticism of the Old Testament in the same spirit. 
 
 It is harder to speak of what he was to those 
 who knew him intimately : the patient teacher 
 ever ready to explain difficulties to his pupils, and 
 lavish of his knowledge and of his best thoughts in 
 conversation with his friends : the life and soul of 
 Common-room, and the enlivener of many a dull 
 meeting with his quick repartee and sparkling 
 humour : the constant witness to us of the triumph 
 of spirit over matter : who while gifted with a body 
 which could scarcely fail to make a man constantly 
 self-conscious, and which, quickly wearied by 
 physical effort, must have tended to make him 
 fretful and sensitive, yet bore the burden so that 
 we forgot that he had a burden to bear, and strove 
 with the fretfulness till it seemed almost to have 
 passed away. The most athletic undergraduate, 
 with all his admiration for the prowess of the river 
 and the Parks, yet was moved no less 
 
 " Beside that strong 
 Rare spirit, fettered to a stubborn body, 
 Endeavouring to subdue it and inform it 
 With its own splendour." 
 
 To know him slightly was consistent with being 
 
MEMOIRS. 
 
 frightened by his sharp cleverness : to know him 
 more was to be attracted by it : to know him well 
 was to love and admire the goodness which kept 
 such cleverness in such control. 
 
I. 
 
 WEISMANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY, 
 ETO 
 
 It is certainly not too much to say that Professor 
 Weismann's " Essays on Heredity," are the most 
 important contribution to speculative biology 
 which has been made since the " Origin of Species " 
 was published. Yet, except to professed biologists, 
 Professor Weismann's work has till lately been 
 little known in England. Attention was first 
 drawn to it by an article, entitled " Death," in the 
 Nineteenth Century for May, 1885, by Mr. A. E. 
 Shipley ; this was followed up by two excellent 
 articles in Nature by Professor Moseley, which 
 gave in summary the main conclusions arrived at ; 
 and in 1887, at the Manchester meeting of the 
 British Association, Professor Weismann himself 
 took part in a discussion introduced by Professor 
 Ray Lankester, on " The Transmission of Acquired 
 Characters." 
 
 > Essays upon Heredity, etc. By Professor August Weismann. 
 Edited by Edward B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S., etc., Tutor of Keble 
 College, Oxford, Dr. Schonland, Ph. D., and A. E. Shipley, M.A. 
 Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
 
 ' ^ B 
 
2 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 As far back as 1884, Mr. A. E. Shipley began a 
 translation of the two essays which stand first in 
 the present collection, and he has now co-operated 
 with Mr. E. B. Poulton and Dr. Schonland in 
 preparing the volume before us. Professor Weis- 
 mann has himself looked over the proof-sheets, 
 which is a sufficient guarantee for the accuracy of 
 the work as a whole, while the assays in their 
 English dress admit of the high commendation 
 that, if it were not for the necessary insertion in 
 brackets of a German technical term here and 
 there, there would be nothing to remind us that 
 the essays are a translation at all. 
 
 The essays themselves are eight in number, and 
 are arranged in chronological order, the first being 
 written in 1881, the last in 1888. We are thus able 
 to trace the development of the theory in Professor 
 Weismann's own thoughts, and see how he was 
 led from point to point, till he reached the central 
 position, that in what he calls "the continuity of 
 Germ-plasm " is to be found the true explanation of 
 heredity. And this involves the non-transmission 
 of acquired characters, and the overthrow of the 
 Lamarckian and Neo-Lamarckian theory. 
 
 It is only the outside of Professor Weismann's 
 work that we can hope to touch in the present 
 review. And even then we can do little more than 
 state results. For the evidence lies in the myste- 
 rious processes of embryological development, a 
 
WE IS MANN'S ESS A YS UPON HEREDITY. 3 
 
 discussion of which would be as much out of place 
 as it would be beyond our power to attempt. 
 
 There are two centres round which Professor 
 Weismann's investigations turn — a speculation as 
 to the origin of iiatiiral deathy and a new theory of 
 heredity^ and the two are closely connected to- 
 gether, and result in a complete and coherent 
 biological theory. 
 
 I. The first essay raises the question of the reason 
 of the great variation in the duration of life among 
 plants and animals. Can this variation be brought 
 under any law } It is assumed, to start with, that 
 duration of life depends upon adaptation to ex- 
 ternal conditions, and is governed by the needs of 
 the species rather than of the individual. When, 
 then, the individual becomes useless to the species, 
 whether that stage is reached after a longer or a 
 shorter period, we should expect him to have 
 reached the natural term of his life. And we are 
 confirmed in this expectation by finding that, as 
 a rule, life does not greatly outlast the period of 
 reproduction, except in those species which tend 
 their young. In spite of the fact that there is very 
 little accurate information available as to the dura- 
 tion of life in different species, Professor Weismann 
 is able to produce some remarkable statistics in 
 favour of this view, the most striking perhaps being 
 drawn from the "exceptions" which "prove the 
 rule." But this discussion of the duration of life 
 
4 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 leads on to the extremely interesting question of 
 the meaning and nature of death. Science has in 
 past days discussed the origin of life, and for the 
 present has put the question aside as an insoluble 
 problem. On this matter, then, Professor Weis- 
 mann has nothing to say beyond recording his 
 belief that "spontaneous generation, in spite of all 
 vain efforts to demonstrate it, remains a logical 
 necessity." But on the phenomenon of death he 
 has much to tell us. And his conclusions are as 
 striking as they are suggestive. 
 
 It sounds at first like a paradox to say that "it 
 is only from the point of view of utility that we 
 can understand the necessity of death," or to talk 
 about death as " a beneficial occurrence," an " adap- 
 tation," which has arisen by the operation of 
 natural selection, because a life of unlimited 
 duration would be "a luxury without a purpose." 
 Still more startling is it to be told that, though the 
 higher organisms " contain within themselves the 
 germs of death," there are inferior organisms which 
 are "endowed with the potentiality of never-ending 
 life." But it is only the language which is para- 
 doxical. When the amoeba increases by division, 
 neither half is younger or older than the other. 
 The process may go on for centuries ; thousands 
 of amoebae may be destroyed, yet the amoebae 
 who survive are as old as, for they are identical 
 with, the first amoeba. The same is true of the 
 
WEISM ANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY. 5 
 
 low unicellular algae, and the more highly organized 
 unicellular infusoria. They can be killed, but they 
 do not die naturally. In this sense they are 
 immortal. And, as Professor Weismann puts it, 
 " Each individual of any such unicellular species 
 living on the earth to-day is far older than man- 
 kind, and is almost as old as life itself." 
 
 Assuming, then, that the higher forms are evolved 
 from the lower, when did natural death appear, and 
 how could it have been — for this is Weismann's 
 contention — a gain to the species, brought about 
 by natural selection ? 
 
 The answer is that when we pass from the 
 unicellular to the multicellular organisms we are 
 at first as far as ever from death. Multicellular 
 organisms, like unicellular, are capable of being 
 killed, but so long as the cells are homogeneous, 
 there is no death. For the dissolution of the cell- 
 colony is not death, since the separated cells still 
 live. But when among the multicellular organisms 
 we reach those in which a division of labour has 
 taken place among the cells — that is to say, when 
 we pass from homoplastides to heteroplastides — a 
 new fact appears. The previously identical cells 
 have become dissimilar, some being perishable, the 
 somatic cells, the others, the reproductive cells, 
 retaining the potential immortality, which belonged 
 alike to unicellular organisms and to the cells of 
 the homoplastid colony : — 
 
6 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 " The mortality of the somatic cells," says Professor 
 Weismann, "arose with the first dififerentiation of the 
 originally homogeneous cells of the polyplastids into the 
 dissimilar cells of the heteroplastids. And this is the first 
 beginning of natural death." 
 
 At first, while the immortal reproductive cells 
 far outnumbered the perishable somatic cells, the 
 death of the latter would be hardly noticeable. 
 The organism, as a whole, would seem to survive, 
 though a part of it perished. But when, in the 
 individual, the perishable somatic cells came to 
 outnumber the reproductive cells, death would 
 emerge into prominence. For that which lived 
 would be relatively small and unimportant com- 
 pared with that which died. And when, more- 
 over, the potentially immortal germ cells, owing to 
 the death of the somatic cells, lacked the conditions 
 under which they might build up a new body, they 
 would also die, and so the natiLval death of the 
 somatic cells would become incidentally the cause 
 of death in the germ cells. For instance, if a plant 
 or insect dies before all the reproductive cells have 
 matured, these remaining cells are killed by the 
 death of the soma. And thus the mortal secures 
 an accidental triumph over that which in its own 
 nature was potentially immortal. 
 
 If we ask — Why did the mortal thus triumph 
 over the immortal ? the answer is that it must 
 have been for the good of the species. But this at 
 once suggests the further question, — 
 
IVEISMANN'S ESSA YS UPON HEREDITY. 7 
 
 If natural selection, operating on the material of 
 minute quantitative variations in the cells, not only 
 produced a quantitative distinction between mortal 
 and immortal, but put a premium on death, why 
 should not immortality some day reappear? If 
 immortality is lost because it proved under certain 
 conditions "a useless luxury," under other con- 
 ditions it might reappear. Professor Weismann 
 answers — The line between mortal and immortal is 
 less sharp than we might suppose. For the immor- 
 tal cells, which do not die, can be killed ; and the 
 mortal cells do recover the power of indefinite, if 
 not infinite, reproduction, where long life is neces- 
 sary for the good of the species. The duration of 
 life is seen to be controlled by the good of the 
 species, and long life, where it is so needed, is 
 secured by an increase of the number of cell- 
 generations in the sojna. 
 
 If we further ask — Why, then, may not this 
 increase continue till the line between reproductive 
 and somatic, immortal and mortal disappears ? 
 the answer is, that there is no reason, except that 
 we cannot imagine conditions under which such an 
 extension would be for the good of the species. A 
 Tithonus, endowed with immortality but not 
 exempted from the wear and tear of life, is as 
 useless to the species as he is burdensome to him- 
 self. The sojna being in its nature vulnerable, 
 would, if immortal, become of less and less use to 
 
8 £SSAyS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 the species, and the life potentially immortal would 
 actually be limited by natural selection. Nature 
 does not feed " useless mouths." The higher 
 organisms, then, contain the germ of death, not 
 because death is a primary necessity for living 
 things, nor because in them a distinction between 
 reproductive and somatic cells exists, but because 
 in the somatic cells the power of indefinite multi- 
 plication ceased to be of use, and so was lost. In 
 short, the death of the individual was for the good 
 of the species. 
 
 Such is Weismann's theory of the origin of 
 death. And it is interesting to find that, more 
 than twenty years ago, Dr. A. R. Wallace had hit 
 upon a similar explanation. In a note written 
 some time between 1865 and 1870, but published 
 for the first time as a footnote in the present 
 volume, he says that while an organism, which 
 increases by fission, would survive in spite of the 
 destruction of its individual separated parts, those 
 organisms which give off very small portions to 
 form new organisms would be at a great disad- 
 vantage as compared with these smaller organisms 
 in the struggle for existence, and would soon cease 
 to exist : — 
 
 "This state of things," he says, "would be in any case for 
 the advantage of the race, and would therefore, by natural 
 selection, soon become established as the regular course of 
 things, and thus we have the origin of old age, decay, and 
 death; for it is evident that when one or more individuals 
 
WEISM ANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY. 9 
 
 have provided a sufficient number of successors, they them- 
 selves, as consumers of nourishment in a constantly increas- 
 ing degree, are an injury to those successors. Natural 
 selection, therefore, weeds them out, and in many cases 
 favours such races as die almost immediately after they have 
 left successors." 
 
 Here we have Weismann's theory of the origin 
 of death, not indeed worked out as it is in his 
 Essays on the " Duration of Life " and " Life and 
 Death," but thrown out as a suggestion, which 
 seems to have lain dormant and been forgotten 
 even by the author till the essays of Professor 
 Weismann were submitted to him in proof. 
 
 2. The other point in Professor Weismann's 
 philosophy is his theory of heredity, which follows 
 as a consequence from his theory of the origin of 
 death and the separation of somatic and reproduc- 
 tive cells in the heteroplastids. 
 
 It is clear that in those organisms which increase 
 by simple division the likeness which exists between 
 the divided parts is simply the likeness of identity. 
 The offspring is " a chip of the old block " in a 
 literal sense, except that the question of age does 
 not come in, each part being as old, or as young, as 
 that of which it is a part. There is, as yet, no 
 question of heredity. After the separation, any 
 of the separated parts might by direct action of 
 environment be modified, and so become different 
 from the others, but when they in turn increased 
 by fission their divided parts would, to start with, 
 
10 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 be exactly alike, the likeness being still the likeness 
 of identity. Even when the stage is reached in 
 which two unicellular organisms conjugate and 
 coalesce in one, whatever be the immediate advan- 
 tage of such conjugation, there would presumably 
 be the funding of the characters possessed by each, 
 but so long as reproduction takes place by fission 
 the whole of the parent passes into the offspring, 
 or rather the parent and offspring (if such terms 
 may be improperly applied to the parts of the 
 division) are of one piece. 
 
 When, however, we reach those organisms in 
 which two different sorts of cells are produced, and 
 when sexual reproduction makes its appearance, in 
 place of reproduction by fission, the offspring is no 
 longer identical with either parent, but shares the 
 nature of both, being distinct from either. If we 
 still speak of the child as " a chip of the old block," 
 we are more or less conscious that we are speaking 
 metaphorically. Yet the fact of heredity, whether 
 in plants or brutes or men, is too obvious to escape 
 notice, and is taken as a matter of course long 
 before any attempt is made to explain it. Nor 
 does the real difficulty of the problem present 
 itself to us till we ask, How can a microscopic cell 
 contain in the germ not only the whole body in all 
 its parts, but the special characters of parents or 
 more remote ancestors ? 
 
 It is well known that the fact of heredity plays 
 
WE ISM ANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY. ii 
 
 an important part in Lamarck's theory of descent ; 
 indeed Lamarck would have explained the struc- 
 ture of organisms mainly through the inheritance 
 by one generation of qualities or characters 
 acquired by previous generations. The long neck 
 of the giraffe was due to constant stretching after 
 the leaves of trees, the web between the toes of a 
 water-bird's foot to the extension of the toes in an 
 attempt to oppose as large a surface as possible to 
 the water in swimming. In both cases the charac- 
 teristics of the species were supposed to be acquired 
 by minute additions from generation to generation. 
 
 According to the theory of natural selection the 
 same facts would be differently explained ; but 
 Darwin did not altogether abandon Lamarckianism, 
 or see that all the facts could be accounted for by 
 natural selection, and that therefore the inheritance 
 of acquired characters was an unnecessary hypo- 
 thesis. Instead of this, he addressed himself to 
 the question how the use or disuse of an organ in 
 one generation could be transmitted to the next. 
 
 The answer was the cumbrous theory oi pan- 
 genesis, which Darwin himself recognized as only a 
 provisional hypothesis. It was supposed that exces- 
 sively small particles known as " gemmules " are 
 constantly given off from the cells of the body and 
 collected in the reproductive cells, so that any 
 change in the organism during its life is as it were 
 " registered for transmission " to the offspring. 
 
12 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Apart from the other difficulties of this theory, it 
 has been practically proved by Galton's experi- 
 ments that the "gemmules" do not exist, and, 
 moreover, the tendency of recent science has been 
 almost entirely in the direction of emphasizing the 
 importance of the Darwinian principle of natural 
 selection, and excluding what remains of Lamarck- 
 ianism in the doctrine of evolution. 
 
 Professor Weismann's theory of heredity is the 
 latest development of this tendency, (i.) It explains 
 heredity by the continuity of the germ-plasm ; 
 (ii.) it denies the possibility of the inheritance of 
 acquired characters ; and (iii.) it recognizes in 
 natural selection the sole factor in the evolution of 
 species, at least among the metaphyta and metazoa. 
 
 The continuity of the germ-plasm. — We have seen 
 that the problem of heredity does not really present 
 itself in those plants and animals which increase 
 by fission or division. For here the parts are at 
 the time of the division alike because identical, and 
 retain their likeness except when acted upon by 
 the environment But when sexual reproduction 
 appears, the offspring is no longer identical with 
 either parent, but combines in varying proportions 
 the characteristics of both, though we can trace it 
 back to a microscopic cell. This microscopic cell 
 must contain all that grows from it — not like a 
 Chinese puzzle box-within-box (emboziement), nor 
 as containing preformed gemmules (J>angenesis), 
 
WEISMANN'S ESSA YS UPON- HEREDITY. 13 
 
 but as the vehicle of the united germ-plasms of the 
 parent plants or animals. At a certain staje in 
 the evolution of organisms, as we have already 
 noticed, a distinction arises between reproductive 
 and somatic cells — the latter being perishable ; 
 the former, in the sense explained, potentially 
 immortal. The higher organisms, then, contain — 
 speaking from the purely physical point of view — 
 a mortal and an immortal part, what belongs to 
 the individual and what the individual merely has 
 the use of There is no primogeniture in nature, 
 but the inheritance is strictly entailed. The 
 individual becomes the vehicle to the next genera- 
 tion of a portion of that ''immortal" germ-plasm 
 out of which he himself was built up. Parent and 
 child are thus made of the same "stuff." Their 
 somatic cells grow out of the same germ-plasm, 
 and the likeness in the result is due to the identity 
 of the source. Thus heredity is ti'aced back to 
 groivth. If we compare the germ-plasm to the 
 creeping rhizome of a fern, the successive genera- 
 tions would be represented by the fronds as they 
 are successively thrown up along the line of the 
 rhizome. Coming from the same rhizome we 
 expect them to be alike, except so far as they 
 are individually modified from without. But the 
 individual modifications are individual simply, and 
 the next frond has an identical starting-point with 
 the last, and is unaffected by anything which for 
 
14 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 good or evil has affected the others from outside. 
 This illustration of a creeping rhizome, however, 
 is a very imperfect one. It would fairly represent 
 the facts if the plant or animal were the offspring 
 of one parent only. But when sexual reproduction 
 appears, the germ-plasm, out of which the individual 
 plant or animal is built up, is the union of the 
 germ-plasms of four grand-parents, and so on. 
 The complexity of the germ-plasm increases in 
 geometrical ratio, so that in the tenth generation 
 a single germ contains 1024 different germ-plasms, 
 with their inherent hereditary tendencies. But 
 though the germ-plasm in each generation increases 
 in complexity, it does not increase in mass. For it 
 is constantly being used, as it increases, for the 
 building up of successive individuals, though there 
 is always a part of the germ-plasm which is not 
 used up in the construction of the body of the 
 offspring, but is reserved unchanged for the next 
 generation. The somatic cells belong to the 
 individual, are modified in the life of the individual 
 both by the direct action of environment and 
 by use and disuse, but they also die with the 
 individual ; while the germ cells belong to the 
 race, and can only be affected very slightly, if at 
 all, through the somatic cells. As a corollary 
 from this we get — 
 
 The non-transmission of acquired characters. — 
 This, of course, does not mean that a new charac- 
 
WE ISM ANN'S ESSjfYS UPON HEREDITY. 15 
 
 ter which appears in one of the parents nftay not 
 reappear in the child, but that nothing can arise in 
 any organism unless the predisposition is already 
 present, and it is the predisposition which is trans- 
 mitted, not the character : — 
 
 "Only those characters can be called 'acquired' which 
 owe their origin to external influences, and the term 
 * acquired ' must be denied to those which depend upon the 
 mysterious relationship between the different hereditary 
 tendencies which meet in the fertilized ovum. These latter 
 are not ' acquired,' but inherited, although the ancestors did 
 not possess them as such, but only as it were the elements 
 of which they are composed." 
 
 With regard to changes produced in the indi- 
 vidual by external influences, these, according to 
 Professor Weismann, cannot be transmitted to the 
 germs, and therefore cannot be hereditary. No 
 one expects a cat whose tail has been cut off to 
 become the parent of tailless kittens, though there 
 are always old wives' fables to that effect ; nor do 
 we expect a man who has lost an arm in battle to 
 have a family of one-armed children. Even the 
 tyranny of fashion seems powerless to affect the 
 germ-plasm. The deformed foot of the Chinese 
 mother is not transmitted to her children, nor have 
 centuries of Western civilization had the slightest 
 influence on the waist of the British baby. Professor 
 Weismann has an elaborate examination of the 
 various cases of supposed transmission of mutila- 
 tions, including the case of epilepsy artificially 
 
i6 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 induced in guinea-pigs and transmitted to their 
 offspring. He also discusses at some length the 
 botanical arguments in favour of the transmission 
 of acquired characters. Besides this he has recorded 
 his own experiments on white mice, seven females 
 and five males, whose tails were ruthlessly cut off. 
 In five generations of artificially mutilated parents 
 901 young were produced, and there was not a 
 single example either of a rudimentary tail or even 
 of one abnormally short. 
 
 The question of the transmission of special talents 
 is a more difificult one, simply because it is less 
 easy to distinguish between what is innate and 
 what is really acquired : — 
 
 " The children of accomplished pianists (as Professor 
 Weismann says) do not inherit the art of playing on the 
 piano ; they have to learn it in the same laborious manner 
 as that by which their parents acquired it ; they do not 
 inherit anything except that which their parents also 
 possessed when children — viz., manual dexterity and a good 
 ear." 
 
 All predispositions can no doubt be improved in 
 the course of a lifetime, but the question is whether 
 the improvement can be added to, and handed on 
 with, the predisposition to the next generation. 
 On this point Professor Weismann is quite clear : — 
 
 " In my opinion," he says, " there is absolutely no trust- 
 worthy proof that talents have been improved by their exer- 
 cise through the course of a long series of generations. The 
 Bach family shows that musical talent, and the Bernoulli 
 
WEISMAN^'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDIIY. 17 
 
 family that mathematical power, can be transmitted from 
 generation to generation, but this teaches us nothing as to 
 the origin of such talents. In both families the high-water 
 mark of talent lies, not at the end of the series of genera- 
 tions, as it should do if the results of practice are trans- 
 mitted, but in the middle. Again, talents frequently appear 
 in some single member of a family which has not been 
 previously distinguished. Gauss was not the son of a 
 mathematician ; Handel's father was a surgeon, of whose 
 musical powers nothing is known ; Titian was the son and 
 also the nephew of a lawyer, while he and his brother, 
 Francesco Vecellio, were the first painters in a family which 
 produced a succession of seven other artists with diminishing 
 talents." 
 
 We may sum up Professor Weismann's theory of 
 heredity in his own words : — 
 
 " I believe that heredity depends upon the fact that a small 
 portion of the effective substance of the germ, the germ- 
 plasm, remains unchanged during the development of the 
 ovum into an organism, and that this part of the germ- 
 plasm serves as a foundation from which the germ-cells of 
 the new organism are produced. There is, therefore, con- 
 tinuity of the germ-plasm from one generation to another. 
 . . . Hence it follows that the transmission of acquired 
 characters is an impossibility, for if the germ-plasm is not 
 formed anew in each individual, but is derived from that 
 which preceded it, its structure, and above all its molecular 
 constitution, cannot depend upon the individual in which it 
 happens to occur, but such an individual only forms, as it 
 were, the nutritive soil at the expense of which the germ- 
 plasm grows, while the latter possessed its characteristic 
 structure from the beginning — viz., before the commence- 
 ment of growth. 
 
 " But the tendencies of heredity, of which the germ-plasm 
 is the bearer, depend upon this very molecular structure, 
 
 C 
 
1 8 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 and hence only those characters can be transmitted through 
 successive generations which have been previously inherited 
 viz., those characters which were potentially contained in the 
 structure of the germ-plasm. It also follows that those other 
 characters which have been acquired by the influence of 
 special external conditions, during the lifetime of the parent, 
 cannot be transmitted at all." 
 
 It is obviously impossible to attempt anything 
 like a criticism of Weismann's theory. Its evidence 
 lies almost exclusively in the domain of embryology, 
 and must be judged by professed embryologists. 
 A part of this evidence, to which we have not even 
 alluded hitherto, is Professor Weismann's theory 
 as to the nature and meaning of the polar bodies 
 given off by the unfertilized ovum in both plants 
 and animals ; a theory which, if it be generally 
 accepted, will not only be a valuable support to 
 Professor Weismann's main position, as explaining 
 the differences as well as the likenesses which exist 
 between the offspring of the same parents, but will 
 rank among the more important discoveries of 
 modern embryological science. 
 
 But in reading these essays we cannot help feel- 
 ing, what was indeed a priori probable in a theory 
 which was diametrically opposed to Lamarckianism, 
 that too hard a line is drawn between the repro- 
 ductive and the somatic cells. To most people 
 it would seem that, however slight it may be, or 
 however slowly it may take effect, there must be a 
 reaction of the individual life on that of which it is 
 
WEISMANN'S ESS A YS UPON HEREDITY. 19 
 
 the vehicle. Professor Weismann, indeed, admits 
 this, but with obvious reluctance. He says — 
 
 " I am far from asserting that the germ-plasm — which, as 
 I hold, is transmitted as the basis of heredity from one 
 generation to another — is absolutely unchangeable or totally 
 uninfluenced by forces residing in the organism within which 
 it is transformed into germ cells. I am also compelled to 
 admit that it is conceivable that organisms may exert a 
 modifying influence upon their germ cells, and even that 
 such a process is to a certain extent inevitable. The nutri- 
 tion and growth of the individual must exercise some 
 influence on the germ cells ; but in the first place this 
 influence must be extremely slight, and in the second place 
 it cannot act in the manner in which it is usually assumed 
 that it takes place." 
 
 But if, as he admits elsewhere, a changed climate 
 may somehow affect the germ, and if increased 
 nourishment not only increases the luxuriance of a 
 plant, but "in some distinct way alters the plant," 
 it may also be true, as is commonly believed, that 
 the acquired habit of intemperance may react upon 
 the germ-plasm of which the drunkard is only the 
 steward, and he may transmit an alcoholized 
 nature to his children ; and the roue may not only 
 be destroying his individual life, but weakening 
 and vitiating that which he hands down to pos- 
 terity. It may be a slower process than we had 
 imagined, but it is hard to believe that it does not 
 take place. 
 
 Looking at Professor Weismann's theory as a 
 
20 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 whole, there are two points which seem to be of 
 special importance. 
 
 I. The first is that Weismann's theory makes 
 a definite advance in attempting to account for 
 variability. Hitherto evolution has been com- 
 pelled to postulate variability, and has neither set 
 limits to the possible variations nor accounted for 
 their origin. Given a practically infinite number 
 of " accidental " variations, evolution sets to work 
 to show why, under the law of natural selection, 
 supplemented by the supposed inheritance of 
 acquired characters, certain forms rather than 
 others survived. But Weismann's theory attempts 
 to explain the existence of variation, and to show 
 that the variations, though innumerable and prac- 
 tically infinite, are neither really infinite nor acci- 
 dental, but from first to last are subject to law. In 
 the lower asexual organisms variation is brought 
 about by external influences acting on the indi- 
 vidual, these individual characters, though acquired, 
 being as yet transmissible, because reproduction 
 takes place by simple fission. But when the dis- 
 tinction between reproductive and somatic cells 
 arises, the direct action of environment ceases, or 
 rather it affects the individual, not the species. 
 /Sexual reproduction now appears as a new method 
 ^of multiplying variations. For sexual reproduc- 
 tion, by combining the variations already in exist- 
 ence, increases them in geometrical ratio, and thus 
 
WEISM ANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY. 21 
 
 secures "hereditary individual characters to form 
 the material upon which natural selection may 
 work." 
 
 2. The second point to notice is that Weismann's 
 theory, if it is true, involves the triumph of the 
 Darwinian principle of natural selection, and will 
 therefore have to run the gauntlet with the modern 
 champions of Lamarckianism, including Herbert 
 Spencer. For Herbert Spencer is committed to 
 the view that what is a posteriori in the race is 
 a priori in the individual ; in other words, that 
 acquired characters are transmitted. According 
 to Weismann no such transmission is possible or 
 necessary. It is not possible if we are to accept 
 the theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm ; 
 and it is not necessary if we can explain the facts 
 without it. His contention is that we can ; that 
 the Lamarckianism which survived in Darwinism 
 was a dens ex machind, which we can now dispense 
 with. The progressive increase of variability has 
 no meaning except as the progressive preparation 
 of material for natural selection to work upon. 
 The same law holds throughout. The conjugation 
 of unicellular organisms, the distinction and the 
 stereotyping of the distinction between somatic 
 and reproductive cells, the introduction of natural 
 death, the beginning of sexual reproduction, are 
 all explained by reference to the same end. And 
 when Darwin tells us that no flower is invariably 
 
22 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 self-fertilized, and when Sir John Lubbock assures 
 us that " nature sets her face against self-fertiliza- 
 tion " we can see why it is so. For cross-fertiliza- 
 tion has a similar advantage over self-fertilization, 
 that sexual reproduction has over reproduction by 
 fission. It multiplies the materials on which 
 natural selection can operate. And to multiply 
 the possible variations in plant or animal is to 
 multiply the chances of survival in the struggle for 
 existence. 
 
 Whatever modifications Professor Weismann's 
 theory may receive, it will, at all events, have 
 stated a new problem, a problem of the deepest 
 scientific interest, and pointed the way to its 
 solution. If we may not call it a new departure, 
 it is at least a new development in the theory of 
 evolution. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 A doctrine of Heredity which involves the non- 
 transmission of acquired characters, if it ever be 
 proved or generally accepted, can hardly fail to 
 have a bearing upon questions of morals and 
 society and even theology itself. No doubt those 
 who see in evolution a ready weapon for use 
 against the belief in creation will catch at Professor 
 Weismann's theory as a new argument against the 
 doctrine of original sin. For the present it is 
 
WEISMANN'S ESS A YS UPON HEREDITY. 23 
 
 enough to say that there is an obvious and 
 triumphant answer from the point of view of 
 CathoHc theology, which, however, may be reserved 
 till the difficulty is raised. 
 
 But the belief in Heredity has already influenced 
 our judgment of responsibility and our theories 
 of punishment. It is a common argument on 
 temperance platforms that the drunken father or 
 mother is transmitting to the offspring the " craving 
 for drink," which in themselves is an "acquired" 
 character. If we accept Weismann's theory, this 
 is no longer true, or at least it is no longer a true 
 way of putting the facts. For nothing that the 
 parent can do or abstain from doing, in the way of 
 use or disuse, can influence the offspring, which 
 must inherit the joint inheritance of both its 
 parents. 
 
 Then there is the great question of education. 
 Is it true, as Weismann's theory requires, that 
 the children of highly educated parents profit 
 nothing by that education, but have an identical 
 starting-point with their parents? It may be true, 
 but if so we shall have to recast many of our 
 common views. 
 
 It would seem, for instance, that if the new view 
 of Heredity be accepted in place of the old, and if, 
 so far as the species is concerned, it matters little 
 what the parent does, but matters a great deal 
 what the father is to start with, that the legislator 
 
24 £SSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 would be bound to copy nature more closely, and 
 sacrifice the good of the individual to the good of 
 the species. This is 'the inevitable, and some- 
 times the avowed, tendency of natural science, 
 as distinguished from morals and religion. For 
 morals and religion set an increasingly high value 
 on the individual personal life, while the movement 
 of what we call " nature " seems to be towards the 
 good of the whole at the cost of the parts. This 
 explains the fact of the strange alliance of the 
 modern science of nature with pantheism, and 
 the reappearance in Professor Weismann's theory 
 of what we are familiar with in Spinoza. The 
 individual life, we are told, is nothing but the 
 mortal vehicle of the immortal germ-plasm. " Life," 
 says Professor Weismann, "is continuous, and 
 not periodically interrupted ; ever since its first 
 appearance upon the earth in the lowest organisms 
 it has continued without break ; the forms in which 
 it is manifested have alone undergone change." 
 Sq Spinoza speaks of the individual as " a mode of 
 the universal substance," and individual lives as 
 waves in the sea, "shapes which perpetually die 
 away and have no being." Here pantheism and 
 materialism are at one. For it makes no difference 
 whether it is an eternal "matter" of which the 
 individual is the transient shape, or an eternal 
 " spirit " of which for a little while he is the organ. 
 We do not by this mean to imply that natural 
 
WEISMANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY. 25 
 
 science in general, and Weismann's theory in 
 particular, are opposed to morals and religion, but 
 that they confessedly fail when they attempt to 
 cover the whole of human life. We may say of 
 them as Bacon says of final causes — " not that 
 these causes are not true and worthy to be inquired, 
 being kept in their proper place," but that their 
 excursion into a region not their own "hath bred 
 a vastness and solitude in that tract." The 
 moment we apply to morals and religion the 
 principles which seem to dominate "nature," we 
 produce "a vastness and solitude" in the higher 
 life of man. " Love one another " cannot easily be 
 stated in terms of the struggle for existence, nor 
 can " the infinite value of the individual soul " and 
 the doctrine of personal immortality be fitted in 
 with a theory in which "somatogenic" characters 
 are of relatively little account. 
 
 This contrast between the natural and the moral 
 is just as marked when we have to face the question 
 of responsibility and formulate a theory of punish- 
 ment. Heredity is sometimes appealed to as 
 excusing a man from responsibility, or at least as 
 mitigating his guilt. In a well-known story in 
 Aristotle's " Ethics " a man who kicked his father 
 out of doors excused himself on the ground that 
 his father had done the same to his grandfather, 
 and added, pointing to his son — " When I am old 
 he will do the same for me. It runs in the family." 
 
25 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 The facts are explainable either on Weismann's 
 view of Heredity, or that of Lamarck, though our 
 judgment as to the guilt is different. According to 
 Weismann's theory the capacity for kicking a 
 father out of doors would have been transmitted 
 from some abnormally ungrateful protozoon, to 
 whom that capacity must have been of use. And 
 though no doubt the man should have checked 
 and not exulted in the development of the capacity, 
 nothing that he could have done would have 
 prevented his handing it on to his son. On the 
 Lamarckian theory, each generation would, by use 
 or disuse, have increased the inherent capacity for 
 the exercise. And the effort of the individual to 
 repress it or keep it within strict limits, would 
 have also done something towards getting rid of 
 a hurtful tendency. A part of the fascination 
 which Lamarckianism has for some people is 
 probably due to the fact that by this doctrine of 
 use and disuse, and the transmission of acquired 
 characters, it makes the individual really responsible, 
 if only in part, for his children as well as for himself, 
 and leaves room for the possibility of the extermi- 
 nation of vicious qualities in the species by influences 
 brought to bear upon the individual. 
 
 But on Weismann's theory it is different. As- 
 suming that an inherited tendency to kick one's 
 father out of doors is, at the present stage of 
 development, no longer for the good of the species, 
 
WEISMANN'S ESSAYS UPON HEREDITY. 27 
 
 what method and theory of punishment are we 
 to adopt? Clearly the only reasonable course is 
 elimination. A recent writer on "Marriage and 
 Heredity" tells us that the Chinese put to death 
 "by the slow process" not only the man convicted 
 of treason, but his son and grandson, on the ground 
 that presumably potential traitors must be got rid 
 of This is very much what Mr. Cotter Morison's 
 recommendation of a scientific homoculture comes 
 to. We must "suppress" those human beings 
 which show signs of moral or physical taint, and 
 gradually improve the breed. 
 
 But there are two difficulties which suggest them- 
 selves with regard to this method. First, it has 
 been tried, and the one thing that we are all agreed 
 upon is, not that it failed, for where it was 
 thoroughly carried out it was most effective, but 
 that the attempt itself was wrong. We refer to 
 that form of artificial selection known as religious 
 persecution. The vast majority in the countries 
 where this form of selection was practised were 
 agreed as to the right type to be preserved ; and 
 the elimination of what cattle-breeders would call 
 the " curs and screws," or, as they were called in the 
 language of the day, heretics, was carried on with 
 the cheerful co-operation of Church and State. At 
 the Reformation there was, in England and some 
 other countries, some slight change of view as to the 
 type of character to be preserved, but the method 
 
28 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 and means of selection continued much the same for 
 at least a century and a half And our experience 
 of religious persecution has done little to prejudice 
 us in favour of a scientific " suppression." Even 
 if science were as infallible in its judgment of the 
 best type as the Church has sometimes claimed to 
 be, the methods which would have to be adopted 
 would jar strangely with our nineteenth-century 
 ideas of toleration and freedom. 
 
 The other difficulty may, perhaps, be due to 
 prejudice. But it is not easy in a moment to 
 recast traditional ideas of justice and adopt a 
 theory of punishment in which suffering would be 
 meted out to those who are the unfortunate, but 
 helpless, vehicles of that over the possession and 
 transmission of which they have no control. We 
 do not shrink from punishing the fathers for the 
 children, but it is only a primitive society which 
 recognizes it as just that if the fathers have eaten 
 sour grapes the children's teeth should be set on 
 edge. If with all the modern opportunities of 
 education a child grows up in ignorance, the 
 School Board rightly punishes the parent. But 
 the more rigorously we apply Weismann's theory 
 of Heredity the farther back we are driven in our 
 search for a punishable subject. We are driven 
 back step by step to the primitive variations 
 among the protozoa, where ordinary methods of 
 punishment are not available. The fact that these 
 
WEISMAI^N'S ESS A YS UPON HEREDITY. 29 
 
 protozoa are "immortal," and that the existing 
 individuals are part and parcel of those which 
 have been the ultimate source of mischief, would 
 no doubt enable us to punish them without detri- 
 ment to our sense of justice. And if corrective 
 measures could be applied to the protozoa^ we 
 might in some millions of years produce through 
 new seons of evolution a more perfect race than 
 ourselves. It would be a great satisfaction to have 
 contributed to this result, but we still want a 
 modus Vivendi for the present, and an intelligible 
 scientific theory of punishment. 
 
£SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 II. 
 
 DARWINISM.! 
 
 Those who have read the " Life and Letters of 
 Charles Darwin " will turn with keen interest to the 
 present volume. The relations between Wallace 
 and Darwin, as shown in these letters, did honour 
 to both. Either might have fairly claimed to be 
 the real discoverer of natural selection, yet there 
 was an entire absence of anything like rivalry 
 between them, an ungrudging appreciation of each 
 other's work, and, above all, a willingness to treat 
 their individual claims as subordinate to the truth 
 which both were helping to bring out. Writing to 
 Wallace in i860, the year of the publication of the 
 " Origin of Species," Darwin says — 
 
 " I admire the generous manner in which you speak of 
 my book. Most persons would in your position have felt 
 some envy or jealousy. How nobly free you seem to be of 
 this common failing of mankind ! You would, if you had my 
 leisure, have done the work just as well, perhaps better, than 
 I have done it." 
 
 In the present volume Mr. Wallace writes more 
 
 » Darwinism. By Alfred R. Wallace, LL.D., F.L.S., etc. 
 Macmillan & Co. 
 
DARWINISM. 31 
 
 as if he were Darwin's disciple, than as, what he 
 really is, the independent discoverer of the theory. 
 " I claim for my book," he says, " the position of 
 being the advocate of pure Darwinism." And by 
 *' pure Darwinism " we are to understand the pre- 
 eminently Darwinian doctrine, that natural selec- 
 tion is the predominant though not the only factor 
 in the variation of species. 
 
 Mr. Wallace, thus, at once puts himself on the 
 side of Darwin and Weismann, as against Lamarck 
 and Herbert Spencer, though this does not imply 
 either the unqualified acceptance of Weismann's 
 theory, or the abandonment of the old opposition 
 to Darwin on the subject of man. The greater 
 part of the book is devoted to the verification and 
 defence of Darwin's main position, not merely that 
 descent with modification is the order of nature 
 throughout the organic world — for this is universally 
 admitted — but that, among the factors in evolution, 
 natural selection is overwhelmingly important. 
 
 Those who wish for a clear statement of the 
 evidence for natural selection, and the way in which 
 it acts, as well as of the fundamental fact on which 
 natural selection depends, the struggle for existence, 
 will find what they want in Mr. Wallace's book, 
 together with a statement in Chaps. VIII. — XL of 
 some of the most recent results of the investio^ation 
 in the colouration of plants and animals, and the 
 various forms of protective or predatory mimicry. 
 
32 JISSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 We wish, however, to call special attention to the 
 proof in Chap. VI. that all specific characters are 
 either useful or correlated with useful characters. 
 The bearing of this upon the question of teleology is 
 obvious. At a certain phase in the development 
 of the evolution doctrine, we heard a good deal of 
 the uncouth word " dysteleology," which meant 
 that so far from everything in nature being designed 
 for good, there were many things like rudimentary 
 organs, which were not only useless but positively 
 hurtful to the organism. At this point, however. 
 Professor Huxley had to step in and check the 
 enthusiasm of the anti-teleologists. It was well to 
 have a crushing argument against theologians and 
 those who believed in design, but the appeal to 
 dysteleology was fatal to evolution itself : — 
 
 " For either these rudiments," Professor Huxley said, "are 
 of no use to the animals, in which case . . . they ought to 
 have disappeared ; or they are of some use to the animal, 
 in which case they are no use as arguments against 
 teleology." 
 
 Quite lately Mr. Romanes has argued, from the 
 large number of useless specific characters, that 
 natural selection can have had nothing to do with 
 them. But Mr. Wallace points out the distinction 
 between " useless characters " and " useless specific 
 characters," and maintains that — at least with 
 regard to the latter — it is only our ignorance which 
 justifies us in calling them "useless." Much that 
 
DARWINISM. 
 
 in Darwin's time was supposed to be useless is now 
 accounted for and shown to have a meaning, to 
 be either directly useful or correlated with that 
 which is useful : — 
 
 " Almost every detail," says Mr. Wallace, speaking specially 
 of plants, " is found to have a purpose and a use. The shape, 
 the size, and the colour of the petals, even the streak's and 
 spots with which they are adorned, the position in which 
 they stand, the movements of the stamens and pistils at 
 various times, especially at the period of and just after 
 fertilization, have been proved to be strictly adaptive in so 
 many cases that botanists now believe that all the external 
 characters of flowers are, or have been, of use to the species." 
 
 The main interest, however, of Mr. Wallace's 
 volume gathers round the last two chapters, the 
 former of which contains an elaborate criticism of 
 some modern theories of evolution opposed to 
 Darwinism, and a clear statement of the recent 
 speculations of Professor Weismann, while the last 
 chapter deals with the question at issue between 
 himself and Darwin. 
 
 Of views opposed to Darwinism four typical 
 theories are discussed, all of them tending, in 
 different ways, to minimize the action of natural 
 selection, while three out of the four stand or fall 
 with the possibility of inheriting acquired characters. 
 The first and most important of these is the view 
 of Herbert Spencer, which, though it runs through 
 his works, has lately received special attention, 
 because an article written by him for a popular 
 review on the " Factors of Organic Evolution " was 
 
 D 
 
34 ^^-^-^KS" SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 triumphantly claimed by the Duke of Argyll as 
 " a great confession " of the failure of Darwinism. 
 
 But Mr. Wallace points out — (i.) that the in- 
 herited effect of use and disuse of parts is admitted 
 by Darwin in the " Origin of Species ;" and (ii.) that, 
 in the present state of knowledge, it is more than 
 doubtful whether both Darwin and Spencer were 
 not wrong in recognizing it at all. The instances 
 adduced can all be explained on the counter- 
 assumption of there being no inheriting of acquired 
 qualities, if we take into account the effects of the 
 withdrawal of the action of natural selection. 
 Where the struggle is going on every useful organ 
 is kept up to its highest limit of size and efficiency ; 
 but when the plant or animal is artificially protected 
 from the struggle for existence there is a natural 
 " regression to mediocrity," as Mr. Galton has 
 called it, which would explain, for instance, the 
 reduced size of the wings of many birds in oceanic 
 islands, as well as the diminished size of the 
 muscles used in closing the jaws in the case of pet 
 dogs fed for generations on soft food. According 
 to Herbert Spencer, this is due to the effect of disuse 
 independently of natural selection ; according to 
 Wallace and Darwin, and a fortiori Weismann, it 
 is due to the fact that an organ, abnormally in- 
 creased under certain circumstances by natural 
 selection, tends to revert to mediocrity when those 
 circumstances are changed. 
 
DARWINISM. 35 
 
 Mr. Wallace criticizes carefully, and as we think 
 successfully, not only the view of Herbert Spencer, 
 but that which has been lately defended by the 
 American school of evolutionists, and the view 
 of Dr. Karl Sempen ; but he is himself clearly 
 inclined to accept the theory of Weismann, which 
 would cut away the ground from all these theories. 
 According to Weismann's theory, the question of 
 heredity is reduced to one of growth. It is 
 only where propagation is asexual that individual 
 characters are handed on. Elsewhere the individual 
 is only the vehicle for a minute portion of the very 
 same germ-plasm, from which the parent was 
 developed, all that is inherited being handed on, 
 while all that is acquired dies with the individual. 
 The individual, however, is a complex result, 
 inheriting as he does the united germ-plasms of 
 both parents, each of which in turn unites the 
 germ-plasms of two grandparents. Diversity of 
 sex becomes then of primary importance as the 
 cause of variation, and the advantage of cross 
 fertilization is obvious. Such a theory, if proved, 
 would be absolutely fatal to the Neo-Lamarckians, 
 and would triumphantly prove that natural selection 
 is the supreme factor in the origin of species. Mr. 
 Wallace, though he does not speak of Weismann's 
 theory as ** proved," is evidently willing to accept 
 it as a good working hypothesis ; and, in any 
 case, he is ready to maintain, as against the Neo- 
 
36 ^^^-^KS- SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Lamarckians, that ''whatever other causes have 
 been at work, natural selection is supreme to an 
 extent which even Darwin himself hesitated to 
 claim for it." 
 
 This supremacy of natural selection throughout 
 the animal and vegetable world is, nevertheless, 
 according to Mr. Wallace, limited when we come 
 to man. It is here that we reach the point of 
 difference between Wallace and Darwin. Yet the 
 difference is far less than is generally supposed. 
 For the idea that man is in any sense a "special 
 creation" is as clearly rejected by Wallace as by 
 Darwin : — 
 
 "To any one," he says, "who considers the structure of 
 man's body, even in the most superficial manner, it must be 
 evident that it is the body of an animal, differing greatly, it 
 is true, from the bodies of all other animals, but agreeing 
 with them in all essential features. The bony structure of 
 man classes him as a vertebrate ; the mode of suckling his 
 young classes him as a mammal ; his blood, his muscles, 
 and his nerves, the structure of his heart, with its veins and 
 arteries, his lungs, and his whole respiratory and circulatory 
 systems, all closely correspond to those of other mammals, 
 and are often almost identical with them. He possesses the 
 same number of limbs terminating in the same number of 
 digits as belong fundamentally to the mammalian classes. 
 His senses are identical with theirs, and his organs of sense 
 are the same in number and occupy the same relative 
 position. Every detail of structure which is common to the 
 mammalia as a class is found also in man, while he only 
 differs from them in such ways and degrees as the various 
 species or groups of mammals differ from each other. If, 
 then, we have good reason to believe that every existing 
 
DARWINISM. 
 
 group of mammalia has descended from some common 
 ancestral form — as we saw to be so completely demonstrated 
 in the case of the horse tribe — and that each family, each 
 order, and even the whole class must similarly have descended 
 from some much more ancient and more generalized type, 
 it would be in the highest degree improbable — so improbable 
 as to be almost inconceivable — that^ man, agreeing with 
 them so closely in every detail of his structure, should have 
 had some quite distinct mode of origin." " As we seek in 
 vain, in our physical structure and the course of its develop- 
 ment, for any indication of an origin independent of the rest 
 of the animal world, we are compelled to reject the idea of 
 ' special creation ' for man, as being entirely unsupported by 
 facts as well as in the highest degree improbable." 
 
 Facts, however, tend to show that, while man 
 has general points of affinity with the orang-utan 
 of Borneo and Sumatra, the chimpanzee and gorilla 
 of West Africa, and the long-armed apes of south- 
 eastern Asia, he has peculiarities which separate 
 him from all four, and suggest that he must have 
 diverged from the common stock before the 
 existing types of anthropoid apes diverged from 
 one another. But Mr. Wallace will not hold, with 
 Darwin, that man as a moral and intellectual 
 being has become what he is in the same way 
 and by the action of the same general laws which 
 account for his physical structure. Here, we are 
 told, natural selection alone fails to account for 
 the facts : — 
 
 " Because man's physical structure has been developed 
 from an animal form by natural selection, it does not 
 
38 jSSSAYS scientific AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 necessarily follow that his mental nature, even though 
 developed pari passu with it, has been developed by the 
 same causes only." 
 
 Certainly not ; but the burden of proof rests 
 with those who deny it. And it would seem as 
 if they were at least bound to show us how that 
 other "influence, law, or agency" works, which in 
 man, and man only, is supposed to supersede, 
 or assist, natural selection. Instead of this Mr. 
 Wallace emphasizes the difficulty of explaining 
 the mathematical, the musical, and the artistic 
 faculties, by natural selection, and then leaps to 
 the conclusion that they must have had some 
 origin " wholly distinct " from that which accounts 
 for the animal characteristics. 
 
 What, then, is this "wholly distinct origin".? 
 Mr. Wallace apparently holds the view of "a 
 spiritual nature superadded to the animal nature 
 of man," and, of course, with this deus ex machind 
 he can account for everything, though he tells us 
 little or nothing of the law by which this spiritual 
 nature acts. But this idea of " superaddition " is 
 full of difficulties. It destroys the unity of man. 
 Instead of the " reasonable soul and flesh " being 
 " one man " we have a highly organized animal 
 with a " superadded spiritual nature." And then, 
 if we are to believe that a creature of the stock of 
 the anthropoids became a man by the superaddition 
 of a spiritual nature, is not a similar superaddition 
 
DARWINISM. 39 
 
 necessary in the case of each individual man, 
 unless indeed Mr. Wallace is prepared to face the 
 alternative that the spiritual nature, once given, 
 is transmitted with the " germ-plasma " from 
 parent to child? A few pages later on we are 
 told that the progressive manifestations of life in 
 the vegetable, the animal, and man, which Mr. 
 Wallace distinguishes as unconscious, conscious, 
 and intellectual, are only different "degrees of 
 spiritual influx," and therefore do not break the 
 continuity of the whole. But if, as Mr. Wallace 
 holds, this spiritual nature, in all the degrees below 
 man, works uniformly by natural selection, there is 
 a strong probability that the law of its work will 
 be the same in its highest operation, while if it 
 works by some other law, we should expect to 
 be able to trace the beginnings of this law in the 
 world of vegetable and animal life. 
 
 Mr. Wallace's anthropology is only less puzzling 
 than his metaphysics. The several stages in the 
 continuous process are said to be marked by the 
 transition from inorganic to organic, from vege- 
 table to animal, and from brute to man. With 
 regard to the second of these, if Mr. Wallace had 
 emphasized the contrast between vegetable and 
 animal, in the strictly scientific region, we should 
 not have dared to criticize him. But when he 
 distinguishes them as unconscious and conscious 
 life, we are tempted to ask — Are the protophyta 
 
40 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 less "conscious of their own existence" than the 
 protozoa? Have we any right to assert either 
 that the brute has an " ego'^' or that the plant has 
 no sensation? The line which separates living 
 from not living is at present as clear as that which 
 separates man from brute, but when Mr. Wallace 
 talks of "sensation" and the "ego'' of conscious 
 and unconscious life, he passes into the region of 
 metaphysics, where he is as little competent to 
 lead as we are willing to follow. 
 
( 41 ) 
 
 III. 
 
 MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN.^ 
 
 This is an essay, almost a first essay, in com- 
 parative psychology — that is to say, it is an attempt 
 to apply to the mental and moral nature of man 
 the method which has been so fruitful of results 
 when applied to physiology and morphology. It 
 is not an attempt to merge psychology in physiology, 
 but to compare the psychological facts of which 
 man is immediately conscious with facts supposed 
 to be similar in other living things. 
 
 The first difficulty here is one with which Mr. 
 Romanes does not directly concern himself, though 
 for Auguste Comte it seemed to make all psycho- 
 logy impossible — the difficulty, namely, of collect- 
 ing the facts which are to be dealt with. " It 
 requires art and pains," says John Locke, " to set 
 the mind at a distance from itself, and make it its 
 own object." Comte says in effect, the thing is 
 impossible. No " art and pains " can help us. 
 For, ex hypothesis the observer and the observed are 
 
 * Mental Evolution in Man. By George J. Romanes, M.A., 
 LL.D., F.R.S. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. 
 
42 jEssays scientific and philosophical. 
 
 identical, and the observer is only in the judicial 
 attitude necessary for observation when nothing is 
 going on — i.e. when there are no facts to observe. 
 Hume had said almost the same : — 
 
 " Should I attempt to experiment on my own mind, 'tis 
 evident this reflection and premeditation would so disturb 
 the operation of any natural principles as must render it 
 impossible to form any just conclusion from the pheno- 
 menon." 
 
 Hence Comte's conclusion is, psychology is no 
 science, but a branch of physiology. 
 
 But this view Herbert Spencer will have none 
 of Between the physiological order and the 
 psychological there is a barrier which at present 
 is absolute : — 
 
 "Physiology (we are told) cannot properly appropriate 
 subjective data, or data wholly inaccessible to external obser- 
 vation." It "ceases to be physiology when it imports into 
 its interpretations a psychical factor, a faculty which no 
 physical research whatever can disclose or identify, or get 
 the remotest glimpse of . . . Psychology under its subjective 
 aspect is a totally unique science, independent of, and anti- 
 thetically opposed to, all other sciences whatever." 
 
 In fact, a purely physiological psychology is as 
 impossible as a subjective account of somnambulism. 
 It is only psychology so far as it is false to its 
 physiological method. 
 
 All this, we take it for granted, Mr. Romanes 
 would allow. Psychological facts must be primarily 
 and directly known in the consciousness of the 
 individual, even if, with Mr. Sully, we allow that 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 43 
 
 all introspection is retrospection. But how then 
 about the comparative method ? Nobody knows 
 any mind but his own, and not much of that. For 
 as he tries to look back to the earlier stages the 
 words of memory become inarticulate and its 
 characters illegible. And how does he know that 
 other men have minds, or that they are at all like 
 his own? And what about the familiar process 
 of " tossing about psychological babies," as Dr. 
 Martineau calls it, " and wringing from them 
 amhigtias voces as to how they feel " .'' The psycho- 
 logy of other people's children only looks more 
 legible than the recollection of one's own childhood, 
 because we think we read there what we really 
 read into it. 
 
 We are not here raising a difficulty which Mr. 
 Romanes is not fully aware of. His answer 
 would be, that other people's minds are to 
 us neither subjects, like our own is, nor objects, 
 like that which we can study physiologically, but 
 ejects. The word is borrowed from Professor 
 Clifford, and is used to mean an inference from 
 acts or movements observed, which acts or move- 
 ments, in our own experience, have been associated 
 with certain psychological facts, and are therefore 
 assumed to be a guarantee for the presence in 
 others of similar facts. In the case of our fellow- 
 men this assumption is undoubtedly made, and if 
 it is not always justified, it is frequently confirmed 
 
44 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 by what our fellow-men tell us by means of a 
 language which we have come to understand. But 
 the farther we get back in the history either of the 
 individual or the race, the larger the assumptions 
 which we have to make, and the smaller the help 
 that language can give us. It is no use catechizing 
 a child as to its psychical condition, though we may 
 watch its acts and the growth of its language, and 
 assume that these reflect the growth of its " mind." 
 When, however, in our loyalty to the comparative 
 method, we attempt to extend our inquiry to non- 
 human animals, whose conversational powers are 
 more limited than those of a child, we find our- 
 selves making larger drafts on our original as- 
 sumptions. Before, we were only guilty of " auto- 
 morphism," interpreting other people's acts by 
 ourselves ; now we are guilty of the far graver 
 crime of " anthropomorphism " — i.e. interpreting 
 in terms of man the acts and movements of 
 creatures which are not human. Mr. Samuel 
 Butler extends the same method to plants : — 
 
 " In its own sphere," he says, "a plant is just as intelligent 
 as an animal, and keeps a sharp look-out upon its own 
 interests, however indifferent it may seem to be to ours." 
 
 We are not anxious to maintain the opposite in 
 either case, but it is well to remind ourselves that 
 it is an assumption, and that the assumption 
 becomes greater, and the conclusions less scientific, 
 as we move away from the individual consciousness 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN 45 
 
 and argue about the movements of animal or 
 vegetable life. 
 
 So much for the difficulties in limine^ which are 
 not indeed formally discussed by Mr. Romanes, 
 but of which, of course, he is fully conscious. He 
 starts by telling us that he assumes the general 
 truth of evolution, and its applicability to the 
 whole animal kingdom, both with respect to 
 physical and psychical development, with the one 
 (provisional) exception of the human mind, and 
 he argues for the a priori probability of the con- 
 clusion that this will prove to be no exception 
 after all. 
 
 We are not quite sure whom Mr. Romanes 
 imagines himself to be opposing. He constantly 
 speaks as if the cause of comparative psychology 
 must stand or fall with him, and he were heroically 
 defending it against a strong body of opponents. 
 Who are they } Not evolutionists generally, for 
 whatever they may think of Mr. Romanes' attempt, 
 they are prejudiced in favour of his main conten- 
 tion ; not anti-evolutionists, for if so the volume is 
 an elaborate ignoratio elenchi^ since an anti-evo- 
 lutionist would not admit the assumptions with 
 which the inquiry starts. Mr. Romanes wishes to 
 prove that human and animal psychology differ 
 not in kind but in degree. Here every one is 
 against Mr. Romanes, including himself, unless he 
 is prepared to say that evolution has abolished 
 
46 jESSAYS scientific AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 species, instead of showing how species came to 
 be. If a cat and a dog are different in kind, so 
 are a man and a monkey, whatever view we may 
 take of the genetic relations of the pairs. But this 
 is not what Mr. Romanes means by different in kind. 
 In a footnote to page 3, he says that difference 
 of kind means difference of origin, and accuses 
 Professor Sayce of "confusion" for saying that 
 "^differences of degree become in time differences 
 of kind." We seem to remember a greater than 
 Professor Sayce teaching us that the categories of 
 quantity and quahty disappear in " measure." 
 And if this sounds to Mr. Romanes a trifle meta- 
 physical, we might remind him that whenever 
 science has shown that differences of kind, con- 
 sidered genetically, are differences of degree, no 
 one dreams of supposing that they are any the 
 less differences of kind. The question of origin 
 has nothing to do with it. Only apparently Mr. 
 Romanes is fighting against some one who explains 
 the difference in kind between human and brute 
 psychology by a difference of origin. If this is 
 the view of Mr. Wallace, or Mr. Mivart, or Pro- 
 fessor Quatrefages, we must leave them to defend 
 it. And if Mr. Romanes is defending the unity of 
 origin for man and brute, he need not be afraid 
 of theological opposition. Christianity knows of 
 only one origin for all things, however widely they 
 differ in kind. If of man it is said that God 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 47 
 
 "breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and 
 man became a living soul," it is also said of the 
 beasts and fishes, " When Thou lettest Thy breath 
 go forth they shall be made; and Thou shalt 
 renew the face of the earth." 
 
 On the a priori question, then, Christianity has 
 no particular view. The creation of the soul by 
 God is neither more nor less true than the creation 
 of the body by Him, and therefore, if science can 
 by a patient application of its own methods tell us 
 something here too of the modus creandi, we may 
 hope that Christians have learned enough from the 
 past to be ready to meet the attempt with some- 
 thing more than glum disapproval. Even those 
 who look upon the attempt with most suspicion 
 may comfort themselves with the wise remark of 
 the learned Gamaliel, " If this work be of men it 
 will come to naught ; but if it be of God ye cannot 
 overthrow it." 
 
 When, however, we approach Mr. Romanes' 
 volume, with every readiness to avail ourselves 
 of any new light which experience, scientifically 
 organized, can give us, we find ourselves at once 
 in opposition, not indeed because we object to the 
 application of the comparative method to psycho- 
 logy, for, difficult as this is, it is the only way in 
 which the subject can be scientifically dealt with, 
 but because we find Mr. Romanes assuming, as if it 
 were generally accepted, the empirical psycholog>^ 
 
48 £SSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 of Locke, curiously supplemented and confused by 
 terms borrowed from the Kantian School. At 
 present Mr. Romanes is only concerned with the 
 intellectual difference between man and brute, the 
 question of morals and religion being postponed 
 for future treatment. But he might just as well 
 assume that Hedonism is accepted by all moralists 
 as that Locke's psychology is accepted by all 
 psychologists. 
 
 No doubt any investigator is at liberty to assume 
 any psychology he pleases as the basis of his in- 
 quiry, and it was natural that a psychology, which 
 can claim to be almost typically English, and was 
 constructed under the influences of physical science, 
 should suggest itself as most likely to tally well 
 with the results of similar investigations in the 
 animal world. But the astonishing thing is that 
 Mr. Romanes should suppose that he is carrying 
 all psychologists with him, and that it is indifferent 
 whether the intellectual difference commonly held 
 to exist between man and brute be stated in the 
 language of Locke or Aristotle. This is what he 
 says : — 
 
 " I now pass on to consider the only distinction which in 
 my opinion can be properly drawn between human and brute 
 psychology. This is the great distinction which furnishes a 
 full psychological explanation of all the many and immense 
 differences that unquestionably do obtain between the mind 
 of the highest ape and the mind of the lowest savage. It 
 is, moreover, the distinction which is now universally recog- 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 49 
 
 nized by psychologists of every school, from the Romanist 
 to the agnostic in religion, and from the idealist to the 
 materialist in philosophy. 
 
 "The distinction has been clearly enunciated by many 
 writers, from Aristotle downwards, but I may best render it 
 in the words of Locke." 
 
 Then we have a long quotation from the " Essay," 
 which draws the line between man and brute at 
 the power of abstracting — " the having of general 
 ideas is that which puts a perfect distinction 
 betwixt man and brutes, and is an excellency which 
 the faculties of brutes do by no means attain to." 
 In the next chapter we have ideas classified as 
 follows : — 
 
 "The word 'Idea' I will use in the sense defined in my 
 previous work — namely, as a generic term to signify indiffer- 
 ently any product of imagination, from the mere memory of 
 a sensuous impression up to the result of the most abstruse 
 generalization. 
 
 " By * Simple Idea,' ' Particular Idea,' or ' Concrete Idea,' 
 I understand the mere memory of a particular sensuous 
 perception. 
 
 " By ' Compound Idea,' ' Complex Idea,' or ' Mixed Idea,' 
 I understand the combination of simple, particular, or con- 
 crete ideas into that kind of composite idea which is possible 
 without the aid of language. 
 
 " Lastly, by ' General Idea,' 'Abstract Idea,' ' Concept,' or 
 ' Notion,' I understand that kind of composite idea which is 
 rendered possible only by the aid of language, or by the 
 process of naming abstractions as abstractions." 
 
 Directly after, the stages in " ideation " are named 
 as follows. The simple or particular ideas are 
 
 E 
 
50 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 called percepts ; the general or abstract ideas are 
 called concepts ; but there is no co-ordinate name 
 for the middle class. Here Mr. Romanes is in the 
 difficulty which Professor Clifford was in when he 
 boldly borrowed the word 'eject' as a tertium quid 
 between subject and object. Mr. Romanes follows 
 his lead, and invents the term Recept : — 
 
 " In addition to the terms ' Percept ' and ' Concept,' I coin 
 the word Recept. This is a term which seems exactly to 
 meet the requirements of the case. For as perception means 
 a taking wholly., and conception a taking together , reception 
 means a taking again. Consequently, a recept is that which 
 is taken again, or a re-cognition of things previously cog- 
 nized. ^^ 
 
 Of this classification Mr. Romanes, in his sum- 
 mary, says — 
 
 " It is a classification over which no dispute is likely to 
 arise, seeing that it merely sets in some kind of systematic 
 order a body of observable facts with regard to which 
 writers of every school are nowadays in substantial agree- 
 ment." 
 
 Now, a scientific man, as long as he keeps to the 
 firm ground of experience, is worthy of all honour. 
 No one doubts the truth of experience. But when 
 he offers us a rationale of experience which makes 
 all experience impossible, and from the logical 
 results of which he is only saved by his strong 
 common sense, we may be allowed to express our 
 dissent. Mr. Romanes can only make all psycho- 
 logists agree with him by adopting what Locke 
 calls "the short cut to infallibility," and saying 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 51 
 
 that those who do not agree with him are not 
 psychologists. He ahnost does go as far as this in 
 reference to another matter, which he says ''is 
 admitted by all my opponents who understand the 
 psychology of the subject." Certainly no meta- 
 physician would agree with him, for, as every one 
 who has read Green's " Introduction to Hume " 
 knows, that which for Mr. Romanes is the founda- 
 tion of knowledge, the simple idea, or " perception," 
 or sensation, which is common to man and beast, 
 is the very negation of knowability, and many 
 nothings will not make a something. While if the 
 individual sensation is consciously representative, 
 it is already knowledge, and can as little be shown 
 to exist anywhere except in man as " concepts " 
 can. Curiously enough, almost simultaneously 
 with Mr. Romanes' volume, there have appeared 
 two repudiations of the psychology of " ideation " 
 from different points of view. Father Rickaby 
 repudiates it in the interests of modern scholastic 
 realism, and Mr. Case from the point of view of 
 healthy physical realism. 
 
 We do not, however, propose to join issue with 
 Mr. Romanes on his avowed nominalism or his 
 unavowed sensationalism, either of which, to our 
 perverse metaphysical view, is destructive of know- 
 ledge altogether, still less to criticize Locke and 
 Hume through him. We propose rather to show 
 how Mr. Romanes builds upon this foundation. 
 
52 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Of course we do not deny that the child, who 
 from the first is potentially rational, as the brute is 
 not, passes through stages of mere sensitive and 
 irrational life and, as it were, lives the life of the 
 brute in miniature, just as its body in the embryonic 
 state sums up the evolutionary series. This is 
 excellently stated in Aristotle, who, while he con- 
 tends that Man is distinguished from brutes by 
 his rational and his moral nature, both of which, 
 like speech, are peculiar to him, yet admits that 
 as the brute has «^wvr;, but not Xoyoc, so there are 
 traces '/xv»? — " footsteps " is Locke's word — of both 
 intellectual and moral qualities in the lower animals. 
 And he adds these remarkable words : — 
 
 "This is most clearly seen if we look at the case of 
 children. For in them we find the traces, and as it were 
 the germs, of what afterwards shall be ; indeed, if I may say 
 so, there is no difference between the mind of the child and 
 the mind of the brute at this period, so that we are not sur- 
 prised to find that they have some things which are the 
 same with, some things which resemble, and some things 
 •which are analogous to, what is found in the brute." 
 
 Nature, he says, makes its transitions little by little, 
 and the continuity of the process conceals the 
 border line — rrj avve\ua XavOavei to jueOopiov avrojv. 
 It is this border line which Mr. Romanes has 
 ^et himself to discover, and he apparently sets 
 much store by the doctrine of Recepts. These 
 recepts are something between particular and 
 general ideas. They are the " blended " pictures 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 53 
 
 of Mr. Galton ; the " generic " images of Professor 
 Huxley, who however does not clearly distinguish 
 between them and the " concepts ; " they are 
 "sensations with a fringe," as Professor James calls 
 them, on which Professor Maguire, of Dublin, re- 
 marks, "A sensation with a fringe is more mis- 
 leading than a sensation on a bicycle." They are 
 not yet truly universal, but are on their way to 
 become so. For, following Locke again, Mr. 
 Romanes tells us that the mind is as yet passive, 
 whereas in " conceptual thought " it is active. But 
 a blurred picture is as much particular as a picture 
 with a sharp outline ; if it is really '' generic " in 
 the sense of being representative, it is already 
 "general." It becomes a mere rpi-roq avOpomog, 
 doubling the difficulty it was to help to solve. It 
 is Mill's old fallacy of arguing from particulars to 
 particulars. So far as they are particular we cannot 
 argue from them, and so far as we argue from them 
 they are not particular, but typical, and therefore 
 universal. The "recept" of a triangle is like 
 Locke's abstract idea of a triangle, which — 
 
 "Must be neither oblique nor rectangle, neither equila- 
 teral, equicrural, nor scalenon ; but all and none of these at 
 once. In effect it is something imperfect that cannot exist ; 
 an idea wherein some parts of several different and incon- 
 sistent ideas are put together." 
 
 Yet the whole object of the present volume, we 
 are told, is to discover whether there is a difference 
 
54 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 of kind or only a difference of degree between a 
 recept and a concept. With a view to this 
 discovery, then, we have five chapters which are 
 full of anecdotes bearing on the " language " of 
 animals and men. For as the term " ideation " is 
 made to cover what is not human, as well as what 
 is human, in the process of thought, and all that 
 leads up to it, so language is made to cover not 
 only speech, but all the noises and gestures which 
 in children precede speech and in brutes take the 
 place of speech. 
 
 There is much that is extremely interesting in 
 these chapters, and much which any one may 
 verify and add to by appealing to his own ex- 
 perience. Every one has had some experience of 
 the cleverness of animals and of the quaintly 
 original efforts of children to express themselves. 
 That brutes understand one another and communi- 
 cate with one another no attentive observer of 
 their habits can doubt. In fact, they have a 
 language, and can even learn to use ours. What, 
 then, is the difference } Here Mr. Romanes, how- 
 ever little we like his terminology, keeps clearly 
 to his point. Brutes have percepts and recepts ; 
 their language never rises above that which, in the 
 human animal, belongs to the receptual or pre- 
 conceptual phase. A human being talks like a 
 parrot at a certain stage, but a parrot never talks 
 like a human being who has grown up to his 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 55 
 
 manhood. So in language we must not draw the 
 line, if any one does, at sign-making language, but 
 only that kind of sign-making which we understand 
 by speech. And " till the age of self-consciousness 
 dawns " the child has not properly speech, but 
 merely the power of expressing "receptual judg- 
 ments." Its self-consciousness, before it is capable 
 of "conceptual ideation," is "rudimentary or 
 nascent." Of the gradual attainment of self-con- 
 sciousness Mr. Romanes says — 
 
 " I say 'gradual' because the process is throughout of the 
 nature of a growth. Nevertheless, there is some reason to 
 think that when this growth has attained a certain point, it 
 makes, so to speak, a sudden leap of progress which may 
 be taken to bear the same relation to the development of the 
 mind as the act of birth does to that of the body. In neither 
 case is the development anything like completed. Midway 
 between the slowly evolving phases 171 utero and the slowly 
 evolving phases of after-growth, there is in the case of the 
 human body a great and sudden change at the moment when 
 it first becomes separated from that of its parent. And 
 so there is some reason to believe it is in the case of the 
 human mind. Midway between the gradual evolution of 
 receptual ideation and the no less gradual evolution of con- 
 ceptual, there appears to be a critical moment when the soul 
 first becomes detached from the nutrient body of its parent 
 perceptions, and wakes up in the new world of a consciously 
 individual existence." 
 
 Time and space forbid our attempting to follow 
 Mr. Romanes in his interesting appeal to philology 
 on the phylogenic question as he has appealed to 
 language on the ontogenic. And there is the less 
 
56 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 reason for doing so because the question which in 
 phylogeny is parallel to the ontogenic question of 
 the dawn of self-consciousness Mr. Romanes wisely 
 refuses to decide. It is interesting to see how man 
 in his embryonic life gathers up the sharply 
 defined types of infra-human existence, but no 
 one dreams of basing zoology on embryology. 
 Similarly, to argue from the origin of self-con- 
 sciousness in the individual, about which we know 
 so little, to the transition from the man-like ape 
 to the ape-like man, must be, as Mr. Romanes 
 says, "of a wholly speculative or unverifiable 
 character." "As well," he says, "might the 
 historian spend his time in suggesting hypothetical 
 histories of events known to have occurred in a 
 prehistoric age." And he therefore contents him- 
 self with criticizing three "alternative — and equally 
 hypothetical" — accounts of the process, the view 
 of certain German philologists, the view suggested 
 by Mr. Darwin, and a modification of this thrown 
 out as a suggestion by Mr. Romanes himself 
 
 What, then, has Mr. Romanes really done in 
 the volume before us ? If we take his own account, 
 he has triumphantly proved that the difference 
 between man and brute is one of degree and not 
 of kind. If this means that he has triumphed over 
 somebody who believed that the soul came from 
 God and the body from somewhere else, we con- 
 gratulate him on his victory over a revived Mani- 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 57 
 
 cheanism. If difference in kind means, what Mr. 
 Romanes wants to make it mean, difference of 
 origin, there is no such thing as difference of kind 
 either for idealist or realist, for Pantheist, Materi- 
 alist, or Christian, and Mr. Romanes has only given 
 the coup de grace to a moribund Deism. 
 
 In doing this, however, in spite of his unfortunate 
 terminology and impossible metaphysic, he has 
 been led by experience back to Aristotle, whither 
 all biological studies ultimately tend. We have 
 already quoted one passage on the continuity of 
 evolution. We proceed to quote another on " the 
 genesis of conceptual ideation : " — 
 
 "All animals have," says Aristotle, "a certain natural power 
 of discrimination which we call sense ; but in some animals 
 which are capable of sensation there is also the power of 
 retaining the sensation, while in others this power is wanting. 
 Those animals, then, which either wholly or in part are with- 
 out this power, can have no knowledge beyond mere sensa- 
 tion ; while those which have this power may retain the 
 sensation when it is no longer present. There are many 
 animals of this kind, and they are further distinguished by 
 the fact that in some of them out of this power of retaining 
 sensations comes reason, in others it does not. From sense, 
 then, comes memory, and from repeated memories experience 
 (for many memories make an experience) ; and from ex- 
 perience or from every universal which abides in the mind — 
 the unity, that is, which is distinct from the many, and is yet 
 one and the same in them all — comes the beginning of art or 
 science, according as it belongs to the practical or specula- 
 tive region." 
 
 This is, of course, a well-known passage, but it 
 
58 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 is worth comparing with Mr. Romanes' view : 
 aiaOvimg, sensation, which is common, though in 
 different degrees, to all animals, is what Mr. 
 Romanes means by percepts ; eiwirEipia, experience, 
 the result of many particular "percepts" retained 
 by memory, corresponds to his "receptual idea- 
 tion." But it is in man only that we get the 
 true apxri, in Mr. Romanes' language the "con- 
 ceptual ideation." The child subsumes in its 
 intellectual life the processes of the lower animals ; 
 but it rises above them, and till it rises above them 
 it is only potentially human. Let us hear Mr. 
 Romanes : — 
 
 "The whole distinction between man and brute resides 
 in the presence or absence of conceptual thought, which in 
 man is but the expression of the presence or absence of self- 
 consciousness." "The distinction between a recept and a 
 concept is really the only distinction about which there can 
 be no dispute." " A receptual judgment is always separated 
 from a conceptual inference or true judgment by the immense 
 distinction that it is not itself an object of knowledge." 
 
 It is all the difference between "truth perceived 
 and truth perceived as true," and this difference 
 is reflected in language : — 
 
 " The line must be drawn, not at language or sign-making, 
 but at that particular kind of sign-making which we under- 
 stand by speech." " So that a man vieans^ it matters not 
 by what system of signs he expresses his meaning ; the dis- 
 tinction between him and the brute consists in his being able 
 to inemt a proposition^ " This is the ' Rubicon of mind ' 
 which separates the brute from the man." 
 
MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN. 59 
 
 Aristotle, and those who follow him, say — Man 
 is different in kind from the brute because man has 
 reason, which brutes have not ; speech, which brutes 
 have not ; morality, which brutes have not. Mr. 
 Romanes has not yet dealt with the question of 
 morality, but on the other two points he endorses 
 the old distinction. The ideas are, indeed, more 
 precisely limited, which is a gain : and they are 
 expressed in terms borrowed from empiricism, 
 which is a loss. He has told us a great deal about 
 the psychical processes of brutes which Aristotle 
 did not know. But the main distinction is as clear 
 as ever. Ideation covers everything from sensation 
 to thought. Language covers all sorts of noises 
 and sign-making, as well as the language of man. 
 But only conceptual ideation, which is peculiar to 
 man, has a right to the name of reason, and only 
 the expression of it in language has a right to be 
 called speech. Homo alaliis, if he ever existed, 
 was an impostor, or a contradiction in terms. For 
 " speech created reason : before its advent mankind 
 was reasonless " — i.e. it was not mankind at all. 
 
 Yet Mr. Romanes claims to have proved that 
 man and brute only differ in degree and not in 
 kind. Certainly he cannot complain if he is mis- 
 understood and misjudged. A more misleading 
 expression it is difficult to imagine, and even 
 when the sense in which " different in kind " is 
 used has been explained, the old and natural use 
 
6o ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 of the term will be constantly reappearing. The 
 reason of a child is never the same in kind as that 
 of the brute, for from the very first it is potentially 
 that which the brute's never can be. " The greatest 
 of all distinctions in biology," Mr. Romanes says, 
 " when it first arises, is seen to lie in its potentiality 
 rather than in its origin^ Granted ; but it is none 
 the less a difference of kind. The distinction 
 between the adult and the rudimentary intelligence 
 of man is a difference of degree ; but between that 
 of the brute and the baby it is a difference of kind. 
 Mr. Romanes thinks little apparently of " the mere 
 fact that it is the former phase (of self-conscious- 
 ness) alone which occurs in the brute, while in the 
 man, after having rtm a parallel course of develop- 
 ment^ this phase passes into the other ; " but it is 
 just this "mere fact," the power, viz., of passing 
 into the other which makes it fro7n the first human 
 and not merely animal. And Mr. Romanes has 
 done good service in showing us what man is by 
 his minute comparison of him with what he is not. 
 
 NOTE 
 
 ON EVOLUTION AND THE FALL.^ 
 
 There is one difficulty in connection with evolu- 
 tion which, for obvious reasons, is not dealt with 
 
 ^ Extracted from Oxford House Papers, No. XXI., Evolution 
 and Christianity, by A. L. M., 1889. Rivington. 
 
EVOLUTION AND THE FALL. 6i 
 
 by natural science, but which is constantly felt by 
 religious people, whether scientific or unscientific. 
 All this beautiful theory of evolution, of progres- 
 sive development from inorganic to organic, from 
 brute to man, and its continuation in the history 
 of man from primitive times to the present day, is 
 confronted by the doctrine of the Fall. While 
 science seems to teach a continuous evolution, 
 Christianity is committed to a theory of degrada- 
 tion. For if the Fall is not a myth or an allegory, 
 it certainly means that the first man was what 
 his descendants are not, and that, in spite of all 
 that we know and much more that we imagine 
 about human progress, the first man, who, if evolu- 
 tion is true, had but just emerged from the brute 
 into the self-consciousness of man, was a higher 
 creature than an Aristotle or a Raphael or a 
 Darwin. 
 
 It is clear that everything here turns upon 
 what we mean by " a higher creature." What had 
 Adam which his descendants have not? What 
 did he and they lose by the Fall ? Certainly 
 Adam's descendants have much which he had not. 
 No one, for instance, supposes that the first man 
 was supernaturally gifted with scientific knowledge, 
 or that he was a born metaphysician, or a mathe- 
 matician, or an artist, or a musician. All these 
 things are the result of a gradual growth, and only 
 the merest possibility of them could have existed 
 
62 £SSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 ill the first man. The same is obviously true of 
 what we call " civiHzation." Whether or no the 
 first man was " arboreal in his habits " — a fact on 
 which we have no evidence — we are told that he 
 was " naked," and we hear nothing as yet of even 
 shelter or fire. 
 
 In what, then, did his greatness consist ? Chris- 
 tian theology answers that the first man was not 
 only, as every man is, a free, self-conscious per- 
 sonality, capable, as the brutes are not, of knowing 
 and loving God, but a being who, by the grace 
 of God, was living in happy communion with God. 
 The difference between him and the non-moral 
 animals was that, while both alike obeyed God's 
 Will, he did it consciously, knowing what he did, 
 and rejoicing in the knowledge. And his nature, 
 like theirs, was at harmony with itself. But when 
 Adam set up his own will against God's Will, he 
 separated himself from that Divine communion, 
 and lost the grace which alone had kept his nature 
 true to itself in holiness and righteousness. By 
 that withdrawal of God's grace, man finds himself 
 not only separated from God, but at strife with 
 himself — his free-will not, indeed, destroyed (for 
 man is never on a level with the non-moral world), 
 but weakened, the image of God in him defaced, 
 the vision of God obscured, human nature unable 
 to restore itself to the communion which it had lost 
 and for which it longed. 
 
EVOLUTION AND THE FALL. 63 
 
 The change which took place at the_Fall_was 
 a cliaiige^n~tHe~moral regidrTpbut it could not be 
 without its effect elsewhere. Even the knowledge 
 of nature becomes confused, without the governing 
 truth of the relation of man to God. The evolution, 
 which should have been the harmonious develop- 
 ment of the whole man, is checked and impeded in 
 one part, and that the highest part, of his nature. 
 And therefore, in spite of all the physical and 
 intellectual advance which man has made, he is 
 always and everywhere the worse for the Fall. 
 However great his development has been, it is 
 still a retarded development, a development slower 
 than it need have been, less regular and less sure 
 than God meant it to be. 
 
 A simple illustration may help us here. A child 
 who is obedient and teachable and willing to learn, 
 who trusts his father or his teacher, may be in 
 actual knowledge as inferior as he is in size and 
 strength to the full-grown man, though the man 
 may be wayward and wilful and self-assertive. 
 And yet, for all that, the child is in a higher 
 moral condition, and capable of a fuller and truer 
 intellectual development ; for he is in a right 
 relation to truth, while wilfulness and self-assertion 
 are antagonistic to truth and impede knowledge. 
 So man before the Fall was in a right relation to 
 God, though he knew nothing of modern science 
 and modern civilization. When that relation was 
 
64 JSSSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 changed, physical and intellectual development 
 still went on, but the progress of mankind in that 
 knowledge of God, which alone can give a unity to 
 our growing knowledge of nature and of man, was 
 arrested. And it needed that He Who once had 
 raised up man to bear His likeness should Himself 
 provide for his recovery, and raise up a people who 
 should be " a sacred school for the knowledge of 
 God," and prepare the world for the revelation of 
 the Son. 
 
 We are not concerned with the question of the 
 evidence of the Fall, but with the question how the 
 Christian belief in a moral change for the worse, 
 happening at a definite time, and yet affecting the 
 whole human race, is consistent with what science 
 has to tell us about evolution. We are here on 
 ground where natural science can help us little. 
 Moral facts cannot be put under the microscope. 
 And even if the Fall has left its mark on human 
 nature in the disorder and loss of harmony of its 
 parts, science cannot trace this back to the Fall, 
 for it cannot compare man, as he is, with man as 
 he came forth from his Creator's Hand. But the 
 history alike of moral science and of religions 
 bears testimony to the existence of a struggle, an 
 antagonism, a disorder in human nature, and to 
 the belief that this disorder is not natural to man, 
 and could not have been meant by God. And a 
 real science of man must some day face the fact. 
 
^ 
 
 EVOLUTION AND THE FALL. 65 
 
 which is now persistently put on one side, that in 
 this matter man is a great exception in the order 
 of nature. While every other living thing is striving \ 
 for its own good, man alone is found choosing what I 
 he knows to be for his hurt. No theory of evolu- | 
 tign is-complete, then, which ignores the fact of sin-i — 
 VOL- man. Men have tried again and again to ex- 
 plain it, and they have only succeeded in explain- 
 ing it away. Sin cannot be explained, for it is 
 irrationaP^the one irrational, lawless, meaningless 
 thing in the whole universe. And the wilfulness 
 which in the Fall separated man from his true 
 good — that is, God — is reproduced in every sin, 
 and is everywhere a disturbing cause in the reign 
 of law, a check to progress and a barrier to know- 
 ledge. 
 
 Side by side, then, with all that science tells us 
 of the evolution of man at the first from lower 
 forms of life, and all that history tells us of the 
 progress of man since, in civilization and know- 
 ledge, we see the fact of sin casting its shadow 
 upon human history and holding man back from 
 his full development. This is- the fact which lies 
 at the basis of all religions, and which moral 
 systems universally recognize, though they can 
 neither explain nor remove it. And science has 
 taught us that we must be true to facts. It is 
 because he is true to facts, that a Christian evolu- 
 tionist refuses to acquiesce in the easy optimism of 
 
 F 
 
66 jESSAYS scientific AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 those who see but one side of human development, 
 and ignore the fact of sin ; it is because he sees in 
 sin the great obstacle to the true development of 
 man, that he claims on the side of progress the 
 Gospel of One Who came "to save His people 
 from their sins." 
 
C 67 ) 
 
 IV. 
 
 CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 
 
 I HAVE called this paper " Creation and Crea- 
 tianism," because, so far as I could see, these were_^ 
 the two points on which Christians cannot affordj 
 to be hazy and indistinct. Of course, no words can 
 be used which do not carry with them associations 
 other than those which the words imply, and there- 
 fore, at the risk of platitudinizing, I have put 
 down certain propositions which none of us will 
 refuse to accept, and which certainly no terms I 
 use are intended to contradict. 
 
 I. The first is the truth which, in a one-sided 
 way. Pantheism has seized, a principle which is 
 especially important now in the face of the practical 
 Deism of some scientific writers. God's Creative 
 activity is present everywhere. There can be no 
 division of labour between God and Nature, or God 
 and Law. For " if He thunder by law, the thunder 
 is still His voice." The plant which is produced 
 from seed by the natural laws of growth is His 
 creation. The brute which is born of the natural 
 process of generation is His creation. The plant 
 
68 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC A JVD PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 or animal, which by successive variations and 
 adaptations becomes anew species, is His creation.^ 
 It follows that terms like " interference " have no 
 meaning. God cannot interfere with Himself. 
 
 2. The second principle is that which the equally 
 one-sided system of Deism has seized, and which 
 is the safeguard of Theism against Pantheism, 
 however disguised. God is not nature^ arid nature 
 is not God. Any system therefore which logically 
 carries with it the identity of God and Nature, or 
 obscures the line which separates them, contradicts 
 this principle and is destructive of true Theism. 
 
 Now, Creation in its theological sense implies the 
 recognition of both these principles conditioning 
 one another, and hence it has been said, " Belief in 
 creation is a necessary outwork of any true theism 
 whatever ; deny creation, and you deny God." ^ 
 But if Creation includes God's omnipresence in the 
 world of nature, and His separation from Nature, 
 it has more meanings than one, and these have to 
 be defined. Now, the theological distinction is 
 between primary and secondary, or original and 
 derivative creation, or immediate and mediate, or 
 supernatural and natural. God creates in the first 
 
 > Cf. W. S. Lilly, Cont. Rev., 1883, p. 119. "The budding 
 of a rose and the Resurrection of Jesus Christ are equally the effect 
 of the One Motive Force which is the cause of all phenomena." 
 
 ^ Liddon, Some Elements of Religion, pp. 59, 60. Cf. Mivart, 
 Genesis of Species, p. 244. " No one can at. the same time accept 
 the Christian religion, and deny the dogma of creation." 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 69 
 
 sense when the creative act turns that which is not 
 into that which is. He creates in the second sense 
 {mediajite naturdy as the Schoolman says) in all those 
 processes to which properly the name of evolution 
 or development is given. Such a distinction is 
 recognized by Haeckel, as creation of matter and 
 creation of form.^ Of the first, Creation in its 
 narrow sense, science knows nothing; the second 
 properly falls under the cognizance of science.^ 
 
 In order to bring this question to a point, I 
 will for the sake of argument assume, what I do 
 not believe, that, given a certain irpuyrr] vXtj, the pro- 
 cess known as evolution will cover everything. 
 Haeckel, of course, believes this, for he moves in 
 the region of matter, and spirit for him means 
 matter subtilized. The religious instinct, like the 
 gregarious instinct, is the result of organization. 
 
 Now, with those evolutionists who, like Haeckel 
 and Darwin, start from the' material side, the 
 defenders of Creation have no real quarrel. Indeed, 
 though science can know nothing of it, a primary 
 creation of matter is even probable. For we must 
 
 ' History of Creation, vol. i. pp. 8, 9. 
 
 ' *' It is plain that physical science and * evolution ' can have 
 nothing whatever to do with absolute or primary creation." Mivart, 
 Genesis of Species, p. 261. See too his quotation from Baden 
 Powell's Essay. Cf. also some useful quotations in Luthardt, 
 Fundamental Truths, pp. 360, 361, and Tyndall, Use and Limits 
 of Imagination in Science, p. 49. "Evolution does not solve — 
 it does not profess to solve — the ultimate mystery of this universe, 
 t leaves, in fact, that mystery untouched." 
 
70 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 choose between this (supposing we believe in a 
 spiritual world at all) and a Pantheism which 
 rarely appeals to scientific minds. One theory- 
 evolution certainly militates against, and that is 
 the eternity of matter. For the ideal of materialistic 
 evolution is to trace all the variety of material 
 forms back to a unity, and this primal unity, 
 whether it be an amorphous cell of protoplasm 
 with infinite potentialities, or a fiery cloud in which 
 the genius of Shakespeare and Raphael were 
 latent,^ could hardly have existed from eternity 
 as a barren unity and then at a point in time begun 
 to differentiate. The ordinary scientific evolu- 
 tionist, whatever his objection to the Mosaic 
 account of Creation, has no quarrel with the belief 
 in a primary or original creation, except that it is 
 "not proven," that it has no analogies in the 
 material world with which we are familiar. Yet 
 even the mystery which surrounds such an 
 original creation has its parallel in that creative 
 process which science traces. One is more com- 
 mon, the other less common, but that is all. For 
 the thoughts " of God are incorporated in creation 
 at one time directly, at another indirectly, both 
 which modes of incarnation of Divine ideas are to 
 us equally incomprehensible.^ Only as St. Gregory 
 
 ^ Tyndall, Use and Limits of Imagination in Science, p. 47, 
 Tyndall, of course, speaks of this as "an absurdity too monstrous to 
 be entertained by any sane mind." 
 
 2 Heer ap. Luthardt, Fundamental Truths, p. 373. 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 71 
 
 says, " Quotidiana Dei miracula assiduitate viles- 
 cunt." We think we understand them because 
 they happen so often. 
 
 The instinctive tendency of rational beings is to 
 express the unknown in terms of the known, the 
 unfamiliar in terms of the familiar, and, therefore, 
 though materialists have nothing to say to a 
 primary Creation, those who approach the matter 
 from the idealistic side have grappled with the 
 question. And what have they done for us ? not 
 expressed Creation in language intelligible to 
 reason, for Creation (that is, primary as opposed ^_^^^^^ 
 to derivative creation) refuses to be rationalized^ 
 but they have reduced primary creation to deri- 
 vative creation. In other words, they have reduced 
 all creation to that secondary and derivative 
 creation which is familiar to us as evolution. 
 Those who are more anxious to be orthodox than 
 lucid talk about the Divine Idea passing into 
 reality ; those who are more anxious to be lucid 
 than to be Christian talk of the world as a " pro- 
 cessio," or proceeding forth from God. This, then, 
 IS my first difficulty. Am I to believe that the 
 phrase, " In the beginning God created," is equiva- 
 lent to the phrase, " The world is an eternal going 
 out from God " t And if not, what has evolution 
 done, and how has it helped us in making Creation 
 intelligible? We have been told that, thanks to 
 evolution, "now we understand Creation." But 
 
 lu^ 
 
72 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 evolution, — and evolution I fully and gladly accept, 
 not as a theory, but as a scientific fact, which in 
 one region of Biology I have had some opportunity 
 of appreciating, — evolution has done nothing to 
 explain Creation. It has won from the unknown 
 law of primary creation much which it has trans- 
 ferred to the more familiar law of evolution. We 
 do not now seek by artificial or natural systems of 
 classification to discover the original creations of 
 God. Probably all known varieties came from one. 
 At all events, the sharp line which separates kind 
 from kind is gone, that which separates animal 
 from vegetable is gone, the line which separates 
 organic from inorganic exists still, but how long it 
 will exist who knows, and what does it matter ? ^ 
 But if primary creation is thus limited to a point, 
 whatever that point may be, the line between crea- 
 tion and evolution is still as fixed as ever. We are 
 no nearer knowing, or expressing in terms of reason, 
 the truth that " in the beginning God created." 
 
 Creation, it is said, is an idea never found apart 
 from Christianity. An eternal chaos, an un- 
 
 ^ See W. S. Lilly's Article on the religious future of the world, 
 Cont. Rev., January and February, 1883, p. 213. "And what 
 do you say to spontaneous generation? I would say, first that I 
 hardly see how it touches the Theistic or the Catholic position. 
 As a matter of fact, Catholics generally believed it until the other 
 day. St. Thomas Aquinas and Suarez seem to have taken it for 
 granted." So did Bacon. See his Hist. Naturalis., vol. iii. It is 
 only the odium scientificum which has tried to make it a theological 
 question at all. 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM, -73 
 
 knowable matter, an afioptpog vXrj on which form is 
 imposed, all these theories we are familiar with 
 apart from the Bible : ^ but not creation. I turn 
 to Duns Scotus, who is often spoken of as tke 
 Theologian of evolutionists, and I find a clear and 
 distinct formulation in scholastic language of the 
 Bible view of original creation. No doubt he was 
 writing at a time when the Church of the West 
 was peculiarly sensitive to the danger of Pantheism 
 in any form. Scotist and Thomist fought side by 
 side against the pantheistic Averroes, and while 
 they differed on a subject of far less importance 
 than is generally supposed, they were at one in 
 defending the Christian doctrine of Creation as 
 " the bulwark of true Theism." For some time I 
 was puzzled by a passage quoted from Duns 
 Scotus by Dr. Liddon, which seemed to conflict 
 not only with the creed of Creation as the passage 
 from not being into being, but with numerous 
 passages in Scotus' own writings. The passage is 
 this : " Invenio Eam (Divinam Naturam) neque 
 creatam esse, neque creantem. Quid creabit, dum 
 Ipsa omnia in omnibus fuerit, et in nullo nisi Ipsa 
 apparebit." Clearly if such language was orthodox 
 in the thirteenth century, it would be dangerous to 
 speak of it as pantheistic now, though Dr. Liddon 
 
 ^ See Luthardt, Fundamental Truths, p. 79. "The notion of 
 Creation, properly so called, is nowhere found in the ancient world 
 apart from revelation and Scripture." 
 
74 ^^^^KS- SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 rejects it, and compares it with " some modern 
 theories which deny the dogma of creative activity 
 in God." ^ But at last I discovered that the words 
 quoted came not from the orthodox Duns Scotus, 
 but from the heterodox and pantheistic John 
 Scotus Erigena, who lived four centuries before. 
 John Scotus, like a true pantheist, explains how the 
 world goes forth from God, and rightly denies, on 
 his principles, that there is such a thing as " creatio " 
 at all. 
 
 Such an exception proves the rule. The idea of 
 Creation is inseparable from our Christianity. It 
 cannot be made intelligible as evolution, for 
 evolution, in the only sense in which it seems con- 
 sistent with Christianity, presupposes it. In one 
 sentence, All evolution is creation^ but all creation 
 is not evolution. Christianity is therefore in its 
 essence dualisticy and open to the objections com- 
 monly brought against a dualistic theory. We may 
 wish that it was not, that it would consent to be 
 rationalized. We may deal gently with those who 
 in their desire for a Monism accept pantheism or 
 even materialism because it is more " philosophical," 
 but the fact of creation, which is unphilosophical 
 in the sense that it cannot be expressed in language 
 that we know, and as that creative activity of God 
 which we call evolution can, that fact stands for 
 us at the very entrance of Christianity. " In the 
 
 ' Liddon, University Sermons, First Series, p. 241. 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 75 
 
 beginning God created the heaven and the earth." 
 " Through faith we understand that the worlds were 
 framed by the word of God, so that things which 
 are seen were not made of things which do appear " 
 (Heb. xi. 3). We gain nothing by keeping this 
 truth, if it is a truth, as a "skeleton in the cup- 
 board," and complaisantly thanking the evolutionist 
 for explaining nothing.^ 
 
 II. From Creation I go on to Creatianism. 
 Whether God called into being some one reality 
 which was to be by His Will the germ of all things, 
 or whether, as St. Augustine suggests,^ He created 
 at first many germs which should develop accord- 
 ing to their own laws, i.e. according to His good 
 pleasure and in His own way, does not affect the 
 fact of Creation. From that primary Creation to 
 the Creation of Man everything may have been, 
 and probably was, the result of that creative 
 activity which we call evolution. At present there 
 are gaps in the process. The problem of archebiosis 
 or archegony is not solved, and the balance of 
 scientific opinion is against it, so that the inorganic 
 
 * Similarly in St. Athan., De Incarn., ii., God is shown to be 
 KTtffT^js not Tcx^iTrjs : "'Eo'Tat Se, €t ovrws ex^*> 'f^''"' o-vto^js 6 0e6y 
 rexvirris /xSvou Koi oh ktktt^s els rh ehai, el t^v uTro/cetyUeVrji' v\r]v 
 (pyd^eraiy rrjs 5e v\r]s ovk tffriv avrhs aXrios. 
 
 Cf. the Shepherd of Hennas, ii. i, Tlpurov irduTuv Tri(TTev(Tov, bn 
 th iariv 6 Qihs, 6 to vcivTa KTiaas Ktd Karaprlcras, Kai troiiicras 6/c tov 
 fi^ 6vT05 els rh ehai. 
 
 ^ De Genesi, ad It'i. v. 5 ; Ben. Ed., iii. 186 ; and see cap. xxii. ; 
 cf. Mivart, Genesis of Species, pp. 264, 265. 
 
76 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 does not yet shade off into the organic. Similarly, 
 some evolutionists, like A. Wallace,^ believe that 
 there is another gap between man regarded as a 
 material organization, and the highest of the brute 
 creation. But whether these gaps are bridged over, 
 as they probably will be, or not, the theologian 
 qud theologian has nothing to do with the matter. 
 Whether God's creative power proceeds by steps or 
 " levels of creation," instead of by an inclined plane 
 within the limits specified by the terms "original 
 creation" and " creatianism," is a matter, not for 
 theology, but for science to determine. 
 
 Those of us who are interested in the progress of 
 science look forward eagerly to the time when the 
 "breaks " on which some people base their theology 
 will disappear, because at present these " breaks " 
 in the chain are so many gaps in our knowledge of 
 a process which we believe can be rationalized, i.e. 
 made intelligible to reason. But as at the one end 
 of the chain the fact of Creation meets us and 
 baffles us, defying any attempts to rationalize it, 
 for it does not really make creation intelligible 
 to say that it is mutatio a non esse ad esse? so 
 at the other end of the chain the existence of 
 man as a being in whom God dwells, whose 
 "soul," as we call it, has communion with God, 
 whose nature has been in the Incarnation taken 
 
 ^ Natural Selection, pp. 332, et seq. 
 ^ Duns Scotus, vol. v. p. 461, tc. 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 77 
 
 into God, refuses, as Creation does, to be ex- 
 plained as we explain evolution. 
 
 Of course, Creatianism is open to all the diffi- 
 culties of Creation and more. It is crude, unphilo- 
 sophical, scholastic, old-fashioned, antiquated. For 
 every reason we want to get rid of it, and for that 
 very reason we ought to scrutinize the more 
 narrowly any attempt to do so. An overwhelming 
 balance of Christian authority is in favour of it. If 
 St. Augustine to the last refuses to decide between 
 Traducianism and Creatianism, he at least shrinks 
 from appealing to Traducianism, which would have 
 been a powerful weapon to use against Pelagius.^ 
 Tertullian, as everybody knows, was a traducianist, 
 and Professor Ray Lankester, in a little popular 
 treatise on " Evolution," thinks that he has quieted 
 any possible scruples on the subject by quoting 
 a traducianist sentence from Tertullian. But at 
 least Duns Scotus may be expected to be a tradu- 
 cianist, with his wonderful theory, as it is commonly 
 understood, of a great evolution in which man, the 
 perfect being, is the last term — a being capable of 
 union with God. Now, as a matter of fact. Duns 
 Scotus is entirely at one with his great rival St. 
 Thomas on the subject of Creatianism. Not 
 only is the creation of the first man an act of 
 primary creation {i.e. a creative act which cannot 
 be expressed in terms of evolution), but there is a 
 
 ^ See Dr. Liddon's Some Elements of Religion, p. 100. 
 
78 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 similar act in the case of every individual soul. 
 He therefore rejects the suggestion of St. Augus- 
 tine, that if the first soul was created by a primary 
 act, all others may have originated from it, sicut 
 candela de candeld} 
 
 In mediaeval days the question, of course, arose 
 as to the interpretation of Aristotle's " De Anima." 
 Not that there was any suspicion of traducianism 
 in Aristotle. The controversy between the School- 
 men and the Arabians was not whether Aristotle 
 was a traducianist (and if Aristotle had been a 
 traducianist, he must have been a materialist, 
 because of his belief in the pre-existence, if not the 
 eternity, of matter), but whether he was a theist 
 or a pantheist ; whether the vovq^ which was eternal 
 and imperishable and came in OvpaOev, was a 
 creation or an emanation. Avicenna and Averroes 
 held the latter ; St. Thomas and Duns Scotus held 
 the former view. In spite of the authority of St. 
 Thomas and Duns Scotus, the higher criticism of 
 our day has decided in favour of the Arabians, and 
 the fact, which Scotus admits, that Aristotle had no 
 idea of an original creation of matter by God, tells 
 strongly for the pantheistic view. 
 
 Now, traducianism is a modus creandi which we 
 
 can understand, which can be expressed in the 
 
 familiar language of generation ; and creatianism 
 
 is a modus creandi which refuses to be rationalized. 
 
 ^ See St. Aug., Ep., 157 ; Duns Scotus, vol. iii. pp. 79, 80. 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 79 
 
 The opposition is here in the case of the individual 
 exactly what we have already noted in the creation 
 of the world. Traducianism is creation which is 
 intelligible, which can be expressed in terms of 
 reason, which can be paralleled by every-day 
 familiar processes however mysterious. Creatianism 
 is creation which is unintelligible, which is known 
 only as the negation of traducianism. If th ere-is 
 no such_lhing-as creatianism, if all creation can be 
 expressed in terms of traducianism, no doubt the 
 opposition ceases. It ceases because one of the 
 .opposing^terms is destroyed. But the two opposites 
 cannot approximate to or shade off the one into 
 the other. Those who can express creation as 
 evolution can of course express creatianism as 
 traducianism. But are we prepared to do this? 
 If not, it is no use speaking "with bated breath 
 and whispering humbleness " of that which Catholic 
 antiquity, as well as modern Roman Catholic evolu- 
 tionists, like Mivart, call creatianism. 
 
 There are many who suppose that creatianism 
 implies a scholastic view of the soul as a " thing " 
 put into the body,^ and they would propose to 
 
 ^ Thus Hegel commits himself to the statement (Logic, § 34) 
 that the pre-Kantian metaphysic viewed the soul as a "thing" 
 which is "an immediate existence, such as is evident to the senses" 
 or a " processless ens." But this is perfectly untrue of scholastic 
 metaphysics in which the soul, though an "ens" which has been 
 created "de non ente," was in its essence an activity, though not 
 in the same sense as God, who is "actus purus." In scholastic 
 
8o ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 explain what is called the " infusio animae " as the 
 establishing of a new relation between the creature 
 and the creator. This theory is discussed in Duns 
 Scotus, who points out the new difficulties which 
 rise out of the phrase, *'nova relatio," especially 
 the possibility of " mutatio " in both the related 
 terms, of which God is one. But even this phrase, 
 a " new relation," implies all that creatianism im- 
 plies, so far as that it is something which evolution 
 cannot explain, which makes man different, not in 
 degree, but in kind, from all the lower creation. 
 What is this but saying that when we talk of 
 " creatio equi " and " creatio hominis " the word 
 " created " has a different meaning ? In one case 
 God creates by a process which science can follow ; 
 in the other, science is baffled. Haeckel's em- 
 bryological researches have in no way affected the 
 problem, for whether we talk of a " soul " or a 
 " nova relatio," it cannot be put under the micro- 
 scope ;^ and if we believe in a "soul" or a ''nova 
 relatio," we believe in a break in the process of 
 
 terminology, if the same name is given to the Creator and the 
 created, it is not used univocally, but " eminenter " of God. 
 
 For the "new relation" doctrine see Baden Powell, Unity of 
 Worlds, Essay ii. § ii. p. 247. "The difference is not in physical 
 nature, but in investing that nature with a new and higher appli- 
 cation. The continuity with the material world remains the same, 
 but a nezv relation is developed in it, and it claims kindred with 
 ethereal matter and with celestial light." 
 
 ^ " Physical science as such has nothing to do with the soul of 
 man, which is hyperphysical " (Mivart, loc. cif., p. 285). 
 
CREATION AND CREATIANISM. 8i 
 
 evolution infinitely greater than that which separates 
 organic from inorganic. The existence of a " nova 
 relatio " is creatianism, for it implies that man is 
 a new and distinct order of being, and this implies 
 a creative act which cannot be reduced to evolu- 
 tion. And here, again, while all traducianism is a 
 form of creation, there is such a thing as creatianism 
 which cannot be expressed in terms of tradu- 
 cianism. 
 
 I have tried to keep carefully to the terms of my 
 paper, " Creation and Creatianism," but, at the same 
 time, I cannot but feel that our judgment in this . 
 matter determines other questions. St. Athanasius, 
 in his treatise " De Incarnatione," keeps closely 
 together creation and re-creation, ^ Kva^Kx\ yap iifxag 
 Xiyovrag TTSpl ri^g tig r\fxag e7ri(j>avdag tov ^(OTrjpog, 
 XijEiv Kol TTspl Trig tCjv avOpMTTwv apxng (ch. iv.), 
 because false views about creation, or indistinct 
 language about creation, logically issues in false 
 or hazy views about the Incarnation. If we can 
 explain creation in terms of evolution, I cannot 
 see why we cannot so explain the Incarnation* 
 The materials for such a process are already to 
 our hand. We have only got to read an Alex- 
 andrian, instead of a Palestinian, meaning into the 
 doctrine of the AOrOS in St. John's Gospel. We 
 have more than one Neo-Platonic catch-word in 
 the Epistle to the Hebrews. John Scotus Erigena 
 has worked it all out for us. The nothing out of 
 
 G 
 
82 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 which the Church believes the world to have been 
 created is God's own incomprehensible essence.^ In 
 creation God passes through the primordiales causae 
 into the world of invisible and visible creatures. Our 
 life is God's life. We are in the image of God. 
 
 r The Incarnation differs from creation only in degree. 
 
 ^he "processio" of God into the world has its 
 correlated " reversio " when He returns unto Him- 
 self. It is much more intelligible than Hegel, quite 
 as philosophical and much more ingenious, because 
 Scotus Erigena contrived to use theological terms, 
 and could claim a good deal of authority from the 
 writings of orthodox theologians. Now, however, 
 we are told that "this religious dogma" of the 
 Incarnation "is only another way of saying that 
 the antithesis of subjective and objective is given 
 to us as already overcome, and that on us lies the 
 obligation of participating in this redemption by 
 laying aside our immediate subjectivity, putting off 
 the old Adam, and learning to know God as our 
 true and essential self" ^ The pantheistic con- 
 ception is as certain as in Erigena, but we have 
 not gained much in clearness of expression. The 
 Atonement, according to this last theory, ceases 
 to mean man's reconciliation with God, for the 
 Incarnation is simply the revelation that there is 
 really no enmity to be reconciled. 
 
 ***** 
 
 * De Divis. Nat., iii. 9. ' Hegel's Logic, 194. 
 
( 83 ) 
 
 TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY.^ 
 
 A GROWING interest in moral philosophy is one of 
 the signs of the times, and those who are content 
 with a superficial explanation of new phenomena 
 might plausibly argue that it is due to the fact 
 that the age of supernaturalism has passed away. 
 A people, it may be said, which has outgrown 
 metaphysics and theology is driven to seek aid 
 from the natural and the human. And this is a 
 thoroughly satisfactory explanation, so long as we 
 shut our eyes to the facts of the case. But the 
 moment we fairly face them we find that those 
 who try to write on ethics, as a science inde- 
 pendent of metaphysics and theology, invariably 
 fail to stir up anything but a languid enthusiasm ; 
 while those who really are influencing thought and 
 life are more and more fearlessly connecting their 
 ethics with the belief in God. We refrain from 
 mentioning representatives of the former class, but 
 
 ' Types of Ethical Theory, by James Martineau, D.D., LL.D. 
 Oxford : Clarendon Press. 
 
84 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 among the latter we find the great names of 
 Professor T. H. Green and Dr. Martineau. 
 
 Of course, we do not mean to assert that, with 
 these writers, their ethical system is a mere de- 
 pendaitce of their theology, or that their theology 
 is that of the Catholic Church. It is their great- 
 ness that they have vindicated for moral science 
 its rightful basis in human life, even when that life 
 is lived apart from the revelation of Jesus Christ ; 
 and have nevertheless seen that its full explanation 
 and justification lies in that which is superhuman. 
 
 It is their weakness, if we may say so, that their 
 implied theology, the doctrine of an eternal Con- 
 sciousness in the one case, and of a God Who is 
 personal and moral, and yet an undifferentiated 
 Unit in the other, involves intellectual difficulties 
 greater far than those which beset the doctrine of 
 the Trinity. Yet, for all this, the present genera- 
 tion will owe it to Professor Green and Dr. Marti- 
 neau that moral philosophy has been raised to a 
 position, in which it awaits its transformation, and, 
 at the same time, its true development, in the light 
 of the Incarnation. 
 
 In the main controversies of morals, then, 
 Christianity claims and welcomes the work of such 
 men. John Stuart Mill, no doubt, by a noble 
 inconsistency did much to undermine the founda- 
 tions on which his own theory rested. But it still 
 remained for men like Professor Green and Dr. 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 85 
 
 Martineau to examine the sources from which Mill 
 had unconsciously borrowed ; to dissociate the 
 Utilitarianism of Mill from that of Bentham ; and 
 to rescue ethics from its bondage to physical law. 
 
 There is a special attractiveness in this part of 
 Dr. Martineau's work, because, as he tells us in 
 his most interesting Preface, he himself only slowly 
 won his freedom. It was not the influence of any 
 great thinker, but "a fusillade of questions from a 
 class of sharpshooters " which roused him from his 
 dogmatic slumber. Till then, he tells us — 
 
 "Steeped in the 'empirical' and 'necessarian' mode of 
 thought, I served out successive terms of willing captivity to 
 Locke and Hartley, to Collins, Edwards, and Priestley, to 
 Bentham and James Mill ; and though at times I was driven 
 to disaffection by the dogmatism and acrid humours of the 
 last two of these philosophers, my allegiance was restored 
 and brightened by literary and personal relations with the 
 younger Mill." 
 
 But a new intellectual birth was at hand, and its 
 beginnings were seen in a growing dissatisfaction 
 with Mill's metaphysics : — 
 
 " I seemed to discover a hitherto unnoticed factor in all 
 the products which I had taken as explained ; to recognize, 
 after resolving all knowledge into relations, the presence of 
 an invisible condition of relation itself. ... I had to con- 
 cede to the self conscious mind itself, both as knowing and 
 as willing, an autonomous function distinct from each and 
 all the phenomena known and changes willed — a self-identity 
 as unlike as possible to any growing aggregate of miscellane- 
 ous and dissimilar experiences." 
 
86 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 And this metaphysical protest was due to " the 
 irresistible pleading of the moral consciousness ; " 
 the secret misgivings which he had felt at either 
 " discarding or perverting the terms which con- 
 stitute the vocabulary of character — * responsibility,' 
 ' guilt/ * merit,' * duty,' " resulting at last in the 
 surrender of determinism, and a revision of the 
 doctrine of causation. 
 
 At this point Dr. Martineau turned once more 
 to the Greek philosophers, and, under the guidance 
 of a great Aristotelian, Professor Trendelenburg, 
 saw Aristotle in a new light. This experience, he 
 tells us, was essentially — 
 
 "The gift of fresh conceptions, the unsealing of hidden 
 openings of self-consciousness, with unmeasured corridors 
 and sacred halls behind ; and, once gained, was more or less 
 available throughout the history of philosophy, and lifted the 
 darkness from the pages of Kant and even Hegel. It was 
 impossible to resist or distrust this gradual widening of 
 apprehension ; it was as much a fact as the sight of Alps 
 I had never visited before." 
 
 From this new and truer metaphysic the transition 
 to theology was natural. The particular averments 
 of the moral consciousness, which are the postulates 
 of an ethical treatise — 
 
 " Form the organic connection between ethics and religion, 
 and define the relations between the human and the divine ; 
 and so far as they can be lifted out of immediate know- 
 ledge and submitted to mediate tests of certainty, it can 
 only be by carrying them into the court of metaphysics, to 
 be tried among the questions of transcendent ontology." 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 87 
 
 Thus as morals led on from physics to meta- 
 physics, so metaphysics made the transition from 
 morals to theology. Comte's so-called law of the 
 three stages was exactly reversed. 
 
 Such a preface gives rise to great expectations, 
 and they are not disappointed, except, perhaps, 
 that one might have hoped for a fuller discussion 
 of some of the underlying metaphysical questions. 
 Of course, as a writer on ethical theory, Dr. Marti- 
 neau might refuse to be led away into metaphysical 
 speculation. But then a very considerable part of 
 the first volume is devoted to the discussion of 
 metaphysical subjects, the positive bearing of which 
 on the ethical conclusions is not very obvious. 
 There is here a very marked contrast between 
 Professor Green and Dr. Martineau. Professor 
 Green approaches ethical questions as a meta- 
 physician : Dr. Martineau approaches metaphysical 
 questions as a moralist. Those who have the 
 courage to read through the " Prolegomena to 
 Ethics" feel all through that it is the work of a 
 real metaphysician, and yet that, however far from 
 ethics the discussion of " the spiritual principle in 
 knowledge and in nature " may at first seem to be, 
 it all ultimately bears upon the ethical result. Dr. 
 Martineau's interest is primarily with morals and 
 only with metaphysics as the speculative basis for 
 morals, — at least that is the idea which his two 
 volumes leave upon our minds, 
 
88 ^-5-^^^^ SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 We believe this to be the explanation of a 
 difficulty which meets us at the very outset. After 
 more than one honest attempt to accept the schema 
 of systems which Dr. Martineau maps out, we are 
 obliged to return to our first impression, that it is 
 neither obviously appropriate as a classification of 
 ethical theories, nor, indeed, anything more than 
 an artificial grouping of some exceedingly interest- 
 ing essays round the central statement of the 
 author's own beliefs. 
 
 The classification begins with a broad distinction 
 familiar to all students of the history of philosophy. 
 The Greek schools " were all essentially unpsycho- 
 logical and objective." "Objective" they certainly 
 were, but " unpsychological" is an unfortunate 
 word to choose as an equivalent. It, of course, 
 does not mean that they did not pay attention to 
 psychology — since we are told that " Plato did not 
 fail to go back into the recesses of the human 
 mind for the springs of private and public life, 
 and the separating lines of right and wrong ; " and, 
 again, ''The Greeks look for their whole moral 
 world within, among the phenomena of conscious 
 and self-conscious nature : " it can only m.ean that 
 they worked from the outward to the inward ; in 
 fact, that their attitude was, as M. Noire puts it, 
 " naively objective." These objective systems. Dr. 
 Martineau goes on, are either vutaphysical or 
 physical according as reason or sense is supposed 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 89 
 
 to be the organ of our knowledge of the real. 
 And in both cases the moral theory comes to be 
 a deduction from a prior theory of the universe : — 
 
 "The genius of the Greeks," he says, "was essentially 
 objective ; . . . nor could they readily deal with anything 
 as an inner fact, till they had had their look at it as an 
 hypostatized reality beyond their own centre. Hence, their 
 systems are all either metaphysical or physical in their 
 basis ; and their ethical element is in no case intelligible, 
 till it is studied as a sequel to this earlier portion of the 
 scheme." 
 
 Here, in spite of our objection to the term "un- 
 psychological," we recognize a division which is 
 intelligible and exhaustive. But a difficulty arises 
 when we ask. Who are to represent physical ethics 
 among the Greeks ? Not the Hylicists, nor any 
 pre-Socratic philosopher ; not Socrates, who refused 
 to theorize about nature ; not his great descendants 
 Plato and Aristotle ; not the Sophists nor the 
 Cyrenaics nor the Epicureans, though as pheno- 
 menalists they had much in common with modern 
 champions of physical ethics. Can Dr. Martineau 
 mean the Stoics ? It is possible. We turn 
 anxiously to find out the chosen representative, 
 and we find — Auguste Comte ! — 
 
 " Of this doctrine," says Dr. Martineau, " we are fortunate 
 enough to have a thorough-going recent representative in 
 M. Comte ; and an English interpreter, perhaps of less 
 original genius, but of far more balanced judgment, in J, 
 S. Mill." 
 
90 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Yet this English interpreter appears far away, in 
 a different branch of the division, among " psycho- 
 logical " moralists, presumably because he admitted, 
 what Comte denied, the possibility of an intro- 
 spective psychology. 
 
 And this is typical of the way in which Dr. 
 Martineau illustrates his schema. Without actually 
 giving us a cross-division, he constantly makes us 
 feel that the distinguished parts in the division 
 are not co-ordinate, that in fact the classification 
 is not natural but artificial. This is very marked 
 when we come to the subdivision of metaphysical 
 theories into transcendental and immanental. 
 According to the one view, the eternal ground 
 of all things is greater than those things of 
 which it is the ground ; according to the other, 
 it is convertible with them. Here, again, we 
 have an excellent distinction ; and no one can 
 for a moment hesitate as to the representatives of 
 these views in Greek thought. If Plato clearly 
 represents the one, Aristotle as clearly represents 
 the other. Dr. Martineau then gives us a full 
 and minute examination of Plato's system, and 
 we turn, full of hope (for Dr. Martineau is far 
 more of an Aristotelian than a Platonist) to see 
 what he will say about Aristotle, and we find 
 ourselves face to face with Descartes, Malebranche, 
 and Spinoza, the first two being introduced only 
 to explain the " immanental " doctrine of the third. 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 91 
 
 Surely nothing can justify the substitution of these 
 names for that of Aristotle. Dr. Martineau ex- 
 plains that in the two contemporaries, Plato and 
 Aristotle, " the divergence of tendency which we 
 desire to notice is too near its commencement to 
 be very striking and conspicuous." But it is a 
 received logical principle that a point of difference 
 is best examined in two cases which most closely 
 resemble one another in everything else ; and as 
 for the divergence being " too near its commence- 
 ment" we would suggest that in that mediaeval 
 period, which Dr. Martineau, like many other 
 writers, dismisses in a few lines, the divergence can 
 be clearly traced, and all the more clearly because 
 Plato and Aristotle had, by a little ingenuity, been 
 reduced to a common denominator in the doctrinal 
 system of the Schools. On the other hand, the 
 contrast between Plato on the one hand, and 
 Descartes, Malebranche, and Spinoza on the 
 other, is rendered almost impossible by the fact 
 that, in the day of these later theorists, thought 
 had passed through the discipline of Christianity 
 and the lawlessness of a reaction from it. 
 
 This change in the conditions of ethical and 
 metaphysical problems Dr. Martineau is fully 
 aware of and states most strongly. "The whole 
 complexion of thought and language on ethical 
 subjects," we are told, "alters on crossing the 
 line from heathendom to Christendom." " Nature, 
 
92 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 which was a principal before, sank into the acci- 
 dental and the neutral — the mere scene on which 
 the great drama of real being was performed and 
 flung its lights and shades." Self-knowledge, the 
 sense of sin, the desire for reconciliation with a 
 personal God — these, if not entirely new factors in 
 the ethical problem, assumed a prominence which 
 they had never had before. Hence " psychological 
 ethics is altogether pecidiar to Christendom^ Yet, 
 if Spinoza is to be chosen to balance Plato, we 
 must remember that those who prepared the 
 problem for him were, in the one case, a pupil of 
 the Jesuits, in the other, an Oratorian Father. 
 And the change which had passed over meta- 
 physics was as great as that which had passed over 
 morals. Christian philosophy had, for a moment, 
 restored something of the old unquestioning faith 
 in reason as the organ of truth. But the separation 
 of reason and faith, in the later scholastic age, had 
 prepared for the scepticism of the Renaissance. 
 Descartes and his successors had, therefore, to 
 face a metaphysical problem which for Aristotle 
 would have been unintelligible : while the answer 
 ultimately given by Spinoza, though undoubtedly 
 an "immanental" theory, savours more of Plato 
 than of Aristotle. Dr. Martineau says, " The doc- 
 trine of immanency excludes theism, while that 
 of transcendency leaves it still possible." True, 
 so long as we are contrasting Plato and Spinoza 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 93 
 
 But when we trace the parallel development of 
 Plato's doctrine and Aristotle's in the mediaeval 
 period, we find that it is Platonism which is always 
 running off into a mystical pantheism, and Aristo- 
 telianism which, in spite of its inherent weakness 
 on the side of personality, leaves it possible for 
 the Aristotelian to hold the Catholic faith. The 
 truth is that the "transcendency" of the Platonic 
 doctrine is more imaginary than real, and largely 
 due to an uncritical acceptance, by people gene- 
 rally, of Aristotle's criticism of the doctrine of ideas. 
 
 We have said thus much in criticism of Dr. 
 Martineau's schematism of ethical theories, because 
 it seems to us the most artificial and unsatisfactory 
 part of a really valuable work. We are bound 
 to say that the artificiality is much less marked 
 in the second volume, which deals with "psycho- 
 logical " theories, and distinguishes them by the 
 uncouth words " idiopsychological " and " hetero- 
 psychological." Surely in these days of paternal 
 government, there ought to be a law to limit the 
 ovofiaroTroiiTiv ora^rjvfta? £V€fC£v. 
 
 The first volume is occupied with a discussion 
 of the three typical forms of " unpsychological " 
 ethics — Transcendental Metaphysics, represented 
 by Plato ; Immanental Metaphysics, by Spinoza ; 
 and Physics, by Comte. These studies, though 
 they go far beyond what is needed for the author's 
 purpose, are exceedingly interesting. That on 
 
94 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Plato includes a detailed examination of the theory 
 of Ideas, and its culmination in the Idea of the 
 Good. The great question to determine is 
 " whether inherent movement or causal activity is 
 attributed to them." On the one side we have the 
 criticism of Aristotle, on the other numerous pas- 
 sages in which Plato certainly treats them as 
 causes. Dr. Martineau seems to accept Aristotle's 
 criticism in the case of the Ideas generally, but to 
 make an exception in favour of the 'iS'a raya^oO, 
 as " a cause which brings them to phenomenal 
 birth." But surely far too much is allowed to 
 Aristotle's criticism. Mr. Jowett, who certainly 
 has a right to speak on such a matter, says plainly 
 that "the stereotyped form which Aristotle has 
 given the Ideas is not found in Plato ;"-^ and Lotze, 
 in a most valuable chapter in his Logic, points out, 
 not only that the transcendency doctrine ascribed 
 to Plato (and with it the Aristotelian criticism) 
 falls to the ground, but that the "immanental" 
 view of Aristotle is as powerless to explain the 
 possibility of knowledge. The truth, we believe, 
 is that Plato's doctrine included the elements of 
 a contradiction, of which he only gradually became 
 conscious. The "dead hand" of Eleaticism was 
 upon him, and Aristotle, seeing this, made him 
 consistent with himself by denying causality to 
 the Ideas ; whereas Plato, inconsistently perhaps, 
 
 * Introduction to Parmenides, p. 124. 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 95 
 
 yet nevertheless held to the belief that, though 
 eternal, they were causes of movement. If Dr. 
 Martineau allows this to be true of the 'iSea ra'^a' 
 Oov, why not of the u^t) ? And if Aristotle may 
 talk of a irpCoTov kivovv ov kivov/isvov, and explain 
 or disguise the paradox by the phrase Kivd ujg 
 Ipuj/itvov, why should not Plato do the same? 
 
 The account of Plato's ideal State, its strength 
 and its weakness, is admirably worked out, but 
 when our author goes out of his way to compare 
 it with the Catholic Church, his statement needs 
 a good deal of qualification. After quoting Hegel's 
 contrast between " the relentless subjugation of the 
 individual" in the Platonic State and the infinite 
 value of each individual soul in the teaching of 
 Christianity, Dr. Martineau turns round upon the 
 Catholic Church, and says its real failure was due 
 to its not having recognized the doctrine of "justifi- 
 cation by faith." Here, apparently, the Catholic 
 Church means the mediaeval Papacy, which cer- 
 tainly, like all over-centralized governments, tended 
 to ignore subjective conditions in its anxiety to 
 secure external conformity. Yet the antinomi- 
 anism which shaped itself in the sixteenth-century 
 solifidianism, is both on its moral and metaphysical 
 side farther removed from Christianity than was 
 the mediaeval idea of unity. 
 
 There is a good deal of special pleading in the 
 attempt to make Plato a theist ; and it comes 
 
96 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 rather oddly after the statement that Plato and 
 Aristotle were " both realists and both pantheists." 
 One has heard a good deal before now about " the 
 Platonical Trinity," and we incline to think there 
 is at least as much to be said for this interpre- 
 tation as for the theistic one. At any rate, if Plato 
 is a theist, he is fully aware of the inherent difficul- 
 ties of theism. It was not without reason that, 
 some hundred years ago, a Bishop of the English 
 Church, arguing with the Unitarians of his day, 
 gave the advice, " If any one thinks that Uni- 
 tarianism is simpler than Christianity, let him 
 read Parmenides." Dr. Martineau is, however, far 
 too honest to ignore passages which conflict with 
 his theory, and his final conclusion comes to this. 
 If we apply the test of self -consciousness, we may 
 no doubt call Plato a theist ; if we apply the test 
 of will, "we might be obliged to confess that the 
 God of Plato is impersonal'^ Comparing his theo- 
 logy with his ethics, we seem to get an ethics of 
 responsibility resting on a metaphysic of necessity. 
 And Dr. Martineau would like to square the meta- 
 physic with the ethics rather than the ethics with 
 the metaphysic. But neither is possible without 
 explaining away Plato's utterances. And even 
 the mythical passages, as Dr. Martineau truly says, 
 "often express the doctrines most sacred to his 
 faith, though least effectually grounded in his 
 philosophy." It is not the only instance in which 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 97 
 
 we see moral truth, with a "noble inconsistency," 
 refusing to conform to a speculative theory : — 
 
 " Plato, in his ' divine wrath ' at the tyrant flung into Tar- 
 tarus ; Malebranche, self-extinguished in the Absolute Holi- 
 ness ; Spinoza, lifted from the thraldom of passion into the 
 freedom of Infinite Love ; Comte, on his knees before the 
 image of a Perfect Humanity, are touching witnesses to 
 the undying fires of moral faith and aspiration.'" 
 
 Our space will not permit a close examination 
 of the three studies on Descartes, Malebranche, and 
 Spinoza, or of the full and sympathetic account 
 given of Comte. But we cannot help noticing, in 
 passing, a most suggestive section on the rejection 
 of final causes, so long as mechanism dominated 
 science, and the reappearance of teleology under the 
 influence of evolution. We may also be allowed 
 to regret a very superficial passage, where Dr. 
 Martineau, after a rapid survey of Greek thought, 
 says of "the intermediate period of Catholic cul- 
 ture " that it is needless to prove that it was 
 "mainly concerned in investigating the relations 
 between God and man." If this means that natural 
 science was in abeyance, it is only partially true ; 
 and in any case the whole subject of Dr. Mar- 
 tineau's two volumes falls under the general title 
 of " the relations between God and man." He 
 might have got at least as much from a study 
 of Thomas of Aquin, as from the scepticism of 
 Descartes, or the pantheism of Spinoza, or the 
 positivism of Comte. 
 
 H 
 
98 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 The first half of Dr. Martineau's second volume 
 is devoted to the exposition of his own theory, 
 " idiopsychological " ethics as distinguished from 
 the three typical " heteropsychological " forms, the 
 Hedonist ethics of Utilitarianism, the " Dianoetic " 
 ethics of Cud worth and Clarke, and the "Esthetic" 
 ethics of Hutcheson. These are introduced in a 
 very characteristic passage. " Idiopsychological " 
 ethics leaves us with an order of thinking and a 
 group of convictions distinct from any that can be 
 got from the natural sciences, 
 
 " And philosophers do not like to be encumbered in their 
 survey of the world with bundles of first truths as numerous 
 as the elements of a lady's luggage : they cannot move freely 
 till their outfit will all go into a Gladstone bag. So they 
 try to find some one of their packages of thought capacious 
 or elastic enough to hold all that cannot be proved super- 
 fluous ; and as, in any case, room enough must be left for 
 the senses, which are solid affairs, it is usually the moral 
 sentiments that are apt to get squeezed, and to come out at 
 the end hardly recognizable." 
 
 Hence right is dissolved in the pleasant or the 
 true or the beautiful. 
 
 The criticism of these in the latter half of the 
 volume, especially the review of utilitarianism and 
 the ethics of evolution, is admirable. Nor does it 
 detract from its value that the criticism of utili- 
 tarianism by Dr. Martineau has much in common 
 with Professor Green's. If it is less searching, it 
 is more popular, and the points are made more 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 99- 
 
 sharply and clearly. The mere heading- of the 
 section, "From 'Each for Himself to 'Each for 
 Air — No Road," speaks volumes. The criticism 
 has often been made before, but seldom with such 
 precision and incisiveness. Mill's attempt to find 
 a qualitative difference in pleasures is only an 
 attempt to throw a bridge over an impassable 
 chasm. The Hedonist, who substitutes others for 
 himself, becomes moral by turning his rational 
 preferences upside down, or "by the practical 
 paradox of attaining pleasure by aiming at 
 something else," " Hedonistic advance " to any 
 higher love being not less impossible than "hori- 
 zontal movement uphill." Though there have no 
 doubt been moralizing divines " who recommended 
 the cultivation of disinterested and devout affec- 
 tions as a good investment," we may find the 
 cause of it in the low spiritual level of their age, 
 and the effect in the " notorious inefficacy " of 
 their teaching. We arrive, then, at the conclusion 
 that, notwithstanding the provision in our nature 
 for the partial conversion of interested into dis- 
 interested feeling, we cannot identify the greatest 
 happiness of self with the greatest happiness of 
 all, nor get duty out of prudence, nor virtue from 
 self-love. 
 
 The main issue is not really changed when 
 evolution supplements Hedonism, and the indi- 
 vidual, society, and the world are treated no longer 
 
ICO jEssavs scientific and philosophical. 
 
 as constants but as variables. " The difficulty is 
 apparently lessened by dilution," but in reality we 
 only take refuge from "the strong light" of indi- 
 vidual experience, " in the earlier twilight, where 
 nobody can tell exactly what goes on." Hence — 
 
 'The extreme fondness which evolutionists show for tossing 
 about psychological babies, and wringing from them ajnbigiias 
 voces about how they feel, is natural, in proportion as their 
 doctrine is hard to prove." " By spinning out your process 
 indefinitely, you gain time enough for anything to take place, 
 but too much for anything to be seen ; in the very act of 
 creating the evidence, you hide it all away ; and the real 
 result is, that you may make the story what you please, and 
 no one can put it to the test." ..." Nothing can be more 
 chimerical than prehistorical psychology." 
 
 The truth is that — 
 
 " Evolutionary ethics have no psychology of their own ; 
 but merely pick up what best suits them of the old materials, 
 and fit it in with the ^urtXy physiological story they have to 
 tell." 
 
 If there is a gap between " Each for Himself" 
 and " Each for All," there is even a greater gap 
 between Hedonism and evolution. If evolution 
 is true, we have no right to treat the increment, 
 whatever it may be, as illusion, but as emergence 
 from illusion. You cannot explain it by what it 
 has been, and "strip bare the moral type of 
 thought till you have the naked natural animal, 
 and say, There ; that is the real live truth when 
 you have got the clothes off." Dr. Martineau 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. loi 
 
 draws an excellent illustration from the evolution 
 of the eye out of a mass of jelly which becomes 
 responsive to light. The question is not. What 
 did the eye come from ? but, Does it really see ? 
 Has it life-relations with reality? Similarly the 
 real question at issue about conscience is not, 
 Did it come ultimately from something which is 
 non-moral ? but, Is it a moral faculty correspond- 
 ing to a moral environment? If we are to accept 
 evolution, we must believe that everything is what 
 it may become, not what it has been. To prove 
 that, at a certain stage of development, the embryo 
 of a man is indistinguishable, even to the practised 
 embryologist, from that of a dog, carries us no way 
 at all towards proving the identity of creatures 
 which in their perfect form are so different. 
 
 It is here that Dr. Martineau seems to us to go 
 beyond Professor Green. He is more fearless in 
 his attitude towards evolution. Professor Green 
 throughout shrinks from admitting the possibility 
 of the evolution of the moral from the non-moral. 
 Dr. Martineau is content to fix attention on the 
 reality of the development, and to emphasize the 
 fact that "each increment contributed by fresh 
 differentiation constitutes a discovery, and connects 
 us by one added link of truth with the real scene 
 of our existence." We can indeed " undress the 
 moral intuition," and lay aside fold after fold of 
 its disguise till we discover nothing at last but 
 
102 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 naked pleasure and utility, but " no foresight, with 
 largest command of psychologic clothes, would 
 enable us to invert the experiment, and dress up 
 these nudities into the august form of duty." 
 
 The whole chapter is well worth study, and is 
 certainly the best in the critical part of Dr. Mar- 
 tineau's book, at any rate "for the present neces- 
 sity." For the supposed destruction of the validity 
 of conscience by the discovery of its origin is that 
 which troubles men, and Dr. Martineau is not 
 afraid to claim that discovery, if it be a discovery, 
 as a new proof of the validity of conscience. " It 
 introduces," he says in his preface, " no disturbing 
 problem ; it supplies new chapters of natural 
 history, but changes not a word in the eternal law 
 of right." Such a view of conscience, as fearless 
 as it is true, instead of excluding, presupposes 
 historical development and growth, and leaves 
 opponents like Mr. Leslie Stephens valiantly 
 slaying the dead or beating the air. 
 
 We have reserved to the last Dr. Martineau's 
 own view, which has already shown itself in his 
 criticisms, but is explicitly stated under the head 
 of " idiopsychological " ethics. Standing midway 
 between the " unpsychological " ethics of Vol. I., 
 and the " heteropsychological " ethics of the 
 Hedonist, Dianoetic, and Esthetic moralists, it 
 simply asks. What has the moral sentiment to say 
 of its own experience ? 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 103 
 
 To those who have neither time nor inclination 
 to read through two octavo volumes, and who 
 nevertheless wish to be acquainted with the great 
 facts of moral science, we confidently commend 
 the first one hundred and twenty pages of Vol. II., 
 which should be read in close connection with the 
 author's intellectual history sketched in his preface. 
 It is a full and fearless statement of the facts, by 
 one who is fully conscious of the arguments com- 
 monly urged against them. Dr. Martineau does 
 not shrink from an argument because it is an old 
 one. He knows that an argument is never worn 
 out till it is answered. He appeals to the judg- 
 ments of the adult moral consciousness, as he 
 appeals to language, "the great confessional of 
 the human heart." What, then, are the objects 
 of those moral judgments which we all pass ? 
 Persons^ not things ; thoughts and feelings, not 
 mere conduct. Here he can claim on his side 
 Mr. Spencer and Mr. Leslie Stephen, Professor 
 Green and Mr. Bradley, as well as the Christian 
 ethics of the Sermon on the Mount. But he is 
 at issue with the current opinion of moralists 
 when he argues, most truly as we believe, that 
 "criticism, like charity, begins at home," that a 
 moral judgment is primarily a self-judgment, and 
 does not begin with "a prior critique upon our 
 fellow-men." A further analysis of the moral 
 judgment brings out the distinction between mere 
 
104 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Spontaneity and volition. In the voluntary there 
 must be a comparison and a power of choice in 
 the presence of simultaneous possibilities. " Moral 
 judgment, then, credits the Ego with a selecting 
 power between two possibilities, and stands or 
 falls with this." It is impossible to treat the 
 determinist problem as neutral, as Mr. Sidgwick 
 would do. "Either free-will is a fact, or moral 
 judgment a delusion." Moral judgment, then — 
 
 " Postulates moral freedom ; and by this we mean, not the 
 absence of foreign constraint, but the presence of a personal 
 power of preference in relation to the inner suggestions and 
 springs of action that present their claims." 
 
 Turning now to the mode in which the moral 
 judgment acts, we find that it is exercised upon 
 incompatible impulses which it distinguishes as 
 higher and lower— 2.^. by their moral worth. Con- 
 science is "the critical perception we have of the 
 relative authority of our several principles of 
 action." This at once explains the variation in 
 the contents of the moral judgment, on which 
 sophists in all ages base their denial of morality. 
 " Among the sinful crowd it is intelligible enough 
 how ' many that are first shall be last, and the last 
 first,' " since the life of widest visible aberration 
 from a Divine standard of perfection is not neces- 
 sarily the most wicked. The publicans and harlots 
 may in the sight of God take precedence of those 
 whose wilful choice of the lower is covered by " the 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 105 
 
 smooth surface of a decent life." The fact, too, 
 that every moral judgment is a judgment of moral 
 worth enables us clearly to draw the line between 
 the judgments of conscience and of prudence. The 
 moral judgment is insight, prudence is foresight : 
 conscience is given, prudence is found. 
 
 This brings us to the most valuable part of 
 Dr. Martineau's constructive work, where we must 
 leave him, without following him into the detailed 
 classification of the springs of action. 
 
 Conscience speaks with authority. This truth 
 has shown itself in our very conception of duty. 
 For — 
 
 "Without objective conditions, the idea oi duty involves a 
 contradiction, and its phraseology passes into an unmeaning 
 figure of speech. Nothing can be binding to us that is not 
 higher than we ; and to speak of one part of self imposing 
 obligation on another part — of one impulse or affection play- 
 ing, as it were, the god to another — is to trifle with the real 
 significance of the sentiments that speak within us. Con- 
 science does not frame the law, it simply reveals the law 
 that holds us ; and to make everything of the disclosure 
 and nothing of the thiiig disclosed is to affirm and to deny 
 the revelation in the same breath." 
 
 But— 
 
 " The predicate ' higher than I ' takes me yet a step 
 beyond ; for what am I ? A person, higher than whom no 
 ' thing'' assuredly, no mere phe7to?ne?ion, can be ; but only 
 another Person, greater and higher and of deeper insight. 
 . . . If it be true that over a free and living person nothing 
 short of a free and living person can have higher authority, 
 then is it certain that a ' subjective ' conscience is impossible. 
 
lo6 £SSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 The faculty is more than part and parcel of myself ; it is the 
 communion of God's life and guiding love entering and 
 abiding with an apprehensive capacity in myself." "The 
 real, eternal objective will of God seems to me to construe 
 very faithfully the sense of ajithority attaching to our moral 
 nature : they are in us, but not ^us ; not ours, but God's." 
 
 We have now found the key to Dr. Martineau's 
 classification of ethical theories. It is really a 
 dichotomous division based on the recognition or 
 non-recognition of the truth of personality and 
 the fundamental doctrine of obligation. In the 
 ancient world " the notion of personality was held 
 very indistinctly and with great fluctuation," while, 
 with the exception of Bishop Butler and some 
 writers of the Scottish school, " it is difficult to 
 find any class of recent moralists who have 
 declined to betray their science to the physiologist 
 on the one hand, or the ontologist on the other." 
 Whether personality and freedom are merged in 
 metaphysic, immanental or transcendental, or in 
 physiology, as with Comte and Spencer, or are 
 lost in the false psychology of the hedonist or 
 rational or sesthetic schools, makes little difference. 
 They are only subdivisions of the negative arm of 
 the dichotomy. 
 
 But those who, like Dr. Martineau, allow the 
 moral consciousness to speak for itself, must make 
 the transition, as he does, from morals to meta- 
 physics and theology, — must ask. What metaphysic 
 will furnish an adequate basis arid justification for 
 
TYPES OF ETHICAL THEORY. 107 
 
 the indispensable postulates of ethical doctrine f If 
 morality demands freedom and an objective moral 
 law, we have passed out of psychology into meta- 
 physics and we must go farther. If the law is 
 moral — can appeal to me as a moral being — it 
 must be the appeal of a personality to my person- 
 ality. Therefore, says Dr. Martineau, morality 
 implies theism. And here he leaves us to face 
 the difficulties of the Parmenides and the criticism 
 of Herbert Spencer, that a Personal Infinite is a 
 contradiction in terms. We are compelled, then, 
 to make a further step, and ask. Is theism any 
 longer a tenable metaphysic ? Must it not declare 
 itself Christian on pain of lapsing into pantheism ? 
 If so, the doctrine of the Trinity becomes the true 
 and only safeguard of that theism which is the 
 postulate of the moral consciousness. 
 
 This final chapter on the metaphysic of morals 
 Dr. Martineau has not written, but he has given us 
 a noble introduction to it. 
 
io8 ^^^^KS" SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 VI. 
 
 PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS.^ 
 
 The publication of a work on moral philosophy 
 by Professor Green will be welcomed by many 
 besides those who have been brought directly 
 within the sphere of his influence. People generally 
 knew little of him. When his unexpected and 
 almost sudden death in March, 1882, called forth 
 the noble testimonies to his life and work of 
 those who knew him well, many were astonished 
 to find how great a man he was who had been 
 taken away from among us. Students of philo- 
 sophy had, of course, read his two or three 
 review articles, and above all his introduction to 
 Hume. Oxford men were familiar with his earnest, 
 thoughtful face, and they knew that he was " a 
 philosopher," and that the article in the North 
 British on the " Philosophy of Aristotle," must be 
 read by any one who hoped for high honours in 
 " the schools." But it was a comparatively small 
 number of men who really appreciated him, and 
 the publication of the "Prolegomena to Ethics," after 
 
 ^ Prolegomena to Ethics. By T. H. Green, M.A., LL. D. 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 109 
 
 his death, seems specially appropriate in the case 
 of one who lived so little for himself and so entirely 
 for the great truths with which he dealt. The 
 greater part of the book, as the editor, Mr. A. C. 
 Bradley, tells us, had been used in professorial 
 lectures, Mr. Green having been appointed Whyte's 
 Professor of Moral Philosophy in 1877 ; and about 
 a quarter of the whole appeared in Mind in the 
 first half of the year in which Mr. Green died. Mr. 
 Bradley is responsible for the arrangement into 
 books and chapters, the manuscript having been 
 written in paragraphs, and we also owe to the editor 
 a most excellent table of contents which serves as a 
 full and true analysis of the book itself. The short 
 preface of the editor ends with a sentence worth 
 quoting, as showing how Professor Green affected 
 those who had the privilege of being much with him 
 and being able to appreciate him. After acknow- 
 ledging his debt to Mrs. Green, Professor Caird, 
 and Mr. R. L. Nettleship, Mr. Bradley concludes: — 
 
 " But it would seem to me, and to those who have helped 
 me, out of place to express any gratitude for work given to 
 a book which, more than any writing of Mr, Green's yet 
 published, may enable the public outside Oxford to under- 
 stand not only the philosophical enthusiasm which his teach- 
 ing inspired ; but the reverence and love which are felt for 
 him by all who knew him well." 
 
 If the theology of the Catholic Church had less in 
 common than it has with the metaphysics of Pro- 
 fessor Green, English Churchmen would still owe 
 
no ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 to him a heavy debt of gratitude for the unswerv- 
 ing protest of his life and teaching against sophistry 
 and unreaHty. No doubt there were some who 
 could wrench words and phrases from their context 
 in " Green's philosophy," and use them as mere 
 catch-words in argument. There will always be 
 found some who will take the fine gold of the 
 philosopher and make it a " medium of exchange ; " 
 but, as a rule, to have read philosophy with " Green 
 of Balliol " was to have imbibed, at least in some 
 degree, his earnestness in dealing with the great 
 problems of life — to have caught something of his 
 enthusiasm in the search for truth, and his strong 
 faith in the reality of goodness and unselfish work 
 for others. It is diffi-cult to overrate the value of 
 such an influence in an age of disintegration and 
 selfishness, and amongst young men who, as Plato 
 says, are inclined to use philosophy "as puppies 
 use their teeth," in tearing one another to pieces. 
 
 The "Prolegomena to Ethics," as arranged by Mr. 
 Bradley, is divided into four books, the first two 
 dealing with the scientific basis of ethics, the last 
 two with ethics proper, and the editor, with great 
 considerateness for readers who may be " unaccus- 
 tomed to metaphysical and psychological discus- 
 sions," suggests that much of the author's ethical 
 views may be gathered from the third and fourth 
 books alone. This is no doubt true, but we cannot 
 but express our belief that the '' Prolegomena to 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. ill 
 
 Ethics " will owe its place in English philosophy to 
 the earlier rather than to the later books. 
 
 It is a serious thing to begin with metaphysics 
 when we have almost talked ourselves into the belief 
 that anything which we cannot "touch and taste 
 and handle " is unreal, or at best a field for intel- 
 lectual gymnastics. And this Mr. Green felt. It 
 was only the necessity of the case which compelled 
 him to do as he has done. It may seem strange 
 indeed to some that after nineteen centuries of 
 Christianity, and at a time when the Christian 
 morality is accepted by all civilized nations, it should 
 be necessary to write " Prolegomena to Ethics '* 
 at all. The science of ethics implies a metaphysic 
 of ethics undoubtedly, but is not that metaphysic 
 of ethics supplied by Christian theology on which 
 from the first Christian ethics has been based } 
 Such a question can only come from one who 
 ignores or has reason to doubt what certain people 
 now take for granted — viz., that dogmatic theology 
 has had its day, and the Church remains only as 
 a fossilized shell in which a living germ is still 
 hidden. Some, indeed, go further, and deny the 
 existence even of the germ ; but then they believe 
 in a kind of moral archebiosis which in the physical 
 world they are slow to accept. Thus, the Intro- 
 duction to the " Prolegomena to Ethics " speaks of 
 people who are " wearied of the formulas of a 
 stereotyped theology, but still demand free in- 
 
H2 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 dulgence for the appetite which that theology- 
 supplied with a regulation-diet" (p. i). Mr. 
 Herbert Spencer, in the '' Data of Ethics," goes 
 further. He is quite willing to believe that dog- 
 matic theology is a thing of the past, but he has 
 a profound mistrust of metaphysics. We are, 
 therefore, told in his Preface that — 
 
 "The establishment of rules of right conduct on a scientific" 
 {i.e. positive) " basis is a pressing need. Now that moral 
 injunctions are losing the authority given by their supposed 
 sacred 'origin, the secularization of morals is becoming 
 imperative." 
 
 Supposing, now, for the sake of argument, that 
 dogmatic theology has something still to say in the 
 present as it has had in the past, we find that 
 ethics becomes the battle-ground of the three 
 great tendencies of the human mind — the positive, 
 the metaphysical, and the theological. Mr. Spencer 
 is prepared to give us a natural science of morals, 
 and nothing could be more acceptable to the 
 present age than this, if it does not demand too 
 great a sacrifice of common sense. Mr. Green, on 
 the other hand, is anxious to find " some indepen- 
 dent justification " for ethics " in the shape of a 
 philosophy which does not profess to be a branch 
 either of dogmatic theology or of natural science " 
 (p. 2). And there are still some, and we venture to 
 think an increasing number, who are reactionary- 
 enough to hold that there is no basis for the Christian 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 113 
 
 virtues except the Christian verities. Still we should 
 be quite wrong in supposing that the controversy 
 between science, philosophy, and theology in this 
 matter could be represented as a triangular duel, or 
 a " belbim omnium inter omnesT For metaphysics 
 and theology fight side by side against any attempt 
 to make ethics a part of natural science. It is only 
 when metaphysics adopts,, as it sometimes does, 
 a sublimated Christianity in which the Christ of 
 the Gospels and the Epistles is lost sight of in the 
 Christian Idea, that theology is compelled to re- 
 assert the historical character of the Catholic faith. 
 The " Prolegomena to Ethics " is mainly directed 
 to the establishment of morality on the basis of self- 
 consciousness. Such a view necessitates a criticism 
 of those theories which involve a physical theory 
 of conscience and of will, whether in the form given 
 to it by Mr. J. S. Mill, or in the ethics of evolution 
 as formulated by Mr. Herbert Spencer. Against 
 both of these it is necessary to show the reality of 
 the spiritual principle in nature and in man, and 
 the true relation of man to nature. This is the 
 subject of Book I., which is headed " Metaphysics 
 of Knowledge." It is clearly impossible without 
 unfairness to summarize a closely reasoned discus- 
 sion, which includes much valuable criticism. For 
 a summary can do little more than state in a bald, 
 dogmatic form the conclusions ultimately arrived 
 at, indicating roughly and in outline the method 
 
 I 
 
114 -ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 by which such conclusions are established. Still, 
 for understanding the theory of ethics developed in 
 Books III. and IV., it is necessary to do this. 
 
 At the end of the Introduction two questions are 
 suggested for consideration, of which the second 
 depends upon a negative answer being given to 
 the first : — 
 
 " Can the knowledge of nature be itself a part or product 
 of nature in that sense of nature in which it is said to be an 
 object of knowledge ? " 
 
 This is the question of Book I. If the answer 
 be in the negative the further question is suggested 
 — namely, whether that principle in knowledge 
 which is not natural has not another expression 
 in the consciousness of a moral ideal. Thus the 
 Second Book leads us on from the critique of the 
 speculative to that of the practical reason. 
 
 It would be difficult to find in the English lan- 
 guage so clear a statement of great metaphysical 
 principles as we have in Book I. on the metaphysic 
 of knowledge. Metaphysicians, from Heracleitus 
 to Hegel, have a tendency to adopt a defiant atti- 
 tude towards ordinary people. There is nothing 
 of this in Professor Green. Even when he is 
 dealing with the most abstruse subjects he wishes 
 to be understood ; and the wish to be understood 
 carries him on far towards the attainment of his 
 object. Whether it is that English people are too 
 matter-of-fact to be metaphysical, or that they 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 115 
 
 have been hopelessly miseducated by traditional 
 systems of philosophy, the fact remains that what 
 is almost a truism to a metaphysician is a paradox 
 to " the plain, honest man." To be told that all 
 reality consists in relations, and relations are im- 
 possible except for an intelligence capable of 
 relating, sounds strange to people whose common 
 view of the real is that it is something which is 
 independent of consciousness, that is, " unrelated." 
 Ever since the days of Locke a mysterious "entity," 
 called matter, is supposed to exist as a source of 
 reality, though it is unknown and unknowable. 
 Even Kant did not succeed in laying the ghost 
 which hampered the English philosophy, and 
 which the good Bishop of Cloyne in vain sought 
 to exorcise. For this unknown something, which 
 for Bishop Berkeley was the haunt of materialism, 
 reappears in the Kantian " thing-in-itself," while 
 for the English "philosophers of relativity," it 
 remains as " a skeleton in the cupboard." Hegel 
 dared to say that it was a ghost which any man 
 of sound common sense could afford to laugh at, 
 since the intelligible is the real and the real is 
 the intelligible, and we can do better without the 
 ghost than with it, because, as Mr. Green tells us 
 in a different context, "nothing can be known by 
 reference to the unknown." 
 
 But if the real is the related, and relation implies 
 a relating consciousness, we cannot explain con- 
 
ii6 jEssavs scientific and philosophical. 
 
 sciousness by that nature which presupposes it. 
 Discarding, then, the materialistic solution, can we 
 accept the Kantian dictum that the " understand- 
 ing makes nature " ? Popular thinking opposes 
 the external order of nature to our thinking, and 
 the antithesis has been emphasized by Locke as 
 if the order of nature were one thing and real, 
 while our thinking is another and unreal. But 
 nature as a system or unity is so for a conscious 
 intelligence, and yet we do not make that unity 
 for ourselves. It seems, then, that we have the 
 conception of an order of nature on the one side 
 and that order itself on the other. Either, then, 
 we must suppose "some unaccountable pre- 
 established harmony," through which there comes 
 to be such an order corresponding to our concep- 
 tion of it, or we must recognize the fact that " our 
 conception of an order of nature and the relations 
 which form that order have a common spiritual 
 source" (p. 35). At any rate, we cannot reduce 
 one to the other : — 
 
 " Intelligence, experience, knowledge, are no more a result 
 of nature than nature of them. If it is true that there would 
 be no intelligence without nature it is equally true that there 
 would be no nature without intelligence" (pp. '^'j, 38). 
 
 Nature, then, in its reality implies a principle 
 which is spiritual, or at least not natural (p. 56). 
 What, then, is our relation to this principle ? We 
 are conscious of an order in nature, and this 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 117 
 
 consciousness cannot be a part of the process 
 of nature. Popular psychology has, indeed, 
 familiarized us with the term " phenomena of con- 
 sciousness." Knowledge may be of phenomena, 
 but phenomena are related in time to other phe- 
 nomena, the consciousness is not. Few better 
 instances of Mr. Green's psychological analysis 
 can be found than the sections (58-64) which he 
 devotes to the theory of perception adopted by 
 Mr. Mill and Mr. Lewes, and the result of his 
 analysis is the conclusion that — 
 
 " A sensation excited by an external irritant is not a per- 
 ception of the irritant or (by itself) of anything at all ; every 
 object we perceive is a congeries of related facts, of which 
 the simplest component, no less than the composite whole, 
 requires in order to its presentation the action of a principle 
 of consciousness, not itself subject to conditions of time, upon 
 successive appearances, such action as may hold the appear- 
 ances together, without fusion, in an apprehended fact " 
 (p. 70). 
 
 But our consciousness seems to admit of growth. 
 How is this to be explained ? Probably what 
 seems to be a growth of consciousness is really a 
 process by which the animal organism becomes 
 " a vehicle of the eternal consciousness : " — 
 
 "We must hold that there is a consciousness for which 
 the relations of fact which form the object of our gradually 
 attained knowledge already and eternally exist ; and that 
 the growing knowledge of the individual is a progress 
 towards this consciousness." 
 
 The system of related facts which we call the 
 
ii8 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 objective world implies a mind or consciousness 
 for which it now exists, and as that eternal con- 
 sciousness reproduces itself in us the world tends 
 to become for us also a system of related facts, 
 though there can never be for us that *' wholeness " 
 which there must be for " the mind which renders 
 the world one." It has always seemed to us that 
 Bishop Berkeley, the best misunderstood of Eng- 
 lish philosophers, had a glimmering of this truth. 
 He never escaped from the terminology of Locke 
 nor overcame the confusion between sensation and 
 thought ; yet he seems to have seen that the 
 popular theory of ideas admitted of being turned 
 against its materialistic defenders. If a thing's 
 esse is its percipi, then, since the human mind 
 " exists not always," things must be either " no- 
 where when we perceive them not," or they must 
 be " ideas in the mind of God." Hume, of course, 
 sneers at the good Bishop's " lessons in scepticism," 
 yet in turning the prevailing philosophy of "ideas " 
 into an argument for the existence of God he 
 already foreshadowed the truth that reality implies 
 an eternal consciousness, and nature the existence 
 of a mind without which nature would not be. 
 
 The consciousness which in knowledge asserts 
 its freedom by distinguishing itself from impres- 
 sions is seen in morality distinguishing itself from 
 mere wants and animal impulses to satisfy them. 
 For the animal system of man is organic not only 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 119 
 
 to impressions but to wants. And a want is no 
 more identifiable with a motive than an impression 
 is identifiable with a thought. In a motive no less 
 than in knowledge, there is something non-natural, 
 not as though a motive were made up of animal 
 instinct plus self-consciousness ; for it is one and 
 indivisible, resulting from "the determination of 
 an animal nature by a self-conscious subject other 
 than it" (p. 95). 
 
 Any one who is familiar with a certain long and 
 hopelessly confused footnote in Mill's ** Utilitarian- 
 ism," on motives and intentions, will appreciate 
 the admirable clearness of Mr. Green's discussion 
 (sees. 103 and seqq?) and his criticism of the mis- 
 leading phrase, " the strongest motive." With the 
 clearer view of what motive means, the freedom of 
 the will, which is necessarily implied in morality, 
 becomes intelligible. We are not shut up to either 
 of the one-sided heresies of "determinism " or "in- 
 determinateness." Freedom in motive is not free- 
 dom from motive. It is not " some unaccountable 
 power of unmotived willing," nor is an act deter- 
 mined by character one that a man cannot help 
 doing. " It has no must, in the physical sense, 
 about it. The ' can't help it ' has no application 
 to it." To say, then, that a man's action is the 
 joint result of his character and his circumstances 
 is only true and compatible with human freedom, 
 if we recognize the existence of "a self-dis- 
 
120 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 tinguishing and self-seeking subject, as making 
 both character and circumstances what they are " 
 
 (p. III). 
 
 A free will, however, is not necessarily a good 
 will, any more than a strong character is a good 
 character, though it may be true that the weak 
 man cannot be a good man. Hence a fuller dis- 
 cussion of the nature of will in its relation to desire 
 and reason is necessary in order to establish the 
 distinction between the good and the bad will 
 which is the basis of ethics. To will is to identify 
 one's self with one of those tendencies towards 
 different objects, which, till that identification, are 
 external to the man. An act of will is thus never 
 'tnere desire. I*i willing a man seeks to realize 
 himself in that which he wills. Any act of will is 
 the expression of the man as he at the time is, 
 but the character of the man and the distinction 
 between the good and the bad will depends upon 
 the nature of that object in which self-realization 
 is sought. 
 
 This brings us at once to ethics proper and the 
 criticism of the Utilitarian theory. Not that Pro- 
 fessor Green ever allows himself to be driven by 
 reaction from Hedonism into a one-sidedly ascetic 
 view. " Self-satisfaction is the form of every object 
 willed" (p. i6i), and "in all self-satisfaction, if 
 attained, there is pleasure" (p. 165). This is the 
 truth that underlies the false notion that pleasure 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 121 
 
 is always the object of desire. Mr. Green is never 
 happier than when he is disentangling the con- 
 fusions of Utilitarian psychology. One has heard 
 much of the way in which Sir William Hamilton 
 wielded the metaphysical scythe. We venture to 
 think that there are passages in the " Prolegomena 
 to Ethics " which will bear comparison with any of 
 Sir William Hamilton's criticisms. If the style 
 is less trenchant, it is only because Mr. Green has 
 no interest in merely proving an opponent wrong. 
 He is anxious to discover in the confusion that 
 which made a false theory seem true. " A lie 
 which is all a lie" has no echo in the human 
 spirit. If, therefore, a false theory is commonly 
 received or is capable of plausible presentation, it 
 is owing to some truth which it has seized and 
 misinterpreted. 
 
 Nothing could be better than the way in which 
 Mr. Green unravels the confusion of pleasure and 
 the good in his criticism of Utilitarianism. The 
 criticism is indeed as old as Aristotle ; just as the 
 confusion is inherent in Cyrenianism ; and none 
 knew this better than Mr. Green. The conscious 
 activity or self-realization is not the same as the 
 pleasure which always accompanies self-realization, 
 though " because they occur together some people 
 think they are the same," Sm Se to firi xo)piZ,i(rSaL 
 (jtaivarat Ttai ravrov} Few critics would have 
 
 »Eth., X. V. 7. 
 
122 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 resisted the temptation to exhibit an antago- 
 nist fairly "hoist with his own petard," when 
 a champion of association psychology is found 
 naively unconscious that "uniform conjunction in 
 experience " does not constitute identity. But Mr. 
 Green is only careful to disentangle the truth from 
 the error, and to show that what man seeks is 
 never merely pleasure, but the self-realization of 
 which pleasure is the invariable concomitant. 
 
 Still, whether for the Utilitarian or the ideal 
 moralist, a criterion has to be established by which 
 to distinguish the good will from the bad. If the 
 end of human action is always pleasure, there must 
 be good pleasures and bad ; if the end of life is 
 self-realization, there must be a true and a false 
 way of attempting it. In the case of the 
 voluptuary and the saint, either the pleasures 
 they seek are different in kind or they seek self- 
 satisfaction in different ways. 
 
 The Utilitarian of to-day, with a noble disregard 
 of his principles, asserts that pleasures differ in 
 kind, and Mr. Mill appeals to this difference as 
 an unquestionable "fact."^ When, however, we 
 look closer into the matter we find that on strictly 
 Utilitarian grounds one pleasure is mtrifisically 
 better than another only because it is a greater 
 pleasure on the whole. This is by no means 
 enough for Mr. Mill, and, therefore, he bases the 
 
 ^ Utilitarianism, pp. 12, 13. 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 123 
 
 qualitative distinction of pleasures on the com- 
 parative excellence of those who pursue them. 
 This, no doubt, is valid reasoning for any one 
 who makes self-realization and not pleasure the 
 end of action, but — 
 
 "It is altogether against Utilitarian principles that a 
 pleasure should be of more value because the man who 
 pursues it is better. They only entitle us to argue back 
 from the amount of pleasure to the worth of the man who 
 acts so as to produce it " (p. 170). 
 
 If, then, the Utilitarian attempt to establish a 
 criterion of right and wrong in a difference in kind 
 among pleasures fails us, what answer have they to 
 give who speak of self-realization as the end of 
 action? The impulse of self-realization according 
 to the direction it takes is, we are told, " the source 
 both of vice and virtue." Only the vicious self- 
 seeking and self-assertion — the quest, for instance, 
 for self-satisfaction in the life of the voluptuary — 
 is ultimately self-defeating, while the differentia of 
 the virtuous life is that it is governed by the con- 
 sciousness that there is — 
 
 " Some perfection which has to be attained, some vocation 
 which has to be fulfilled, some law which has to be obeyed, 
 something absolutely desirable, whatever the individual may 
 for the time desire" (p. 184). 
 
 What this ideal is we do not know at once. 
 We only know that disinterested obedience to 
 
124 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 it is what- the "Categorical Imperative" enjoins. 
 We feel that, as an ultimate standard, it must be 
 " an ideal of personal worth," that the idea of 
 a spirit cannot realize itself except in spirits. 
 Unless, therefore, we give up as insoluble the 
 constant spectacle of unfulfilled human promise, 
 we are led on to the conclusion that our personal 
 self-conscious being which comes from God is for 
 ever continued in God — which we suppose to be 
 the Pantheistic conclusion — or else that the life 
 which is lived on earth under conditions which 
 thwart its development is — 
 
 " Continued in a society with which we have no means of 
 communication through the senses, but which shares in and 
 carries further every measure of perfection attained by men 
 under the conditions of life that we know" (p. 195). 
 
 That there should be such an end of human 
 perfection is the demand which our spirit makes 
 upon us, which is implied in the very idea of 
 development, for a process ad infinitmn cannot 
 be a process of development at all. And when 
 that which is being developed is not a natural 
 organism but a self-conscious subject, the end 
 of its becoming must be "a subject in which the 
 idea of the human spirit is completely realized." 
 This consideration suggests the true notion of 
 the spiritual relation in which we stand to God. 
 We exist not merely /br Him but in Him. He 
 is the Being " with Whom we are in principle one ; 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 125 
 
 with Whom the human spirit is identical in the 
 sense that He is all which the human spirit is 
 capable of becoming" (p. 198). 
 
 Such an ideal, known only at first vaguely and 
 in outline, creates its own filling, and in history 
 we can trace the process. The first step in the 
 process, or rather that which the whole process 
 implies, is the realizing of the fact that a perfect 
 self-development is only possible when others 
 share in the same development. The idea of an 
 absolute good is seen to be the idea of a common 
 good. The supposed objection that this notion 
 of a common good is but the development of a 
 gregarious instinct, which we see in brutes, calls 
 forth a criticism which is of far wider application 
 than that in which it is here used. However 
 dependent upon feelings of animal origin social 
 interest may be, it cannot be a product of them 
 nor evolved from them : — 
 
 " Any history that might be offered of it, which should 
 enable us to connect its more complex with its simpler forms, 
 would be much to be welcomed. But the same cannot be 
 said for a history which should seem to account for it by 
 ignoring its distinctive character, and by deriving it from 
 forms of animal sympathy from which, because they have 
 no element of identity with it, it cannot in the proper sense 
 have been developed " (p. 211). 
 
 Similarly when the idea of an absolute and common 
 good expresses itself in social requirements, in laws 
 written or unwritten, in the recognition of some- 
 
126 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 thing which ought to be, whatever the individual 
 likes or dislikes, no so-called histories of the origin 
 of justice can help us : — 
 
 " Though our information about primitive man were very- 
 different from what it is, it could never be other than a 
 contradiction to found upon it a theory of a state of mind 
 underlying the earliest forms of social union, which should 
 represent this state of mind as different in kind from that 
 which, upon fair analysis of the spiritual life, now shared 
 by us, we find to be the condition of such social union as 
 actually exists '' (p. 216). 
 
 Sight cannot be generated when there is no 
 optic nerve, nor can the idea of an absolute and 
 common good, which is alike the foundation of 
 morality and of the institutions of daily life, be the 
 product of that which is irrational and non-moral. 
 
 So much, then, is necessarily implied in morality, 
 that there should be the idea of an absolute good, 
 which is a good for others as well as for one's self. 
 But the earliest moral ideals and that which the 
 modern age has caught from Christianity seem 
 wide as the poles asunder. In what, then, does 
 the process or evolution of morality consist ? To 
 this the answer is that there has been a gradual 
 widening of the area of common good and a 
 gradual determination of the idea. We have been 
 slowly learning that a common good is a good 
 for all : — 
 
 "The change is not necessarily in the strength, in the 
 constraining power, of the feeling of duty — perhaps it is 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 127 
 
 never stronger now than it may have been in an Israelite 
 who would have yet recognized no claim in a Philistine, or 
 in a Greek who would yet have seen no harm in exposing a 
 sickly child — but in the conceived range of claims to which 
 the duty is relative. ... It is not the sense of duty to a 
 neighbour, but the practical answer to the question, Who is 
 my neighbour? that has varied" (p. 220). 
 
 The modern world has accepted, if it has only in 
 part realized, the idea of human equality, an idea 
 which for Greek ethics was simply unintelligible. 
 Even for Aristotle the slave was a living tool, and 
 it was as absurd to suppose him capable of true 
 tv^aiiuovin as to admit him to political rights. 
 Nowadays people — Christian, non-Christian, or 
 anti-Christian — accept the equality of all men as, 
 in theory at least, a self-evident truth. "For 
 practical purposes I' as Professor Green notices with 
 considerable emphasis on the limitation, the Kan- 
 tian maxim, " Act so as to treat humanity always 
 as an end never as a means," and the Utilitarian 
 formula, " Every one should count for one and no 
 one for more than one," are coincident. Professor 
 Green, however, declines to say who is mainly to 
 be credited with the promulgation of humanitarian 
 views unknowm to the Greek world : — 
 
 "It is not to the point," he says, "to discuss the share 
 which Stoic philosophers, Roman jurists, and Christian 
 teachers may severally have had in gaining acceptance for 
 the idea of human equality " (p. 222). 
 
 He prefers to think of it as but the natural fulfil- 
 
128 JSSSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 ment of a capability given in reason itself. That 
 the teaching of the Sermon on the Mount should 
 thus be left to take its place as a phase in a natural 
 development seems to us to imply a false estimate 
 of the influence which Christianity exerted upon 
 ancient moral theories. It is, no doubt, true that 
 the precept of the older revelation, " Thou shalt 
 love thy neighbour as thyself," had never attained, 
 even for the Jew, its full meaning. Indeed, the 
 Jewish people had narrowed, instead of widening, 
 the area covered by the term "neighbour," and 
 Christ had to interpret it in its true universality. 
 It is true, too, that the world was prepared for such 
 humanitarian teaching by the vision of a great 
 World Empire, no less than by the unifying 
 tendencies of Roman law and the utterances of 
 Stoic philosophers. And yet, when Christ enunci- 
 ated a principle as far-reaching as and much more 
 generally intelligible than either of those formulas 
 of the rival moral system of our day — " Whatsoever 
 ye would that men should do to you do ye even so 
 to them " — it was a new truth, and its finality is 
 beyond dispute. 
 
 It is, perhaps, in those passages in which the 
 ancient and the modern ideals are contrasted that 
 we are least able to follow Mr. Green. Though he 
 disclaims any wish to " hold a brief for the Greek 
 philosophers against the founders of the Christian 
 Church, or for the latter against the former" 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 129 
 
 (p. 306), we cannot help feeling that the fear lest we 
 of the modern world should think ourselves " better 
 than our fathers " often leads him to minimize the 
 real difference between the highest moral systems 
 of the pre-Christian age and the ethics of Chris- 
 tianity : — 
 
 " Religious teachers," Professor Green tells us, " have, no 
 doubt, affected the hopes and fears which actuate us in the 
 pursuit of virtue, or rouse us from its neglect. Religious 
 societies have both strengthened men in the performance of 
 recognized duties and taught them to recognize relations 
 of duty towards those whom they might otherwise have been 
 content to treat as beyond the pale of such duties ; but the 
 articulated scheme of what the virtues and duties are in 
 their difference and in their unity remains for us now in its 
 main outlines what the Greek philosophers left it." 
 
 If " religious teachers " and " religious societies " 
 include Christ and the Catholic Church this is 
 surely misleading. It fails to recognize what Chris- 
 tianity did for the moral ideal, and still more the 
 new power which it gave for the realizing of that 
 ideal. We have not the slightest wish to underrate 
 the results of Greek ethics or to deny the fact that 
 much of the teaching of Aristotle is final. But it 
 seems to us not only inadequate, but unfair to 
 credit the philosopher with the doctrine that " every 
 form of real goodness must rest on a wish to be 
 good, which has no object but its own fulfilment " 
 (p. 271), and then to contrast with this "the appeal 
 to semi-sensual motives which has been common 
 
 K 
 
I30 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 and perhaps necessary for popular practical effect 
 in the Christian Church." No doubt the Aristote- 
 lian formula tov koXov evEica implied disinterested 
 interest in an ideal. In Christianity this is replaced 
 by the disinterested love of God for what He is, 
 and the love of men as made in His image. A 
 few pages later (p. 280), Professor Green admits 
 that "the fact that Christian preachers have not 
 been ashamed to dwell upon such compensation 
 ought not to be taken to imply that the heroism of 
 charity exhibited in the Christian Church has really 
 been vitiated by pleasure-seeking motives : " but 
 the fact is nevertheless appealed to in order to 
 emphasize the contrast between the teaching of 
 Aristotle and the Christian preacher. And yet 
 Aristotle, who was certainly not hampered by the 
 necessity of " popular practical effect," allows and 
 authorizes the appeal to "semi-sensual" motives in 
 the case of all except a very few : — 
 
 " For the mass of men," he tells us, " are governed by moral 
 compulsion rather than reason, and penalties rather than an 
 ideal. And so some people hold, that though it is the duty 
 of lawgivers to exhort men to virtue and to stimulate them 
 TOV KoKov x<^P^^, in the belief that those whose character has 
 been properly trained will listen to them, yet for the dis- 
 obedient and less noble natures they must apply correction 
 and punishment, while the morally incurable they must 
 banish altogether." ^ 
 
 If it be answered that he whose life was "steered 
 
 * Ethics, X. ix. 10. 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 131 
 
 by the rudders of pleasure and pain " was imper- 
 fectly moral, because he did not act tov koXov cvfjca, 
 it is also true that he in whose life the hope of 
 heaven and the fear of hell are the dominant prin- 
 ciples falls equally short of the Christian ideal. 
 
 We cannot now follow Professor Green into his 
 comparison of the Greek virtues of courage and 
 temperance with the Christian fortitude and self- 
 denial. The superiority of the Christian" type is of 
 course everywhere admitted, but it is difficult to 
 feel that the contrast, especially between the o-w<^- 
 poavvT] of the Greek — meaning, as it did, little more 
 than moderation in eating, drinking, and the sexual 
 passion — and the soberness, temperance, and chas- 
 tity of Christian ethics is fully recognized, when it 
 can be said that "the sexual temperance which 
 they" (the philosophers) "demanded, they de- 
 manded on the true ground, but not in full enough 
 measure" (p. 289); nor can we accept without a 
 good deal of interpretation the statement that 
 " there is no true foundation for the strictest sexual 
 morality other than the social duty which they 
 asserted." It was not the fact of social equality 
 which St. Paul appealed to against the prevailing 
 vice of the ancient world. It was the dignity of 
 the nature which had been taken into God, and the 
 indwelling in the regenerate man of the Personal 
 Spirit of God. 
 
 The failure to appreciate what is distinctive in 
 
132 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Christianity, even considered as a moral system, 
 seems inseparable from the view, apparently ac- 
 cepted by Mr. Green, that the history of ethics is 
 a history of " the natural fulfilment of a capability 
 given in reason itself." For Christian morality is 
 indissolubly bound up with the dogma of the 
 Incarnation and the Sacramental teaching of the 
 Church. The Divine life, which is set before man 
 as his ideal, is for those whose nature has been 
 transformed by a Divine power ; and it is the belief 
 that such a transformation of human nature has 
 taken place that makes the Christian ideal a possi- 
 bility for man. For the claim of Christianity is 
 that, while it sets before man a new and higher 
 ideal in the life of Him in Whom dwelt the fulness 
 of the Godhead, it gives a new moral dynamic to 
 enable him to realize it. But we can no more take 
 our moral ideal from Christianity and our moral 
 dynamic from Paganism than we can base the 
 unselfish Utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill on the 
 Hedonism of Epicurus and of Hobbes. 
 
 Mr. Green, in two remarkable lay sermons, has 
 shown us what his attitude towards the faith of 
 Christendom is. We are not now anxious to dis- 
 cuss this, nor is it necessary in reviewing the " Pro- 
 legomena to Ethics," except when that false view, 
 as we hold it to be, shows itself in an imperfect 
 conception of the nature of the Christian ideal. 
 For the rest, if we are unable to believe that Mr 
 
PROLEGOMENA TO ETHICS. 133 
 
 Green has found a metaphysical substitute for 
 dogmatic theology, we at least are conscious that 
 we owe him much for having given to the world 
 the strongest attack which has yet been made 
 upon theories which would reduce morality in the 
 last analysis to a calculation of pleasures, or destroy 
 it by a physical theory of conscience and of will. 
 
134 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 VII. 
 SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WILL. 
 
 Freedom of the Will, 
 
 (a) As a practical question. (/3) As a speculative 
 question. 
 
 (a) As A PRACTICAL QUESTION it is taken for 
 granted that man is an apx^ trpa^^wv, that he can 
 choose or reject. No arguments for this are 
 advanced till it is denied, and it is never denied 
 till we try to fit in the fact of freedom with the 
 general view of the world and God. It rests 
 upon — 
 
 (i.) The consciousness that we are free, which 
 is never denied even by those who explain it 
 away. 
 
 (ii.) The feeling of responsibility varying con- 
 comitantly with the consciousness of freedom. 
 
 (iii.) The transference of this to others in the 
 vulgar notion of moral desert. 
 
 (iv.) The practice of legislators and of the 
 judicial system. 
 
 (/3) As A SPECULATIVE QUESTION. How are 
 we to reconcile freedom with what we know of 
 
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WILL. 135 
 
 the universe and God ? Here " freedom " has to 
 run the gauntlet with — 
 
 (a) A metaphysical pantheism. 
 
 (/3) A theological theory of omnipotence. 
 
 (7) A physical doctrine of determinism. 
 
 (a) The Stoics. Here we get the first collision 
 between moral freedom and physical necessity : 
 unapfxivT], avajKY] is supreme everywhere ; human 
 freedom is therefore only a mode of necessity. 
 Chrysippus struggles in vain with the difficulty, 
 but at last responsibility disappears in fate.^ 
 
 (/3) John Calvin. Theological necessitarianism 
 dates from John Calvin, though the reaction from 
 Pelagianism in St. Augustine gave a colour of 
 necessitarianism to Augustinianism. The "Deus 
 ducit volentem duci " of St. Augustine reminds one 
 of Seneca's (Ep., 107. ii.) " Ducunt volentem fata, 
 nolentem trahunt." But Calvin, starting with the 
 omnipotence of God, made Him responsible for 
 all human actions, evil as well as good. He did 
 not a//ow, He willed evil. The "double predesti- 
 nation " was not more immoral than this, though 
 the injustice was more obvious. 
 
 (7) Determinism. Hobbes, Hume, and Mill main- 
 tained mechanical Determinism. H. Spencer and 
 his followers maintain physiological Determinism. 
 Kant's answer to the difficulty consists in an 
 
 ^ See Zeller, Gesch. d. Griechischen Philosophic, III. Th. i 
 Abth. pp. 168, seqq. 
 
n6 jEssays scientific and philosophical. 
 
 attempted division of territory ; he separates the 
 moral and the physical, the sphere of liberty 
 and the sphere of freedom. 
 
 The difficulties of the Kantian view are threefold. 
 
 (a) It involves a hopeless dualism between man 
 and nature, and between the free and the necessary 
 in man. 
 
 (/3) All our knowledge of nature and man tends 
 to bring them together. 
 
 (7) Freedom comes to mean "unmotived volition," 
 mere indeterminateness, which is morally as worth- 
 less as a determined will. 
 
 Men ask — Does the Will mean the balance of 
 motives, or has it a casting vote ? 
 
 Answer. Neither one nor the other. 
 
 They talk of the freedom of the will as something 
 innate instead of a thing to be won} 
 
 Psychology of the Will. 
 
 What is the Will ? The animal system in man 
 
 is organic to the satisfaction oi wants 3.nd impulses: 
 
 the feeling of want leads to " desire " for a wanted 
 
 object. ^ " The essential ingredient of desire is the 
 
 ^ Cf. Noah Porter, pp. 79, 80. What the Will is not. It is not 
 (o) power to carry out volition ; not {&) power to choose without 
 motive, etc. 
 
 Janet, Theory of Morals, p. 372, distinguishes between — (a) 
 External determinism tacts done ^ia). {&) Internal determinism 
 (acts done from Qv\i.6% and e7rt0y^/a). (7) Rational determinism or 
 liberty, which is "the power of acting according to conceptions 
 or ideas." 
 
 2 Green, Prolegomena to Ethics, p. 92. 
 
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WILL. 137 
 
 sense of the inferiority of the actual to the ideal!' ^ 
 But the animal impulse ceases to be merely animal 
 when it is determined by self-consciousness.^ 
 
 Self-satisfaction is the form of every object willed 
 by man — whether as in the highest life self-satisfac- 
 tion is sought in the realizing of a vocation, or as 
 in the vicious life in pleasure.^ 
 
 Willy then, is "the man's direction of himself 
 to the realization of a conceived or imagined 
 
 * Sully, Outlines of Psychology, p. 578. 
 
 * Cf. Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, p. 95. "The motive is 
 not made up of an (animal) want and self-consciousness, any more 
 than Ufe of chemical processes and vital ones. It is one and indi- 
 visible ; but, indivisible as it is, it results, as perception results, 
 from the determination of an animal nature by a self-conscious 
 subject other than it ; so results, however, that the animal condition 
 does not survive in the result." 
 
 ' Cf. Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, pp. 182-184. From 
 this characteristic of being an object to himself "arises the impulse 
 which becomes the source, according to the direction it takes, both 
 of vice and virtue. It is the source of vicious self-seeking and self- 
 assertion, so far as the spirit which is in man seeks to satisfy itself 
 or to realize its capabilities in modes in which ... its self-satisfac- 
 tion or self-realization is not to be found. ... It is one and the 
 same principle of his nature . . . which makes it possible for the 
 voluptuary to seek satisfaction, and thus to live for pleasure, at all, 
 and which according to the law of its being, according to its inherent 
 capability, makes it impossible that the self-satisfaction should be 
 found in any succession of pleasures. . . . And hence the differentia 
 of the virtuous life, proceeding as it does from the same self- 
 objectifying principle which we have just characterized as the source 
 of the vicious life, is that it is governed by the consciousness of 
 there being some perfection which has to be attained, some vocation 
 which has to be fulfilled, some law which has to be obeyed, some- 
 thing absolutely desirable, whatever the individual may for the 
 time desire ; that it is in ministering to such an end that the agent 
 seeks to satisfy himself." 
 
138 ^^^^KS- SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 object " ^ or the putting one's self forth in desire 
 for the realization of some object present to us 
 in idea. It is not merely selecting, but selecting 
 for a reason. 
 
 Thus Will can be identified with neither reason 
 nor desire^ nor is it a third thing co-ordinate with 
 both (Plato) nor a fusion of the two (Aristotle), 
 yet it includes both. 
 
 It includes (a) the instinctive craving for a good, 
 an ideal to be realized — in Aristotelian language 
 l3ovXr](ng, which though a part of op^^ig is already, 
 as being f5ov\r}(Tig ayaOov, XoyicrriKov ti. (/3) A 
 representation to ourselves of some good to be 
 realized^( (^apra(7t'a). (7) The rational deliberation as 
 to how it shall be realized (PovXtvcrig). (S) The 
 identification of self with the best means for the 
 end {irpoaLptaig).^ 
 
 ^ Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, pp. 151, 152. 
 
 2 Cf. Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, p. 158. "Will, then, is 
 equally and indistinguishably desire and thought — not however mere 
 desire or mere thought, if by that is meant desire or thought as they 
 might exist in a being that was not self-distinguishing and self- 
 seeking, or as they may occur to a man independently of any action 
 of himself; but desire and thought as they are involved in the 
 direction of a self-distinguishing and self-seeking subject to the 
 realization of an idea. . . . The will is simply the man. Any 
 act of will is the expression of the man as he at the time is. 
 The motive issuing in his act, the object of his will, the idea which 
 for the time he sets himself to realize, are but the same things in 
 different words. ... In willing he carries with him, so to speak, 
 his whole self to the realization of the given idea. All the time 
 that he so wills, he may feel the pangs of conscience, or, on the 
 other hand, the annoyance, the sacrifice, implied in acting conscien- 
 
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WILL. 139 
 
 The growth of the Will. 
 
 The Freedom of the Will is the power to win 
 freedom. 
 
 The weak man cannot be a good man, the strong 
 man may be. Man's heritage is the power to 
 choose. The rlXoc is not (^vaiKov ri determined 
 for us. We create our own tQ^oq, our own 
 (pavTacTia, which is a mere ^atvo/xEvov ayadov or 
 the real to ayaOov in proportion as we use our 
 " power of self-emancipation." ^ 
 
 Every act of choice wins or loses freedom. 
 Hence "every choice is for eternity" (Goethe). 
 We have (pvan " a capability of effort " (the germ 
 of zuill) and capacity of distinguishing a right and 
 a wrong, or a higher and lower (the germ of con- 
 science). We never absolutely lose either. We 
 are what we are according to our use of these 
 capabilities. 
 
 So in Aristotelian language. The o-ax^/owy 
 is free; the aKoXacrrog is a slave ; the lyKparrig and 
 the aKpaTijg are winning or losing freedom. As 
 
 tiously. He may think that he is doing wrong, or that it is doubtful 
 whether, after all, there is really an objection to his acting as he 
 has resolved to do. He may desire some one's good opinion which 
 he is throwing away, or some pleasure which he is sacrificing. 
 But, for all that, it is only the feeling, thought, and desire represented 
 by the act of will, that the man recognizes as for the time himself. 
 The feeling, thought, and desire with which the act conflicts are 
 influences which he is aware of, influences to which he is susceptible, 
 but they are not Ae.^^ 
 
 * Janet, Theory of Morals, p. 400. 
 
I40 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 a matter of fact the <tw<^|Owv and the aKokaaroq are 
 equally unreal characters ; for the lower nature 
 Dfcver ceases to struggle, the higher never ceases 
 lo protest. 
 
 / Morality is the struggle to be {x^Q,—vice is the 
 /abandonment of the struggle. Hence the good- 
 [ ness of acts is judged by the EFFORT 7r£/>i to \ak^- 
 TTtonpov au kol rexvr] yiverai kol apETi} (Eth., II. iii. lo). 
 The same thought is expressed in eaOXol julv yap 
 aTrXwc, TravTodairwg ^£ kukoi (II. vi. 1 4) pqdiov fitv to 
 aTTOTvxuv Tov (TKOTTov, xaXeiTov Sf TO eTTiTvx^'iv (ibid.). 
 
 The problem of Eth., III. v., man's responsibility 
 for his character, is suggested by this fact. There 
 is an effort in virtue, therefore man is responsible ; 
 there is no effort in vice, therefore he is not 
 responsible. To know implies learnings to be 
 ignorant implies a mere laisser faire. Hence we 
 commend a man for action, but shrink from blaming 
 him for indolence. Even Aristotle (III. xii.) thinks 
 a man more to blame for aKoXacria than for dnXia, 
 because it required less effort to resist -n^ovri than 
 XvTTV- Cf III. ix. 2. \a\eTrwT£pov yap to. Xvirr^pa 
 virofiiviiiVy J] TU)v r}^iwv airix^ddai. 
 
 What is the place of education in the self-emanci- 
 pation of the will? It is the protection of the Will 
 in its first struggles to be free, and the presenting 
 to the conscience of the highest conceptions 
 of the good. But no external force can give the 
 will freedom. Freedom must be wo7i. Education 
 
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WILL. 141 
 
 tries to neutralize the forces called by the general 
 name of r\Zovy\, which, 77 /3m ?i yorirda, would make 
 the development of freedom impossible. 
 
 The fxovaiKi] of Plato, and the Woq of Aristotle ; 
 the swimming-belt of Horace, the "sentiment" of 
 Hume, all have for their object the protection of 
 the Will while it is weak. The wildest advocate 
 of " free trade " in politics believes in '' protection " 
 in morals. 
 
 Revelation itself is Divine education. It en- 
 lightens the conscience by putting before it a 
 Perfect Ideal ; and, like human education, 
 strengthens the will by an appeal to love. 
 
 The special virtues recognized by any age or 
 society are thus the highest known forms under 
 which TO dyaOov is recognized. To be virtuous, 
 however, is not to conform to those conceptions, 
 but to choose them tov koXov evtKa as an embodi- 
 ment of the good. What is the good when I am 
 in presence of fear, or sensual appetite, or lust 
 of money, or base ambition, or mere self-love in 
 society } For the Greek, the answer is given in 
 Eth., III. vi.-xii., IV., and V. 
 
 We may now explain some of the puzzles due 
 to the confusion of formal freedom (liberum 
 arbitrium) with real freedom, libertas. 
 
 (a) T/ie Will is always free ^ because in all 
 
 * Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, ii. p. 308. 
 
142 jEssavs scientific and philosophical. 
 
 willing the man is his own object. (In acts which 
 are done St' ayvomv, " circumstances master a man," 
 says Hegel : the will does not will. In acts done 
 j3m, the will is free though the act is not.) 
 
 (j3) The Will is always determined, it cannot act 
 without a motive, and the motive of the will is 
 always good, or conceived of sub specie boni. But 
 this is self-determination ; and SELF-DETERMINA- 
 TION is equivalent to FREEDOM. Necessitas natu- 
 ralis non aufert libertatem voluntatis.^ 
 
 " To act by motives is to act freely, to act with- 
 out motive is to act under necessity, physical 
 necessity is the only necessity, and moral necessity 
 is freedom."^ 
 
 (y) In the sense of real freedom, however, the 
 good will is free, not the bad one.^ 
 
 Liberty, as actual freedom, is a thing to be 
 won, and it can be won only by realizing the law 
 of one's being. 
 
 The man who, by his formal freedom of self- 
 determination, identifies himself with impulses not 
 for his true good is a slave ; he who seeks satisfac- 
 tion in what is for his true good is free. In the 
 former case, he uses his freedom to make himself 
 a slave ; in the latter, he wins freedom by self- 
 emancipation from nature. 
 
 This (Hegelian) view of freedom which we find 
 
 ^ S. Thomas Aq., i «., 82, i ad. i. ' Stirling, p. 19. 
 
 ' Green's Prolegomena to Ethics, ii. 321. 
 
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT THE WILL. 143 
 
 in Green and Stirling is also the view of Christian 
 philosophers — St. Paul, St. Augustine, St. Anselm, 
 St. Thomas. 
 
 With St. Paul, the natural man is a slave, the 
 spiritual man is free. Freedom is the power to 
 will the right, to live according to the true human 
 " idea," or the will of God. The ideally perfect 
 man, according to St. John, "cannot sin."^ The 
 Pelagian argument that liberty means the possi- 
 bility of doing right or wrong is met by St. 
 Augustine thus : — 
 
 " Si liberum non est nisi quod duo potest velle, id est et 
 bonum et malum ; liber Deus non est, qui malum non potest 
 velle" (Op. Imp. c. Julian I. c). 
 
 Arbitrium igitur voluntatis tunc est vere liberum, cum 
 vitiis peccatisque non servit (De Civ. Dei, xiv. xi. i). 
 
 See too St. Anselm's "Cur Deus Homo.^" bk. i. ch. xii. 
 Can God lie .^ And St. Thos. Aq. Summa, i' Ixii. viii. ad. 3 : 
 " Major libertas arbitrii est in angelis qui peccare non 
 possunt, quam in nobis pui peccare possumus." 
 
 II.* 2ae Ixxxviii. iv. ad. i. Sicut non posse peccare non 
 diminuit libertatem, ita etiam necessitas firmata-e voluntatis 
 in bonum non diminuit libertatem, ut patet in Deo, et in 
 beatis. . . . Unde Augustinus . . . "felix necessitas est 
 quae in meliora compellit." 
 
 II.' 236 xliv. I ad. 2. Obligatio praecepti non opponitur 
 libertati nisi in eo cujus mens aversa est ab eo quod prae- 
 cipitur ; sicut patet in his qui ex solo timore praecepta 
 custodiunt. Sed praeceptum dilectionis non potest impleri 
 nisi ex propria voluntate ; et ideo libertati non repugnat. 
 
 * St. Aug. De Lib. Arb. i. 32: "Libertas quidem nulla vera 
 est nisi beatorum et legi aeternse adhosrentium " (Cf. too De Civ. 
 Dei, xxii. xxx. 3). 
 
144 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 3* qu. xiv. art. ii. Duplex est necessitas : una quidem 
 coactionis quae fit ab agente extrinseco : et haec quidem 
 necessitas contrariatur et naturae et voluntati, quorum 
 utrumque est principium intrinsecum. 
 
 i*qu. 105, art. iv. ad. 2""". Moveri voluntate est moveri ex 
 se, i.e. a principio intrinseco. 
 
( 145 ) 
 
 VIII. 
 
 A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS 
 AS COMPARED WITH MODERN 
 ETHICAL THEORIES. 
 
 Man is distinguished from the rest of the animal 
 kingdom by the possession of reason. This reason 
 shows itself in the search for knowledge, and the 
 search for an end, Travreg opeyovrai tov ndivai : 
 hence arise metaphysics and science (Eth., I. i. i). 
 Hence, too, Ethics and the practical sciences ; Trao-a 
 Tlxvri Kot iraaa /uiOo^og bfioitijg cl irpa^ig re kol 
 TTpoaipEdLg ayaOov rivog ^(pUaOai ^okbT. As rational, 
 man always aims at truth, for truth is the correlate 
 of reason ; but in speculation it is ToXrtOeg airXwg, 
 in practice it is aXr}6iia o/uioXoywg e\ov(Ta ry opi^u 
 ry 6^6/5. 
 
 Man's superiority to the brute is shown in both 
 i^p6vY\mg and (To<pta, for both are impossible for the 
 irrational, but (ppovr^aig is lower than aocpia. In 
 (TO(/>t'a, man approximates to God ; while brutes, 
 though strictly incapable of (ppovrjmg, show signs 
 (txv»)) of that which in man is (ppovriaig. In the 
 
 L 
 
146 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Politics, 1253* 16, it is said to be the property of 
 man that he passes moral judgments, avOpwiroig 
 tofov TO ^iKa'iov KoX a^iKOv ai(T9r](TLV e'x^^^' Y^^ ^^ ^^^ 
 Natural History (588'^ 20), it is admitted that traces 
 are to be found in the brutes of moral states. 
 So man is ^uo-et ttoXitlkov Zioov (Pol., 1253^2. 8., 
 Eth., logy^ 11), yet among gregarious animals we 
 see the beginnings of this (Z. 588^"). Brutes, by a sort 
 of (fivariKri ^vva/uLig (588* 30), show a resemblance to 
 the conscious life of man. They are to humanity 
 as the child to the full-grown man. If man is the 
 perfect animal, animals are imperfect men, and so 
 right down the scale, for Aristotle feels the break 
 between living and not living, as little as the 
 break between brute and man or plant and animal. 
 OvTU) S' SK tCjv axfjvxwv sIq to, Z^a fi^raf^aivH Kara 
 juiKpov 7] (fivaig wart rj (jvv&\da XavOavsiv to fiSopiov 
 
 aVTlOV KOI TO jUiCrOV TTOTipMV IdTLV' fXETa jap TO TbJV 
 
 aipv\(jjv yivog to tujv (J)VtlJv irpCjTov Icttl' Kai TovTitw 
 erepov irpog tTepov ^ia(})epu tio juaXXov ^okhv ficriyjEiv 
 Z^^Q' oXov St TO yivog rrpog julv ToSXa GwjiaTa 
 (^aivtTat (TX^^ov wairsp ippv\ov, npog St to tmv Z,^(s)v 
 aipvxov. 'H Se juaTaf^amg £$ avTU)V hg to. Z^a (jvvexng 
 IcTTiv (588^4, etc.). 
 
 Still the line which separates man from brute is 
 a real one since man can consciously set before 
 himself an end, an ideal of knowledge or of action. 
 He alone has speech \6yog. Mere sounds i^iiivm, 
 indicate sensation, but speech indicates (rvpcjapov and 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 147 
 
 PXajdepov, ^iKaiov and aBiKOV (Pol., 1 253). He 
 not only instinctively satisfies wants, he seeks for 
 good ; he not only feels, he seeks to hiow. The 
 opi^tg of man and of the brute is different. In 
 the brute it is emOv/uiia and Ovjuog ; in man it is 
 these p/us (^ovXricng, which, being a wish for good, 
 is implicitly rational. It is XoyKTUKYj ope^igj as 
 opposed to the aXoyoi opi^eig. 
 
 Contrast with modern thought. It is clear that 
 for us this question is far more complicated. 
 Evolution has brought out the close affinity of 
 man with the brute, but (a) the breach between 
 ac^vxov and \p.-^jv\ov is more marked, and (/3) 
 though we trace the beginnings of conscious- 
 ness in the animal world, it still remains true, as 
 Tyndall puts it,^ that the chasm between physical 
 processes and facts of consciousness remains "intel- 
 lectually impassable." Herbert Spencer admits the 
 same while asserting the origin of consciousness 
 out of unconsciousness, of the physical from the 
 physiological.^ 
 
 The great metaphysical problem of the day is 
 personality implying (a) self-consciousness, (/3) 
 freedom. Can these be put on one side as illusory 
 or reduced to the unconscious and the necessary ? 
 Is man a thing of nature, or is he, as he thinks he 
 is, greater than nature ? If so, is not conscious 
 
 ' Scientific Materialism, p. 420. 
 
 ' See, too, Fiske, Destiny of Man, pp. 62-65. 
 
148 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 personal life, on which ethics, religion, and law- 
 depend, as much a new departure with regard to 
 nature as the living is to the not living ? 
 
 The practical end. Here Aristotle has no hesita- 
 tion, and he claims every one on his side. Man, 
 as a practical being, sets before himself GOOD, to 
 dyaOov, not an abstract Idm rayaOov, which is an 
 object of reverence and worship as well as of desire, 
 but TO dyaOov, the good, which, in the region of art, 
 mechanic or aesthetic, is a tangible result (tpyov), 
 in the region of practice, a condition which is not 
 passive, but active. This is admitted to be ev^ai- 
 juLovia, welfare or well-being, rather than what we 
 understand by happiness. 
 
 But man is a social as well as an active being, 
 (pvasL TToXiTiKov ?wov, and the individual cannot be 
 abstracted from the family and the state. YIoXltlkyi 
 deals with the welfare of the state ; oiKovofjuKr) with 
 the welfare of the family ; tcl iiOlko, with the wel- 
 fare of the individual. Yet Ethics is ttoXitiki] tiq, 
 because man is a ttoXitikov Swov, and to abstract 
 his happiness from that of the whole is to make 
 happiness impossible. 
 
 Contrast with modern thought. When we turn 
 from Aristotle to the modern world, we find that 
 a new conception has appeared, that of duty. There 
 is a life which I ought to live apart from the fact 
 that such a life is both happy and the only happy 
 life and also the life which wins by its moral 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 149 
 
 beauty. There are endless views as to what our 
 duty is, and why it is our duty ; but few would 
 accept Bentham's paradox that the word " ought " 
 ought to be banished from morals. This sterner 
 view is due to two causes, the Stoic necessitarian- 
 ism, and the religious sanction. Whether we talk of 
 a perfect life as " following nature " or as conformity 
 to the will of God, it has a character of necessity 
 and universality which the Greek tv^ai/iiovia certainly 
 had not ; and in both cases it subordinates man to 
 what is conceived of as greater than himself. The 
 Kantian conception of " Duty " lies between the 
 Stoic and the religious view ; it has the sternness 
 and inflexibility of the one, and the moral authority 
 of the other. 
 
 T/ie 7nethod of realizing to ayaOov. Evdaifiovia 
 as equivalent to rayaOov is the well-being of the 
 whole man, therefore it is an activity or perfect 
 realization of his being (hepyeia). But his nature 
 is not like God's, cnrXrj. He has body as well as 
 soul, and the soul is not a simple whole : that which 
 is an irrational principle of life in the plant, and of 
 life and movement in the animal, is capable in man 
 of transfusion by the rational. Yet the irrational 
 rationalized is distinguished from that which is 
 reason in itself Man's nature, though not like 
 God's, fiia KOL (iTrXriy is yet a unity, a (jv(TTr]fia, in 
 which there is a naturally higher and a naturally 
 lower. And, just as in the world of nature, to (jtvTov 
 
ISO ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 OVK i^riiuiiovpyi]Ori ti jurj dia to tydov, to St Z,u)OV oi>k 
 l^tijuiovpyriOri ^la to ^vtov (Hipl (I>vt(ov I. ii. p. 817** 
 25-40), and as the whole vegetable and animal 
 kingdom was made for man, oirjrEov to. re c^vtu twv 
 Zmu)v EveKEv dvai kol TaWa 2(J>a rwv dv0pu)7rwv Xapiv 
 (Pol., I. 1256'* 16), avayKaiov tCjv avOpwirtvv tvaKSv 
 avTci TTCLVTa ireiroinKEvai rrjv (jivmv (ibid., ^22), so in 
 man the lower exists for the higher. 
 
 The first thing, then, is to secure the subordina- 
 tion of the animal nature to the rational with a 
 view to tv^aifxovia, which is defined as the realized 
 consciousness of living the most excellent life in 
 the most favourable circumstances. Hrvxng tvEpyda 
 KttT apETrjv api(TTr}v tv jStfj) reXe/tj). 
 
 Excellence, a/oer^is physical, moral, or intellectual, 
 but physical excellence is clearly subordinate and 
 exists for the higher and more distinctively human 
 excellences. As Plato put it, and Aristotle says 
 much the same, yvfxvarrTiKri, which is the counterpart 
 of povaiKT), is subordinate because it does for the 
 body what povaiKi] does for the soul, and the per- 
 fection of the soul is that for which both exist. 
 
 A well developed and well trained physique is 
 a condition of perfect tv^aijuovia. He who is mis- 
 shapen or hideous may as little aspire to evBaijuovia 
 as a slave may. ['Of iravv yap ^vdaifioviKog 6 t7]v 
 Iceav 7ravai(T\r]g rj cvcrysvrjg rj povujTtjg Koi ciTeKvoQ 
 (Eth., I. viii. 16) ; ev^aifxoviag d' ovBsig avdpairo^tjf} 
 juLiTa^ldwcTiv, d juir} koX j^iov (ibid., X. vi. 8).] Here 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 151 
 
 Aristotle is immensely behind Stoicism, which he 
 criticizes by anticipation, or rather his conception 
 of ev^aifiovla has dragged him down to a lower 
 view of TO dyaOov. The Stoic sage was happy 
 on the rack ; the slave Epictetus might vie with 
 Marcus Aurelius. A life made happy by suffering 
 was impossible for Aristotle and a paradox to us ; 
 but a life " perfected by suffering " is a familiar 
 Christian idea. 
 
 But the real destroyer of man's well-being was 
 not bodily weakness or the servile condition ; the 
 Tmrr)pwfiivoL irpog aperriv were, after all, rare. The 
 real destroyer of happiness was that which intro- 
 duced ardaig into the (rvarriiua, the insubordination 
 of that lower nature which might be permeated 
 by reason, but often struggled against it. It was 
 this which set man against man in the political 
 KoivMvia, and the man against himself. The in- 
 ordinateness of the passions was the first problem 
 for Aristotle. No man can be in a state of well- 
 being unless he is at peace with himself, and in 
 charity with, or at least in relations of justice with, 
 his neighbour. 
 
 The moral apsTai occupy the major part of 
 Aristotle's Ethics ; but first we must get clear the 
 conception of moral virtue, before discussing them 
 in detail. A virtuous life is life according to law 
 or right reason, Kara tov opOov Aoyov. This dpObg 
 \6yog is known to us first as an external standard, 
 
152 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 embodied in the written or unwritten law of the 
 state, and " writ small " in the irarpiicr} Trpoara^ig. 
 In the early days of moral training obedience 
 covers the whole ground, to on not to ^ioti. The 
 law is to the child as yet " positive," not " natural." 
 The child does just acts, but he is not yet just. 
 He acts from instinct or habit, not from reason. 
 It is not virtue, and yet it is a necessary prepara- 
 tion for virtue, ie. for a state in which he not only 
 acts Kara \6yov, but /usTa \6yov, does right and for 
 the sake of right, when by an almost imperceptible 
 transition and a progressive purification of moral 
 motive, childish obedience gives way to manly 
 virtue, and the man not only does right, but ts good, 
 and in his conscious conformity to the law becomes 
 a law unto himself, olov vo/xog wy tavTio . . . Kavwv 
 Koi fiirpov avTMV lov. 
 
 The virtuous act is known by the fact that it 
 not only avoids excess and defect, but realizes a 
 law of symmetry. Like a work of art, it manifests 
 a sort of perfect proportion. You can neither add 
 to nor take away from it without spoiling it. It 
 lies between two vices of which one leans more to 
 virtue's side than the other, yet in its nature it is 
 perfect, aKpoTrjg. You cannot have too much of it, 
 just as you cannot have too little of vice. 
 
 The virtuous man does virtuous acts in a right 
 spirit. He is in conscious accord with the \6yog 
 or moral law which enjoins right action. He acts 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 153 
 
 dcwg, irpoaipovfievijjc koi Trpoaipovfxivwg ci avro, 
 /3t/3at'wc KOI dp.iTaKivi]Twq e'xwv. Of these the second 
 is the all-important condition, for a man cannot 
 act irpoaipovphtjg unless he acts ddtjg, and a formed 
 i^iQ irpoaiperiKri is a guarantee for permanence. 
 The test (crrjjudov) of the formed habit is, that a 
 man acts from free choice and feels pleasure in it. 
 And this is equally true whether the Trpoaipemg is 
 good or bad. We can infer nothing as to the 
 moral character of the acts from the pleasure which 
 ensues, we can only infer that the habit, good or 
 bad, is formed. 
 
 The steps, then, in the formation of a virtuous 
 character, according to Aristotle, will be as follows: — 
 
 (a) Obedience to the law of right, secured, in the 
 state, by pains and penalties, in the family, by affec- 
 tion and the father's command. 
 
 (/3) The formation of 'i^tig under these influences. 
 
 (7) The transition from Stjcam nparTtiv to diKaiog 
 dvai, when the child gradually becomes capable of 
 rational choice and loves right for right's sake. 
 
 This last step, however, needs further examina- 
 tion. What is irpoaiptaig ? It is different from 
 spontaneity (ro Uovmov), in which all animals share, 
 because it implies what animals have not, fiov\r](Tig, 
 wish for an end, and /BouXeuo-tc, deliberation with a 
 view to the end. If man had not vovg, permeating 
 even to op^icriKov, he would not have a conception of 
 riXog, nor could he deliberate with a view to it. 
 
154 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 But man is born a moral as he is born a rational 
 being. He can choose between alternatives, and 
 know them as higher and lower, i.e. as more or less 
 conducive to the rtXoc. He is thus an h.pyj\ in a 
 sense in which no other animal is, and because he 
 is so, and can take either of two courses, all human 
 affairs belong to the region of the contingent ro 
 lv^i^\6litvov aXX(t)(j ex^tV' Human action can, there- 
 fore, never fall under the science of the necessary. 
 Ethics deals only with ra wq ettX to rroXvy and does 
 not offer mathematical accuracy. As a practical 
 matter of fact, Aristotle holds the freedom of the 
 will, reduces to an absurdity the semi-necessita- 
 rianism which made a man irresponsible for vice, 
 and treats perfect determinism as not worth dis- 
 cussing. 
 
 Three modern questions are here involved — 
 What is the moral standard ? What is the moral 
 criterion } What is the moral faculty ? 
 
 (a) Of these the first was the more important for 
 Aristotle, the last the great question of modern 
 days. For we are practically agreed as to the 
 moral standard. Cynic and Cyrenaic, Stoic and 
 Epicurean lived different lives and justified the 
 difference by their moral theories. For us one 
 type of character has won its way to security, the 
 Christian type, the morality of the Gospel. So far 
 as men differ about the moral standard now, they 
 differ rather in their views of the history of morals, 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 155 
 
 how the present type came to be what it is, whether 
 it can be accounted for by a progressive natural 
 evolution, or whether the Christian ideal was not 
 a revelation, and a new departure prepared for, 
 indeed, but not the product of previous develop- 
 ment. As we take "the Christian type, so Aristotle 
 took the Greek type, but he did not concern him- 
 self as to how it had come to be what it was, or 
 why it was the fullest known expression of reason. 
 We claim the Christian standard as a standard for 
 man as man, and criticize the moral standard of 
 the Ethics as local and national, and therefore 
 transient. This is felt directly we attempt to 
 transfer the virtues of the Ethics to modern life. 
 We feel the jmovoKtjXia of Greek ethics, as 
 Aristotle felt the juovoKwXm of the Spartan type of 
 character. 
 
 (/3) In dealing with the question of criterion^ i.e. 
 why is one act more right than another? 
 
 (i.) Aristotle absolutely discards pleasure. 
 Pleasure is neither good nor bad, nor do pleasures 
 differ in kind except in the sense that they belong 
 to different tvtpydai. It may be relative, as accom- 
 panying a process of restoration, or absolute, and so 
 far good as the reflex of an activity, but you can 
 get no criterion from pleasure. 
 
 (ii.) Aristotle has no idea of judging acts by 
 their tendency to promote the greatest happiness 
 of the greatest number. He is as little a Utilitarian 
 
155 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 as a Hedonist, though he would say that a perfect 
 life ty^u rrjv ri^ovriv Iv lavTio, and is also conducive to 
 the good of all. But the criterion, as with Plato, is 
 psychological. Each act is good as it promotes 
 the activity of a true evepyda, and " the better the 
 part, and the better the man, the better the evspyda." 
 The activity of the highest Ivtpyeia is the highest 
 good. Morality is lower than philosophy, because 
 the hepyda is lower and less unmixed ; within the 
 area of morality each virtue is higher as it pro- 
 motes the ascendancy of reason over animal impulse. 
 How do we know higher from lower ? By ex- 
 perience. He who has tried all gives a judgment 
 which is beyond criticism, and he tells us of the 
 marvellous happiness of the divine life of philosophy, 
 
 (y) Finally, the question of the moral faculty 
 raises no difficulty with Aristotle. It is reason, 
 not reason in its speculative activity ((rocpia), but 
 in its active region (cj)p6vr](nQ). If we call this 
 (jipovrimg conscience, we are reading between the 
 lines. For (^joovrjotc is simply reason exercised in 
 matters moral, speaking in the imperative (iTTiro- 
 KTiKY]) as well as judging what is right. It pre- 
 supposes the wish for real good and the knowledge 
 of what it is and how to attain it. And where 
 ({ipovwig is perfect, as in the (rirovdaiog who is the 
 (jipovijuogy there is a perfect harmony between opE^ig 
 and Xoyog. Nature is thus at peace with itself, and 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 157 
 the moral man may rise to the higher life of 
 
 Now, the modern question is complicated by the 
 fact that we mix up the inquiry as to the origin 
 of the moral faculty with the question of its 
 present nature and authority. We cannot separate 
 the 'two. We either undermine or sustain the 
 authority of what we all agree to call conscience by 
 the theory we hold of its origin. Is it from beneath, 
 or from above ? Does it grow out of the beast in 
 us, or is it a revelation from God ? Is it an a priori 
 principle, or is it merely enlightened self-interest, 
 which has discovered that selfishness does not pay.^ 
 
 There are only three possible ways of dealing 
 with conscience. 
 
 I. To accept it as an ultimate fact, authoritative, 
 unique, and inexplicable. 
 
 II. To justify its authority by showing that it is 
 divine, not human. 
 
 III. To undermine its authority by explaining 
 that it is human, not divine, though a divine halo in 
 early days surrounds it. 
 
 Kant's great work is to have splendidly vindicated 
 the fact of the authority of conscience. It chal- 
 lenges obedience unhesitating and unquestioning. 
 But men cannot stop here. Childlike trust is 
 beautiful, but impossible for the old age of the 
 world. We must ask for credentials, we must 
 " scrutinize the imperial claims " of conscience. We 
 
158 ESSA yS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 must know who it is who commands ? And when 
 the question is asked it must be answered. We 
 cannot go back to simple acceptance. As Dr. 
 Martineau puts it, " A sovereign title must either 
 be perfect or good for nothing ; against a detected 
 pretender there can be no high treason." ^ We 
 then enter on one of the two alternative courses. 
 We defend its authority either by appealing to 
 something else in human nature or by something 
 outside and above human nature. 
 
 The former group of theories are subdivisible. 
 The question being, Why is right, right ? we have 
 the answer of — 
 
 (a) Hedonism, Utilitarianism, evolutionary ethics, 
 in an ascending scale, declaring that Right is right 
 because it is pleasant either to the individual, or 
 the community, or to humanity at large, producing 
 the highest or the highest possible amount of 
 pleasure to each, consistent with the welfare of the 
 whole. 
 
 (j3) The " moral sense " school of Hutcheson and 
 Shaftesbury, who teach that Right is right because 
 it is immediately and instinctively recognized as 
 morally beautiful. Against this intuitive judgment 
 there is no appeal, and hence it looked like an 
 answer to the selfish hedonism of Hobbes. But 
 de gustibus non disputandum is a dangerous prin- 
 ciple of subjectivism to introduce into morals. If 
 
 ^ See the whole passage, Study of Religion, i. pp. 25, 26. 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS. 159 
 
 the variety of moral tastes is appealed to in order 
 to discredit conscience, the representing it as a 
 moral sense robs its judgments of universality. 
 
 (7) The rational school of Cudworth and Clarke 
 answer that Right is right because it is true, and 
 Conscience is assimilated to the speculative reason, 
 discerning at a glance the eternal and immutable 
 truths of morals, as it discerns the necessity of 
 mathematical truth. 
 
 Here we find the " moral sense school " and the 
 " rational school " both opposing the " selfish 
 school," both attempting to justify the absolute 
 authority of conscience, but in doing so they rob 
 it either of its uniqueness or its authority. 
 
 The other line is that of what may be called 
 theological ethics, which connects conscience with 
 the divine rather than with the human. This in 
 no way implies that morality is a d^pendance on 
 religion, or conscience the product of Faith, but 
 rather that conscience is, as Cardinal Newman 
 calls it, " the creative principle of religion." To 
 make morality " positive " instead of " natural," 
 is to destroy it, and it is truer to base the will 
 of God on morals than morals on the will of 
 God. 
 
 We start, then, from morals, from the authority 
 of conscience, and the fact that right is right. 
 But, as Mantineau puts it, ''Ethics must either 
 perfect tliemselves into religion, or disintegrate them- 
 
i6o ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 selves into Hedonismr ^ " Conscience may act as 
 human before it is discovered to be divine!' ^ But 
 if we seek for an explanation at all, we must 
 ultimately choose between some form of theology 
 or some form of Hedonism. '' TAe attempts to con- 
 struct intermediate theories have only shown by 
 their instability^ the irresistible logical tendency to 
 the single line of cleavage, which puts religious 
 thought on the one side, and the eudaemonist on the 
 other ^' (p. 26). 
 
 There is no discussion of these questions in 
 Aristotle. The moral faculty is reason, and reason 
 is divine, but it is rather an immanent principle in 
 man, leading him to know his own good, realized 
 in the political community, and it is assumed that 
 to know is to obey. 
 
 Moral evil This brings Aristotle to the question 
 of moral evil, so far as the question was known to 
 the Greek world. Aristotle, like Plato, might have 
 said of reason as Bishop Butler says of conscience, 
 that " if it had might as it has right, it would govern 
 the world." But it doesn't govern the world. 
 Why is this ? What is the explanation of aKpaaia ? 
 Socrates and Plato denied the existence of such a 
 state, deivov yap £7rfcrr?j//?jc ^^vovariq aXXo ri Kparelv. 
 Aristotle admits aKpama, but, in explaining it, re- 
 solves it into a condition which is not aKpaaia. 
 The aKparrig is the man who knows right and yet 
 
 ^ Study, p. 26. * Ibid., p. 22. 
 
A SUMMARY OF ARISTOTLE'S ETHICS, i6i 
 
 does wrong, and all that the Seventh Book tells us 
 is, how it happens that knowledge may be latent 
 or dormant, and if not overpowered yet outwitted 
 by passion. There is nothing in Aristotle of the 
 sense of sin, for sin implies a personal God, as 
 crime implies the laws of society. 
 
 Still the fact remains that the lower does triumph 
 over the higher, the body over the soul, the selfish 
 over the social, the animal over the divine. And 
 just as the family guards against atomism and 
 leads on to the TroXtc, so friendship guards against 
 individualism and prepares the way for perfect 
 justice. Friendship introduces the man to another 
 self, fVt^oc avTog, whom he loves unselfishly, and in 
 whom he sees the extension and the counterpart 
 of his own best self. The friendship of the good, 
 which is the only true friendship, is thus a realized 
 love of ro kqXov divested of the lower and selfish 
 elements of gain or pleasure. We live in our own 
 acts, and in friendship we live in one another's 
 acts. We need friends not for gain, for the perfect 
 life is complete in itself, but because goodness loves 
 to see itself reflected, and even the divine life of 
 philosophy is twice blest when the philosopher 
 finds a true avv^pyo^, and God loves the philosopher 
 because in him He sees a dim and imperfect re- 
 flection of His own dewpia. 
 
 U 
 
i62 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 IX. 
 
 SOME CURIOUS PARALLELS BETWEEN 
 GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 
 
 [A Paper read before the Aristotelian Society, April 29, 1889.*] 
 
 There are at the present time three religions, if 
 we are right in calling them religions (a question 
 which we may postpone for the present), which 
 have a legal standing in China. They are Con- 
 fucianism^ Taoism, and Buddhism. Of these. 
 Buddhism has no claim to be indigenous, as it 
 never found its way to China till after the Christian 
 era. With regard to Taoism, we find ourselves at 
 once in a difficulty ; for Taoism, as it exists now, 
 has little or no real affinity with the older Taoistic 
 literature. Dr. Legge ^ speaks of it as " begotten 
 by Buddhism out of the old superstitions of the 
 country ; " and in his article on Lao-Tze in the 
 " Encyclopaedia Britannica," he draws a sharp dis- 
 tinction between Taoism as a philosophy and 
 
 ^ This paper embodies the substance of a note on Chinese 
 Philosophy prefixed by A. L. M. to H, A. Giles's Chuang-Tzu, 
 Mystic, Moralist, and Philosopher. 
 
 ^ Tao-te-Ching, p. 4. 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT, 163 
 
 Taoism as a religion. Similarly, Mr. Giles ^ speaks 
 of it as a hybrid superstition, a mixture of ancient 
 nature-worship and Buddhistic ceremonial, with 
 Tao as the style of the firm. Dr. Edkins, in his 
 "Religion in China" (p. 58), says that the mass of 
 the people believe in all three religions, Confucian- 
 ism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and explains the fact 
 by saying that they are supplementary to each other. 
 Confucianism being moral; Taoism, materialistic ; 
 and Buddhism, metaphysical ; in criticism of which 
 we may suggest that, if this were true, even if we 
 could accept the cross division implied in his theory, 
 they would be, not supplementary to each other, 
 but mutually destructive. 
 
 It is, however, with Chinese thought, rather than 
 with Chinese religion, that I am concerned ; and 
 here we are on a surer ground, for we may at once 
 put aside Buddhism as an exotic, and Taoistic 
 religion as being largely composed of foreign 
 elements. 
 
 We are left, then, with Confucianism and Taoism, 
 meaning by the latter term the philosophical 
 system, not the popular religion. Both probably 
 arose out of a religion of which we know nothing, 
 except so far as we can piece it together from the 
 rival systems which claimed to represent it. But 
 it is a question whether either can rightly be called 
 religious. And, in any case, the parallelism to 
 
 * Chuarg-Tzu, pref. xv. 
 
i64 JSSSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Greek thought is independent of any religious 
 elements which were contained in them, or lay 
 behind them. 
 
 The main characteristics of Confucianism and 
 Taoism are clear enough, and are independent of 
 the question as to the authenticity of certain docu- 
 ments on which Sinologues are divided. 
 
 Confucianism is primarily a system of conduct ; 
 Taoism is primarily a mystical philosophy. And, 
 whatever may have been the relation of their respec- 
 tive founders to one another, the documents which 
 remain to us represent two rival systems. The one 
 is moral, the other metaphysical. Confucianism is 
 recognized by the state as orthodox ; Taoism is a 
 heresy. Yet both were attempts to interpret and 
 to rationalize the religion out of which both grew. 
 Neither Lao-Tzu nor his younger contemporary, 
 Confucius, professed to be founders of systems. 
 They were rival interpreters, and the Confucianist 
 interpretation received State sanction. Hence 
 Confucianism has become " the religion of China 
 par excellencer ^ Mons. Edgar Quinet's account of 
 it is worth quoting. He says — 
 
 " Rationalism is the religion of China ; positive faith the 
 only heresy ; the strong-minded man the only pontiff. . . . 
 Its principles are the equality of all its members, intellect 
 is the sole ground of pre-eminence, personal merit the 
 sole aristocracy. Everything there is exactly measured, cal- 
 
 ^ Legge, Sacred Books, III. pref. xiii. 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 165 
 
 .culated, weighed, by the laws of humnn nature ; its one idol 
 is good sense." 
 
 And he asks why it is that all this wisdom has 
 produced only a sublime automaton ; and finds the 
 answer in the fact that, according to Confucianism, 
 " man is deprived of any ideal above himself" 
 
 " Chinese society," he says, " makes man the final end, 
 and so humanity finds its goal in its starting-point. It is 
 stifled within the limits of humanity. In this dwarf society, 
 everything is deprived of its crown. Morality wants heroism ; 
 royalty, its royal muse ; verse, poetry ; philosophy, meta- 
 physic ; life, immortality ; because, at the summit of every- 
 thing, there is no God." ^ 
 
 Renan,^ in the same way, speaks of Confucianism 
 as " the least supernatural of all religions ; " and 
 he adds, "hence its mediocrity." From the great 
 Confucianist classics which remain to us, most of 
 which are now accessible in the " Sacred Books of 
 the East," we are able to judge of the truth of this. 
 If Positivism is rightly described as "Catholicism 
 minus Christianity," Confucianism may be called 
 Positivism minus its universality. Confucianism 
 has not even the " enthusiasm of humanity," like 
 that which Positivism has caught from Christianity. 
 It is rationalism pure and simple ; a system of 
 conduct, hardly even a philosophy, summed up in 
 rules regulating man's duty to his neighbour. 
 Of Taoism, the religion of Lao-Tzti, it is less 
 
 * Quinet, La Genie des Religions, pp. 224, 225. 
 ' Quoted by Lilly, Ancient Religions, p. no. 
 
i65 £SSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 easy to speak, because we have less trustworthy 
 documents. If the "Tao-te-Ching" is genuine, as 
 Dr. Legge beHeves, it is the only work of Lao-Tzu 
 which we have. If not, we know nothing of Lao- 
 Tzu's teaching except through his followers. But, 
 without deciding this question, its contrast with 
 Confucianism is obvious. It is idealistic and mys- 
 tical, it is metaphysical from first to last. It is 
 contemptuous of Confucius and Confucianism. In 
 its opposition to a mere practical system, a religion 
 limited to the finite, Taoism must have appealed 
 to those deeper instincts of human nature to 
 which Buddhism appealed later on. Action, effort, 
 benevolence, usefulness, — all these, in theory, have 
 a place in Confucianism. But its last word is 
 worldly wisdom. To the Taoist all this savours 
 of " the rudiments of the world." Its " charity 
 and duty," its ''ceremonies and music," are the 
 "Touch not, taste not, handle not," of an ephemeral 
 state of being, and perish in the using. And the 
 sage seeks for the Absolute, the Infinite, the 
 Eternal. He would attain to Tao. 
 
 It would have seemed as if in these rival systems 
 we should look in vain for parallelisms to Greek 
 thought. Metaphysics and morals were never 
 separated in the best days of Greek life, as we 
 find them separated in Taoism and Confucianism. 
 Socrates professed to deal with ethics, and put 
 metaphysics aside ; but the questions which he 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT, 167 
 
 raised in the moral region were metaphysical 
 questions, and suggested by a metaphysical cause. 
 In Plato, the moral life rests on a metaphysical 
 basis ; and in Aristotle, while a sharp dividing 
 Hne exists between the sphere of the necessary 
 and the sphere of the contingent, between OEupriTiKri 
 on the one side and irpaKriKr] and iroiririKi] on the 
 other ; yet, (l>p6vr}(ng, or the philosophy of Life, is 
 the handmaid of <TO(l>iay the philosophy of Truth, 
 and the moral life shades off into the life of philo- 
 sophic contemplation. Yet, though in Greece 
 of the time of Plato and Aristotle the meta- 
 physical and moral are distinguished, but not yet 
 separated, we are still able to find in it parallels 
 to both Confucianism and Taoistic ways of think- 
 ing. Due allowance, however, has to be made 
 for the fact that Confucianism and Taoism were 
 developed by antagonism to one another, and 
 therefore for a more complete parallel to Taoism 
 we must go to Neo-Platonism, while the closer 
 parallelism, if it exist, to Confucianism must be 
 sought amongst the Sceptics who had abandoned 
 metaphysics for empiricism and a merely practical 
 system. 
 
 I propose, then, to point out the parallelism as 
 it exists between Confucianism and Greek ethics, 
 and between Taoism and Greek metaphysics, as 
 we know them in the fourth and fifth centuries, 
 B.C. 
 
168 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Confucius was born in 551 B.C., a hundred years 
 earlier than Socrates. His character and the main 
 facts of his life and doctrine are as matter-of-fact 
 as his system. There is nothing ascetic or spiritual 
 in his teaching. He never, so far as we know, 
 dealt with higher and deeper questions, such as 
 the existence of God, the soul, immortality. He 
 was content to ask, How shall I do my duty to 
 my neighbour ? How shall I live as a good 
 citizen ? This is exactly the problem in Aristotle's 
 Ethics ; and, if we remember that, whatever may 
 have been Aristotle's theological or metaphysical 
 basis, he steadily keeps it apart from his moral 
 philosophy proper, we shall feel that he is at 
 least so far on common ground with Confucianism. 
 
 Now, the Aristotelian answer to the moral ques- 
 tion is, as every one knows, summed up in the 
 doctrine of the Mean, a doctrine which we can 
 trace growing up in Socrates and taking definite 
 shape in Plato. The virtuous life is the rational 
 life, that is the harmonious life, the life of balance 
 and equipoise. The virtuous man is at peace with 
 himself; the vicious man's soul is in a state of 
 (jramq. There is a one-sidedness (juovoKwXia) in 
 which culture is neglected in the interests of bodily 
 training, and a one-sidedness in which bodily 
 training is forgotten through exclusive devotion 
 to culture. The metal (to use another metaphor 
 from Plato's " Republic ") may be brittle from 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 169 
 
 want of tempering, or it may lose its strength by 
 being tempered over-much. So in regard to plea- 
 sures, the true life implies the /mETpriTiKr) Tix^ri, the 
 art of measurement, the power of striking the 
 balance, as it were, so as to secure the normal 
 development of nature ; or, as we have it in terms 
 more closely approximating to those of Aristotle, 
 it is a jufT/oforrjc, a mean state secured by imposing 
 the law of reason on the lawlessness of the pas- 
 sions, the indeterminate element in human nature. 
 The vicious go beyond or fall short of this state 
 of equipoise, and so their nature is destroyed in 
 various degrees and different ways. 
 
 The Aristotelian doctrine of the Mean is the 
 final statement of this view. The attempts which 
 have been made to connect it with MHAEN AFAN 
 and the praise of moderation and fihpia epja in 
 Hesiod are often thoroughly misleading ; for the 
 value of the Aristotelian doctrine is not its negative 
 teaching as to the avoiding of extremes, which 
 would give us no standard, and leave us with a 
 glorification of the commonplace ; its real value 
 is its positive teaching, that virtue is the realizing 
 of a law, the law of one's being, which, though 
 it varies in one as compared with others, is abso- 
 lute for the individual. It is the preservation of 
 that harmony which vice destroys, the state of 
 perfect balance which may be lost in either of two 
 opposite ways. Reason (\6yog), which never quite 
 
I70 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 lost for a Greek its earlier meaning of a law of 
 proportion, was the principle which secured this 
 order. Virtue was the life Kara rov opOov \6yov, 
 or, rather, the life justo. Xoyou, and vice the lawless 
 and irrational life. If it is not clear in Aristotle 
 whether this Xoyog is external or immanent, this 
 is only the difficulty which appeared " writ large " 
 in his account of the world where the reign of law 
 prevails. There, too, he cannot settle the question 
 whether it exists like a general commanding an 
 army, or as an immanent principle of order in 
 the army itself It only needed that this should 
 be expressed in Stoic language, as Kara (pvmv Zr\v, 
 to arrive at the conclusion, already implicit in 
 Aristotle, that the man who is in harmony with 
 himself is ipso facto in harmony with the world, 
 for it is the same Xoyog, or balancing principle, 
 which in nature shows itself as law, and in man as 
 rationality. 
 
 Now, it is a remarkable thing that one of the 
 chief Confucianist writings, which deals with the 
 theory of morals, should have for its title "The 
 Doctrine of the Mean." This treatise (known as 
 Chung Yung) is a part of the " Li-Ki," or " Book 
 of Rites," one of the five great canonical works 
 of Confucianism. In 1861 it was translated by 
 Dr. Legge, with the title "The Doctrine of the 
 Mean." When in 1885 he retranslated it for the 
 " Sacred Books of the East " (vols, xxvii. xxviii.), 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 171 
 
 he changed the title to "The State of Equilibrium 
 and Harmony." The meaning of these terms, 
 which are united in the title, we find explained 
 in the opening section. The treatise is the work 
 of Tzse-zse, the grandson of Confucius, and a 
 contemporary of Socrates. 
 
 It will be perhaps better to give some extracts 
 from this treatise, and then to point out the 
 parallelism between it and the Aristotelian philo- 
 sophy. There is a good deal in the treatise which 
 is unintelligible, and a considerable portion, includ- 
 ing some eleven sections (§§ 48-59), which seems 
 to have been interpolated from a treatise on " Filial 
 Piety." The actual description of the perfect 
 character, though in some points it is curiously 
 like the Greek ideal, is necessarily moulded by 
 the circumstances of Chinese life, and the remains 
 of ancestor worship still show themselves, and 
 perhaps explain the atmosphere of reverence which 
 we look for in vain in Aristotle. The doctrine of 
 the Mean is, however, the main point of likeness. 
 I quote Dr. Legge's latest translation, with a few 
 verbal alterations. 
 
 § I. " What Heaven has conferred is called the Nature. 
 An accordance with this nature is called the Path [of 
 Duty]. The regulation of this path is called [the System of] 
 Instruction. 
 
 § 2. " The path must not be left for an instant ; if it could 
 be left, it would not be the path." 
 
 Here we have already a theory of Virtue as ro 
 
172 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Kara (fivmv Zr\Vy the realizing the law of one's being. 
 This is Tao, the path, and it is by education that 
 life must be regulated and restrained to the Path, 
 
 § 5. ''When there are no stirrings of pleasure, anger, 
 sorrow, or joy, we call it the state of Equilibrium. When 
 those feelings have been stirred, and all in their due 
 measure and degree, we call it the state of Har?nony. This 
 EquiUbrium is the source of all action, and this Harmony 
 the universal Path. 
 
 § 6. " Let the states of Equilibrium and Harmony exist in 
 perfection, and heaven and earth would be in their due 
 order, and all things would flourish. 
 
 § 7. " The perfect man exhibits this state of equilibrium 
 and harmony, inferior men the opposite of this. The perfect 
 man does so because he is perfect, the inferior men fail to 
 do so because they are inferior. 
 
 § 8. " The master said, ' Perfect is the state of equilibrium 
 and harmony ! Few have they ever been who could attain 
 to it.' 
 
 § 9. " The master said, ' I know how it is that the Path is 
 not walked in. The cunning go beyond it, and the stupid 
 fall short of it. The worthy (? the great) go beyond it, the 
 unworthy do not come up to it. There is nobody but eats 
 and drinks, but they are few who can distinguish flavours.' " 
 (Cf. didKpicris xvyUcSj/.) 
 
 These first sections are, as it were, the text of the 
 treatise, and the commentary upon them is often 
 very obscure. Still some points suggest a curious 
 parallel to the Greek view of the virtuous or 
 rational life being, in contrast with vicious lives, a 
 mean, while in itself it realizes the idea of human 
 nature. 
 
 The title of Tze-tzse's treatise really consists of 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 173 
 
 two substantives, the one signifying Equilibrium, 
 the other Harmony, and the two ideas are in- 
 tended to be combined, which in English can only 
 be done by making the one adjectival. We must 
 speak of a state of equilibrated harmony, or har- 
 monious equilibration, and neither phrase is un- 
 objectionable. The meaning, however, is clear. 
 The condition of the perfect man combines move- 
 ment and rest. Mere cnraBeia would give equili- 
 brium without harmony ; the iraOr} unregulated 
 would be the destruction of harmony. The perfect 
 man, who is said to "embody the Mean" (§ 19), is 
 the only being in whom nature realizes its reXog. 
 
 " The perfecting of nature is characteristic of heaven," we 
 are told. " To attain to that perfection belongs to man. He 
 who possesses that perfection hits what is right without an 
 effort, and apprehends it without any exercise of thought ; 
 he is the sage (for, as with Aristotle, 6 a-irovSahs is 6 <pp6vitios, 
 so with the Confucianist). The sage naturally and easily 
 embodies the right way. He who attains to perfection is 
 he who chooses what is good, and firmly holds it fast" (§ 19). 
 
 And this Tk\u6T^q puts the perfect man in a 
 state of harmony, not only with himself, but with 
 all that is. The well-being which Aristotle speaks 
 of as iv^aijiovia is not something added to or won 
 by his perfectness. The perfection is ev^ai/iovla. 
 
 " It is only he of all under heaven who is entirely perfect," 
 we are told, " that can give his full development to his 
 nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, 
 he can also give the same to the nature of other men. Able 
 
174 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND FHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 to give its full development to the nature of other men, he 
 can also give the same to the natures of all that is. . . . 
 Thus he forms a teniion with heaven and earth " (§ 22). 
 
 *' Perfection," we are told, " is seen in self-com- 
 jDletion, and the path is self-directed" (§ 25). But 
 selfishness is as carefully excluded as in Aristotle. 
 For the development of the true self implies the 
 completing, not the destruction, of other selves. 
 " He who is perfect does not only complete him- 
 self; his perfection enables him to complete all 
 other beings also" (§ 28). His self-completion 
 shows his moral goodness, the completion of 
 others his wisdom. And thus his nature is truly 
 developed, both in itself and in its relation to 
 others. 
 
 All this, however, is more closely connected 
 with the idea of balance and harmony than in 
 Aristotle. It is indeed like a fusion of the Aris- 
 totelian doctrine of the Mean with the Platonic 
 view of virtue as a harmony, or rather, perhaps, it 
 is the Aristotelian doctrine with the implicit idea 
 of harmony brought out into prominence. Like 
 Aristotle, Tzse-zse sees the difficulty of hitting the 
 Mean, and uses the same metaphor, " In archery 
 we see something like the way of the perfect man. 
 When the archer misses the centre of the target 
 he turns round and seeks for the cause of failure 
 in himself" (§ 40). Aristotle's illustrations are well 
 known, olov ro^orai (tkottov exovr^g, etc. (I. ii. 2), 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 175 
 
 /yaStov \i\v TO diroTvx^^v t^^ (tkuttov, x^^^"^^*^ ^^ ^^ 
 l-mrvx^'iv (II. vi. 14). But the perfect man becomes 
 a law to himself, IbaTrep kqviov kol fiirpov, because 
 he embodies the principle of harmony and equili- 
 brium. What he does he does because he is 
 perfect, rtj tolovtoq etvai. Hence he is not only a 
 law unto himself (oTov vojuog lov kavTc[)), he becomes 
 a standard for others. The movements of the 
 perfect man mark out for ages the true path for 
 all, his actions are a law for others, his words 
 the pattern for others. Those who are far from 
 him look longingly for him, and those who are 
 near are never weary of him (§ 50). 
 
 The interesting thing is that, while we can 
 hardly imagine two types of life more unlike than 
 that of the Greek and the Chinaman, the theory 
 of virtue as the life of equilibrium secured by 
 reason is the same in both. The life of the China- 
 man is stilted, artificial, formal, controlled by what 
 looks like a traditional system of positive law, 
 endless, and to us, meaningless conventionalisms 
 of ritual and behaviour, of ceremonies and music ; 
 the life of the Greek is a life of free and 
 happy, almost instinctive, kinship with nature ; 
 the doctrine of virtue as the harmony of nature, 
 that which puts man in tune, as it were, with the 
 external world and his fellow-man — the idea of 
 right as the morally beautiful — all this seems to 
 be quite natural to the Greek. Yet, behind all 
 
176 £SSAyS SCIENTIFIC AND PHIIOSOFHICAL. 
 
 the positive laws and the conventionalities of 
 Confucianism, we find the same idea of reason 
 as the great balancing power of life, and the 
 doctrine of the Mean the centre of its moral 
 theory. 
 
 There was a time when historians of Greek 
 philosophy used to point out what were considered 
 to be the characteristics of Greek thought, and 
 then to put down to " Oriental influence " anything 
 which did not at once agree with these character- 
 istics. How and through what channels this 
 " Oriental influence " was exercised, it was never 
 easy to determine, nor was it always thought 
 worthy of much discussion. In recent times, 
 however, a greater knowledge of Eastern systems 
 has familiarized us with much which, on the same 
 principle, ought to be attributed to " Greek in- 
 fluence." And the result has been that we have 
 learned to put aside theories of derivation, and 
 to content ourselves with tracing the evolution 
 of reason and of rational problems, and to expect 
 parallelisms even where the circumstances are 
 widely different. 
 
 We used to be told that the Greek mind, in its 
 speculation and its art, was characterized by its 
 love of order, harmony, and symmetry, in contrast 
 with the monstrous creations of the Oriental 
 imagination, and the "colossal ugliness of the 
 Pyramids ; " and it was said with reason that the 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT, 177 
 
 Aristotelian doctrine of the Mean was the ripe 
 fruit of the practical inquiries of the Greeks, and 
 was the ethical counterpart of their artistic 
 development. Yet we find the doctrine of the 
 Mean in an undisputed Confucianist writing of 
 the time of Socrates, and no one will seriously 
 suggest that Aristotle had private access to the 
 
 Li-Ki. 
 
 I turn now to that other system of Chinese 
 thought which represents its metaphysical, as Con- 
 fucianism represents its moral, conclusions. Here 
 again we must remind ourselves that — whatever 
 may have been the case in the sixth century B.C. — 
 in the times of Chuang-Tzu and Tzse-zse meta- 
 physics and morals had parted into divergent 
 channels ; metaphysics had become mystical, and 
 morals a merely practical and utilitarian system, 
 which had been further paralyzed by being 
 enforced by the state and based almost exclu- 
 sively on authority. We must further remind 
 ourselves that neither Taoism nor Confucianism 
 claimed to be new, but were rival interpretations 
 of that which lay behind both — the doctrine of 
 Tao. We have seen how Confucianism gave a 
 practical interpretation of the doctrine. The life 
 of practical morality, that is Tao, *' the Way." He 
 who realizes the state of equilibrium and harmor 
 walks in "the Way," reaches the perfectic 
 Heaven willed, develops his nature "' 
 
178 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 its own law, and so finds himself in accord with 
 the universe, with men, and with himself. This 
 practical system was that which came to be con- 
 sidered orthodox, and the deeper and more specu- 
 lative interpretation of Tao came to be looked 
 upon as heresy, but as a heresy which was 
 tolerated, not persecuted. 
 
 It is obvious to any student of the history of 
 thought that when the practical and speculative 
 .elements in human nature are thus separated the 
 divergence will rapidly increase. Metaphysics 
 divorced from morals will become, as it always 
 does, more and more mystical, and even defiantly 
 antinomian ; while morals deprived of its meta- 
 physical or theological basis become a sterotyped 
 system of rules of conduct, as powerless to furnish 
 a motive for conduct as it is to stimulate moral 
 progress. 
 
 I propose to take the philosophy of Chuang- 
 
 Tzu as an undoubted representation of Taoism, 
 
 though of course representing a later development 
 
 of the doctrine. What Lao-Tzu, the founder of 
 
 Taoism, taught it is impossible to say, while the 
 
 authenticity of the "Tao-Te-Ching" is still under 
 
 dispute. But the philosophy of Chuang-Tzu, who 
 
 lived some two centuries after Lao-Tzii, and was 
 
 -obably a contemporary of Mencius, is now thrown 
 
 ^ ordinary people by Mr. Giles' translation. 
 
 ''■^^ophy, and not in any sense a religion. 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 179 
 
 It has no right to be considered a Sacred Book, 
 unless we are prepared to number Aristotle's 
 metaphysics among the Sacred Books of Greece. 
 Indeed, till the middle of the eighth century of our 
 era (742 A.D.) it was not so classed. 
 
 Chuang-Tzii's philosophy is a protest against 
 Confucianism, and an attempt to restore the 
 idealism of Lao-Tzu. Confucius sums up every- 
 thing in duty to one's neighbour, ignoring the 
 supernatural and the invisible ; Chuang-Tzu pro- 
 tests against this mere worldly wisdom, and, under 
 cover of the name of Lao-Tzu, develops a pure 
 mysticism. 
 
 The main positions of Chuang-Tzu's philoso- 
 phical system are summed up in the first seven 
 chapters, the rest of the volume being an expan- 
 sion and a commentary. 
 
 Chuang-Tzu's first chapter is mainly critical and 
 destructive, pointing out the worthlessness of ordi- 
 nary judgments, and the unreality of sense know- 
 ledge. The gigantic Rukh, at the height of 90,000 
 //, is a mere mote in the sunbeam. For size is 
 relative. The cicada, which can just fly from tree 
 to tree, laughs with the dove at the Rukh's high 
 flight. For space also is relative. Compared with 
 the mushroom of a day, P'eng-Tsu is as old - 
 Methuselah; but what is his age to that 
 fabled tree, whose spring and autum 
 
l8o ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 16,000 years? Time, then, is relative, too. And 
 though men wonder at him who could " ride upon 
 the wind and travel for many days," he is but a 
 child to one who "roams through the realms of 
 For-Ever." 
 
 This doctrine of " relativity," which is a common- 
 place in Greek as it is in modern philosophy, is 
 made the basis, both in ancient and modern times, 
 of two opposite conclusions. Either it is argued 
 that all sense knowledge is relative, and sense is 
 the only organ of knowledge, therefore real know- 
 ledge is impossible ; or else the relativity of sense 
 knowledge leads men to draw a sharp contrast 
 between sense and reason, and to turn away from 
 the outward in order to listen to the inward voice. 
 The one alternative is scepticism, the other idealism, 
 and, in its later developments, mysticism. In Greek 
 thought the earliest representatives of the former 
 are the Sophists, of the latter Heracleitus. 
 
 There is no doubt to which side of the antithesis 
 Chuang-Tzu belongs. His exposure of false and 
 superficial thinking looks at first like the destruc- 
 tion of knowledge. Even Socrates was called a 
 Sophist because of his destructive criticism and 
 his restless challenging of popular views. But 
 Chuang-Tzu has nothing of the sceptic in him. 
 '"^^ is an idealist and a mystic, with all the idealist's 
 ^ of a utilitarian system, and the mystic's 
 '^r a life of mere external activity, even 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. i8i 
 
 perhaps with something of the religious man's 
 fear and distrust of worldliness. " The perfect 
 man ignores self ; the divine man ignores action ; 
 the true sage ignores reputation " (p. 5). The 
 Emperor Yao would have abdicated in favour of a 
 hermit, but the hermit replies that " reputation is 
 but the shadow of reality," and will not exchange 
 the real for the seeming. But greater than Yao 
 and the hermit is the divine being who dwells in 
 the mysterious mountain in a state of pure, passion- 
 less inaction. 
 
 For the sage, then, life means death to all that 
 men think life, the life of seeming or reputation, of 
 doing or action, of being or individual self-hood. 
 This leads on to the " budget of paradoxes " in 
 Chap. II. As in the moral and active region we 
 escape from the world and self, and are able to 
 reverse and look down upon the world's judgments, 
 so in the speculative region we get behind and 
 beyond the contradictions of ordinary thinking, 
 and of speech which stereotypes abstractions. The 
 sage knows nothing of the distinction between 
 subjective and objective. It exists only ex analo- 
 gid Jiominis. "From the standpoint of Tao" all 
 things are one. People " guided by the criteria of 
 their own mind," see only the contradiction, the 
 manifoldness, the difference ; the sage sees the 
 many disappearing in the One, in which subjec- 
 tive and objective, positive and negative, here and 
 
1 82 £SSA YS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 there, somewhere and nowhere, meet and blend. 
 For him, " a beam and a pillar are identical. So 
 are ugliness and beauty, greatness, wickedness, 
 perverseness, and strangeness. Separation is the 
 same as construction : construction is the same as 
 destruction" (pp. 19, 20). The sage "blends 
 everything into one harmonious whole, rejecting 
 the comparison of this and that. Rank and pre- 
 cedence, which the vulgar prize, the sage stolidly 
 ignores. The universe itself may pass away, but 
 he will flourish still " (p. 29). "Were the ocean 
 itself scorched up, he would not feel hot. Were 
 the milky way frozen hard he would not feel cold. 
 Were the mountains to be riven with thunder, and 
 the great deep to be thrown up by storm, he would 
 not tremble " (pp. 27, 28). 
 
 " Si fractus illabatur orbis, 
 Impavidum ferient ruinae." 
 
 He is "embraced in the obliterating unity of God," 
 and passing into the realm of the Infinite finds rest 
 therein (p. 31). 
 
 It is impossible in reading this chapter on " The 
 Identity of Contraries " not to be reminded of the 
 greatest of the pre-Socratic thinkers, in some ways 
 the greatest of Greek metaphysicians, Heracleitus, 
 The disparagement of sense knowledge, and the 
 contempt for common views is indeed equally 
 marked in Eleaticism, and there is much in 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 183 
 
 Chuang-Tzu which recalls Parmenides/ so far as 
 the contrast between the way of truth and the way 
 of error, the true belief in the One and the popular 
 belief in the Many, is concerned. But no one can 
 read Chuang-Tzii without feeling that, with him, 
 the "One" is not the dead Unit of Eleaticism, 
 which resulted from the thinking away of differ- 
 ences, but the living Unity of Heracleitus, in 
 which contraries co-exist. Heracleitus, indeed, 
 seems to have been a man after Chuang-Tzu's 
 own heart, not only in his obscurity, which won 
 for him the title of 6 dKorzivoqy but in his indiffer- 
 ence to worldly position, shown in the fact that, 
 like the Emperor Yao, he abdicated in his brother's 
 favour {Diog. Laert. ix. i), and in his supercilious 
 disregard for the learned like Hesiod and Pytha- 
 goras and Xenophanes and Hecataeus,^ no less 
 than for the common people ^ of his day. 
 
 "Listen," says Heracleitus, "not to me, but to 
 reason, and confess the true wisdom that 'AH 
 things are One.'"* "All is One, the divided and 
 the undivided, the begotten and the unbegotten, 
 the mortal and the immortal, reason and eternity, 
 father and son, God and justice."^ "Cold is hot, 
 
 » See the fragments in Ritter and Preller's Hist. Phil. Graec, 
 §§ 93 and 94, A. B. Seventh edition. 
 ' Heracl. Eph. Rell., xvi., ed. Bywater. 
 ' dx^oXoiSopos 'Hpa/f AetTos. Timon ap. Diog. Laert. , ix. I. 
 
 * Ou/c ifiev aWa rod \6yov aKovadyras 6ij,o\oyeeiy <xo<p6v iffTi iy 
 irdvTd ilyai, Heracl. Eph. Rell., i, 
 
 * Hippolytus Ref, haer., ix. 9. 
 
1 84 jESSAYS scientific AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 heat is cold, that which is moist is parched, that 
 which is dried up is wet."^ "Good and evil are 
 the same." ^ " Gods are mortal, men immortal : 
 our life is their death, our death their life,"^ 
 "Upward and downward are the same."^ "The 
 beginning and the end are one." ^ " Life and 
 death, sleeping and waking, youth and age are 
 identical." ^ 
 
 This is what reason tells the philosopher. "All 
 is One." The world is a unity of opposing forces 
 (TraXivrpoTTog apfxovir] Koofxov OKUXJirep Xvpag KaX 
 t6Zov)J "Join together whole and not whole, 
 agreeing and different, harmonious and discordant. 
 Out of all comes one : out of one all." ^ " God 
 is day-night, winter-summer, war-peace, repletion- 
 want." ^ The very rhythm of nature is strife. 
 War, which men hate and the poets would banish, 
 " is the father and lord of all." ^° But " men are 
 without understanding, they hear and hear not," " 
 or " they hear and understand not." ^^ For they 
 trust to their senses, which are " false witnesses." ^^ 
 They see the contradictions, but know not that 
 "the different is at unity with itself." ^^ They 
 cannot see the " hidden harmony, which is greater 
 
 * Heracl. Eph. Rell., xxxix. * Idid,, Ivii. 
 ' Idtd., Ixvii. ■* Idt'd., Ixix. * Idzd., Ixx. 
 
 * lind., Ixxviii. ' Idzd., xlv. * Idid., lix. 
 
 * Idid., xxxvi. " Idid., xliv. " Idid., iii. 
 ^2 I^id., Y. " li'id., iv. ^* Ibid., xIy. 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 185 
 
 than the harmony which is seen." ^ For they live 
 in the external, the commonplace, the relative, and 
 never rise above the life of the senses. " The sow 
 loves the mire." ^ " The ass prefers fodder to 
 gold." ^ And men love their " private conceits " 
 instead of clinging to the universal reason which 
 orders all things, * and which even the sun 
 obeys." ^ 
 
 Of the fragments which remain to us of Hera- 
 cleitus, the greater number belong to the region 
 of logic and metaphysics, while Chuang-Tzu, in 
 his opposition to Confucianism, devotes much 
 space to the more practical side of the question. 
 He not only ridicules those who trust their senses, 
 or measure by utilitarian standards, or judge by 
 the outward appearance ; — he teaches them how 
 to pass from the seeming to the true. The won- 
 derful carver, who could cut where the natural 
 joints are,^ is one who sees not with the eye of 
 sense, but with his mind. When he is in doubt 
 he " falls back upon eternal principles ; " for he is 
 " devoted to Tao " (chap. iii.). There is some- 
 thing of humour, as well as much of truth, in the 
 rebuke which Confucius, speaking pro hac vice as 
 a disciple of Lao-Tzu, administers to his self- 
 
 ' Heracl. Eph. Rell., xlvii. ' Ibid., liv., and notes. 
 
 » Ibiii., li. * Ibid., xci., xix. * Ibid., xxix. 
 
 ® Cf. Plat, Phaedr., 265, kot &p6pa ^ ■n4<pvKcv koL jx^ iinx^ipnv 
 KATayvvvat, fxcpos ^>j5cv kukov fiayeipou rpdircf ^pwnevos. 
 
i86 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 confident follower who wanted to ''be of use." 
 " Cultivate fasting ; — not bodily fasting, but the 
 fasting of the heart." Tao can only abide in the 
 life which has got rid of self So the Duke of 
 She is reminded that there is something higher 
 than duty/ viz. destiny — the state, that is, in which 
 conscious obedience has given way to that which 
 is instinctive and automatic. The parable of the 
 trees (pp. 50-53), with its result in the survival of 
 the good-for-nothing, is again a reversal of popular 
 outside judgments. For as the first part of the 
 chapter had taught the uselessness of trying to be 
 useful, so the last part teaches the usefulness of 
 being useless. And the same thought is carried on 
 in the next chapter, which deals with the reversal 
 of common opinion as to persons. Its motto is : 
 Judge not by the appearance. Virtue must pre-' 
 vail and outward form be forgotten. The loath- 
 some leper Ai T'ai To is made Prime Minister by 
 the wise Duke Ai. The mutilated criminal is 
 judged by Lao-Tzu to be a greater man than Con- 
 fucius. For the criminal is mutilated in body by 
 man, while Confucius, though men know it not, by 
 the judgment of God is TreTn^/ow/xevoc ttjooc ajomjv. 
 
 This protest of Chuang-Tzii against externality, 
 and judging only by the outward appearance, is 
 
 * Cf. Herbert Spencer's well-known paradox, "The sense of 
 duty or moral obligation is transitory, and will diminish as fast as 
 moralization increases" (Data of Ethics, p. 127). 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 187 
 
 the first step in the protest against the Confu- 
 cianist. The sage, as conceived by the Taoist, 
 cannot be content with the visible and the world 
 as it is known to the senses. He seeks for the 
 Absolute, the Infinite, the Eternal. He seeks to 
 attain to Tao. 
 
 It is here that we reach (in chaps, vi., vii.) what 
 properly constitutes the mysticism of Chuang-Tzu. 
 Heracleitus is not a mystic, though he is the 
 founder of a long line, which through Plato, and 
 Dionysius the Areopagite (so-called), and John 
 the Scot in the ninth century, and Meister Eckhart 
 in the thirteenth, and Jacob Bohme in the six- 
 teenth, reaches down to Hegel. Heracleitus de- 
 spises the world and shuns it ; but he has not yet 
 made flight from the world a dogma. Even Plato, 
 when in a well-known passage in the Theaetetus,^ 
 he counsels flight from the present state of things, 
 explains that he means only "flee from evil and 
 become like God." Still less has Heracleitus got 
 so far as to aim at self-absorption in God. In 
 Greek thought the attempt to get rid of conscious- 
 ness, and to become the unconscious vehicle of a 
 higher illumination, is unknown till the time of 
 Philo. Yet this is the teaching of Chuang-Tzu. 
 " The true sage takes his refuge in God, and learns 
 
 ' Theaet., 176, A. hib koX ireipaaOai XP^ ivOivZe eK€7(T( 
 (pevyety ri rdx^o'Ta . tpvyr] 5e oixoiucis 0e^ Kara rh ZvvaT6v , 
 d/xoiufais 5t iiKaioy Kal o(Tiov /*6to (ppovijaews yiviaQoii, 
 
188 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 that there is no distinction between subject and 
 object. This is the very axis of Tao" (p. i8). 
 Abstraction from self, then, is the road which 
 leads to Tao (chap. vi.). The pure of old did not 
 love life and hate death. They were content to be 
 passive vehicles of Tao. They had reached the 
 state of sublime indifference, they had become 
 "oblivious of their own existence." Everything 
 in them was spontaneous ; nothing the result of 
 effort. " They made no plans ; therefore failing, 
 they had no cause for regret ; succeeding, no cause 
 for congratulation " (p. 69). " They cheerfully 
 played their allotted parts, waiting patiently for 
 the end. They were free, for they were in per- 
 fect harmony with creation" (p. 71). For them 
 One and not One are One ; God and Man. For 
 they had attained to Tao, and Tao is greater than 
 God. " Before heaven and earth were, Tao was. 
 It has existed without change from all time. 
 Spiritual beings draw their spirituality therefrom ; 
 while the universe became what we see it now. To 
 Tao the zenith is not high, nor the nadir low ; no 
 point of time is long ago, nor by lapse of ages 
 has it grown old " (p. ^6). The great legislators 
 obtained Tao, and laid down eternal principles. 
 The sun and moon, and the Great Bear are kept 
 in their courses by Tao. 
 
 " Thou dost preserve the stars from wrong ; 
 And the most ancient heavens, through thee, are fresh and 
 strong." 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT, 189 
 
 He who would attain to Tao must get rid of the 
 thought of "charity and duty," of "music and 
 ceremonies," of "body and mind." The flowers 
 and the birds do not toil, they simply live. That 
 is Tao. And for man a state of indifference and 
 calm, the uTapa^la not of the sceptic but of the 
 mystic, a passive reflecting of the Eternal, is the 
 ideal end. "The perfect man employs his mind 
 as a mirror. It grasps nothing, it refuses nothing. 
 It receives but does not keep. And thus he can 
 triumph over matter without injury to himself" 
 (see p. 98). 
 
 It would of course be presumption to attempt 
 to assign a meaning to Tao, and still more to dis- 
 cover an equivalent in Western thought. But it 
 may be lawful to say that Heracleitus often speaks 
 of AoyoQ as Chuang-Tzu speaks of Tao. It is 
 Necessity (aVay/cT]), or Fate {eluapfiivri) , or Mind 
 {yvujfiry), or Justice (Atjc/y). In nature it appears as 
 balance and equipoise ; in the state as Law ; in 
 man as the universal Reason, which is in him but 
 not of him. Sometimes it is identified with the 
 mysterious name of Zeus, which may not be 
 uttered ; ^ sometimes like the 'AvayKij of the Greek 
 poets, it is supreme over gods and men. If it is 
 hard to say what is the relation of Tao to God, it 
 is not less hard to define the relation of Aoyoc to 
 Zeus. To speak of Chuang-Tzii and Heracleitus 
 » Heracl. Eph. Rell., Ixv. 
 
I90 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 as pantheists is only to say that, so far as we can 
 translate their language into ours, that name seems 
 less inappropriate than Theist or Deist. But it is 
 doubtful whether the distinction between Pan- 
 theism and Theism would have been intelligible 
 to either philosopher, and certain that, if they could 
 have understood it, they would have denied to it 
 reality. Both held the immanence of the Eternal 
 Principle in all that is. Both taught that the soul 
 is an emanation from the Divine, and both, though 
 in very different degrees, seem to teach that a life 
 is perfect in proportion as it becomes one with that 
 from which it came, and loses what is individual 
 in it. 
 
 Of Heracleitus' views on ethics we know practi- 
 cally nothing except what we may infer from his 
 contempt for practical life and practical politicians. 
 In Aristotle, however, where, as we have seen, ethics 
 and metaphysics, though distinguished are not 
 separated, we get a new parallel to the teaching 
 of Chuang-Tzii. While Aristotle is dealing with 
 the problems of Ethics — What is tydaijULovLa? 
 What is dperr)? What is the voluntary? What 
 is free choice ? — he deliberately puts metaphysical 
 and theological questions on one side, but in the 
 progress of his investigation, as he follows his usual 
 order from the material, formless, unreasonable, un- 
 stable, to that which is immaterial, pure form, pure 
 reason, and eternal, he is led to determine the 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 191 
 
 relation of the moral and practical life to Oeuypia. 
 And the result, as every one knows, is that the 
 practical life of morality is declared to be the second 
 best ; it is the human life, while Otwpia is divine. 
 And Aristotle adds, " it is not true that man ought 
 to live the human life, rather he ought to live the life 
 which is superhuman, KpdrTwv ri kot avOpwirov," the 
 divine life, which in a certain sense is his own, 
 because vovg, the divine element which is in him 
 but not of him, is his true self. Aristotle has not 
 further developed his view of Oeivpia, and conse- 
 quently the great mediaeval controversy as to 
 whether he was a theist or a pantheist is incapable 
 of a final solution. Few, however, would refuse to 
 accept the interpretation of Averroes as harmoniz- 
 ing better the statements of Aristotle than the 
 contradictory view of St. Thomas. And if this 
 Averroistic view is true, or at least may be taken 
 as a logical development of Aristotle's principles, 
 we get to a conclusion curiously like that of 
 Chuang-Tzii. 
 
 Chuang-Tzii, of course, by reason of his antago- 
 nism to Confucianism, speaks more slightingly of 
 morality than Aristotle does, yet Aristotle con- 
 sistently treats man as an inferior part of creation. 
 If the Koafxog is infinitely greater than man, being 
 not only eternal while man lives in time, but 
 ordered by law while human life admits the 
 element of uncertainty, the study of the eternal 
 
192 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL, 
 
 must be higher than anything which has man for 
 its object. Some of Chuang-Tzu's utterances go 
 much further than this, and indeed justify the 
 charge of antinomianism so often brought against 
 mystics. The statement that "good and evil are 
 the same," may embody a deep truth for the sage, 
 but " take no heed of time, nor of right and wrong " 
 (p. 31), is, to say the least, dangerous teaching for 
 the masses. Elsewhere, however, Chuang-Tzu 
 recognizes morality, but of course subordinates it 
 to metaphysics. " What," he asks, " is Tao ? 
 There is the Tao of God and the Tao of man. In- 
 action and compliance (? self-surrender) make the 
 Tao of God ; and action and entanglement the 
 Tao of man. The Tao of God is fundamental 
 (essential ?) ; the Tao of man is accidental. Great 
 is the difference which separates them "(p. 134). 
 " Sovereignty begins in Virtue and ends in God. 
 Therefore it is divine" (p. 135). Thus virtue is the 
 connecting link between God and man, while Tao 
 spreads throughout all creation (p. 136). It is some- 
 thing higher than Charity, for it leads on to In- 
 action. " Charity and duty to one's neighbour are 
 as resting-places established by wise rulers of old. 
 You may stop there one night, but not for long. 
 The perfect men of old took their road through 
 charity, stopping a night with duty to their neigh- 
 bour, on their way to ramble in transcendental 
 space" (p. 183). The destruction of selfishness is 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 193 
 
 a Step towards the destruction of self. And " He 
 who is unconscious " of his own personality, com- 
 bines in himself the human and the divine (p. 145). 
 "The man of perfect virtue," unlike the perfect 
 man of Confucian morals, " recognizes no right nor 
 wrong, nor good, nor bad," but the divine man 
 rides upon the glory of the sky where his form can 
 no longer be discerned. This is called absorption 
 into light. He fulfils his destiny. He acts in 
 accordance with his nature. He is at one with 
 God and man" (p. 151). His rest is like the rest 
 of God, an tvipyda aKivrjcriag : " semper agens, 
 semper quietus," as St. Augustine has it. "The 
 Tao of God operates ceaselessly." So does the 
 Tao of the sage. He acts, but acts instinctively, 
 with no sense of effort and no consciousness of 
 self. He is in accord with man, and this is human 
 happiness ; he is in accord with God, and this is 
 the happiness of God (p. 159). Finally the contrast 
 between the human and the divine life is brought 
 out in a conversation between the sage and the 
 Emperor Yao, who boasts of his goodness and 
 corporal works of mercy (p. 165). All that, the 
 philosopher says, is well, but there is something 
 higher. " Be passive like the virtue of God. The 
 sun and the moon shines ; the four seasons revolve ; 
 day and night alternate ; clouds come and rain 
 falls. Alas ! " cried Yao, " what a mistake have I 
 been making. You are in accord with God ; I am 
 
 O 
 
194 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 in accord with man." In a supposed conversation 
 between Lao-Tzu and Confucius this is made the 
 difference between them.^ 
 
 This idea of absorption in God, which Chuang- 
 Tzii reached, belongs to a post-Aristotelian age. 
 But we can see the preparation for it in the dis- 
 tinction between the moral and the metaphysical, 
 and the subordination of morality to O^wpia. If 
 we could imagine the practical part of Aristotle's 
 ethics separated from its connection with Qntypla, as 
 in later days his logic was divorced from his meta- 
 physics, we can understand how rapidly it would 
 have degenerated into a mere eudaemonism, while 
 the metaphysics divorced from the ethics would 
 naturally and perhaps necessarily have developed 
 on Neo-Platonic lines into a pure mysticism. 
 
 The conclusions which I draw from these parallels 
 are, I think, not without bearing on modern questions. 
 I. Ever since the days of St. Clement of Alex- 
 andria, there has been a tendency to explain 
 parallelisms of thought by the assumption that 
 one philosophy had borrowed from the other. 
 The early Christians on finding fragments of truth 
 in heathen philosophy, jumped to the conclusion 
 that the Greeks had stolen from the barbarians, i.e. 
 the Jews. Numenius had already suggested that 
 Plato was a Greek Moses, Mwvarig drriKi^iitjv,^ and 
 
 ' See Chuang-Tzu, p. i66. 
 
 ^ ap. Clem. Alex. Strom., i. xxii. 150. 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 195 
 
 St. Clement, with all his liberal recognition of truth 
 in Greek philosophy, cannot get beyond the idea 
 that it is borrowed or stolen wisdom. One might 
 have supposed that we should have outgrown this. 
 But this is only partly true. Even in our own 
 days, the attempt has been made (by Gladisch and 
 Roth) to find an Oriental origin for Greek philo- 
 sophy. There are still to be found people who 
 think that Christianity borrowed from Buddhism, 
 while some suppose that the debt was on the other 
 side. People similarly suppose that the Sufis of 
 Islam must have come under Buddhist influence. 
 There have been endless attempts to show that the 
 doctrine of the Trinity is, or is not, to be found in 
 Taoism, in Hinduism, and elsewhere ; the under- 
 lying assumption being that, if it is, it is a borrowed 
 doctrine. In the same way "people think," as 
 Hegel says, "that by pronouncing a doctrine to be 
 Neo-Platonic, they have ipso facto banished it from 
 Christianity."^ But it is wildly improbable that 
 Aristotle should have borrowed his doctrine of the 
 Mean from the grandson of Confucius, or that 
 Chuang-Tzu should have had any knowledge of 
 the philosophy of Heracleitus, or that the Taoistic 
 view of the human life of morality and the divine 
 life of the contemplation of the Eternal should have 
 influenced Aristotle's view of the relation of the 
 practical to the speculative life. 
 
 ' Phil, of Arist., p. 343., Eng. Tr. 
 
196 jESsays scientific and philosophical. 
 
 It remains, then, that we frankly recognize the 
 truth, that the development of the reason, and the 
 problems which successively present themselves for 
 solution, follow certain laws, which are only slightly 
 modified by the circumstances of the various 
 countries and civilizations. Nothing can well be 
 more unlike than life in China and in Greece in 
 the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., yet we find 
 reason dealing with the same problems, and follow- 
 ing the same laws of evolution in its attempted 
 solutions. 
 
 2. The other conclusion which seems to me to 
 follow from the comparison I have drawn between 
 Greek and Chinese thought, is that the attempt to 
 separate the practical from the speculative, to 
 banish metaphysics and limit man to what he can 
 touch and taste and handle, results not in the 
 paralysis of the speculative reason, for reason will 
 speculate in defiance of such attempted limitations, 
 but in the paralysis of the system which professes 
 itself independent of metaphysics and theology. 
 When such a separation exists, reason will sooner 
 take refuge in a dreary philosophy of inaction than 
 acquiesce in a mere system of conduct which is 
 too stagnant to give the stimulus necessary for 
 producing the action which it enjoins. 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 197 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 OxV THE Relation of Taoism to Confu- 
 cianism. 
 
 It would be interesting to know whether in the 
 undisputed utterances of Lao-Tzu {i.e. putting on 
 one side the "Tao-Te-Ching"), Quietism and the 
 glorification of Inaction are as prominent as they 
 are in Chuang-Tzii. One would be prepared a 
 priori to find that they are not. Lao-Tzu was 
 born at the end of the seventh century B.C., and 
 was, therefore, some fifty years older than Con- 
 fucius, with whom, in 517 B.C., he is said to have 
 had an interview.^ By the time of Chuang-Tzu, 
 who was possibly contemporary with Mencius, and 
 therefore some two or three centuries after Lao- 
 Tzii, Confucianism had become to some extent 
 the established religion of China, and Taoism, like 
 Republicanism in the days of the Roman Empire, 
 became a mere opposition de salon. Under such 
 circumstances any elements of mysticism latent in 
 Lao-Tzu's system would develop rapidly. And the 
 antagonism between the representatives of Lao- 
 Tzu and Confucius would proportionately increase. 
 But philosophy does not become mystical and take 
 refuge in flight until it abandons all hope of con- 
 verting the world. When effort is useless, the 
 
 * Chuang-Tzii, ch. xiv. p. 182-189. 
 
198 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 mind idealizes Inaction, and seeks a metaphysical 
 basis for it. For mysticism and scepticism flourish 
 in the same atmosphere though in different soils, 
 both, though in different ways, implying the 
 abandonment of the rational problem. The sceptic, 
 the agnostic or positivist of to-day, declares it 
 insoluble, and settles down content to take things 
 as they are ; the mystic retires into himself, and 
 dreams of a state of being which is the obverse of 
 the world of fact. 
 
 The triumph of Confucianism in the centuries 
 which intervened between Lao-Tzii and Chuang- 
 Tzii would account for the antagonism between 
 Taoism and Confucianism as we find it. But it 
 fails to account for the way in which Confucius is 
 sometimes represented as playing into the hands 
 of Taoism. On p. 85 f n. the translator explains 
 it as a literary coup de main. Dr. Chalmers, quoted 
 by Dr. Legge,^ says that both Chuang-Tzu and 
 Lieh-Tzu introduced Confucius into their writings 
 "as the lords of the Philistines did the captive 
 Samson on their festive occasions, * to make sport 
 for them.' " But there is not a hint of this given 
 in the text, though throughout one long chapter 
 (chap, iv.) we find Confucius giving a Taoist refuta- 
 tion of Confucianist doctrines when defended by 
 his own pupil Yen Hui. It might seem like an 
 attempt to draw a distinction between Confucius 
 ^ Encycl. Met., Art. "Lao-Tzu." 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 199 
 
 and Confucianism, though elsewhere Confucius is 
 ridiculed as wanting in sense. 
 
 May not the explanation be as follows ? — 
 (i.) Lao-Tzii and Confucius were probably much 
 nearer to one another philosophically than the 
 Taoism of Chuang-Tzu and the Confucianism of 
 Mencius. The passages in which Confucius talks 
 Taoism would, on this hypothesis, represent a 
 traditional survival of their real relations to one 
 another. The episode of Confucius' visit to Lao- 
 Tzu "to ask about the TaO," would, whether it 
 records a fact or not, tend in the same direction. 
 
 (ii.) From the first we may assume that the one 
 took an ideal, the other a practical and utilitarian 
 view of Tao "the Way"; Confucius finding it in 
 social duties and the work of practical life, Lao- 
 Tzu in the hidden and the inivard, the "interior 
 life," as Christian mystics would call it. Thus the 
 historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien,^ says, " Lao-Tzu culti- 
 vated the Tao and virtue, his chief aim in his 
 studies being how to keep himself concealed and 
 unknown." Seeing the decay of the dynasty he 
 withdrew himself out of sight, and no one knows 
 where he died. 
 
 (iii.) The divergence between the two views, the 
 ideal and the actual, the mystical and the practical, 
 would increase with time, each intensifying the 
 other by opposition and reaction, until the practical 
 
 ' Quoted by Dr. Legge, loc, cit. 
 
200 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHIIOSOPHICAL. 
 
 won its way to security, and the mystical got left 
 out in the cold, perhaps persecuted, certainly sus- 
 pected and treated as heterodox, and naturally 
 retaliating by scornful criticism of the dominant 
 view. When this stage is reached, Mencius regards 
 Lao-Tzu as a heresiarch, while Chuang-Tzu often 
 treats Confucius with contempt and ridicule. For 
 " the Way that is walked upon is not the Way," 
 and " the Tao which shines forth is not Tao " 
 (p. 25). But Confucianism being "established," 
 the Taoists are now "dissenters," and not being- 
 strong enough to disestablish Confucianism become 
 more and more mystical, and content themselves 
 with a policy of protest. 
 
 If there is little direct evidence for this theory as 
 to the relations of Taoism and Confucianism, there 
 is a curious parallel in Western thought. When 
 Plato was known only in a neo-Platonic disguise, 
 and Aristotle judged by the " Organon," it was pos- 
 sible for partisans to represent the two philosophers 
 as typical opposites, and to assume that "every 
 one is born a Platonist or an Aristotelian," for- 
 getting that Aristotle was Plato's pupil, and both 
 were followers of Socrates. Later on, when Aris- 
 totelianism became " established " as the Christian 
 philosophy, Platonism, which survived in the more 
 mystical schoolmen, fell under suspicion, and not 
 unfrequently justified the suspicion by developing 
 in the direction of Pantheism. It was not till the 
 
GREEK AND CHINESE THOUGHT. 201 
 
 thirteenth century that the world appealed from 
 Platonists and Aristotelians to Plato and Aristotle, 
 and discovered that the divergent streams flowed 
 from neighbouring springs. Such an appeal, it is 
 to be feared, is hardly possible in the case of Lao- 
 Tzu and Confucius, especially as the authenticity 
 of the " Tao-Te-Ching " is still in controversy among 
 Sinologues. 
 
202 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 X. 
 
 SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTI- 
 TUTIONS.i 
 
 " There can be no true conception of a structure 
 without a true conception of its function." This 
 is the opening sentence of Ecclesiastical InstiUi- 
 tions, and it is the best criticism of the book itself. 
 If from first to last we get no true conception of 
 ecclesiastical institutions, it is because the author 
 starts with an utterly inadequate view of the 
 function of religion. Even Mr. Spencer fails when 
 he tries to give us the play of " Hamlet " with the 
 Prince of Denmark left out. 
 
 The first two pages and a half — of which one 
 page is given to a dialogue between Sir Samuel 
 Baker and a chief of the Latooki, a born Positivist, 
 named Commoro — are thought sufficient to dis- 
 prove the theory " that religious ideas have a 
 supernatural origin." The rest of the volume has, 
 therefore, only to deal with the question — " What 
 is their natural origin, and how do they express 
 themselves in ecclesiastical institutions .-* " 
 
 » "Ecclesiastical Institutions." Part VL of "The Principles of 
 Sociology," By Herbert Spencer. Williams and Norgate. 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 203 
 
 It is obvious here that Mr. Spencer is either 
 playing with words or deluded by words. " That 
 religion has a supernatural origin " might mean 
 that all religions, however debased, are a groping 
 after a supernatural reality, whom Christians 
 worship as the Triune God. And this Mr. Spencer 
 cannot consistently deny, though he would assert 
 that that reality, which we may speak of as neither 
 " He " nor '' It," is, and always must be, unknow- 
 able. But by " the supernatural origin of religion " 
 Mr. Spencer seems to mean the existence of "an 
 innate consciousness of Deity." And this he is 
 prepared to deny, in the interest of his hypothesis 
 of "ghost-worship." 
 
 " It is strange," Mr. Spencer remarks, " how 
 impervious to evidence the mind becomes when 
 once prepossessed." Yet so prepossessed is he in 
 favour of his own theory, that he does not take 
 the trouble to find out what " theologians at large " 
 really do say, before he refutes them. This is in 
 keeping with what he has done elsewhere. For 
 instance, in the "Data of Ethics" it occurred to 
 him to discuss " theological ethics," and the chosen 
 representative was a perfectly unknown Quaker, 
 who had committed himself to some more or less 
 immoral statements, which Mr. Spencer saw his 
 way to refuting. In the present case, a theologian 
 is in no way bound to believe that man is by 
 nature a ready-made monotheist, or that he at 
 
204 J^SSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 once recognizes God, the soul, and immortality as 
 " postulates of the practical reason." That man is 
 a "religious animal" is as much implied in his 
 worshipping the ghosts of his ancestors as in any 
 other worship. But, of course, Mr. Spencer's con- 
 tention is that there are some tribes in which 
 religion of any kind does not exist. "All religion," 
 he says, on the authority of Schweinfurth, " in our 
 sense of the word religion " (a very important 
 limitation, by-the-bye) "is quite unknown to the 
 Bongo." Therefore not only is the religious idea 
 not innate, but the religious instinct is not universal 
 in man. 
 
 We do not propose to discuss here the much- 
 debated question as to the existence of tribes of 
 atheists. If it could be proved, we should no 
 longer be able to point to the universality of the 
 instinct of worship as an argument in favour of a 
 real Object of worship. St. Paul no doubt asserts 
 of the Romans of his day, and by implication of 
 other Gentiles, that they were " without excuse " 
 in rejecting God ; and theologians have held that 
 there is no such thing as invincible ignorance of 
 God. If this is what Mr. Spencer means by " an 
 innate consciousness of Deity," then there would 
 seem to be a clear issue raised between him and 
 the theologians. But the question cannot be 
 settled off-hand on the basis of an uncritical con- 
 versation between savages and the casual traveller. 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 205 
 
 The existence of God does not stand or fall with 
 the results of a dialogue between Sir Samuel 
 Baker and Commoro or between Mr. Gardiner and 
 a Zulu ; nor is the question seriously affected by 
 the experience which some gentlemen record as to 
 deaf mutes. The fact that an intelligent Zulu once 
 asked questions which Bishop Colenso could not 
 answer did not, as some people fondly imagined, 
 disprove the inspiration of the Pentateuch. 
 
 Mr. Spencer is just as unable to appreciate the 
 position of a Christian theologian, when, having 
 shown to his own satisfaction that religion in 
 various primitive or savage nations is ultimately 
 traceable to a ghost theory, because "from the 
 supposed reality of dreams, there resulted the 
 supposed reality of ghosts, whence developed all 
 kinds of supposed supernatural beings," he goes 
 on to ask whether it is possible to believe that 
 the religion of the Hebrews is to be ranked in a 
 different category. Now, while entirely rejecting, 
 as fanciful and utterly unproved, the hypothesis 
 of the natural genesis of religion from dreams, we 
 as entirely agree that the Hebrews stood originally 
 on the same level with other primitive nations. 
 Indeed, if Mr. Spencer had proved that the 
 Hebrews were originally worse than the surround- 
 ing nations, more barbarous and savage than they 
 were, it would only have been in keeping with 
 what the Bible tells us of God's purpose, choosing 
 
206 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 the weak and the contemptible and the despised, 
 to do His work in the education of the world. 
 The Hebrews were constantly reminded of this, lest 
 they should assume that they had been chosen for 
 any pre-eminence of theirs over the surrounding 
 nations. 
 
 If, then, they were chosen by God, as Christians 
 believe, to be the vehicle of His revelation of 
 Himself — whether it was the first revelation or 
 a restoration of a lost knowledge does not affect 
 the present question — it was natural (i.) that the 
 old barbarous, idolatrous, and polytheistic ten- 
 dencies should only gradually give way ; and (ii.) 
 that the new truth should be anthropomorphically 
 conceived. What Mr. Spencer has got to explain 
 is not the existence of anthropomorphism, and 
 the survival of an idolatrous tendency, which no 
 reasonable Christian would deny, but the rapid 
 progress of "deanthropomorphization," and the 
 vigorous protest of the prophets against idol- 
 worship as treason against God. For it is this 
 which has made the otherwise utterly insignificant 
 Hebrews of such supreme importance in the history 
 of the world. 
 
 It so happens that, so far as the religion of the 
 Hebrews is concerned, we are not dependent on 
 travellers' tales, but have documentary evidence, 
 which we presume even Mr. Spencer accepts, since 
 he quotes from it when it suits his purpose. It is 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 207 
 
 worth while then to ask whether he has fairly 
 represented the Hebrew Scriptures. And yet in 
 doing so we feel that an apology is due to our 
 readers for offering them a criticism of statements 
 which, but for the great name of Herbert Spencer, 
 might be put aside as childish and unintelligent, if 
 not intentionally dishonest. The anthropomor- 
 phisms are exaggerated ; the parallelisms are 
 strained ; the language is misunderstood ; great 
 questions are settled without discussion so as to 
 make for the theory which the author has set him- 
 self to prove. We venture to recommend to Mr. 
 Spencer not only a closer acquaintance with the 
 words of the Old Testament, but also some slight 
 study of Elizabethan English. 
 
 We are told, first, that " the plasma of super- 
 stitions amid which the religion of the Hebrews 
 evolved was of the same nature with that found 
 everywhere." This may be readily granted. Also 
 "that sundry traditions they held in common with 
 other peoples." This, so far from being denied, is 
 commonly quoted (rightly or wrongly) as a proof 
 of something quite different from what Mr. Spencer 
 is contending for. We now come to the theology. 
 And here we are told that "under the common 
 title Elohini were comprehended distinguished 
 living persons, ordinary ghosts, superior ghosts or 
 gods," // or El being applied to heroes and to 
 the gods of the Gentiles : — 
 
2o8 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 " Out of these conceptions grew up, as in other cases, the 
 propitiation or worship of various supernatural beings — a 
 polytheism. Abraham was a demigod to whom prayers 
 were addressed. ' They sacrificed unto devils, not to God ; 
 to gods whom they knew not, to new gods that came newly 
 up, whom your fathers feared not.' That the belief in other 
 gods than Jahveh long survived is shown by Solomon's 
 sacrifices to them, as well as by the denunciations of the 
 prophets. Moreover, even after Jahveh had become the 
 acknowledged great-god, the general conception was essen- 
 tially polytheistic." 
 
 Of course, Mr. Spencer, no less than the most 
 Orthodox Jew or Christian, is at liberty to believe 
 that the Hebrew monotheism rose out of a previous 
 polytheistic belief, though there is little evidence to 
 be adduced from the Old Testament, the worship 
 of other gods being generally, if not always, repre- 
 sented as the worship of strange gods, the gods of 
 the heathen nations round about. If the golden 
 calf was a return to Apis worship, the idolatry 
 against which the prophets protest is mainly an 
 bnported idolatry, or at least is so represented. 
 Still we readily concede to Mr. Spencer that the 
 readiness with which the Jews assimilated foreign 
 idolatry may be urged in proof that there was a 
 survival of the polytheistic tendency, if not of the 
 old polytheistic worship. If, as Mr. Spencer sug- 
 gests, the belief in good and evil angels is enough 
 to make a religion " essentially polytheistic," then 
 cadit quaestio, not only so far as the Hebrews are 
 concerned, but so far as concerns Christianity too. 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 209 
 
 Calmly assuming, as if there was no doubt about 
 it, that Jahveh "was originally one god among 
 many — the god who became supreme," who from 
 being "originally a local potentate " came to be 
 considered *' a local god — * the God of Israel,' " 
 Mr. Spencer adds, " The command, ' Thou shalt 
 have none other gods but Me,' did not imply that 
 there were none, but that the Israelites were not to 
 recognize their authority." And yet we do not 
 believe that Mr. Spencer is consciously dishonest. 
 He is only blinded by his prepossession in favour 
 of an a priori assumption, which requires that the 
 monotheistic idea should only gradually emerge. 
 Whatever traces of idolatry there may be, and 
 there are many, and whether that idolatry was a 
 survival, or a revival, or an importation, all the 
 authoritative teaching is on the side of the truth 
 of One only God. The phrase the " God of Israel " 
 expresses, not the existence of other gods, but the 
 unique relationship in which the Hebrews believed 
 themselves to stand towards the One God. To 
 argue that the mention of other gods is an 
 admission that they were really gods, though 
 inferior to Jahveh, is to lay one's self open to 
 a reductio ad absurdum. Even the passage which 
 Mr. Spencer quotes from the Song of Moses is 
 interpreted a few verses later ^ by Moses him- 
 self, when he says, "They have moved me to 
 
 ' Deut. xxxi. 21. 
 
2IO ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 jealousy with that which is not God," though he 
 had previously spoken of this " not God " as " a 
 god." Just in the same way David says, "All the 
 gods of the nations are idols ; but the Lord 
 made the heavens ; " and Hezekiah, when admit- 
 ting the truth of Rabshakeh's boast, explains it 
 by the fact that the gods of the nations "were 
 no gods, but the work of men's hands." ^ It is, 
 therefore, no new view of the heathen gods when, 
 in opposition to the one true God, they are called 
 by the prophets " lies " and the " teachers of lies." 
 A few lines afterwards Mr. Spencer has to admit 
 that there are to be found, in reference to Jahveh, 
 " assertions of universality of rule," but he attri- 
 butes little importance to this, since similar state- 
 ments are made by the Egyptians with regard to a 
 living Pharaoh ! If an English theologian of the 
 eleventh century had ascribed to God power over 
 the forces of nature, would Mr. Spencer argue that 
 it meant nothing because some flattering courtiers, 
 according to the old story, ascribed similar power 
 to King Canute } 
 
 The next count in the indictment is that " there 
 was no claim to omnipotence " for Jahveh. Mr. 
 Spencer discreetly avoids saying what period he is 
 speaking of, but as the passages he quotes under 
 this head are taken from the ante-regal period we 
 will assume (though with very considerable hesita- 
 
 ^ 2 Kings xix. 1 8. 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 211 
 
 tion) that he is aware of the numerous passages in 
 the Psalms and prophets in which omnipotence 
 and exclusive godhead are ascribed to Jehovah. 
 To prove his case Mr. Spencer quotes two passages, 
 and alludes airily to a third. But of the two 
 passages quoted one is, by Mr. Spencer's request, 
 to be cancelled, presumably because it is based 
 upon a foolish mistake. We are left, then, with 
 two proofs, which are worth noticing. The first is 
 " the alleged failure of his (Jahveh's) attempt per- 
 sonally to slay Moses." No reference is given for 
 this, but we can hardly be wrong in supposing 
 that Mr. Spencer has in his mind the words in 
 Exod. iv. 24. " The Lord met him and sought to 
 kill him." The passage is a difficult one, no doubt, 
 but so far as Mr. Spencer's point is concerned it is 
 transparently clear. Whether the explanation 
 which is commonly given is right or not — ^viz. 
 that God sent a dangerous sickness to Moses 
 because of his having neglected to circumcise the 
 child — the statement is that the Lord "met him 
 and sought to slay him," but (after Zippo.rah had 
 performed the rite of circumcision) let him go. If 
 this had been quoted in proof that God repents, it 
 might have been worth something. It is abso- 
 lutely valueless as proving God's inability to slay 
 Moses. Either Mr. Spencer only read the first of 
 the three verses in which the incident is recorded, 
 or (can it be possible ? ) he interpreted " he let him 
 
212 jEssays scientific and philosophical. 
 
 go " to mean " he was not able to hold him fast " ! 
 Will our readers believe that the only other proof 
 that Jahveh is not conceived as omnipotent (omit- 
 ting the cancelled passage) is i Sam. iv. 3-10, in 
 which the Israelites are defeated by the Philistines, 
 and the Ark is taken ! And this is all that we 
 have to set off against the Old Testament revela- 
 tion of "the Judge of all the earth." Mr. Spencer 
 simply adopts the wildest of Kuenen's fancies, 
 without the ingenuity which Kuenen shows in their 
 defence. 
 
 We need not carry our examination further. 
 The statement that God was neither omniscient 
 nor moral we have heard before, and the answer 
 is obvious. Mr. Spencer has nothing new to say 
 about it Nor have we. 
 
 With such a view of religion, and such a theory 
 of Old Testament theology, we cannot hope for 
 much, though there are interesting points we 
 might notice here and there in Mr. Spencer's 
 account of ecclesiastical institutions and the 
 specialization of functions. His categories, how- 
 ever, are all biological, and seldom fit, except 
 metaphorically, the facts of morals and religion. 
 It is no wonder that " a satisfactory distinction 
 between priests and medicine men is difficult to 
 find," if both are concerned only with ghosts. 
 The account of the customs of savage tribes is 
 varied enough, and readable, if not instructive. 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 213 
 
 We should like to believe that it is more trust- 
 worthy than the account of the Hebrew religion. 
 And yet when Mr. Spencer has to depend on 
 secondhand reports brought back by men who did 
 not specially collect materials for the use to which 
 Mr. Spencer puts them, we can hardly hope for 
 accuracy. And as for the use to which Mr. 
 Spencer puts his materials, though it would be 
 hard to press against him the maxim, Falsus in 
 ujio falsus in omftibus, yet it is, perhaps, as well 
 that the account of the Jews comes so early in 
 the volume, so that readers may test at the outset 
 •the critical value of the whole. 
 
 Mr. Spencer assumes, not altogether without 
 evidence, that in a polytheistic people there is 
 generally " a gravitation towards monotheism ; " 
 and that mental progress helped on the tendency 
 among the Jews. But he doubts whether mono- 
 theism ever becomes complete or maintains its 
 purity. By monotheism he understands only the 
 view held "by unitarians of the advanced type, 
 and by those who are called theists," trinitarian 
 monotheism being, we are informed, "partially 
 polytheistic." An ecclesiastical hierarchy arises 
 as soon as there appears "a decided distinction 
 between the affairs of this world and those of a 
 supposed other world." Thenceforward the eccle- 
 siastical and political organizations grow up side 
 by side, first in a state of fusion, then differentiat- 
 
214 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 ing, till a perfect separation is effected. But 
 ecclesiasticism always stands for " the principle of 
 social continuity," a social bond of a very con- 
 servative character — a fact which is easily ex- 
 plained when we remember that the very raison 
 d'etre of religion is the propitiation of an ancestral 
 ghost. 
 
 On the military and civil functions of priests, 
 and the differentiation of the sacerdotal from the 
 military function, Mr. Spencer has a good deal 
 to say. And he cannot be accused of modifying 
 his statements for fear of giving offence to the 
 clergy. On the subject of war he finds it con- 
 venient to ignore the early centuries of Chris- 
 tianity and the unvarying teaching of the Christian 
 Church, in order to emphasize the military func- 
 tions of some mediaeval prelates. His Church 
 history is, however, not his strong point, but he 
 has wonderful powers of seeing resemblances where 
 the ordinary man sees only difference. Who but 
 Mr. Spencer could have detected a survival of the 
 original union of the military and sacerdotal 
 functions in a prayer written by the present 
 Archbishop of Canterbury for the Egyptian war ; 
 or found a proof of clerical cruelty in the fact 
 that a little boy was beaten to death at the 
 "clerically governed" King's College? 
 
 The .chapters on " Church and State " and 
 " Nonconformity " are so sketchy as to be of little 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 215 
 
 value. Nonconformity may, however, henceforth 
 claim Mr. Herbert Spencer as an honorary member. 
 He affiliates modern Nonconformity to the heresies 
 of every age, congratulates it on the "rebellious 
 movement of the Reformation ; " but regrets " the 
 regrowth of a coercive rule," almost as much as 
 he regrets the recrudescence in modern politics of 
 the military spirit : — 
 
 " Calvin (he reminds us) was a Pope comparable with any 
 who issued bulls from the Vatican. The discipline of the 
 Scottish Presbyterians was as despotic, as rigorous, and as 
 relentless as any which Catholicism had enforced. The 
 Puritans of New England were as positive in their dogmas, 
 and as severe in their persecutions, as were the ecclesiastics 
 of the Church they left behind." 
 
 Still Nonconformity is commended for being 
 steadily antisacerdotal, and for having been the 
 cause of the multiplication of sects. Continental 
 writers, according to Mru Spencer, are quite wrong 
 in reproaching us with this. " Philosophically 
 considered, it is one of England's superior traits." 
 As there are this year two hundred and twenty- 
 five sects actually registered, England is to be 
 congratulated on her " superiority." 
 
 In the last two chapters we find Mr. Spencer 
 posing as historian and prophet in one ; only, 
 unfortunately, his history is not such as to make 
 us place unlimited faith in his prophecy. In 
 ecclesiastical institutions it is well to know that 
 there will be complete autonomy in each religious 
 
2i6 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 body, and a complete loss of the sacerdotal cha- 
 racter. With the transition from dogmatic theism 
 to agnosticism all ideas of propitiation will lapse, 
 but *' there will ever be a sphere for those who are 
 able to impress their hearers with a due sense of 
 the mystery in which the origin and meaning of 
 the Universe is shrouded." This, and the insist- 
 ence on duty, and the conduct of life, will form 
 the subject matter of the sermons of the future. 
 In religion, the process of "deanthropomorphiza- 
 tion " — a word which Mr. Spencer has borrowed 
 from Mr. Fiske — will be complete, and we shall 
 be left with a final consciousness of the Un- 
 knowable : — 
 
 " One truth must grow ever clearer, the truth that there is 
 an Inscrutable Existence everywhere manifested, to which 
 man can neither find nor conceive either beginning or end. 
 Amid the mysteries which become more mysterious the 
 more they are thought about, there will remain the one 
 absolute certainty, that he is ever in the presence of an 
 Infinite and Eternal Energy, from which all things proceed." 
 
 And, paradox though it may seem, this is the 
 explanation even of ghost-worship. Mr. Spencer 
 and his bete noire the theologians have something 
 in common after all. For they, too, believe that 
 all the imperfect and grotesque forms of worship — 
 even ghost-worship, if there is such a thing — owe 
 their reality to, and find their explanation in, the 
 existence of the One Supreme Object of worship. 
 At first it looked as if Mr. Spencer was saying 
 
SPENCER'S ECCLESIASTICAL INSTITUTIONS. 217 
 
 just the opposite — viz. that the highest religion 
 finds its explanation in ghost-worship, and ghosts 
 have no reality. Now, we are told that there was 
 a germ of truth even in the primitive conception, 
 and its later developments are not less real, but 
 more real than the earlier forms, because they 
 approximate more closely to the worship of the 
 Unknowable. In other words, according to Mr. 
 Spencer, the worship of the Unknowable is implicit 
 in ghost -worship, and is its ground and under- 
 lying truth, though, of course, it is hot present 
 to consciousness. Surely the theologian may be 
 allowed to assert the same of '*the innate con- 
 sciousness of God." At all events, he cannot be 
 refuted by the cross-examination of a savage. 
 
2i8 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 XL 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF HOLY SCRIPTURE 
 AND THE ATTITUDE OF THE CHURCH 
 WITH RESPECT TO WAR. 
 
 An address delivered at the Portsmouth Church Congress, 
 October, 1885. 
 
 Our President has spoken of this subject as a 
 " dehcate and difficult " one. I confess I am not 
 greatly troubled by the delicacy of my position. 
 Those who serve their Queen and country as our 
 soldiers and sailors do, will not only allow, they 
 will expect the Christian priest to do his duty. But 
 the difficulty is a very real one. When Christ was 
 born into the world the angels proclaimed " Peace 
 on earth : " His legacy to us was, " Peace I leave 
 with you, My peace I give unto you : " when He 
 came among us from the grave He said, " Peace 
 be unto you." The new Kingdom was a King- 
 dom of Peace ; the promised Comforter was the 
 Spirit of Peace : Christ Himself was the Prince of 
 Peace. How, then, are we to explain the teaching 
 of the Bible and the attitude of the Church in 
 respect of War } The Old Testament commands, 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND WAR. 219 
 
 the Church allows, that which on any showing is 
 alien from the Spirit of the Gospel. 
 
 The solution of this double difficulty is to be 
 found, I believe, in a fuller recognition of two 
 great principles of God's dealing with man, which 
 at bottom are one and the same ; — first, that the 
 Old Testment is a progressive revelation ; and 
 secondly, that Christianity is a principle of life and 
 growth, not a formal system of conduct. If I had 
 fifteen hours before me instead of fifteen minutes, 
 I might hope to show how those two principles 
 apply to the difficulties before us ; and how, in the 
 last analysis, the two are one. As it is, I can 
 only summarize. 
 
 I. TJie Bible is a progressive revelation '^hich 
 cidminates in the Gospel of Christ. Not only in its 
 teaching on War, but in its teaching generally, the 
 Old Testament is preparatory and introductory 
 to the New. If, for instance, it could be shown 
 that the Old Testament taught a gospel of war, 
 and the New Testament a gospel of peace, how- 
 ever puzzled we might be by such an opposition, 
 we should still believe that it was somehow the 
 opposition between a lower and a higher revelation. 
 If this is not so, if the Bible has not respect to the 
 gradual education of mankind, if its utterances lie, 
 as it were, all in one plane, I can find in it only a 
 mass of contradictions and inconsistent moralities. 
 But as I listen to those calm words from the lips 
 
220 £SSAYS SCIENJIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 of Him Who spoke with authority, — " It was said 
 to them of old time, but I say unto you," — I see 
 in the Old Testament, as St. Paul did in the Law, 
 a TrafSaywyoc uq Xpiarov leading men on little by 
 little till they could sit at the feet of Jesus. Its 
 teaching is provisional only because propcedeutic. 
 It is destroyed only by being fulfilled. 
 
 But if this principle is to help us we must be 
 able to show how the Old Testament teaching 
 about war prepared for, and led up to, the Gospel 
 of peace. It is no use to say the Old Testament 
 wars were commanded by God and that is enough. 
 Undoubtedly the immediate justification for them 
 was the direct command of God, but conscience 
 demands an ulterior justification. If immoral acts 
 become moral when done by God, as Zwingli taught, 
 either there is no morality, or God is not God. 
 
 Now the revelation of the Old Testament stands 
 midway between the natural instincts of man and 
 the supernatural life of the kingdom of God. 
 Without committing ourselves to the sophistic 
 fiction of a bellum omnium inter omnes^ we are 
 bound to admit that, when the struggle for exist- 
 ence among families or peoples comes, the law of 
 force prevails. Man tacitly assumes " that he may 
 take who has the power, and he may keep -who 
 can." No doubt the social instincts • on the brie 
 hand, and experience of the evils of war on the 
 other, tend to modify this view. The greatest of 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND WAR. 221 
 
 heathen teachers declares that " no one chooses 
 war for the sake of war. A man would be blood- 
 thirsty indeed if he turned his friends into foes in 
 order to bring about battle and murder;" but in 
 another context he remarks that " it is mere slavery 
 if a man may not give another as good as he gave," 
 In fact, it would seem that however civilization may 
 mitigate the barbarity of war, it still leaves un- 
 touched the idea that wclt is a natural right. 
 
 It is here that the teaching of the Old Testa- 
 ment about war, even at its lowest, shows a definite 
 advance. It takes man as he is, with his savage, 
 warlike instincts ; it does not ignore his nature, 
 and proclaim at once a reign of peace. It does not 
 even strike directly at the war spirit. It accepts 
 war. But the people to whom are committed " the 
 oracles of God," are to be taught to see war in a 
 new light. It is taken out of the hands of man. 
 It is God's prerogative. Man wages war lawfully 
 only as His vicegerent. He is fighting "the battle 
 of the Lord." ^ There is nothing personal in the 
 Israelitish campaigns, nothing even national except 
 so far as the cause of Israel is the cause of God. 
 We think it a great advance in civilization when 
 men neither take the law into their own han-ds, 
 nor suffer a relative to be the avenger of blood, 
 but trust to the administration of an impersonal 
 law. Revenge, which, even in the individual, is " a 
 
 * I Sam. xviii. 17 ; xxv. 28. 
 
222 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 kind of wild justice," is then transformed into that 
 righteous indignation which h'es at the root of the 
 judicial system. Such an advance is the teaching 
 of the Pentateuch in respect of War. It was the 
 first, though an indirect blow to the war-spirit 
 among the Jews. But they had much more to 
 learn. That God is a God of battles is a half 
 truth, which, to us, seems almost immoral. The 
 higher truth, which is revealed in the Old Testa- 
 ment, was dimly shadowed forth when the Patri- 
 archal Conqueror, returning from the slaughter of 
 the kings, did homage to a mysterious King of 
 Peace. And when the wars of conquest were over, 
 and the chosen people were established in the 
 promised land, their king, who had fought the 
 Lord's battles, is forbidden to build the Temple, 
 because he has been "a man of war," and "has 
 shed blood abundantly."^ That honour is reserved 
 for " a man of rest," under whom " peace and quiet- 
 ness" is promised.^ The Jews, from first to last, had 
 been taught that the explanation of the present is 
 in the future, and as this future becomes clearer, it 
 is revealed as a Kingdom of Peace. God is no 
 longer "a man of war."^ " He maketh wars to cease 
 in all the earth."* He no longer "teaches the hands 
 to war and the fingers to fight." He " scatters the 
 people that delight in war." Clearer and more clear 
 
 ^ I Chron. xxii. 8 ; xxiii. 3. ^ i Chron. xxii. 
 
 ^ Exod. XV. 3. * Ps. xlvi. 9. 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND WAR. 223 
 
 the promise is seen, that not Israel only, but through 
 them the whole world, shall know the blessings of 
 peace, when " nation shall not lift up sword against 
 nation, neither shall they learn war any more." 
 
 The Old Testament teaching, in respect of war 
 is thus propaedeutic and provisional. The King- 
 dom of Peace is not an after-thought ; the whole 
 of God's ancient revelation leads up to it. The 
 Old Testament accepts war only to destroy war. 
 It lifts war out of the region of personal and 
 national ambition, by claiming it as God's pre- 
 rogative ; and then, as the knowledge of God's 
 nature is broadened and deepened, the promise 
 is given of a Kingdom of Peace under the Messi- 
 anic rule. 
 
 II. But if the Old Testament teaching about 
 war can be explained in the light of the great 
 principle that God's revelation of Himself is 
 progressive, what are we to say about the teaching 
 of the Christian Church? The promised Prince 
 of Peace was born into the world nearly nineteen 
 centuries ago, and war still exists, not among 
 heathens only, but among professedly Christian 
 nations. The Divine Society, the visible embodi- 
 ment of the Kingdom of Peace, even contemplates 
 the fact of war. How are we to explain this 
 paradox } Some people will offer us a rough and 
 ready solution. They have hardly got beyond the 
 negative idea of peace as given by Mr. Chadband : 
 
324 ^SSA YS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 " Oh, my friends, what is peace ? Is it war ? No, 
 it is not war." Therefore, they argue, the King- 
 dom of Peace excludes war, and either the Church 
 has absolutely forbidden war, or it has been false 
 to its trust. 
 
 BtU what does the Church say about war? I 
 answer, It recognizes war as 2. fact, never as a right. 
 Under the Gospel, war is an anachronism and 
 a survival. The Church never condemns the life 
 of a soldier, but it never "contemplates war 
 forensically " as a legitimate international court 
 of appeal. Even Dr. Mozley, in spite of his 
 magnificent tour de force, is compelled to admit 
 that "Christianity only sanctions war upon the 
 hypothesis of a world at discord with herself. 
 In her own world war would be impossible." ^ It 
 never forgets that war is alien from the spirit 
 of Christianity ; yet it never forgets that Christi- 
 anity is to work like hidden leaven. No doubt 
 individual Christians from the first have been 
 found to hold the view, which finds its strongest 
 expression in Tertullian, and is, perhaps, also the 
 view of Origen, that the Sermon on the Mount 
 forbids military service altogether, and even the 
 administration of justice in matters of life and 
 death. But this was not the common teaching 
 of the ante-Nicene Church. Even while the 
 Empire was pagan, and military ^service might 
 
 ^ University Sermons, p. 1 19. 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND WAR. 225 
 
 seem to imply acquiescence in heathen ceremonies, 
 Christians in large numbers fought in the Roman 
 army, as Tertullian himself admits, and no dis- 
 ciplinary canons forbade it. The stories of the 
 Thundering Legion and of the Theban Legion 
 a century later, whatever be their literal truth, 
 are sufficient to prove that Christians fought under 
 Marcus Aurelius and Diocletian, and that the pro- 
 fession of the soldier was not like that of the gla- 
 diator, the actor, the idolmaker, and the astrologer 
 forbidden to the baptized. The words, " I may 
 not fight, for I am a Christian," were uttered by 
 the martyr Maximilian (295 A.D.), at the very time 
 when large numbers of his brethren were doing 
 what he felt impossible. 
 
 When I turn to St. Augustine as representing 
 the post-Nicene Fathers, and to St. Thomas 
 Aquinas as representing the schoolmen, I find the 
 same teaching. It is taken for granted that the 
 case of the faithful centurion in the Gospel, and 
 of Cornelius in the Acts, justified a Christian in 
 bearing arms. If the soldier is the enemy of 
 Christ, it is not his position but his disposition 
 makes him so {no7i militia sed malitia.) St. 
 Augustine even advises Count Boniface not to 
 enter a monastery, but to do his duty as a Christian 
 general. But under Christian Emperors a wider 
 question is raised, viz. Is war ever lawful for a 
 Christian power? And the answer is. The 
 
 Q 
 
226 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Christian must always will peace^ though war 
 may be forced upon him {Pacem habere debet 
 voluntas, bellum necessitas) ; and, even in war, the 
 Christian must labour for peace {esto ergo bellando 
 pacificus, etc.). He will fight miser icorditer^ in the 
 spirit of a father who is compelled to chasten those 
 he loves. And St. Thomas closely follows St. 
 Augustine. " Three things," he says, '' are neces- 
 sary for a just war, the authority of the ruler, a 
 righteous cause, and a good intention. Any other 
 war is unlawful."^ But the rapid deterioration 
 which had taken place in the Western Church 
 between the fourth and the thirteenth century is 
 shown by the numerous canons passed against even 
 clergy bearing arms. The Crusades had familiar- 
 ized men's minds with bloodshed in the name of 
 Christ, and the wars of Christians with one another 
 had confused their judgment. The proclamation 
 of a " Truce of God " marks the ineffective pro- 
 test of Christianity against a spirit which it had 
 done so little to overcome. 
 
 Why, then, did not the Christian Church from 
 the first prohibit war as Tertullian would have 
 done } Because it had realized the fact that 
 Christianity is a principle of life which is to trans- 
 form the world into itself. " We see not yet all 
 things put under Him." The ideal is not the 
 actual, either for the Christian society or for the 
 
 ^ Summa. Theol., 2, 2, Q. XL. Art. i. 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND WAR. 227 
 
 individual Christian, and to attempt to make it so 
 is not really to advance the Kingdom of God. 
 There will always be those 
 
 " Whose best hope for the world 
 Is ever that the world is near its end, 
 Impatient of the stars that keep their course 
 And make no pathway for the coming Judge." 
 
 But the citizens of the Kingdom of Heaven are 
 to be the leaven of the world, and "they ought 
 not," says St. Augustine, " to wish before the time 
 to dwell with none but saints and righteous men." 
 It is a dangerous thing to ante-date the millennial 
 reign of Christ. 
 
 You mean, then, that Christianity takes human 
 nature as it is? Yes ; but only that it may make 
 it what it is not. Christianity did not prohibit 
 slavery ; in a sense it accepted it. But it enunciated 
 principles ultimately inconsistent with slavery. 
 It did not prohibit war, and say that no Christian 
 might carry arms, but it attacked the war spirit 
 in every form. Cessante causd cessat et effectus. 
 But the converse is not true. You may prohibit 
 slavery, and declare that every man and woman 
 is free whose foot is set on English soil, and, 
 meanwhile, a white slave trade, as anti-christian 
 and as inhuman as anything on the coast of Africa, 
 is in our midst. And if war could be forbidden 
 we might still be as far as ever from the kingdom 
 of peace. Is the lust of glory more cruel than the 
 
228 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 lust of gain ? Less careful of the good of others ? 
 " What is it," asks St. Augustine, ** that we blame in 
 war ? Not the fact of death, for all must die ; but 
 " the desire for wrong, the cruelty of revenge, the 
 implacable spirit, the savagery of fighting, the lust 
 of lordship — this is what we blame in war, and this 
 is what is condemned by Divine and human law." 
 The attempt to distinguish between just and unjust 
 wars is one which, till the Spirit of Peace inspires 
 our motives, can only lead to casuistry. Not only 
 religious wars, but wars of mere earthly empire 
 darken the page of human history. Yet was there 
 ever a war which could not be justified, on the 
 plea of self-defence, or the service of God ? Are 
 we to blame a Christian nation if, like the errant 
 knights of old, it goes about redressing human 
 wrongs with earthly weapons ? Does not the end 
 justify the means 1 Is not there something of truth 
 in the sneer that even missionary work, which was 
 once done by a Henry Martyn, is now done by a 
 Martini-Henry? Has not the maxim si vis paceni 
 para bellum been perverted into a justification for 
 all the armaments of Europe, when there was little 
 real thought or wish for peace ? What has the 
 religion of Christ to say to us here ? 
 
 I answer, For the tone and temper of popular 
 "Jingoism," for the thinly disguised policy of 
 bluster, for the craving after military display, for 
 the readiness to stamp every effort for peace as 
 
CHRISTIANITY AND WAR. 229 
 
 a weak foreign policy and an abandonment of 
 British interests — for this, I find, in the Bible and 
 in the Church, nothing but unqualified con- 
 demnation. 
 
 But I find no condemnation of the calling of the 
 Christian soldier, and, therefore, I cannot adopt 
 the teaching of Tertullian in ancient days, or of 
 the Peace Society in our own. We honour them 
 for their noble protest, we thank them for recalling 
 the Church to its high ideal. The question 
 between us and them is one not of motive but 
 of nietJiod. Is the kingdom of peace to win its 
 way by influence or by protest ; by a policy of 
 permeation or a policy of separation ; by the 
 implanting of a new nature which may transform 
 the old, or by a mechanical substitution of the 
 Divine for the human ? In a word, do we believe 
 in " regeneration," or in " instantaneous con- 
 version ? " 
 
230 £SSAyS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL, 
 
 XII. 
 THEOLOGY AND LAW.^ 
 
 " Lord, what love have I unto Thy Law : all the day long is 
 my study in it." — Ps. cxix. 97. 
 
 It is now hardly more than half a century ago 
 that there came to England, a stranger to a 
 strange land, one ^ who in his Indian home had 
 spent his life in protests against idolatry, and in 
 earnest efforts to restore a monotheistic religion. 
 Judged as we so often judge those whom we do 
 not know, he was only a heathen, a pious Brahman 
 who, however well disposed to Christianity, died 
 in Christian England, an alien from the Christian 
 commonwealth. His language was not ours ; his 
 habits of life and thought were strange to us ; his 
 religion was not Christianity. 
 
 But, looking earnestly beneath the surface of 
 things, working back in thought from difference to 
 unity, we find it is not altogether so. In race, 
 in language, in thought, he is nearer to us than 
 
 * An Assize Sermon preached before the University of Oxford 
 on the Twentieth Sunday after Trinity, 1884. 
 " Rajah Rammohun Roy. 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 231 
 
 we dreamed. The Brahman Reformer and the 
 Christian Priest are different, indeed, in their grasp 
 of truth ; different in the way they would set it 
 forth ; different in their life history. The Brahman 
 never lived to realize the truth of the God-Man, 
 of the divine mission of the Church of Christ, of 
 the reality of Sacramental grace. But his life was 
 true, and real, and great. Can any doubt that its 
 earnest seeking after God shall have its own 
 reward } Yet it would have been so easy to say, — 
 We have nothing in common wath him ; we do not 
 worship the same God. 
 
 So it is that again and again we misread the 
 world around us, seeing the outside differences of 
 things, while their real but hidden unity is lost. 
 And if some unexpected points of likeness force 
 themselves upon our notice, we put them aside as 
 curious parallels, which do not suggest to us a 
 common origin, a kinship which is real. 
 
 Is it not so in the case of those two highly- 
 developed systems which stand over against one 
 another in England of to-day, once identified, then 
 associated, but now, as it seems, drifting apart, — 
 TJieology and Law? Here it is so easy to point 
 the contrast between the Divine Science, and that 
 which exists only because man is what he is, and 
 not what God made him to be. It is easy to say, 
 they do not speak the same language, their modes 
 of thought are not the same. The one soars 
 
232 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 upwards to the very nature of God, the other 
 sounds all the depths and shoals of human selfish- 
 ness and vice. The one is as a golden net let 
 down from heaven ; the other like some huge 
 structure built upon the earth. Law deals with 
 things which perish in the using ; Theology with 
 truths which cannot pass away. 
 
 I. But such superficial contrasts will not satisfy 
 us. There are strange marks of kinship in these 
 different, and sornetimes rival, systems : points of 
 resemblance which are the more remarkable when 
 contrasted with that knowledge of nature, which of 
 late years has almost monopolized the name of 
 Science. 
 
 (i.) Of these points of resemblance the first is this. 
 Law, like Theology, is a "derived science," and not 
 a science of discovery. We do not live in hope or 
 fear of some new facts which will revolutionize 
 our legal system. Law is essentially derived. It 
 glories in the fact. Its principles lie back, far 
 back in a pre-historic time. With all its minute 
 and complex adjustments to modern civilization 
 and modern life, it can say with one of old, " It 
 was long ago that men found out what is right, 
 and we must learn from them." What was implicit 
 in the principle may be now explicit in the Law, 
 but the principle has not changed. This is why 
 Law is, perhaps inappropriately, said to be con- 
 servative. It has its roots in the past, not in the 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 233 
 
 present. Thus, like Theology, it is open to the 
 reproach, if it be a reproach, that it is a derived 
 science, and with Theology it offers its strong but 
 silent protest against the narrowing of the term 
 science to the inductive method. 
 
 (ii.) Law is a derived science, but that is not all. 
 It claims authority, an authority which is not 
 ephemeral, but eternal ; a majesty which the 
 present can neither give nor take away. Its 
 appeal is not to its usefulness, its fitness to the 
 present condition of things, but to men's reverence 
 for authority, to their obedience, to their loyalty. 
 And in this, while its likeness to Theology is 
 obvious, its contrast with the popular science of 
 nature is no less obvious. For both deal with law, 
 yet the one is as anxious to assert, as the other is 
 to disavow, the claim to authority for law as law. 
 We have outgrown the confusion which is to be 
 found even in Blackstone. We know that a law 
 of nature is "an observed uniformity of sequence 
 or coexistence," a fact universally true within the 
 limits of scientific observation. But it lays claim 
 to no necessity, it repudiates even "a tacit refer- 
 ence to the will of a superior." It speaks in the 
 indicative, not in the imperative. No real student 
 of nature will go beyond the "is" and "is not" of 
 fact. " Must " and " cannot " lie beyond his range, 
 except when they are illicitly smuggled in for use 
 against the Christian miracles. But Law, in its 
 
234 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 Other sense, is nothing if it be not authoritative, if 
 it cannot command reverence, and challenge the 
 obedience of the enlightened conscience. Here, 
 then, again we have a strange mark of kinship 
 between Theology and Law. 
 
 (iii.) But we have not even yet touched the most 
 remarkable point of agreement between the two, 
 wherein both are distinguished from the science of 
 external nature. There is another point, which, in 
 our day, is of especial importance. If there is one 
 fact which the science of nature, as we now under- 
 stand it, is powerless to explain, and is sometimes 
 anxious to explain away, it is the fact of PERSON- 
 ALITY ; that which distinguishes the self-conscious 
 moral being from the beasts that perish. Trace 
 out, if you will, the marvellous sympathies of 
 nature ; prove, if you will, that man is a microcosm 
 of creation ; follow, step by step, the minutest 
 changes of embryological structure and develop- 
 ment ; and yet before the citadel of Pei'sonality 
 every effort is in vain ; and the besiegers, like the 
 Syrians who came against the Prophet, are blinded 
 and led captive by the very power that they 
 opposed. And Law guards Personality, as nothing 
 but Religion and Morality can. In that highly- 
 developed system of Law under which we live, we 
 have in "Person" and " Property" a true dichotomy. 
 The terms exclude one another. No person can 
 possess a person. The sharp line is drawn, not 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 235 
 
 between organic and inorganic, living and dead, 
 but between man as the embodiment oi personality 
 and all other created beings as void of personality. 
 Even those recent modifications or developments of 
 Law, which we may watch with some foreboding, 
 all tend in one direction. -The ideal of Law is 
 universal respect for Personality, and it looks 
 forward to the time when it will recognize no 
 distinctions of race, or sex, or caste, or creed, — 
 neither Jew nor Greek, neither male nor female, 
 neither bond nor free. In that increasing reverence 
 for Personality, even due considerations of subordi- 
 nation, as of wife to husband, son to father, servant 
 to master, are being more and more left out of 
 account. There is to be no respect of persons. 
 All must be equal before the law, because the 
 possession of personality throws into the shade all 
 other distinctions. It is inevitable that it should 
 sometimes seem to us that in emphasizing the fact 
 of Personality the Law is falling short of what 
 charity demands. It recognizes less and less of 
 privilege and protection. Religious tests, hereditary 
 rights, property qualifications, even the difference 
 between man and woman, all these, rightly or 
 wrongly, seem to be ignored. By the law of love 
 I am and must be " my brother's keeper." Yes ! 
 says the law of the land, but it is inconsistent with 
 a true reverence for personality that you should 
 make him a slave even for his own good. If there 
 
236 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 are <^vcsu "^ovKoi, men born to be slaves, the law 
 knows nothing of them ; philanthropy knows 
 nothing of them ; Christianity knows nothing of 
 them. And even Aristotle, who believed in their 
 existence, was puzzled to understand why they 
 were not distinguished to the eye from those who 
 were born to be free. And here again, in its aim, 
 if not in its method, its supreme reverence for 
 personality, its utter jealousy of anything which, 
 though done from the best of motives, may obscure 
 the line which separates person and thing. Law is 
 fighting side by side with Theology. 
 
 Thus both are derived sciences ; both challenge 
 submission, and claim to speak with authority ; 
 both depend for their very existence on the fact of 
 Personality. These are points of likeness which 
 cannot be accidental. We say cannot, for, if there 
 be anything on which, in this age of warring words, 
 we are all agreed, it is the elimination of Chance. 
 And all through the biological region likeness 
 suggests kinship, and kinship a common parentage. 
 
 II. Where, then, are we to seek the common 
 source of Theology and Law ? How can a 
 science, which includes such an unique fact as a 
 Revelation from God to man, have a common 
 origin with one which, in its evolution, if not in 
 its germ, depends so much upon experience t 
 
 And here, for our present purpose, we may put 
 on one side those a priori theorizings as to the 
 
 I 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. lyj 
 
 nature of justice and the origin of society, which 
 have again and again been proved historically- 
 false, and ask ourselves, What is it which lies at \ 
 the root of our legislative and judicial system ? It 1 
 is a question which concerns not any particular 
 laws, nor the various developments of law, but 
 that which is presupposed in all law, that without 
 which law could not be. What, then, is this ? The 
 answer is plain. It is CONSCIENCE, the power to -^ 
 judge of acts as right and wrong. We may ignore, 
 for the moment, questions as to its origin and 
 development, and simply take the fact. Man 
 judges because he has what we call a conscience. 
 I must judge as my conscience directs me. Men 
 may laugh at my judgment ; they may tell me my 
 conscience is untrained or mistrained ; they may 
 tell me it is morbidly sensitive and over-scrupu- 
 lous, or hint that it is defiled by conscious sin. 
 But my conscience is for me my final court of 
 appeal, and qiiicquid fit contra conscietitiam cedificat 
 ad geheriiiam. So it is, and must be, in my private 
 judgments. But the complex fabric of Law must 
 ultimately be traced back to the same fact. For 
 Law is the expression of the "best self" of the / 
 community, the judgment of the conscience of the 
 nation, growing in truth and fulness and perfection, 
 as that conscience becomes more pure and clear. 
 Take stone from stone in that majestic edifice of 
 Law ; roll back the course of time, and see Law in 
 
238 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 its beginnings, and you will find Conscience the 
 first Lawgiver, and Conscience the first Judge. 
 
 Or turn your eyes to the present. Look at Law 
 as a finished product, an organism instinct, as it 
 seems, with life. Can we trace in it any rudimen- 
 tary organs ? Is there one part which suffers from 
 the atrophy of disuse ? It is where the Conscience 
 of man has outgrown the expression of his earlier 
 and less perfect will, or where (shame to us that it 
 is ever so !) the conscience of to-day has fallen 
 short of its own true judgments in the past. Quid 
 leges sine moribus v mice pro ficitmtf is the moralist's 
 lament. What a vain thing is Law without that 
 which gives it life and authority and truth ! Law, 
 indeed, has learned to reverence personality, it is 
 jealous even of the mystical union of two person- 
 alities in Holy Marriage, lest it should carry with 
 it anything of the old idea of possession of the 
 wife by the husband. So careful is it to guard 
 Personality and individual freedom that it treats 
 Marriage not as a mystery, but as a contract. And 
 yet right in the very heart of our civilization is the 
 cancerous growth which is feeding upon the moral 
 life of the people. We talk pompously and in- 
 solently of British freedom, and there is that 
 hideous White Slave trade almost at our doors. 
 We talk of reverence for Personality, and there is 
 a vast organized system of tyranny and oppression, 
 which treats man as a brute beast made for sensu- 
 
THEOLOGY AND LA IK 239 
 
 ality, and woman as a " living tool " to be bought 
 and sold. And Law looks on, almost powerless to 
 assert itself, because it is unsupported by that 
 vague thing called public opinion — No ! let us be 
 true with ourselves, — because our conscience, trained 
 in all these centuries of Christianity, gives such an 
 uncertain sound in a matter where Religion and 
 Morality and Law are at one. 
 
 Law fails and becomes dead only when the 
 conscience of the nation refuses its support. And 
 no stronger proof can be urged that it is from 
 Conscience that its authority is ultimately derived. 
 
 But there is an additional proof to be found in 
 this, viz. that what we have already noticed as 
 characteristic marks of Law belong in a special 
 sense to Conscience. Thus Conscience, whatever 
 its origin, is authoritative, it speaks with power, but 
 it speaks not from itself. Its decision is no mere 
 ipse dixit. It is a derived authority. And it is 
 bound up so closely with the fact of Personality 
 that there is no attack directed against the one 
 which, if sustained, would not be fatal to the other. 
 Conscience moves solely in the region of Person- 
 ality. It speaks from a Person to a Person. A 
 thing cannot speak with authority to a Person. 
 And all the attempted analyses of Conscience fail 
 in this, — they do not account for its authority. 
 They analyze the evidence on which the judgment 
 is given ; they show how different would have 
 
240 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 been the judgment if the evidence had been other 
 than it was, but they presuppose the judge and his 
 authority. 
 
 Here, then, we have reached the real point of 
 union between the different systems of Theology 
 and Law. They are different. We cannot derive 
 the one from the other. But Conscience is the 
 source of both, and hence it is that Theology, 
 Ethics and Law are, if we may dare to use the 
 phrase, a Trinity in unity. For Conscience, the 
 ultimate authority in our legislative and judicial 
 systems, — the formal principle of ethics and of our 
 moral practice, — is also " the creative principle of 
 religion " and the first source of our knowledge of 
 God. Be it that men have tried to explain it 
 away as a long-sighted selfishness, or an instinctive 
 power of measuring utility, or the growth of many 
 an age of ingenious self-seeking : yet in the strong 
 vigorous life of intellectual and moral health it 
 stands firm as it has ever done, claiming to be, 
 what it has been grandly called, "the messenger 
 from Him, Who both in nature and in grace speaks 
 to us behind a veil, and teaches and rules us by 
 His representatives, ... the aboriginal Vicar of 
 Christ, a prophet in its informations, a monarch in 
 its peremptoriness, a priest in its blessings and 
 anathemas ! " — the undying witness in the heart of 
 man to the sacerdotal principle. In religion it 
 speaks as the Prophet of Him, Whom now we 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 241 
 
 cannot see ; in morals it is the ever present Priest, 
 who walking on the earth yet holds of heaven ; 
 while in the calm royal majesty of Law it sustains 
 its kingly character. 
 
 But here it may be objected : this is an old- 
 world view. We know better now. As for 
 religion, a man must settle that with his God, 
 if indeed there is a God, but in Ethics and in 
 Law we are wiser than our fathers. We have 
 got rid of supernaturalism. Conscience is indeed 
 a representative, and hence its authority ; but 
 in the individual it represents the crystallized 
 experience of the past, while in law it almost openly 
 professes to represent the will of the majority. It 
 is the condensed wisdom of the sovereign people. 
 Yes ! the people is sovereign, but in the grim words 
 of the Prophet of Pessimism, it is a sovereign 
 which never outgrows its minority, but is under 
 tutors and governors. And who are they ? Or if 
 we allow that law is but the expression of the judg- 
 ment of the majority, yet just in so far as it is a 
 judgment of true and false, of right and wrong, and 
 not of useful and useless, or pleasant and painful, 
 it speaks by an authority which has to be accounted 
 for. Whether it be the many or the few who 
 judge, the question must ultimately be shifted back 
 to the individual. " Who art thou that judgest 
 another } " Is not man, in his separateness, " the 
 measure of all things ? " What right has one to 
 
 R 
 
242 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 judge another? It is a challenge to philosophy 
 and to religion, to ethics and to law. And the 
 answer is as terrible as it is true. By right of 
 reason and of conscience I wield the sword of God. 
 In every judgment of true or false in speculation, 
 of right or wrong in practice, I judge God's judg- 
 ment. And so firmly do men believe this, that for 
 what they hold to be truth they are ready to die, 
 though all the powers of earth, and even religion 
 itself, be against them. So fearlessly do they 
 believe the absoluteness of their moral judgments, 
 that they will dare to say, with the great Utilitarian, 
 — A God who is not moral, as my conscience judges 
 morality, is not God. I will not worship Him. 
 Through faith in God, I reject as God one who is 
 not good and just and true. 
 
 It is God's revelation, then, that Theology 
 unfolds ; God's will that ethics declares ; God's 
 judgments that Law enforces. And hence it is 
 that, in the evolution of Law, Revelation has 
 played so prominent a part. Never has the 
 Conscience been strengthened and informed by 
 new truth, but Law has faithfully reflected the new 
 light. Hegel, indeed, declares that the highest 
 truth of which Law is possessed, the idea of 
 Personality, it owes to the religion of Christ. 
 " Entire quarters of the globe," he says, " Africa 
 and the East, have never had, and have not yet, 
 the idea. The Greeks and Romans, Plato and 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 243 
 
 Aristotle and the Stoics, had it not. . . . This 
 idea came into the world through Christianity, in 
 which the individual, as such, has an infinite worth 
 as being the aim and object of the love of God." 
 But looking back through the revelation of the 
 Old Testament, we can see how the Jews were 
 trained and educated up to the fulness of the 
 truth, as side by side with the patria potestas we 
 see the personal relations of patriarch and prophet 
 with God. Nor is the idea of Personality the only 
 gift of Revelation to Law. In the Decalogue and 
 the Sermon on the Mount it has unfolded the 
 Royal Law, and it has revealed it to us as the will 
 of a Personal Being, " Our Father, which is in 
 heaven." 
 
 And it is because it is God's Law that we may 
 love it. We cannot love an abstraction, an idea, 
 a generalization, a uniformity. Yet the 119th 
 Psalm is full of love and devotion to the Law, 
 because it is God's. And it is just here that the 
 Christian conception of Law is so much truer than 
 that which we are familiar with in Aristotle or even 
 in Kant. The older philosopher glories in the 
 impersonality of law, as contrasted with the 
 injustice of individual judgments. So far we can 
 go with him. But Aristotle's fear of what is 
 human, and his indefinite attitude towards what 
 is Divine, leaves us with a law which we cannot 
 love. It may be just and good and true. It may 
 
244 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 be a natural product of society, and therefore not 
 a thing to be apologized for. It may have force 
 before which we must bow or break. But it is 
 neither human nor divine. We cannot love it. 
 And so there is a never-ending opposition between 
 the law and the will. 
 
 So even with the theory of Kant. Nothing can 
 be grander than the passages in which he speaks 
 of the universality of the moral law, and the great- 
 ness of the name of Duty. But when he asks 
 what it is which lies behind duty, which gives it its 
 greatness and its grandeur, in a word, its authority 
 over man, the answer is one which fails to satisfy 
 us. It is personality^ he tells us, which gives the 
 moral law its grandeur. Man in obeying the moral 
 law is "subject to his own personality." *' He 
 regards with reverence that which is highest in 
 himself, and therefore respects its laws." Yes ! 
 Kant has reached the great truth that only a 
 Person can speak authoritatively to a Person. But 
 man cannot love and reverence a law which is his 
 own, nor can he divide himself in twain, and wor- 
 ship in his lower self that which is the will of his 
 higher and personal being. " The respect-inspiring 
 idea of Personality" looks well enough in an 
 ethical treatise. Will it stand the inrush of tempta- 
 tion when the enemy comes in like a flood ? 
 
 Human love and the memories of home, the 
 thought of mother or sister, or of one dearer, 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 245 
 
 perhaps, than either, may stand us in good stead 
 in the hour of need. The love of Him Who is the 
 Father of all families, of Christ Who gave Himself 
 for us, has power to stem the torrent of evil desire. 
 But not an impersonal law, nor a law which draws 
 its authority from ourselves. 
 
 Lord, zuhat love have I unto Thy law! It is 
 Thine, therefore I love it ; therefore I reverence 
 it ; therefore I see my "best self" reflected in it ; 
 therefore I obey and trust and hope. And in 
 constant meditation of Thy Law I train my con- 
 science, the organ of Divine truth. For the pure 
 shall see God ; and the meek shall He guide in 
 judgment ; and the gentle shall He learn His way. 
 Purity, humility, and gentleness, are notes of the 
 scholars of the truth. 
 
 It cannot be that the differentiated spheres of 
 Theology and Law shall again become one as 
 under the old Theocratic idea. And yet in God's 
 purpose there is a pre-established harmony in them, 
 because both speak from Him. Their ultimate 
 unity in Conscience is no mere fact in the past. 
 They are what they are now only as Conscience 
 still lives and speaks in them, interpreting truly on 
 the one hand the Revelation of God, and on the 
 other embodying in Law its judgments, which are 
 true because they are divine. 
 
 The two cannot be identified, and yet it is fatal 
 if we lose sight of their inter-relations, and forget 
 
246 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 that, in its solemn march, Law is ever leaving 
 behind the false or transient settings of eternal 
 truths, that it may attain more perfectly to its 
 ideal, and be to us the earthly counterpart of the 
 Justice of God. Human Law, so far as it is true, 
 is not human but divine, and hence it is that they 
 who interpret that Law to us speak with the 
 authority of Him Whose Law they uphold. " They 
 are God's Ministers," says St. Paul ; therefore they 
 claim our reverence, our obedience. " They are 
 God's Ministers," — therefore in His Presence they 
 bow their heads, "remembering the account that 
 they must make." 
 
 But the making of that Law which they ad- 
 minister, with whom does it rest ? It is so easy to 
 settle down in complaisant optimism and imagine 
 that things will go right as a matter of course ; 
 that by a kind of natural selection Law will in- 
 evitably advance, because laws are not made, but 
 grow. Ah ! but growth in the moral world is 
 never independent of moral effort. Does Conscience 
 in the individual always speak as the Vicar of 
 Christ.? Is its hold on truth always firm and 
 clear.? Does it always command with the voice 
 of the " categorical imperative ? " Has it no life- 
 history, no development which may be checked 
 and retarded and even finally arrested t Is the 
 "weak"^ conscience of which St. Paul speaks a 
 
 * I Cor. viii. 7. 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 247 
 
 rare thing? or the "evil"^ and " defiled "^ con- 
 science ? or the conscience " seared as with a hot 
 iron"?^ Or are these less common than the con- 
 science which is " good " ^ and " pure," ^ and " with- 
 out offence,"^ and therefore strong and authori- 
 tative, as in them " who by reason of use have their 
 senses exercised to discern both good and evil?"'' 
 And in the nation at large are there not, — short of 
 National Apostasy, — conditions in which the con- 
 science no longer speaks, or claims to speak, as 
 the voice of God ? when considerations of right 
 and wrong give way to considerations of finance ; 
 and expediency takes the place of truth ; and a 
 narrow and false view of British interest obscures 
 the moral law ; and a fear of ideal legislation 
 results in immoral selfishness ? 
 
 These may seem far-off dangers, dangers with 
 which we, at least, have nothing to do. But it is 
 not so. You and I may have no direct mission to 
 legislate, and yet it is true that in every judgment 
 we pass we are doing something to form that body 
 of opinion which will some day crystallize in law. 
 The judgment of him who speaks with the autho- 
 rity of the Law is yet different only in degree from 
 the moral judgments which we so lightly pass. 
 And here in Oxford we are nothing if we are not 
 
 ^ Heb. X. 22. 2 Tit. i. 15. » i Tim. iv. 2. 
 
 * Ibid. i. 5. '2 Tim. i. 3. ® Acts xxiv. 16, 
 
 ' Heb, V, 14. 
 
248 ESSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 critical, though every judgment of true and false, 
 of right and wrong, is a wielding of the sword of 
 God. Men who shrink with no feigned sensitive- 
 ness from God's stern judgments, as they are pro- 
 nounced in the Bible or in the solemn warnings of 
 the Athanasian Creed ; men who call righteous 
 anger vindictiveness, and the loyal hatred of a lie 
 intolerance, yet fling abroad their rash and random 
 judgments, and know not that they, too, wield the 
 sword. There is no such thing as irresponsible 
 judging. Yet within the little circle of our friends 
 we have our own canons of taste, our own rules of 
 right, our own views of unpardonable sins. And 
 it seems as if it matters not whom our criticisms 
 wound, or what are the principles on which we 
 judge. We, the younger members of this University, 
 are specially open to this danger of thoughtless 
 judging. Without the wise reticence of age, without 
 the sense of responsibility attaching to those who 
 are in authority, without the knowledge of those 
 who study all day long the law of God, without 
 the tender sympathy of Him, the Judge of all. 
 Who came in great humility, we rashly dare to 
 wield the sword of judgment. 
 
 Yet every judgment is a pre-judgment. We 
 are formulating for ourselves and for others prin- 
 ciples, right or wrong, on which our future judg- 
 ments will proceed ; by which, so far as we have 
 power, we shall influence Law itself. It is here, at 
 
THEOLOGY AND LAW. 249 
 
 the very fount of Law, that Truth is made or 
 marred ; here, therefore, that some safeguard is 
 needed most. Where shall we find it ? It must 
 be something external to ourselves, something we 
 can reverence, something we can love, something 
 which for us is the Law of God, in meditation of 
 which we may train our conscience. I know but 
 of one rule which will avail for those who hold, 
 and those who hold not yet, the faith of Christ, 
 and it is a rule not quite unknown even to non- 
 Christian ethics. Act up to that which is purest ; 
 have faith in that which is truest ; judge always by 
 that which is highest ; reach forward to that which 
 is noblest. It is for you the revelation of God, till 
 He vouchsafe more light, more knowledge of Him- 
 self. And the Law, which is holy, and just, and 
 good, shall not condemn you in the judgment of 
 the Great Assize. 
 
2^o £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 XIII. 
 THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT.^ 
 
 "Who is sufficient for these things." — 2 Cor. ii. i6. 
 
 St. Paul is thinking of the Christian minister, and 
 of the greatness of the charge entrusted to him. 
 He is a steward, a messenger commissioned by 
 God to declare the Gospel of Jesus Christ. Whether 
 men will hear or whether they will forbear, his duty 
 is the same. Whether men are pleased or offended 
 at his words, he cannot but speak. And he may 
 not shrink from declaring the whole counsel of 
 God, though the inevitable result must be that to 
 some it is the savour of death unto death, and to 
 others the savour of life unto life. Is not such 
 a trust too high for man ? Will it not inevitably 
 tend to one of two results t Either men conscious 
 of their own unfitness will shrink from the work, 
 like Moses when he asked, " Who am I that I 
 should go before Pharaoh?" or else it will carry 
 with it a fatal sense of self-importance which will 
 be the ruin of the work. 
 
 1 The "Pride" Sermon; preached before the University of 
 Oxford, on Sunday, November 24, 1889. 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT. 251 
 
 Of these the latter, if not the commonest, is the 
 most obvious danger. The " pride of the priest- 
 hood " is no mere scandal invented by those who 
 are enemies of the faith ; and we feel that the 
 common protest against what men call sacerdotal- 
 ism is a true and at heart a Christian protest, 
 though it is little careful to distinguish between 
 the true and the false. Yet true sacerdotalism is 
 not a theory but a fact, the fact that God appoints 
 to all their work, and in religious truth as every- 
 where else uses the ministry of some for the good 
 of all. The Jews he chose to be the priests of the 
 pre-Christian world, the Church to be the priests 
 of the whole family of man, the ministry to be the 
 priests of the Church ; while Christ is Himself the 
 Eternal Priest, the one and only source of Priest- 
 hood from whom through all and to all the love of 
 God is revealed. 
 
 But.it is so hard for man not to assume that a 
 special function or work for God carries with it 
 a magnifying of the individual or official self We 
 think to magnify our office, and almost without 
 knowing it we come to magnify ourselves. It is 
 against this danger, the pride of the ministry, that 
 St. Paul warns us, when he asks, "Who is sufficient 
 for these things.?" and answers the question with 
 the words, " Not that we are sufficient of ourselves 
 to think anything as of ourselves ; but our suffici- 
 ency is of God ; who hath also made us able 
 
252 £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 ministers of the New Testament." " For we 
 preach not ourselves, but Christ Jesus the Lord ; 
 and ourselves your servants for Jesus' sake." 
 
 The twelve passages of Holy Scripture from 
 which the text for this morning has to be chosen, 
 seem to indicate clearly that the primary object of 
 the " Pride " sermon was to warn the clergy against 
 personal or official pride. But there are two 
 reasons which seem to justify us in taking a more 
 general view of the matter. First, the proportion 
 of clergy to laity in the University, and of their 
 representatives in the University Church, is very 
 different from what it once was ; and secondly, we 
 are learning to realize more fully the truth that the 
 Ministry is itself the type of a wider and more 
 generally distributed stewardship, the stewardship 
 of the Christian layman, and in their degree of all 
 those who have a truth to deliver to the world. 
 For everywhere God uses the few for the good of 
 the many, and truth always and everywhere is a 
 sacred trust from God for the service of man. 
 It follows, then, that the very same danger which 
 lies so near the life of the Christian Priest is no 
 less near to the life of every one who dares to 
 handle truth, and that which vitiates and destroys 
 the work of the Christian Priest is that which is 
 no less fatal to the philosopher, the man of science, 
 the critic, the artist, the musician. That danger is 
 the thought of self-sufficiency — in one word, of 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT. 253 
 
 pride : the readiness to forget or overlook the truth 
 that there is nothing which we did not receive, and 
 that we may not glory as if we had not received 
 it. Whether we are priests or laymen it is true 
 that " our sufficiency is of God." 
 
 But if it is hard for a Christian Priest to dis- 
 tinguish between the uncompromising fidelity to 
 the message he is charged to teach, and a mere 
 defiant self-assertion, it is certainly not less hard 
 for those, who are entrusted with other forms of 
 ministry by God, to distinguish between a loyal 
 devotion to the cause of truth and the self-suffici- 
 ency of the individual discoverer or teacher. And 
 the difficulty reaches a climax when religion claims 
 the submission of the reason, or censures the pride 
 of intellect, or speaks of " rationalism " as the foe 
 of faith. For at once we are put upon the defen- 
 sive. We feel that Reason is not something unholy 
 and impure that it must be banished from the 
 courts of the temple of our God ; nor is it some 
 outside power which may indeed become the ally, 
 but more naturally is the foe of the deepest con- 
 victions of our religious life. It is the power which 
 God has given us to enable us to know Him ; and 
 we slight and despise our birthright if we do not 
 try " to know the things which are freely given us 
 of God." It is not pride in reason to try and 
 know, nor can reason without being false to itself, 
 submit to that which is not true, nor is there any, 
 
254 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 even the most sacred region, where it is incon- 
 sistent with reverence to ask the question Why ? 
 though we may have to answer our own question 
 with the words — " Behold, we know not anything." 
 The truth is that we are wrong to speak of pride 
 or humility as if they could be properly predicated 
 of the reason. Pride is always in the Will.^ And 
 that which is rightly called Pride is an attitude of 
 the reasoner towards truth, not the process by 
 which he seeks it. It is in this sense that Pride 
 is said to lie at the root of all sin, because it is the 
 unwillingness to recognize our true relation towards 
 God and our fellow man, — 
 
 " Whence flowed rebellion 'gainst the Omnipotent, 
 Whence hate of man to man, and all else ill ? " 
 
 In the case of our fellow men this is obvious, 
 though we rather call it selfishness than pride. 
 For at the root of selfishness lies the belief, a belief 
 indeed which is seldom consciously expressed, that 
 the individual is complete in himself. It follows 
 as a natural consequence that while he is an end, 
 others are but means, and that he may make use 
 of them, so far as he is able to do so, for his own 
 enjoyment. Such pure unvarnished selfishness is, 
 indeed, rarely stated. But it is none the less the 
 unavowed, if not quite unconscious, principle of 
 every self-indulgent life, though, like the theoreti- 
 cal basis on which it logically rests, it needs only 
 
 ' St. Thorn. Aq., Surama Theol., 2. 2, Qu. clxii. Art. iii. 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT. 
 
 to be stated to be at once rejected as false. For 
 whatever may be our views as to the true end of 
 life, and differ as we may as to moral theory, we 
 are wonderfully agreed now that the one impossible 
 theory of man is that he is independent of his 
 fellow man, an atom or a point, not the centre of 
 a circle, a complete and self-sufficing being and 
 not a member of an organic social body. 
 
 We are all agreed, then, in condemning the man 
 whose self-sufficiency and supposed independence 
 sets him up against the society to which he belongs, 
 even though he may stop short of carrying out his 
 theory into any of the grosser violations of his 
 duty to his neighbour. We know that "where 
 pride begins, love ceases," and the duty of loving 
 one another is assumed even by empirical moral- 
 ists nowadays as almost an intuitive principle. 
 Theoretically, at all events, then, we have abolished 
 that pride of self-sufficiency which lies behind 
 selfishness, and recognized the truth that we are 
 " members one of another," bound each to each 
 by the law alike of nature and of love. We have 
 not indeed abolished selfishness, but the theory 
 on which it rests, the avrapKela of the individual 
 atom, is no longer tenable. 
 
 But the same attitude of the will which leads 
 man to set up his individual pleasure against the 
 common good, leads him also to assume the com- 
 pleteness of human nature as a whole, and its 
 
256 ESSA YS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 independence of God. The inter-dependence of 
 all the members of the body social, and the crime 
 of isolating the part from the whole, or making 
 one's self an exception, all this a man may be willing 
 to admit. But then the pride which has been 
 ousted from his individual life reappears when he 
 thinks of himself in his universal character : — 
 
 Hence man's perpetual struggle, night and day, 
 
 To prove he was his own proprietor 
 
 And independent of his God, that what 
 
 He had might be esteemed his own, and praised 
 
 As such. He laboured still and tried to stand 
 
 Alone, unpropped — to be obliged to none. 
 
 And in the madness of his pride he bade 
 
 His God farewell, and turned away to be 
 
 A God himself. 
 
 Here again the theory is rarely stated, though it 
 is the ultimate major premiss of much of our 
 reasoning. Few will dare to say plainly, as was 
 said recently by a well-known Positivist, that the 
 worship of God has in our day given place to 
 the worship of man ; and yet we are vainly trying 
 to construct a system in which man, not indeed 
 as an individual, but as conscious reason, shall be 
 the centre of all that is. We assume the complete- 
 ness, the self-sufficiency of man if only he can be 
 brought to his highest level. And if God touches 
 man at all it is but at the outer edge of his life, 
 religion being treated as a graceful embellishment 
 of some lives, in some even a help to morality, but 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT. 257 
 
 in most only a cause of divisions, which the non- 
 religious philosopher can serenely ignore. 
 
 Against this modern Ptolemaic system of thought 
 Christianity holds up, as it were, the idea of 
 Copernicus. Against the geocentric view it pro- 
 claims the great Theocentric principle. God is 
 the centre of all that is, the only Being Who 
 has life in Himself and of Himself. Like the 
 sun in the visible universe He is both centre and 
 source of the universe of being; and humanity 
 apart from God, as independent, self-sufficing and 
 complete, is no less an unreal abstraction than the 
 individual separated from his society. Everywhere 
 and in all departments of life religion declares the 
 incompleteness of man. We are " not sufficient of 
 ourselves to think anything as of ourselves, but 
 our sufficiency is of God." All truth is thus a 
 revelation from Him Who is the Truth. Salvation 
 from sin is not of ourselves, but from Him Who 
 loved us. Grace is the freely given gift of God. 
 Sacraments and priesthood are the "chartered 
 channels" by which He has willed to give His 
 gifts to man. If the priest is His commissioned 
 minister, a steward and dispenser of the mysteries 
 of God, so from a religious point of view and in 
 his own work is the philosopher, who uses the 
 reason which reflects God for interpreting to all 
 the coherence of the parts of truth. So is the 
 scientific investigator, who patiently searches for 
 
 S 
 
258 jESSAYS scientific AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 that, revelation of God in nature which is vouch- 
 safed only to reverent and earnest study. So is 
 the self-forgetting critic, who seeks at all costs to 
 learn and teach what is true, though after years 
 of study he may have to tell us no new thing but 
 an old truth recovered or enriched or established 
 by new proofs. So is it no less in the humbler 
 vocations in life, which are great and noble in pro- 
 portion as they are recognized as vocations, and 
 therefore as a ministry which can only rightly be 
 discharged by those who know that their sufficiency 
 is of God. 
 
 Thus the religious view of man and his relation 
 to God carries with it a sense of human insuffi- 
 ciency, and the correlated truth of our dependence 
 on Him Who is the source of Truth. We are 
 encompassed by the unknown. Our knowledge, 
 whether of God, of nature, or of ourselves, is but 
 as a scintillation in the darkness. May not all our 
 boasted knowledge of nature be, as the greatest 
 of its champions suggests, '' an ordinary phantasma- 
 goria generated by the Ego, unfolding its successive 
 scenes on the background of the abyss of nothing- 
 ness " ? ^ And if so, is it worth while to go on .'' 
 Who is sufficient for the work of interpreting the 
 mystery which lies about us ? And the answer 
 of religion implies a change in our whole attitude 
 of thought. The darkness is in us ; the light is 
 
 ^ Huxley's " Hume," p. 8i. 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT, 259 
 
 beyond : and every ray which pierces the darkness 
 is a ray from the source of h'ght. We may dare 
 then, in the patience of hope, to press forward to the 
 light till we know Him in Whom is no darkness 
 at all. Our sufficiency is of God, Who has made 
 us His ministers. Who has chosen us to be His 
 priests, His stewards. His messengers, the de- 
 positaries of His truth, the revealers of His secrets, 
 whether in nature or in grace, for the good of man. 
 That is sacerdotalism, if you will, but it is a 
 sacerdotalism which is true. 
 
 But against this view our pride rebels. We 
 want to be creators or discoverers, not receivers 
 of truth. We do not like to be reminded that our 
 knowledge is an experiment which, though it may 
 verify itself by success, can only justify itself in 
 the belief of a real relationship of man with God. 
 We would fain be complete in ourselves, sufficient 
 of ourselves, able to stand alone. And the very 
 pride which in the individual we recognize as 
 self-sufficiency and hate as selfishness, that very 
 pride, which by advancing knowledge and a higher 
 general morality has been driven from its outwork, 
 has fortified itself in the citadel. Yes ! the offence 
 of the Cross has not ceased. For Christ upon the 
 Cross is the continual reproach of the proud. We 
 can indeed go so far as to know that we must 
 forget ourselves and do good to others. We 
 are all humanitarians nowadays. But the moral 
 
26o £SSAVS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 law has two tables. And we have still to learn 
 the lesson that man has nothing which he has 
 not received, that " every good gift and every 
 perfect gift," whether of grace or truth, "is from 
 above," and that even while we think that we are 
 " rich and increased with goods and have need of 
 nothing," we are "wretched and miserable, and 
 poor, and blind, and naked," and that even that 
 which we have is not our own. 
 
 There are two forms in which this claim of man 
 to be sufficient of himself, and his refusal to re- 
 cognize himself as God's minister and messenger 
 to the world, is commonly seen. 
 
 I. We recognize it first in what is called the 
 rationalistic temper. What is rationalism ? If 
 rationalism means the attempt to bring every truth 
 home to the reason and make it intelligible by 
 relating it with everything else, then to rationalize 
 is not only our privilege as thinking men but our 
 duty as Christian men. 
 
 But rationalism is used as a term of reproach. 
 It IS quoted as the typical form of pride of 
 intellect It is, we are told, the "asking for 
 reasons out of place," it is " a forgetfulness of 
 God's power," " disbelief in the existence of a first 
 Cause sufficient to account for facts which to us 
 are extraordinary." Or it is " a limiting the 
 possible by the actual," and " measuring, the credi- 
 bility of things by our knowledge of them." It is 
 
THE FRIDE OF INTELLECT. 26 r 
 
 clear that what is censured here is the tone and 
 temper of the questioner, not the questions which 
 he asks ; the presuppositions which he brings to 
 the inquiry, not the method of the inquiry itself; 
 in a word, it is the attitude of his will towards 
 truth, not the process by which he seeks to arrive 
 at it. To say that rationalism is " asking questions 
 out of place" is to assume that we know what 
 questions may be asked and what may not. Yet 
 surely every question is a lawful one which has an 
 answer which human reason, enlightened by the 
 grace of God, can understand. And it is only by 
 asking that we can find out what questions are un- 
 answerable. Nothing can be more irrational than 
 to map out beforehand the limits of our possible 
 knowledge, for this mapping out already assumes 
 that we have got beyond the very limits which we 
 profess to lay down. Neither in the interests of 
 faith, nor on the basis of a critique of the human 
 understanding have we any right to say, " This is a 
 question which may not be asked." The most 
 that we can say is that here we are face to face 
 with a question which has never been answered. 
 But when we conclude that therefore we have 
 reached the limits of knowledge, we adopt a method 
 which, if consistently applied, would have paralyzed 
 reason and made progress impossible. 
 
 It is not, then, either the asking a question or the 
 attempt to answer it in any region of our life which 
 
262 ^^^^KS" SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 constitutes rationalism, in the sense in which that 
 term is a term of reproach. It is the 7'efusal to 
 recognize as true anythi?tg which we cannot explain, 
 the self-sufficiency which sets up the reason in its 
 present stage of development as the measure of 
 truths actual or even possible. Hence the irrever- 
 ence and self-assertion of what is rightly called 
 rationalism. For when a man has come to assume 
 that human reason is the measure of all truth, it is 
 an easy step to the belief that of that reason he is 
 the truest if not the only exponent. 
 
 The fact that rationalism implies a wrong atti- 
 tude of the will towards truth rather than any 
 method or manner of reasoning, explains the fact 
 that a theory which in one age is rejected as ra- 
 tionalistic may be accepted by a later age as true. 
 A theory or premature synthesis which has nothing 
 to commend it but its novelty, or its ingenuity, or 
 its apparent inconsistency with the received body 
 of doctrine of the day is rightly rejected, and the 
 defiant defender of it is rightly called a rationalist ; 
 yet the very same theory supported by new facts, 
 modified by wider knowledge, and championed by 
 men of other temper is afterwards received, with 
 whatever necessary readjustments, and fitted into 
 the growing body of religious truth. It is easy to 
 represent this as a triumph of rationalism, but it is 
 more truly represented as a triumph of faith. For 
 all that is rationalistic is gone, and what remains 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT. 263 
 
 is rational, and therefore the friend and not the foe 
 of faith. If it were not for the glamour of the 
 name of " heretic " and the fascination of knowing 
 that we are upsetting established beliefs, rationalism 
 would long ago have been discredited as intensely 
 unscientific, as far removed from the work of those 
 who are reverently interpreting to us the word or 
 works of God, as is the reckless theorist from him 
 who realizes the greatness of his mission to be an 
 interpreter of truth to the world. 
 
 Really rational inquiry into truth, whether in 
 religion or in nature, must be reverent, must recog- 
 nize its mission, and in recognizing this must admit 
 its own insufficiency. Homo naturae minister et 
 interpres, — they are well-known words — tantum 
 facit et intelligit quatittim de naturae ordine re vel 
 mente observaverit : nee ampliics scit ant potest. 
 The same is true, mutatis mutandis^ of every ra- 
 tional inquiry. "Thou hast hid these things," says 
 the Divine Teacher, " from the wise and prudent, 
 and hast revealed them unto babes." Only when 
 we become " as a little child " can we hope to 
 enter into the kingdom of the truth. 
 
 But the becoming "as a little child" implies 
 not only the laying aside preconceived notions and 
 the submission of the will to truth, but the willing- 
 ness to put ourselves, as it were, to school with 
 those who, in whatever department of life, have 
 been in God's purpose the channels by which 
 
254 ^^^^KS" SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOFHICAL. 
 
 hitherto He has taught the world. To be teach- 
 able it is not necessary to be uncritical, but if ever 
 we are to become true critics we must begin by 
 the readiness to learn. And the rationalism which 
 is rightly treated as the enemy of faith implies an 
 attitude of the will which makes the attainment of 
 truth impossible. Who are they who have proved 
 themselves sufficient for so great a work as the 
 interpreting of truth to man } Those, surely, who 
 have most clearly recognized the greatness of the 
 truth they handle and the insufficiency of man to 
 do anything but to receive the truth which is given 
 and truly to reflect the truth he sees. 
 
 II. But what is called ''rationalism " is not the 
 only form in which man asserts his self-sufficiency 
 and independence of God, and so adopts a false 
 attitude of will towards truth. It is shown in 
 what it is the fashion to call the agnostic temper. 
 Here, so far from reason proclaiming its compe- 
 tence to judge of great matters, it declares itself 
 unable to deal with them at all. Can anything be 
 more modest, less self-assertive? And yet expe- 
 rience tells us that self-depreciation is not always 
 humility, and that the repudiation of any know- 
 ledge of some subjects is consistent with much 
 self-satisfaction and self-conceit elsewhere. 
 
 But indeed this attempt to settle the boundaries 
 of knowledge off-hand is as impossible as to say 
 beforehand where we may and where we may not 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT, 265 
 
 ask questions. And with regard to any other kind 
 of truth it is at once seen to be so. The unknown 
 stimulates, the unknowable paralyzes knowledge ; 
 but we can only assert that the unknown is un- 
 knowable on the assumption that we already know 
 all that can be known. If it is true that God can- 
 not be known by man, it will be the last truth 
 which man will ever learn. At the close of a long 
 life of struggle we sometimes see the reason falling 
 back baffled by the difficulties which perhaps it 
 has made or multiplied for itself, and there is no 
 sadder sight than the despair of reason. But what 
 are we to say of young men who affect " the pre- 
 mature age of disconsolate wisdom," and talk as if 
 they had already "sounded all the depths and 
 shoals" of knowledge and all the time adopt a 
 careless, almost jaunty air, as though it made but 
 little difference whether God could be known or 
 not. It is a significant fact that Agnosticism never 
 finds its way into those departments of life in 
 which it is to our interest to know ; and it requires 
 a good deal of charity to make us believe that a 
 man who is quite sure that he cannot know God, is 
 not one who would not know Him if he could. At 
 all events there is no defence in reason or morality 
 for the calm self-satisfaction of uninquiring indo- 
 lence. Agnosticism is not the admission that there 
 is much which we do not know, for this is a recog- 
 nition which humility demands ; it is the proud 
 
266 ^^^^KS" SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 assumption that what we do not know cannot be 
 known. And in tone and temper there is little to 
 choose between the rationalistic refusal to accept 
 what as yet we cannot explain, and the confident 
 assumption that what cannot be known without an 
 effort can never be known at all. 
 
 Behind both rationalism and agnosticism there 
 lies the conviction that man is sufficient of himself 
 to know all that can be known. The one explains 
 away, the other denies the possibility of knowing, 
 that which at present lies beyond its ken. And 
 both are opposed to true knowledge, which is 
 earnest, patient, humble, reverent, willing to wait 
 for more light ; strong enough to bear disappoint- 
 ment, and yet all the time pressing on to know ; 
 hopeful and fearless, self-distrusting yet with the 
 sure belief in truth ; content to be unknown, and 
 satisfied if only it may do its part, however little, 
 in advancing the kingdom of the truth ; looking 
 outward not inward, and drawing its unfailing 
 strength from the consciousness of ministry and 
 the belief that it can be used by God for the good 
 of man. 
 
 It is in the sense of mission, of vocation, of 
 ministry, that we find the true corrective for that 
 self-sufficiency which everywhere mars and hinders 
 the progress of truth ; and it is in that same sense 
 of mission and ministry that we find the strength 
 to struggle on, through doubt and difficulty and 
 
THE PRIDE OF INTELLECT, 267 
 
 almost despair, in the search for truth. We are 
 not rationalists ; we are not agnostics ; for we 
 believe that God is the only source of truth, 
 that in Him are all the treasures of wisdom and 
 knowledge, and that though we have nothing 
 which we do not receive, yet He giveth to all men 
 liberally of His gifts of grace and truth. 
 
 It is, on the whole, a true instinct which makes 
 men judge of truth by the temper of the teacher. 
 Ubi Jmmilitas, ibi sapientia. Perhaps in the great 
 unveiling of secrets there will be found among the 
 greatest saints some whose names never found 
 their way into the Church's calendar ; and among 
 the noblest lives the lives of those whom their 
 contemporaries never knew ; and among the most 
 real benefactors of mankind those whose ambition 
 it was to remain unknown ; and among the truest 
 pioneers of truth the men who could not, or would 
 not, recognize their greatness. The really great 
 men of every age are those who do not fear 
 to confess their littleness, their insignificance com- 
 pared with the truth they teach, their dependence 
 on that truth for all that they have or are. Their 
 greatness is that they are ambassadors, ministers, 
 stewards ; their littleness that they are what they 
 are, ready to read their own meaning into what 
 they teach and so failing to teach it truly. In 
 them, as in the great forerunner of the Christ, the 
 greatness of their message dwarfs into insig- 
 
268 ASSAYS SCIENTIFIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL. 
 
 nificance their own personality. " Who art thou ? " 
 men asked of the Baptist. And the answer comes : 
 Repent ; the King is at hand, whose forerunner 
 I am. " He must increase ; I must decrease." 
 " Who art thou ? " I am the voice. Look not 
 at me, but at Him who speaks by me. " Behold 
 the Lamb of God." 
 
 THE END. 
 
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38 A List of 
 
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SHAKSPERE'S WORKS. i 
 
 1 
 
 SPECIMEN OF TYPE. 1 
 
 4 THE MERCHANT OF VENICE Act x 
 
 Salar. My wind, cooling my broth, 
 
 Would blow me to an ague, when I thought 
 What harm a wind too great might do at sea. 
 I should not see the sandy hour-glass run 
 But I should think of shallows and of flats, 
 And see my wealthy Andrew, dock'd in sand, 
 Vailing her high-top lower than her ribs 
 To kiss her burial. Should I go to church 
 And see the holy edifice of stone, 
 And not bethink me straight of dangerous rocks, 
 Which touching but my gentle vessel's side, 
 Would scatter all her spices on the stream, 
 Enrobe the roaring waters with my silks. 
 And, in a word, but even now worth this. 
 And now worth nothing ? Shall I have the thouglit 
 To think on this, and shall I lack the thought 
 That such a thing bechanc'd would make me sad ? 
 But tell not me : I know Antonio 
 Is sad to think upon his merchandise. 
 
 Ant. Believe me, no : I thank my fortune for it. 
 My ventures are not in one bottom trusted. 
 Nor to one place ; nor is my whole estate 
 Upon the fortune of this present year : 
 Therefore my merchandise makes me not sad. 
 
 Salar. Why, then you are in love. 
 
 Ant. Fie, fie ! 
 
 Salar. Not in love neither ? Then let us say you 
 are sad, 
 Because you are not merry ; and 'twere as easy 
 For you to laugh, and leap, and say you are merry, 
 Because yosi are not sad. Now, by two-headed 
 
 Janus, 
 Nature hath fram'd strange fellows in her time : 
 Some that will evermore peep through their eyes 
 And laugh like parrots at a bag- piper ; 
 And other of such vinegar aspect 
 
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