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 THE HAPPY VALLEY: 
 
 SKETCHES 
 
 Kashmir & the Kashmiris. 
 
 Wy WAKEFIELD, M.D., 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 "OUR LIFE AND TRAVELS IN INDIA." 
 
 ' Who has not heard of the Vale of Cashmere, 
 With its roses, the brightest that earth ever gave, 
 Its temples, and grottos, and fountains as clear 
 As the love-lighted eyes that hang over their wave ?" 
 
 Lalla Rookli. 
 
 WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 LONDON : 
 SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON, 
 
 CROWN BUILDINGS, FLEET STREET. 
 
 I8 79 . 
 
 (All rights reserved)
 
 Co 
 THE DEAR COMPANION 
 
 OF MY WANDERINGS, BOTH IN INDIA AND KASHMIR, 
 
 TOs Folunw 
 
 IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 
 BY HER HUSBAND,
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 * % 
 
 ^ URING my sojourn in India, in the service 
 of Her Majesty, as a medical officer to the 
 Forces, I had the opportunity of constantly 
 meeting and talking with numerous friends 
 and travellers, who had visited Kashmir. 
 From their observations, joined to what I gathered 
 from the somewhat scanty literature treating of that 
 country, I was fairly well acquainted with the subject 
 of these pages before I had the good fortune to visit 
 the Happy Valley for myself, and verify the ideas I 
 had formed from hearsay and books. This event 
 took place in the summer of 1875, and although our 
 visit was short, we travelled over great part of 
 the Valley, saw the objects of interest most worthy 
 of attention, and examined closely into the manners 
 and customs of the inhabitants.
 
 vi Preface. 
 
 From what we saw, and from that which I had 
 previously gathered, the following pages have been 
 written, and I venture to lay them before my readers 
 as being descriptive of Kashmir and its inhabitants. 
 I do not do so with the object of providing any 
 intending tourist with a guide-book, for the de- 
 scriptions of roads and distances are not minute 
 enough to fulfil that purpose, which, indeed, is 
 already provided for in the reliable Hand-Book of 
 Dr. I nee, to which I was myself much indebted 
 when in the country, and have been equally so 
 during the progress of the present work. My 
 design has rather been to present to those who 
 have never visited the country, and, perhaps, will 
 never have that pleasure, a short and general 
 description of the routes to Srinagar ; the history, 
 manners and customs of the inhabitants of this 
 beautiful province; and a sketch of the various 
 places and objects of interest to be met with in 
 the space of a short tour. 
 
 12, CAMPDEN HOUSE ROAD, KENSINGTON, 
 June $tA, 1879.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction The Punjab The Vale of Kashmir Its Beauty 
 and Celebrity Its Antiquity Origin of the Name Wilson's 
 Opinion Vigne's Opinion Geographical Definition of Kash- 
 mir The Surrounding Mountains Gap in the Ring of 
 Mountains The Boundaries of Kashmir Its Ruler 
 Designation of his Kingdom Importance of the Situation 
 of the Jamoo and Kashmir Territories Form a Bulwark on 
 Northern Frontier Invasion of India from the North 
 Probable Results of an Invasion Passes leading to or from 
 the Happy Valley Their Number Authorized Routes from 
 India Country between Plains of India and Kashmir The 
 District of the Outer Hills Its Vegetation Its Inhabitants 
 The Dogras The Region of the Middle Mountains Its 
 Character Its Inhabitants The Paharis Concluding Re- 
 marks upon these Tracts . . i 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Routes to the Valley The Seasons for Visiting the Valley 
 Hints to Travellers Supplies Servants Money Con- 
 veyance The Gujerat and Pir Panjal Route Called the 
 Imperial Road The Road to Bhimber Bhimber Its 
 Former Rulers March to Saidabad The Aditak Range- 
 Mogul Seraies March to Naoshera The Kaman Goshi 
 The View Marches to Changas and Rajaori Fording the 
 River Rajaori Thanna Mundi Baramgalla The Rutten
 
 viii Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 pi r _Wooden Bridges March to Poshiana Its Houses 
 The Pir Panjal Pass View from the Summit March to 
 Hirpur The Town of Shupiyan Further Road to the Vale 
 Ramoo Arrival at Srinagar The Rdwal Pindi and Marri 
 Route Hill Carts Marches to Daywal and Kohala The 
 River Jhelam Chatar Kalas Marches to Rara, Tinali, 
 Gharri, and Hatti Chakoti Ooree Road from Poonch 
 Ooramboo Naoshera Town of Baramula By Water to 
 Srinagar Srinagar . 2 5 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Arrival at Srinagar The Encamping Ground for European 
 Visitors The Babu Courtesy shown by the Maharajah to 
 Visitors The British Officials in Kashmir The Takt-i- 
 Suliman Its Legend Stone Temple on its Summit 
 Panoramic View of the City and the Valley The Dal Lake 
 Mountains surrounding the Valley The River Jhelam 
 The Land in the Centre of the Valley The Kareewahs 
 European Character of the Scenery Physical History of 
 the Valley Formerly a Lake Volcanic Agencies in its 
 Formation Evidences of former Lacustrine Condition of 
 Valley Formation of Kareewahs The Desiccation of the 
 Valley Legend respecting its Desiccation Vigne's Theory 
 of its Desiccation Early History of Kashmir Wilson's 
 Essay on the Hindu History of Kashmir Its Native Kings 
 Its Mohammedan Rulers The Chakk Family The Great 
 Moguls Its Afghan Rulers Ranjit Singh Decline of the 
 Prosperity of Kashmir England's Opportunity for its Acqui- 
 sition What might have followed Its present Ruler Form 
 of Government in Kashmir . . ... 54 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Srinagar, the Capital of Kashmir Its Situation The Jhelam 
 Srinagar the Venice of the East Want of Cleanliness in the 
 Inhabitants The City Bridges General Aspect of the City 
 Houses in the City Population of the Valley Its In- 
 habitants The Kashmiris Beauty of the Women Character 
 and Habits of the Kashmiris The Hindus The Moham-
 
 Contents. ix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 medans The Hanjis The Batal Caste Origin of the 
 Gipsies Dress of the Kashmiris Peculiar Style of Dressing 
 Hair Language of the Kashmiris The Literature of Kashmir 
 A Visit to the City Its Public Buildings The Boats of 
 the Country Climate of the Valley Life in Srinagar 
 Summer Palace of the Maharajah The Ameeri Kadal 
 Scene on the Banks of the River Transmigration of the 
 Soul of Gulab Singh Fish and Fishing in Kashmir . 91 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Embankment of the River The Sher Garhi Fort and 
 Palace The Kashmirian Army Family of the Maharajah 
 The Sunt-i-Kul Canal The Kut-i-Kul Canal The Mar 
 Canal The Habba Kadal The Fati Kadal The Shah 
 Hamadan Musjid Story of its Founder The Bagh-i- 
 Dilawur Khan The Zaina Kadal The Badshah The 
 Jumma Musjid The Mint Coinage of Kashmir The 
 New Mosque Evidences of former Hindu Temples The 
 Religion of Kashmir Naga or Snake Worship Buddhism 
 Jainism Brahmanism Mohammedanism Forcible Con- 
 version of Natives of the Valley Its Effect on the Origin 
 of the Gipsies The Alii Kadal The Bulbul Lankar The 
 Naya Kadal The Suffa Kadal The Eedgah The Noor- 
 Bagh Office of Executioner Termination of Trip through 
 City . , . . . 117 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Bazaars of Srinagar Natural Products of the Valley 
 Occurrence of Famines Shortcomings of the Government 
 Cheapness of Food in Kashmir Calculation as to Value of 
 Land in Kashmir The Fruits and Vegetables of Kashmir 
 Wine in the Valley Growth of Hops Trees and Flowering 
 Plants in Kashmir Cattle in the Valley Sacredness of the 
 Cow Diet of Visitors in the Valley The Arts and Manu- 
 factures of Kashmir The Kashmir Shawls Antiquity of 
 the Shawl Varieties of Shawls The Kashmir Goat 
 Pushmeena Manufacture of the Shawls The Weaving 
 The Weavers The Washing of the Shawls The Jewellery
 
 x Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 of Kashmir Papier-mach^ Work Prices of Various Articles 
 Trade and Commerce of Kashmir The Dal Lake Aquatic 
 Plants The Lotus The Singhara Plant Floating Gardens 
 Objects of Interest on the Lake Hazratbal A Moslem 
 RelicFairs or Festivals The Feast of Roses . .134 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Garden of Bliss The Silver Island The Golden Island 
 The Nishat Bagh The Shalimar Garden Invitation to a 
 Yete Launch of a Steamboat Memorable Day in the 
 History of Kashmir Excitement of the Inhabitants of the 
 Valley Scene on the Lake The Launch A Mishap- 
 Proceed to the Shalimar Garden The Illumination of the 
 Shalimar Its Effect A Nautch The Dinner Return to 
 our Quarters The Harri Parbat Fort The Great and Small 
 Parade Grounds The Gun Factory The Ram Bagh The 
 Game of Polo Antiquity of the Game Prevalence of the 
 Game in Baltistan A Game of Polo at Srinagar The Play 
 Concluding Ceremonies of the Game . . . 159 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Tour of the Valley Objects of Interest in the North-western 
 Portion of Kashmir Departure from Srinagar Our Course 
 down the River Sunnybawan Shadipore Hindu Fanatics 
 The Sind River Ganderbal The Sind Valley The 
 Ladakh Road Zozila Pass Wangat Ruins at Wangat 
 The Haramuk Mountain The Gungabal Lake Sonamarg, 
 or Golden Meadow The Noroo Canal The Manasbal Lake 
 The Lakes of Kashmir Canal leading to Manasbal Lake 
 A Mosquito Incident Fleas in Kashmir Our Anguish 
 Beautiful Scene on the Lake The Lake and its Surroundings 
 Scene at Sunset A Hindu Fakir digging his own Grave 
 Our Remarks His Delight Sumbal Continue our Way 
 Hajan The Woolar Lake Bandipoor The Gales on 
 the Lake The Lanka Hill of Shakuradin Course of the 
 Jhelam Sopoor . . . . . 177
 
 Contents. xi 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Road to Lalpoor The Lolab Kashmir Villages The 
 Kangri Mulberry Trees SjlkCultivation in the Valley 
 Silk-producing Insects Bears in Kashmir Their Carnivo- 
 Irbus Propensities Varieties of Game in the Valley Sport 
 in Kashmir The Tiger Cat The Wild Dog The Barasing 
 The Musk-deer The Marker The Khakur The Surrow 
 The Ibex Their Habitats Wild Fowl in the Valley 
 Singing Birds Birds of Prey Eagles Hawks Monkeys 
 Hares No Monkeys or Hares found in the Valley Probable 
 Reason of their Absence The Alpine Hare . . . 202 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Road to Gulmarg Barra Kountra Babamirishi The Gulmarg, 
 or ' Mountain of Flowers ' European Visitors to Gulmarg 
 Log-houses Their Construction Their Advantages Their 
 Disadvantages View of the Valley from Gulmarg The Wet 
 Season Its Discomfort Apathy of Hindu Servants Life 
 on the Marg Our Church Flowers and Ferns Insect Life 
 on the Marg The Killan Marg The Guluwans, or ' Horse- 
 keepers ' Descendants of the Chakk Family Their Habits 
 and Mode of Life Snakes in Kashmir Effects of the 
 Rarefied Air Departure from Gulmarg Road to Srinagar 
 The Zearat of a Rishi The Rishis of Kashmir Pattan 
 Conclusion of Tour in Western Part of Kashmir . . 218 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The Eastern Portion of Kashmir Objects of Interest Journey 
 by Doongah Pandritan Temple at Pandritan Town of 
 Pampoor The_Saffron-grounds at Pampoor Cultivation of 
 the Crocus satiims Saffron Its tlses Quantity grown in 
 Valley Mineral Springs Shar Ironworks in Kashmir 
 Ruins at Ladoo Temple at Payech Avantipore 
 Bijbehara Junction of the Veshau River Kanbal Town 
 of Islamabad Its former Greatness The Anat Nag 
 Sacred Trout The Spring of Bawan Its Legend Caves
 
 xii Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 of Bhomjoo The Liddar Valley Sacred Cave of Amber- 
 nath Legend of the Cave Road to the Cave The Sheesha 
 Nag Description of the Cave Pilgrimage to Ambernath 
 Hindu Ceremony at the Cave Vigne's Description and 
 Remarks . . . . ... 234 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Ruins of Martand Temple of the Sun Its Antiquity 
 The Pandus Vigne's Description of the Architecture of the 
 Temple Its Exterior Its Interior Effects of Earthquakes 
 Peculiarities observed in the Architecture of old Ruins in 
 Kashmir Vigne's Opinion The Wardwan Valley The 
 Springs of Kashmir The Atchibal Spring The Bringh 
 River Identity of River and Spring Bernier's Description 
 of Atchibal The Water of the Spring The Vernag Spring 
 Road to Vernag Shdngus Dancing Girls of Shdngus 
 The Nowboog Valley The Tansan Bridge The Kookar 
 Nag The Shahabad Valley The Spring of Vernag Source 
 of the Jhelam The Garden of the Spring The Mogul 
 Emperor Jehangir Nur Mehal, the Light of the Palace 
 Her Parentage The Rozloo Valley The Veshau River Its 
 Source The Konsa Nag Cataract of Haribal Road to 
 Shupiyan Conclusion of Tour Concluding Remarks . . 253
 
 THE HAPPY VALLEY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introduction The Punjab The Vale of Kashmir Its Beauty and 
 Celebrity Its Antiquity Origin of the Name Wilson's Opinion 
 Vigne's Opinion Geographical Definition of Kashmir The Sur- 
 rounding Mountains Gap in the Ring of Mountains The Boun- 
 daries of Kashmir Its Ruler Designation of his Kingdom 
 Importance of the Situation of the Jamoo and Kashmir Territories 
 Form a Bulwark on Northern Frontier Invasion of India from 
 the North Probable Results of an Invasion Passes leading to or 
 from the Happy Valley Their Number Authorized Routes from 
 India Country between Plains of India and Kashmir The District 
 of the Outer Hills Its Vegetation Its Inhabitants The Dogras 
 The Region of the Middle Mountains Its Character Its Inhabi- 
 tants The Paharis Concluding Remarks upon these Tracts. 
 
 N glancing at the map of the great continent 
 of Asia, we find in the north-west of Hin- 
 dustan that division of our Empire in the 
 East termed the Punjab, " the country of 
 the five rivers ; " an extensive territory 
 watered by the Indus and its great afHuents the 
 Jhelam, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej the widest 
 expanse of the great plains of India, and a British
 
 2 The Happy Valley. 
 
 possession since the year 1849, which saw the final 
 downfall of the Sikh power. This extensive terri- 
 tory is bounded on the west by the Suliman moun- 
 tains ; on the east and south-east by the river 
 Sutlej ; and on the north by the Himalayas, the 
 most elevated and stupendous mountain system in 
 the world. Their ranges of snowy and rugged 
 peaks, towering above the high table-land of Tibet 
 a giant mountain chain of an average width of 1 50 
 miles, and extending in length for over 1 200 miles 
 along the flat and fertile plains of our Eastern 
 empire form a natural and formidable boundary 
 to these territories on their northern side. It is 
 however to the northernmost portion of this im- 
 mense mountain range that I wish more particu- 
 larly to draw the attention of my readers ; for here, 
 beyond the rugged ridges that skirt the Punjab, 
 whose snow-clad peaks are discernible by the 
 traveller long before his arrival at their base, lies 
 the country we are about to visit the far-famed 
 Vale of Kashmir, the ' Happy Valley,' the scene of 
 the poet Moore's inimitable Lalla Rookh. 
 
 And Kashmir is a theme well worthy of a poet. 
 Nowhere in Asia, nor even perhaps in the remaining 
 quarters of the globe, can the parallel be found of 
 such an earthly paradise ; a paradise in itself as
 
 Situation of Kashmir. 3 
 
 formed by Nature, but made doubly beautiful by 
 its surroundings. For these are bare, rugged, and 
 frowning rocks, a wilderness of crags and mountains, 
 whose lofty summits tower to the sky in their cold 
 and barren grandeur a solitary and uninhabitable 
 waste. Yet in the midst of this scene of unutter- 
 able desolation there lies spread out a wide expanse 
 of verdant plain, a smiling valley, a veritable jewel 
 in Nature's own setting of frightful precipices, ever- 
 lasting snows, vast glaciers, which, while adding 
 to its beauty by the contrast, serve also as its pro- 
 tection. Shielded from the cold and piercing blasts 
 of the higher regions that surround it on the north, 
 it is equally protected by the girdling mountains on 
 its other sides, whilst its elevation places it beyond 
 the reach of the fiery heat of India's sunny plains ; 
 and thus it exhibits, in the midst of a wide waste of 
 desolation, a scene of almost constant verdure and 
 perpetual spring. It is little surprising therefore 
 that this terrestrial paradise, as it is often called, 
 should enjoy the celebrity to which it has attained 
 in all civilized countries, and its name have become 
 associated with a high degree of picturesque beauty, 
 something distinctive, if not unique in character. 
 For, as Vigne justly remarks, " Softness mantling 
 over the sublime, snugness generally, elsewhere 
 
 B 2
 
 4 The Happy Valley. 
 
 incompatible with extent, are the prevailing charac- 
 teristics of the scenery of Kashmir, and verdure and 
 the forest appear to have deserted the countries on 
 the northward in order to embellish the slopes from 
 its snowy mountains, give additional richness to its 
 plains, and combine with its delightful climate to 
 render it not unworthy of the rhyming epithets 
 applied to it in the East of 
 
 " ' Kashmir-bi-nuzir without an equal ; 
 Kashmir-Junat-puzir equal to Paradise.' " 
 
 Apart however from its acknowledged claims to 
 picturesque beauty, Kashmir has others no less im- 
 portant, and equally interesting alike to the scholar, 
 the antiquary, and the prospect-hunter ; for its 
 recorded claim to be considered a place of the 
 highest antiquity will, I am sure, be conceded by 
 any who have studied its history, and have seen or 
 heard of the noble ruins, relics of past days, standing 
 -yet in various parts of the Valley, testifying alike to 
 its former greatness and prosperity. With traditions 
 coeval with the flood, its history is probably as 
 ancient as any other extant, excepting always that 
 of the Old Testament. And while mention is made 
 of Kashmir in the Maha-Barat and other early 
 Sanscrit works of the Hindus, as a country of eminent 
 kings and learned men, it possesses its own historical
 
 Origin of Name. 5 
 
 records in a work entitled the Rajataringini, or 
 Raj Tarung, as the natives call it, the history of 
 its earlier dynasties, probably written by different 
 authors and at different periods, but generally ac- 
 knowledged by Oriental scholars to be the only 
 Eastern history of any antiquity, and the only early 
 Sanscrit composition extant to which such a title 
 can be properly applied. Again, its very situation 
 with regard to the neighbouring countries is sufficient 
 to convince any one, if further proof were needed, 
 that it must have been a notable place at a very 
 early period in the world's history. The fame of 
 its beauty, of its fruitfulness, of its wine, and of the 
 loveliness of its women, must, at a very distant 
 period, have spread among the inhabitants of Central 
 Asia and other regions further north. And, on its 
 other border, the people dwelling on the arid plains 
 of Hindustan, descendants of the great Aryan race, 
 the same original stock also of the Kashmiris, must 
 soon, with their superstitious regard for places in 
 any way remarkable as sacred to one or other of 
 their gods, have learned to look upon Kashmir as a 
 holy place, or paradise, a feeling that still holds good 
 amongst India's teeming millions, being shared at the 
 present day alike by Mohammedans and Hindus. 
 The very origin of the name of this noble province
 
 6 The Happy Valley. 
 
 is wrapped in mystery, and the derivation of the 
 word Kashmir, or Cashmere, as it is indifferently 
 spelt, has been the subject of much speculation, 
 carrying us back to the very earliest days in the 
 history of the world. Those familiar with the 
 geography of the East must have remarked that the 
 words Kush and Kash are of frequent occurrence in 
 the names of places, and that not only in one locality, 
 but in the various countries that together form the 
 Eastern hemisphere. We find Kush in Arabia and 
 Mesopotamia ; and the Biblical term Kush was 
 undoubtedly applied to that country known to the 
 ancients as Ethiopia, ' the land of dark men,' the 
 present Nubia, Abyssinia, and adjacent parts. 
 
 Kash, as the initial syllable of Kashgar, occurs in 
 Central Asia ; and the Hindu Kush, or Koosh, is the 
 name of the range of mountains, the westward con- 
 tinuation of the Himalayas, separating Afghanistan 
 on the south from Turkestan on the north ; while 
 Kushi again was the ancient name of that holy city 
 in Hindustan now known as Benares. 'The repeti- 
 tion of the term in so many different places naturally 
 leads to the inference that these various names have 
 some common origin ; and numerous and varied are 
 the arguments set forth by the different Oriental 
 scholars who have interested themselves on the
 
 Vigne 's Theory. 7 
 
 subject, as to the source of its derivation. Confining 
 ourselves to the country more immediately under 
 our notice, Professor H. H. Wilson is of opinion 
 that the word Kashmir is derived from Kashuf-mir, 
 the country of Kashuf, the Mohammedan term for 
 Kusyapa of Hindu history, the reputed grandson of 
 Brahma, through whose instrumentality, at the com- 
 mand of Solomon, the Valley, then existing as a large 
 lake, was drained of its waters. This is one of the 
 earliest Kashmirian legends, and will be more fully 
 noticed when treating of the geology of the Vale. 
 Another derivation given is that from the Hindu 
 word Kasyapa-pur 'pur' or 'poor' being a com- 
 mon ending to Indian names of places, signifying 
 'town' or 'city' and which, pronounced Kashup-pur, 
 might have become in course of time converted into 
 Kashamur and Kashmir. 
 
 The Emperor Baber in his Memoirs mentions the 
 subject, and says, " The hill country along the upper 
 course of the Sind or Indus was formerly inhabited 
 by a race of men called Kas," and he conjectures 
 that the country of Kashmir was so called as being 
 the country of a people of that name. The natives 
 of the Valley itself pronounce its name as Kushmir 
 rather than Kashmir, and I have remarked the same 
 fact amongst the inhabitants of India; and Vigne,
 
 8 The Happy Valley. 
 
 probably led by this peculiarity, propounds an 
 ingenious theory, which he states to be a not im- 
 probable origin of the name, if it came from the 
 West at all, and which I imagine is equally applicable 
 to other places in the East with the same or a 
 similar prefix. It is as follows : " Cush was the son 
 of Ham, and grandson of Noah (Genesis x.) Cush 
 begat Nimrod ; he began to be mighty upon the 
 earth." Nimrod is supposed to be identical with 
 Belus, the beginning of whose kingdom was Babel, 
 i.e., Babylon, whence his name and power, and 
 probably his descendants, must have spread over 
 different countries to the eastward. 
 
 The general reader, however, I am sure will not 
 care to pursue such an abstruse subject any further ; 
 as authorities differ, and enough has been said to 
 prove on all hands the antiquity of the name, and 
 therefore to certify the same fact for the country 
 itself. We will, consequently, proceed to consider 
 more particularly the Happy Valley and its inhabi- 
 tants in their present condition, commencing with a 
 brief outline sketch of the country itself its geo- 
 graphical situation and surroundings, and the passes 
 or routes by which ingress or egress are obtained. 
 
 Kashmir may be defined as a country consisting 
 for the most part of a comparatively level tract of
 
 The Mountain Barrier. 9 
 
 land, a wide vale or plain, embedded and set high 
 in that portion of the mountain mass of the great 
 Himalayan chain which skirts the north-western 
 border of Hindustan, stretching between lat. 33 15' 
 and 34 35' N., and long. 74 10' and 75 40' E. It 
 is entirely surrounded by ranges of this stupendous 
 chain ; forming one large enclosed valley, divided 
 into two unequal portions by the river Jhelam, which 
 traverses its entire length, and having numerous 
 glens or minor valleys, opening into it on every side 
 from the lower portion of the lofty rocky wall by 
 which it is environed. In form it is irregularly 
 oblong, lying north-west and south-east ; about 
 ninety miles in length, with a width of twenty miles 
 or even less at its narrowest, to twenty-five miles 
 at its .broadest part; with an area of 4,500 square 
 miles, and an average height of 5,200 feet above 
 the sea level. An irregular oval ring of mountains 
 as will be seen on reference to the map accom- 
 panying this volume entirely surrounds and 
 encloses this secluded region. Their ridges vary 
 in height, and also in appearance. On the southern 
 side we find that portion of the range known as 
 the Pir Panjal, separating the Valley from the 
 Punjab, with peaks varying in height from 8,000 
 to 15,000 feet, the sides of which are covered with
 
 io The Happy Valley. 
 
 dense forests, and their summits crowned in winter 
 with pure and glistening snow. On the northern 
 side the mountains are still higher, approaching in 
 some cases even 18,000 feet; bare and rugged in 
 appearance ; their loftiest peaks being covered with 
 a perpetual snow-cap. To all appearance, when 
 surveyed from any eminence, the rocky walls of this 
 prisoned valley appear to be unbroken and undivided. 
 But such is not the case. There is one gap, and 
 one only, in the rocky barrier. This is at the north- 
 west end, where the river Jhelam, the Hydaspes of 
 the Greeks, after collecting the drainage waters of 
 the hills that surround the Valley, flows out by a 
 narrow opening near the town of Baramula, and 
 proceeds on its troubled course to become finally a 
 deep and placid stream, as one of the five great 
 tributaries of the Indus in the Punjab. 
 
 As regards its relation to surrounding countries, 
 Kashmir is bounded north by Astor, Iskardo, and 
 other districts of Little Tibet ; east by Dras, Sooroo, 
 Zanskar, and Ladak ; south by Poonch, Naoshera, 
 Kishtawar, Badrawar, and Jamoo mountain states 
 lying on the borders of the British districts of Jhelam, 
 Gujerat, and Sialkote, in the Punjab ; and west by 
 Khaghan, and the districts under our rule of Hazara 
 and Rawal Pindi. All these districts, excepting of
 
 Jamoo and Kashmir. 1 1 
 
 course those mentioned as belonging to the British 
 power, form together a kingdom either directly or 
 indirectly under the rule of one ruler, known by the 
 title of the Maharajah of Jamoo and Kashmir, one of 
 our feudatories, and bound to us, if not from affec- 
 tion, undoubtedly by the ties of self-interest. He 
 is a veritable ' king of the mountains ;' for of such 
 does his kingdom for the most part consist ; and its 
 several parts, inhabited by peoples of different 
 races, and even of different faiths, possess no bond 
 of cohesion other than the fact of his rule, and no 
 simple name to embrace the whole dominion. On 
 older maps it is usually designated by the term 
 Golab Singh's Dominions ; while the more modern 
 group the various parts into one, and apply to it the 
 title of Kashmir, a name derived from the far-famed 
 country of which we are more directly treating, and 
 which lies in its midst. This is a fact apt to be 
 misleading to any one not thoroughly conversant 
 with the geography and history of this part of the 
 world ; for Golab Singh has passed over to the great 
 majority, and his son rules in his stead ; while the 
 designation of Kashmir should strictly be applied 
 only to the Valley ; but as yet no more fitting 
 designation has been employed, although a recent 
 author has suggested and adopted in his description
 
 12 The Happy Valley. 
 
 of these countries the more comprehensive term, 
 considered in relation to the ruler's title, of the 
 Jamoo and Kashmir Territories. 
 
 In its relations to our rule in India the position 
 of this kingdom, its physical and other characters, 
 have an importance which its extent and general 
 barrenness would scarcely warrant ; for it constitutes 
 a formidable defence, a rocky bulwark to our empire 
 on its northern frontier, a natural obstacle against 
 any foe proceeding from that quarter, and one 
 which is said to be strengthened still further at the 
 present time by the acquisition to the Maharajah, 
 with the consent of our government, of the territory 
 lying a little to the north-west, on the very borders 
 of Turkestan. The passes of this territory the 
 Maharajah has been instructed to guard during the 
 course of our present hostilities with Afghanistan,* 
 not so much against this enemy to our peace as to 
 meet any eventuality which may arise, even at the 
 most distant points on our frontier, in connection 
 with the effacement of the Khanates of Central 
 Asia by that grasping, unscrupulous, and half- 
 civilized European power, our hereditary foe in the 
 East, whose hitherto costly and barren conquests in 
 the direction of our Indian empire, to the borders of 
 
 * Now satisfactorily concluded.
 
 Strength as a Frontier. 13 
 
 which they are rapidly approaching, can bear but one 
 interpretation the fulfilment of the dream of an am- 
 bition cherished for ages past. Were these designs 
 once carried out, it would mean for us a surrender 
 of the brightest jewel of our Imperial diadem of 
 state ; for the victors, its possession and enjoyment ; 
 and for the mild Hindu and the other inhabitants 
 of Hindustan, who are no less directly concerned, 
 the substitution of the just and impartial rule of 
 their Empress-Queen for the so-called benign and 
 fatherly rule of the White Czar, aided and enforced 
 by Cossack whips and other Tartar devices. But 
 the frontier of these territories is satisfactory for 
 defensive purposes, and the river Indus supplements 
 the great ranges of mountains, whose passes are 
 long and difficult to traverse, few in number, covered 
 with snow for the greater part of the year, and 
 whose ruler, the Maharajah of Jamoo and Kashmir, 
 is our friend and faithful ally. Hence I opine that 
 to invade India on this side would be a wild and 
 profitless undertaking ; and granted even that a 
 hostile force advanced through these mountains, 
 and occupied the fertile Valley of Kashmir itself, 
 which would afford them supplies, it would prove a 
 precarious situation, unless they immediately passed 
 out thence in sufficient strength to ensure a decisive
 
 14 The Happy Valley. 
 
 victory over our troops on the adjacent plains of 
 the Punjab. This would be difficult ; for it would 
 be only feasible for a lightly -equipped force to 
 traverse these rough mountain parts. The paths 
 to the Vale are few in number, and instead of 
 glorious victory, more probably complete defeat 
 would be their portion. Snow would in all likeli- 
 hood cut off their retreat by the way they had 
 come ; while over the less lofty ridges of the ranges 
 that skirt our border could the offended British 
 legions cross, and in their might and power over- 
 whelm and crush them before aid or succour could 
 arrive from the North. 
 
 To return, however, to Kashmir, by which I mean, 
 both here and elsewhere throughout the entire 
 volume, to imply the Valley itself only ; for although 
 the other parts of the country which go to form 
 the entire territory, so often, however wrongly, 
 known by this name, are deeply interesting to the 
 traveller, I did not myself visit them, and such 
 information as I have gathered regarding them can 
 have but incidental reference. We now come to 
 consider the passes or routes by which ingress or 
 egress to the Vale from or to surrounding parts 
 is obtained. The well - known native historian, 
 Abu Fazl, the minister of the great monarch Akbar,
 
 Passes into the Valley. 
 
 who has been termed the Oriental Sully, states in 
 his work on Kashmir, which he several times visited 
 in the train of his master, that there are no less than 
 twenty-six passes leading into the Valley, and that 
 an active mountaineer could enter it in many other 
 places than by the regular routes ; while Vigne 
 describes as many as twenty. There will be no 
 need, however, to enumerate the whole number, 
 half of them being but rarely if ever used ; and 
 the following list, taken from Dr. Ince's reliable 
 Handbook, will be sufficient, giving as it does the 
 principal passes that are open for the whole or 
 greater part of the year, some of course being 
 closed in winter by the snow that falls in the higher 
 regions. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PASSES INTO THE KASHMIR VALLEY. 
 
 Situation. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Whence. 
 
 South 
 
 Pir Panjal . . 
 
 II.4OO 
 
 Bhimber and Rajaorf. 
 
 v 
 
 Baramula . . 
 
 ? 
 
 Marri, Poonch, and Abbotabad. 
 
 
 
 Ferozepore . . 
 
 ? 
 
 Poonch, and Rajaorf. 
 
 
 
 Banihal . . . 
 
 9.200 
 
 Jamoo. 
 
 East 
 
 Marbal . . . 
 
 11.570 
 
 Kishtawar and Chamba. 
 
 
 
 Margan . . . 
 
 11.600 
 
 Maroo Wardwan and Sooroo. 
 
 North 
 
 Zozila, or Dras 
 
 11.300 
 
 Dras and Ladak. 
 
 
 
 Rajdiangan 
 
 11.800 
 
 Gurais, Tilail, and Little Tibet. 
 
 West 
 
 Tootmari Galli 
 
 p 
 
 } V X 
 
 
 
 
 f Karnar. 
 
 
 
 Naschau Galli 
 
 ? 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Patti Khair 
 
 ? 
 
 Drdwar.
 
 1 6 The Happy Valley. 
 
 The four first of these are the passes leading 
 into the Valley from the plains of India, which 
 therefore only concern us at present ; the remainder 
 lead to or from countries that I did not visit, and 
 consequently do not come within my present design. 
 And furthermore, it is only upon the two first named 
 that I need dwell at length. They are the routes 
 by which I passed in and out of the country, and 
 which would surely be selected by any traveller 
 from India to the Valley, the Ferozepore route 
 offering no greater advantages ; while the Banihal, 
 leading from Jamoo, may be termed a private road, 
 being forbidden to the ordinary wayfarer, and kept 
 open for the sole use of the Maharajah and his 
 family, whose custom it is to visit yearly the Happy 
 Valley, the fairest part of his whole dominion. The 
 two first roads from India may again be subdivided 
 into four, and these are the only authorized or public 
 routes, it being forbidden to travel by any other 
 unless under special permission obtained from the 
 Supreme Government. They are as follows : 
 
 1. The Gujerat and Pir Panjal Route. 
 
 2. The Gujerat and Poonch Route. 
 
 3. The Rawal Pindi and Marri Route. 
 
 4. The Rawal Pindi and Abbottabad Route. 
 These routes will all be found on the map that
 
 The Border Country. 17 
 
 accompanies this volume, as also in the Appendix. 
 At the risk even of being thought a trifle wearisome, 
 I must now proceed to give a short description of 
 the two principal, on account of their own interest, 
 and as a prelude to the romantic scenery and 
 delights of the Valley itself. On the Gujerat and 
 Poonch route I need not dwell, as it is a branch 
 road merely, and taken only as a rule if the Pir 
 Panjal Pass is blocked by snow. The same applies 
 to the Abbottabad road, which is of very little 
 interest, and rarely used, except by officers from 
 that or other frontier stations in the Punjab. 
 
 But before proceeding let us take a cursory glance 
 at the country that they traverse, its inhabitants, 
 and other details connected therewith, and the neces- 
 sary arrangements that must be effected to insure 
 the safety and comfort of the traveller on his long 
 and mountainous march. As already stated, the 
 Valley of Kashmir is entirely encircled by moun- 
 tains, those on its southern side being the range 
 of the Pir Panjal, separating it from our own 
 Indian possessions, the plains of the Punjab, over 
 which we must make our way in order to reach the 
 goal of our journey. Before arriving, however, 
 at the loftiest heights of this mountain mass, there 
 is an intermediate district, rough and rugged in
 
 1 8 The Happy Valley. 
 
 character, sparsely inhabited, poorly cultivated 
 small patches of land only being fit for tillage 
 and with scrub forest and bare rock as its more 
 prominent features. To this tract has been applied, 
 by an author to whom I am much indebted for the 
 following remarks, the appropriate term of ' The 
 Outer Hills ;' and to that further towards the higher 
 parts of the mountain, ' The Regions of the Middle 
 Mountains.'" It is an interesting country, alike 
 from the difference in its physical features, its 
 vegetation, . and its people. This is most marked 
 on the Gujerat and Pir Panjal route than the 
 others named, excepting, of course, the Banihal 
 Marri, the starting-point of the so-called road lying 
 on ground corresponding in character to the second 
 tract, and with a very small space of the first-named 
 separating it from the plains of the Punjab, the road 
 to the Vale passing for the greater part of the way 
 up the valley of the Jhelam. 
 
 Let us first take the district of the Outer Hills, 
 so called, the skirts of the mountain mass of the 
 Himalayas, which with a greater or less width 
 edges its course along their entire length, and in 
 the territories which concern us chiefly has an 
 extent of 150 miles, with a width varying from 
 
 * The Northern Barrier of India. F. DREW.
 
 The Outer Hills. 19 
 
 fourteen to thirty-six miles, in a line drawn from the 
 river Ravi on the east to the Jhelam on the west. 
 These hills slope up very gradually from the plains, 
 continuing to a height of nearly 2,000 feet their 
 sides clothed with forests of small trees, for the 
 most part of the acacia species, with various shrubs 
 as an undergrowth and then fall a little, constituting 
 for several miles a rough broken tract of land re- 
 deemed only -by an occasional small valley or 'dun.' 
 On these favoured spots are the towns and villages 
 of the inhabitants, and the cultivated ground, which 
 bears crops similar to those obtained in the northern 
 parts of India ; the climate and general vegetation 
 of the belt being also pretty nearly of the same 
 character. It is, however, to the inhabitants of 
 these parts that the greatest interest attaches, for 
 among these hills live the race of men called Dogra, 
 headed by the Maharajah of Jamoo and Kashmir, 
 himself of the same stock the ruling class over the 
 whole of the territories that comprise the so-called 
 Kashmir kingdom ; and here also is to be found the 
 capital town of Jamoo, for many years the chief 
 head-quarters of the members of their royal line. 
 A branch of the Aryans, and settling in the hills 
 that skirt the Punjab, while their brethren went still 
 
 further and colonized the greater part of India, they 
 
 c 2
 
 2O The Happy Valley. 
 
 approach, in appearance, character, and habits, the 
 Hindus ; modified of course by their somewhat 
 isolated position, and their naturally altered mode 
 of life. In appearance, especially among the higher 
 classes, they may be termed decidedly good-looking, 
 of a much fairer complexion than the Hindus of the 
 plains, slim-made, and, if not very muscular, active 
 and strong for their size, which is considerably less 
 than that of Europeans. They profess the Brah- 
 manical faith, or its heterodox form known as the 
 Sikh religion, and are divided into castes in nearly 
 the same way as the Hindus generally ; out of 
 which number the Brahman and the Rajput di- 
 visions are the principal. The first-named is the 
 highest caste, the same as in other parts of Hindu- 
 stan ; but in these quarters they are more numerous, 
 perhaps, and more inclined to take to various occu- 
 pations, other than learning and combined religious 
 devotion ; while the Rajputs are the same as they 
 always are the traditional aristocratic class, supply- 
 ing both warriors and rulers to the state. There 
 are various other castes, chiefly confined to members 
 following one occupation ; and there are low-caste 
 people, and even outcasts, among them, as in the 
 plains. Without entering into this subject further, 
 I may remark that the despised classes differ in
 
 The Middle Mountains. 21 
 
 colour, being darker, and have other characters 
 distinguishing them from the higher ones, and are 
 supposed to be descendants of the original non- 
 Aryan inhabitants of these hills. These observa- 
 tions apply more directly to that portion of the 
 Outer Hills lying between the Ravi on the east 
 and the Chenab river. Further west, between this 
 boundary and the Jhelam, a somewhat different 
 race is found, professing the Mohammedan religion, 
 who are often termed Chibhalis ; but, as a rule, they 
 are not very strong in their faith, and differ little in 
 other respects from the Dogras, of whom they are 
 a branch, converted to the Mohammedan form of 
 worship in years gone past. 
 
 We now come to the Region of the Middle 
 Mountains, on the road to the Valley, and which, 
 on the same authority already quoted, is given in 
 these provinces as including the country around 
 Bhadarwah, Kishtwar, Ramban, Rajaori, and Poonch, 
 the two last places that are passed on the Pir 
 Panjal route, and Muzafarabad, near to the Rawal 
 Pindi and Marri road. The whole of the area of 
 this tract, which is about forty miles in width on 
 the east, lessening to a third of that distance about 
 its centre, and spreading out again indefinitely to- 
 wards the north-east, is occupied by hills, approach-
 
 22 The Happy Valley. 
 
 ing sometimes to the height of even 12,000 feet, 
 with deep hollows formed by the rivers that ramify 
 in these mountain masses, and which again have a 
 number of valleys spreading out in every direction 
 from their courses, but all small in size, and 
 closely hemmed in, and surrounded by rocky walls. 
 The height of this region gives a different charac- 
 ter to the vegetation, as compared with that of 
 the Outer Hills. Forests of Himalayan oak, of 
 pine, spruce, silver fir, and deodar are to be seen on 
 the slopes of the mountains ; while the root and 
 grain crops are scanty, both from the nature of the 
 ground and climate ; for in winter snow falls all 
 over this tract, though rarely, if ever, in the district 
 just described. The inhabitants of the Middle 
 Mountains are again very different to the Dogras, 
 or to other Hindus generally, although followers 
 of the same religion, excepting to the north-west, 
 where Mohammedanism is followed, the people of 
 that locality having been already described under 
 the head of Chibhalis. More to the eastern portion 
 of this tract the people have remained Hindu in 
 faith, manners, and customs, retaining caste and 
 other peculiarities ; but differing in appearance, 
 dress, and mode of life from the inhabitants of 
 the country nearer the plains. They are a strong,
 
 The Mountaineers. 23 
 
 active race, with a powerful physique, pronounced 
 and not unpleasant features, mostly having- a nose 
 markedly hooked a peculiarity to be noticed in 
 the inhabitants of the Valley itself, as also among 
 the hill tribes on our north-western border. No dis- 
 tinct name exists for this particular race (or rather 
 races ; for there are many subdivisions of tribes), 
 and they have no general appellation amongst them- 
 selves. They are usually termed Paharis, meaning 
 mountaineers, a comprehensible name, and as good 
 as any other ; so, for convenience' sake, in speaking 
 of the inhabitants of this region on our march to 
 the Vale, we will so designate them, excepting 
 always the true Kashmiris, many of whom are to 
 be found in the villages as we approach the ter- 
 mination of our journey. 
 
 Such then, in brief outline, is the country and its 
 inhabitants, lying between the Indian plains and the 
 lofty wall of mountain ranges, on the other side of 
 which is to be found the Valley itself, with an 
 appearance and a people totally distinct, a country 
 which must be traversed by long and wearisome 
 marches before arriving at the smiling plain beyond. 
 And although this sketch is very incomplete, and 
 gives but an imperfect idea of the territory as it 
 really exists, still I trust it will convey a general
 
 24 The Happy Valley. 
 
 impression of the nature and surroundings of this 
 mountainous tract to those of my readers who are 
 interested in the subject, and who are ready and 
 willing to accompany our journey as detailed in the 
 following chapter.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Routes to the Valley The Seasons for Visiting the Valley 
 Hints to Travellers Supplies Servants Money Conveyance 
 The Gujerat and Pir Panjal Route Called the Imperial Road 
 The Road to Bhimber Bhimber Its Former Rulers March to 
 Saidabad The Aditak Range Mogul Seraies March to Naoshera 
 The Kaman Goshi The View Marches to Changas and Rajaori 
 .Fording the River Rajaori Thanna Mundi Baramgalla 
 The Rutten Pir Wooden Bridges March to Poshiana Its 
 Houses The Pir Panjal Pass View from the Summit March 
 to Hirpur The Town of Shupiyan Further Road to the Vale 
 Ramoo Arrival at Srinagar The Rawal Pindi and Marri Route 
 Hill Carts Marches to Daywal and Kohala The River Jhelam 
 Chatar Kalas Marches to Rara, Tinali, Gharri, and Hatti 
 Chakdti Ooree Road from Poonch Ooramboo Naoshera 
 Town of Baramula By Water to Srinager Srinagar. 
 
 the four authorized or public routes to the 
 Valley already mentioned, that which is 
 known as the Gujerat and Pir Panjal is 
 decidedly the grandest as regards scenery, 
 as well as the most interesting on account 
 of its historical associations, which take us back to 
 the palmy days of the Great Moguls. It is also the 
 most convenient to all travellers from any part of 
 India, excepting those stationed higher up in the
 
 26 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Punjab. Gujerat, the starting-point, is only some 
 seventy-five miles from Lahore, and now connected 
 with that city by the Northern State Railway, while 
 Rawal Pindi, the starting-point for the other route, 
 is 100 miles further on. 
 
 Such being the case, this is perhaps the most 
 frequented road, and one that should most certainly 
 be selected, either in proceeding to or returning from 
 the Valley ; for, although a little harder to travel 
 than the other, it is well worth the extra fatigue. 
 In my own case, when in the summer of 1875, ac- 
 companied by my wife, I made the tour to the 
 Happy Valley, we proceeded by the second, as we 
 were anxious to stay a short time in the cool climate 
 of Marri before commencing the journey after our 
 grilling in the Fortress Gwalior, my then station, 
 and also to avoid the heavy rains, as it was then 
 the month of July, and these falling at that time in 
 the higher mountains cause the rivers to be so 
 swollen on the other road as to render them almost 
 entirely impassable. 
 
 We returned, however, by the Pir Panjal route, 
 and being thus equally familiar with either, I will 
 essay a short sketch of the march over these high- 
 ways to the Vale, prefacing it with a few observa- 
 tions as to certain specialities regarding travelling
 
 Preparations for the Journey. 2 7 
 
 in the Himalayas. As regards the best season for 
 visiting the Valley, and for travelling over the 
 mountain roads that lead to it, opinions differ. 
 Most people prefer the first three months after the 
 passes are open from the winter's snow, from about 
 the middle of April to the middle of June. The 
 next best time is perhaps from the middle of August 
 to the end of October the period intervening 
 between these dates being the least preferable, par- 
 ticularly for the journey, as it is the season when 
 heavy rains fall upon the mountains. As regards 
 the other months of the year, it hardly need be 
 said that few or no Europeans visit the Valley in 
 the winter ; in fact I believe that to do so is for- 
 bidden by the Kashmir government. 
 
 It need scarcely be observed that there are no 
 hotels or shops to be met with on the different 
 roads to the Valley. It becomes therefore neces- 
 sary for the traveller to procure and carry with him 
 nearly everything requisite for his support and com- 
 fort on the journey. There is certainly at every 
 stage or halting-place a bungalow, or some kind of 
 shelter to be found, set apart for his use. But he 
 will most probably find need for his tent on the 
 way ; for many of these rest-houses are mean and 
 dirty, and, possessing but limited accommodation,
 
 28 The Happy Valley. 
 
 are often found already filled on his arrival by others 
 who have preceded him. Although there are no 
 shops, still certain supplies, such as wood, milk, eggs, 
 fowls, and vegetables, are procurable at most of the 
 villages, where native servants will find all they re- 
 quire ; but for their masters anything required in 
 excess of what is mentioned above must be pro- 
 cured at Gujerat or Marri, according to the route 
 selected. No luxuries will be obtainable after 
 leaving these stations until arrival at Srinagar, 
 where several good shops for European stores are 
 kept by Parsees and others. 
 
 Among the other articles requisite, both for the 
 march and when moving about the Valley, there are 
 of course a tent and tent-furniture, such as carpet, 
 table, chairs, bedstead, bedding, bath, &c., all of 
 which should be made so as to take to pieces or 
 fold up, and are generally procurable in the bazaars 
 of the stations from whence the start is made. 
 Another tent will be found necessary for the ac- 
 commodation of the servants, as well as cooking 
 things, plates, cups, and glasses, and also washing 
 and ironing requisites, and other articles which they 
 need, taking care, however, not to allow them to 
 have all they say they want, as in that case their 
 requirements would be endless. As to servants,
 
 Servants. 29 
 
 opinions differ-; but from experience I can say, the 
 fewer the better ; for if numerous, they are a great 
 incumbrance, being perfectly helpless out of their 
 own country, unless accustomed to marching or 
 mountain travelling. For a bachelor, two will be 
 found sufficient. We only took four, and found the 
 number ample to attend to our wants ; but we 
 possessed a treasure in our head-man, or butler, 
 Esau, whose name will be familiar to those who 
 have read Our Life and Travels in India, and who 
 on this trip took the general direction of affairs, as 
 he was accustomed to do in our Indian bungalow. 
 
 o 
 
 To carry all the impedimenta enumerated above, 
 coolies, mules, and ponies are required, and they 
 are to be found at all the halting-places, and are 
 paid four annas each man, and double that amount 
 each baggage animal for the day's march. Certain 
 rules to be observed for procuring them, as also 
 some useful hints to travellers on this journey, will 
 be found in Appendix iii. It occasionally happens 
 that fresh coolies or mules cannot be procured at 
 one or two of the halting-places, so it is always 
 advisable to ascertain that fact before payment is 
 made to those in employ. If none are at hand or 
 willing to proceed the original ones must be retained 
 to go onwards the next day ; and the only way to
 
 30 The Happy Valley. 
 
 insure their services is to defer paying them at all, 
 or giving them a fourth only of their wage until 
 their services can be dispensed with and fresh ones 
 taken on in their place. To pay one's way on the 
 journey it is necessary to take a supply of rupees 
 and smaller coins, enough to last until arrival at 
 Srinagar, when no difficulty will be met with in 
 replenishing the purse ; for the tradesmen at that 
 city act as bankers, cashing treasury drafts, or even 
 cheques, for a small percentage. 
 
 Both the roads to the Vale about to be described 
 are rideable nearly all the way ; at certain rough 
 places only is it necessary to dismount, and sure- 
 footed ponies are to be found at most of the halting- 
 places, although many of the hardier sex prefer 
 walking all the distance. For ladies who do not 
 wish to ride, there is the dandi. This consists of a 
 light cane seat and foot-piece attached to an oval 
 wooden frame, with a short pole at each end which 
 rests upon the bearers' shoulders the same bearers, 
 four in number to each dandi, being procured at the 
 starting-point, and engaged for the whole tour. 
 
 Being thus prepared with servants, baggage, and 
 coolies, and mules to carry the supplies, and in the 
 case of officers of the army, or civilians in govern- 
 ment employ, with the necessary pass or permit, not
 
 Gujerat and Pir Panjdl. 31 
 
 required by other travellers, we will now start on 
 our mountain march over the great Pir Panjal. 
 The distance from Gujerat to Srinagar is about 
 176 miles, covered in fourteen marches, a day's 
 march varying, according to the nature of the 
 ground and the position of the villages on the 
 road, from ten, or even fewer miles, to twelve and 
 fifteen. As before stated, the Gujerat and Pir 
 Panjal route was the one by which the Mogul 
 Emperors passed on their way to the Valley, and 
 numerous were the journeys of the members of 
 that royal line from the time of its annexation by 
 the great Akbar, in the year 1587. From the fact 
 of these monarchs using this route, it was, and even 
 is yet, termed the Imperial Road, and the traveller 
 of to-day cannot fail to be reminded of their former 
 presence, and recall their ancient grandeur, when he 
 observes the ruins of the magnificent serais, or inns, 
 and other buildings, erected at intervals along the 
 road for the accommodation of the monarch and the 
 numerous retainers that accompanied the Court. 
 
 On leaving Gujerat, a pretty little station on the 
 Grand Trunk Road, about seventy miles above 
 Lahore, the capital of the Punjab, we proceed to 
 make for Bhimber, a distance of twenty-eight miles, 
 which can be easily covered in one day, as it is over
 
 32 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the level plain, either by stage-cart or ' dhooly dak.' 
 This is by far the most satisfactory way of com- 
 mencing the journey ; for after leaving Bhimber a 
 country is entered upon in which civilization in the 
 shape of wheeled vehicles, or luxurious modes of 
 travelling is left behind, and the dandies for ladies, 
 and ponies for the sterner sex take their place, 
 serving their purpose very well, except in certain 
 parts of the passes', where I certainly consider the 
 wayfarer's own lower limbs the safest and most 
 reliable means of progression. The road to Bhim- 
 ber from Gujerat is easy enough to travel, and the 
 country passed over presents the usual features of 
 the landscape as seen in the Punjab, a continuous 
 plain, at certain seasons of the year green and 
 cultivated, at others dusty and sandy, and devoid of 
 all vegetation save that presented by a few clumps 
 of trees and shrubs, which stand about the vicinity 
 of the small villages, or rather collections of mud 
 huts, pretty plentifully dotted about this part of the 
 Indian lowlands. No objects of any interest are 
 met with on the road, which, as one nears the town, 
 becomes sandy and broken up by numerous water- 
 courses, the whole country looking as if it had been 
 in former days a huge marsh, now dried up ; for 
 nothing in the shape of vegetation is to be remarked
 
 Bhimber. 33 
 
 over the whole expanse, save some tufts of reeds 
 and long coarse grass. 
 
 The town of Bhimber is of considerable size, 
 containing a number of houses some of fair propor- 
 tions and built of rough unhewn stone, mud, and 
 wood, situated just at the edge of the plain so lately 
 traversed on leaving Gujerat ; and surrounded, 
 except on its southern side, with low hills densely 
 wooded a portion of the Outer Hills, already 
 described. 
 
 At the present time it presents a somewhat 
 desolate and forsaken appearance ; a contrast to 
 what it must have done in former days, when it was 
 the capital and residence of an independent Rajah, 
 whose last representative, Sultan Khan, came to 
 an untimely end. Having acted in opposition to 
 the then powerful Sikh ruler, Runjit Singh, in his 
 designs on the Valley, he was conquered and taken 
 prisoner by the Lion of the Punjab's Lieutenant, 
 Golab Singh, who directed and actually carried out 
 the barbarous proceeding of destroying his sight, by 
 means, it is said, of a silver bodkin made hot by 
 friction. The unhappy Rajah, after this torture, 
 was kept in close confinement until his death, in the 
 year 1830; his dominions becoming incorporated 
 
 with the Sikh State, and at its disruption passing 
 
 D
 
 34 The Happy Valley. 
 
 into the hands of his executioner, Golab Singh, 
 and becoming a part of the Jamoo and Kashmir 
 territories as existing at the present day. The 
 ruins of the old palace are yet standing, as also 
 those of a Mogul serai, with the remains of a fort ; 
 and on the summit of a hill, some few miles distant, 
 is the castle of Amur Gurgh ' The immortal 
 fortress/ built by an uncle of the present ruler, and 
 well worthy inspection if time can be spared. 
 
 The first stage from Bhimber and the next halting- 
 place is Saidabad, a distance of fifteen miles, which 
 will be found sufficient for one day's march, since 
 now the difficulties of the journey fairly commence. 
 The road at first is fairly good ; but one has to 
 cross within the distance of a few miles a small 
 river no less than eight times, on account of its 
 numerous windings. The guide-books state that 
 its bed is rough and rocky ; an assertion I can well 
 sustain, having experienced practical proof of its 
 condition from a heavy fall in the stream, caused 
 by the pony I was riding tumbling headlong over a 
 boulder at one of the crossings. About six miles 
 from our destination a range of sandstone hills, 
 called the Aditak, has to be crossed, the ascent 
 being made by a rough, steep path of about three 
 miles in length. The summit of the ridge, which
 
 The Serais. 35 
 
 is about 1,000 feet above the level of the plains of 
 the Punjab, commands in fair weather a highly 
 picturesque and extensive view of the country we 
 have left the Saidabad valley, the continuation of 
 our journey, lying spread out in front with a back- 
 ground of mountains, the loftiest peaks being those 
 of the Pir Panjal range. The descent is easy ; a 
 winding path about a mile long leads us to the 
 bottom of the ridge, and continuing across some 
 fields by the right bank of a pretty little river for 
 nearly four miles, turns to the left, and, after fording 
 a small stream, conducts to the village, where a 
 good stone bungalow has been erected for the ac- 
 commodation of travellers. 
 
 There is nothing to be seen here except the 
 Samani serai, a building still in fairly good preser- 
 vation, supposed to have been built by Akbar, and 
 consequently one of the earliest erections of this 
 sort along the royal road. As all these serais are 
 pretty similar in. construction, one description will 
 suffice, and that in a few words, for there is nothing 
 very particular about them, being similar to the 
 usual so-called caravanserais met with all through 
 the East. They generally consist of a large square 
 stone building, of which the architecture is usually 
 Saracenic in character. After passing through a 
 
 D 2
 
 36 The Happy Valley. 
 
 massive doorway and gaining the centre of the 
 building, which is uncovered, they will be seen to 
 be formed entirely of four large walls, oftentimes 
 twenty feet or more in thickness, with deep niches, 
 like cells, formed out of their depth, all with the 
 openings towards the roofless square enclosure which 
 they surround. These niches formed the separate 
 accommodation for those who sought their shelter ; 
 and the four walls and the enclosure, as described 
 above, often form the entire structure. This how- 
 ever is supplemented in the larger and grander ones 
 by the addition of a suite of rooms raised above 
 the level of the ground, which, with other chambers 
 and a ' hamam ' or bath-room, no doubt formed the 
 royal quarters for the accommodation of the Mogul 
 and his family. 
 
 Naoshera, about twelve miles from Saidabad, is 
 usually the next march, and the road for the first 
 few miles is easy to follow, continuing along the 
 banks of the river, across fields and. low grassy hills. 
 About halfway we come to another small range, 
 called the Kaman Goshi, which is formed of sand- 
 stone similar to the Aditak, crossed the previous 
 day, and may with it be regarded as the stepping- 
 stones to the great Himalayas. The path to the 
 summit is about a mile long, and mostly over bare,
 
 Naoshera and Changas. 37 
 
 slippery, dull -coloured rocks, and its scenery and 
 general surroundings are very much like parts of 
 Scotland. A very fine view is obtained after the 
 pull to the top of the ridge is surmounted ; for the 
 whole open plain or valley just left lies spread out, 
 a green and smiling expanse, offering a marked 
 contrast to the surrounding ranges of mountains, 
 which in front appear to cover the entire country 
 as far as the eye can reach, range after range, with 
 the Pir Panjal for a background. The descent is 
 easy, the path being generally smooth, and on 
 arrival at its foot a pleasant walk of another three 
 miles brings one to Naoshera, a compact stone-built 
 town situated in an open plain on the right bank of 
 the Tawi river. 
 
 There is not much to be seen, however, either in 
 it or in the vicinity, so leaving the town the following 
 day the traveller proceeds to make for Changas, a 
 village lying about fourteen miles away, the road to 
 which is not very difficult to traverse, leading as it 
 does along the comparatively level ground of the 
 valley of the Tawi river, a narrow but pretty glen, 
 bounded on each side by low and beautifully wooded 
 hills. The village of Changas is on a plateau on 
 the right bank of the river, and a quarter of a mile 
 distant is a bungalow, the best on the road, in my
 
 38 The Happy Valley. 
 
 opinion, which commands from its verandah what 
 is said to be the most magnificent view obtainable 
 of the Pir Panjal range. This I can well endorse, 
 and we saw it to perfection ; for a heavy fall of 
 snow the previous day had covered the peaks, 
 which stood out boldly and well-defined against 
 the clear blue sky, and, bathed in a roseate flood 
 of light from the rays of the setting sun, afforded 
 a spectacle of grandeur and beauty not to be easily 
 effaced from our minds. 
 
 The next march leads us to Rajaori, and here, 
 too, the fourteen miles of road are comparatively 
 easy to overcome, passing over a not very steep 
 or rough path along the right bank of our old 
 friend the Tawi, which has to be forded just 
 opposite the town in order to reach the usual 
 encamping -ground and rest -bungalow, situated on 
 the left bank of the swiftly-flowing stream. The 
 crossing of the river at this point is oftentimes no 
 easy matter, particularly if there has lately been a 
 heavy fall 'of rain in the mountains, which at first 
 for some little time renders it even totally impass- 
 able. Such had been the case when we essayed 
 its passage, and this was the cause of my passing 
 perhaps the most miserable quarter of an hour I 
 ever experienced ; for the stream was icy cold, deep,
 
 Dangers of Flooded Rivers. 39 
 
 and rapid, flowing over a bed exceedingly rough 
 and full of large loose boulders, and to cross this 
 quarter of a mile of water, for such was about its 
 width, swollen as it was with the late rain, we had 
 to hold on to each other tightly to prevent being 
 swept away by the force of the current. Forming 
 a living chain by grasping each other's hands, 
 myself, servants, and coolies went stumbling over, 
 the water being sometimes up to our chins, at other 
 times scarcely covering our knees ; while its loose 
 stony bed made but a poor surface to stand on. 
 The coldness of the water, coming as it did from 
 the snowy mountains, most effectually deprived us 
 of the little breath we could spare after our exertions 
 to maintain our erect position and progress forwards, 
 and to add to my misery and anxiety, I had the un- 
 pleasant reflection that if the twelve men, who just 
 ahead of me were swaying and tottering from side 
 to side under the burden of the dandi, were not 
 staunch and strong enough to preserve their footing, 
 the miserable spectacle would be presented of its 
 overthrow, and probable drowning of its occupant, 
 the dear companion of my journey, neither I my- 
 self nor any of my following being able to render 
 the slightest assistance to obviate such a dire 
 calamity. We fortunately, however, experienced
 
 40 The Happy Valley. 
 
 no such untoward misfortune, and all reaching 
 safely the opposite side continued our way, wet 
 but rejoicing. 
 
 The town of Rajaori, also sometimes called 
 Rampore, is the largest met with along this route, 
 and is most picturesquely situated on an angle 
 formed by the junction of the Tawi and another 
 small river, the waters of the former washing the 
 stone walls of the palace, a building which rises 
 directly from its bed. Low-lying hills covered with 
 jungle surround the town, which is of fair size, with 
 houses built of wood, mud, or brick, and contains 
 several noticeable places, either within its walls or 
 in its vicinity, such as temples and other buildings. 
 Formerly the seat of an independent Rajah, it was 
 a place of some considerable importance, and in its 
 palmy days has seen grand sights and entertain r 
 ments, given by the members of its ancient line of 
 sovereigns, which is said to have dated from the 
 eleventh century, to the Moguls and their retinue, 
 when they halted here on their way to the Valley. 
 But these days have departed never to return. 
 After the fall of the Mogul dynasty, the state lost 
 little by little its possessions, and being finally seized 
 by Golab Singh in 1847, became merged into the 
 Sikh dominions, and subsequently, like Bhimber,
 
 The Rutten Pir Range. 41 
 
 into the Kashmir Raj ; while the members of the 
 family of the last of its rulers sought British pro- 
 tection, and are at the present time settled in the 
 tea-growing district of Kangra. 
 
 On leaving Rajaori the road to Thanna Mundi, 
 the next halting-place, a distance of fourteen miles, 
 is easy to march on, and pleasant throughout, pass- 
 ing along the valley. This, however, with the river 
 becomes narrower and narrower, until merged in the 
 Rutten Pir range of mountains, which rises straight 
 in front. The valley through which we pass is 
 fairly fruitful, and rice in considerable quantity is 
 raised on ground terraced and made into fields, 
 which are flooded at the proper seasons with water 
 from the river that flows through its midst. On 
 arriving at the village we find ourselves surrounded 
 by much bolder scenery ; for we have now entered 
 upon the Region of the Middle Mountains, and the 
 hills already crossed sink into insignificance when 
 contrasted with those which overshadow this place, 
 and whose sides, covered with forests of pine, 
 spruce, and fir trees, form the third intervening 
 range between the Pir Panjal and the point of 
 departure. 
 
 In the next march to Baramgalla, a short but 
 hard one of ten miles, this Rutten Pir range has
 
 42 The Plappy Valley. 
 
 to be crossed, a piece of pretty rough mountain 
 travelling. The road to the Vale known as the 
 Poonch route, and which is utilized when the 
 passes in front are deep with snow, may be said 
 to commence here. It branches off about a mile 
 beyond Thanna, and, passing through the town 
 from which it takes its name, proceeds on to join 
 the Marrj route, as will be seen by reference to the 
 Appendix. The road after leaving Thanna, for the 
 first mile or so, still continues along the side of the 
 Tawi, which now is only a small stream, as we are 
 nearing its source, at the foot of the range we have 
 reached, and which has to be surmounted on the 
 way to our next resting-place. It is hard work 
 to gain the summit, the path being very rough and 
 uneven at places ; but when once surmounted, a 
 magnificent view is the reward ; for the top of the 
 Rutten Pir stands 8,300 feet above the sea level, 
 commanding an extensive tract of country, while 
 looking north-eastward there are grand views of the 
 Pir Panjal and adjacent mountains. The descent 
 is equally steep and rough as the ascent, and one is 
 not sorry to reach the village, which is close to the 
 base of the ridge, near a stream, and entirely shut 
 in by spurs of the mountains around, adding to 
 its picturesque beauty in summer, but not serving
 
 Singular Village. 43 
 
 much towards its protection in winter ; for it is 
 stated that at that season of the year snow lies 
 about here to the depth of fifty feet. Just before 
 reaching the village we had to cross the stream 
 which runs near, and which is spanned by a bridge 
 similar in construction to all met with in Kashmir, 
 consisting of large logs of deodar or Himalayan 
 cedar wood stretched from bank to bank, with 
 rough planks and brushwood laid across them to 
 form the platform. 
 
 The next march is to Poshiana ; and to reach 
 this place one has to follow the course of the river 
 Sooran, which flows in an exceedingly narrow 
 valley. For several miles the only road on ac- 
 count of the steepness of the hills that hem it in 
 is over the loose stones of its bed ; and as the 
 stream has numerous alterations 'of course as it 
 nears the cliffs on either side, it has to be crossed 
 and re-crossed no less than thirty times in a distance 
 of five miles over the little rickety primitive bridges 
 described above. After leaving the stony track of 
 the stream, about a mile or so this side of Poshiana, 
 the path leads up its right bank, and a stiff pull of 
 some hundreds of feet up the hillside brings us 
 to this extraordinary place a small village, the 
 highest in the valley, and inhabited by Kashmiris.
 
 44 The Happy Valley. 
 
 The houses are built almost entirely of mud, on the 
 precipitous hillside, rising tier above tier in some 
 places ; sufficient level ground for their construction 
 having been hollowed out from the side of the 
 mountain, against which they lean. Their roofs are 
 flat and smooth ; and if a tent has to be pitched for 
 one's accommodation, as there is no rest-house 
 available, it has to be put up on one of these 
 roofs, for no other level piece of ground sufficiently 
 large for the purpose could be found within some 
 distance of the village. These flat roofs seem to 
 serve another purpose as well as a protection 
 against heavy snow ; for I remarked that, as dark- 
 ness drew near, the sheep, goats, and fowls were 
 driven on to them up a species of rough ladder, or 
 rather inclined plane of planks with cross-pieces, 
 which was removed when they were all safely 
 housed for the night over their owner's head, 
 who was enabled to sleep in peace, knowing that 
 his flocks and his herds were, as far as he could 
 provide, in a measure secure against the attacks 
 of wild beasts ; in this locality pretty plentiful, but 
 rather shy of approaching the habitation of men. 
 
 The next march is to Aliabad serai, and the 
 distance eleven miles, but nearly sufficient for one 
 day ; for it is in this march the chief pass on the
 
 The Pir Panjdl Pass. 45 
 
 route, that of the Pir Panjdl, is crossed ; and that of 
 itself is a pretty stiff climb. After leaving Poshiana, 
 the road first contours to the base of the valley. 
 At the upper end the ascent to the summit of the 
 pass commences, which is reached by a steep, nar- 
 row, boulder-strewn path, cut in zigzag form out 
 of the mountain side. The path is fairly good, but 
 in places decidedly rough, over large rocks and 
 loose stones ; and it remains a marvel to me how 
 the ponies and mules, often heavily laden, pass up 
 and down, springing like cats from rock to rock. 
 Progress upwards is necessarily slow ; but with 
 ordinary expedition, the top of the pass can be 
 gained in something under four hours from leaving 
 Poshiana, from which it is distant about six miles. 
 
 In ascending we pass successively through the 
 different stages of mountain vegetation ; and on 
 nearing the summit, the pines, the firs, and shrubs 
 have vanished ; for we have arrived above the limit 
 of forest growth, and nothing is around us but 
 stunted grass, rocks, fallen stones, and, on the 
 highest parts, unmelted snow. From the summit 
 of the pass, which is a comparatively level piece 
 of ground, with lofty walls of mountain masses on 
 either side, standing at an elevation of 11,800 feet 
 above the level of the sea, a magnificent prospect
 
 46 The Happy Valley, 
 
 unfolds itself. It is one truly grand. On either 
 side rise mountains, their peaks soaring aloft to a 
 height in some cases of between sixteen and seven- 
 teen thousand feet. Straight in front the whole of 
 the country, with the ranges already crossed, their 
 valleys and their silvery streams, lies spread out as a 
 picturesque panorama of rare and exceeding loveli- 
 ness. Beyond again, as a dim grey expanse, are the 
 plains of India, as far as the eye can reach, until 
 lost in a hazy mist ; and if the air be sufficiently 
 clear the minarets of the capital of the Punjab can 
 be discerned, a distance of 130 miles. From the 
 summit a gradual and easy descent over a grass- 
 covered plateau, like a mountain meadow hemmed 
 in by walls of rock, a glen of five miles long by 
 half a mile in width, brings one to Aliabad serai, 
 which is nothing more than one of those usual 
 places of shelter to the traveller, standing alone in 
 its solitude, and deserted for the greater part of 
 the year, when it is completely inaccessible through 
 snow. 
 
 From this desolate region to Hirpur, the next 
 stage, the road passes along and above the stream, 
 which dashes wildly over the rocks, and with hills 
 rising on either side forms a narrow valley, widening 
 out, however, as we approach our destination; while
 
 The Valley Reached. 47 
 
 the hills, their sides covered with forest trees, be- 
 come mere hillocks compared with those to which 
 we have hitherto been accustomed, and barely 
 interfere with what is now obtainable the first 
 view of the far-famed Vale itself, so eagerly looked 
 for, so gladly welcomed. 
 
 Deferring however for the present any descrip- 
 tion of the Valley, we will proceed on our journey, 
 and make for the next halting-place the town of 
 Shupiyan, a large place, and the great commercial 
 depot of Kashmir and the Punjab, distant about 
 eight miles from Hirpur, and reached by an easy 
 road along the right bank of the river. From this 
 town the further road to the capital lies north, about 
 twenty-seven miles, and it can be easily reached in 
 two marches. The village of Ramoo is the usual 
 halting-place for the night, and the following day 
 an easy ride of eighteen miles over a smooth and 
 level road, planted with poplar trees on either side 
 for a greater part of the way, brings us to Srinagar, 
 when crossing the bridge that spans the river -we 
 make our way, weary with mountain travel, to the 
 usual encamping-ground, rejoicing however in the 
 fact that the toilsome marches are over, and the 
 promised land, the Happy Valley, yea, even its 
 capital, safely reached at last.
 
 48 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Regarding the other route into Kashmir from 
 India, that called the Rawal Pindi and Marri road, 
 a few words will suffice ; for it does not offer such 
 magnificent scenery or other objects of interest to 
 render it so attractive as the one just described, 
 although it is picturesque along most of its way, a 
 distance of nearly 200 miles, and as the travelling 
 is easy, and there are no formidable mountain ridges 
 to cross, the town of Srinagar can be easily reached 
 in fourteen, or even half that number of marches. 
 It is usual to proceed direct from Rawal Pindi, a 
 large civil and military station in the Punjab, about 
 100 miles from Peshawar, to the hill-station of Marri, 
 distant forty miles, either by stage-cart or dhooly- 
 dak. If the latter is chosen, the travelling is easy 
 and pleasant, but slow, and the quicker mode of 
 progression is usually selected ; namely, the cart. 
 This, drawn by two horses, covers the ground in 
 grand style, and is besides good for the liver ; for 
 the road being rough and hilly, the vehicle guiltless 
 of springs, and the pace a gallop, one gets plenty 
 of exercise ; the nearest approach to anything like 
 it in my experience being a long ride on a particu- 
 larly rough -stepping horse. From this favourite 
 sanitarium, the road, smooth and down hill, along 
 the side of a picturesque valley, brings one in about
 
 Chatar Kalas. 49 
 
 ten miles to the village of Daywal, where there is a 
 good bungalow to rest in for the night. 
 
 Kohdla is the next point, a distance of ten miles, 
 and over a similar road, being for the first five an 
 easy descent to the river Jhelam, along the right 
 bank of which the route now lies all the way to 
 Srinagar, the rapid, roaring, rushing torrent being 
 ever present on the daily march. Kohala itself, a 
 small village, needs no description, and we proceed 
 to make for Chatar Kalas, eleven miles off, situated 
 in the Kashmirian kingdom, which is gained soon 
 after leaving the first- named village by means of 
 a suspension -bridge across the river Jhelam, the 
 boundary between it and British territory. For 
 nearly the first three miles the road follows the 
 course of the river, with a fair ascent all the way, 
 then, striking into the hills, it passes first over some 
 pretty level ground and next over some steep 
 gorges, when the rest-house is reached, standing 
 on a plateau overlooking the river, and at an angle 
 of the bed of a wide mountain torrent, which here 
 joins the Jhelam. This rough and stony bed, like 
 most others met with in the journey, is fordable 
 nearly all the year, and is seldom very full or im- 
 passable, except just when the melting of the 
 winter's snow sets in. Some excellent fishing is
 
 50 The Happy Valley. 
 
 to be obtained about here, the mahseer being found 
 of a very large size, varying between thirty and 
 forty pounds weight, and affording some good sport 
 before being brought to bank. 
 
 From this place to Rara, distant between ten and 
 eleven miles, the road crosses the stony bed of the 
 torrent noted above, and then, ascending, follows 
 the side of a hill overlooking the river for about 
 half the distance. Two or three miles more, over 
 undulating ground, brings us within sight of our 
 destination, towards which the road gradually de- 
 scends ; and after an easy walk of some two miles 
 the rest-house is gained, most pleasantly situated 
 on a level spot just above the rapid Jhelam. 
 
 Tinali, the next stage, is some thirteen miles 
 distant ; the road following the course of the river 
 with some very steep ascents, over passes led up to 
 by pathways constructed in a series of steps, made 
 by laying logs of wood across, and filling in with 
 earth. The rest-house is within a short distance of 
 the river, at a sharp bend in its course ; this, 
 being full of small rocks, causes a seething and 
 foaming of the water, which on its rapid onward 
 course becomes a rushing, roaring torrent, magnifi- 
 cent to witness. From this place the road, passing 
 chiefly over comparatively level ground for eight
 
 Hatti and Chdkoti. 5 1 
 
 miles, brings us to a long, wide plateau, upon which 
 we find the rest-house of Ghari our halting-place 
 for the night. 
 
 The next stage to Hatti, some ten miles or so, is 
 a very pleasant journey ; a good deal of level 
 ground being passed over among fertile fields and 
 charming scenery, and amidst a quiet which is 
 appreciated after the continuous roar of the river, 
 which has hitherto been the accompaniment of the 
 daily march. 
 
 On leaving Hatti a small village high up on the 
 mountain-side for Chakoti, fifteen miles distant, 
 the road first descends with a sharp gradient to a 
 stream ; crossing which a steeper ascent has to be 
 accomplished, literally up the face of a hill, by zig- 
 zag paths. There are a number of ascents and 
 descents on this march, and several streams to be 
 crossed, most of which are, however, bridged ; but 
 it is a fatiguing joyrney, and one welcomes gladly 
 the bungalow, which is come upon suddenly, just 
 after rising from one of those water-courses, most 
 pleasantly situated, overlooking a scene of fertility 
 and prosperity in the form of wide-spreading fields 
 of corn and rice. 
 
 From Chakoti to Ooree is sixteen miles, the 
 
 roughest and most fatiguing march on this route ; 
 
 E 2
 
 52 The Happy Valley. 
 
 still along the valley of the Jhelam, the path passing 
 for the most part up and down numerous ravines. 
 In the first two-thirds of the stage the hardest work 
 has to be done ; the last few miles being pretty 
 level, ending at a small mountain stream, from the 
 bed of which a steep ascent brings one to a large 
 open plain, where the rest-house of Ooree is placed, 
 overlooking the river. 
 
 At this place the cross-road from Poonch men- 
 tioned a few pages back when describing the other 
 route joins this ; and, continuing our way, after a 
 rather steep descent to the bed of a stream, and a 
 similar ascent, the path passes along the left bank 
 of the river through most beautiful scenery to 
 Ooramboo, about ten miles off, where an excellent 
 bungalow has been lately built ; and the next march 
 past the village of Naoshera brings us to Bdramula, 
 'by a road easy and pleasant. This is the termina- 
 tion of the tramp, for it conducts us into the Happy 
 Valley ; and, once arrived at Baramiila, the choice 
 is offered of proceeding either by water or by 
 land. The first is usually selected ; for it is two 
 long marches on to Srinagar ; and besides, the 
 journey by boat, which takes about twenty hours, is 
 by far the pleasantest, passing across the Woolar 
 lake the largest in Kashmir through which the
 
 At Srinagar. 
 
 53 
 
 Jhelam flows. Some miles further on the city 
 becomes visible ; and soon the encamping-ground 
 is reached the same to which I have already con- 
 ducted my readers by the other route. Having 
 thus safely arrived in the heart of the country we 
 came to visit, we will now turn our attention to the 
 Valley itself its history, people, manners and cus- 
 toms, and other matters relative to this most 
 picturesque and romantic land.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Arrival at Srinagar The Encamping Ground for European Visitors 
 The Babu Courtesy shown by the Maharajah to Visitors The 
 British Officials in Kashmir The Takt-i-Suliman Its Legend- 
 Stone Temple on its Summit Panoramic View of the City and the 
 Valley The Dal Lake Mountains Surrounding the Valley The 
 River Jhelam The Land in the Centre of the Valley The Karee- 
 wahs European Character of the Scenery Physical History of 
 the Valley Formerly a Lake Volcanic Agencies in its Formation 
 Evidences of former Lacustrine Condition of Valley Formation 
 of Kareewahs The Desiccation of the Vallqy. Legend respecting 
 its Desiccation Vigne's Theory of its Desiccation Early History 
 of Kashmir Wilson's Essay on the Hindu History of Kashmir 
 Its Native Kings Its Mohammedan Rulers The Chakk Family 
 The Great Moguls Its Afghan Rulers Ranjit Singh Decline of 
 the Prosperity of Kashmir England's Opportunity for its Acquisi- 
 tion What might have followed Its present Ruler Form of 
 Government in Kashmir. 
 
 AVING arrived at Srinagar, the first care 
 of the visitor to the Happy Valley is to 
 find a suitable place on the ground set 
 apart for the use of Europeans, to pitch 
 his tent, and settle quietly down for a few 
 days, to recover from the fatigues of the mountain 
 journey, and also to explore at leisure the city and
 
 Quarters at Srinagar, 55 
 
 its environs before proceeding further afield. And 
 this is not a difficult task ; for a more suitable spot 
 for the purpose could scarcely be found than that 
 selected, a little above the city on the right bank of 
 the river, facing which some good bungalows have 
 of late years been erected for the accommodation of 
 strangers. There are two ranges of these buildings. 
 The lower one, commencing about a quarter of a mile 
 above the bridge, is intended solely for the use of 
 bachelors. It consists of ten bungalows, standing 
 in three gardens or orchards, built of wood, each 
 containing four rooms ; and in these the unmarried 
 visitors take up their abode, themselves supplying 
 of course the necessary furniture, while those who 
 arrive later, to find them all occupied, pitch their 
 tents in the vicinity, and if desirous of exchanging 
 a canvas house for one of stouter material, a desi- 
 deratum in rainy weather, must wait for a vacancy, 
 the privilege of occupancy ceasing on leaving Srina- 
 gar after the lapse of a few days. The same law 
 holds good in regard to those sacred to the use of 
 the Benedicts and their families. This range, usually 
 styled the married range, consists of sixteen houses 
 of similar construction, except a few larger ones 
 built of brick, situated in a large garden called the 
 Moonshi Bagh, where excellent ground is obtained
 
 56 The Happy Valley. 
 
 for those who prefer their own tents. When we 
 visited Srinagar, we had at first to live in our tent, 
 every room being occupied. Well do I reme'mber 
 our arrival, and the putting up of our travelling 
 house. For we arrived late in the evening, after a 
 long and fatiguing march from Gulmarg, and it was 
 pitch-dark when we reached the encamping ground, 
 which we at first had some little difficulty in finding. 
 And further trouble was in store for us, wet, cold 
 and hungry as we were, the pitching of a tent being 
 no joke when it has to be performed by the light of 
 a single tallow candle stuck in a lanthorn, and by 
 the aid of a lot of unwilling natives, weary and 
 half-famished. However, it was done at last, and 
 we turned in and enjoyed a good night's rest. We 
 were lucky enough to secure the reversion of two 
 rooms in one of the bungalows, which we entered 
 upon in a few days. There we remained for the 
 rest of our stay, enjoying them much ; for although, 
 perhaps, not so romantic, yet dwelling under a 
 good roof is decidedly preferable to living in a tent. 
 Soon after arrival you are favoured with a call from 
 the Native Agent deputed by the Kashmirian 
 government to afford aid and information to the 
 European visitors, and very willing and obliging we 
 found him. His office is not very far distant, where
 
 Courtesy of the Maharajah. 57 
 
 he can usually be found ; but he generally attends 
 every day at the visitors' quarters, ready to give his 
 assistance in the clearing up of such knotty points 
 as the prices of articles, rates of fares, and the end- 
 less disputes between the Indian servants and the 
 natives of the country. 
 
 A curious, but a very polite, custom prevails in 
 Kashmir, that on the day following one's arrival, the 
 Native Agent, attended by a number of servants, in 
 making his first visit, presents an offering of food 
 and fruit, and a sheep or a goat from the Maharajah, 
 at the same time bidding you welcome in his name 
 to the capital of his country. This politeness of the 
 ruler of the state to strangers is frequently extended 
 not only to the living, but to the dead ; for if an 
 English officer is so unfortunate as to come to his 
 death during his stay in the Valley, this attentive 
 prince, to show his sympathy with the melancholy 
 event, usually sends a shawl of price to wrap the 
 body in before burial. In addition to the Kashmir 
 official mentioned above, there are three European 
 officers detailed annually by the Indian government 
 for duty during the season in the Happy Valley. 
 These are, a civil officer or Resident, who is the 
 medium of communication between the visitors and 
 the native officials, and who also possesses juris-
 
 58 The Happy Valley. 
 
 diction over all British subjects during their stay ; 
 a medical officer to attend to their bodily wants, and 
 a chaplain, who performs divine service every Sun- 
 day, to attend to their spiritual needs. To these 
 three officials a residence is assigned between the 
 two ranges of quarters already described, and on 
 them it is advisable to call soon after arrival. 
 Politeness demands it, and often necessity compels 
 it 
 
 Being now comfortably established, and recovered 
 from fatigue, our first care will be to ascend some 
 height whence' a good general view of the Valley 
 and the city can be obtained. This can easily be 
 effected ; for, as if made for such a purpose, im- 
 mediately behind the married range of houses 
 stands a hill known as the Takt-i-Suliman, or 
 'Throne of Solomon/ at an elevation of 6,250 feet 
 above the sea, or a little more than i ,000 feet above 
 that of Srinagar. Whence its name I know not, 
 for certainly we possess no record of that well- 
 known personage of Bible history ever establishing 
 his regal seat on this elevated mound. But it is 
 curious as showing how often in the East we meet 
 with the names of those familiar to us in sacred 
 history, in native legends and literature, or in actual 
 reality as in the reputed grave of Noah and his
 
 The Takt-i-Suliman. 59 
 
 sons at Ajudhia, near Faizabad that there are two 
 eminences in this part of Asia that bear this desig- 
 nation. Why or wherefore the name of Takt-i- 
 Suliman was applied to that elevated mountain of 
 the Sulimani range is difficult to say, as native 
 legends do not allege any wonders performed by 
 that monarch anywhere in its vicinity. Whereas, on 
 the one to which we shall shortly direct our steps, 
 Solomon, the great prophet, the mighty magician, is 
 supposed by all good Mussulmans to have taken his 
 stand during the progress of the desiccation of the 
 Valley, carried out by his orders through the means 
 of a spirit or spirits rendered subservient by the 
 Almighty to his will. 
 
 Let us now ascend this hill, which has also 
 another name to that already mentioned, being 
 styled by the Hindus the Sir-i-Shur, or ' Head of 
 Siva.' To effect our purpose we pass out of the 
 orchard at the back of our quarters, and climbing 
 over a low earth wall that surrounds it, find our- 
 selves in a small field, through which a path runs 
 which conducts on to the road just behind the 
 village of Drogjun, on the western side of the hill, 
 and close to the gate of the city lake. Here the 
 path to the summit of this isolated hill commences, 
 and the ascent is made with ease in the space of
 
 60 The Happy Valley. 
 
 half-an-hour ; for a series of stone steps, made by 
 order of the late Maharajah, extends nearly all the 
 way, rendering it comparatively easy to the most 
 indifferent pedestrian. On the top of the hill, which 
 is of trap formation, stands an interesting relic of 
 bygone days, which carries us back 2,000 years in 
 the history of the country ; for this fine old stone 
 temple, which rises on the very summit of the Takt- 
 i-Suliman, and which is yet in a good state of pre- 
 servation, was, according to all authentic accounts, 
 erected by Jaloka, the son of Asoka, that well- 
 known Indian prince, and supporter of Buddhism, 
 who flourished some 200 years before the Christian 
 era. In form a cone of nearly thirty feet in height, 
 with a proportionate base, it is elevated upon an 
 octagonal stone platform, about twelve feet in 
 height, on the eastern side of which is a fine flight 
 of steps leading from the ground to the door of the 
 temple, formed of slabs of limestone highly polished, 
 the same material entering into the composition of 
 the whole building. Its interior is circular, fourteen 
 feet in diameter, with a flat roof, supported upon 
 four stone pillars, and in its centre stands a quad- 
 rangular platform, supporting a lingam of black 
 stone, which testifies to the diversity of faiths 
 followed at different periods within its walls.
 
 o 
 
 UJ 
 
 _i 
 
 a
 
 View of Srinagar. 6 1 
 
 Originally a Buddhist temple, like the country, later 
 on it became Mohammedan, and was converted into 
 a mosque; while the presence within it at the present 
 day of this emblem of the worship of Siva, testifies 
 that it has also been utilized by the followers of the 
 Hindu religion. 
 
 Turning our attention now to the object for which 
 we have more particularly undergone the trouble of 
 ascending the mount, we find that beautiful indeed 
 is the panoramic view presented to the eye of the 
 spectator from the summit of the Takt-i-Suliman, 
 which, from its situation in the centre of one of 
 the sides of the Valley, commands nearly its whole 
 length and breadth. Commencing at the very foot 
 of the hill, we see the city of Srinagar extending for 
 two miles along both banks of the river Jhelam, 
 presenting a curious assemblage of gable -ended 
 houses of diversified architecture, many with their 
 roofs overlaid with earth, green with grass, and 
 other plants. Interspersed amongst the ordinary 
 dwelling-houses are seen many larger buildings of 
 a different order, with pinnacles, and occasionally 
 glittering roofs of metal, mosques and other edifices 
 devoted to religion. The palace of the Maharajah, 
 with its golden-roofed temple, rises on the left bank 
 of the river, which as it flows through the city is
 
 62 The Happy Valley. 
 
 of an average breadth of about eighty-eight yards, 
 spanned at different places by seven wooden bridges, 
 easily to be counted from our present stand-point. 
 A number of canals or water-courses meandering in 
 divers directions, and roads or paths, their sides 
 planted with poplar or other trees, in leafy avenues, 
 with some small patches here and there of cultivated 
 ground, complete the picture of the capital of the 
 Valley and its immediate surroundings. Separated 
 by a wide gully from the Takt, and frowning down 
 on the city, stands the Pandu Chakk mountain, and 
 extending from this to the northward a precipitous 
 but verdant range circles round the next object that 
 attracts our attention, the ' Dal ' or city lake, and, 
 sweeping round the greater part of its circumference, 
 continues into a far higher range, becoming part of 
 the greater one that surrounds the Valley. The 
 lake, whose shores are about a mile from the base 
 of these green and lofty mountains, and on the 
 north-eastern side of the city, lies spread out, a 
 tranquil sheet of water of five miles in length by 
 about two and a half in width, its edges fringed with 
 willows, poplars, and other trees ; while the thicker 
 masses of foliage that attract the eye are those that 
 form the famous gardens of the Shalimar and the 
 Nasseeb Bagh, or ' Garden of Bliss.' Another green
 
 The Dal Lake. 63 
 
 spot is the Isle of Chenars, or the 'Silver Island,' 
 situated about the middle of the lake ; and in the 
 centre of its southern portion is to be seen its 
 companion, the Sona Lank, or 'Golden Island.' 
 Numerous little villages, surrounded with trees and 
 rich and cultivated land, on .the edge that bor- 
 ders the city, complete the coup d'ceil of the lake, 
 that portion of the Vale more particularly described 
 in Lalla Rookh, and to a more minute inspec- 
 tion of which we will return a little later on. 
 Taking now a more extended view, we glance over 
 the greater part of the Valley itself, and from our 
 elevation can trace the vast mural cordillera that 
 forms its boundary on every side. In front is the 
 lofty range of the Pir Panjal, continuing on the 
 south with the mountains of Kishtawar, and on the 
 north-west into the still loftier and snowy peaks of 
 Durawur and the Dardu country. Northward, the 
 gigantic Haramuk rises in majesty ; while that im- 
 portant range of mountains that .bounds Kashmir 
 on the north-east stands in all its grandeur, with 
 peaks over 20,000 feet high, and with snow that 
 gives rise to many a glacier. Several isolated 
 hills, in fact small mountains, are scattered over 
 the Valley. Those of Shupiyan and Islamabad 
 are prominent objects on the south, more than
 
 64 The Happy Valley. 
 
 twenty miles distant ; and looking northward we 
 perceive the rounded summit of Aha Thung, con- 
 cealing the beautiful Manasbal lake ; and nearer to 
 the city, on its northern side, the Harri Parbat, its 
 summit occupied by the fort erected in days long 
 past by the great Akbar, to command the capital 
 of the province so lately added to his dominions. 
 The course of the broad and beautiful Jhelam, and 
 its windings as it approaches the city from the 
 southward, are clearly to be traced, as well as its 
 further progress throughout the entire length of 
 the Valley ; that larger streak of water on the 
 north side is the Woolar, or 'great lake,' through 
 which it passes to make its exit at Baramula, some 
 few miles further on. By the banks of this river 
 lies a flat plain of rich, open, arable and meadow 
 land, varying in width from two or three to fifteen 
 miles, formed like the usual alluvial flats by the 
 deposition of sediment on the water overflowing 
 its boundaries at flood-time. Beyond this rich and 
 savannah-like tract, and filling up the rest of the 
 space in the centre of the Vale, are those open, 
 raised downs or plateaus, of alluvial or lacustrine 
 material called kareewahs, often separated from 
 each other by deep ravines, formed by the different 
 watercourses in their passage from the mountains
 
 European Aspect of the Scenery. 65 
 
 beyond to their destination, the river. Some of 
 these downs are dry and bare ; others, again, richly 
 cultivated, being irrigated by small streams ; while 
 some, particularly on the southern side of the Valley, 
 are joined to the lower spurs of the Pir Panjal 
 range, and bear forests of pine. Beyond this tract 
 of raised downs, and approaching nearer to the 
 rocky boundary of the Valley, lies a rugged country, 
 intersected by ravines and furrowed by rushing 
 and raging torrents ; and beyond again are the 
 first slopes of the mountain barrier that hems us 
 in, covered on the south-western side with dense 
 forests of pine and deodar, and with grass only 
 on the more northern aspect. Innumerable villages 
 and isolated farm-houses are dotted about all over 
 the landscape. It is, indeed, one that reminds us 
 of home; and we can hardly realize that only just 
 beyond that chain of mountains which appears so 
 near lie the hot and arid plains of India. For 
 although in a general view we see kareewahs, 
 corn-fields, rice-grounds, meadows, and morasses, 
 occupying the centre of the Valley, with mountain 
 slopes and yet higher ranges beyond, the aspect 
 of the scenery is European in character. It has 
 not the verdure of the tropics ; and although the 
 trees in many instances differ from those found in
 
 66 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Europe, at a distance this difference is not re- 
 markable, and as its glens, glades, and streams are 
 truly Alpine, nothing is wanting to complete the 
 picture of a country Asiatic by situation, but with 
 natural characteristics most thoroughly European. 
 
 Regarding the physical history of the Valley, the 
 traveller Vigne remarks that, taking a general view 
 from any elevated spot, the walls of the Valley, in 
 consequence of the disposition of the mountains 
 near Baramiila, appear, excepting from very near the 
 place itself, to be unbroken and undivided, enclosing 
 a large hollow, which at first sight gave him an idea 
 of its having been originally formed by the falling 
 in of an exhausted volcanic region. This theory 
 he states, however, is not confirmed by an exami- 
 nation in detail, which tends to produce abundant 
 evidence as to the truth of the tradition, that this 
 smiling Valley was once a lake, a large inland sea, 
 one of the deepest and most extensive that ever 
 existed on the surface of the Asiatic continent. 
 That volcanic action had some share either in the 
 formation of the original lake or its subsequent 
 desiccation is most probable, and is to be traced in 
 the mountains around the Vale. These are chiefly 
 basaltic in character, their usual formation being a 
 beautiful amygdaloidal trap, while in many places,
 
 Its Lacustrine Origin. 67 
 
 more especially on the southern side, we find the 
 surface composed of grey compact mountain lime- 
 stone, in which marine fossils and shells are often 
 found imbedded. This limestone is usually to be 
 seen contorted and twisted in every possible direc- 
 tion, having apparently been uplifted and broken 
 through by the trappean rock from beneath, testifying 
 to the force of the convulsions of nature in former 
 days. Actual and positive proof, too, exists in the 
 present to prove that volcanic action is still at work 
 beneath the surface of the Valley of Kashmir ; for 
 shocks of earthquake are not unfrequent, although 
 there have been none of late years equalling in 
 severity that in June, 1828, when great loss of life 
 and property resulted, as also was the case in a 
 similar visitation some fifty years anterior to this ; 
 while, going back some few centuries, we find it 
 mentioned that similar phenomena occurred in the 
 year 1552. 
 
 The chief evidences of the former lacustrine state 
 of the Valley are undoubtedly the masses of shingly 
 conglomerate, the remains of beaches, deposited in 
 horizontal layers upon the distorted limestone strata, 
 and on the faces of the kareewahs or eminences 
 that form so striking a feature in the topography of 
 
 the Valley, whose characteristic flat and uniformly 
 
 F 2
 
 68 The Happy Valley. 
 
 even surface can only be attributable to their having 
 been submerged for ages beneath the still calm 
 waters of a deep vast lake. With reference to this 
 subject, and to the formation of these kareewahs, 
 General A. Cunningham writes as follows, and 
 affording as he does a clear, concise argument as to 
 the correctness of the lake theory of the former 
 condition of the Vale, I cannot do better than quote 
 his own words.* He writes as follows : 
 
 " The rocky cliffs below Tattamoola, and about 
 sixteen miles below Baramula, rise almost per- 
 pendicularly from the river Jhelam to a height of 
 300 and 400 feet, and in some places that I noticed 
 the bare steep cliffs were not less than 800 feet 
 above the stream. As the height of the Jhelam, 
 near Tattamoola, is about 5,000 feet above the sea, 
 the whole of Kashmir must have been submerged 
 by the waters of the river before the wearing down 
 of these cliffs. The level of the Kashmirian lake 
 would have been about 5,800 feet above the sea, 
 and from fifty to 100 feet above the kareewahs 
 or isolated alluvial flats now remaining in Kashmir. 
 The high level land of Martand was probably 
 not submerged, but the horizontal beach-marks are 
 'still quite distinct on the limestone cliffs above the 
 * CUNNINGHAM'S Ladak.
 
 Formation of the Kareewahs. 69 
 
 cave of Bhaumajo and the holy spring of Bawun. 
 Above Ramoo-ke-serai, on the Shupiyan river, the 
 kareewah forms a bank about 100 feet in height, in 
 horizontal strata of different kinds. The uppermost 
 twenty feet are composed of stiff alluvial soil ; the 
 next twenty feet of rolled stonefe and loose earth, 
 and the lowermost sixty of indurated blue clay. 
 The last must have been deposited by the lake in 
 its state of quiescence, but the middle stratum could 
 only have been formed by the first grand rush of 
 waters, on some sudden burst of the rocky barrier 
 below Tattamoola, and the uppermost would have 
 been deposited by the subsiding waters as they 
 reached the newly- formed level. Then, as the 
 rocky bed was gradually worn down, the different 
 streams worked new channels for themselves in the 
 former bed of the lake, until the present kareewahs 
 of Nonagar, Pampur, and Khanpur were left, first 
 as islands in the decreasing lake, and eventually as 
 long flat-topped hills in the midst of the open plain, 
 just as we now see them." 
 
 As to the period in the world's history when this 
 lake existed, and what manner of people inhabited 
 its shores, we possess no authentic proof ; nor do we 
 as to the time of its desiccation, or whether this 
 process was due to the effect of a sudden formation
 
 70 Tfie Happy Valley. 
 
 of an outlet through the Baramiila Pass, or its 
 drainage was the work of time. According to the 
 history of the country, as laid down in the Raja- 
 taringini, its drainage is said to have been sudden ; 
 but this book, like all other works of a similar 
 nature relating to the East and its early days, is 
 a mixture of truth and fiction a certain proportion 
 of truth mixed up with a larger mass of ridiculous 
 and fabulous accounts of the works of the gods 
 and genii, and legends concerning them. 
 
 In the Rajataringini mention is made of the 
 existence of a large lake on the present site of the 
 Valley, from which account it may be inferred that it 
 was supposed to have been left from the deluge, its 
 desiccation being due to supernatural agency, as 
 explained in the following and still-credited legend : 
 " The country was entirely covered with water, in 
 the midst of which resided the demon Jala, or 
 Dewala Deo, the spirit-god who preyed upon man- 
 kind. It happened that Kashuf, the son of Marichi, 
 and according to some the grandson of Brahma, 
 visited the country, lived in pious abstraction upon 
 Mount Sumer or Soma, and, turning his attention 
 to the desolate appearance of the earth, enquired 
 the cause. The people told him of the residence 
 of Jala Deo in Sati Sar, and his predatory incursions.
 
 Legend of the Valley Drainage. 71 
 
 Kashuf lived a thousand years in austerity upon 
 the hill of Naubudan, near Hirapur, in consequence 
 of which Mahadeo (the great god or creator) sent 
 his servants Vishnu and Brahma to expel the 
 demon. Vishnu was engaged in the conflict for one 
 hundred years, and at last opened the mountains at 
 Baramula, by which the waters were drained off, 
 and the demon was exposed, taken, and slain, 
 whence the country is called Kashuf Sar, or 'the 
 lake of Kashuf" Such is the legend as given in 
 the Hindu history of the country ; and a nearly 
 similar story is entertained by the Mussulmans, who, 
 as I have already remarked, affirm that the draining 
 of Kashmir was performed by the prophet Suliman 
 (Solomon) through the aid of the same Kashuf, 
 who they believe to have been a ' gin/ or spirit, and 
 the attendant of that monarch. 
 
 No actual proof exists that the valley was sud- 
 denly converted from a lake to the condition in 
 which we now behold it; and in fact, taking into 
 consideration the evidences afforded by such an 
 examination into the matter as any skilled geologist 
 is capable of, the results obtained rather tend to 
 prove the contrary, and are well set forth by Vigne 
 himself, a skilled and most accurate observer. He 
 fully believes in the tradition of the natives as to
 
 72 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the valley having been originally a lake of between 
 300 and 400 feet in depth ; but holds that its 
 drainage was the work of time. From observation 
 he inferred that the basaltic ridges around Kashmir 
 had been raised from beneath and through extensive 
 beds in the deep ocean, and that the salt water of 
 the original lake must have gradually disappeared 
 under the influx of the numerous fresh-water streams 
 from the mountains. Further, that the mountains 
 near the Bararmila Pass, which would otherwise 
 have opposed the exit of the waters altogether in 
 that quarter, were rent asunder at the same time ; 
 other barriers, however, being left a little lower 
 down sufficiently elevated to collect the alluvium, or 
 its greater part, carried by the flood down the Pass, 
 which became choked with deposit, preventing 
 further escape of soil, and thus accounting for the 
 great quantity of earth still in the Valley as com- 
 pared with neighbouring countries. Gradually the 
 waters from the newly-formed lake formed a deeper 
 channel for themselves, and occasional sudden sub- 
 sidences in its level were probably formed by the 
 carrying away of some part of the obstacles in the 
 Pass, evidence of this fact being afforded in certain 
 parts, where the limestone has the appearance of 
 having been worn into a succession of shelving-
 
 The Jhelam. 73 
 
 beaches. As time went on, and owing to the 
 gradual sinking, the level of the lake became lower, 
 the waters that once fed it poured themselves into 
 the bed of the river Jhelam, which gradually wore 
 itself a channel in the lowest part, and thus con- 
 centrated, worked through the remaining obstacles 
 in the Pass, and became the rapid, rushing torrent 
 we now see leaving the Valley, and the present 
 means of carrying off the superfluous waters always 
 pouring down into it from the mountain sides, and 
 thus preventing a return to its former condition as 
 existing in pre-historic times. 
 
 When we come to consider the actual history of 
 this now beautiful country, we are met at the outset 
 with the usual difficulties attending all researches 
 into Eastern histories. Historians there have been 
 who in treating of the subject carry its history 
 back to the day of creation, and assign to it the 
 honour of having been visited by the first living 
 man, even descending into details, affirming that 
 this event occurred after the Fall. Moses, Seth, 
 the Deluge, Solomon, and other characters and 
 events, known to us through the word of holy 
 writ, are freely commented upon in connection with 
 the subject of its early days, and are detailed in the 
 Rajataringini and other works.
 
 74 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Space will not, however, permit me to dwell upon 
 what may have been the events of its earlier history; 
 for it is a subject of abstruse speculation, and would 
 fill a volume of itself.* Rather let us confine our- 
 selves to a cursory glance at the somewhat better 
 authenticated shreds of history that we possess 
 relating to its earlier days, and, without entering 
 into dry details, take a slight sketch of its condition 
 and of its rulers, from the time when its interest 
 became merged into that of the neighbouring 
 country of Hindustan, up to facts existing in the 
 recollection of many of my readers. 
 
 The country of Kashmir, then, appears from all 
 accounts to have been ruled from a very remote 
 period in the world's history by a long succession 
 of native princes, sometimes Hindu, and sometimes 
 perhaps of Tartar origin. In Professor Wilson's 
 essay on The Hindu History of Kashmir, founded 
 on the before mentioned Rajatarangini (and of 
 which he states that, although its early part is 
 fabulous, it gradually approaches consistency, until 
 from about A.D. 600 the chronology is perfectly 
 accurate), a list of kings is given who are said to 
 
 * Any one who wishes for a more general acquaintance with the 
 ancient history of Kashmir should read Professor H. H. Wilson's 
 "Essay on the Hindu History of Kashmir." (Trans. Asiatic Soc., 
 vol. xv.)
 
 Asoka. 75 
 
 have ruled after a line of thirty-five princes whose 
 names have been forgotten. Amongst others in 
 this list we find the name of Khagendra, supposed 
 to have flourished some 500 years before Christ, 
 and who it appears was the first monarch who 
 founded a city in Kashmir. Following this ruler 
 came several others, the last of whom leaving no 
 heir, the throne reverted to the family of its former 
 kings, and devolved on Asoka, descended from 
 the paternal great uncle of Khagendra. The name 
 of Asoka will be familiar to those conversant with 
 the history of India, as it is generally admitted 
 that this strenuous upholder of the then new faith 
 of Buddhism ruled also over a great part of that 
 country, about 250 B.C., and left tokens of his 
 existence in the form of those chiselled letters on 
 stone, still extant at Allahabad and elsewhere, and 
 usually termed Asoka's inscriptions or edicts. His 
 son Jaloka succeeded him, and erected, as already 
 stated, the temple on the top of the Takt-i-Suliman. 
 This brings us to about two centuries before the 
 Christian era. Following him came several princes, 
 probably of the same line, one of whom, Abhi- 
 manyu by name, is stated to have introduced about 
 75 B.C. the Hindu religion into the country. A 
 succession of Tartar princes are said to have ruled
 
 76 The Happy Valley. 
 
 over Kashmir during the last century before Christ 
 and for long years after. However, we will not 
 dwell on the subject of its earlier history further, as 
 the greater part of it is but mere supposition, except 
 to mention that a reference to Wilson's notice of 
 Kashmir, or Prinsep's tables, informs us what power 
 and importance Kashmir must have attained when 
 it was under the dominion of its Hindu monarchs. 
 Still it was reserved to the Mogul emperors to raise 
 it to that eminence of station, the account of which 
 has been transmitted to the present day. Passing 
 therefore over several centuries, we will now arrive 
 at the year 1000, the time of the life of the Sultan 
 Mahmud of Ghazni, whose invasion and conquest 
 of the greater part of- Hindustan marks the period 
 when the authentic history of that country may be 
 said to commence. This great and warlike prince, 
 the founder of the Mohammedan empire in India, 
 found time in the intervals of his expeditions into 
 that country, which are said to have been no less 
 than twelve in number before he established a 
 permanent footing, to make several similar preda- 
 tory incursions into Kashmir. In the two first he 
 did not succeed in his object ; for, owing to the 
 season being far advanced when the attempt was 
 made, joined to imperfect knowledge of the passes,
 
 Mohammedans in Kashmir. 77 
 
 his army suffered defeat, many lives being lost. 
 He was, however, more fortunate in a later attempt, 
 and about the year 1015 he took possession of 
 the Valley, holding it and the surrounding moun- 
 tains for some considerable time. 
 
 The Mohammedans do not appear to have 
 established at that time a permanent footing in the 
 country, which reverted again to its Hindu kings, 
 under whose rule it most probably remained, until 
 the beginning of the fourteenth century, when most 
 authorities agree that it was invaded from Tibet, 
 and its Hindu king, Sena Deva, flying the country, 
 was superseded by the son of the monarch of the 
 land of the invaders, who took the name of Sada- 
 rudin on his accession to the throne of the coveted 
 Valley. From his time to the present it is easy to 
 trace the history of the country and its line of in- 
 dependent Mohammedan kings, its Mogul emperors, 
 and its Pathan rulers, until, conquered by Ranjit 
 Singh, it became a part of the Sikh state, on their 
 downfall a British possession, and finally was 
 handed over to the family of the present ruler. 
 
 First, as regards its line of Mohammedan kings, 
 Sadarudin was succeeded, as was often the case in 
 those days in the East, by his prime minister, Shah 
 Mir, who took the name of Shumshudin, and who,
 
 78 The Happy Valley. 
 
 ascending the throne in the year 1341, is usually 
 considered as the first true Mussulman king of 
 Kashmir, his predecessor's conversion to that faith 
 not being fairly authenticated. His successors were 
 his sons Jamshed and Ullahudin, his grandson, the 
 bigoted Shahabudin, who was succeeded by his 
 brother Kutabudin, the father of the execrated 
 Sikunder But-Shikan. This latter personage, one 
 of the most notorious iconoclasts of history, made 
 it the business of his life to destroy all vestiges of 
 any faith except his own, and to his exertions in 
 this direction is due the sorrowful fact that all the 
 ancient temples and other buildings in the Happy 
 Valley are to be seen at the present day existing 
 only as a mass of ruins. 
 
 In the year 1423 came the best of the line, 
 Zinulabudin, or Badshah, the great and good king, 
 whose name is yet reverenced throughout the 
 country over which he for more than half a century 
 exercised his beneficent sway. To him the Valley 
 owed much of its future prosperity, for he intro- 
 duced the arts of weaving, paper-making, and other 
 industries peculiar to the country and its inhabi- 
 tants, and still pursued at the present day, as will 
 be shown a little later on. His great grandson, 
 Mohamed Shah, succeeded him, but his title to the
 
 The Chdkk. 79 
 
 throne was disputed by his uncle, Futteh Shah. 
 There now occurred civil strife of many years' 
 duration, the final consequence of which was the 
 entrance of another political party upon the scene, 
 their advancement to power, and as the result the 
 consequent downfall and extinction of that line 
 of sovereigns, the descendants of Yuftan, king of 
 Tibet. 
 
 This new ruling race was the old warlike tribe of 
 the Chakk, the ancient warriors of Kashmir, at that 
 time a powerful race, but hitherto held in subjection 
 by the Mohammedans, until the family dissensions 
 broke out and enabled one of their number, named 
 Kaji, to seize the opportunity afforded by these in- 
 testine struggles, and free his country from the yoke 
 of a foreign invader. He commenced to reign 
 about the year 1536, and his martial talents were 
 quickly called into play ; for soon after his accession 
 the country was invaded by the Kashgarris, who 
 are said to have penetrated some considerable dis- 
 tance into the Valley before their final defeat. 
 About this time also the fame of the country of 
 Kashmir attracted the cupidity of the Mogul family, 
 then established as rulers over a greater part of 
 Hindustan. It is more than probable that members 
 of that royal line had previous to this attempted its
 
 8o The Happy Valley. 
 
 conquest ; and on the authority of Abu Fuzl, it may 
 be mentioned that the generals of the Emperor 
 Baber, invaded the Valley in 1494, but that the 
 natives were sufficiently powerful to cause their 
 retreat. A few years later, however, in the time of 
 his son Humayun, we come to more authentic 
 details ; for this monarch, on his second attempt, took 
 possession of the coveted country in 1540, the first 
 having been successfully resisted by Kaji, the Chdkk 
 king. Mirza Hyder, a relation of the Mogul, and 
 to whose generalship he was largely indebted, was 
 appointed the governor of the province, which ap- 
 pointment he held, however, only for a short time ; 
 for an insurrection broke out, and he was defeated 
 and slain. This gave the opportunity for the Chakk 
 family to return to power, which they held through 
 the successive reigns of Ghazi Khan, Yusaf Shah, 
 and his son Yakub Khan. During the time these 
 princes held rule over their native country, many 
 were the attempts at its subjection made by the 
 Moguls, Tartars, Kashgarris, Turk's, and other 
 enemies. Fortune, however, did not favour the 
 invading arms until the year 1587, when the last 
 of the line, Yakub Khan, after a brave and pro- 
 tracted resistance, was finally defeated by the armies 
 of the great Akbar, who annexed it. From that
 
 The Moguls. 81 
 
 time to the present day the Valley has always con- 
 tinued under a foreign yoke. 
 
 For over a period of a century and a half 
 Kashmir remained a portion of the Mogul Empire, 
 its affairs being administered by a resident 'Subadar,' 
 or governor. Frequent were the visits of the mem- 
 bers of the House of Delhi to this, their fairest 
 province. Akbar is said to have visited it three 
 times, while Jehangir and the beautiful Nurmahal 
 resided there during the summer for several years 
 in succession ; and the death of the first-named took 
 place on one of his journeys thither, at Baramgalla, 
 a place we have already visited on our way to the 
 Vale by the Pir Panjal route. His successors also 
 visited it often, and all have left evidences of their 
 former presence in the country ; for with the excep- 
 tion of the ruins that denote its earlier history, all 
 the remains of gardens, groves, baths, fountains, 
 and palaces, that are still to be observed in the 
 Valley, owe their origin to the lavish and magnifi- 
 cent tastes of the different members of that truly 
 Oriental regal family. 
 
 The decline of the Mogul Empire, hastened by 
 the capture of Delhi by Nadir Shah, in 1739, 
 occasioned changes in the Valley ; and after several 
 abortive attempts on the part of its governors to
 
 82 The Happy Valley. 
 
 establish an independent rule, it was annexed in the 
 year 1753 by Ahmed Shah Abdali, the successor of 
 the conqueror of Delhi, and included in the Dourani 
 Empire, which extended in those days as far as 
 the capital of the Punjab. From 1753 to 1819 it 
 remained a portion of this empire, being governed 
 by Pathan governors, whose rule was neither mild 
 nor beneficial. It was with a feeling of satisfaction 
 that the inhabitants of the country welcomed the 
 change of masters which occurred in the month of 
 July of the latter year, when the forces of Ranjit 
 Singh defeated the Pathans, and it became a part 
 of the Sikh dominions, remaining so until their 
 downfall, when, falling into the hands of the British 
 by right of conquest, it was by them transferred to 
 the family of its present ruler. Exchanging thus, 
 after nearly five centuries' experience, Moham- 
 medan rulers for Hindu, Kashmir continued to be 
 governed pretty much as usual by representatives of 
 the Sikh monarch, who never visited it himself, 
 and whose principal object in its possession seemed 
 to be the squeezing out of it as much revenue as 
 its falling fortunes would allow. Thanks to the 
 numerous invasions, and the rapacity of its con- 
 querors, the Valley of Kashmir was not the same 
 rich and fruitful country of former days, and the
 
 Brighter Days in Store. 83 
 
 little that was left was soon exhausted by the op- 
 pression of the minions of the lion of the Punjab. 
 Natural causes had also some little share in the 
 devastation of the Happy Valley; for in 1824 
 occurred the terrible earthquakes, followed a few 
 years later by destructive floods, and an epidemic 
 of cholera so severe and so general that it is said 
 that 20,000 died of it in the capital alone. All these 
 things naturally militated against its recovering the 
 prosperity it enjoyed, by all accounts, in early days, 
 when the number of its inhabitants was ten times 
 the present population, disease and starvation, to- 
 gether with emigration, having terribly reduced the 
 census. Brighter days are perhaps yet in store for 
 this fair province ; but what it might have been 
 when, after the dissolution of the Sikh empire, it 
 passed into our hands, if our government had 
 allowed it to remain a part of our Eastern pos- 
 sessions, I can form a very good opinion. The 
 author already quoted, who visited the Valley during 
 the time of Ranjit Singh, appears even then to have 
 been struck with the idea of its becoming at some 
 future time a British possession, and states that its 
 acquisition would be looked upon as the accomplish- 
 ment of the one thing needful for the consolidation of 
 
 the British power in Northern India. This augury 
 
 G 2
 
 84 The Happy Valley. 
 
 as to the future is now in a measure fulfilled, although 
 not actually by the occupation of the territory in 
 question, but by our subsequent conquest of the 
 Punjab, and present administration of that country 
 and the parts adjacent, which, including Kashmir, 
 arejributary to our rule, and retained subservient to 
 our wishes. But it is not only to its political or 
 strategical importance that our attention should be 
 directed, but to the benefits that the English rule 
 (which with all the best intentions in the world can 
 never be approached by any native prince) would 
 have conferred on the country. For, to quote the 
 words of Vigne, " It is to the arts of peace that this 
 fine province will be indebted for a more solid and 
 lasting, though less gorgeous, celebrity than it en- 
 joyed under the Emperors of Delhi. The finest 
 breeds of horses and cattle of every description may 
 be reared upon its extensive mountain -pastures, 
 where every variety of temperature may be pro- 
 cured for them ; its vegetable and artificial , pro- 
 ductions may be treated with British skill and 
 capital in such a manner as to ensure an excellence 
 equal to those of Europe, and superior to that of 
 the neighbouring countries ; while the tools of a 
 Cornish miner may bring to light the hidden trea- 
 sures of its iron, lead, copper, and silver ores." All
 
 European Colonization. 85 
 
 this is as true to-day as when he wrote, and from 
 actual observation I can endorse his every sentence, 
 and see the chance we wantonly threw away of 
 doing what seems impossible in India otherwise- 
 colonizing a portion of our Eastern possessions. 
 It is well known to all conversant with Indian affairs 
 that, unfortunately for us, our countrymen cannot 
 settle down in India and bring up families, like our 
 representatives in our other colonies. The climate 
 and other reasons forbid it. If the attempt was 
 carried out it would result in such a deterioration 
 of our race as would bring them below the level of 
 the people we rule over ; and although it has been 
 suggested that the scheme would succeed in the 
 Hills bordering our provinces, yet I question its 
 feasibility; the climate there, although better than 
 that enjoyed on the plains, is yet not a perfectly 
 natural one to Europeans ; while the space that 
 could be cultivated for their support would be limited 
 indeed. Now, no such factors exist against the 
 colonization of Kashmir by us or by any other 
 European nation. The climate is all that can be 
 desired ; sufficient land exists, which, properly tilled 
 and cultivated, would support any number; while 
 water is good, and distributed abundantly all over 
 the Valley. In fact, nothing is left that could be
 
 86 The Happy Valley. 
 
 desired to form, by the means of our retired soldiers 
 and others, a miniature England in the heart of 
 Asia a stronghold in time of war, held and guarded 
 by the loyal sons of Albion, ever willing and ready 
 to shed their own and children's blood in defence of 
 their home, and the other provinces that together 
 form our Imperial dominion in the East. 
 
 But it was not to be. The huckstering spirit that 
 so often pervades our national policy, and which 
 caused the great Napoleon to apply to us the term 
 of a nation of shop-keepers, was dominant in this 
 case ; for, relinquishing all the advantages that 
 accrued to us from its possession, the supreme 
 government sold this fair province to the Rajah 
 Gulab Singh for the paltry and insignificant sum of 
 seventy-five lacs of rupees, ,750,000 in our money, 
 and the treaty by which it was assigned, known as 
 the treaty of Amritsar, and dated i6th March, 1846, 
 will be found set forth at length in the Appendix by 
 such of my readers who feel interest in the subject. 
 The prince to whom this transfer was made has 
 already come x under our notice in connection with 
 the town of Bhimber, and the death of its former 
 ruler ; but as the founder of the present royal family 
 of Kashmir, we will take a short glance at his his- 
 tory. Descended from an old Dogra family, squires
 
 Gulab Singh. 87 
 
 or dependents of the ancient Rajahs of Jamoo, he 
 quarrelled with his rightful master, and after re- 
 maining a few years in the service of the ruler of 
 Kishtawur, became, through the influence of his 
 brother Dhihan Singh, a trusted officer of the 
 Maharajah Ranjit Singh, the great Sikh monarch. 
 Obtaining a command, he proceeded against his 
 hereditary master, who, flying his capital without 
 resistance, gave the opportunity to Gulab of an- 
 nexing the state in the name of the Sikh ruler. 
 Further distinguishing himself in many of the hill 
 wars then taking place, he was rewarded by Ranjit 
 with the sovereignty of his own home, holding the 
 rajahship of Jamoo in fief under the court of Lahore. 
 This occurred about the year 1820, and for some 
 time afterwards he was fully occupied in consolidat- 
 ing and even extending his power. With a firm hand 
 he put down lawlessness in his own dominion, and 
 made it a model state ; and being ever ready to em- 
 ploy intrigue rather than force, he took advantage 
 of the dissensions always present among his neigh- 
 bours, the petty hill chiefs, and little by little 
 confiscated their fiefs. Having effected the con- 
 quest of Ladakh and Baltistan, there remained 
 but one country to covet, the country of Kashmir, 
 and that soon fell into his hands. During the war
 
 88 The Happy Valley. 
 
 between the Sihks and the British, Gulab Singh 
 kept himself entirely aloof from Lahore politics, 
 and after our victory appeared on the scene as 
 mediator between the two parties, acquiring the 
 confidence of our government to the extent ex- 
 emplified by the cession of the Valley. Dying in 
 1857, he was succeeded by his son, the present 
 Maharajah Ranbir Singh, who was at that time a 
 young man of twenty-seven years of age. Residing 
 for the greater part of the year at Jamoo, he 
 annually visits the Valley, and sees for himself the 
 state of affairs in this part of his kingdom, which 
 is administered by a governor, as in former days. 
 He is what may be termed, in comparison with the 
 generality of Eastern princes, enlightened, studious, 
 and fond of the society of the pundits and other 
 clever men. He is eminently religious, and in faith 
 is an orthodox Sikh, being generally considered at 
 the present time the head of this sect of the Hindus. 
 He is also a great encourager of education, liberally 
 supports all religious works, and, according to his 
 lights, desires to act fairly and honestly to his people 
 in this part of his dominions, aliens as they are for 
 the most part both in race and creed. If the same 
 could be justly said of many of his advisers, the 
 future of Kashmir would, perhaps, look brighter ;
 
 Divisions of the Country. 89 
 
 but with the best intentions in the world, the actual 
 ruler* of many an Eastern state knows little of what 
 is really transpiring, self-interest and self-aggran- 
 dizement being usually more powerful factors in the 
 deeds and acts of their servants and representatives, 
 than actual devotion to the good of their country, 
 and faithful duty to their master. 
 
 In ancient days the province was divided, for the 
 purposes of government, into two portions, which 
 were again divided into thirty-six ' pergannahs ' or 
 hundreds ; but within the last few years it has been 
 organized upon another plan, having been separated 
 into six 'wazarits' or districts, which are again split 
 up into a number of 'tehsils' or parishes. Over each 
 district a 'wazeer' or deputy commissioner holds 
 sway, subject of course to the head governor, who 
 takes his orders directly from the ruler of the state, 
 or acts on his own responsibility. The system of 
 government appears to suit the people, and if 
 famines occur (and poverty generally appears to be 
 their portion), they owe it in a measure to themselves, 
 indolence and selfishness being their usual character- 
 istics, although in justice to them it is only fair to 
 mention that very little inducement is held out to 
 cultivators to increase their holdings, the soil being 
 considered the property of the ruler, as usual in
 
 9O The Happy Valley. 
 
 native states ; and as he claims as his due two-thirds 
 of the crops, very little remains for the benefit of 
 the grower. This share of the land produce, and 
 various taxes on shawls and other manufactures, 
 constitute the principal sources of the revenue of 
 the country, which, large in former days, has now 
 dwindled down to the modest sum of half a million 
 or less per annum. The Hindu code of laws is 
 in force in the country, and although mild, with 
 penalties not very severe, it appears to answer the 
 purpose. Public order is well kept ; serious crimes 
 are almost unheard of ; and what strikes the visitor 
 more particularly is the security of person and 
 property enjoyed by all who travel in the Happy 
 Valley, and the willing assistance and attention 
 afforded equally by the rich and lowly among its 
 inhabitants.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Srinagar, the Capital of Kashmir Its Situation The Jhelam 
 Srinagar the Venice of the East Want of Cleanliness in the In- 
 habitants The City Bridges General Aspect of the City Houses 
 in the City Population of the Valley Its Inhabitants The 
 Kashmiris Beauty of the Women Character and Habits of the 
 Kashmiris The Hindus The Mohammedans The Hanjis The 
 Batal Caste Origin of the Gipsies Dress of the Kashmiris 
 Peculiar Style of dressing Hair Language of the Kashmiris The 
 Literature of Kashmir A Visit to the City Its Public Buildings 
 The Boats of the Country Climate of the Valley Life in Srinagar 
 Summer Palace of the Maharajah The Ameeri Kadal Scene 
 on the Banks of the River Transmigration of the Soul of Gulab 
 Singh Fish and Fishing in Kashmir. 
 
 ET us next pay a visit to the capital of this 
 fair province, now called Srinagar, or 
 Suryea Nagar, meaning "the City of the 
 Sun," but known by another appellation in 
 former days. Founded about the beginning 
 of the sixth century by the Rajah Pravarasene, the 
 present was its first and ancient name ; but being 
 disused by the Mohammedans on their conquering 
 the country, as savouring rather of Hindu my-
 
 92 The Happy Valley. 
 
 thology, the city was termed Kashmir, the same as 
 the country. For several centuries it was thus 
 known, until the advent of the Sikhs, who, Hindus 
 themselves, restored the Hindu title, by which it is 
 at present called. 
 
 Situated about the middle of the Valley, but close 
 to the mountains bordering its north-western side, it 
 is built upon both banks of the river Jhelam, ex- 
 tending along the shores for nearly three miles. This 
 stream is of the utmost importance to the well-being 
 of the city, which may be termed the Venice of the 
 East ; for it is the main artery of traffic, and, sup- 
 plemented by numerous canals, forms the chief 
 thoroughfare to any part. Streets proper do not 
 exist, although a few dirty, narrow, roughly-paved 
 lanes are, I believe, honoured by this appellation. 
 Wheeled vehicles are unknown, and boats take their 
 place, since by the medium of water communication 
 all the affairs of life, whether of business or pleasure, 
 are carried out. On the edges of the water are 
 crowded the houses, and on its banks the whole 
 population of the city seem to be always con- 
 gregated, pursuing their domestic avocations or 
 exchanging the gossip of the day. On the ghats 
 or steps leading down to the river are crowds of 
 females, who appear to be perpetually engaged in
 
 Uncleanly Habits of the People. 93 
 
 filling large copper and other utensils with the ele- 
 ment that flows at their feet, probably for culinary 
 purposes, decidedly not for ablution ; for, strange to 
 say, this race of people, whose very doorsteps are 
 laved by the waters of a great river, and who have 
 never known the want of that which is so carefully 
 utilized by the inhabitants of Hindustan, and other 
 parts, for the necessary cleansing of the person, 
 never apply it to any such purpose Familiarity 
 with water must have bred contempt for one of the 
 greatest if not the most useful of its many virtues ; 
 personal washing is unknown, and from childhood 
 to old age they never so employ it ; and instead of 
 a people that one would expect to find the cleanliest 
 of the cleanly, a short glance at their visible condi- 
 tion suffices to inform the spectator that he sees 
 before him human beings fashioned in the image of 
 their Creator, but, alas ! for their manners and cus- 
 toms, veritably the dirtiest of the dirty. 
 
 The river as it flows through the city is spanned 
 by seven bridges, which unite the two halves of the 
 town, the Jhelam dividing it into two equal portions. 
 All these bridges are similar in construction, and are 
 formed of trunks of deodar driven into the bed of 
 the stream, with quantities of stone and rock dropped 
 around them. These form the supports for the
 
 94 The Happy Valley. 
 
 foundations of the bridge, composed of alternate 
 layers of stone and the trunks of Himalayan cedar- 
 trees. On these again are laid the upper timbers of 
 the bridge, forming the road, which in some cases is 
 covered with a layer of earth, with the addition of 
 a railing on either side. Such is the type of bridge 
 met with throughout the Valley. Six others span 
 the Jhelam in various parts beyond the city, and 
 although rude they are strong, while the peculiarity 
 of their construction renders them undeniably 
 quaint and very appropriate to their general sur- 
 roundings. 
 
 The general aspect of this city is extremely 
 picturesque, the very irregularity of the rows of 
 buildings, and the diversity of their forms, being 
 conducive to this result. Crowded together on either 
 bank of the river, the houses present a long line of 
 structures varying in form, height, and material. In 
 many wood predominates, in others stone or brick, 
 the greater proportion being, however, a happy 
 mixture of both. Their bases are a solid stone 
 wall of rough masonry, those with a better built 
 foundation owing that fact to the architect not having 
 scrupled to avail himself of the cut stone that in 
 former days entered into the composition of some 
 holy Hindu temple or other ancient edifice. This
 
 The Houses. 95 
 
 foundation, affording a firm base, is raised above the 
 level, or the probable level, of the highest floods 
 which periodically happen in the Valley, and in 
 many cases is of extreme antiquity, having afforded 
 necessary support to a succession of superstructures. 
 Above this foundation is the wood, stone, or brick 
 building, of two, three, or more stories, and often 
 projecting several feet over the water, being in many 
 cases supported by props or uprights from beneath. 
 The walls of the upper structure are usually built of 
 .brick, burnt or sun-dried, and secured in a wooden 
 framework as a precaution against the disintegrating 
 effects of an earthquake. Nearly all have a low, 
 sloping roof, with extended eaves or gable ends, and 
 they are rendered watertight by large sheets of birch 
 bark, which is nearly impervious to moisture, laid 
 over the rafters, while over this again is spread a 
 mixture of finely-broken stones and earth. They 
 all appear to have, particularly in front, facing the 
 river, very large window spaces, beautifully finished 
 trellis-work of diversified patterns taking the place 
 of frames, as the thin glazed paper of the country, 
 pasted over them from the inside, does that of 
 glass, which appears, if not unknown, to be totally 
 unused. 
 
 A commanding view of these buildings, which in
 
 96 TJte Happy Valley. 
 
 their irregularity afford in the sunlight such varied 
 lights and depths of shadow, is certainly one of 
 great beauty, and unique in character ; for the style 
 of Kashmirian architecture is decidedly peculiar to 
 the country. Above their roofs show the mountain 
 ridges, varying in form as one follows the turns of 
 the river, which, alive with boats of every description, 
 together with the stone ghats that lead up from the 
 water thronged with people, lends life to the scene. 
 The unfamiliar costume too, and many other pe- 
 culiarities, confirms the impression, already so 
 evident from our surroundings, that we are in a new 
 country, among a strange people, and one that 
 evidently differs in many respects from the branch 
 of the same family located on the other side of the 
 Pir Panjal. 
 
 Of the 420,000 inhabitants of Kashmir more 
 than a third dwell in this city and its environs, the 
 population of Srinagar being estimated at 150,000 
 souls ; but as no accurate census has to my know- 
 ledge been taken of late years, it is difficult to fix 
 the number of the people dwelling either in the 
 towns or in the Valley generally. The above figures 
 however may be taken as about the approximate 
 number ; and what a falling off they show in the 
 prosperity of a country which in former days
 
 The Kashmiris. 97 
 
 reckoned its inhabitants by millions ! for it is stated, 
 although I am unable to vouch for the truth of the 
 assertion, that at one time the number amounted to 
 three millions. But wars, pestilence, and famine 
 have all done their work, and are the principal 
 causes of the depopulation of this naturally fertile 
 spot ; and even since my visit to the Valley these 
 dire agencies have caused further decrease in the 
 ranks of the Kashmiris ; for a terrible epidemic of 
 cholera occurred last year, followed by the inevitable 
 scarcity, and its consequent concomitants of death 
 and the emigration of many of the survivors. 
 
 The actual inhabitants of this country are usually 
 styled Kashmiris, and physically are undoubtedly a 
 fine race, the finest perhaps existing in this part of 
 Asia, and the type of the old Aryan race, the stock 
 from whence they have sprung. Tall, strong, and 
 stoutly built, the features of the men are large and 
 aquiline, with a wide, straight-up, and high forehead, 
 a well -shaped head, and a cast of countenance 
 somewhat like the Afghans Jewish in character, 
 although there is nothing known that would connect 
 their origin with any of the tribes, lost or otherwise, 
 of that celebrated nation. 
 
 The bulk of the inhabitants are Mohammedans, 
 
 the Hindus forming only about one-seventh of the 
 
 H
 
 98 The Happy Valley. 
 
 population. The two possess marked characteristics, 
 distinguishable from each other notably as regards 
 their complexion, which in the Mussulman Kashmiri 
 is generally that of the olive, as found among 
 Italians, but in the Hindus is of a fair and ruddy 
 character, a fact they attribute to their general 
 disuse of animal food ; while the natives generally 
 ascribe their own beauty to the peculiar softness 
 of the water of the Valley. 
 
 The beauty of the women of Kashmir is of 
 ancient and world-wide reputation ; and certainly, as 
 a well-known author remarks, many of them are 
 handsome enough to induce a man to exclaim, as did 
 the Assyrian soldiers when they beheld the beauty 
 of Judith, "Who would despise this people that 
 have among them such women ?" As there is in 
 this country, only excepting among the highest 
 classes, no concealment of the features, one has a 
 good opportunity of judging of the truth of the 
 generally -accepted assertion as to their loveliness, 
 which for my own part I do not consider overrated 
 to any great degree. One certainly sees some very 
 ugly women, both in Srinagar and in other parts of 
 the Valley ; but these are generally of a certain age, 
 and have led a life of toil, scanty fare, and exposure. 
 Taking them all round, among the lower classes,
 
 The Women of Kashmir. 99 
 
 which, with the ' panditanis ' belonging to the Brah- 
 man caste, are the ones the visitor sees the most of, 
 the higher classes being, as elsewhere in the East, 
 very inaccessible, they are all usually good-looking, 
 and enough so in many cases to entitle them to be 
 considered undeniably handsome. They are tall 
 and well-grown; and not possessing that slimness of 
 figure, and the marked delicacy which distinguishes 
 the females of India, their general style rather 
 deserves the appellation of fine than elegant. Their 
 complexion is that of the brunette, with a good deal 
 
 of pink and white on the cheek among the upper 
 i 
 
 classes, which assumes a healthy brown and red in 
 the lower, accustomed to exercise and hard work. 
 All, however, possess a pair of large almond-shaped 
 hazel eyes, and a set of white and regular teeth, 
 such aids to general beauty in the female face ; 
 whilst long black eyelashes add natural brilliancy 
 and softness to the organs of sight, and nothing is 
 wanting to complete the picture. Despite the 
 unbeautifying effects in many cases of poverty and 
 misery, and the dirt which, as stated at the com- 
 mencement of this chapter, generally covers them, 
 and which has led an author and artist lately to 
 remark that the Kashmiris reminded him of 
 
 beautiful ancient statues not yet cleaned from the 
 
 H 2
 
 ioo The Happy Valley. 
 
 earth in which they had lain buried for ages, their 
 title to beauty must justly be conceded, and a 
 Kashmiri woman may claim one of the first places 
 among her sex as a fine example of nature's love- 
 liest handiwork the female human form divine. 
 
 In character the Kashmiris have some good 
 qualities, but these are outnumbered by their fail- 
 ings and faults. They are the most inveterate 
 liars to be met with in the East, and that means a 
 good deal in a part of the world where the inhabi- 
 tants generally seem to imbibe the talent of lying 
 with their mother's milk. They are as a race 
 decidedly cowardly, ever ready to wrangle, but 
 never to fight ; and, if threatened by their superiors 
 in any way, cry and act after the manner of children, 
 consequently are not to be depended on to bear 
 themselves well against any physical danger. They 
 are decidedly clever and ingenious, and talkative 
 and cheerful in disposition ; but their selfishness, 
 ignorance, and their intriguing, false, and dishonest 
 qualities, have caused hard things to be said of 
 them by other nations, which undoubtedly they in 
 a measure richly deserve. My own opinion, gleaned 
 from actual experience, decidedly suggests the idea 
 that upon the whole the general character of the 
 inhabitants of the Happy Valley is not an elevated
 
 Caste in Kashmir. 101 
 
 one, and far from being in keeping with their poetic 
 surroundings. 
 
 o 
 
 The country people do not differ much in any 
 way from the dwellers in towns, although certainly 
 we find in Srinagar more variety in the inhabitants, 
 with a tendency to split up into castes, most of 
 which are based, as in India, on the hereditary trans- 
 mission of occupations. First, and distinct from all 
 the rest, are the Hindus, who number about 38,000 
 in the city, most of whom are Brahmans, and to all 
 of whom, whatever their occupation, is applied the 
 appellation of Pundit, a title in other parts only 
 assumed by those Brahmans learned in their 
 theology and the expounding thereof. It is cer- 
 tainly curious that all the Kashmiri Hindus, the 
 remainder of the once great and ancient nation, 
 are of this caste, and leads one to the supposition 
 that the greater part of the population were origin- 
 ally Brahman, a conclusion also indicated if we take 
 into consideration the terms in which this country is 
 spoken of in the early Sanskrit writers, who mention 
 it always as a country of learned men, such as un- 
 doubtedly were originally all the members of this 
 division of society. At the present time, however, 
 they are not all learned men many are writers, 
 tailors,, cloth-sellers, although a goodly number
 
 IO2 The Happy Valley. 
 
 follow their ancient calling, and are an influential 
 and favoured class. Their exertions in teaching, 
 and their attempts to foster their ancient literature, 
 are most praiseworthy, and in both they are aided 
 by the head of the present dynasty, who, belonging 
 himself, as a follower of the Sikh religion, to a sect 
 of the Hindus, naturally rather inclines to this 
 division of his subjects; the Hindus generally, 
 although few in number, are undoubtedly at present 
 the favoured class in the Vale of Kashmir. 
 
 The remainder of the inhabitants are, as already 
 stated, Mohammedans, and the tribes and families 
 are numerous. We have already seen how one of 
 these families, the Chakks, or warrior class, assumed 
 in former days regal power, but of later years they 
 degenerated into mere banditti, and were hunted 
 down so unmercifully that few remained. Those 
 that were left are now known by the appellation of 
 'guluwans,' or ' horse -keepers/ and follow the 
 more peaceful occupation of tending herds of cattle 
 upon the ' margs,' or downs, where later on we will 
 visit their homes. 
 
 There is, however, another class which deserves a 
 few words, for they are numerous and conspicuous, 
 and are the section of the Kashmiris with whom 
 visitors to the Valley come most in contact. I refer
 
 Boats and Boatmen. 103 
 
 to the ' hanjis/ or boatmen ; and as the river, 
 canals, and lakes are the chief highways in the 
 country, it naturally follows that as a body they are 
 numerous and of some importance. They are a 
 fine race, for both men and women have bodies 
 well developed by the hard labour- of towing and 
 paddling the boats, which is their means of earning 
 their living. The boats form also their homes, for 
 the greater part of them pass their lives entirely on 
 board, and know no other dwelling-place. They 
 are ready and willing to act as servants to English- 
 men ; it is always customary to engage a number 
 of them and a boat during one's stay in the Vale, 
 and being active and obliging they prove of great 
 service. They are, it is true, excessively greedy, 
 and try by every means in their power to make as 
 much out of their employers as they possibly can. 
 This after all, however, one expects, for I cannot 
 say that they are alone in this respect after my 
 experience of India, Indian servants, and the 
 natives of that country generally. In Kashmir, as 
 in India, we find a class or caste whose members 
 are outcasts from the general community. Here 
 this is the Batal caste, from among whom are pro- 
 vided those who do the unclean work in the towns 
 and country. They also supply the ranks of the
 
 IO4 The Happy Valley. 
 
 musicians and dancing girls, whose beauty and 
 ability to sing and dance are renowned throughout 
 the Valley, and in the adjacent countries ; but the 
 decrease in the general prosperity of their native 
 land has affected even their fortunes. The hand- 
 somest and most accomplished of this class are 
 now to be found pursuing a not immaculate life at 
 Lahore, and other towns of the Punjab, rather than 
 at Srinagar. These Batals are said to be the 
 descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the 
 country before the advent of the Aryans, and there 
 are some grounds, reasoning by the analogy of 
 other places, for the truth of this assertion. They 
 certainly differ from the rest of the inhabitants, who 
 hold them in the greatest contempt, and have rather 
 the manners and appearance of that ubiquitous 
 tribe, the gipsy. That they are similar in many 
 respects to the gipsies is an undoubted fact, and 
 authors interested in this vexed subject consider it 
 probable that the gipsies, whose religion partakes 
 somewhat of the Buddhist form, and whose lan- 
 guage is that of India, with many Sanskrit words 
 intermixed, may be the descendants of Kashmiris 
 driven from their native country in former days, by 
 the persecutions attendant upon a change of rulers 
 of foreign creed and tongue.
 
 Costume. 105 
 
 Every country has its own peculiar national cos- 
 tume ; and the country we are treating of is not 
 behind others in this respect, but, unlike many whose 
 dress is becoming and picturesque, adding to the 
 grace and dignity of the wearer, that of the inhabi- 
 tants of Kashmir is decidedly the reverse ; in one 
 word, it may be called undeniably hideous. For 
 this, however, they are not to blame. In ancient 
 days they possessed a distinct and more appropriate 
 costume, which was forbidden by the emperor 
 Akbar after his conquest of the Valley, about the 
 end of the sixteenth century, and replaced by his 
 order by the present dress, which from that time 
 has undergone no material change or alteration. 
 The usual dress of the men is a pair of loose 
 drawers, and a long, loosely-fitting shirt or smock- 
 frock, reaching from the neck to the ankles ; a turban, 
 or more generally a skull cap ; and if shoes are worn, 
 they are either of rough, untanned hide, or of 
 plaited grass and string. Formed of cotton for 
 summer wear, and of woollen material for winter, in 
 colour originally white, but from never being 
 washed usually of a dirty brown, the dress of the 
 men presents nothing attractive. Such as it is, it 
 is universally worn, except by the richer classes 
 among the Hindus, who adopt a somewhat similar
 
 io6 The Happy Valley. 
 
 costume to their brethren in Hindustan. The dress 
 of the women is similar to that of the men a long, 
 loose shirt with sleeves presenting however more 
 diversity in colour ; for it may be red, blue, or green, 
 the first -named appearing rather the favourite 
 hue. Their heads are covered with a small cap, 
 usually surrounded with a fillet of red cloth ; and 
 the richer females have in addition a 'chudder' or 
 shawl thrown over their heads and shoulders, which 
 in most Eastern countries is employed to conceal 
 the features from the gaze of strangers ; but rarely 
 so in Kashmir, where such a custom obtains only 
 among those of the very highest rank. The Hindu 
 women also wear in addition a white rolled cloth 
 tied loosely round the waist, and, like their sisters 
 in India, incline rather to the adornment of their 
 persons with bangles, ear and nose rings, and other 
 articles of jewellery. This is most marked in the 
 case of the ' punditanis,' the wives of the pundits, 
 perhaps the prettiest, the cleanest, and best-dressed 
 class of the fair sex in the whole country. 
 
 One fact remains to be mentioned as regards 
 their costume, and that is, the mode of dressing the 
 hair, which is peculiar, and is sure to attract the 
 attention of the stranger. It is, however, I believe, 
 usually confined to the unmarried girls, as after
 
 Language. 107 
 
 entering into the holy state they are said to become 
 rather indifferent as regards their personal appear- 
 ance, a slur from which we must certainly except 
 those of the higher classes. The hair, which with 
 them, although rather coarse, is abundant in 
 quantity, and usually of a glossy black colour, is 
 drawn to the back of the head, and finely braided 
 into a number of separate plaits. These are all 
 gathered together, and their terminations mixed and 
 worked up with coarse woollen thread into a large 
 thick pigtail-like plait, to the extremity of which, 
 for ornamentation, a long black tassel of thread is 
 suspended. 
 
 The language of the Kashmiris is, like their dress, 
 peculiar, and distinct from that spoken in any part of 
 India, or of the adjacent countries. It may be con- 
 sidered a patois rather than a language proper, and 
 there is a harshness and uncouthness about the 
 pronunciation which betrays it as such. Vigne, while 
 styling it a ' prakrit ' of Sanskrit, asserts that he was 
 told on good authority, that out of every hundred 
 words of Kashmiri a quarter will be found to be 
 Sanskrit, forty will be Persian, ten Arabic, and the 
 remainder made up with Hindustani, Tibetan, and 
 the languages of other adjacent countries. Difficult 
 to pronounce, and difficult to acquire, it is generally
 
 io8 The Happy Valley. 
 
 incomprehensible to strangers ; but that is of little 
 account to those familiar with the dialects of India, 
 for the inhabitants of the Valley are good linguists, 
 most of them speaking Hindustani or Punjabi, while 
 many of the tradespeople and others who are thrown 
 into contact with the European visitors speak very 
 fair English. 
 
 From language we naturally pass on to consider 
 literature. Little can be said on this point, for the 
 country does not boast of much of- that evidence of 
 a nation's civilization and progress. They certainly 
 have a few ancient works of high intrinsic value, 
 notably the before - mentioned Rajtaringini, their 
 great historical work, the Nila Parana, and some 
 others, including some dramas mostly written in the 
 Sanskrit character, although some are in the Persian. 
 
 o 
 
 I did not see them myself, but it is stated that some 
 of the manuscripts are written on the bark of a tree, 
 betokening great antiquity. With these ancient 
 efforts of literature they appear to be content ; for 
 I am not aware, although I may be wrong, of any 
 work in their own language, nor of any of recent 
 years in any other, attributed to a Kashmiri. From 
 what I ascertained, I should imagine that the pun- 
 dits and other learned men occupy their minds in 
 studying that which was produced long before their
 
 Srinagar. 109 
 
 time, rather than adding to the store for the benefit 
 of the scholars of the future. 
 
 We will now pay a visit to the city, and examine 
 more in detail the dwellings and other edifices of the 
 Kashmiris, at which as yet we have only taken a 
 brief and cursory glance. But few public buildings 
 exist to attract attention, and they possess little or 
 no architectural interest. There are, however, some 
 ancient mosques, temples, and cemeteries that will 
 repay the trouble of examination, and the bazaars, 
 and shops of the various handicrafts are well worthy 
 of a survey, for their contents in many instances 
 are both curious and peculiar to the country. For 
 this purpose a boat is necessary. None traverse on 
 foot the so-called streets who can well avoid it, 
 neither is there any necessity that they should, for 
 the places that are likely to be honoured by our 
 attention are all situated on the river-side, Srinagar 
 being a city of great length, but with little breadth. 
 
 Of boats there are several varieties, according to 
 the purpose for which they are required, and the 
 visitor would do well to engage one with its crew 
 for the term of his stay at this place, though, if he be 
 not so inclined, plenty are to be hired for the day 
 or trip at reasonable rates, as will be seen by re- 
 ference to Appendix v., where these are given on an
 
 no The Happy Valley. 
 
 official document supplied by the Punjab govern- 
 ment, and which in addition contains certain rules 
 and regulations for the guidance of strangers. First 
 we have the ' doongah,' a large long flat-bottomed 
 boat between fifty and sixty feet in length, and 
 nearly six in breadth ; for half its length it is 
 covered in by matting, supported on a wooden 
 framework, with side curtains of the same material, 
 which can be kept down or rolled up as required. 
 This portion of the boat, utilized by the traveller, 
 is large enough to contain a bedstead, and other 
 articles of furniture, and is as sheltered and com- 
 fortable to reside in for a time as any tent. The 
 hinder part of the boat is in possession of the crew, 
 who with their wives and families make it their 
 home, and reside in it all the year round. Both 
 men, women, and children take part in the navi- 
 gation of the vessel, which down stream is propelled 
 by heart-shaped paddles, and drawn up stream by 
 the united aid of the whole family harnessed like 
 cattle to a long towing rope. There are several 
 other large boats, such as the ' bangla,' a species of 
 pleasure barge, and the ' baht,' used only for carry- 
 ing grain, wood, or other merchandize; but they are 
 rarely if ever used by Europeans, who on long 
 journeys engage the firsj;-named, with a second for
 
 Climate and Temperature. 1 1 1 
 
 their servants, and for excursions to the city, or 
 for general use at Srinagar, one called a 'shikara,' 
 of the same shape as the ' doongah,' but very much 
 smaller and lighter in every respect. 
 
 The usual time for visiting the city is the after- 
 noon ; for at that period of the day the scene pre- 
 sented during the row down the river is at its best 
 and liveliest, the whole population seeming to be 
 astir, and bent on business or pleasure, although 
 there is nothing to prevent us from sallying out 
 at any period of the twenty-four hours, the sun not 
 being in Kashmir the powerful enemy we seek to 
 avoid in India. The weather in the Happy Valley, 
 for the greater part of the year, is truly delightful, 
 and admirably adapted to the European constitu- 
 tion. The climate of the lower portions is very 
 similar to that of the South of Europe, although 
 of course any range of temperature is obtainable 
 by ascending higher and visiting some mountain 
 retreat, from agreeable coolness to the cold of 
 Norway or other northern portions of our own 
 continent. The months of July and August are 
 decidedly the hottest, and are particularly so felt 
 at Srinagar, which then becomes very unhealthy. 
 It is usual to resort to some other part to avoid 
 this unpleasantness Gulmarg or Sonamarg being
 
 ii2 The Happy Valley. 
 
 favourite localities for this purpose, places we shall 
 visit in company further on. 
 
 The winter season, like all the others, is pretty 
 well marked in the Valley ; and during the last 
 month of the year, and up to the end of January, 
 it is cold, with frost the lakes and ponds being 
 sometimes even frozen over. There is no actual 
 monsoon or wet season as in India, although the 
 surrounding mountains are subject to periodical 
 rains, occurring about the same time as in the 
 former country, and the fall of rain and snow in 
 the Vale itself is by no means excessive, although 
 frequent showers, and sometimes even heavy storms 
 occur, very similar to those which we are accustomed 
 to nearer home. 
 
 Nothing therefore in the weather prevents our 
 going about at any time of the day ; but, as 
 already mentioned, the afternoon is usually selected. 
 City life at Srinagar flows on very easily and 
 pleasantly, if somewhat lazily ; the mornings are 
 usually taken up with eating, smoking, visiting, and 
 gossiping with one's friends and neighbours, and 
 bargaining with the different merchants, who daily 
 bring to the location of the visitors, for sale, every 
 description of article for the manufacture of which 
 the Valley is famous.
 
 Palace of the Maharajah. 1 1 3 
 
 Descending from the high path on the side of 
 the river in front of our quarters, down rude steps 
 cut in the bank, we step on board the ' shikara ' or 
 small boat that awaits us, and give the order to 
 paddle down to the city. Reclining on the cushions 
 or shawls spread at the bottom of the craft under 
 the awning, for of seats there are none, we are 
 comfortable enough, and as we glide gently along, 
 are able to notice anything worth observing. The 
 first object that strikes our attention, after passing 
 the houses of the British Resident and other officials, 
 is a large square building, with a verandah all round, 
 hung with gaudy-coloured 'purdahs,' and surrounded 
 by a stone wall, which also encloses a small garden. 
 Situated on the left bank of the river, in the curve 
 of a wide bend the stream makes in its course at 
 this spot, this is a striking and picturesque object, 
 and is in reality the abode of royalty, being the 
 summer palace of the Maharajah, who occasionally 
 visits it. There is nothing very remarkable about 
 the building itself, which is of recent construction ; 
 but the rooms in the interior are curious, the walls 
 and ceilings being formed entirely out of papier- 
 mache, an article for the production of which this 
 country has long been famous. After passing this 
 edifice the river resumes a 'straight course. Soon
 
 1 14 The Happy Valley. 
 
 ,after, on the left, a ghat or landing-place is seen 
 leading to the parade-ground, and then we come 
 to the Ameeri Kadal, the first bridge, near which 
 commences the well - known poplar avenue, the 
 Rotten Row of Srinagar. Next we enter upon a 
 wide piece of water, with either bank crowded with 
 houses ; for this is the commencement of the city 
 proper. The scene here becomes lively enough ; 
 for boats of every description are scattered in all 
 directions, and of the manners and customs of the 
 inhabitants a good general idea is to be obtained ; 
 duties not performed in the open air are equally 
 visible with those that are ; for as the houses 
 possess no windows, all that is transpiring within 
 doors is perfectly free for our inspection. As far 
 as one can judge, the general occupation of the 
 great majority of the men seems to be idling 
 about, gossiping and washing their teeth, or rather 
 cleaning them with a piece of stick, like the natives 
 of India, about the only personal act of cleanliness 
 of which they seem to be guilty. The weaker 
 sex seem to be more busily employed in washing 
 culinary articles in the stream, exchanging at the 
 same time, in the shrillest of voices, the gossip of 
 the day with their friends and acquaintances. Some, 
 however, are engaged in harder and more profit-
 
 Fish of Kashmir. 1 1 5 
 
 able labour, and are busily employed in grinding 
 corn, which is done in the primitive fashion of 
 pounding it with a thick heavy pole, the excavated 
 hollow of a large stone serving as a mortar. 
 
 Many of the shawl and other merchants have 
 houses overlooking the river, and about this time 
 are to be seen busily engaged tempting our fair 
 countrywomen with the varied products of the 
 Kashmir loom and needle. The fishermen are also 
 hard at work, plying their avocation ; for fish forms 
 a great proportion of the food of the poorer classes, 
 and a famine was nearly created a short time ago by 
 an order being issued that none were to be caught 
 and eaten, the Maharajah having been informed 
 that the soul of his father had entered into the body 
 of a trout, and was swimming about near the scenes 
 of his former triumphs. To avoid the sacrilege 
 of destroying the blissful future of Gulab Singh, the 
 edict went forth, that other articles of food only 
 must be used ; but as it soon appeared that its ob- 
 servance would be productive of much misery, it 
 was rescinded, and the safety of the transmigrated 
 soul of the former ruler of Kashmir left to the care 
 of the providence that watches over such matters. 
 There are five or six different varieties of fish in the 
 
 Valley, but the most common of all is the Hima- 
 
 i 2
 
 1 1 6 The Happy Valley. 
 
 layan trout, a fish that varies so much in colour and 
 appearance, according to age and season, that there 
 would appear to be several species, instead of one 
 only. It rises very sluggishly at the fly, and the 
 gentle craft would appear to be unprofitable em- 
 ployment, although many of the visitors pursue 
 it with an energy worthy of a better cause. The 
 other varieties of the finny tribe are a smaller 
 species of trout, and some that resemble the white 
 mullet of India ; and there is also a little white fish 
 with a bluish back, a few inches long only, which 
 seems to be very abundant. At Sopoor, and also at 
 other places, good ' mahseer ' fishing is to be ob- 
 tained, and in the capture of this noble fish the 
 Indian salmon the angler forgets the poor sport 
 afforded by the other varieties of fish in the Valley, 
 and meets a foeman worthy of his rod and spear.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Embankment of the River The Sher Garhi Fort and Palace 
 The Kashmirian Army Family of the Maharajah The Sunt-i- 
 Kul Canal The Kut-i-Kul Canal The Mar Canal The Habba 
 Kadal The Fati Kadal The Shah Hamadan Musjid Story of 
 its Founder The Bagh-i-Dilawur Khan The Zaina Kadal The 
 Badshah The Jumma Musjid The Mint Coinage of Kashmir 
 The New Mosque Evidences of former Hindu Temples The 
 Religion of Kashmir Naga or Snake Worship Buddhism 
 Jainism Brahmanism Mohammedanism Forcible Conversion of 
 Natives of the Valley Its effect on the Origin of the Gipsies The 
 Ali Kadal The Bulbul Lankar The Naya Kadal The Suffa 
 Kadal The Eedgah The Noor-Bagh Office of Executioner 
 Termination of Trip through City. 
 
 :URSUING our course down the river the 
 sides of which in former days were em- 
 banked from the first to the last bridge, by 
 an embankment composed of large blocks 
 of limestone, of which at present the 
 ruined remains are all that is left we soon come 
 to a large building, the Sher Garhi, the city fort and 
 palace. Situated on the left bank, it presents to the 
 river, which flows along its eastern side, a long loop- 
 holed wall, with bastions rising between twenty and
 
 1 1 8 The Happy Valley. 
 
 thirty feet above the general level of the water, 
 surmounted by roomy, but lightly-built, houses. Its 
 southern and western sides are protected by a wide 
 ditch ; the Kut-i-Kul canal bounds it on the north, 
 and in its interior are grouped a number of dwelling- 
 houses for the officials of the court, government 
 offices, and barracks. On its wall, facing the river, 
 and perched upon one of the bastions, is a large 
 double-storied house, the abode of the Dewan or 
 Prime Minister, and just below his residence is a 
 long lofty building, the government treasury, con- 
 taining shawls, 'pushmeena,' coin, and other valuable 
 property. A curious-looking wooden building comes 
 next, the Rang Mahal or 'audience hall,' a part of 
 the royal residence, which is just below it, styled the 
 Baradarri, and which is unquestionably the most 
 important modern structure in Srinagar. It is a 
 large irregular building of a peculiar style, for while 
 partly of native architecture, one portion, with a 
 large projecting bow, partakes somewhat of an 
 European character. A flight of wide stone steps 
 leads up from the water's edge at the angle of this 
 building, and conducts into the palace. Adjoining 
 is the temple frequented by the ruler and family, 
 called the Maharaj-ke-Mandir, the domed roof of 
 which is covered with thin plates of pure gold,
 
 The Kashmirian Army. 119 
 
 which glitters in the sunlight, causing it to be 
 plainly perceptible a long distance away. To reach 
 the interior of the palace, one ascends by the 
 before -mentioned steps, which at all times of the 
 day appear thronged with people, some waiting to 
 prefer petitions to the sovereign or his ministers 
 as they descend to their boats, others to obtain a 
 hearing or justice, which is here administered in 
 open court daily by the governor. To the more 
 private portion of the palace they have no access ; 
 for, guarding the gateway at the top of the stairs 
 which leads directly into the royal abode, stands a 
 sentry, a warrior belonging to the Kashmir, army, 
 and near by is the guard-room, what we should call 
 in our service the main-guard. 
 
 Most of the men comprising the Kashmirian army, 
 or rather the army of the ruler of the Kashmir and 
 Jamoo territories, are Dogras, Gilghitis, and other 
 inhabitants under his sway. The denizens of the 
 Valley are rarely admitted into its ranks, their pro- 
 verbial cowardice and timidity in any danger pre- 
 venting them from making good or reliable soldiers. 
 The artillery musters only about thirty guns, and 
 the cavalry force is also small, the nature of the 
 country in which they are called upon to serve 
 forbidding their general employment. The infantry,
 
 I2O The Happy Valley. 
 
 however, make up for the deficiency ; for they are 
 probably not less than 15,000 in number, a respect- 
 able force for so small a country, but requisite, 
 being required to garrison Ladak, Gilgit, and other 
 portions of the Maharajah's dominions, all of which, 
 acquired by the sword, require to be held in subjec- 
 tion by the same weapon. Service in the army is 
 a pretty popular profession ; for the men and the 
 officers, who are all native gentlemen, are, I believe, 
 well paid and well treated, and their duties are 
 comparatively light. They appear to be well drilled 
 and fairly dressed, both after the British fashion, 
 which they copy to the last degree, the officers even 
 using words of command in the English language. 
 
 The interior of the palace contains nothing very 
 remarkable. We went over it, accompanied by the 
 Babu, but of course were not admitted to the more 
 private apartments. What we did see was only 
 what is to be seen in all Eastern palaces large 
 halls and smaller rooms, gaudily decorated, with 
 numerous mirrors and chandeliers of coloured glass, 
 the only difference in this particular instance being 
 that the walls and ceilings were made of or covered 
 with papier-mache, painted in different patterns 
 and devices. The eldest of the three sons of the 
 Maharajah, the Mean Sahib, Pertab Singh, has also
 
 Tfie Canals. 121 
 
 his residence within the walls of the palace and fort, 
 but it needs no mention further than to remark that 
 it is similar to his father's, on a very much smaller 
 scale. 
 
 Immediately opposite to the palace, the Sunt-i- 
 Kul or ' apple-tree canal ' opens into the river, one 
 of the few that traverse the interior of the city. 
 This particular one leads to the Drogjun, or gate 
 of the city lake, and is well worth visiting. It is 
 navigable for boats throughout its length, show- 
 ing along its winding course some fine plane and 
 other trees on either bank, making a beautiful com- 
 bination with the placid water at their feet and the 
 rugged mountains behind them. The Kut-i-Kul 
 canal is another watercourse on the left, just below 
 the palace, which passes through the western portion 
 of the city, embracing some of its most squalid parts. 
 But the most interesting of all these watery high- 
 ways is the Mar canal, perhaps the most curious 
 place in Srinagar. It flows from the lake and in- 
 tersects the northern portion of the city ; and its 
 narrowness, its walls of stone, its heavy single- 
 arched bridges, and landing-places of the same 
 material, joined to the gloomy passages leading 
 down upon it, betoken the greatest antiquity, whilst 
 the lofty but half-ruinous-looking houses on either
 
 122 The Happy Valley. 
 
 bank seem ready to topple over down into the 
 water. Many travellers have remarked that it bears 
 a close resemblance to one of the old canals in 
 Venice, and certainly, although far inferior in archi- 
 tectural beauty, it is very similar, and perhaps not 
 without pretensions to equal singularity. A little 
 further down the river we come to the Habba 
 Kadal, the second bridge, which in former days 
 was not unlike Old London Bridge, on a smaller 
 scale ; for a row of wooden shops ran along both 
 its sides, overhanging the water. These were, how- 
 ever, all burnt down a few years back, and have" 
 never been rebuilt. 
 
 The Fati Kadal is the next bridge, and below it 
 on the right bank is situated the Shah Hamadan 
 Musjid, one of the most elaborate mosques in the 
 country, and perhaps the most celebrated. Like the 
 greater number of the mosques in Kashmir it is 
 built of wood (usually that of the Himalayan cedar), 
 and covered in with a projecting roof, on which at 
 various points bells are hung ; while, unlike the 
 generality of the edifices devoted to the Moham- 
 medan religion, a golden ball is placed on its top 
 instead of the usual crescent. I am not certain of 
 the date of its erection ; but it is considered of great 
 importance, and a holy shrine by the Mussulman
 
 oO 
 
 o
 
 Shak Hamadan. 123 
 
 population, who, I understand, fully believe in the 
 legend as regards the Shah Hamadan, its reputed 
 founder. The story runs thus : Syud Ali, or Shah 
 Hamadan, a true descendant of the prophet, on 
 account of the persecutions his party endured at 
 the hands of their king, the ruler of Samarkund, 
 fled his country, being able, by virtue of his sanctity, 
 to transport himself through the air to Kashmir, 
 Having descended on the spot where the mosque 
 now stands, he ordered the Hindu fakir, or holy 
 man, who was there located, to depart. The fakir, 
 who certainly possessed claims to priority of occu- 
 pation, declined to do so, upon which Shah Hamadan 
 said, That if he could bring him news from heaven, 
 he would admit that he was a great man, and leave 
 him in peace. This he gladly consented to do ; and 
 having numerous idols under his care, he despatched 
 one towards heaven. Shah Hamadan, however, 
 kicking off his slipper, struck it with such force that 
 the image fell to the ground before much progress 
 upwards had been made. After this feat they fell 
 into conversation, in the course of which the fakir, 
 stating that he was so great a man through the 
 performance of charitable actions, was deemed by 
 his opponent worthy of being made a convert to 
 Islam. This was accordingly done ; and his con-
 
 124 The Happy Valley. 
 
 version was the means of the conversion of a number 
 of Hindus, his disciples, who immediately followed 
 his example. The fakir, assuming the name of 
 Sheik Baba Wuli, lived afterwards in great piety, 
 promulgating the doctrines of his new religion ; and 
 a penance of forty days performed at his shrine is 
 considered at the present day the most meritorious 
 act of the followers of the Prophet in the Happy 
 Valley. 
 
 A few minutes' walk from the mosque brings us 
 to the Bagh-i-Dilawur Khan, an old Pathan garden, 
 once a pretty place, but now utterly neglected, al- 
 though at one time it was decorated with balconied 
 summer-houses, overhanging the waters of the lake, 
 on the edge of which it is situated, and must have 
 formed a charming retreat. 
 
 Below the Zaina Kadal, or fourth bridge on the 
 same side of the river, stands a noble ruin, the 
 Badshah, the tomb of Zinulabudin, the best ruler 
 the Mohammedans ever gave the country, and who 
 reigned from 1423 to 1487. The tomb is of brick, 
 octagonal in shape, and ornamented with Saracenic 
 arches surmounted by a single dome, surrounded by 
 four smaller ones. It is contained within the walls 
 of a burying-ground, which possesses numerous 
 graves of distinguished personages in connection
 
 The Jumma Musjid. 1 2 5 
 
 with the history of the country. Rather less than 
 half a mile from this tomb stands the Jumma 
 Musjid or 'great mosque,' a large square building 
 of a Saracenic character, with an open square or 
 pateo in the centre, and a wooden steeple at each 
 angle. Built by the Emperor Shah Jehan, its 
 foundations are of stone, but the wooden roof of 
 the surrounding cloister, or interior, is supported by 
 two rows of pillars, 392 in number, each being 
 formed from a single deodar tree about thirty feet 
 in height. It is a fine building, its interior most 
 cathedral-like and imposing, and the ground about 
 its exterior is interesting to the student of Kashmir 
 history, for numerous horizontal massive tombstones 
 betoken the last resting-place of many of the mem- 
 bers of the powerful Chakk family, the sometime 
 rulers over their native country. 
 
 The Mint is not far away, but is not worth the 
 trouble of visiting. It is called the Zerab Khana, 
 and is a small, mean, dirty-looking building. The 
 arrangements for coining are primitive and simple 
 enough, a piece of the metal, sufficient for one coin, 
 being heated, beaten out on an anvil, and while hot 
 stamped by hand with a die. In this way the 
 Kashmir coins are made, and, as one may imagine, 
 are rude enough in appearance. Both the silver
 
 126 The Happy Valley. 
 
 and copper money are considerably alloyed. Of 
 silver coinage they have three sorts of rupees in 
 circulation one, like the Indian variety, worth six- 
 teen annas ; one worth ten ; while the smallest of 
 the set is valued only at eight annas. The copper 
 coins are pice the larger equal in value to the 
 Indian, the smaller equal to about two-thirds, both 
 varieties being clumsy, uneven lumps of metal. 
 All this, I believe, is soon to undergo alteration, as 
 machinery is ordered to turn out pieces of money 
 equal to that of a more civilized character. 
 
 There remains to be noticed another mosque the 
 New Musjid, or Patar Musjid, as it is often termed 
 which is situated on the left, the other bank of the 
 river to that which we have been visiting, and nearly 
 opposite the Shah Hamadan, the first edifice of the 
 kind that engaged our attention. It is a- fine struc- 
 ture, built of stone, having a handsome flight of 
 steps leading from the river to the door of the 
 court-yard that surrounds it ; and its interior, of 
 about 192 feet in length, with a proportionate 
 breadth, contains some massive archways, the roof 
 of the compartments between them being hand- 
 somely ribbed and vaulted. 
 
 Erected by Nur Jehan Begum, the beautiful 
 Nurmahal, or ' Light of the Harem,' it must have
 
 Religion. 1 2 7 
 
 been a perfect specimen of its kind, resembling 
 somewhat in general aspect and finish the mosques 
 at Agra. At present it appears somewhat dingy 
 and out of repair, not having been for many years 
 utilized for the purpose of public worship, which 
 would have otherwise insured its protection and 
 preservation. 
 
 It cannot fail to be noticed that most of the 
 buildings devoted to religious observances in the 
 city are those for the use of the followers of the 
 Prophet. Although Kashmir has known many 
 changes of religion, it w.as for many years under 
 the sway of Mohammedans, and may, although at 
 present under Hindu rule, be styled a Mohammedan 
 country. With the bigotry that characterizes the 
 followers of Islam they speedily converted their 
 subjects to their own faith, and while erecting 
 edifices for the practice of their own religion, their 
 fierce zeal in many of their line caused them to 
 destroy all those belonging to any other. This is 
 the reason why at the present day we see hardly 
 any vestiges of Hindu temples or other specimens 
 of native Hindu architecture. At one time the 
 Hindu temples in the city must have been exceed- 
 ingly numerous ; for, as before remarked, the founda- 
 tions of many of the houses on either side of the
 
 128 The Happy Valley. 
 
 river are very commonly formed of large blocks 
 that have been drawn from them. A capital turned 
 upside down, a broken shaft or pedestal, may fre- 
 quently be observed doing duty for ordinary building 
 stone, all that remains of the once massive edifices 
 of which they formed a part, and which could never 
 have fallen to the ground unless they had been 
 forcibly displaced by the hand of man. 
 
 Thus very little remains as evidence of the 
 original faith of the inhabitants of the Valley, 
 which, early colonized by the Aryans, must have 
 been the scene of many of the mysteries of the 
 'naga' or 'snake worship,' one of the earliest forms of 
 idolatry practised at first by that race after their 
 descent from the plains of Asia, and which appears 
 to have taken root in Kashmir ; for we find it still 
 followed in that country long after the onward wave 
 from the same stock had overrun parts of India, and 
 there established the Brahmanical religion, the basis 
 of modern Hinduism, as followed by their descen- 
 dants at the present day. The isolated condition 
 of Kashmir may have had some share in the pro- 
 duction of this result ; for we find no very reliable 
 account of any other purer form earlier than the. 
 introduction of Buddhism by Asoka, about two cen- 
 turies and a half before the Christian era. Such is
 
 Buddhism. 129 
 
 the opinion of many authorities on the subject, 
 although it is claimed by others that, according to 
 the Ayin-i-Akbari, the work of Abul-Fazel, this 
 prince abolished the Brahmanical rites, and substi- 
 tuted those of Jaina, an assertion which, if correct, 
 implies that Brahmanism flourished in the country 
 long before its supposed introduction ; and also that 
 the creed of the Jainas, which some suppose to 
 have been the early faith of Asoka, must be added 
 to the list of the changes in the religion of the 
 Kashmiris. 
 
 This, however, seems to be a disputed point ; for 
 from the original text of the Rajatarangini it ap- 
 pears that Asoka by no means attempted the former 
 of these heinous acts ; and that, on the contrary, he 
 was a pious worshipper of Siva, to whose temple he 
 constantly repaired. His introduction of Buddhism 
 into the Valley would also appear to be called in 
 question ; for I find it mentioned, in a work on the 
 Jain religion, that from the evidence afforded from 
 various sources we can only infer that Asoka's con- 
 version to Buddhism occurred late in his life or 
 reign. And further, that he either did not seek to 
 spread or had not the chance or opportunity of 
 propagating his new faith in the outlying sections 
 
 of his dominions ; and that in this Valley of Kashmir 
 
 K
 
 130 The Happy Valley. 
 
 at least Buddhism came after him as a consequence 
 of his southern surrender, rather than as a deliberate 
 promulgation of a well-matured belief on his part.* 
 Be this as it may, we possess proof, however, that 
 this form of religion was dominant in Kashmir 
 during the reign of his grandson and successor, 
 Jaloka ; for both the temple on the Takt-i-Suliman, 
 and other ruined buildings at Pandritan and else- 
 where, are standing evidences of the fact, which is 
 also confirmed in the annals of the country. As to 
 its duration, it is probable that this form of worship 
 prevailed until some eighty years before Christ, 
 when the Brahmanical or Hindu religion was, as is 
 generally accepted, introduced by Abhimanyu, and 
 became the faith of the country for several centuries 
 after, until supplanted by that of Mohammedanism. 
 The introduction of Mohammedanism is generally 
 supposed to have occurred about A.D. 1356, when, 
 during the reign of Shahabudin, the Syud Ali 
 Hamadan arrived in the country from Persia, at- 
 tended by a great following of fugitive disciples. 
 This fact is, however, disputed by the Kashmiris, 
 who allege that their conversion to Islam occurred 
 some years before this date, and was owing to the 
 exertions of a fakir named Bulbul Shah, who, 
 
 * Jainism; or, The Early Faith of Asoka. By E. Thomas, F.R.S.
 
 Mohammedanism. 1 3 1 
 
 coming from Tibet, was the first Mohammedan that 
 appeared in the Valley. No direct proof exists of 
 this ; but that there was such a personage admits of 
 no doubt ; for his tomb is yet standing on the right 
 bank of the river, just below the fifth bridge. The 
 introduction of this new religion was followed by 
 the consequences that usually befell all countries into 
 which its followers intruded themselves. Forcible 
 conversion or death was the alternative presented to 
 the inhabitants, whose only means of avoiding such 
 a terrible choice was the abandonment of their 
 homes to seek in other countries that toleration 
 denied to them in their own. Many undoubtedly 
 did so, and probably sought refuge in India, meet- 
 ing, however, I should imagine, with but little better 
 treatment; that country being about this time suffer- 
 ing under the invasions of the Moguls, themselves 
 stern and bigoted Mohammedans. Others probably 
 wandered off to adjacent parts, and it is to these 
 bands of fugitives that it has been attempted to 
 trace the origin of the Zingarri or gipsy tribe, it 
 being stated in the Life of Tamerlane that a race of 
 strange people, holding opinions and with manners 
 and customs similar to those which obtain among 
 the modern gipsies, existed at Samarkund in 1442, 
 
 some few years after the time of the great persecu- 
 
 K 2
 
 132 The Happy Valley. 
 
 tions in Kashmir. Those Hindus that did remain 
 accepted their fate, and the fierce zeal of the rulers 
 that followed leading them to destroy all vestiges 
 attesting the existence of another creed, the country 
 soon became thoroughly Mohammedan, both in re- 
 ligion and outward appearance. So it remained 
 until its conquest by Runjit Singh, when Hinduism, 
 or rather Sikhism, became favoured, and temples 
 and other buildings devoted to the old religion again 
 reared themselves in the Valley ; but of the ancient 
 examples of architecture relating to that once na- 
 tional creed nothing is left but ruins, or remains 
 applied to the meanest purposes. 
 
 To continue, however, our progress down the 
 river and through the city. Immediately below the 
 Alii Kadal, or fifth bridge, stands an old stone build- 
 ing, with an inscription, supposed to be Buddhist, in 
 the Nagri character ; and some few yards below 
 again is an evidence of another faith. This is an 
 old wooden mosque, said to be the oldest in the 
 Valley, called the Biilbul Lankar, containing the 
 grave of that fakir who, as before stated, is held by 
 the inhabitants to have been the first and prime 
 agent in their conversion to the faith of Mohammed. 
 The Naya Kadal, or sixth bridge, comes next, and 
 a little further down is the Suffa Kadal, the seventh
 
 The Noor Bagh. 133 
 
 and last of the city bridges, below which, on the right 
 bank, is a green open flat, called the ' Eedgah,' which 
 reminds one of home, so like an English common 
 does it appear. A fine old mosque, the Ali Musjid, 
 stands at one extremity, shaded by some of the 
 noblest trees in the Valley ; and nearly opposite, on 
 the left bank of the stream, is a spot of an ill-omened 
 character, the Noor Bagh, or place of execution. In 
 former days it was rare not to see the gallows at 
 this place graced by some malefactor, but capital 
 punishment is now seldom carried out ; the Sikh 
 religion discouraging the taking of human life ; and 
 the present Maharajah, a devout follower of this 
 belief, acting so strictly up to its tenets that for many 
 years the hangman's office has been literally a 
 perfect sinecure, his services having never been 
 required. 
 
 This brings us to the termination of our progress 
 through the city, and our inspection of its principal 
 buildings. We will now therefore retrace our steps, 
 and before proceeding to examine the objects of 
 interest in its environs, pay a short visit to the 
 principal bazaars of the capital, and take a glance 
 at the arts and manufactures for which it is famous, 
 and the commerce of Kashmir with other countries.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Bazaars of Srinagar Natural Products of the Valley Occur- 
 ence of Famines Shortcomings of the Government Cheapness 
 of Food in Kashmir Calculation as to Value of Land in Kashmir 
 The Fruits and Vegetables of Kashmir Wine in the Valley 
 Growth of Hops Trees and Flowering Plants in Kashmir Cattle 
 in the Valley Sacredness of the Cow Diet of Visitors in the 
 Valley The Arts and Manufactures of Kashmir The Kashmir 
 Shawls Antiquity of the Shawl Varieties of Shawls The 
 Kashmir Goat Pushmeena Manufacture of the Shawls The 
 Weaving The Weavers The Washing of the Shawls The 
 Jewellery of Kashmir Papier-mach Work Prices of Various 
 Articles Trade and Commerce of Kashmir The Dal Lake 
 Aquatic Plants The Lotus The Singhara Plant Floating Gar- 
 dens Objects of Interest on the Lake Hazratbal A Moslem 
 Relic Fairs or Festivals The Feast of Roses. 
 
 'HERE are several bazaars or market-places 
 in different parts of the city of Srinagar, 
 but with one exception they are hardly 
 worth the trouble of a visit, visitors to the 
 capital contenting themselves with that 
 which, situated on the right bank of the river, 
 and about the centre of the city, contains the shops 
 of nearly all the best workers in the different 
 articles peculiar to the country, the shawl merchants
 
 Food in Kashmir. 135 
 
 excepted, who are to be found located in commo- 
 dious houses at various parts overlooking the 
 stream. Many of the smaller bazaars are devoted 
 to the sale of the necessaries of life, and if curious 
 in this respect, the stranger will, if he pays a visit 
 to one of them, get a good insight into the pro- 
 ductive capabilities of the Valley and the articles 
 of food utilized by its inhabitants. Of these there 
 are a great variety ; for nature is in general very 
 bountiful in Kashmir, both on land and water, al- 
 though at times, like its near neighbour Hindustan, 
 the crops fail, owing to drought or other causes, and 
 famine stalks in hideous nakedness throughout the 
 land. Such is the case, I regret to say, at the 
 present time, fears being even entertained that 
 unless speedy succour arrives almost the total de- 
 population of the Valley will ensue.* But such help 
 as we were able to afford to our suffering fellow- 
 creatures in India, during the recent times of 
 scarcity, is not so easily rendered in this part of the 
 world, particularly at the present time ; for no great 
 store of grain exists in adjacent countries, and even 
 if it did, the difficulties of the transport of any 
 
 * Alarming accounts of the state of the country are now being 
 received ; since the above was written, and as these pages are passing 
 through the press.
 
 136 The Happy Valley. 
 
 considerable quantity are almost insurmountable. 
 That the government of Kashmir are to blame for 
 their supineness and carelessness in not providing 
 against such an eventuality admits of no doubt ; 
 but then it must be remembered that this dread 
 calamity is taking place in the East, among a 
 people who rarely think of the future. ' Sufficient 
 for the day ' is their motto ; and their very religion, 
 or that of the greater number of them, teaches and 
 inculcates the dogma, that all and every calamity, 
 even if it can be obviated with very little exertion, 
 is fate and the will of God, and that they must 
 bear themselves resignedly under the circumstances, 
 and hope for better days to come. That better 
 days are not far distant I am sure we all most 
 devoutly wish, for the depopulation and ruin of 
 this once fertile spot would be a great calamity. 
 However, I will not dwell upon this, but proceed 
 to describe the Valley as I saw it, to which con- 
 dition, under the blessing of Providence, I hope it 
 may again shortly attain. 
 
 At the time of my visit to the country food for 
 the natives was, as is usually the case there, both 
 cheap and abundant, the prices of many articles 
 creating, not only a feeling of astonishment to 
 myself and companion, but also to our usually
 
 Vegetables and Fruit. 137 
 
 apathetic Indian servants. The chief article of 
 consumption with the Kashmiris appears, as in some 
 parts of India, to be rice ; but wheat, barley, maize, 
 and other seed crops are likewise cultivated. Rice 
 is, however, the staple grain of Kashmir, the princi- 
 pal sustenance of its population, and a great article 
 of revenue ; the wealth even of an estate or parcel 
 of land being calculated, not by its money value, 
 but by the number of measures of rice it can 
 produce. Of vegetables and fruit there are any 
 quantity, retailed at prices that would astonish the 
 vendors of Covent Garden. Cabbages, turnips, 
 cucumbers, lettuces, and various other esculents, 
 are very abundant, and are extensively used. But 
 it is the fruit of the Valley that most astonishes 
 strangers ; for the soil, a very rich and fertile 
 alluvium, aided by a moist atmosphere and genial 
 temperature, yields wonderful crops of walnuts, 
 mulberries, peaches, cherries, pomegranates, nuts, 
 apples, quinces, pears, and grapes. Most of these 
 grow in our own island, but must be highly culti- 
 vated to attain to any perfection ; whereas in 
 Kashmir nature alone seems to be the gardener, for 
 many of the flats of ground on which the trees and 
 vines flourish appear to be totally uncultivated and 
 uncared for. Of grapes there are, it is said, some
 
 138 The Happy Valley. 
 
 eighteen varieties, and they may be bought at the 
 rate of several pounds for an anna, rather less than 
 three halfpence. The peaches, which are very 
 fine, and with a better flavour than our hot-house 
 sorts, can usually be procured at the rate of a dozen 
 or so for the same money. Wine was at one time 
 made from the grapes of the Valley, and a large 
 number of immense ancient jars have been dug up 
 at various times. These are supposed to have been 
 the receptacles for the generous fluid, buried for 
 its preservation, as I believe is the case in some 
 Eastern countries at the present day. During the 
 Pathan regime wine was again made, after a total 
 cessation of its manufacture for many years ; but 
 the attempt was not successful, and it has now been 
 entirely given up. So also has the production of 
 cider, from the great quantity of apples yearly 
 grown all over the country, which undoubtedly 
 would produce a beverage equal to the very best 
 Devonshire, if under proper management. The 
 climate is not warm enough to allow the sugar- 
 cane to thrive; but cotton of good quality can be 
 produced, the fields for its cultivation being usually 
 upon the tops of the ' kareewahs,' as it does not 
 require the irrigation necessary for most of the 
 other crops.
 
 Trees and Shrubs. 139 
 
 The cultivation of hops has lately been attempted 
 on a small scale, and I should imagine would prove 
 remunerative, as all that could be grown might be 
 taken by our breweries in India. One of the 
 largest of these rival establishments to Burton-on- 
 Trent is at Marri, and brews beer that leaves 
 nothing to be desired. Meeting the enterprising 
 manager of the company during our visit to Kash- 
 mir, I am able to assert on his authority that the 
 hops grown here are of good quality, and that 
 he was then seeking to obtain a grant of land for 
 the cultivation of the plant on a larger scale. 
 
 Of trees and shrubs I will say but little. There 
 are several varieties of firs on the surrounding 
 mountains. The deodar or Himalayan cedar is 
 very abundant, and its wood is largely employed in 
 many useful purposes. The plane or chenar tree, 
 and the poplar, willow, and many others, grow abun- 
 dantly, although the first-named is not indigenous, 
 but was introduced by the governor, Ali Mardan 
 Khan, who ruled in Kashmir under the Moguls in 
 1642. Once introduced into the country, the plane 
 trees appear to have thriven to a wonderful degree ; 
 for they are the noblest trees in the Valley, and are 
 everywhere to be seen, affording at the present day as 
 grateful a shade to the inhabitants of the villages and
 
 140 The Happy Valley, 
 
 farm-houses, as they yielded in days long past to the 
 royal denizens of the now ruined palaces they still 
 guard and shelter. Shrubs and flowering plants as 
 well as, ferns abound in certain localities, and several 
 varieties used in medicine, such as aloes, chiretta, 
 rhubarb, wormwood, &c., grow wild and in luxuriant 
 profusion. Saffron is also largely cultivated ; but we 
 shall visit its glowing beds in their home at Pam- 
 poor. Enough has now been said, without wearying 
 the reader, concerning the vegetation and cultivation 
 of Kashmir, to convince anyone that in its day of 
 prosperity, if abundance and variety of nature's free 
 gifts can be taken into account, it fully deserves the 
 appellation that has been given to it so often in 
 these pages, of the smiling, fertile, and Happy 
 Valley. 
 
 As various sorts of grain, vegetables, and fruit 
 form the chief articles of diet of the inhabitants, 
 cattle-farming on a large scale is not entertained ; 
 for with the exception of the richer classes of 
 Mohammedans, who eat the flesh of sheep and 
 goats, the majority require little but the natural 
 productions of the soil. 
 
 The domestic animals found in the Valley re- 
 semble those of adjacent countries. The horses, 
 cows, and oxen, are small, but the sheep are of a
 
 Arts and Manufactures. 141 
 
 fair size, and are pretty numerous, if price is any 
 criterion, as they may be purchased for one to four 
 rupees each. The cow being held by the Sikhs as 
 a very sacred animal is never killed, and beef is 
 unknown alike to the Kashmiris and, during their 
 stay, to the visitors, who must perforce content 
 themselves with mutton, supplemented by fowls and 
 ducks, which are very abundant, costing only about 
 an anna a bird to purchase. Milk, however, can be 
 purchased, with eggs and fish ; and as almost all the 
 farmers are supplied with honey, bees being kept in 
 the walls of the farm-houses, any amount of this 
 delicacy is obtainable. Take it altogether, therefore, 
 one is able to fare plentifully if not sumptuously in 
 Kashmir at very little expense, and if luxuries for 
 the table are required, the Parsee shopkeepers at 
 Srinagar will be most happy to supply them, and a 
 very long bill for the same into the bargain. 
 
 Our attention is now claimed by the arts and 
 manufactures of the country, good specimens of 
 which are to be seen and purchased in the different 
 shops in the big bazaar already spoken of on the 
 right bank of the river. , /In weaving, embroider- 
 ing, and working in metals, the Kashmiris have a 
 great reputation ; but they are also very expert in 
 the manufacture of wooden articles, such as toys
 
 142 The Happy Valley. 
 
 and turnery ; ornamental carving ; inlaid work in 
 wood, ivory, mother-of-pearl, papier-mache ; jewel- 
 lery, leather, paper, and attar of roses. It is 
 however for the manufacture of the famous Kashmir 
 shawls that they are best known, since these are 
 of world -wide reputation. And although at the 
 present time the decrees of fashion have almost 
 banished them from Europe, and the admirable 
 imitations produced in France, and Paisley in Scot- 
 land, exercise a great influence over the trade, yet 
 a goodly number are still woven annually in the 
 country of their birth, the demand for them in the 
 East being maintained as necessary appendages 
 to rank and state. It is a well-known fact, that the 
 article of dress called a shawl is perhaps of higher 
 antiquity than any other garment ; but of its manu- 
 facture in these early days we possess but little 
 information until we come to the time of Akbar, 
 about the year 1556, when the celebrated Kashmir 
 shawls were amongst the most important manu- 
 factures of the world, and were thought worthy of 
 being minutely described in the Ayin-i-Akbari, or 
 the Institutes of the Emperor, so frequently men- 
 tioned in the preceding pages. Thus Kashmir, if 
 it cannot claim the honour of being the country of 
 the birth of their manufacture, may undoubtedly
 
 Kashmir Shawls. 143 
 
 claim that of being the country where the industry 
 was first carefully fostered and encouraged, and 
 whence it spread over the greater part of India, and 
 to other more remote parts of the civilized world. 
 
 In the Ayin-i-Akbari mention is made of four 
 distinct classes of shawls. First come those of 
 remarkable lightness and softness, usually self- 
 coloured, and made from wool undyed. The second 
 variety were woven of wool in the natural colours 
 white, black, or grey, and were probably of plaid 
 patterns, like the shepherd's plaid in Scotland. The 
 third were called gold-leaved, probably from being 
 embroidered with that material. The fourth were 
 long pieces, used to enwrap the whole body, or to 
 fashion into divers articles of attire. 
 
 These productions of the Kashmirian loom, which 
 still remains of old and unimproved construction, 
 are yet made in the Valley, as in the days of Akbar ; 
 but in addition to shawls, gloves and socks, red 
 silk cloth, cotton rugs, and ' patto/ a coarse kind of 
 cloth, and a finer variety made from camel's hair, 
 are manufactured. These, however, need no further 
 description, the shawls proper being more particu- 
 larly our present subject. All shawls are made 
 from what is termed ' pushmeena,' which is the short 
 undercoat or fleece of the Kashmir goat, a variety
 
 144 The Happy Valley. 
 
 of that animal remarkable for very long, fine, and 
 silky hair; but whose appellation is evidently a 
 misnomer, since it is not so generally found in the 
 country whence it derives its name as in Western 
 Tibet, where immense herds are reared upon the 
 mountains. The under fleece, called 'pushm,' is a 
 cotton-like down which grows close to the skin, 
 beneath the usual coating of hair, and is evidently 
 a provision of nature against the effects of the in- 
 tense cold experienced in these inhospitable regions ; 
 for it does not exist on the same or any other 
 animal in warmer latitudes. Each goat possesses 
 but little 'pushm,' a single one not yielding more 
 than three ounces, which is of a white colour if the 
 animal be white, and dun-coloured if it be black or 
 any other shade. Brought down from Ladak, via 
 Leh, the white variety is sold in Kashmir at four or 
 five rupees a 'seer,' or two pounds, the coloured 
 sort being somewhat cheaper; and it is then cleaned 
 and spun into thread, which is dyed of different 
 colours. Some, however, is retained undyed, for 
 the weaving of shawls of a natural shade. After 
 the thread is dyed, it is dipped into rice-water to 
 make it stronger, and fit it to be more safely moved 
 by the shuttle, the stiffness being afterwards removed 
 by washing. The shawls are woven in pairs, in
 
 S/tawl Weaving. 145 
 
 very rudely-constructed looms. The weaving takes 
 some considerable time more than a year being 
 occupied by three or four hands in producing a pair 
 of good size and quality. They are woven in many 
 pieces, being afterwards joined together .with great 
 artistic skill. The pattern is worked in with wooden 
 needles, a separate needle being required for each 
 colour. There are a great variety of patterns worked 
 on the various shawls, and on their borders ; but 
 the one with which we are most familiar, and which 
 appears to be the favourite, is the well-known ' pine,' 
 or Kashmir pattern, and the 'fool's-cap,' or cypress- 
 shaped ornament. 
 
 The curves made by the windings of the river 
 Jhelam before it enters the city are said to have 
 afforded the idea of the first-named pattern, and the 
 second is an imitation of the aigrette of jewels>worn 
 on the turban by every great man in the East. 
 The manufacture of shawls being under govern- 
 ment control, a duty is imposed on every pair made ; 
 heavy penalties being also inflicted if a genuine 
 article is not produced. The manufacture is carried 
 on in the city, in single houses, or in factories, and 
 the weavers, or ' wabster bodies,' as they would be 
 termed at Paisley, are easily distinguishable from 
 the mass of the population by their stunted frame
 
 146 The Happy Valley. 
 
 and sickly look, the usual characteristics of those 
 that follow this occupation in every other part of 
 the world. 
 
 But it is not only in Srinagar that this industry is 
 pursued, for many of the farmers and their families 
 occupy their spare time in weaving ; and I well 
 remember our astonishment, when taking refuge 
 from a storm at a farm-house, many miles out in the 
 country, to find ourselves, on opening a door which 
 presumedly led to the cow-house or stables, in a 
 room dirty and close enough to poison a dog, but 
 the atmosphere of which was evidently of indiffer- 
 ence to the family of our host, who were all, from the 
 aged grandsire down to the youngest-born, busily 
 employed at a roughly-made loom in weaving a 
 pair of shawls, which were estimated to be of the 
 value of 3,000 rupees each. The worthy agricul- 
 turist told us further that they would not be com- 
 pleted under three years, but that the price would 
 amply repay him. This it certainly would, even if 
 he got considerably less than he stated, the most 
 expert of weavers rarely earning more than a small 
 rupee a day, but which, so far as the expenses of 
 living are concerned, is fully equal to ten shillings 
 per diem in England. After being taken from the 
 loom and stamped, it becomes necessary to wash
 
 Shawl Washing. 147 
 
 the shawls to get rid of the stiffness of the rice 
 starch remaining in the thread, as well as generally 
 to soften them. According to Vigne (and as 
 bearing on the subject of what is considered to 
 be of great importance in the manufacture, it is well 
 worth quoting*), the best water for this use is 
 found in the canal between the lake and the flood- 
 gates at the Drogjun. Some ruins, in large lime- 
 stone blocks, are lying on the washing-place, and in 
 one of these is a round hole about a foot and a half 
 in diameter, and a foot in depth. In this the shawl 
 is placed, and water being poured over it, it is 
 stamped on by naked feet for about five minutes, 
 and then taken into the canal by a man standing 
 in the water ; one end is gathered up in his hand, 
 and the shawl swung round and beaten \vith great 
 force upon a flat stone, being dipped into the canal 
 between every three or four strokes. This occupies 
 about five minutes. The shawls are then dried in 
 the shade, as the hot sun spoils the colours, and in 
 ten days afterwards the coloured shawls undergo a 
 similar process, but occupying less time. The white 
 ones, after being submitted to the process, on the 
 first day are spread in the sun, and bleached by 
 water sprinkled over them. They then are again 
 
 * Travels in Kashmir, pp. 129, voL ii. 
 L 2
 
 148 The Happy Valley, 
 
 treated by the same process as the coloured shawls, 
 being stamped upon, and beaten a second time, and 
 then bleached again till they are dry, and then for a 
 third time beaten, stamped upon, and finally sun- 
 dried. In the second time of stamping soap is 
 sometimes used, but is not good generally, and is 
 never employed for the coloured shawls, as the alkali 
 might affect the hues. There is something in the 
 water of the canal which certainly communicates to 
 the shawls a softness which cannot be given to those 
 manufactured at any place in the plains of Hindu- 
 stan. At the same time those made in Paris or 
 elsewhere would be probably as soft, were it not for 
 the greater closeness of the texture, consequent 
 upon their being made by a machine instead of the 
 hand. For the same reason it is well known that 
 the calico made in India is much softer, and much 
 more durable than that made in England. 
 
 Such, then, is a brief outline sketch of a manu- 
 facture for which this country is renowned, and 
 which in recent times has passed through many 
 vicissitudes. In the beginning even of this century 
 there were thousands of looms at work, replaced 
 now by hundreds, and a great number of these 
 beautiful fabrics were imported into Great Britain 
 and the continent of Europe, a branch of trade now of
 
 Kashmir Metal-work. 149 
 
 very little value. But fashion may change, and for 
 the future and prosperity of Kashmir it is to be 
 hoped it will. The art is not lost ; it is not dead, 
 but in abeyance only ; and there are a number of 
 cunning hands now unemployed ready and willing 
 to turn out as perfect specimens as ever of those 
 Kashmir shawls, without which a few years ago no 
 fashionable lady deemed her wardrobe complete. 
 
 The Kashmiris are, as before stated, very in- 
 genious workers in metal, manufacturing good 
 weapons, such as guns and swords and other 
 articles. But their jewellery specially demands atten- 
 tion, the gold and silversmiths of Srinagar being 
 very clever at their trade, producing admirable work, 
 great quantities of which are now finding their way 
 to England. In gold they fashion the usual articles 
 of jewellery as seen at" home ; but it is in the silver 
 articles they display more of what may be termed 
 native taste, all their trays, goblets, jugs, tea-cups, 
 scent-holders, being chased or engraved in divers 
 patterns, more commonly the well-known shawl one, 
 while some are parcel gilt, giving them a peculiar 
 and strikingly Oriental appearance. The gold they 
 use should be pure, and their silver should only 
 contain sufficient alloy to render it workable ; but 
 of this, in the fulfilment of any order, you possess
 
 150 The Happy Valley. 
 
 no guarantee, even if you had the materials worked 
 up under your own eye. For they are, like their 
 brethren in India, cute and cunning imposters, and, 
 imperceptibly to the onlookers, are in the habit of 
 concealing in the mouth particles of baser metals, 
 which they pass down the blow -pipe they are 
 using, for incorporation into that which is subse- 
 quently sold to you as being of virgin purity. All 
 the articles manufactured in silver are likewise pro- 
 duced of similar patterns in pure copper, which after 
 arrival home can be electro-plated ; and so perfectly 
 do such take the gilding that, with the exception of 
 their weight, it is impossible to distinguish them 
 from articles of richer metal. 
 
 Another interesting art is their manufacture of 
 papier-mache, or some similar composition. The 
 painting on articles of this material is both curious 
 and elegant. This is not done with oil colours, but 
 the flowers and other ornaments are raised or 
 modelled on the surface by means of a composition 
 paste, then painted and oiled several times, and 
 rubbed with the hand until they have the appear- 
 ance of being varnished. In this material they 
 commonly make such matters as boxes, waiters, 
 cigar-cases, &c. ; but larger things, such as tables, 
 chairs, bedsteads, are also manufactured, and are
 
 Buying in Kashmir. 1 5 1 
 
 used by the princes, the nobility, and the wealthy 
 ones of the land. 
 
 Such are the chief manufactures for which the 
 Kashmiris are famous, and very few visit the Valley 
 without purchasing and bringing away some speci- 
 mens. Regarding the price of each no fixed tariff 
 exists, except perhaps in the case of gold and silver 
 work, when the ordinary rate for working is two 
 annas for every British rupee weight, if a simple 
 pattern, and double that amount if more elaborate, 
 in addition to the value of the metal employed. In 
 purchasing the various other articles, the same pro- 
 cess has to be gone over as' in other parts of the 
 East, where the buying of anything resolves itself 
 into a species of duel between purchaser and vendor, 
 four times as much, or even more, being asked than 
 is ultimately taken, if one's patience and power of 
 argument holds out long enough to conduce to such 
 a happy result. In buying shawls or other articles 
 of a similar sort, examine them all over carefully, 
 and at different times of the day, for as a rule no 
 shawl-vendor can be induced to display his stores 
 until the approach of evening, being well aware of 
 the superior brilliancy imparted to their tints by the 
 slanting rays of the setting sun. 
 
 As to the commerce of Kashmir with other
 
 152 The Happy Valley. 
 
 countries, little can be said. That there is some 
 amount of traffic carried on between it and the 
 Punjab is certain, Kashmir exchanging its native 
 productions for such things as English piece-goods, 
 cotton, tea, sugar, porcelain, copper, tin, and dye- 
 stuffs, and other articles foreign to the country. 
 Great hopes were entertained a few years back of 
 largely increasing the amount of trade that has been 
 for some time carried on between Eastern Turkestan 
 and India, through Kashmir, much to the advantage 
 of that country. But despite a mission sent by our 
 Government to that part of Central Asia, and com- 
 mercial treaties with the Maharajah, I have not 
 heard of any great results, although when I was 
 in the Punjab the traders there were very en- 
 thusiastic over the matter, and a company was 
 being formed to develop the traffic. 
 
 Having now pretty well exhausted the sights of 
 the city, we will take a glance at the objects of 
 interest to be found in its environs, chief among 
 which is the Dal, or city lake, the chief scene of 
 the localities immortalized by Moore in Lalla Rookh, 
 and around which are to be found some of the most 
 attractive spots of the whole neighbourhood. This 
 lake, which is situated on the north-eastern side of 
 the city, measures about five miles from north to
 
 The Dal Lake. 153 
 
 south, and two miles from west to east, and is 
 shallow in some parts, deep in others, with water 
 everywhere of the very clearest description. On 
 three of its sides it has a background of a moun- 
 tainous amphitheatre rising to a great height above 
 the water ; and on the ground at the base of these 
 mountains nestle, half hid by fruitful orchards, 
 numerous small villages, and, testifying to its 
 former celebrity, the remains of the several re- 
 nowned gardens and summer palaces constructed 
 by the different Delhi emperors. The lake may 
 be reached by the Sunt-i-Kul canal, which con- 
 nects it with the Jhelam, entering the river, as 
 before mentioned, just opposite to the Sher Garhi, 
 or fort and palace. But the best way to proceed, 
 especially for those who leave the English quarter 
 or encampment for the purpose, is to walk to the 
 Drogjun or water-gate of the Dal, and have a 
 boat ready on the lake at that spot to meet you. 
 The lake here is narrow, being rather indeed a 
 branch than the Dal itself, and appears at first to 
 be a stagnant river or canal, covered with rushes, 
 lotus, and singhara plants, through the green mass 
 of which several channels pass. Taking the one 
 leading northward, we proceed on our way, and at 
 first cannot fail to be struck with the immense
 
 154 The Happy Valley. 
 
 wealth of aquatic plants that surrounds us on every 
 side, the most striking of all, especially when in 
 flower, being the lordly lotus. 
 
 The lotus (Nelumdium speciositni) is very com- 
 mon, both on this lake and on every other similar 
 expanse of water in Kashmir ; in fact the leaves 
 are so numerous that in some places they form a 
 veritable green carpet, over which numerous aquatic 
 birds, as ducks and moor-hens, run securely to and 
 fro. When in blossom, such places present a 
 beautiful sight. Lilies of various colours peep from 
 amidst the verdant covering, the leaves forming 
 which rest lightly and gracefully on the water ; 
 while the queen of all this species, the magnificent 
 lotus, with its gigantic leaf and tall and quivering 
 stem, drooping under the weight of the exquisite 
 and noble tulip-shaped pink and white flower, ap- 
 pears in the midst of this floating garden like a 
 reigning beauty, bowing with modest yet dignified 
 grace, at the homage and admiration of her gaily- 
 bedecked but less favoured rivals. Numerous other 
 plants are to be found on the lake, as well as several 
 varieties of reeds and rushes, of which matting is 
 made. The 'singhara' or horned water-nut, too, is 
 in places very abundant, and is a source of a con- 
 siderable amount of revenue to the government.
 
 Budmarg. 
 
 oo 
 
 It is considered State property, and the nuts are 
 gathered annually and solH to the people. Ground 
 into flour, and made into bread, it forms a principal 
 article of diet to many, particularly to the boatmen 
 and the dwellers on the margin of the lakes. The 
 root of the lotus is also collected, and, under the 
 name of nadru, is sold in long cylindrical pieces. 
 When boiled and flavoured it is said to be good 
 and highly nutritious, and is much esteemed by the 
 inhabitants of the Valley. 
 
 The boat 'makes but slow progress down the 
 narrow channel, affording plenty of time to admire 
 the luxuriant vegetation around ; but soon we have 
 something else to interest us, for on the left bank of 
 the lake stands the little village of Budmarg, near 
 which almost all the shawls manufactured in the 
 Valley are washed in the manner described a few 
 pages back. Another small village is a little further 
 on, and beyond this is the picturesque and elegant 
 stone bridge of three Saracenic arches, built by one 
 of the Moguls. Commencing on the right of this 
 bridge, usually termed the ' Naiwidyar,' is the 
 ' Sutoo,' an artificial causeway extending com- 
 pletely across the lake. About a mile beyond 
 the bridge, we come to a portion of the lake 
 almost covered by the celebrated floating gardens
 
 156 The Happy Valley. 
 
 of Kashmir, which, however, at the present day do 
 not grow flowers, but the more humble melons, 
 cucumbers, and other vegetables. 
 
 The gardens are formed in the following manner:* 
 The roots of aquatic plants growing in shallow 
 water are divided about two feet under the water, 
 so that they completely lose all connection with the 
 bottom of the lake, but retain their former situation 
 in respect to each other. When thus detached from 
 the soil, they are pressed into somewhat closer con- 
 tact, and formed into beds of about two yards in 
 breadth, and of an indefinite length. 
 
 The heads of the sedges, reeds, and other plants 
 of the float are now cut off and laid upon its surface, 
 and covered w r ith a thin coat of mud, which, at first 
 intercepted in its descent, gradually sinks into the 
 mass of matted roots. The bed floats, but is kept 
 in its place by a stake of willow driven through it 
 at each end, which admits of its rising and falling in 
 accommodation to the rise or fall of the water. 
 
 Soon after passing through the multitude of these 
 aquatic beds we enter upon the open water of the 
 lake, and take in at a glance its beauty and its sur- 
 roundings, the most delightful and interesting places 
 to visit on it being undoubtedly the Garden of Bliss, 
 * MOORCROFT, vol. ii. p. 137.
 
 Fairs in Kashmir, 157 
 
 the Isle of Chenars, the Nishat Bagh, and the far- 
 famed Shalimar. 
 
 Before taking these in detail, however, let us 
 conclude this chapter by a short visit to Hazratbal, 
 a large village on the western side of the lake, and 
 a place of pilgrimage to all devout Mohammedans. 
 This place is famous for its mosque, which possesses, 
 in a small box with a glass lid, a venerated relic, no 
 less than a veritable or supposed veritable, hair of 
 the Prophet's beard, which constitutes this place one 
 of their most sacred shrines or 'zearats,' of which 
 they possess several in various parts of the Valley. 
 On every fete-day this relic is exhibited to the 
 people, the Mohammedans regarding it with awe 
 and veneration ; the Sikhs, Hindus, and others for 
 Kashmiris of all ranks, kinds, and ages are there 
 with curiosity ; while all unite, after this act of 
 devotion has been duly paid, in holding a sort of 
 carnival or feast for the rest of the day, in fact a 
 perfect fair, which is very picturesque and well 
 worth seeing. 
 
 There are several great fairs or festivals held 
 yearly in Kashmir. A very large one takes place 
 about the beginning of August on the lake, 
 while the one that has been poetically termed ' the 
 feast of roses ' is also held on the same spot.
 
 158 The Happy Valley. 
 
 This is in May, when trees and rose-bushes are 
 in full bloom; but very little poetry is observed now 
 in its maintenance, rough play and vulgar eating 
 and drinking taking the place of the romantic 
 scenes when, 
 
 " All love and light, 
 Visions by day, and feasts by night ! 
 
 A happier smile illumes each brow, 
 With quicker spread each heart uncloses, 
 
 And all is ecstasy ; for now 
 The Valley holds its Feast of Roses."
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Garden of Bliss The Silver Island The Golden Island The 
 Nishat Bagh The Shalimar Garden Invitation to a Fete 
 Launch of a Steamboat Memorable Day in the History of Kashmir 
 Excitement of the Inhabitants of the Valley Scene on the Lake 
 The Launch A Mishap Proceed to the Shalimar Garden The 
 Illumination of the Shalimar Its Effect A Nautch The Dinner 
 Return to our Quarters The Hard Parbat Fort The Great and 
 Small Parade Grounds The Gun Factory The Ram Bagh The 
 Game of Polo Antiquity of the Game Prevalence of the Game 
 in Baltistan A Game of Polo at Srinagar The Play Concluding 
 Ceremonies of the Game. 
 
 'HE Nasseeb Bagh, or 'Garden of Bliss/ 
 is situated a short distance only from the 
 village and mosque honoured by the pos- 
 session of the capillary treasure, and is a 
 cool and pleasant spot. Its name implies 
 as much ; and it has or used to possess another, 
 which signified, I understand, 'the garden of delicious 
 breezes.' In the days of its prosperity, during the 
 time of Akbar, who laid it out, and of his successors, 
 it was evidently a garden whose chief feature was 
 a noble grove of chenars. Many of these, in very
 
 160 The Happy Valley. 
 
 fine condition, remain ; but many are wanting, the 
 few that still rear their lofty heads being, with 
 the exception of some ruined masonry, all that is 
 left of this abode of bliss. 
 
 Opposite to this garden, and in the centre of the 
 northern portion of the lake, is the artificially-formed 
 island, the Char Chenar, Rupa Lank, or ' Silver 
 Island.' Its formation is stated to have been the 
 idea of Nur Begum, the wife of Jehangir, who 
 carried it into effect by causing a mass of masonry 
 to be built up and covered with earth, forming a 
 small garden of about an acre in extent, ornamented 
 at each corner by a single chenar tree, whence its 
 name, the Isle of Chenars. A companion to this 
 isle exists in the Sona Lank, or ' Golden Island,' 
 situated in the middle of the southern or other 
 portion of the lake, very similar in construction, 
 although somewhat larger, more verdant, and with 
 the ruins of a building in its centre. 
 
 The Nishat Bagh is a fine old pleasure -garden, 
 said to have been built by the Emperor Jehangir, 
 and lies on the ground at the foot of the mountains 
 that bound the eastern margin of the lake. It con- 
 sists of a large walled enclosure, reaching from the 
 water's edge to the rising slope of the hillside, and 
 is arranged in terraces to suit the fall of the ground.
 
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 The Shdlimar Bagh. 161 
 
 A line of tanks runs through its entire length, with 
 strips of ground arranged as flower-beds or grass 
 paths on either side ; while fountains innumerable, 
 and cascades formed by inclined walls of masonry, 
 make a pretty sight when in full play ; the water for 
 this purpose being derived from a small stream that 
 runs down from the mountains. 
 
 The Shalimar Bagh, from Shah-il-imirat, ' royal 
 gardens,' is perhaps the most interesting place on 
 the lake ; for it was the best loved abode of the 
 Great Moguls when visiting the Valley, and under 
 its roof many a pleasant day was spent by the Shah 
 Jehan and his wife, the fair lady of the Taj at Agra: 
 are not its glories most glowingly described in the 
 pages of Lalla Rookh? Built by the Emperor 
 Jehangir, the Shalimar itself is a building placed at 
 the upper end of a large garden, walled in, and fully 
 half a mile long, and nearly a quarter of a mile 
 broad. This garden is connected with the lake by 
 a wide canal, on whose sides are broad paths extend- 
 ing for nearly a mile before entering the Shalimar 
 gardens proper, through which it is continued, or 
 rather joined, on a smaller scale beyond in the shape 
 of a line of tanks or reservoirs leading down in 
 cascades and level runs alternately, connected by a 
 watercourse of varying width. This with the tanks 
 
 M
 
 1 62 The Happy Valley. 
 
 is lined with polished limestone and crowded with 
 fountains. The tanks and watercourse lead down 
 the middle of the length of the garden, which is 
 arranged in four low terraces of nearly equal size. 
 On each side of the canal and tanks is a broad 
 causeway or walk, overshadowed by chenar and 
 other trees, with a few smaller walks branching off 
 into the shrubberies at the present day nothing but 
 a wild and ragged undergrowth. On the uppermost 
 or fourth terrace stands the building, a magnificent 
 pavilion of polished black marble, raised upon a 
 platform in the centre of a square reservoir, which 
 contains in its circumference one hundred and forty 
 fountains, and is filled by the water of a stream 
 issuing from the mountains that tower behind the 
 garden. The roof of the pavilion, which is open, 
 is flat, and supported on each side by a range of six 
 pillars of the same material as the rest of the build- 
 ing. On two of its sides there is an open corridor, 
 and in the centre a passage, right and left of which 
 are two rooms, the private apartments of the royal 
 family being built against the boundary wall on either 
 side of the terrace on which the pavilion stands. 
 
 This was used not so much as a place of abode, 
 but as a banqueting-hall, a favourite place for enter- 
 tainments of various kinds. And for this purpose
 
 Fete at the Shdlimar. 163 
 
 it was well suited ; and when at night the fountains 
 were playing, and the canal and its cascades, the 
 pavilions and garden, were lit up with various 
 coloured lamps, shedding their light upon the throng 
 of gaudily and jewel -bedecked guests, the effect 
 must have been beautiful indeed in those days of 
 pomp and show. In a minor degree we were so 
 fortunate as to see it in its greatest perfection, even 
 if shorn of some of its former elegance, as we were 
 bidden to a fete within its walls, given by the 
 Maharajah in honour of the launching of a small 
 steam-vessel upon the lake. 
 
 This event, and the subsequent festivities at the 
 Shalimar, were very diverting to us, and, by way 
 of concluding the description of the Dal lake, a 
 short sketch of that memorable day in the history 
 of Kashmir may very well here find a place. A 
 memorable day indeed it was to the inhabitants of 
 the Valley, and long talked of both before and 
 after ; for steam power was a mystery to them, 
 and never before had the mountains surrounding 
 their homes echoed back the sound of the whistle, 
 the shrill scream of that invention which proves 
 wherever it is introduced the most civilizing agent, 
 and the most potent uprooter of old ideas and 
 
 prejudices known to man. At an early hour of 
 
 M 2
 
 164 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the day which was to mark the first step of the 
 onward march of progress in Kashmir, the city 
 was full of people, and the river crowded with 
 boats of every size and description. The entire 
 population of the Valley were gathered together, 
 all thrilling with excitement, and all actuated by 
 the same motive, that of getting as good a place 
 as possible near the scene of action, so as to obtain 
 a sight of that mystery of mysteries, a boat moving 
 over the water without the usual, and to them well 
 known, agency of hands. Their first introduction 
 to this new and unknown motive-power being made 
 in connection with a boat one of the institutions 
 of the country, and with the working of which 
 all were familiar undoubtedly explained the great 
 interest taken in the proceedings by both young 
 and old ; for I question if the first essay had been 
 a piece of machinery applied to any other pur- 
 pose half the curiosity manifested would have been 
 aroused. But to move a boat was intelligible enough, 
 although the means employed were incomprehen- 
 sible ; and already hopes were aroused and visions 
 were opened of the day when the weary work of 
 towing and paddling should be a thing of the past, 
 and their floating homes should walk the waters, 
 like things of life, without any exertion on their part.
 
 First Steamer in Kashmir. 165 
 
 If applied to the vessel they were about to see, 
 why should it not be applied to all and sundry ? 
 Full of these hopes and aspirations, and bursting 
 with curiosity, the people all .wended their way, 
 hours before the time fixed for the ceremony, to 
 that portion of the lake devoted to its perform- 
 ance, and soon the capital presented a deserted 
 and forlorn appearance. 
 
 The hour fixed for the important ceremony was 
 four o'clock ; and arriving on the scene about that 
 hour, we fqund ourselves in a mass of boats, all 
 wedged closely together and ranged in a double 
 line, so as to keep a space of clear water in the 
 centre for the steamer to proceed on her triumphal 
 way. On the bank of the lake at one extremity 
 of this space a grand stand had been erected, which 
 was occupied by the Maharajah, his court, and the 
 majority of the strangers then visiting the Valley. 
 Soldiers stood all around, and the royal musicians 
 were discoursing the music of their native land, 
 which, lacking sweetness or even harmony, was 
 yet loud enough to satisfy the Oriental taste, and 
 add to the noise and uproar incidental to any show 
 in the East. Directly in front of the stand' and 
 resting lightly on the water was the innocent cause 
 of all this excitement ; for it was not so much a
 
 1 66 The Happy Valley. 
 
 launch as a trial-trip we were to witness, the vessel 
 having been put together and committed to its 
 proper element some time before. The boat itself 
 was one of the steam-launches usually carried by 
 the ships of the Royal Navy, and was a present 
 to the Maharajah from our gracious Queen, having 
 been sent to his country in pieces, which were 
 finally put together, under the direction of a Euro- 
 pean engineer who accompanied the gift, and who 
 remained in charge to instruct the recipient and his 
 attendants as to the management of the machinery. 
 Very soon after our arrival the occupants of the 
 boats that surrounded us, for we did not attempt 
 to land or make our way to the place of honour, 
 became if possible more excited than ever, and 
 shrieked, gesticulated, and swayed about on their 
 frail crafts, each laden with human beings to the 
 utmost extent of its carrying power, and we knew 
 the crisis was at hand. The Maharajah took his 
 seat on the deck in a solemn and dignified manner, 
 but having withal an anxious appearance, as if not 
 quite certain what was going to happen. Probably 
 he had been told that steam, like fire, is a good 
 servant but a bad master, and that boilers some- 
 times burst, and accidents will happen, despite every 
 reasonable precaution. This may have had some
 
 A Failure. 167 
 
 effect, as he was that day brought into personal 
 contact with the power of steam for the first time, 
 for he looked grave ; but with the courage worthy of 
 his regal descent he took his seat, and gave the 
 word to start. The whistle sounded, the musicians 
 blew their loudest, the drummers smote their drums 
 until their arms ached, and the people shouted so 
 that the mountains echoed back the sound. Yet 
 with all this the old adage of ' man proposes ' was 
 exemplified, for the vessel would not move. We 
 observed much running to and fro on the part of 
 the engineer and his assistants, and our ears were 
 assailed with loud and discordant shrieks from the 
 steam whistle and escape-pipe ; but it was all of no 
 avail, the vessel stirred not. We waited some time, 
 but not finding our patience in. any way rewarded, 
 pushed our way without the heaving mass, and 
 rowed straight across the lake to the Shalimar 
 Gardens, where the second part of the entertain- 
 ment, the feasting, was to take place. We were 
 almost the first to start, but the remainder of the 
 guests were not long in following our example ; 
 while the bulk of the Kashmiris, hovered about 
 the scene for some considerable time in hopes of 
 witnessing something remarkable. Their hopes 
 were not, however, then fulfilled ; for it was not
 
 i68 The Happy Valley. 
 
 until the following day that the defect in the 
 machinery which caused the failure in the pro- 
 ceedings was rectified. That having been done, 
 the boat was brought through the canal from the 
 lake on to the river Jhelam, when its acquisition 
 proved a source of great amusement to the Mahara- 
 jah, who every evening steamed up and down the 
 watery highway of the city, looking as pleased as a 
 child with a new toy, much to the delight of his 
 faithful subjects, who clustered like bees on every 
 commanding point that afforded a view of the royal 
 progress. 
 
 When we arrived at the canal that led from the 
 lake to the entrance of the Shalimar it was quite 
 dark, but oh gaining the garden a blaze of light 
 burst on our view ; myriads of lamps illuminated 
 the whole place, causing the jets from the countless 
 fountains to fall apparently in showers of flame. 
 By the side of the walks on each side of the canal 
 that runs through the centre of the garden were 
 stationed soldiers, motionless and erect, about a 
 yard apart, each holding in his right hand a blazing 
 torch. The entire structure of the pavilion at its 
 upper end, and the surrounding garden, was literally 
 bathed in light, the tanks and watercourses appear- 
 ing like fiery lakes, and when viewed from below
 
 The Shdlimar Illuminated. 169 
 
 the nature of the ground and the terraced form in 
 which it was laid out added much to its beauty. 
 This was, however, seen at its best from the upper- 
 most terrace, upon which the pavilion stood. From 
 this elevated standpoint we could take in the whole 
 scene, and observe the lines of fire descending in 
 regular gradation, tier after tier, until lost in the 
 calm, dark waters of the lake, and, standing in 
 this hall of a thousand lights, could picture to 
 ourselves 
 
 " That evening (trusting that his soul 
 
 Might be from haunting love released 
 By mirth, by music, and the bowl) 
 The imperial Selim held a feast 
 In his magnificent Shalimar." 
 
 It was truly a lovely spectacle, and the numerous 
 servants and soldiers of the prince, in their gay and 
 fanciful costumes, added to its charm. Imagination 
 was carried back to the days of childhood. The 
 fairy-tales one had read at that time appeared to be 
 realized, and the elfin land of our dreams, so often 
 pictured in our thoughts, stood revealed at last. 
 Dinner for the European visitors was laid out in the 
 large hall, but before its welcome announcement we 
 all stood patiently in another room, awaiting the 
 arrival of our royal host, who soon appeared, with a 
 large surrounding of officers of state and courtiers.
 
 1 70 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Taking his seat, the signal was given for the 
 commencement of the inevitable nautch, without 
 which no Eastern fete would be complete. This 
 infliction we bore silently and resignedly ; for an 
 infliction it is to Europeans, although all Eastern 
 people appear to take huge delight in the per- 
 formance. The dance in Kashmir did not appear 
 to differ in any way from the Indian nautch, familiar 
 to all of us then present. The girls, who were 
 pretty, were clothed, or rather wrapped up, in the 
 countless folds of muslin affected by the sisterhood, 
 and the posturing and waving of arms, and accom- 
 panying music, were identical with those of nautches 
 elsewhere ; and we all felt relieved when the final 
 shuffle had been made, when the shrill song, or 
 rather scream, of the fair bayaderes no longer 
 sounded in our ears, and we were free to adjourn 
 to our long-deferred dinner. An excellent repast 
 had been provided and set out in the large hall, and 
 soon all the visitors to the Valley were feasting 
 under the marble canopy, where in former days the 
 royal descendants of the proud line of Timour were 
 wont to entertain their guests. The Maharajah 
 himself did not personally act the host, his religion 
 being a bar to any conviviality with the stranger ; 
 so the Resident took upon himself that office, and
 
 Race Across the Lake. 1 7 1 
 
 / 
 
 after the toast of ' The Queen,' proposed the health 
 of the prince, and thanked him in the name of all 
 for the enjoyable entertainment he had offered. 
 Shortly after we took our departure, and the still- 
 ness of the lake was broken by the noise of 
 numerous paddles belonging to the boats that were 
 bearing back the revellers to their respective homes. 
 The night was fine and bright, and the moon, then 
 at full, with her soft light lit up the whole landscape. 
 And it was a charming scene a lake of silver, set 
 in a framing of dark and gloomy mountains ; the 
 calm, still waters unmoved or unruffled, and the 
 silence of the night unbroken save by the dash of 
 oars, whose dripping blades gave out showers of 
 glittering drops, that flashed and sparkled in the 
 soft, clear light reflected from the glorious orb on 
 high. There was a race across the lake among the 
 numerous boats, and at this sport we rather ex- 
 celled ; for, anticipating some such idea on the part 
 of the English community, our boat's crew had 
 been increased from six to eight men, and being a 
 small, light craft, the exertions of the rowers, stimu- 
 lated by promises of pecuniary reward, caused it to 
 fly through the water. Distancing all competitors, 
 we speedily arrived about the first at our temporary 
 dwelling, which we had quitted that afternoon for
 
 172 The Happy Valley. 
 
 what had resulted in an agreeable and amusing 
 entertainment. 
 
 The Harri Parbat, an isolated hill between two 
 and three hundred feet high, standing outside the 
 city on its northern side, is well worth visiting ; for a 
 splendid view is to be obtained from its summit, which 
 is occupied by the fort, also deserving inspection. 
 Built by Akbar in 1590, it is surrounded by a stone 
 wall of about three miles in length ; and the fort 
 itself, erected of the same material, consists of two 
 wings placed nearly at right angles to each other, 
 and a separate square building with a bastion at 
 each end just below the western wing. It contains 
 nothing very remarkable within its walls except a 
 few old guns, and an ancient temple. All the 
 buildings used as barracks for a small garrison are 
 in a half-ruined condition, the whole place being 
 very different to what it was in the days of the 
 Moguls, when it served to overawe the capital of 
 their lately-acquired possession. 
 
 There yet remains to be noticed in the environs 
 of the city the great and small parade-grounds, the 
 gun factory, and the Ram Bagh, which contains the 
 tomb of Gulab Singh, father of the present ruler. 
 The small parade-ground is situated on the opposite 
 side of the river to the English quarter, and just
 
 Polo. 
 
 73 
 
 above the first bridge, being easily reached in a 
 short walk down an avenue of poplar trees, after 
 landing at a small ghat close to the summer palace 
 or pavilion. On this ground the reviews take place, 
 and the game of ' choghan,' or polo, is played. To 
 see that game as we saw it played by the men of 
 a Balti regiment was exciting enough, and rather 
 different to the milder imitation familiar to us in 
 India and at home ; for Baltistan, one of the countries 
 included in the Jamoo and Kashmir territories, is 
 the home of polo. It is the national game, all 
 classes of society engaging in it as if it was one of 
 the chief objects of their life. Their children at a 
 very early age play it on foot, until old and strong 
 enough to take their part in the melte on horseback. 
 Polo is a very ancient game ; for it was played in 
 Turkey in the twelfth century, and in India during 
 the reign of the Moguls ; while, although we possess 
 no reliable accounts of its history as regards Baltistan 
 and Dardistan, it is certain that for very many years 
 the people of these countries have been passion- 
 ately fond of it. There are certain points of differ- 
 ence between their game and the one played by 
 Europeans, and there is no maximum or minimum 
 number of players, which varies according to the 
 size of the ground. In the game we saw, which
 
 174 Tlie Happy Valley. 
 
 was got up for the especial benefit of the visitors, 
 the Maharajah himself being present, there were 
 twenty-five picked men on each side. It was com- 
 menced by one with the ball in his hand starting off 
 at full gallop, and when in the middle of the ground 
 throwing it up in the air, and striking it as well as 
 he could towards the goal of his opponents. His 
 own side and his opponents followed close behind, 
 and soon commenced the struggle for the second 
 stroke, or the carrying the ball onward by successive 
 strokes towards the desired direction, in which they 
 are very expert. Their ponies too are well trained, 
 following it in every turn, and to the best of their 
 speed entering into the spirit of the game with 
 apparently the same zest as their masters. It is 
 very exciting to watch one very well-mounted man 
 driving the ball before him, and closely pursued by 
 friends and foes. Then, when it gets checked, a 
 mle ensues, and crowding, pushing, and hooking 
 of sticks, which is allowable, is the order of the 
 day, until by some chance the ball gets clear, and 
 is carried away by some expert hand, when another 
 race begins to make or save the game. All this 
 time the music has been playing wildly ; for it is 
 considered impossible to play well without its cheer- 
 ing influence, and the drums and the long horns
 
 Homage of the Vanquished. 175 
 
 that compose the band strike in with especial 
 vigour on the taking off, and on each rush or 
 melde. When the ball is caught, and the game 
 won, the sounds of victory are given with great 
 force, and so the play continues, until one side, 
 having won the greater number out of the appointed 
 total to be played, are hailed as victors, and the 
 concluding part of the proceedings takes place. 
 
 This is a ceremony which is decidedly great fun, 
 more particularly to the victors, the vanquished not 
 appreciating it so fully. The winning side ride up 
 and collect in front of the higher dignitaries present, 
 the band playing what is understood to be a howl 
 of triumph, a sort of Asiatic version of the ' Con- 
 quering Hero,' and then, dismounting, receive with 
 undisguised looks of glee the salaams or homage of 
 their late opponents. This seems to afford them 
 immense satisfaction, which is increased by largesse 
 from the princes and others present, and if particu- 
 larly elated, as they would appear to have been in 
 the game we witnessed, a grotesque dance follows, 
 accompanied by hideous grimaces and pointed ges- 
 tures to mark their joy ; while the vanquished party 
 slink off in silence to hide their diminished heads. 
 
 The larger parade-ground is nearer the city, not 
 far from the gun -factory, neither of which need
 
 176 The Happy Valley. 
 
 description ; while the tomb of Gulab Singh, in the 
 Ram Bagh, is on the direct road to Shupiyan, about 
 a mile beyond the parade-ground, and can be easily 
 visited, if it has not already been, on the march 
 from Ramoo to Srinagar, when making for that 
 capital by the old and imperial Pir Panjal route.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Tour of the Valley Objects of Interest in the North-western Portion 
 of Kashmir Departure from Srinagar Our Course down the River 
 Sunnybawan Shadipore Hindu Fanatics The Sind River 
 Ganderbal The Sind Valley The Ladakh Road Zozila Pass 
 Wangat Ruins at Wangat The Haramuk Mountain The Gun- 
 gabal Lake Sonamarg, or Golden Meadow The Noroo Canal 
 The Manasbal Lake The Lakes of Kashmir Canal leading to 
 Manasbal Lake A Mosquito Incident Fleas in Kashmir Our 
 Anguish Beautiful Scene on the Lake The Lake and its Surround- 
 ings Scene at Sunset A Hindu Fakir digging his own Grave 
 Our Remarks His Delight Sumbal Continue our Way Hajan 
 The Woolar Lake Bandipoor The Gales on the Lake The 
 Lanka Hill of Shakuradin Course of the Jhelam Sopoor. 
 
 AVING now well-nigh exhausted the sights 
 of the capital and environs, we proceed 
 further afield and commence the tour of 
 the Valley, taking the north-western portion 
 first, in order that we may make our way to 
 Gulmarg, a justly favourite sanitarium for visitors 
 during the months of July and August, when resi- 
 dence in the capital or moving about the country is 
 not attended with the same comfort as during the 
 other periods of the year in Kashmir. The princi- 
 
 N
 
 178 The Happy Valley. 
 
 pal objects of interest in this portion of the country 
 are the Sind river, which is navigable as far as 
 Ganderbal, whence the Sind Valley can be visited ; 
 the Manasbal and Woolar lakes ; Gulmarg, Sona- 
 marg, and the Lolab ; perhaps one of the prettiest 
 parts of the whole province. The commencement 
 of this tour may be made by water, and engaging 
 two 'doongahs' for self and servants, one can proceed 
 comfortably enough, orders being given, if required, 
 for the heavy baggage and horses, under the charge 
 of a trusty guide, to be marched by land, with 
 instructions when to meet the party in the boats. 
 Dropping down the river from our encampment 
 our home for some time past at an early hour of the 
 morning, we proceed on our way through the city, 
 and after traversing its whole length emerge into the 
 open country, which presents a lovely appearance. 
 The rising sun lights up with its glowing rays the 
 bare and rugged sides of the surrounding mountains, 
 and throws a halo of light on their lofty peaks. 
 Fields of rich crops slope down to the banks of the 
 river on either side, with range beyond range of 
 mountains for background, those in the distance and 
 the loftiest covered with glistening snow ; the sides 
 of others clothed with masses of trees and 
 luxuriant vegetation, a marked contrast to their
 
 Shadipore, 1 79 
 
 neighbours, standing out bare and rugged, yet 
 sharply defined in the clear morning air, with nothing 
 to hide their desolate but majestic beauty. Floating- 
 leisurely down the stream, we pass the pretty grove 
 of Sunnybawan, with its group of poplar and chenar 
 trees growing close to the water's edge ; and in 
 about four hours from the time of leaving Srinagar 
 approach closer to the mountains, which at first 
 had seemed so distant, enabling us to obtain a very 
 good view of the wild and extensive range whose 
 precipitous sides form the boundaries of the Sind 
 Valley. The entrance of this valley is plainly dis- 
 cernible, giving us a fair idea of the scenery of a 
 gorge thus formed, which apart from its picturesque 
 beauty is interesting as containing the Ladakh road, 
 the great commercial highway between India, Kash- 
 mir, and the towns of Central Asia. A little further 
 on and we arrive abreast of the small village of 
 Shadipore, a name which signifies ' the place of 
 marriage,' and here denotes the junction of the 
 cold and icy waters of the Sind river with the 
 Jhelam. These points of junction of different rivers 
 have from time immemorial been held sacred by the 
 Hindus, who generally erect a place of worship near 
 by. And such is not wanting here ; for the ruins of 
 an old temple stand on a solid mass of masonry in 
 
 N 2
 
 180 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the bed of the Jhelam, immediately below the meet- 
 ing of the waters. This ancient fane, dedicated to 
 Mahadeo, although deserted and peaceful -looking 
 enough to-day, has in its time witnessed some awful 
 scenes; for countless acts of self-immolation have 
 been committed on this spot the misguided 
 devotees plunging from its base into the river, 
 thinking to gain by this act of suicide eternal bliss 
 in the future state, conferred on them by the super- 
 natural agency of the sacred waters, beneath whose 
 waves they find a willing death. 
 
 The Sind as it joins the Jhelam is nearly 100 
 yards wide, and deep enough in the early part of 
 the season to allow a boat to proceed all the way to 
 Ganderbal, a journey of some hours from its mouth. 
 If the time of the year is not favourable to its 
 navigation, Ganderbal can be reached easily from 
 Srinagar, whence it is distant about fourteen miles, 
 the road winding along the northern side of the city, 
 and through Naoshera, famous for its paper manu- 
 factories, passing on the way several old ruins, and 
 at one place large masses of shingle on the hillside, 
 testifying to the truth of the ancient lake theory of 
 the country. Ganderbal is a small village sheltered 
 beneath a spur of the mountains, where it is usual 
 to make a halt to complete preparations for a
 
 
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 The Sind Valley. 181 
 
 journey through the whole or a part of the Sind 
 Valley. This long and very narrow valley, leading 
 up to the centre of the great snowy range of moun- 
 tains that separates Kashmir from Ladakh, takes 
 its name from the Sind river, which rises in the 
 mountains some twenty miles or so from the head 
 of the valley, into which it enters through a deep 
 defile to the eastward, and is a swiftly-rushing and 
 icy-cold stream. The scenery throughout the valley 
 is very beautiful, in fact by many it is held to be the 
 most beautiful of all the minor valleys that debouch 
 upon the main valley of Kashmir, while its climate, 
 cool and pleasant, renders it an enjoyable place to 
 wander about in during the unpleasant months, the 
 sojourn of the sportsman being enhanced by the 
 certainty of finding something in the way of big 
 game to repay his trouble. It is said, although 
 I myself did not test this personally, that some of 
 the finest sport is to be met with in this direction, 
 and on the higher ranges of the mountains that 
 surround it. The widest part of the valley is at its 
 commencement, and here for several miles the 
 scenery is perhaps at its best. On either side are 
 lofty mountains, many with summits tipped with 
 snow, the lower portion of those on the left bank of 
 the river covered with dense forests of fir, spruce,
 
 182 T/ie Happy Valley. 
 
 and deodar, extending for several thousand feet up 
 their sides, while along the lower edge a brighter belt 
 of green is formed by trees that grow under more 
 sheltered and favourable circumstances. On the 
 other bank, the north side of the valley, the aspect 
 varies, for the southern outlook is not favourable to 
 vegetation, and the sides of the mountains are but 
 grassy slopes, and higher up are rocks, precipitous 
 cliffs, and ravines. Many smaller valleys open into 
 the main valley, both on this and the opposite side, 
 while at the very base of the hills on either bank of 
 the river a natural plantation is formed of walnut, 
 peach, mulberry, and other fruit trees. 
 
 Dotted along by the river are small villages or 
 isolated cottages, surrounded by small patches of 
 ground under cultivation, and each with its orchard 
 of fine and profusely-laden fruit trees. Along the 
 right bank passes the Ladakh road, Leh, the capital 
 of that province, being distant some 240 miles from 
 Ganderbal twenty long marches, in one of which 
 the Zozila pass has to be crossed. The journey 
 altogether is rather fatiguing, although taken by 
 many of the visitors as a part of their tour in the 
 Happy Valley. We did not perform the feat, much 
 as I should have liked to have visited Leh, and 
 seen the Ladakhis in their own home, so different
 
 Wangat. 183 
 
 from the country we have been visiting. Then we 
 should have found ourselves completely in Tibet ; 
 for this ancient kingdom was one of the many 
 annexed to form the territory of the Maharajah of 
 Jamoo and Kashmir, having been before that event 
 tributary to that far-famed but rarely seen personage, 
 the Grand Lama of Tibet, at Llasa. 
 
 If one does not proceed the whole way to Leh, 
 Sonamarg, at the head of the valley, is usually the 
 termination of the trip, and a very enjoyable week 
 or ten days may be passed in marching to this spot 
 by easy stages, halting when suitable ground is to 
 be found for the nightly encampment, and paying 
 a short visit to the ruins above Wangat, in a minor 
 valley opening into the larger one, and distant 
 about ten miles from Ganderbal. This offshoot of 
 the Sind Valley is a few miles long only, and very 
 narrow, confined and hemmed in by very high and 
 rugged mountains. At its upper extremity is the 
 small village of Wangat, and some two miles beyond 
 is Rajdainbul, the ruin of a very fine stone temple, 
 enclosed by a wall, and of great antiquity, resembling 
 that of Martand in architecture. (The latter will 
 be found described in the record of our visit to the 
 other portion of the country.) About 150 yards 
 further is another similar structure, and close by is
 
 184 The Happy Valley. 
 
 a holy spring much frequented by pilgrims, who 
 visit it on their road to the sacred lake of Gungabal, 
 situated upon the top of the Haramuk mountain, 
 whose lofty peak, nearly 17,000 feet in height, 
 overlooks and overshadows the valley. The ascent 
 to the lake is a stiff pull, and the piece of water 
 itself, which is one of the mountain sources of the 
 Jhelam, is something over a mile long and less than 
 a quarter wide, lying under the wildest and most 
 lofty eminence of the mountain. 
 
 Returning, after visiting the ruins, from Wangat 
 to Ganderbal, it is best to proceed leisurely through 
 the valley to Sonamarg, a distance of some forty 
 miles, the road passing by the side of the river, and 
 near to three or four small villages, where, however, 
 supplies of any sort are difficult to procure. Beyond 
 a place called Gagangir, about ten miles from Sona- 
 marg, the valley becomes narrower, a perfect gorge 
 in fact, through which the waters dash and tumble 
 on their troubled course ; and the path we are 
 following is carried among the large boulders that 
 lie between its right bank and the overhanging cliff 
 which hems it in. Some miles beyond the gorge is 
 left, and more open ground reached ; and the river 
 being crossed, a steep path of a few hundred feet 
 or so conducts to the mountain down of Sonamarg,
 
 Sonamarg. 185 
 
 the 'golden meadow/ or 'pleasant plain' as it is 
 sometimes called. And a very pleasant spot to 
 linger on it is a tract of beautiful undulating down, 
 with numerous dells, surrounded by hillocks or 
 grassy mounds. These charming nooks are covered 
 with long, thick grass, and numerous wild flowers 
 grow plentifully all about ; and the slopes of the 
 hillocks are clothed with silver fir, sycamore, birch, 
 and other trees, beautifully intermingled, while 
 rugged rocks here and there project through the 
 green covering of the grassy mounds. The climate 
 is delicious, and many remain encamped on this 
 spot for some considerable time ; for life on the 
 ' marg ' is very enjoyable. 
 
 However, deferring further description until our 
 arrival at Gulmarg, we proceed to retrace our steps, 
 and taking boat at Ganderbal, float down to Shadi- 
 pore, the point on the Jhelam which we left to 
 visit the Sind Valley and the ruined temples 
 above Wangat. Immediately below Shadipore the 
 Noroo canal leaves the left bank of the river, and 
 dividing into two branches, conducts, the one towards 
 Pattan, the other to the Woolar lake, and forms, 
 when the water is high enough, the shortest route 
 between the capital and Baramula. Two or three 
 old and ruined pleasure-gardens are passed on the
 
 1 86 The Happy Valley. 
 
 right bank ; but there is nothing of more interest 
 until we arrive at Sumbal, a small village, at which 
 there is a fine bridge across the river, here of 
 some considerable width. A quarter of a mile 
 further on a small canal opens on the right bank, 
 close to another small village, completely sheltered 
 and surrounded by fine mulberry trees. Following 
 this channel for a mile, we emerge into the open 
 water of the place we have come to visit, the far- 
 famed and beautiful Manasbal lake. 
 
 Numerous lakes are found about Kashmir, both 
 in the Valley itself or on the surrounding mountains. 
 Of the former, the Dal, or city lake, which we 
 have already visited, is perhaps the principal and 
 most interesting, on account of its historical associa- 
 tions ; while the Woolar is by far the largest. The 
 Manasbal, however, although the smallest, is un- 
 doubtedly the most charming of all, both in itself 
 and in the beauty of the scenery around ; its calm, 
 pellucid depths lying embosomed amidst these lofty 
 mountains, which aid so materially the formation of 
 those scenes of loveliness that have gained for this 
 country its just and enviable renown. 
 
 Of the mountain lakes, many of which are curious 
 as being found at such a height, the Konsa Nag, 
 on the top of the Punjal, and the Sheesha Nag,
 
 Kashmirian Fleas. 187 
 
 situated on the path to the Ambernath cave, are 
 the principal, and will be referred to further on. 
 The Gangabal, another of some size, has been 
 already visited from the ruins above Wangat, and 
 there are several others, such as the Mar Sar, Tar 
 Sar, Sona Sar, Hokar Sar, Nila Nag, and the Deo 
 Sar, small sheets of water on different parts of the 
 rocky barrier that surrounds Kashmir, but which 
 call for no further remark, as they are not of interest 
 enough to attract a special visit to their shores. 
 
 The canal leading from the river to the Manasbal 
 lake is only about a mile long ; but being shallow, 
 and its surface covered with aquatic plants and 
 weeds, slow progress is made, and one usually 
 attended by the unpleasant consequences which 
 follow the disturbance of the leaves that form the 
 verdant covering of so many of the watery channels 
 of the country. One is positively almost eaten up 
 by mosquitoes, which, with fleas, sand-flies, and a 
 few other interesting insects, are the very curse of 
 the land, and the one crumpled rose-leaf in the 
 otherwise even enjoyment of a tour in the Happy 
 Valley. Of fleas the visitor sees, or rather feels, 
 as many in a week as he is ever likely to do for the 
 rest of his natural life ; for enter a house, or pitch 
 your tent, no matter where, they seem to rise by
 
 1 88 The Happy Valley. 
 
 magic out of the ground, and until you really 
 become in a measure used to the infliction a night's 
 sound sleep in Kashmir is a thing only of the past ; 
 so numerous are they, and so eager to feast upon 
 you, that the oft-quoted remark made by an author 
 and traveller in these parts, is only too applicable 
 to the situation. So many and so ravenous were 
 the fleas that nightly assailed his couch, that, 
 if they had been only unanimous in their actions, 
 they were, said he, in sufficient force to have pulled 
 him out of bed ! 
 
 Mosquitoes are equally numerous, more particu- 
 larly on the margins of the lakes and rivers, and in 
 the narrow water-courses, where, sheltered by the 
 leaves of the lilies and other plants, they pass their 
 uneventful lives, rousing, however, into extreme 
 activity when anything in the shape of prey comes 
 within reach. This was fully and painfully exem- 
 plified in our case when we forced our way through 
 the mass of vegetation that obstructed our passage 
 to the Manasbal lake. Of these plagues of the 
 East we had of course some experience in India ; 
 for there are few visitors to that country that have 
 not endured at certain seasons of the year the 
 stinging bite, followed by the unsightly swelling, of 
 these insect pests. But our former knowledge of
 
 A Cloud of Mosquitoes. 1 89 
 
 their habits and customs was now about to be largely 
 increased ; for deeming probably that only a little 
 knowledge was dangerous, they apparently con- 
 sidered it their bounden duty to impart the fullest 
 entomological and experimental demonstration as 
 to their power of suction, and their capability of 
 absorbing the vital fluid of their victims. They 
 descended on us in clouds, and we were soon 
 enveloped in a perfect mist of mosquitoes, all hasten 
 ing to the unwonted feast that lay so temptingly 
 spread before them, decidedly more to their taste 
 than the juice of some tough leaf of the water-lily. 
 If ' seeing is believing,' that truism must hold good 
 in this instance ; for without actual proof it would 
 have been difficult to imagine the situation. We 
 were, particularly on the barer and more exposed 
 portions of the face and limbs, literally covered 
 with these fierce and ravenous creatures, whose thin 
 and supple bodies actually quivered with delight, 
 as, swooping down with their clear, trumpet-like 
 blast, already heralding victory, they fixed on the 
 skin, and soon were rapt in the enjoyment of an 
 epicurean feast, preferring death rather than removal; 
 for they allowed themselves to be touched or handled 
 whilst thus engaged without showing any desire or 
 inclination for flight. The agonies endured by our
 
 The Happy Valley, 
 
 lightly-clothed servants and the semi-nude natives 
 that propelled the boat must have been acute ; for 
 to us, protected as we were, the sensation experienced 
 was that of being subjected to a shower bath of red 
 hot needles. They even penetrated our clothes, 
 which offered but feeble resistance to their sharp 
 lances ; and to increase the torture of the moment 
 was the reflection of what would follow in the form 
 of an irritated skin, caused by the poisonous bites, 
 while, in the case of my companion, thoughts as to 
 the effect on her personal appearance the following 
 day must likewise be added. Self-preservation is 
 a great law of nature, and not sharing the ideas of 
 the followers of Jaina, to whom even insect life is 
 sacred, we attempted to protect ourselves against 
 the ravages of our foes by lighting a fire of green 
 wood, the smoke of which is considered efficacious 
 in arresting their approach, causing them to fall 
 stupified into the flames. But unfortunately the 
 remedy was as bad as the disease ; and a short trial 
 of squatting amidst the volumes of acrid smoke 
 produced by the experiment, like two hams under- 
 going the process of curing, was sufficient to prove 
 that we must endure the mosquito plague with 
 fortitude, or be choked in the reek of our own 
 raising. Fortunately the open water of the lake
 
 The Manasbal Lake. 191 
 
 was not far distant, and encountering a slight breeze 
 on clearing the canal, our enemies were wafted 
 slowly and reluctantly away. Our delight at this, 
 probably owing to a natural spirit of vindictiveness, 
 was largely increased by the knowledge that, owing 
 to their greed, their wings could hardly sustain 
 the weight of their now swollen bodies, and that 
 retribution in the form of a watery grave must 
 undoubtedly overtake many of their number. 
 
 On emerging upon the open water of the Manas- 
 bal, we were, however, rewarded for the ordeal 
 through which we had passed, which was quickly 
 forgotten in the ecstasy of delight created by the 
 aspect of the spot and its surroundings, which burst 
 upon our view immediately we entered upon its calm, 
 deep surface. The scene was one of such great and 
 exceeding loveliness that words are but poor means 
 for conveying any real idea of the glories of this 
 apparently enchanted region, as it appeared that 
 evening. It was the hour of sunset ; the sky 
 showed bright and clear, save where a few fleecy 
 clouds were drifting slowly towards the west, tinged 
 with the reddish orange-colour reflected by the rays 
 of the now rapidly disappearing orb of day, which, 
 although half-hidden by the lofty mountains of the 
 western range, still afforded in its expiring glory
 
 192 The Happy Valley. 
 
 sufficient dazzling light to throw the most exquisite 
 tints and shades upon and around the surrounding 
 scenery. The lake upon which we were floating lay 
 spread out before us an oval silvery sheet of crystal, 
 reflecting on its untroubled surface a perfect picture 
 of the works of nature by which it was encircled. 
 On our left was an elevated table-land, and crouch- 
 ing under its shadow was the small and pretty 
 village of Manasbal ; while above and beyond, on 
 higher ground, stood another evidence of man's 
 presence in the ruins of the Badshah Bagh, an old 
 palace and garden built by the Mogul Emperor 
 Jehangir, for the use of his wife, the fair and cele- 
 brated ' Light of the Harem.' On the right was a 
 low range of hills, extending from the lofty moun- 
 tains on the north-east, with a conical peak, the 
 Aha-Thang, towering aloft to an altitude of nearly 
 7,000 feet, an object plainly discernible from many 
 other parts of the Valley. In front we gazed from 
 the calm still waters of the lake upon a rugged 
 range of rocky heights, whose precipitous sides 
 were clothed with large forests of pine and other 
 trees, while their peaks, bare and defiant, lifted their 
 heads towards the azure sky, affording a marked 
 contrast to the lesser ridge below. This, lined with 
 walnut, chestnut, sycamore, and various other species,
 
 The Pir Panjdl at Sunset. 193 
 
 gave passage through a picturesque valley to a small 
 stream that, in the form of a foaming cataract, finally 
 dashed wildly over a steep limestone cliff into the 
 lake below, which lay otherwise in placid beauty, 
 surrounded and guarded by the rocky sentinels that 
 have kept watch and ward over its depths un- 
 changed and unchanging through countless ages. 
 
 On turning to catch a last view of the setting 
 sun, we beheld in the distance the great Pir Panjal, 
 with its spotless mantle of everlasting snow now 
 appearing of a brilliant rose-colour, adding splendour 
 and solemnity to a scene of such unspeakable beauty, 
 that it was with a feeling of awe and reverence we 
 gazed upon this glimpse of an almost earthly para- 
 dise. Alas, all too soon for us, gradually and slowly 
 it underwent a transformation. Imperceptibly the 
 colours deepened, then subsided. Twilight ap- 
 proached, and a change from azure and pink to a 
 deep grey tint rapidly appeared, while, slowly rising 
 in majestic dignity, shedding over all a soft and 
 gentle radiance, appeared the moon, like a disc of 
 silver, hastening to take the place in the firmament 
 which her more fiery rival had so lately vacated. 
 Slowly and reluctantly we bade farewell to this 
 lovely spectacle, one of the happiest memories of 
 
 our tour, and continued our course towards the 
 
 o
 
 194 The Happy Valley. 
 
 further end of the lake, which, elliptical in shape, is 
 about three miles long by one mile wide. The 
 water is clear and soft, of a deep green colour, and 
 in many places upwards of forty feet in depth, 
 although, according to a Hindu legend, it is reckoned 
 unfathomable, it being related that many years ago 
 a holy man spent the best part of his life in con- 
 structing a line of sufficient length to reach the 
 bottom, but not succeeding in his attempt threw 
 himself in despair into the depths, never to rise 
 again, an act of self-sacrifice considered most 
 meritorious by his countrymen, who continue to 
 hold his memory in the highest veneration. 
 
 The lake is even at the present day not without 
 its attraction to the pious followers of Brahma ; for 
 on its margin a Hindu fakir, a very holy man, has 
 for many years resided, employing his leisure in the 
 interesting and laudable occupation of digging his 
 own grave. Evidently of an ambitious nature, or 
 considering that his pious and sanctified life entitle 
 his remains to a more fitting mausoleum than they 
 would otherwise obtain, he has, with infinite care 
 and trouble, constructed a large cave out of the 
 solid rock, on the face of the mountain behind his 
 present dwelling-place. The worthy recluse himself 
 showed us over his future resting-place, imparting
 
 Digging his own Grave. 195 
 
 the fact that he thought it was now about suffi- 
 ciently complete for its intended purpose. In 
 this we heartily concurred ; for it opened with a 
 tunnel fifty feet long from the entrance, and in 
 size sufficient to allow of two grown people to 
 walk side by side upright. This passage led into 
 a species of vaulted chamber, in the centre of 
 which was the space already excavated to receive 
 the corpse of our smiling guide. He appeared 
 very proud and happy when we admired his handi- 
 work, and observed that it was undoubtedly, as 
 far as dryness and warmth were concerned, the best 
 place of interment in the whole of the country ! 
 Regarding his future state he appeared to entertain 
 no doubts ; for he further informed us that, having 
 now completed his task, he waited impatiently for 
 the time when it should be applied to its destined 
 use, and himself commence the life of bliss assured 
 through a long period of penance and austerity 
 upon earth. Already a saint, his death in the 
 odour of sanctity would cause his memory to be 
 held in veneration by his countrymen for long 
 years to come, and make the place of his interment 
 a holy sepulchre, to which they would 'repair in 
 large numbers and worship at his shrine. 
 
 The excellent old man looked, however, as if he 
 
 o 2
 
 196 The Happy Valley. 
 
 had yet some years of life, before him ; for he was 
 hale and hearty, and although wrapped in perpetual 
 thoughts of future happiness, was not unmindful 
 or above more earthly matters. He demanded 
 baksheesh in return for the show like an ordinary 
 mortal, and invoked for our liberality numerous 
 blessings on our heads as being cherishers and 
 protectors of the poor, supplementing his prayers 
 by an offering of some very fine grapes and peaches, 
 in the cultivation of which he has long been famous. 
 Their sale, with the addition of the gifts of the 
 pious and curious, afford him, I should imagine, a 
 very comfortable maintenance. 
 
 There are some very good spots on the margin 
 of the lake, at its upper end, suitable for encamping 
 purposes, -and many linger here for some days. 
 But apart from its scenery there is nothing of 
 special interest, so we proceed with our tour on 
 the following day, gaining the river Jhelam at the 
 point at which we had left it, and by the same 
 canal, the scene of our misery. We feared a re- 
 petition, but happily escaped, a fact attributable 
 perhaps to our former foes being engaged in 
 sleeping off the effects of their unwonted debauch. 
 After leaving Sumbal, we continue our course 
 down the Jhelam, meeting nothing remarkable to
 
 The Woolar Lake. 197 
 
 attract our attention until we arrive about half- 
 way between the village we have just left and 
 the Woolar lake, our intended destination, where, 
 on the left bank of the river, stands the village 
 of Hajan. This place is interesting as having been 
 the probable site of Parihas-pur, a city founded by 
 Lalitaditya, about the year 714, of which, however, 
 only a few ruins remain. Another three hours' 
 journey and we enter upon the Woolar lake, the 
 largest in the country, which is crossed by travellers 
 on their way to Srinagar by the Marri route, as 
 mentioned when speaking of that journey. It is 
 truly a magnificent piece of water, about twelve 
 miles long by eight broad, but is not of great 
 depth, as only over a part of it does it exceed 
 twelve feet, and in some places it is even shallower ; 
 and its surface here is covered with the lotus, 
 singhara, and other water-plants. Its shores are 
 verdant, but comparatively bare of trees, and they 
 slope gradually down from the lofty range of 
 mountains which surrounds it on the north-east, 
 with numerous villages dotted about, the largest 
 of which is Bandipoor, the starting-point of the 
 route to Gilgit and Iskardo. 
 
 This village, or rather town, is of considerable 
 size, situated on the north-eastern side of the lake, a
 
 198 T/ie Happy Valley. 
 
 little over a mile from its margin, and to it we will 
 direct our boat, provided always that the weather is 
 fine, for, like all lakes surrounded by mountains, the 
 Woolar is liable to the influence of sudden and 
 furious gales, converting its usually calm surface 
 into an angry and raging storm-tossed sea, upon 
 which the usual boats of the country find it difficult 
 to live. 
 
 Before reaching this village, in fact almost as 
 soon as we enter upon the lake, we come to the 
 only island it contains, the Lanka, raised and shaped 
 by the Mohammedan king Zinalabudin, who, it is 
 affirmed, constructed it out of the ruins of a city, 
 said to have existed where water only now is. 
 Whether there is any truth in this legend it would 
 be hard to say, but undoubtedly the substratum of 
 the island consists of such an enormous mass of 
 blocks of stone that if brought from a distance 
 considerable trouble and ingenuity must have been 
 observed in the task, and much time taken to con- 
 struct that which was comparatively easy enough 
 to do when the materials lay ready to hand. The 
 surface of this artificial island, which is quad- 
 rangular in shape, occupies about four acres, the 
 ground being covered with trees, and plentifully 
 bestrewn with fragments of sculptured stones and
 
 The Lanka. 199 
 
 broken pillars, remains of buildings, walls, and ghats 
 that at one time adorned this curious isle. At its 
 eastern extremity stands yet a considerable portion 
 of what was originally a Hindu palace, interesting 
 as being similar in architecture to the ruins at 
 Martand, which were certainly erected long before 
 the time of the monarch who originated this island. 
 He has left, however, an evidence of his religion in 
 the form of an old Mohammedan cemetery, inside 
 which is a stone slab with a Persian inscription, 
 stating that the Lanka was constructed by himself 
 about the year 1411 of our era. The island from 
 a little distance looks exceedingly picturesque, the 
 surrounding mountains forming an excellent back- 
 ground. 
 
 Chief among the eminences that encircle the lake 
 stands the hill of Shukarudin, at the edge of the 
 spur on its western side, some little distance away. 
 Towards this, passing by the town of Bandipoor, 
 where there is nothing to detain us, we make our 
 way, and sailing past Aloos, halt at Kewnus, a 
 village some three miles off, whence the ascent to 
 its summit can be easily effected. If time allows, 
 this should most certainly be done ; for a magnificent 
 view of the whole of the lake and surrounding 
 country is the reward for the rather steep and
 
 2OO The Happy Valley. '. 
 
 rough but short journey to the top of the hill. 
 The 'zearat' or shrine of the Babu Shukarudin 
 stands on the -summit, some three hundred feet 
 above the water, and from it the Woolar is seen 
 in all its beauty and grandeur. Looking eastwards 
 the Lanka stands out boldly and clearly denned on 
 the calm surface of the lake ; and carrying the 
 eye still further beyond it the glittering waters of 
 Manasbal are plainly perceptible, lying under the 
 shadow of the Aha-Thang ; while towards the 
 south the towns of Sopoor and Baramula are seen ; 
 and beyond again the high range of hills which 
 overlooks the downs of Gulmarg, that charming 
 spot towards which we are hastening as fast as 
 the interesting objects on our way allow. The 
 river Jhelam too, which pursues its course in 
 traversing the whole length of the Valley through 
 the Woolar, is to be seen entering the lake at its 
 eastern side, and, merging into its waters for some 
 considerable distance, can be again traced, where 
 after its passage it issues again as a fine open 
 stream, two hundred yards in width, a little above 
 the town of Sopoor, winding to the westward 
 flows past Baramula, and shortly after leaves the 
 Valley for the plains of India. 
 
 Sopoor is an ancient and dilapidated town, built
 
 The Lolab. 201 
 
 upon both sides of the Jhelam where it leaves the 
 lake, and although a good place for fishing, contains 
 nothing remarkable to detain us. Therefore, instead 
 
 of proceeding any further down the river, which in 
 
 i 
 a few hours' row would bring us to the town of 
 
 Baramula, we now strike across country and make 
 for Lalpoor, distant some sixteen miles, and the 
 largest and principal village in that pretty part of 
 the Vale of Kashmir called the Lolab.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Road to Lalpoor The Lolab Kashmir Villages The Kangrt 
 Mulberry Trees Silk Cultivation in the Valley Silk-producing 
 Insects Bears in Kashmir Their Carnivorous Propensities 
 Varieties of Game in the Valley Sport in Kashmir The Tiger 
 Cat The Wild Dog The Barasing The Musk-deer The Mar- 
 kor The Khakur The Surrow The Ibex Their Habitats- 
 Wild Fowl in the Valley Singing Birds Birds of Prey Eagles 
 Hawks Monkeys Hares No Monkeys or Hares found in the 
 Valley Probable Reason of their Absence The Alpine Hare. 
 
 H E road from Sopoor to Lalpoor is for the 
 first nine miles smooth and level, and full 
 of picturesque beauty, but becomes rather 
 steep and rough when that distance has 
 been traversed, as after leaving Arwan, a 
 small village at the foot of the hills, a range of 
 about 8,000 feet high has to be crossed in order to 
 reach our destination, distant about four miles from 
 its foot. Arrived at Lalpoor, we find ourselves in 
 the heart of the Lolab, as pretty a part as any in the 
 whole of Kashmir, situated in the north-eastern side 
 of the province, in that division of it called Kamraj. 
 It consists of an undulating green and fertile valley
 
 Kashmir Villages. 203 
 
 some twelve miles long, with a varying width of 
 from two or three hundred yards to nearly three 
 miles, completely encircled by hills, covered for the 
 most part with forests of pine, deodar, and other 
 trees. Its altitude being some 600 feet, it possesses 
 a cool and invigorating climate, and for general 
 fertility is unsurpassed in the Valley. A gurgling 
 stream traverses % its entire length, and numerous 
 villages and farm-houses are found dotted about in 
 every part, it being a favourite spot for farmers, 
 although, owing perhaps to the grinding system of 
 taxation which prevails, there is not so much land 
 under cultivation as there should be. 
 
 The villages in this locality are good examples of 
 Kashmir villages in general, which, although untidy 
 in detail, are certainly picturesque, the cottages stand- 
 ing detached, and not crowded together as seen in 
 India, and all with groves of fruit trees, which sur- 
 round and shelter the dwellings. The houses are 
 usually two-storied, with walls of wood or mud, and 
 a low sloping gabled roof of thatch or shingle, and 
 generally possess a balcony on the upper part, which, 
 sheltered by the overhanging eaves, makes an extra 
 room, enabling the tenant to utilize, as is frequently 
 found to be the case, the lower portion of his domi- 
 cile as a stable for his cattle. One peculiarity that
 
 204 The Happy Valley. 
 
 cannot fail to be noticed in all houses in Kashmir, 
 is the total absence of chimneys ; for although a few 
 possess fire-places, the smoke is allowed to escape 
 through a hole in the wall or roof, and not by the 
 usual channel that obtains in all civilized countries. 
 Fires are, however, but rarely used by the Kash- 
 miris except for cooking purposes ; for they have 
 a plan that may be termed an institution of the 
 country, which renders them independent even of 
 household fires for a protection against cold. This 
 is the universal . ' kangri,' an earthern pot set in a 
 basket, and filled with live charcoal, which all 
 classes carry, holding it beneath their loose gar- 
 ments against any portion of their bodies that 
 requires warmth. A primitive arrangement truly, 
 but one that apparently answers the purpose ; for 
 with it they brave the cold of winter attired in the 
 costume worn during the warmer months when out 
 of doors ; and when in the house a number of these 
 burners, round which they sit, afford them as much 
 warmth as a wood fire, their only fuel, coals being 
 totally unknown in the Valley. 
 
 e mulberry tree is very common in the Lolab, 
 and generally all over the country ; and with such an 
 abundant supply of the first necessity in the culti- 
 vation of silk, and with such a favourable climate, it
 
 Silk Cultivation. 205 
 
 is a little remarkable that this great branch of 
 industry is not prosecuted with greater vigour than 
 at present. A certain quantity of silk is yearly 
 produced in Kashmir, from worms preserved and 
 fed in this division of the Valley, and elsewhere, but 
 nothing like what could be done, considering the 
 first means for its production are so ready to hand- 
 quantities of the natural food of the silkworm, in a 
 locality so favourably situated as to climate that the 
 foliage is in readiness for feeding the young worms 
 when they are first hatched from the eggs. I can- 
 not with any certainty state what variety of the 
 silkworm is found in this country, as it was late in 
 the season when I visited an establishment for their 
 cultivation, and the worm had passed into its pupa 
 state ; but from the description I should imagine it 
 was the common kind, the caterpillar of the Bombyx 
 mori, the silkworm moth, a native of India, but 
 plentiful in other parts of the world, notably in 
 
 China and elsewhere. There are numerous species 
 
 
 
 belonging to this genus, and other genera of the 
 family Bombycidce, to be found in India and adjacent 
 parts, whose chrysalides, enclosed in a cocoon of silk, 
 give to most of the species such a great economical 
 importance. But of the silk-producing insects as 
 used in manufacture, only about five out of the
 
 206 The Happy Valley. 
 
 eighteen varieties existing in the country, generally 
 on certain parts of the Himalaya mountains, are of 
 any importance ; and of that number only two, the 
 common silkworm, and the true Tusseh Antherosa 
 Papkia, or ' Tussur moth/ produce silk that can be 
 easily wound off the cocoon, and whose cultivation 
 is attended with any great advantage or profit. 
 
 It is stated that in China the silkworm is some- 
 times reared upon trees in the open air, showing 
 very little desire to wander from the place of its 
 birth ; but it is usual in that as in all other countries 
 to raise them in buildings constructed for the pur- 
 pose. Such a building we visited in Kashmir, and 
 found it a large, long, wooden, barn -like erection, 
 carefully covered in so as to exclude moisture, with 
 its interior divided into compartments, or tier upon 
 tier of shelves, such as one sees in the garrets of 
 English farm-houses for storing apples and other 
 fruits. On these shelves the eggs are hatched by 
 the natural heat of the climate, and the silkworms 
 are fed with the leaves of the mulberry until they 
 attain their full development, and then spin in the 
 corners of the shelves, or on little contrivances 
 placed above them for that purpose. These trays 
 or shelves are quite open, as it is not necessary to 
 enclose them in any way ; for it is an interesting
 
 Mulberry Trees. 207 
 
 peculiarity of this valuable species of moth, that 
 neither in its caterpillar state, as long as food is 
 fresh and abundant, nor in the winged state, does 
 it show that restless disposition or desire to wander 
 away which is so common to so many others. 
 After spinning the cocoons are collected, and those 
 few selected for the production of the perfect insect, 
 necessary for the maintenance and increase of the 
 stock, carefully set aside. The others are plunged 
 into hot water or baked, in order to kill the enclosed 
 chrysalis, to prevent perforation and spoiling of the 
 silk from the moth forcing its way out. -The silk is 
 then wound off and disposed of, and the building, 
 swept and garnished, is shut up to await the 
 hatching of the crop of eggs, simultaneously with the 
 appearance of the leaves of the mulberry- trees that 
 surround its site, the following year. 
 
 The mulberry and other fruit-trees in the Lofab 
 possess also great attractions in the proper season 
 to another species of living creature, not quite so 
 innocent nor so simple in its habits as the one 
 lately described ; for it is famous for the number of 
 bears that visit the trees to feast upon the luscious 
 product of their branches. Their greed oftentimes 
 proves their destruction ; for, engaged in the pleasant 
 occupation of taking their dessert, they fall easy
 
 208 The Happy Valley. 
 
 victims to any one who likes to take the trouble of 
 shooting them as they sit perched up aloft, or watch- 
 ing for them on their way to and from the scene of 
 their enjoyment. Bears are found in all parts of 
 Kashmir, and although not so numerous as formerly 
 every European visiting the Valley being desirous 
 and usually fulfilling his desire of taking a shot at 
 them are still very common, more particularly in 
 the part of the country just described, in the 
 Nowboog valley, and on the slopes of the Pir 
 Panjal. There are two varieties of this animal 
 met with in this country. The brown or red 
 variety, which generally resides high up in the 
 mountains, arid the black, lower down, also to be 
 found during the summer and autumn near the 
 villages or patches of cultivated ground searching 
 for fruit and vegetables. Although grass, roots, 
 and fruit form their chief diet, and they are usually 
 classed as herbivorous animals, there is no doubt 
 that they are partly carnivorous, as the shepherd in 
 this country knows to his cost ; for many sheep are 
 killed and eaten by them, and any sick or wounded 
 animal, such as a cow or horse, that falls within 
 their reach is readily killed by master Bruin, and a 
 hearty meal made off the carcase. Bears in Kash- 
 mir, and I suppose in all other countries where they
 
 Adventure with a Bear. 209 
 
 are to be found, seem to possess the power of smell 
 to a remarkable degree, and it behoves the hunter 
 to be very careful- to avoid their exercising this 
 faculty, or success will not attend his efforts to 
 secure a skin. It is said, but I cannot answer 
 for the truth of the assertion, that they have an 
 inordinate craving for the flesh of the unclean 
 animal, and that any traveller in this region will 
 most probably have his tent or hut invaded by a 
 bear, if he himself or his servants leaves an open 
 tin of bacon, such as the Englishman loves in the 
 East, lying about. That they certainly come very 
 near, if not into, the abode of man in this country 
 I can well affirm ; for at one place our servants, 
 who usually slept outside our tent, displayed great 
 unwillingness to do so, on account, as they said, of 
 the bears, and crowded instead, in a compact body 
 for mutual protection, into a small one used for the 
 storage of our luggage and supplies. And again, 
 when encamped in a pine forest on a slope of the 
 Panjal, we were roused from sleep by our little dog 
 barking most furiously, and endeavouring to get at 
 something under our camp-bed, which finally in the 
 confusion escaped under the fly of the tent, and 
 which, although I cannot affirm it as a fact, it being 
 dark at the time, was thought both by myself and
 
 2io The Happy Valley. 
 
 my servants, who pursued it for some little distance, 
 to be no less than a small bear. 
 
 This animal, although it affords some slight sport 
 and more amusement to the sportsman, is but one of 
 the many varieties of game to be met with in Kash- 
 mir and adjoining countries, and which, although 
 not so plentiful as in former days, yet affords to 
 those who fear neither hard work nor exposure as 
 good sport as the heart of man can desire. Of late 
 years so much shooting has been carried on in the 
 more accessible parts of the Valley, that to insure 
 good bags being made it is incumbent on the hunter 
 to go now further afield, and seek in the regions 
 more inaccessible to the ordinary traveller for the 
 trophies of the chase, which are nowhere more 
 marked and varied than in the country now under 
 consideration. Regarding the best time for shooting 
 in and about Kashmir, from the middle of April to 
 the beginning of July, and from September to the 
 end of November, are perhaps the chief months of 
 the year, heavy rain intervening between the two 
 periods ; while the best ground is also at that time 
 covered with flocks and herds sent up from the 
 lower parts of the Valley for grazing purposes, 
 with the result of disturbing and driving away all 
 the game in their vicinity.
 
 Tiger Cats. 2 1 1 
 
 Of the animals affording sport, leopards are found 
 all round the Valley, and chiefly on the ' margs/ or 
 mountain downs, where they occasionally commit 
 great havoc amongst the sheep and cattle feeding on 
 the rich pasture of these charming places. There is 
 a species of wild or tiger-cat met with in the moun- 
 tains, more particularly, I believe, about Poshiana 
 and its vicinity, which is most beautifully marked, 
 somewhat similar to the royal animal from which 
 it derives its name. In size it is rather larger than 
 the familiar tabby, and is of the most fierce and 
 intractable disposition. 'A friend of ours had pro- 
 cured a live one in the mountains and brought it 
 to Srinagar, where, secured by a chain to a collar 
 round its neck, it was tied up near the door of his 
 house ; and being a young animal we entertained 
 hopes of eventually taming it, and rendering it 
 somewhat domesticated. But, despite all our efforts, 
 its naturally fierce nature was not to be overcome 
 by kindness or sweet persuasion, and it remained, 
 as always, the most vindictive, cruel-looking speci- 
 men of the cat tribe I ever saw. I did not envy 
 its possessor the task which lay before him, in 
 carrying out his intention of taking the interesting 
 creature to India, and subsequently to England. 
 
 Tigers do not penetrate so far as the Valley, and 
 
 p 2
 
 212 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the hyaena, so common in India, is rarely if ever 
 met with here. This is also the case with the wolf, 
 but jackals and foxes are abundant all over the 
 Valley ; a black variety of the latter has also been 
 found in particular places. 
 
 The wild dogs, or 'dholes/ inhabitants of the 
 deepest recesses of wild mountain forests, occasion- 
 ally visit some parts of the Valley in large packs, 
 more particularly the Wardwan ; but as a rule they 
 must be sought for further north, in Dras and Ladakh. 
 This curious animal, of which there is no reason to 
 think that any of them are the wild offspring of 
 once domestic races, is in size between a wolf and 
 a jackal, with long legs, sharp muzzle, pointed ears, 
 and straight tail, usually of a light bay colour, and 
 endowed with great courage, strength, and activity. 
 They appear to be not incapable of domestication ; 
 but it is difficult to tame them. They are in habit 
 gregarious, and hunt in packs, running down any 
 animal they come across, and it is said, when 
 pressed by hunger, have even destroyed children, and 
 sometimes grown persons. One remarkable charac- 
 teristic they possess, which may be said to be 
 exhibited by the domesticated dog in a lesser degree, 
 is their hostility to the feline race of animals, whom 
 they destroy whenever the chance of so doing
 
 Deer. 2 1 3 
 
 presents itself, as if they were the instruments 
 appointed by Nature to keep within limit the super- 
 abundant increase of the great felinse. 
 
 Of the deer tribe, the lordly ' barasing,' or 'hungul/ 
 is found at certain seasons, more particularly towards 
 the end of September, in many parts of Kashmir. 
 This is the best time for shooting them, their horns 
 being then fully developed. This fine stag is the 
 nearest approach met with in the East to the red deer 
 of Europe, and although larger and with bigger 
 horns, in general appearance it resembles that variety 
 somewhat closely. It is to be found and stalked in 
 the elevated downs and forests of the country, and 
 in the winter approaches close to the villages. At 
 that time they are to be killed very easily ; for they 
 are weak from want of food, and cannot move 
 quickly over the deep snow, and so fall an easy 
 prey to the Kashmiri villagers, a mode of slaying 
 them despised by the genuine sportsman. The 
 musk-deer is found in all parts of Kashmir at a 
 certain elevation, particularly along the Sind Valley, 
 and is pretty generally distributed all over the 
 elevated mountainous regions and table-lands of 
 Central Asia. This type of the family Mosckidte 
 differs, notwithstanding its name, from the Cervicto, 
 or deer, in its want of horns, and in the long canines
 
 214 The Happy Valley. 
 
 of the males projecting beyond the lips, and used 
 in the digging up of roots, and for fighting or 
 defensive purposes. In this country, as elsewhere, 
 it is much pursued, on account of its odoriferous 
 secretion, known as musk, of which some quantity 
 is yearly exported from Kashmir ; but not so much 
 as one would imagine, considering the number of 
 the animals. Their habits, however, nocturnal and 
 solitary, joined to their extreme timidity, render 
 their destruction no easy matter. The ' khakar,' 
 or barking deer, is found on the southern and 
 western slopes of the Pir Panjal, and on this range 
 the ' markhor ' and ' surrow,' or mountain goat, are 
 also met with, and the ibex affords good sport to 
 such adventurous spirits as choose to follow this 
 animal in its mountain retreats. 
 
 Such are the chief varieties of big game to be 
 found in the Valley, and adjacent hills, and we 
 now come to the winged kind, of which there are 
 many species. In a country possessing so many 
 'rivers and lakes, it follows naturally that waterfowl 
 in great abundance are to be met with in the winter 
 months, when, to avoid the intense cold of the more 
 northern regions of Central Asia, they seek this 
 sheltered spot, departing, however, at the first sign 
 of spring. Every species nearly of this description
 
 Birds. 2 1 5 
 
 of game is well represented, particularly on the 
 Woolar, and other lakes. Geese, ducks, teal, coots, 
 moor-hens are all found, the two latter, and even 
 certain varieties of ducks, remaining after the others 
 have departed, to breed on the sedgy margins 
 of the water. That magnificent bird, the royal 
 partridge, three or four times the size of our com- 
 mon English variety, is found occasionally inhabiting 
 the snowy Panjdls on both sides of the valley, and 
 the black, grey, snow, and the 'chikore' or Hima- 
 layan red-legged variety, are met with, especially the 
 latter, abundantly in many parts. Of pheasants, the 
 varieties are the argus, ' moonhal,' ' koklas,' and the 
 snow, all of which must be searched for in their 
 favourite haunts, as also the quail, snipe, and plover. 
 Several smaller birds are pretty common, such as 
 the hoopoe, the mina, the cuckoo, and other varieties ; 
 but of singing-birds no great show is made. Ex- 
 cepting the Himalayan blackbird, and the bulbul, 
 and a few others, with notes by no means full and 
 musical, the forests and glades of Kashmir resound 
 with little of the cheerful noise of the feathered 
 songsters that add such a charm to similar places in 
 England and elsewhere. 
 
 Birds of prey, as in other parts of the East, are 
 common enough, and there are two or three varieties
 
 216 The Happy Valley. 
 
 of the eagle to be met with, as well as many species 
 of hawks, while crows similar in appearance to our 
 own at home are abundant in every quarter of the 
 province. 
 
 One curious fact in connection with this subject 
 may be noticed in conclusion, and that is the total 
 absence in any part of the Valley proper of mon- 
 keys or hares. 
 
 The first-named animal is common enough a few 
 marches away from the country, but, as far as my 
 recollection serves, was seen by us for the first 
 time after crossing the Pir Panjal Pass on our re- 
 turn journey, the height of which or the cold ex- 
 perienced at certain times of the year, perhaps 
 influences their habits in avoiding the Valley, 
 which with its fruit trees and vines would prove a 
 perfect paradise to this mischievous order. The 
 reason why hares, common in India, and met with 
 up to a few marches from Baramula, avoid the 
 Valley, is one of the most singular features con- 
 nected with its natural history and difficult of 
 explanation. Likelier ground for their harbouring 
 and preservation could scarcely be found in any 
 other part of the world, and our English hares 
 would thrive and multiply there, I am certain, to an 
 alarming extent. The Indian variety, however, I
 
 Indian Hare. 2 1 7 
 
 presume, in the same manner as the monkey, dreads 
 the cold, and the little species met with in Tibet, on 
 the other side, being a true Alpine hare, prefers to 
 dwell among rocks, sand, and thorns, rather than 
 seek the green and succulent food so dear to this 
 class of animal generally, and which grows in wild 
 and luxuriant profusion in so many parts of the 
 Happy Valley.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Road to Gulmarg Barra Kountra Babamirishi The Gulmarg, or 
 'Mountain of Flowers' European Visitors to Gulmarg Log- 
 houses Their Construction Their Advantages Their Disad- 
 vantages View of the Valley from Gulmarg The Wet Season 
 Its Discomfort Apathy of Hindu Servants Life on the Marg 
 Our Church Flowers and Ferns Insect Life on the Marg The 
 Killan Marg The Guluwans, or 'Horse-keepers;' Descendants 
 of the Chakk Family Their Habits and Mode of Life Snakes in 
 Kashmir Effects of the Rarefied Air Departure from Gulmarg 
 Road to Srinagar The Zearat of a Rishi The Rishis of Kashmir 
 Pattan Conclusion of Tour in Western Part of Kashmir. 
 
 will now retrace our steps to Sopoor, 
 in order to proceed to Gulmarg. After 
 quitting this old and dilapidated town, 
 an easy march of about eighteen miles 
 brings us to the well-known and charm- 
 ing mountain retreat. Lying to the westward of 
 Srinagar, Gulmarg may be reached by several 
 routes ; but the easiest, most convenient, and the 
 prettiest, is the one we are now about to follow, 
 having already in our wanderings arrived at the 
 starting-point, which, if we were leaving the capital
 
 Babamirishi. 2 1 9 
 
 for the same ulterior destination, could be reached 
 direct in twelve hours' journey by boat. The first 
 stage on the road is from Sopoor to Barra Kountra, 
 an easy march of between twelve and thirteen miles. 
 The road is wide nearly all the distance, passing 
 for some little way by the edge of the great lake, 
 then by a village at the mouth of a valley formed 
 of two ' kareewahs/ and then on to Naopore, 
 which quitting, it ascends and crosses the natural 
 alluvial deposit on the right, running into the 
 pretty valley of the Ningil river, and, continuing 
 along its right bank, brings us to our destination 
 for the night, a village of some considerable size, 
 situated on the hillside overlooking the vale we 
 have lately traversed. The second stage is from 
 Barra Kountra to the marg, a walk of only a 
 little over five miles. The road, first turning to 
 the left and passing through a gap, enters a narrow 
 glen traversed by a small stream, and containing 
 one or two small villages and farm-houses. Con- 
 tinuing up the glen the path leads to the foot of 
 the mountains, and a steep and rough ascent of 
 nearly a mile brings us to a place called Baba- 
 mirishi, a small grassy plain on the top of the 
 lower range of hills, deriving its name from the 
 adjoining ' zearat ' of a rishi, who, dying about four
 
 220 The Happy Valley. 
 
 centuries ago, was here interred. His memory 
 being held in extreme veneration by the Moham- 
 medans, it is one of the most frequented places of 
 this description in the whole of the Valley. 
 
 Leaving this holy site, the path leads up towards 
 Gulmarg, distant a mile and a half, but fully one 
 thousand feet higher up the mountain side. For 
 the first half mile or so the ascent is steep and 
 rough ; but after that is surmounted a level stretch 
 of about the same distance, through a grassy but 
 narrow defile, leads us into the main valley, and, 
 bearing to the left, another half mile shows us the 
 usual encamping-ground of this favourite sanitarium, 
 when the numerous tents and log-houses, that meet 
 our gaze on our arrival, are evidences of the high 
 estimation in which the flowery mountain is held 
 as a place of residence by the yearly visitors to the 
 Vale of Kashmir. 
 
 Gulmarg, or ' the monntnin of flowers,' is a beau- 
 tiful mountain common, a lovely spot on the downs 
 of the Panjal, flat, green, and open, about two miles 
 long, with a varying width from a few hundred 
 yards to nearly a mile. On all sides it is bounded 
 by hills, from which project numerous spurs in the 
 form of grassy knolls, covered, as is also tbe whole 
 surface of the marg, with flowers of every hue.
 
 Gulmarg. 221 
 
 Hence its /name 'gul,' a flower, and 'marg/ a 
 mountain^ The surrounding hills are densely clothed 
 with forests of pine trees, and a small stream wind- 
 ing throughout its entire length lends life to the 
 picture which, in the scenic disposition of its woods 
 and glades, is rendered as highly picturesque as any 
 spot in the Valley, partaking more, however, of the 
 sylvan character of an English park than that 
 of a natural formation on the summit of one of 
 the lofty ridges of the Himalayas. Situated some 
 3000 feet above the level of Srinagar, the climate is 
 cold, bracing, and salubrious ; and although the rain 
 falls pretty heavily at times, it is much preferred as 
 a place of residence to the lower parts of the Valley 
 and the capital during the hot and unhealthy months 
 of July and August. At this season most of the 
 European visitors to Kashmir, including the Resi- 
 dent and other officials, wend their way to the 
 mountain retreat, which, unsought and unvisited for 
 the greater portion of the year, becomes for a time 
 the scene of that bustling activity, the natural 
 characteristic of our countrymen and women, a 
 large number of whom are here congregated to- 
 gether on a small space, and all leading a life of 'a 
 free and gipsy-like character. Situated, as one may 
 say, in the wilds, Gulmarg contains no houses or
 
 222 The Happy Valley. 
 
 any other buildings of a permanent nature, and the 
 only means open to the visitor to render himself 
 comfortable and defy the weather is to dwell within 
 the canvas walls of his tent, or build himself a 
 wooden hut of a primitive and Crusoe-like charac- 
 ter. Both these methods of housing oneself have 
 their advocates, many preferring the tent, which, 
 pitched upon the top of one of the knolls for the 
 sake of dryness, is further rendered weather proof 
 by a framework of wood supporting a covering or 
 roof of boughs, leaves, and earth, an ingenious con- 
 trivance which fairly answers the purpose for which 
 it is intended. The majority, however, like a more 
 stable habitation, one in which also a fire may be 
 lighted, the evenings being sometimes cold and 
 damp, particularly after a heavy storm. This is 
 easily to be effected, for wood in any quantity is 
 readily obtainable from the fallen trees in the sur- 
 rounding forests, and a few rupees are sufficient to 
 obtain the services of the native artizans who resort 
 thither yearly, and gladly offer themselves as archi- 
 tects and builders. Very fair workmen they are. 
 The result of their labour, which is completed in an 
 incredibly short time, is a log hut, usually containing 
 only one room. If rude in construction, it is dry 
 and comfortable. The fire-place, built of stones
 
 Life at Gulmarg. 223 
 
 and mud, answers its purpose very well, and, at the 
 risk even of setting fire to your habitation, which 
 happened in our case, is usually crammed full of 
 wood, whose cheerful blaze is very acceptable, and 
 not obtainable by the dwellers in tents, except out 
 in the open air near the entrance of their abodes. 
 The only weak spot in these temporary shelters 
 is perhaps the roof, which always seems to leak in 
 very stormy weather, and I have a lively recollection 
 of the discomfort we endured, and the shifts and 
 contrivances we employed to guard against this 
 defect in our otherwise happy and comfortable 
 home. 
 
 We paid our visit to Gulmarg in August, arriving 
 there about the 6th. For the two first weeks 
 following our arrival the rain poured down with 
 hardly any intermission, a rather unusual occurrence 
 in Kashmir, even in the wet season. We were so 
 fortunate as to secure an empty hut the day we 
 arrived, wet, cold, and hungry, after a long and 
 wearisome march, owing to its proprietor and former 
 occupier moving into a larger one he had erected 
 on another spot. It was a well-built, single- roomed 
 hut with an open verandah in front, and, standing 
 as it did on the ridge directly overlooking the 
 Valley, the whole expanse of the Vale lay spread
 
 224 The Happy Valley. 
 
 out, a glorious panorama of mountains, meadows, 
 forests, lakes, rivers, and canals, the rich foliage in 
 many parts, and the waving fields of golden corn, 
 and rice, together with its villages and farm-houses, 
 adding life to the scene nearer to us ; while away 
 in the distance the city of Srinagar was plainly 
 discernible, with the two eminences close by of 
 the Takt-i-Suliman and the Harri Parbut, which 
 appeared, however, as mere ant-hills in comparison 
 with the lofty and precipitous sides of the ridges 
 that formed the background of the picture. In 
 our humble dwelling-house we were snug enough, 
 barring the little discomfort of the leakage through 
 the roof, which sometimes even amounted to a 
 perfect shower-bath during a heavy fall of rain, 
 necessitating the employment of waterproofs and 
 umbrellas to keep us dry. Under the shelter of 
 these protections we sat during the day and slept 
 at night, resigning ourselves with calmness to what 
 appeared to be the inevitable ; for despite all our 
 attempts to render our habitation impervious to 
 moisture by piling fresh branches and stamping 
 down mud and earth on the roof, it still continued 
 as leaky as an old sieve, the rain being too heavy 
 and continuous for our puny efforts to restrain its 
 percolation. As the only result obtained after all
 
 Hindu Servants. 225 
 
 our exertions seemed to be the production of very 
 muddy, instead of clear water, we let well alone, 
 and waited patiently for better days. And these soon 
 came ; for gradually the storms were less frequent 
 and lighter in character, and at the end of the two 
 weeks ceased altogether, glorious weather following, 
 which soon dissipated every memory of our former 
 discomfort, and enabled us to enter upon the pleasant 
 and careless existence followed by the dwellers on 
 the ' marg/ our life on the mountain meadow being 
 perhaps the most enjoyable time we spent during 
 the whole of our stay in the Kashmirian Valley. 
 
 There was quite a colony of us collected here, 
 with numerous natives and shopkeepers from the 
 capital to supply our wants, a perfect bazaar being 
 formed at one extremity of the 'marg.' This proved 
 to be a downright godsend to the Hindu servants 
 of the visitors, who daily gathered together to 
 discuss the affairs of their masters and mistresses, 
 and bewail their hard fate in leaving the sunny 
 plains of their birth, for such a cold and uncongenial 
 country and climate. Their love of gain is the only 
 inducement that prompts them to this trial on their 
 own part ; for they possess no idea of the delights 
 of travelling for travelling' sake, or to see new 
 countries ; and as for admiring the beautiful or the 
 
 Q
 
 226 The Happy Valley. 
 
 picturesque in nature, I could as readily imagine 
 a monkey to be suddenly endowed with speech, 
 and break into acclamations of joy, as a Hindu, 
 or other inhabitant of India belonging to the class 
 from whence servants are taken, to make any 
 observation on the scenery, or to regard with any 
 attention any unfamiliar tree or shrub, unless actuated 
 by the hope of finding something edible growing 
 upon its branches. But they love money ; and for 
 extra pay and a small subsistence allowance are 
 willing to forsake for a time their beloved home, and 
 wander, they know not where, in the train of their 
 old sahib, or some other traveller in these regions, 
 grumbling and complaining the whole time, but 
 rarely deserting, the fear of losing their hardly- 
 earned wage, and the expense they would incur for 
 the return journey, being strong incentives to their 
 remaining in a measure upon their good behaviour. 
 No matter in what country Englishmen are 
 gathered together, there will be some variety of 
 sport or pastime going forward. And in this re- 
 spect we were not behind at Gulmarg ; for a cricket 
 and croquet-ground had been most artistically laid 
 out on the green and level surface in the centre of 
 the meadow, and a race-course, marked out \vith 
 posts and rails, with sundry hurdles and artificial
 
 Worship on the Marg. 
 
 ditches, testified to the fact that the truly British 
 sport of horse -racing was also at times followed 
 out, although in a strange country, and far away 
 from home. Our spiritual wants were not forgotten ; 
 for on the summit of a grass-covered mound was 
 erected a small wooden church, primitive enough in 
 appearance, but filled on Sundays with as devout 
 a congregation as would be found in any nearer 
 home, towards which our thoughts could scarcely 
 fail to be directed, as the familiar words of our own 
 simple but beautiful service fell upon the ear, while 
 we worshipped our Maker, not as we had been 
 accustomed to in stately edifices, but in a manner 
 none the less earnest and devout, although offered 
 
 o 
 
 up within the rough wooden walls of our temple 
 in the wilderness. 
 
 Life flowed on most pleasantly at this charming 
 spot, and we employed a good portion of our time 
 each day in collecting and preserving various speci- 
 mens of ferns and flowers, everywhere so abundant, 
 many varieties of which, growing wild in rank pro- 
 fusion, were familiar to us as being cultivated with 
 care and attention in our native country, while there 
 were also many unknown. The whole surface of 
 the ' marg ' was one mass of blossom, yielding rich 
 
 and rare treasures of the floral world to the enter- 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 The Happy Valley. 
 
 prising botanist or collector. This place was also 
 rich in insect life, more particularly in butterflies, 
 for very few moths were met with ; and having been 
 from youth upward of an entomological turn of mind, 
 a collection was formed, which is interesting as having 
 afforded fifteen species found in England, as well as 
 several varieties pretty abundantly distributed over 
 other parts of Europe. There is a similar meadow 
 about 1,000 feet above Gulmarg, called Killan, 
 which, although somewhat longer and wider, is not 
 nearly so pretty, but was interesting to us on ac- 
 count of its approach to the snow line, and affording 
 other botanical specimens not to be met with lower 
 down. It is about two and a half miles or so from 
 Gulmarg, and can be reached by several paths 
 leading through the fine dense pine forest upon 
 its south-western side, the haunt of sundry bears 
 and other animals, and apparently the favoured 
 retreat of the 'guluwans' or horsekeepers, who tend 
 the herds of cattle upon these mountain-downs, and 
 whose roughly-built shanties or tattered tents were 
 often met with on our road. 
 
 This curious race of people are the descendants 
 of the old and warlike tribe of the Chakks, a family 
 that in former days gave rulers and warriors to 
 Kashmir, and who bravely resisted the invasion of
 
 Guluwans. 229 
 
 their country by Akbar. In later times they have, 
 however, only been remarkable for their predatory 
 habits, and during the time of the Moguls and the 
 Pathans they became formidable bands of brigands, 
 infesting some of the principal roads in the country, 
 making it dangerous for one to travel alone. They 
 have rarely intermarried with any other caste ; but 
 they are few in number now ; for at the beginning 
 of this century, having made themselves so ob- 
 noxious by their murdering and plundering pro- 
 pensities, they were hunted down in their mountain 
 retreats, and all who were left, in dread of the same 
 fate, took to more peaceful avocations, their de- 
 scendants, and the sole representatives of the great 
 and powerful Chakks, being at the present day the 
 dirty, half-starved, and fierce-looking men engaged 
 in the mild and pastoral pursuit of tending droves 
 of horses, sheep, and cows upon Gulmarg and 
 similar places. 
 
 It was a pleasant walk up to Killan through the 
 forest, in the damp and gloomy recesses of which 
 many rare and beautiful ferns were to be found, and 
 one could grope about amidst fallen trees, leaves,, 
 and rocks without the dread that accompanies any 
 such acts in India of coming upon a cobra or some 
 other lively snake. Snakes, indeed, are not un-
 
 230 The Happy Valley. 
 
 known in the Valley, but they appear to be rather 
 uncommon, except in particular places, on the 
 northern side of the Valley, on account of their 
 liking to sun themselves upon the bold bare rocks 
 that everywhere protrude through the surface of the 
 ground upon that side, whereas on the other aspects, 
 more particularly on the southern, the soil is every- 
 where much thicker, and with much more vegetation. 
 Certain it is that very few are met with; I only saw 
 one the whole time of our journeyings, and that was 
 a non- poisonous variety, much resembling in ap- 
 pearance the common snake at home. The boa or 
 rock-snake is said to have been seen in Kashmir, 
 and there is a very poisonous reptile found on rocky 
 places on the eastern side of the Valley, about a 
 yard long, with a very thick body, and an appearance 
 altogether very repulsive. This, however, I can 
 only state on the authority of others, never having 
 met with an example, and never having even heard 
 of any one who had seen a reptile answering to the 
 foregoing description. The ' marg/ which lay im- 
 mediately under a lofty ridge of the Pir Panjal, 
 whose deeper gullies and ravines contain perpetual 
 snow, was an interesting place, affording, as I have 
 said, some rare plants, although vegetation was as a 
 rule nothing like so luxuriant as on the common*
 
 Killan Marg. 231 
 
 lower down. There were glaciers at different spots, 
 and several streams of icy -cold water poured 
 from the ravines in the mountain side at its upper 
 end, formed from the melting of the snow in the 
 crevices of the rocks, affording us the means of 
 cooling our beverages at the time of the usual halt 
 for tiffin. We experienced at this place some con- 
 siderable difficulty in breathing, much more so than 
 at Gulmarg, where many suffer great inconvenience 
 from this cause, attributable of course to the rarefied 
 condition of the atmosphere at the height we were 
 standing, some 1 1,000 feet above the sea level. 
 
 Towards the end of August every one commences 
 to make preparations for departure, it being then 
 cool and pleasant in the lower parts of the Valley ; 
 and we will now follow their example, as we have 
 yet to explore and describe the unvisited eastern 
 portion of the country, which contains some remark- 
 able ruins, springs, and other interesting objects. 
 One can proceed to this part of the Valley from 
 Gulmarg direct, by skirting the forests on the slopes 
 of the Panjal and making for Shupiyan, and thence 
 on to Nohan, Vernag, and Islamabad ; but it is a 
 tedious and uninteresting journey, no place of any 
 interest being met with until our arrival at the 
 first-named town, already visited on our road to
 
 232 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Srinagar from the plains of India. Such being 
 the case, we once more proceed to the capital by 
 another and more direct route, and, after arrival 
 and a necessary halt to lay in stores or whatever 
 is required, start off to the eastward, the inspection 
 of which will complete our tour of the Valley of 
 Kashmir. Leaving the ' marg ' then, we make for 
 the village of Pattan, some fourteen miles away, 
 the road passing through Babamirishi, the same as 
 followed on our journey thither. 
 
 Here there is to be seen, as already mentioned, 
 the ' zearat ' of a famous rishi, Baba Pyoomden, who 
 died some four centuries ago. His shrine is one 
 of the most venerated, as well as the richest, in 
 the whole of the Valley. It has also a monastery 
 attached to it, in which a few ' rishis ' or monks 
 reside ; .but this once-important class of Moham- 
 medans are shorn now of much of their influence 
 and importance, and the few that are to be met 
 with appear to be simply guardians of the tomb 
 of some former canonised saint of their order. In 
 former days they were an important class, peculiar 
 to Kashmir, something akin to the fakirs of Hindu- 
 stan. Originally wanderers in the jungle, they be- 
 came possessed in time, chiefly through the liberality 
 of the Mogul emperors, of lands, and convents, or
 
 Rishis. 233 
 
 monasteries. For many years these Mohammedan 
 ascetics were much looked up to by the other in- 
 habitants of the Valley, and being pious and blame- 
 less men, doubtless effected some good ; but they 
 gradually lost their prestige after the decline of 
 the Delhi emperors, since which time it is said no 
 real rishi has existed in Kashmir. 
 
 Leaving this place, an easy road leads past the 
 villages of Ajeebal, Khipore, and Chandesir, five 
 miles from which stands Pattan, at the base of a 
 large kareewah, which it is necessary to descend in 
 order to gain the village. From Pattan to Srinagar 
 is a distance of seventeen miles, over a fairly level 
 road leading through the fields, and subsequently 
 down the avenue of poplars near the entrance to 
 the Sher Garhi, finally passing over the Ameeri 
 Kadal, or first bridge, on to the usual encamping- 
 ground, which we left some pages back for the tour 
 of the western portion of the Happy Valley.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The Eastern Portion of Kashmir Objects of Interest Journey by 
 Doongah Pandritan Temple at Pandritan Town of Pampoor 
 The Saffron-grounds at Pampoor Cultivation of the Crocus sativu s 
 Saffron Its Uses Quantity grown in Valley Mineral Springs 
 Shar Ironworks in Kashmir Ruins at Ladoo Temple at Payech 
 Avantipore Bijbehara Junction of the Veshau River Kanbal 
 Town of Islamabad Its former Greatness The Anat Nag 
 Sacred Trout The Spring of Bawan Its Legend Caves of 
 Bhomjoo The Liddar Valley Sacred Cave of Ambernath 
 Legend of the Cave Road to the Cave The Sheesha Nag 
 Description of the Cave Pilgrimage to Ambernath Hindu Cere- 
 mony at the Cave Vigne's Description and Remarks. 
 
 HERE are many objects of interest to be 
 seen in the eastern portion of Kashmir, 
 such as the principal springs and sources 
 of the Jhelam, the ruins at Martand, the 
 old town of Islamabad, and some smaller 
 valleys, as the Nowboog and Liddar. All these 
 places are easily reached, and if one cares to under- 
 take some rough and arduous marching a visit can 
 be paid to the Wardwan, and the celebrated Cave 
 of Ambernath. A considerable portion of this tour
 
 Pandritan. 235 
 
 may be made by water, navigation of the river 
 being feasible as far as Kambal, a good two days' 
 journey by boat from Srinagar, embracing in its 
 course many of the places to be inspected, which 
 one can land and visit, the remainder being reached 
 by easy marches from the last-named village. Quit- 
 ting then our encamping- ground at the capital in 
 the now familiar 'doongah,' the boat proceeds very 
 slowly along the base of the mountains stretching 
 out from the Throne of Solomon, the river at this 
 spot making several very large curves in its course 
 which rather impedes the work of towing the craft 
 up-stream. After proceeding in a calm and leisurely 
 manner thus for a couple of hours or so, we arrive 
 at Pandritan, once a large and flourishing city, the 
 capital of the province, but now, alas ! through the 
 insane act of one of its ancient rulers, a mere heap 
 of ruins. 
 
 It is stated that at one time this city covered an 
 extent of ground of nearly three miles, and con- 
 tained some remarkable buildings, notably a shrine 
 founded by Asoka, in which was kept a tooth of 
 the great Buddha, the founder of the then popular 
 religion, of which this monarch was one of the most 
 strenuous upholders. Nothing is left of this once 
 sacred place, and there is little to linger over or to
 
 236 The Happy Valley. 
 
 recall the memories of former days ; for with the 
 exception of a small temple nothing escaped the 
 devastation caused by the act of the King Abhi- 
 manyu, who in some fit of rage, or from some other 
 cause not exactly known, is stated to have been 
 the author of the destruction of this flourishing 
 city by means of fire. This temple, pyramidal in 
 shape, is built of stone, the roof being elaborately 
 carved, and in architectural design is similar to that 
 at Martand, the apparent type of all the most 
 ancient buildings of this description in the Valley. 
 It stands in the centre of a pond, encircled by 
 a grove of willows, which prevents many from 
 inspecting its interior. For a similar reason, other 
 old temples in India and elsewhere are often difficult 
 of access, the erection of these buildings in water 
 having for its object the placing them under the 
 protection of that race of deities, the 'nagas,' who 
 dwell beneath its surface, and render them more 
 holy by resting upon the sacred element. 
 
 Pursuing our course we arrive, after about eight 
 hours' journey, although the distance by land from 
 the capital is only eight miles, at the old but 
 half- ruined town of Pampoor. The river, which 
 has been flowing towards the north, at this part of 
 its course takes a bold sweep eastwards, and the
 
 Pampoor. 
 
 2 37 
 
 town, which is said to have been founded some 
 thousand years ago, stands on the right or northern 
 bank, on an open plain or down commanding a fine 
 and extensive view of the Valley. A Hindu city, 
 as its name denotes Pampoor being a corruption 
 of Padma-pur, the 'city of Vishnu ' in former days it 
 was of considerable importance ; but at present there 
 is little to interest the stranger ; for it contains but 
 few houses, in nowise remarkable, an old mosque, 
 in which some very fine woodwork is to be seen, 
 being about the chief specimen of architecture worth 
 visiting. The richest soil in the Valley is said to be 
 at this place, and this fact has been taken advantage 
 of through ages past for the cultivation of the Crocus 
 sativuSy the stamens of whose flowers, known as 
 saffron, is a chief article of commerce in this coun- 
 try, yielding a large revenue to the government. 
 
 The saffron-grounds occupy a large space upon 
 the plains around Pampoor, some ten or twelve 
 miles in circumference it is said, and its cultivation 
 is of remote antiquity. If any reliance is to be 
 placed upon the wild statements in the works 
 treating of the ancient history of the country, a 
 very remote age may be attributed to the existence 
 of this industry indeed ; for therein it is stated that 
 the soldiers of Alexander, during his invasion of
 
 238 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the Valley, were lost in admiration at the sight of 
 such extensive beds of a beautifully and delicately- 
 tinted purple flower. Without going so far .back 
 in the world's history, there is no reason to doubt, 
 however, that saffron has been, as is now the case, 
 most extensively cultivated in this part of the 
 province, giving employment to a large number 
 of people, who in the picking season are zealously 
 watched by Sepoys, to prevent their appropriation 
 of this valuable commodity. The plants, which 
 are arranged in parterres after careful ploughing 
 and preparation of the ground has been made, 
 flower in October, and are then plucked, and their 
 different coloured stamens picked out and separated. 
 The red and white stamens only are of value, the 
 yellow being generally given to the cattle. The 
 former, however, after proper preparation, yield 
 that principal ingredient of Oriental cooking, the 
 well-known dye-stuff, and the article called saffron 
 employed in medicine, the yearly exports of which 
 from Kashmir to India amount in value to the sum 
 of twenty thousand rupees. This is a small amount 
 to what no doubt was exported in former days, for 
 a large portion of the supply in ancient times was 
 yielded by this country ; but the demand also has 
 fallen off; and as its medicinal value has long been
 
 Saffron. 239 
 
 declining, very little is needed in Europe for the 
 uses to which it is now applied the flavouring and 
 colouring confectionary and other articles of food. 
 It is a curious fact in relation to this subject that 
 in that division of our own country called Cornwall 
 saffron has always been, and is still, largely used in 
 several articles of diet as a flavouring and colouring 
 principle, and I am given to understand that its 
 employment has been known there from time im- 
 memorial. As this article is one of the principal 
 ingredients in the preparation of the various articles 
 of food consumed in the different countries of Asia, 
 more particularly in India and the central parts of 
 that quarter of the globe, might not its general use, 
 like a custom handed down from their forbears in 
 this part of England, be accepted as a further proof 
 of the supposed direct Asiatic origin of the Cornish 
 people, connecting their race with the first swarm of 
 the primitive Aryan stock on their migration to 
 Europe, which subsequently became almost entirely 
 colonized by the successive streams that poured 
 down from the mother nation on that part of the 
 Iranian plateau near the Hindu Koosh ? 
 
 From Pampoor several small excursions may be 
 made, notably to the mineral springs at Weean, 
 the iron mines a little further on, and the ruins
 
 240 The Happy Valley. 
 
 at Ladoo. The first-named is a small village, some 
 three miles to the north-east, and near it are three 
 mineral springs, highly impregnated with iron and 
 sulphur, and which in their medicinal virtues would 
 be a source of great attraction to invalids, and make 
 the fortune of any place, if only situated in some 
 more accessible region. 
 
 Two miles south-east from here is the village of 
 Shar, at the back of which is a lofty range of 
 mountains, containing the ore from which most of 
 the iron manufactured in the Valley is smelted, in 
 a rude and primitive fashion. Ironworks also 
 exist at Soap, some little distance off, and veins of 
 lead, copper, silver, and gold are known to exist 
 in the hills of the Valley, only waiting for the 
 experienced hand of a Cornish miner to rifle their 
 rich and rare treasures. Failing this I much fear 
 they will never see the light ; for in all these years, 
 although perfectly aware of the existence of such 
 mineral wealth, the inhabitants of Kashmir have 
 never made any attempt to ascertain their extent, 
 or work them in any way iron, and that of bad 
 and indifferent quality, being the only metal as yet 
 produced at their hands. 
 
 The ruins at Ladoo, which consist of an old 
 temple standing in a tank, are about a mile from
 
 Temple at Pdyech. 241 
 
 Shar, but need not detain us ; so making our way 
 back to Pampoor, we take to the boat again, and 
 a four hours' pull brings us to Karkarpore, where 
 a halt must be made to visit the temple at Payech, 
 the most beautifully proportioned of all the old 
 buildings in Kashmir. This exquisite little build- 
 ing, one of the latest and most interesting of the 
 old Hindu age, is about six miles off the halting- 
 place, and is very easily reached, the road being 
 fairly good all the way. Being dedicated to Vishnu 
 as Suryea, or the 'sun god,' the ceiling is radiated 
 so as to represent that orb, small sitting figures of 
 the popular preserver of the universe being inserted 
 in niches on the cornice outside. Though small, 
 being only nine feet square and about six feet high, 
 it is, both in its exterior and interior, particularly 
 elegant, and well deserves a visit. It is also in 
 good preservation, despite the attempts of the 
 Pathans, when the Valley was under their rule, 
 to take it down and remove it, doubtless as an 
 ornament, to the capital. 
 
 Some little distance further up the river, and on 
 its right bank, a large ruined city next attracts our 
 attention, one of the former capitals of the province 
 during the Hindu regime, and called Avantipore, 
 after the King Avante Verma, its reputed founder. 
 
 K
 
 242 The Happy Valley. 
 
 It was a flourishing place in the days of yore; but 
 being deserted for Srinagar, its temples and other 
 buildings, most probably overthrown by the Moham- 
 medans, fell into decay, and are only to be traced 
 by the heaps of fallen materials and the stonework 
 that formed their base. A long stretch of water, 
 to cover which takes nearly ten hours, the rapidity 
 of the current only allowing a mile or so to be 
 made in an hour, brings us to a part of the Jhelam 
 very wide and deep, and spanned by a bridge. On 
 the left bank stands the large but somewhat 
 dilapidated town of Bijbehara ; nothing remarkable 
 being passed on the journey excepting the junction 
 of the Veshau, one of the largest rivers in the 
 country, with the stream we are now floating on, 
 which takes place some three miles below this 
 ancient city. 
 
 The town of Bijbehara is not very interesting, all 
 the houses bearing somewhat the aspect of decay. 
 Neither is the place itself or the country around 
 what might be called in any way picturesque, for the 
 locality is bare of trees, excepting on the southern 
 side of the river, where a fine grove of chenars 
 stands, denoting the former site of a once flourishing 
 garden. At one time a very fine temple, built by 
 Asoka, B.C. 250, stood on this spot, but it was pulled
 
 Islamabad. 243 
 
 down during the reign of Sikander ; and the curious 
 in these matters may obtain a sight of another fine 
 old example of these buildings erected on the top 
 of the Samma Thang, that curious conical hill, the 
 same on which Kashuf is stated to have lived for 
 several centuries in pious meditation, preparing for 
 his great act of draining the Valley, the mound 
 being within a short distance of the town. 
 
 Kanbal, our present destination, is now only some 
 four miles by land, the journey by boat up the 
 gradually narrowing river occupying, however, four 
 hours. This is the termination of our water trip, 
 the further continuation of the tour having to be 
 made by land. The first stage is Islamabad, a very 
 short distance off, the starting-point to many places 
 of interest within easy reach, as well as several 
 further away. 
 
 Islamabad, the ancient Anat Nag, 'the spring of 
 Anat,' the serpent of Vishnu, and the emblem of 
 eternity, but now known only by its present desig- 
 nation, which signifies 'the abode of the Moham- 
 medan faith' was once the la'rgest town in Kashmir, 
 the capital alone excepted. To the traveller of to-day 
 it presents, however, but a shadow of its former 
 greatness and prosperity, the few houses that are 
 left, some of which are highly ornamented with the
 
 244 The Happy Valley. 
 
 trellis and lattice-work peculiar to the country, ap- 
 pearing half-ruined and neglected, affording a speak- 
 ing evidence of the past and present condition of the 
 town, its light and joyous prosperity having fled the 
 place long since. The rapacity of its Pathan and 
 Sikh governors was the means of conducing to this 
 dire result. The town is situated about a mile from 
 the right bank of the Jhelam, on the westward of 
 and close under an elevated ' kareewah,' the largest 
 of these curious table-lands, being six miles long, 
 and as many broad, and from the foot of which 
 several springs issue ; the principal, the Anat Nag, 
 being close by a pleasure garden called the Sirkari 
 Bagh. This holy fountain issues from the foot of 
 the hill, and flows through a series of canals and 
 tanks, built up with stone, to the outside of an en- 
 closure formed by a huge wall surrounding the site, 
 where the waters then fall to the ground in the form 
 of a cascade of considerable size. AH the tanks 
 and canals are filled with trout, and being considered 
 by the Hindus as sacred, they are bountifully fed by 
 the pious worshippers at the fount, in consequence 
 of which they become very tame, and attain to 
 goodly proportions. Many similar springs exist 
 near this spot, the waters of one or two of them 
 being conducted to the town by aqueducts for useful
 
 Bawan. 245 
 
 purposes. One that issues from a fissure in the 
 rock is highly sulphureous and slightly warm, 
 possessing without doubt active medicinal pro- 
 perties. 
 
 Some five miles away from Islamabad, by the 
 direct road on the northern side of the ' kareewah/ 
 is to be seen a spring, a very sacred spring, the 
 most holy perhaps in the country, near a small 
 village called Bawan, a name derived from the 
 water, which, gushing from a fissure in the limestone 
 rock, the base of the raised plain of alluvium inter- 
 vening between the town and the mountains beyond, 
 is known as, or is called par excellence, Bawan, ' The 
 Spring.' Its origin is of course fabulous, being 
 considered due to the act of Kashuf, who, walking 
 about in intense enjoyment on the dry land, the 
 result of his great achievement now completed, saw 
 an egg, the supposed mundane egg of the Hindus, 
 lying on the ground. Attracted by its glittering 
 appearance he picked it up, but being of a brittle 
 disposition it broke in his hand ; and from the spot 
 on which the pieces fell forthwith flowed the spring, 
 which, dedicated to Vishnu, is now, as it has been 
 for ages past, a standing evidence of the credulity 
 of the mild Hindu, numbers of whom, on account 
 of its divine origin, yearly visit its source to gain
 
 246 The Happy Valley. 
 
 forgiveness for their sins, and happiness in the next 
 world. It is a very similar spring to the one already 
 described, and like it the water is conveyed away 
 through a series of tanks and canals swarming with 
 Himalayan trout, fed and protected by the priests, 
 who dwell on the spot, deriving a living from the 
 pecuniary offerings of the pious and curious that 
 come within their reach, to whom they do the 
 honours of the place, having an eye to the back- 
 sheesh in the manner characterizing the members 
 of this class of native society. The caves of 
 Bhoomjoo, places of pilgrimage, can hence be easily 
 visited, being distant only about a mile, and in the 
 mountains bounding the right side of the road that 
 leads up the Liddar Valley. There are several of 
 these caverns, the two largest of which are called 
 respectively the ' Long Cave,' and the ' Temple 
 Cave,' the first-named being traversable for seventy 
 yards, but penetrating very much further into the 
 rock, the natives believing it to be interminable. 
 The other is not nearly so long, but is higher and 
 wider, and contains a very well-built Hindu temple, 
 about twelve feet square, a fine specimen of archi- 
 tecture, whence its name, the Temple Cave, is 
 derived. From here an expedition may be made 
 up the Liddar Valley, which, opening into this, the
 
 Cave at Ambernath. 247 
 
 north-eastern corner of Kashmir, and giving passage 
 to a river of the same name, extends for a distance 
 of twenty-five miles to just beyond Palgam, where, 
 narrowing, it separates into two defiles, one of which 
 leads into the Sind Valley, already visited, the other 
 bringing one by toilsome marches to the Sheesha 
 Nag, and the sacred cave of Umur, or Ambernath. 
 We did not visit this cave, the distance, and the 
 roughness, and sometimes even owing to landslips 
 the dangerous condition, of the road deterring us 
 from undertaking such a journey ; but as a spot 
 of great interest, and annually visited by thousands 
 of pilgrims, it may not be out of place to give a 
 short description of this holy spot, and the origin 
 of its sanctity, as told to Vigne by a native of the 
 country, that traveller himself having been pre- 
 vented by weather and other causes from reaching 
 the place itself. As regards the origin of the name, 
 'Umur' signifies 'the immortal,' and 'Nath' is a 
 Sanscrit word applied to the principal Hindu divini- 
 ties, as lords and masters, chiefly to Vishnu, and 
 occasionally to Siva, and also to the place where 
 they are worshipped and supposed more particularly 
 to reside ; the name prefixed being sometimes that 
 of the place where they are worshipped, sometimes 
 that of the builder of the shrine. In this case it
 
 248 The Happy Valley. 
 
 is a place of pilgrimage sacred to Siva, who is 
 supposed to reside within the cavern in the form 
 of a block of ice, and the legend of its sanctified 
 origin runs as follows : 
 
 " The angel of death appeared to the divinities, 
 and told them that he would destroy them. They 
 were much troubled at this threat, and proceeded to 
 the place of abode of the Lord Siva, and entreated 
 his protection. Siva appeared to them with a bright 
 and pleasing countenance, and showing them great 
 favour, inquired into their state and circumstances 
 with much anxiety. The divinities represented that 
 the angel of death was at enmity with them, and 
 that they dreaded his power. Upon which Siva, 
 of his great mercy and kindness, bestowed upon 
 them the water of immortality, by which they were 
 freed from the persecution .of the angel of death. 
 Siva afterwards again went to his devotional ab- 
 stractions at his abode, and was again sought for 
 by the divinities ; but they could not see him. 
 They were therefore in great distress, and lifted 
 up their hands in prayer, and intreated him to show 
 himself to them, whence the pilgrimage and prayer 
 at the cave of Ambernath." 
 
 Being to the Hindus what Mecca is to the 
 Mohammedans, it is annually resorted to for the
 
 Sheesha Ndg. 249 
 
 ceremony which takes place there, on or about 
 the 28th of July of each year, before which date 
 crowds of pilgrims, of every rank and caste, from 
 every part of Kashmir and Hindustan, collect 
 together at Islamabad, and march to the cave by 
 stages up the Liddar Valley as far as Palgam, 
 and then prosecute their journey, which now be- 
 comes rough and perilous, up the defile leading 
 north-east, which brings them to their destination. 
 As far as Palgam, distant twenty-six miles, the 
 road is fairly easy ; but on leaving the main valley 
 and entering the defile on the right, the path, 
 though worn by the pilgrimages of ages, is rocky 
 and fatiguing, and rendered often dangerous by 
 landslips or avalanches, causing frequent fatal acci- 
 dents. The victims are, however, scarcely mourned 
 for by their relatives, their death in the performance 
 of a pious act rendering them meet for a happy 
 future. Some fifteen miles up the defile the 
 Sheesha Nag, ' the glassy ' or ' leaden lake,' is 
 reached, from which the incipient Liddar river 
 flows, a small sheet of water about a third of a 
 mile in diameter, lying in a punch-bowl formed by 
 the nearly perpendicular precipices of a limestone 
 ridge, as much twisted and distorted as the same 
 formation on other parts of the hills rising from
 
 250 The Happy Valley. 
 
 the plain of Kashmir, having most probably been 
 formed at the same period. Fourteen miles further 
 on the cave itself is reached, which, situated on 
 the snowy mountains at an altitude of 16,000 feet, 
 is a desolate and weird spot, the surrounding scenery 
 being described by those who have seen it as of 
 Titanic splendour. The cave is of gypsum, about 
 fifty yards long by nearly the same breadth, with 
 a height of about thirty feet, and contains, it is 
 said, stalactites, icicles, and large blocks of ice in 
 the clefts of the rocks, which are most probably 
 frozen springs. The ceremony that takes place on 
 the arrival of the pilgrims is thus described : * 
 
 " A vast multitude of men, women, and children 
 advance towards the cave, at an hour appointed by 
 the attendant, the Brahmans first divesting them- 
 selves of all clothing, excepting some pieces of 
 birch bark. When the pilgrims arrive at its mouth 
 they commence shouting, clapping their hands, and 
 calling upon Siva. ' Show yourself to us,' is the 
 universal and simultaneous exclamation and prayer 
 of prostrate thousands. The cave is much frequented 
 by rock -pigeons, which, affrighted by the noise, 
 rush out tumultuously, and are the answer to the 
 prayer. In the body of one or other of these 
 
 * VIGNE, Travels in Kashmir, vol. ii.
 
 Symbolism of the Dove. 2 5 1 
 
 resides the person of their divinity ; and Siva, the 
 Destroyer and the All-powerful, is considered to 
 be present, and incarnate as the harmless dove. If 
 there happens to be no pigeon in the cave at the 
 time, the pilgrims are much disappointed, although 
 I could not learn that they augured anything par- 
 ticularly bad from its non-appearance. The Fakirs 
 and Brahmans at all events make a good thing of 
 it ; their maintenance is an inculcated duty, and 
 they grow comparatively rich by the presents they 
 receive during the expedition." 
 
 Regarding the origin and reason for this cere- 
 mony, the same author further observes : " The dove, 
 as need scarcely be remarked, has often figured as a 
 metaphor and as a tenement and receptacle for 
 divinity, both in sacred and profane history, the 
 same bird having been even called upon by the 
 Musulmans to dispense with its natural timidity in 
 aid of their prophet, and to build its nest in the cave 
 where Mahomet took refuge upon his flight from 
 Mecca. The analogy may, perhaps, have been 
 accidental; and although the account of the pil- 
 grimage as detailed above be redolent with igno- 
 rance, superstition, and priestcraft, yet at the same 
 time one cannot help thinking of the dove of the 
 ark, and of the wilderness, and of our own sacred
 
 252 The Happy Valley. 
 
 writings. The dove has always been the emblem 
 of peace ; the sublime and the preternatural have 
 always been the concomitants of the wilderness ; 
 solitude accompanied by any extraordinary degree 
 of remoteness has often been a cause of sanctifi- 
 cation, and the more wild and gloomy the locality, 
 the better has it been thought qualified to become 
 the peculiar residence of a god. But surely such a 
 custom as is here detailed, and which in all proba- 
 bility must have existed for ages before the coming 
 of Christ, is not to be looked upon in the light of a 
 mere augury from the flight of birds, or an attempt 
 to find out whether Siva be or not propitious, by 
 his deigning to be present or absent as a dove in its 
 natural habitation. A thinking and unprejudiced 
 mind would rather be induced to consider whether 
 it were not, partly at least, founded on some original 
 revelation made to the inhabitants of this earth by 
 their Creator, and to recognise in the whole account 
 no powerless addition to the numerous presages of 
 incarnation and redemption, corroborative of the 
 Mosaic records, which have been noticed by all 
 writers on the religion of the Hindus as dimly 
 distinct amongst the dark confusion and anachron- 
 isms of its own recorded history."
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Ruins of Martand Temple of the Sun Its Antiquity The 
 Pandus Vigne's Description of the Architecture of the Temple 
 Its Exterior Its Interior Effects of Earthquakes Peculiarities 
 observed in the Architecture of old Ruins in Kashmir Vigne's 
 Opinion The Wardwan Valley The Springs of Kashmir The 
 Atchibal Spring The Bringh River Identity of River and Spring 
 Bernier's Description of Atchibal The Water of the Spring 
 The Vernag Spring Road to Vernag Shangus Dancing Girls 
 of Shangus The Nowboog Valley The Tansan Bridge The 
 Kookar Nag The Shahabad Valley The Spring of Vernag 
 Source of the Jhelam The Garden of the Spring The Mogul 
 Emperor Jehangir Nur Mehal, the Light of the Palace Her 
 Parentage The Rozloo Valley The Veshau River Its Source 
 The Konsa Nag Cataract of Haribal Road to Shupiyan End 
 of Tour Concluding Remarks. 
 
 F all the interesting sights in the vicinity of 
 Islamabad the ruins of Martand hold the 
 first place, and they are easy of access, 
 being situated only five miles from the 
 city, on the highest part of the kareewah, 
 where it commences to rise to its junction with the 
 mountains. This old Hindu temple, originally 
 dedicated to the worship of the sun, and called 
 Pandu Koru by the natives of the Valley, is now
 
 254 The Happy Valley. 
 
 only a ruin, but enough yet remains to enable one 
 to form a fair opinion of what it must have been in 
 early days, when a leading specimen of a gigantic 
 style of architecture. Although not able to boast 
 of an equality with that well-known example at 
 Palmyra, or the remains of the palace at Per- 
 sepolis, yet it deserves to be ranked with them, and 
 in situation on a natural platform at the foot of some 
 of the noblest mountains in the world is far superior 
 to either. Nothing is known with any certainty as 
 to its antiquity, its founders, or its original use ; but 
 as the greater part of the old ruins in Kashmir were 
 built between the time of Asoka and the reiofn of 
 
 o 
 
 Avante Verma, that would give us from B.C. 250 to 
 A.D. 875, a wide range of years, during which nume- 
 rous temples and other edifices were erected in the 
 Valley, the same style being apparent in all of them, 
 even down to the building already noticed at Payech, 
 the most modern of all, erected some considerable 
 time after the one now under consideration, which, 
 according to the best authorities, was built between 
 the fifth and sixth centuries of the Christian era. 
 The natives of the country, however, attribute to it a 
 much greater antiquity, as its name denotes Pandu 
 Koru signifying ' the house of the Pandus/ the sons 
 of Pand, a monarch of the Lunar race of ancient

 
 Temple of Martand. 255 
 
 Hindu kings, who, driven from India, in the course 
 of their wanderings visited Kashmir, and erected 
 numerous temples, notably the temple of Martand. 
 This kind of legend, however, applies to every old 
 building in the East of whose origin there exists no 
 reliable information, all being considered by the 
 Hindus the work of these princes or their im- 
 mediate descendants. In the book before men- 
 tioned a very good descriptive account of this 
 temple and its style of architecture is given, together 
 with the opinion of other authorities on the subject, 
 which is well worth perusal, and to which I am 
 indebted for the following abridged account.* 
 
 At present all that remains of the Temple of 
 Martand consists of a central and rectangular 
 building, surrounded by a court or quadrangle and 
 rectangular colonnade facing inwards, the length of 
 the outer side of the wall being about ninety yards, 
 and that of the front about fifty-six. The remains 
 of three gateways opening into the court, the prin- 
 cipal fronting due east towards Islamabad, are still 
 standing. It is also rectangular in its details, and 
 built with enormous blocks of limestone of many 
 feet in length, and of proportionate solidity, and all 
 cemented with an excellent mortar. 
 
 VIGNE'S Travels in Kashmir, vol. i. p. 385.
 
 256 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Several of the pillars of the colonnade are still 
 standing, and between each are trefoiled niches ; 
 while the capitals of the larger pillars are richly 
 carved and ornamented, their shafts, which are 
 grooved rather than fluted, being also surmounted 
 by an ornamented neck of beads. The faade of 
 the building which stands in the interior is abreast 
 of the gates of either colonnade, and one-third of 
 the whole length of the quadrangle intervenes 
 between it and the front gate, which faces to the 
 west, a bank of stones and rubbish occupying the 
 place where there was originally a flight of steps 
 leading to the doorway. Both sides of the door- 
 way on the front are carved in relievos, being 
 miniature representations of those in the interior ; 
 but they are so much injured by time as to be 
 scarcely perceptible, excepting when the sun brings 
 them out with a strong shadow. The interior is 
 divided into two compartments ; that at the entrance 
 is nine yards in length, and at the western end is an 
 inner chamber or crypt five yards long, surrounded 
 by blank walls, but open like the other to the face 
 of day, all semblance of a roof having long since 
 disappeared beneath the shocks of earthquakes and 
 the unsparing hand of Sikunder But-Shikan. 
 
 In the centre of either side of the larger anterior
 
 Sculptures at Martand. 257 
 
 chamber is a window reaching to the floor, and 
 about eight feet in height. The walls, thus divided 
 quarterly, are filled up with single figures in relief, 
 two of Surya, and two of Luchmi, one in each 
 panel. The building was once apparently two 
 stories high, and, judging from other ruins in the 
 country, the upper part was certainly pyramidal, 
 and the whole fabric must have been of considerable 
 height ; for its present height, of forty feet or so, 
 has been diminished by earthquakes even within 
 the memory of man, and at the time Vigne visited 
 it, some forty years ago, he was assured by an 
 intelligent native, that he himself remembered it 
 much higher. Perhaps the only unaccountable parts 
 of the ruins are two side buildings, like detached 
 wings, sculptured with figures of the same character 
 as those inside the building ; but most probably 
 these were merely ornamental, and joined by a 
 flying buttress to the upper part of the centre 
 building. 
 
 Details characteristic of different styles are ob- 
 servable in the architecture of this temple, and that 
 part of the subject is treated of by the same author, 
 who mentions also that he was struck with the 
 great general resemblance which it bore to the 
 recorded disposition of the ark and its surrounding
 
 258 The Happy Valley. 
 
 curtains, in imitation of which the temple at Jerusalem 
 was built. The general conclusions, however, arrived 
 at were, that Kashmir, having been, from its insu- 
 lated situation, its climate, and other advantages, 
 a place of consequence from the very earliest 
 ages, it is probable that its architecture, or some 
 of its peculiarities, like that of Egypt, is more 
 likely to have afforded a prototype than to be a 
 copy of any known style, while it seems indeed to 
 be peculiar to the Valley ; for there is nothing 
 exactly like it in Hindustan, or in any country to 
 the westward of the Indus. One great authority 
 on ancient architecture has stated that the temples 
 in Kashmir, all of which bear a strong resemblance 
 as to their manner of construction, are decidedly 
 separated in style from all known examples ; but 
 as the chief points of difference between these 
 buildings and the Roman are of a Hindu character, 
 infers that their builders were Hindu imitators of 
 the Roman rather than Roman or Grecian imitators 
 of the Hindu, seeing that the forms approach or 
 imitate the Roman, whereas the workmanship is 
 of the former character the Parthian conquests 
 in Syria giving an opportunity to the Eastern 
 workmen to see the buildings of that country, 
 and even of Egypt, by which new forms were
 
 Wardwan Valley. 259 
 
 suggested. This agrees very well with the date 
 usually assigned to them, namely, between 250 B.C. 
 and 875 A.D. There are a great number of these 
 buildings in the Valley, but Martand is the principal, 
 although not the earliest example. All, however, 
 are nearly similar in architectural design, as de- 
 scribed above, a fact that cannot fail to be noticed 
 by those who have inspected the curious building 
 at Pandritan, the edifice at Payech, the erection on 
 the summit of the Takt-i-Suliman, which have been 
 described in these pages, and which, with the addi- 
 tion of the ruins to be seen in the Bararmila Pass> 
 and the Temple of the Sun, so lately under con- 
 sideration, are the chief types of native architecture 
 in the Valley, and should be visited and studied by 
 all tourists as emblems of the former prosperity of 
 a country which they could not do otherwise than 
 have adorned. 
 
 The Wardwan Valley may be reached by four 
 marches from Islamabad, but it is rarely visited, 
 except by the sportsman, who will there, if he is 
 fortunate, meet with ibex and other game, which 
 may repay him in a measure for the cold and damp 
 climate of this rugged region, and the rough life 
 incidental to his pursuit. It is a long and narrow 
 valley of about forty miles in length, with a breadth
 
 260 The Happy Valley. 
 
 only on an average of a quarter of a mile, bounded 
 on either side by high and rugged mountains one 
 very lofty range separating it from the main Valley 
 of Kashmir. A river of the same name traverses 
 its length, and there are a few thinly-inhabited 
 villages or scattered huts, but nothing to interest 
 the stranger, or call forth a visit, save for the 
 purpose mentioned above, for which it is greatly 
 famed. 
 
 In addition to its rivers and lakes, the country of 
 Kashmir has long been celebrated for its mag- 
 nificent springs, some of which we have already 
 visited. They are, however, small in comparison 
 with the two towards which we now direct our 
 steps. The first and largest is that of Atchibal, 
 situated some six miles to the east of Islamabad, at 
 the foot of a low range of hills, the water rising 
 from beneath the limestone rock that forms the 
 extremity of the spur. It gushes out in several 
 places, but the principal spring makes its way up 
 through a large fissure, with force sufficient to 
 throw a stream of water some considerable height 
 above the level of its margin a fact apparently indi- 
 cating a descent from the lofty mountains behind it, 
 rather than the generally accepted theory that it is 
 only the reappearance of a river called the Bringh,
 
 Atchibal. 261 
 
 which, a few miles away, after flowing for some little 
 distance, suddenly disappears through the bottom of 
 a large fissure in its stony bed. 
 
 This theory of the identity of the river and spring 
 has long been credited by the natives of the Valley, 
 and it is most probably correct; for the direction thus 
 ascribed to the river is much the same that it would 
 have followed on the surface ; and it has been also 
 stated that small pieces of wood or other articles 
 thrown into the Bringh above the place of its dis- 
 appearance have reappeared at Atchibal, a full proof 
 of the existence of a large subterraneous passage. 
 Many years ago this spring was a favourite resort, 
 not only of the old kings of Kashmir, but also of 
 their successors, the Great Moguls ; and it must 
 have been a pleasant spot in the time of Bernier, 
 the first European who ever visited the Valley, 
 about the year 1663, and who, in his Travels in 
 India, a series of letters in French concerning his 
 journey to Kashmir, in Aurungzebe's suite, writes 
 of it thus : " In returning from Send Brary I turned 
 a little out of the highway, in order to sleep at 
 Archiavel (Atchibal), which is a place of pleasure 
 belonging to the old kings of Kashmir, and at 
 present to the Great Mogul. Its principal beauty 
 is a fountain, of which the water disperses itself on
 
 262 The Happy Valley. 
 
 all sides around a building which is not devoid 
 of elegance, and flows through the gardens by a 
 hundred canals. It comes out of the earth as if 
 it remounted and returned from the bottom of a 
 well with violence and boiling, and in such abun- 
 dance that it may rather be called a river than a 
 fountain. Its water is admirably good, and is so 
 cold that to hold the hand within it could scarcely 
 be borne. The garden is very beautiful on account 
 of its alleys, the great quantity of fruit-trees, apri- 
 cots, and cherries, the quantity of jets-d'eau of all 
 kinds of figures, of reservoirs full of fish, and a kind 
 of cascade very high, which in falling makes a great 
 sheet of thirty or forty paces in length, the effect 
 of which is admirable, particularly at night, when 
 they have placed below it an infinity of little lamps, 
 which are arranged in holes made on purpose in the 
 well, all which is of very great beauty." 
 
 A great alteration has taken place since the time 
 when this was written ; for although the building, 
 the reservoir, and the garden mentioned by Bernier, 
 all of which were constructed by Shah Jehan, are 
 still standing, they are in ruins, overshadowed by 
 the large chenar trees that, probably planted at 
 the same time, have, left to themselves, continued 
 to grow and increase in size and beauty. Whilst
 
 Shangus. 263 
 
 the work of man's hand has, like everything else in 
 Kashmir, fallen to decay, Nature's handiwork re- 
 mains the same. The magnificent stream flows on 
 as in days of yore ; and the waters of the different 
 sources, uniting soon after leaving the garden, form 
 a small river, which, flowing peacefully on for some 
 little distance, eventually joins the Jhelam near the 
 town of Islamabad. 
 
 The other large spring is that of Vernag, distant 
 some fifteen miles away from Atchibal, the road 
 lying along the plains, and comparatively easy to 
 travel. But there is also another which we will 
 take, as it will allow of our visiting the Nowboog 
 Valley, and a collection of springs called the Kookar 
 Nag, whose waters are very cold, and celebrated 
 throughout the country for their purity. Pursuing 
 this road we turn eastwards, after leaving Atchibal, 
 and soon arrive at an old tumble-down village called 
 Shangus, celebrated in former days as containing a 
 colony of nautch girls, famous for their beauty and 
 talent, but who possess no representatives at the 
 present time on this spot, the family having ap- 
 parently died out or emigrated to some other 
 locality. A mile or so further on is another small 
 village, close to the commencement of the long, 
 narrow pass, through which the path leads to the
 
 264 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Nowboog valley, a small but beautiful glen of about 
 eight miles long, bounded by pine-clad mountains 
 on either side, abounding with bears and other 
 animals ; and as, from its situation, the climate is 
 agreeable, it is often the resort of sportsmen and 
 others, attracted thither by the charm of its scenery, 
 the ground being park-like and covered with low 
 and swelling hills, carpeted with rich grass, and 
 sufficiently interspersed with streams and patches 
 of forest to be rendered exceedingly picturesque, 
 and a delightful spot for the lovers of Nature. 
 
 Leaving the Valley, the road, turning to the right, 
 brings us after seven miles or so of easy marching 
 to the Tansan bridge, thrown over the river Bringh, 
 crossing which we find ourselves on the highway 
 from Kashmir to Kishtwar. 
 
 This bridge, near which stands on the hillside the 
 Musjid of Hajee Daud Sahib, is a place of some 
 strength and strategical importance, and has been 
 the scene of many a struggle in former days, be- 
 tween the Kashmiris and the inhabitants of Kisht- 
 war, being the key to the possession of the Bringh 
 Valley, which debouches on the plain immediately 
 opposite. Numerous were the fights at this spot 
 during the feuds that prevailed amongst the people 
 -of these two mountainous countries before the latter
 
 Kookar Nag. 265 
 
 territory was finally invaded by Gulab Singh, and 
 the last of its independent rajahs, Teg Singh, giving 
 himself up without fighting, it became a part of the 
 Jamoo and Kashmir possessions. Five miles to 
 the north-west of this bridge is the Kookar Nag, 
 a beautiful spring, gushing out most copiously in 
 several places from the foot of the limestone rock, 
 which forms the base of a long range of verdant 
 hills separating the 'pergunnah' of Bringh from 
 that of Shahabad. On the other side of the range 
 lies the Shahabad valley, which contains what was 
 once the town of that name, the largest at this end 
 of the province, but now dwindled down to the 
 mere dimensions of a village ; and some three miles 
 further, we come to the spring of Vernag, the most 
 celebrated of all the numerous springs in Kashmir, 
 and undoubtedly the principal source of the river 
 Jhelam. 
 
 This famous spring is on the opposite side of the 
 strath from Shahabad, and close under the moun- 
 tains bordering this end of the Valley, a range 
 which is crossed by the traveller proceeding by the 
 Jummoo and Banihal route, the pass of that name 
 being entered within a short distance of the fountain. 
 The water, which is very cold, gushes out in con- 
 siderable volume, being at first received into an
 
 266 The Happy Valley. 
 
 octagonal stone basin, nearly forty yards wide, and 
 of great depth, and filled with sacred trout. On 
 leaving this basin, it flows through the garden in 
 a series of canals, passing out as a considerable 
 stream. Shortly, joining the Sandrahan river, it 
 rolls steadily onwards to develop further on into 
 the broad deep Jhelam, the principal river of 
 Kashmir, which, commencing near Islamabad by 
 the junction of the Arpat, Bringh, and Sandrahan 
 (three streams owing their origin chiefly to the 
 several springs we have visited), is navigable nearly 
 from its beginning, and, possessing a channel suffi- 
 cient for carrying off the rain and snow from the 
 mountains that surround the Valley, is one of its 
 principal beauties, and no less important a factor in 
 the prosperity of the country which it so materially 
 adorns. 
 
 Around the spring are the ruins of an old garden 
 and palace, built about the year 1619, by the Em- 
 peror Jehangir, and his lovely consort, on which 
 account only are they interesting. It is stated that 
 this place was the favourite spot above all others in 
 the country with that monarch, who, taken ill at 
 Baramgalla on his road to Kashmir, expressed a 
 wish to be transported thither that he might die 
 beside the spring he loved so well, and had so much
 
 Jehangir and Nur Mahal. 267 
 
 adorned the magnificent basin that receives the 
 water being also mainly formed under his direction. 
 However, he was not to see it again; for his decease 
 took place before his orders could be obeyed, and 
 his body was removed to Lahore, when a magni- 
 ficent mausoleum still stands, erected in loving 
 memory by the dear companion of his travels and 
 residence in the Happy Valley, during the thirteen 
 visits he paid to that favoured portion of the 
 dominions that acknowledged him as master. 
 
 Of all the Great Moguls, the name of Jehangir is 
 perhaps the most renowned in the Valley, and 
 equally so is that of his wife Nur Mahal, to whom 
 is due the designs of the numerous buildings, 
 fountains, and gardens erected during the lifetime of 
 her august consort, the ruined remains of which 
 have been noticed and described at various parts of 
 our tour. The Kashmirians still reverence her 
 name, and even claim her as a countrywoman, 
 asserting that she was a native of the Valley, but 
 cannot adduce any facts in support of this assertion, 
 or disapprove the more authentic story of her birth 
 found in Indian history, which proves her to be 
 the daughter of the Persian adventurer Itmad-ood- 
 Dowlah, whose tomb at Agra is one of the inter- 
 esting sights of that city.
 
 268 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Eight miles from Vernag is the pretty little valley 
 of Rozloo, oval in shape and three miles long by 
 two broad. It is a fertile spot, bounded on the 
 south by the grassy slopes of the Pir Panjal, con- 
 taining several villages, and much frequented by 
 visitors in search of the picturesque. As we have 
 now pretty well exhausted the chief places of 
 interest in this portion of Kashmir, we may return 
 to the capital by way of Islamabad, or continue 
 along the southern side of the Valley, and on to 
 Shupiyan, visiting en route the cataract at the source 
 of the Veshau, which brings us to the termination 
 of the entire tour of the province, and to the town 
 where we halted on our road to Srinagar, by the 
 Pir Panjal route, and where we made our entrance 
 into the country we had come to visit. 
 
 The town of Shupiyan is some thirty miles from 
 our last halting-place, the Rozloo Valley. The road, 
 skirting the foot of the hills for the first part of 
 the way, and then opening into the plains, passes 
 by the villages of Ban Doosar and Nohan, the two 
 usual resting-places for the night on this march of 
 twenty miles. From the latter place, the road soon 
 opens into a fine grassy plain, and then continues 
 along the left bank of the river Veshau, to the 
 mouth of the gorge through which it issues from
 
 Konsa Ndg. 269 
 
 the mountains. This fine river, the largest in 
 Kashmir, the Jhelam alone excepted, rises from the 
 Konsa Ndg, a far-famed lake, a noble mountain tarn, 
 situated on the very top of the Pir Panjal, at an 
 elevation of between twelve and thirteen thousand 
 feet. The lake itself, according to the observations 
 of other travellers, for I did not attempt the arduous 
 march to the summit of the mountain ridge upon 
 which it is situated, is nearly a mile in length, with 
 a breadth of five hundred to six hundred yards, and 
 of some considerable depth. At the eastern end, 
 the banks slope gently downwards to the water's 
 edge, but on the northern and southern sides, the 
 bare rock rises very abruptly from the water to a 
 height of 1,400 feet, with remarkably pointed peaks 
 and bare scarped sides. The fresh and unworn 
 appearance of the eastern side, forbids the idea that 
 this extraordinary place has ever been the crater of 
 a volcano, which the 'more irregular and heaped-up 
 appearance of the western bank might otherwise 
 have tended to encourage. From these facts it has 
 been inferred that the cavity was formed by the 
 sinking of the lower, and of the tabular rocks on 
 the eastern bank, and that the northern bank or 
 dam remains more rounded in consequence of its 
 not having been sufficiently a sharer in the force
 
 270 The Happy Valley. 
 
 which has upraised the other, the valley of the lake 
 having been most probably formed by the forcible 
 separation of the mountain-top. Leaving the lake 
 through an irregular rocky opening in its western 
 side, the water of the river Veshau falls into a deep 
 and picturesque channel, which it has worn for itself 
 in the bare rock. Here there are several ledges, 
 over which it dashes, forming cataracts or waterfalls. 
 The largest of these is Haribal, undoubtedly the 
 finest cataract in Kashmir, which can be viewed 
 perfectly by ascending a steep path on the left of 
 the road at the entrance of the gorge. This leads 
 to a lofty rock overhanging the torrent, about a 
 quarter of a mile from where it debouches into the 
 plains. Pursuing a south-easterly direction, from a 
 wide-spreading and fordable stream it becomes a 
 deep unfordable river of considerable width, some 
 little distance from its junction with the Jhelam, 
 five miles below the town of Bijhehara. 
 
 After viewing the fall, a place of peculiar sanctity 
 with the Hindus, we continue our march to our 
 destination ; and passing through a very pretty 
 village called Sedau, about a mile from the Veshau 
 gorge, an easy walk of another five miles brings 
 us to Shupiyan, the termination of the march, and 
 also of our tour.
 
 Conclusion. 2 7 1 
 
 Hence one can proceed back to the capital by 
 Ramoo and Chrar, on the road already described, 
 particularly if the return journey to India is to be 
 made by the Marri route. This proceeding, however, 
 is totally unnecessary if the Imperial road is to be 
 selected, for which Shupiyan forms a good starting- 
 point, supplies of all kinds being usually abundant. 
 But the choice of roads may be safely left to the 
 discretion of the traveller, and I need not say more. 
 My task is finished, and my promise fulfilled of 
 indicating the roads to Kashmir, describing the 
 chief places of interest in the Happy Valley, and 
 the manners and customs of its inhabitants as far 
 as I am able in the scope of the present volume. 
 Should any remarks or information conveyed here 
 have proved of interest to those who peruse these 
 pages, or should they in the future serve as some 
 little guide and assistance to intending travellers in 
 the romantic Vale, I shall deem myself amply re- 
 paid by the knowledge that my work has been of 
 some service, and can only beg of my readers to 
 deal leniently with any shortcomings they may 
 find.
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 ROUTE No. i. 
 The Gujerdt and Pir Panjdl Route. 
 
 d 
 fc 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 Giijerat to 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Dowlatnagar . 
 
 
 The first three stages are usually 
 
 2 
 
 Kotla . . . 
 
 
 accomplished in one journey, 
 
 3 
 
 Bhimber . . 
 
 2 8^- miles 
 
 either by stage-cart or dhooly- 
 
 
 
 
 dak. Road fairly good to Bhim- 
 
 
 
 
 ber. 
 
 4 
 
 Saidabad . . 
 
 i5 
 
 Road fairly good. Several rivers 
 
 
 
 
 have to be forded, and Aditak 
 
 
 
 
 range crossed. Good bunga- 
 
 
 
 
 low. 
 
 5 
 
 Naoshera . . 
 
 I2 
 
 Range of Kaman Goshi has to 
 
 
 
 
 be crossed, and stream forded 
 
 
 
 
 several times ; from foot of 
 
 
 
 
 pass fair road. Good bunga- 
 
 
 
 
 low ; supplies abundant. 
 
 6 
 
 Changas . . 
 
 13^ 
 
 Road along valley of Tawi. Fairly 
 
 
 
 
 easy travelling through very fine 
 
 
 
 
 scenery. Good bungalow.
 
 274 The Happy Valley. 
 
 The Gujerdt and Pir Panjdl Route (continued). 
 
 6 
 fc 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 Changas to 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Rajaori . . 
 
 14 miles 
 
 Easy road along valley of Tawi, 
 
 
 
 
 which river has to be forded 
 
 
 
 
 near the town, the largest met 
 
 
 
 
 with on the journey. An open 
 
 
 
 
 pavilion in garden serves as 
 
 
 
 
 a rest bungalow. Good en- 
 
 
 
 
 camping ground. 
 
 8 
 
 ThannaMundi 
 
 H i, 
 
 Easy road, still along valley of 
 
 
 
 
 Tawi. Fair bungalow. 
 
 9 
 
 Baramgalla . 
 
 io 
 
 The Rutten Pir, 8,200 feet high, 
 
 
 
 
 has to be crossed. Rather 
 
 
 
 
 rough travelling at first ; from 
 
 
 
 
 foot of pass fairly easy road to 
 
 
 
 
 village. Bungalow indifferent. 
 
 10 
 
 Poshiana . . 
 
 8 
 
 Path lies up valley of Sooran 
 
 
 
 
 river, mostly along its stony 
 
 
 
 
 bed. Several waterfalls are to 
 
 
 
 
 be seen. About a mile from 
 
 
 
 
 village, steep ascent. No bun- 
 
 
 
 
 galow but small mud hut. Tents 
 
 
 
 
 have to be pitched on the roofs 
 
 
 
 
 of the houses. 
 
 ii 
 
 Aliabad Serai . 
 
 " 
 
 Road easy at first along side of 
 
 
 
 
 mountain; then crosses river, 
 
 
 
 
 and enters Nilana valley. At 
 
 
 
 
 upper end is the Pir Panjal 
 
 
 
 
 range. Ascent rather hard up 
 
 
 
 
 zigzag path; top of pass 1 1,600 
 
 
 
 
 feet. Road then gradual slope 
 
 
 
 
 to the Serai. Grand view from 
 
 
 
 
 summit of pass. Fair accom- 
 
 
 
 
 modation in the Serai.
 
 Appendix I. 
 
 275 
 
 The Gujerdt and Pir Panjdl Route (continued). 
 
 6 
 fc 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 Aliabad Serai to 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Hirpoor . . 
 
 12 miles 
 
 Road along the valley, at first 
 
 
 
 
 along side of mountain, and 
 
 
 
 
 towards end of march opens 
 
 
 
 
 into the plains of Kashmir. 
 
 
 
 
 No bungalow, but old Mogul 
 
 
 
 
 serai. 
 
 13 
 
 Shupiyan . . 
 
 8 
 
 An easy march along right bank 
 
 
 
 
 of river. A large town, with 
 
 
 
 
 good bungalow; supplies a- 
 
 
 
 
 bundant 
 
 14 
 
 Ramoo . . 
 
 ii 
 
 Road easy along the plains; 
 
 
 
 
 crosses Rembiara river; then 
 
 
 
 
 ascends hill, and passes through 
 
 
 
 
 a wood ; then descends to 
 
 
 
 
 Ramchu river. Good bunga- 
 
 
 
 
 low. 
 
 15 
 
 Srinagar . . 
 
 18 
 
 A long march, but road level all 
 
 
 
 
 the way, passing through vil- 
 
 
 
 
 lage of Wahtor, from whence 
 
 
 
 
 road to Srinagar is good, and 
 
 
 
 
 lined with poplar-trees. On 
 
 
 
 
 arrival at city cross river; 
 
 
 
 
 bungalows and encamping- 
 
 
 
 
 ground will be found on its 
 
 
 
 
 right bank. 
 
 T 2
 
 276 
 
 The Happy Valley. 
 
 ROUTE No. 2. 
 The Rdwal Pindi and Marri Route. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 RaVal Pindi to 
 Barakao . . 
 Tret . . . 
 Marri 
 
 Daywal 
 
 Kohala. 
 
 13 miles 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 Chatar Kalas 
 
 Rara 
 
 12 
 
 Tinali 
 
 12 
 
 The first three stages are usually 
 accomplished in one journey, 
 either by stage-cart or dhooly- 
 dak. Road good all the way. 
 
 Easy march down-hill all the way. 
 Good bungalow, and supplies 
 abundant. 
 
 Road for first four miles descend- 
 ing to river Jhelam, along the 
 right bank of which the re- 
 mainder leads. Good dak. 
 Bungalow close to river. 
 
 Road crosses river by suspension- 
 bridge, and then skirts it all 
 the way; a fair path, safe to 
 ride. Small but good bunga- 
 low. 
 
 Road steep in places; the last 
 part of march it descends to 
 river. Very good bungalow; 
 supplies plentiful. 
 
 A beautiful march through lovely 
 scenery; road precipitous in 
 places, but rideable nearly all 
 the way. Good bungalow on 
 a level with the river.
 
 Appendix I. 277 
 
 The R&wal Pindi and Marri Route (continued). 
 
 6 
 55 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 Tinali to 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Ghari . . . 
 
 10 miles 
 
 Easy road. Good bungalow. 
 
 10 
 
 Hatti . . . 
 
 12 
 
 Road very hilly; in several places 
 
 
 
 
 many hundred feet above the 
 
 
 
 
 river, and bordering rather ugly 
 
 
 
 
 precipices. Scenery very fine. 
 
 
 
 
 A good bungalow. 
 
 ii 
 
 Chakoti . . 
 
 15 
 
 Road broad and good, but very 
 
 
 
 
 hilly, and with steep precipices 
 
 
 
 
 in places. Several streams 
 
 
 
 
 have to be crossed, but all 
 
 
 
 
 are bridged. Bungalow small, 
 
 
 
 
 but good. 
 
 12 
 
 Ooree . . . 
 
 16 
 
 A long march, but over a fair 
 
 
 
 
 road, which is beautifully sha- 
 
 
 
 
 ded throughout, passes over 
 
 
 
 
 eight deepgorges, and is crossed 
 
 
 
 
 by several streams, all bridged. 
 
 
 
 
 A capital bungalow on the top 
 
 
 
 
 of a plateau surrounded by a 
 
 
 
 
 high mountain. 
 
 13 
 
 Oorumboo 
 
 ii 
 
 Road comparatively level ; skirts 
 
 
 
 
 the Jhelam, and is beautifully 
 
 
 
 
 shady, passing through large 
 
 
 
 
 forest. Scenery very fine. Good 
 
 
 
 
 bungalow.
 
 2 7 8 
 
 The Happy Valley. 
 
 The Rdwal Pindi and Marri Route (continued). 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 Oorumboo to 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Baramiila . . 
 
 15 miles 
 
 Road good ; passes through Nao- 
 
 
 
 
 shera, and crosses the Jhelamto 
 
 
 
 
 town after a pleasant and easy 
 
 
 
 
 march which conducts one into 
 
 
 
 
 the Vale itself. At this town, 
 
 
 
 
 where there is a good double- 
 
 
 
 
 storied bungalow and abundant 
 
 
 
 
 supplies, boats can be had, 
 
 
 
 
 and Srinagar reached in about 
 
 
 
 
 twenty hours, affording a de- 
 
 
 
 
 lightful trip up the river Jhelam 
 
 
 
 
 and through the Woolar lake. 
 
 15 
 
 Pattan . . . 
 
 14 
 
 Road very good, and mostly level 
 
 
 
 
 all the way. 
 
 16 
 
 Srinagar . . 
 
 17 
 
 Road good, passing at first through 
 
 
 
 
 fields and the suburbs of Chat- 
 
 
 
 
 terbal ; finally down the avenue 
 
 
 
 
 of poplars near the Palace, and 
 
 
 
 
 then over the Ameeri Kadal, 
 
 
 
 
 or first city bridge, to the bun- 
 
 
 
 
 galows and encamping ground 
 
 
 
 
 set apart for visitors to the 
 
 
 
 
 capital.
 
 Appendix I. 279 
 
 ROUTE No. 3. 
 The Gi'ijerdt and Pi'mch Route. 
 
 This is an alternative route to that over the Pir Panjal Pass, 
 and must be taken when the latter is closed by snow. From 
 Gujerdt to Thanna Mundi the route is the same as found on 
 No. i ; and from this place to Ooree, where it joins the Marri 
 route, is six marches, as follows : 
 
 d 
 
 fe 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 
 Thanna Mundi to 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Sooran . . . 
 
 1 6 miles 
 
 Road passes over Rutten Pir Pass, 
 
 
 
 
 then into valley of the Sooran 
 
 
 
 
 river, through which it con- 
 
 
 
 
 tinues to destination. Fair 
 
 
 
 
 bungalow. 
 
 2 
 
 Punch . . . 
 
 14 
 
 Road continues along valley on 
 
 
 
 
 right bank of river, the latter end 
 
 
 
 
 of the march passing through 
 
 
 
 
 fields. Punch is a large town, 
 
 
 
 
 the residence of the Rajah of 
 
 
 
 
 that State. Good bungalow, 
 
 
 
 
 and abundant supplies. 
 
 3 
 
 Kahoota . . 
 
 9 
 
 Road turns to the north, passing 
 
 
 
 
 up the valley of the Bitarh, a 
 
 
 
 
 tributary of the Sooran. Bun- 
 
 
 
 
 galow indifferent. 
 
 4 
 
 Aliabad . . . 
 
 8 
 
 A rough march up a long and 
 
 
 
 
 narrow valley. Bungalow in- 
 
 
 
 
 different. 
 
 5 
 
 Hydrabad . . 
 
 7 
 
 Short but hard march. The Haji 
 
 
 
 
 Pir Pass, 8,500 feet high, has 
 
 
 
 
 to be crossed ; path then con- 
 
 
 
 
 tinues along side of mountain. 
 
 
 
 
 Bungalow indifferent.
 
 280 The Happy Valley. 
 
 The Gujerdt and Punch Route (continued). 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Hydrabad to 
 Ooree . 
 
 10 miles 
 
 Path runs along side of mountain, 
 
 and is pretty rough at first. A 
 fine waterfall to be seen on the 
 way. Bungalow good. 
 
 From Ooree the continuation of the journey is the same as 
 shown on Route No. 2. 
 
 ROUTE No. 4. 
 The Rdwal Pindi and Abbottabad Route. 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Rawal Pindi to- 
 Marri , 
 
 Khaira Galli 
 Doonga Galli 
 Bara Galli . 
 Abbottabad 
 
 40 miles 
 
 14 
 
 Ma'nsera . 
 
 Three marches usually performed 
 in one day by stage-cart or 
 dhooly-dak, as shown on No. 
 i Route. 
 
 From Marri to Abbottabad the 
 road lies through the moun- 
 tains, and is a good one, the 
 journey being accomplished in 
 one day by dhooly-dak or 
 riding a halt being made, if 
 required, at any of the inter- 
 mediate stages. Abbottabad 
 is a large station, with a good 
 bungalow and abundant sup- 
 plies. 
 
 Easy march over a good road 
 along the plains. Good bun- 
 galow.
 
 Appendix I. 281 
 
 The Rdwal Pindi and Abbottabad Route (continued). 
 
 NAME. 
 
 DISTANCE. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 Mansera to- 
 Ghari . 
 
 19 miles 
 
 A long but easy march the first 
 
 half through the plains, the 
 latter half through the moun- 
 tains ; a good road all the way. 
 
 Mozufferabad . Q Road crosses a range of hills and 
 
 the Kishenganga river; then 
 ascends to Doobballi pass ; 
 then passes along bed of tor- 
 rent through a narrow gorge 
 which opens into the valley of 
 the Kishenganga. Supplies are 
 abundant, as it is a large town. 
 
 Haitian . . 17 Long, rough march along the 
 
 right bank of the Jhelam, Which 
 is joined by the Kishenganga 
 about a mile from Mozuffera- 
 bad. Fan: bungalow. 
 
 Kanda . . . 1 1 Easy march. Several ups and 
 
 downs, as road is very undu- 
 lating. Fair bungalow. 
 
 Kathai . . . 12 Rough march, very steep in places. 
 
 Shahdera ..12 A rough march ; several ravines 
 
 have to be crossed. Good 
 bungalow. 
 
 Gingle ... 14 An easy march, the road being 
 
 smooth and level nearly all 
 the way. 
 
 Baramula . . 18 ., A long but easy and very pretty 
 
 march. 
 
 Baramula has been described on Route No. 2, where also will 
 be found the continuation of this road to Srinagar.
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 TREATY OF AMRITSAR. 
 
 Treaty between the British Government on the one part, and 
 MAHARAJAH GOLAB SINGH, of Jummoo, on the other, 
 concluded on the part of the British Government by 
 FREDERICK CURRIE, ESQ., and BREVET-MAJOR HENRY 
 MONTGOMERY LAWRENCE, acting 'under the orders of the 
 RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR HENRY HARDINGE, G.C.B., 
 one of Her Britannic Majesty's Honourable Privy Council, 
 Governor-General, appointed by the Honourable Company 
 to direct and control all their affairs in the East Indies, 
 and by MAHARAJAH GOLAB SINGH in person. 
 
 ARTICLE i. The British Government transfers and makes 
 over for ever, in independent possession to Maharajah Golab 
 Singh, and the heirs male of his body, all the hilly or mountainous 
 country with its dependencies, situated on the eastward of the 
 River Indus and westward of the River Ravee, including Chumba 
 and excluding Lahoul, being part of the territory ceded to the 
 British Government by the Lahore State, according to the pro- 
 visions of Article 4 of the Treaty of Lahore, dated gth March, 1846. 
 
 ARTICLE 2. The eastern boundary of the tract, transferred by 
 the foregoing article to Maharajah Golab Singh, shall be laid 
 down by Commissioners appointed by the British Government 
 and Maharajah Golab Singh respectively for that purpose, and 
 shall be denned in a separate engagement after survey.
 
 Appendix II. 283 
 
 ARTICLE 3. In consideration of the transfer made to him and 
 his heirs by the provisions of the foregoing articles, Maharajah 
 Golab Singh will pay to the British Government the sum of 
 seventy-five lacs of rupees (Nanukshahee), fifty lacs to be paid 
 on ratification of this treaty, and twenty-five lacs on or before the 
 ist October of the current year, A.D. 1846. 
 
 ARTICLE 4. The limits of the territories of Maharajah Golab 
 Singh shall not be at any time changed without the concurrence 
 of the British Government 
 
 ARTICLE 5. Maharajah Golab Singh will refer to the arbitra- 
 tion of the British Government any disputes or questions that 
 may arise between himself and the government of Lahore, or 
 any other neighbouring state, and will abide by the decision of 
 the British Government. 
 
 ARTICLE 6. Maharajah Golab Singh engages for himself and 
 heirs to join, with the whole of his military force, the British 
 troops when employed within the hills, or in the territories 
 adjoining his possessions. 
 
 ARTICLE 7. Maharajah Golab Singh engages never to take or 
 retain in his service any British subjects, nor the subjects of any 
 European or American State, without the consent of the British 
 Government. 
 
 ARTICLE 8. Maharajah Golab Singh engages to respect, in 
 regard to the territory transferred to him, the provisions of 
 Articles 5, 6, and .7, of the separate engagement between the 
 British Government and the Lahore Durbar, dated i ith March, 
 1846. 
 
 ARTICLE 9. The British Government will give its aid to 
 Maharajah Golab Singh in protecting his territories from ex- 
 ternal enemies.
 
 284 The Happy Valley. 
 
 ARTICLE 10. Maharajah Golab Singh acknowledges the 
 supremacy of the British Government, and will, in token of 
 such supremacy, present annually to the British Government 
 one horse, twelve perfect shawl-goats, of approved breed (six 
 male and six female), and three pairs of Kashmir shawls. 
 
 This treaty, consisting of ten articles, has been this day settled 
 by Frederick Currie, Esq., and Brevet- Major Henry Montgomery 
 Lawrence, acting under the directions of the Right Honourable 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B., Governor-General, on the part of 
 the British Government, and by Maharajah Golab Singh in 
 person; and the said treaty has been this day ratified by the 
 seal of the Right Honourable Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B., 
 Governor-General. 
 
 Done at Amritsar this i6th day of March, in the year of our 
 Lord 1846, corresponding with the iyth day of Rubbee-ool-awul, 
 1762, Hijree.
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Rules for the Guidance of Officers and other Travellers 
 visiting the Dominions of His HIGHNESS RUNBEER 
 SINGH, the Maharajah of Jummoo and Kashmir. 
 
 1. THERE are four authorized routes for European visitors to 
 Kashmir [all of which are noticed in this work]. The special 
 permission of the Punjab Goverment must be obtained by 
 travellers proposing to proceed from Simla to Kashmir across 
 the hills. All other roads are positively forbidden ; and in respect 
 to the direct road from Jummoo (the Bunnihal route), the pro- 
 hibition has been ordered by the Supreme Government at the 
 special request of His Highness the Maharajah. The road branch- 
 ing from Rajaori by Aknoor, which is used by the Maharajah's 
 family and troops, is also expressly prohibited. 
 
 2. Every officer or traveller about to visit Kashmir should 
 engage before proceeding a sufficient number of ponies or mules 
 for the conveyance of his baggage. 
 
 3. CARRIAGE AND COOLIES. Coolies employed in carrying 
 baggage, or for other purposes, .are to be settled with daily, as in 
 our own provinces, and their loads should not exceed twenty-five 
 seers. Taboos, or mules, should not carry more than two maunds 
 in the hills. 
 
 4. It is necessary to bear in mind that coolies and carriages are 
 not available on the spot, but they have usually to be collected 
 from distant villages. Travellers on reaching a stage should
 
 286 The Happy Valley. 
 
 therefore send forward to the next a notice of their requisitions, 
 and must not expect to be supplied at a moment's warning. This 
 intimation is especially necessary in the case of officers hurrying 
 back to save their leave, and sometimes making double stages. 
 In this case double hire must invariably be paid. 
 
 5. In returning from Kashmir, coolies or carriages should not 
 be taken on beyond the Maharajah's frontier, as it causes much 
 inconvenience to other travellers. 
 
 6. ENCAMPING-PLACES AND SUPPLIES. Officers should encamp 
 at the fixed stages and encamping -grounds, otherwise supplies 
 may not be forthcoming. They should avoid entering or pitching 
 inside villages, where quarrels may occur between their servants 
 and the public of the country. 
 
 7. All arrangements for supplies, coolies, or baggage animals, 
 and all references to the local authorities, should be made through 
 the proper attendants ; but payment for supplies, coolies, and 
 carriage should be made by travellers themselves in their presence. 
 
 8. No interference is to be offered to Kardars (revenue officers), 
 Thanadars, or Kotwals (police officers), or other servants or sub- 
 jects of His Highness the Maharajah; and no calls are to be 
 made on them except in real emergencies. All payments are to 
 be made at the rates demanded, which, if exorbitant, can be after- 
 wards reported to the officer on duty at Srinagar. 
 
 9. A book will be presented at each stage, in which every 
 traveller is required to write legibly his name, rank, station, and 
 the date of his arrival. 
 
 10. SHOOTING EXCURSIONS. When going out on shooting 
 excursions visitors are to take carriage and supplies with them, 
 and not to persist in demanding them at places where they are 
 not procurable. They are not to press into their service the 
 people of the country as beaters for game.
 
 Appendix III. 287 
 
 11. REFERENCES IN CASES OF DIFFICULTIES OR DISPUTES. 
 In any case of dispute officers should avoid putting themselves in 
 direct collision with the authorities, soldiers, servants, or subjects 
 of the Maharajah. They are also warned not to place entire 
 confidence in the statements of their servants, who have often 
 their own objects to serve. 
 
 12. Should they have reason to consider that they or their 
 followers have been ill-treated or affronted, they are strictly 
 prohibited from taking the law into their own hands, or punishing 
 the offending parties ; but they are to make known their complaint 
 to the authorities on the spot, and immediately to report the 
 matter to the officer on deputation at Srinagar. 
 
 13. All such cases which may occur at the capital are to be 
 preferred at once to the officer on deputation, who is there for 
 the purpose of maintaining order. Officers are not themselves 
 to repair to the durbar of the Maharajah, or the courts of his 
 delegates, or to communicate directly with them. 
 
 14. OBSERVANCE OF LOCAL LAWS AND CUSTOMS. Officers 
 are enjoined to remember that they are visitors in the remote 
 dominions of an independent sovereign, where they one and all 
 represent the character of their country. If on any occasion 
 they or their servants be brought in contact with the Maharajah, 
 his sons, relatives, or any of his agents, they must treat them 
 with respect and courtesy, and be guided by and conform to the 
 local laws and usages. 
 
 15. Officers are not allowed to take away with them, either in 
 their service or with their camps, any subjects of the Maharajah 
 without obtaining permission and a passport from the authorities. 
 
 1 6. They are strictly required to settle all accounts before they 
 quit Kashmir, and to be responsible that the debts of their servants 
 are similarly discharged.
 
 288 The Happy Valley. 
 
 17. ALL PRESENTS TO BE REFUSED. Presents of every de- 
 scription must be rigidly refused. To take any 'russud' or 
 supplies without payment is positively prohibited, except on the 
 first or last days of a visitor's stay at Kashmir, when it may 
 happen that ' russud ' is sent expressly by the Maharajah. 
 
 1 8. Instances having been brought to notice of European 
 visitors to Kashmir having permitted the goods of native mer- 
 chants to be mixed up with their own, with the object of evading 
 the customs' duties leviable thereupon by the Kashmir Govern- 
 ment, it is hereby pointed out that such conduct will involve 
 legal penalties ; and in the case of persons in the civil or military 
 service of the Queen will be reported to the Supreme Government 
 
 19. The Maharajah occasionally invites European visitors to 
 entertainments, at which, if the invitation be accepted, they should 
 appear in undress uniform or evening costume. 
 
 20. It will be the duty of the officer on special duty to report 
 to the Punjab Government any officer or traveller infringing any 
 of these rules. 
 
 21. Should any officer be guilty of any aggravated breach of 
 decorum or propriety, or of violating the local laws and usages of 
 the country, or other grave misconduct, the civil officer on special 
 duty at Srinagar is empowered to call upon such officer to quit 
 forthwith the territories of the Maharajah. Such requisition on 
 the part of the civil officer must be promptly complied with. An 
 appeal from the order of expulsion will lie, in the case of a first 
 offence, to a court of three experienced officers, whom the civil 
 officer is empowered to summon for hearing such appeals, and 
 the decision of these officers will be final. In the case of a 
 second offence, there will be no appeal against the order of the 
 civil officer. 
 
 T. H. THORNTON, 
 
 Secretary to Government, Punjab.
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 Local Rules for the g^ndance of Visitors in Kashmir, 
 published under the sanction of the Ptmjab Government. 
 
 1. VISITORS wishing to visit the Fort and Palace are required 
 to give notice of their intention on the previous day to the Babii 
 deputed to attend on European visitors. 
 
 2. Visitors about to proceed into the interior, and wishing to 
 be supplied with carriage, are requested to communicate with the 
 Babu" at least thirty hours before the time fixed for their departure. 
 Failing this notice, the Babii cannot be responsible for the supply 
 of carriage in proper time. 
 
 3. Cows and bullocks are under no circumstances to be slain 
 in the territories of His Highness the Maharajah. 
 
 4. Visitors are not permitted to take up their abode in the 
 town, in the Dilawar Khan Bagh, or in the gardens on the Dal 
 Lake; viz., the Nishat and the Shalimar Gardens, and the 
 Chashma Shahi. The Nasim Bagh is available* for camping. 
 The fixed camping-places in Srinagar are as follows : the Ram 
 Munshi, Munshi, Hari Singh, and Chenar Baghs. 
 
 5. Servants of visitors found in the city after dark, and any 
 servant found without a light after the evening gun has fired, will 
 be liable to be apprehended by the police. 
 
 6. Servants of visitors resorting to other places than the fixed 
 latrines will be liable to punishment. 
 
 u
 
 290 The Happy Valley. 
 
 7. Grass-cutters are prohibited from cutting grass in, or in the 
 neighbourhood of, the gardens occupied by European visitors. 
 
 8. All boats are to be moored on the left bank of the river, 
 and no boatmen are allowed to remain at night on the right 
 bank. 
 
 9. When the Dal gate is closed no attempt should be made 
 to remove the barrier, or to lift boats over the bund to or from 
 the lake. 
 
 10. Visitors are not permitted to shoot in the tract of country 
 Doputta extending along the lake from the Takt-i-Suliman 
 Kukaiwalla to the Shalimar gardens, which is a preserve of 
 
 Machipura His Highness the Maharajah ; shooting on the 
 
 Danna Chikar 
 
 Q ori tracts marginally noted, which are private pro- 
 
 Bunyar perty, is also prohibited. 
 
 11. Visitors are prohibited from shooting the heron in 
 Kashmir. 
 
 12. Fishing is prohibited at the places marginally noted, 
 
 Martand, Vemag, as a i so between the first and third bridges in 
 
 Anat Nag. Devi. ~ . 
 
 ,, T . Snnagar. 
 
 Khirpowam 
 
 13. Houses have been built by His Highness the Maharajah 
 for the accommodation of visitors those in the Munshi Bagh 
 being set aside for the use of married people, and those in the 
 Hari Singh Bagh for bachelors. With the exception of the 
 houses reserved by His Highness for his private guests, and 
 those reserved for the Civil Surgeon, dispensary, and library, all 
 the houses are available for visitors, and are allotted by the Babu. 
 
 14. Married visitors are allowed to leave the houses occupied 
 by them for a term of seven days without being required per- 
 manently to vacate the same. After the expiration of that period, 
 the Babu is empowered to make over the premises to another 
 visitor requiring house accommodation ; any property left by the
 
 Appendix IV. 291 
 
 former occupant being liable to removal at the owner's risk. 
 Bachelors are allowed to leave their houses for a period of three 
 days subject to the same conditions. 
 
 15. Visitors are required to conform strictly with all local laws 
 and usages. 
 
 1 6. In all matters when they may require redress, and especially 
 on the occurrence of robberies, visitors are informed that they 
 should refer as soon as practicable to the officer on Special Duty. 
 
 17. Visitors are particularly requested to be careful that their 
 servants do not import into, or export from, the Valley articles 
 for sale on which duty is liable. The baggage of visitors is not 
 examined by the Maharajah's Customs officials, and in return for 
 this courtesy it is expected that any evasion of the Customs 
 Regulations will be discountenanced. 
 
 W. HENDERSON, 
 
 Officer on Special Duty, Kashmir.
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 
 TARIFF OF BOAT HIRE. 
 
 THE hire of a doongah, with crew, is fifteen Government rupees 
 per mensem. The crew should consist of at least four persons ; 
 women, and children over twelve years of age, to be considered 
 as able-bodied members of a crew. 
 
 The hire of a shikara is determined by the number of the 
 crew, who are paid at the rate of three Government rupees per 
 mensem, and eight annas for the boat. When boats are taken 
 out of Srinagar, boatmen are entitled to rassad at the rate of 
 half an anna per man per diem. 
 
 TARIFF OF DOONGAH-HIRE BY DISTANCE. 
 
 r. a. p. 
 
 From Baramula to Srinagar, per boatman . .080 
 
 Srinagar to Buramula . .060 
 
 Srinagar to Isldmdbad . .080 
 
 Isldmdbad to Srinagar . .06.0 
 
 Srinagar to Awantipur . .060 
 
 Srinagar to Manasbal, for the trip . .100 
 
 Srinagar to Gdnderbal ..120 
 
 Srinagar to Awatkula . .300 
 
 When boats are ordered from Srinagar to meet a visitor at any 
 place, half hire of the boat from Srinagar is payable in addition 
 to the fare to the place whence the visitor is proceeding. When 
 a boat is not used on the date for which it is ordered, eight annas 
 per diem are payable for detention. 
 
 W. HENDERSON, 
 
 Officer on Special Duty, Kashmir.
 
 APPENDIX VI. 
 
 KASHMIR POSTAL RULES. 
 
 PUNJAB GAZETTE, No. 673, GENERAL DEPARTMENT, i6TH MARCH, 
 
 1867. 
 
 The following arrangements for Postal communication with 
 Kashmir during the ensuing season, Jiave been made in 
 communication with the Kashmir Government and the 
 Postmaster-General of the Punjab. 
 
 1. ALL letters for Srinagar and the Valley of Kashmir will be 
 forwarded vifr Marri. 
 
 2. At Marri the letters will be placed in a sealed bag, and 
 made over to an official of the Maharajah of Kashmir, who will 
 convey the bag to the civil officer on duty at Srinagar. 
 
 3. The bag will be opened, and the letters sorted, by an official 
 attached to the office of the civil officer. 
 
 4. All letters for visitors at Srinagar and their followers will be 
 distributed through the agency placed at the disposal of the 
 civil officer. Other letters will be made over to the diwan of the 
 Maharajah at Srinagar for distribution. 
 
 5. In addition to the English postage, a fee, equal to half the 
 English postage, will be levied on all letters delivered at Srinagar. 
 
 6. A post-office will be opened at or near the residence of the 
 civil officer, for the convenience of visitors to Kashmir and their 
 
 U 2
 
 294 
 
 The Happy Valley. 
 
 followers ; and letters for British territory will be despatched in 
 a sealed bag to Marri, and made over to the postal authorities at 
 that place. 
 
 7. All covers intended for despatch from Srinagar to British 
 territory by the above dak, which for convenience will be desig- 
 nated the resident's dak, should be marked 'per resident's dak,' 
 in English, and signed at the lower left-hand corner by the sender ; 
 they must further bear, in addition to the English postage, a 
 Kashmir postage-stamp, of half the value of the English stamp 
 required, otherwise they will be made over to the diwan to be 
 returned to the sender, if known, or otherwise disposed of accord- 
 ing to the rules of the Kashmir post-office. By order, 
 
 T. H. THORNTON, 
 
 Secretary to Government, Punjab.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abbotabad Route to Kashmir, 1 7. 
 Abu Fazl in Kashmir, 1 5. 
 Abhimanyu, 75, 130, 236. 
 Aditak Hills, The, 34. 
 Afghanistan, 12. 
 Aha-Thang, Peak of, 192. 
 Akbar, 35, 64, 80, 105. 
 Aliabad, 46. 
 Ali Musjid, The, 133. 
 Ambernath, Cave of, 247 ; Pil- 
 grimage to, 249. 
 Amritsar, Treaty of, 86, 282. 
 Amur Gurgh, 34. 
 Anat Nag, 244. 
 Antiquity of Kashmir, 4. 
 Architecture in Kashmir, 258. 
 Army of Kashmir, 119. 
 Arts and Manufactures, 141. 
 Aryans, The, 5, 97, 128, 239. 
 Asoka, 60, 75, 128, 235, 254. 
 Atchibal, 260. 
 Avantipore, 241. 
 Avante Verma, 241, 254. 
 Ayin-i-Akbari, 14, 143. 
 
 Babamirishi, 219. 
 
 Baba Pyoomden, 232. 
 
 Baber's Memoirs, 7. 
 
 Bad Qualities of the Kashmiris, 
 
 ICO. 
 
 Badshah Bagh, The, 192. 
 Bagh-i-Dilawur Khan, 124. 
 Baht, The, 1 10. 
 Bandipoor, 197. 
 
 Bangla, The, no. 
 
 Bdramula, 52. 
 
 Barasing, The, 213. 
 
 Baradarri, The, 118. 
 
 Bargaining in Kashmir, 151. 
 
 Barking Deer, The, 214. 
 
 Barra Kountra, 219. 
 
 Batal Caste, Descendants of the 
 Aboriginal Inhabitants, 104. 
 
 Bawan, 245. 
 
 Bazaars, 134. 
 
 Bears, 207, 209. 
 
 Beauty of Kashmir, 2. 
 
 Beauty of Kashmiri Women, 98. 
 
 Bernier, on Atchibal, 261. 
 
 Bhimber, 33. 
 
 Bhoomjoo, Caves of, 246. 
 
 Bijbehara, 242. 
 
 Birds, 214. 
 
 Birds of Prey, 215. 
 
 Boats and Boatmen, 103,109,292. 
 
 Boundaries of Kashmir, 10. 
 
 Brahman Caste, 20. 
 
 Brahmanism introduced by Ab- 
 himanyu, 130. 
 
 Bridges, 43, 93. 
 
 Bringh Valley, 264. 
 
 Buddha, Tooth of, 235. 
 
 Buddhism, Introduction of, 128. 
 
 Budmarg, 155. 
 
 Bulbul, 215. 
 
 Bulbul Lankar, The, 132. 
 
 Canals, 92, 121, 187.
 
 296 
 
 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Caste, 101. 
 
 Caves Bhoomjoo,246 ; Amber- 
 nath, 247. 
 
 Chakk Rulers of Kashmir, 79 ; 
 their Descendants, 102, 228. 
 
 Chakoti, 51. 
 
 Changas, 37. . 
 
 Chatar Kalas, 49. 
 
 Chibhalis, 21. 
 
 Chikore, or Himalayan Part- 
 ridge, 215. 
 
 Chimneys, Absence of, in Kash- 
 mir, 204. 
 
 Cholera in Kashmir, 83. 
 
 Cider and Wine, 138. 
 
 Climate, in. 
 
 Coins and Coining, 125. 
 
 Commerce, 152. 
 
 Cornish People, Asiatic Origin 
 of the, 239. 
 
 Costume, 105. 
 
 Cotton Cultivation, 138. 
 
 Courtesy of the Maharajah, 57. 
 
 Crows, 216. 
 
 Cunningham on the Former 
 Lacustrine Condition of Kash- 
 mir, 68. 
 
 Dal, or City Lake, 152. 
 Dancing Girls, 104, 263. 
 Dandi, The, 30. 
 Danger of Crossing Flooded 
 
 Rivers, 38. 
 Deer, 213. 
 
 Definition of Kashmir, 8. 
 Dhole, or Wild Dog, 212. 
 Dhooly Dak, 48. 
 Dogras, 19. 
 
 Domestic Animals, 140. 
 Doongah, The, no. 
 Dove, wide-spread Symbolism 
 
 of the, 251. 
 
 Drew's Northern Barrier of 
 
 India, 18. 
 Drogjun, 59, 147, 153. 
 
 Eagles, 216. 
 Earthquakes, 67. 
 Eedgah, The, 133. 
 Embankment of the Jhelam at 
 
 Srinagar, 117. 
 Encamping ground at Srinagar, 
 
 55- 
 
 Entomology, 228. 
 European Officials in Kashmir, 
 57- 
 
 Fakir digging his own Grave, 194. 
 
 Famines, 135. 
 
 Fatalism, 136. 
 
 Feast of Roses, The, 157. 
 
 Fish and Fishing in Kashmir, 
 
 49, 50, 115. 
 Fishermen, 115. 
 Fleas, Plague of, 187. 
 Floating Gardens, 155. 
 Floods, 83. 
 Flora, The, 227. 
 Food, 135. 
 Foxes, 212. 
 Fruit and Vegetables, 137. 
 
 Ganderbal, 180. 
 
 Ghari, 51. 
 
 Gipsies, Probable Origin of, 104, 
 
 131- 
 
 Goat of Kashmir, 144. 
 Golab Singh, 11, 40, 86, 115; 
 
 Tomb of, 172. 
 Gujerat, 31. 
 Gujerat and Pir Panjal Route 
 
 to Kashmir, 17; Itinerary of, 
 
 274. 
 Gujerat and Poonch Route, 17; 
 
 Itinerary of, 279.
 
 Index. 
 
 297 
 
 Gulmarg, 218; Description, 220 ; 
 
 meaningofName,22i; Health 
 Resort, 22 1 ; Life at, 222; View 
 
 from, 223. 
 Guluwans, or Horsekeepers, 102, 
 
 228. 
 Gungabal, Sacred Lake of, 184. 
 
 Habba Kadal, The, 122. 
 Hajan, 197. 
 
 Hair of the Prophet's Beard, 1 5 7. 
 Hair, Mode of Dressing, 106. 
 Hanjis, or Boatmen, 103. 
 Haramuk, Peak of, 63, 184. 
 Hares not found in Kashmir, 21 6. 
 Haribal Cataract, 270. 
 Harri Parbat, The, 172. 
 Hatti, 51. 
 Hawks, 216. 
 
 Hazratbal and its Relic, 1 57. 
 Himalayas, The, 2. 
 Himalayan Blackbird, 215. 
 Himalayan Trout, 116. 
 Hindu Temples, Rarity of their 
 
 Vestiges, 127. 
 Hindu Servants, 225. 
 Hirpur, 46. 
 
 History of Kashmir, 73. 
 Hop Cultivation, 139. 
 Horsekeepers, 228. 
 Houses in Kashmir, 95. 
 Hungul, The, 213. 
 Hyaenas, 212. 
 Hydaspes, The, 10. 
 
 Ibex, 214. 
 
 Imperial Road to Kashmir, 31. 
 
 Importance of Kashmir in regard 
 
 to British Rule in India, 12. 
 Ince's, Dr., Handbook quoted, 1 5. 
 Islamabad, 243. 
 
 Jackals, 212. 
 
 Jaloka, 60, 75, 130. 
 
 Jamoo, 10. 
 
 Jehangir, 81 ; Death of, 266. 
 
 Jewellery, Manufacture of, 149. 
 
 Jhelam River, 10, 64, 73, 92, 145, 
 
 200, 266. 
 Jumma Musjid, The, 125. 
 
 Kaman Goshi Hills, The, 36. 
 Kangri, The, 204. 
 Kareewahs, 67. 
 Kash and Kush, 6. 
 Kashgarri Invasion of Kashmir, 
 
 79- 
 Kashmir adapted for European 
 
 Colonization, 85 ; transferred 
 
 by England to the Maharajah 
 
 of Jamoo, 86; formerly a 
 
 Lake, 66. 
 Kashmiris, Characteristics of 
 
 the, 97. 
 Kashuf, 70. 
 Khagendra, first Monarch of 
 
 Kashmir, 75. 
 
 Khakar, or ' Barking Deer,' 214. 
 Killan Marg, 228. 
 Kohdla, 49. 
 
 Kookar Nag, 263, 265. 
 Konsa Nag, 269. 
 Kush and Kash, 6. 
 Kut-i-Kul Canal, 121. 
 
 Latioo, 240. 
 
 Lakes, 152, 184, 186, 191, 197. 
 
 LallaRookh,2,6?H 152, 158, 161, 
 
 169. 
 
 Lalpoor, 202. 
 Lanka, The, 198. 
 Language and Literature, 107. 
 Legend of the Drying-up of the 
 
 Kashmir Lake, 70 ; of Man- 
 
 asbal Lake, 194; of Siva at 
 
 Ambernath, 248.
 
 298 
 
 TJie Happy Valley. 
 
 Leopards, 211. 
 Liddar Valley, 246. 
 Lolab, The, 202. 
 Lotus, The, 154. 
 
 Maharaj-ke-Mandir, The, 118. 
 
 Maharajah of Jamoo and Kash- 
 mir, II, 88. 
 
 Mahmud of Ghazni, 76. 
 
 Mahseer, The, 50. 
 
 Manasbal Lake, 191. 
 
 Mar Canal, 121. 
 
 Markhor, The, 214. 
 
 Marri, 48. 
 
 Martand, 252 ; Temple at, 255. 
 
 Metal- work and Jewellery, 149. 
 
 Middle Mountains, Region of 
 the, 21. 
 
 Mines and Minerals, 240. 
 
 Mineral Springs, 240, 245. 
 
 Mirza Hyder, 80. 
 
 Mohammedan Kings of Kash- 
 mir, 77. 
 
 Mohammedanism, Introduction 
 of, into Kashmir, 130. 
 
 Mogul Conquest of Kashmir, 80. 
 
 Monkeys not found in Kashmir, 
 216. 
 
 Mosquitos, 189. 
 
 Mulberry Trees, 204. 
 
 Mundane Egg, 245. 
 
 Musk Deer, 213. 
 
 Nadir Shah, 81. 
 
 Naga, or Snake Worship, 128. 
 
 Nagas, The, 236. 
 
 Name of Kashmir, Origin of 
 
 the, 5. 
 
 Naoshera, 37. 
 Nasseb Bagh, 159. 
 Native Agent at Srinagar, 56. 
 Nautch Girls, 104, 263. 
 
 New Musjid, The, 126. 
 
 Nila Parana, The, 108. 
 
 Ningil River, 219. 
 
 Nishat Bagh, 160. 
 
 Noor Bagh, 133. 
 
 Nowboog Valley, 263. 
 
 Nur Mahal, 81, 126, 160, 267. 
 
 Ooree, 52. 
 
 Outer Hills, The, 18. 
 Organization of the Kashmir 
 State, 89. 
 
 Paharis, 23. 
 
 Palace of the Maharajah, 113. 
 
 Pampoor, 236. 
 
 Pandritan, 235 ; Temple at, 236; 
 
 City destroyed by Abhimanyu, 
 
 236. 
 
 Papier Ma.che' Manufacture, 150. 
 Partridges, 215; Royal, ibid. 
 Passes, Principal, into Kashmir, 
 
 15- 
 
 Pathan Governors, 82. 
 
 Pattan, 233. 
 
 Payech, Temple at, 241. 
 
 Pheasants, 215. 
 
 Physical History of Kashmir 
 Valley, 66. 
 
 Pir Panjl, 9 ; Pass, 45 ; Pir at 
 Sunset, 193. 
 
 Plovers, 215. 
 
 Polo, 173. 
 
 Population, 96. 
 
 Poshiana and its singularly- 
 placed Houses, 43. 
 
 Postal Rules in Kashmir, 294. 
 
 Pravarasene, 91. 
 
 Preparations for Visiting Kash- 
 mir, 27. 
 
 Probable Origin of the Gipsies, 
 104, 131.
 
 Index. 
 
 299 
 
 Pundits, 101. 
 Punditanis, 106. 
 Punjab, The, i. 
 Pushmeena, 143. 
 
 Quails, 215. 
 
 Rajaori, or Rampore, 40. 
 
 Rajataringini, The, 5, 108, 129* 
 
 Rajput Caste, 20. 
 
 Ram Bagh, 172. 
 
 Ramoo, 47. 
 
 Rampore, or Rajaori, 40. 
 
 Rara, 50. 
 
 Rawal Pindi, 48. 
 
 Rawal Pindi and Marri Route 
 
 to Kashmir, 48 ; Itinerary of, 
 
 276. 
 Rawal Pindi and Abbotabad 
 
 Route, Itinerary of, 280. 
 Religions of Kashmir, 127. 
 Relic at Hazratbal, 157. 
 Reptile, Poisonous, 230. 
 Rishis Mahommedan Monks, 
 
 232. 
 
 Rozloo Valley, 268. 
 Rules for Travellers to Kashmir, 
 
 285. 
 
 Rules (Local) for Visitors, 289. 
 Rules, Postal, 293. 
 Runjit Singh's Conquest of Kash- 
 mir, 82. 
 Rupa Lank, the ' Silver Island,' 
 
 1 60. 
 
 Russian Policy in Asia, 12. 
 Rutten Pir Mountains, 41. 
 
 Sadarudin, 77. 
 Saffron Cultivation, 237. 
 Samma Thang, 243. 
 Saidabad, 34. 
 Sandrahan River, 266; 
 Sena Deva, 77. 
 
 Serais, 35. 
 
 Servants in Kashmir, 28. 
 
 Shadipore, 179. 
 
 Shahabad, 265. 
 
 Shah Hamadan and the Fakir, 
 123. 
 
 Shah Hamadan Musjid, 122. 
 
 Shah Jehan, 161, 262. 
 
 Shalimar Bagh, 161 ; Pavilion, 
 162; Festival at, 168; Illu- 
 minated, 169. 
 
 Shangus, 263. 
 
 Shawls of Kashmir, 142 ; Manu- 
 facture, 144; Patterns, 145; 
 Washing, 147. 
 
 Sheesha Nag, 249. 
 
 Sheik Baba Wuli, 124. 
 
 Sher Garhi Fort and Palace, 1 1 7. 
 
 Shikara, The, in. 
 
 Shrubs and Trees, 139. 
 
 Shukarudin Hill, 199. 
 
 Shumshudin, 77. 
 
 Shupiyan, 47. 
 
 Sikh Conquest of Kashmir, 82. 
 
 Sikunder But-Shikan, 78, 256. 
 
 Silkworms and Silk Cultivation, 
 204. 
 
 Sind River, 180. 
 
 Sind Valley, 181. 
 
 Singing Birds, 215. 
 
 Singhara,or Horned Water Nut, 
 154. 
 
 Sir-i-Shur, 59. 
 
 Sirkari Bagh, 244. 
 
 Siva, Legend of, 248. 
 
 Snakes, 229. 
 
 Snake Worship, 128. 
 
 Snipe, 215. 
 
 Sona Lank, ' the Golden Island,' 
 1 60. 
 
 Sonamarg, 'the Golden Mea- 
 dow, 184.
 
 300 
 
 The Happy Valley. 
 
 Sooran River, 43. 
 
 Sopoor, 200. 
 
 Sporting Season in Kashmir, 2 1 o. 
 
 Springs, 260. 
 
 Srinagar, Camping Ground at, 
 55 ; European Bungalows, 
 56; Native Agent, ibid; Ca- 
 pital of Kashmir, 91 ; Venice 
 of the East, 92 ; Visit to and 
 Description of, 113; Bazaars 
 at, 134. 
 
 Steamboat, First, in Kashmir, 
 163; Excitement of Kash- 
 miris, 1 66 ; Disappointment, 
 167. 
 
 Strength of Kashmir as a Fron- 
 tier, 13. 
 
 Subterranean River, 260. 
 
 Sultan Khan, 33. 
 
 Sunt-i-Kul Canal, 121. 
 
 Sunnybawan, 179. 
 
 Surrow, or Mountain Goat, 214. 
 
 Takt-i-Suliman, 58; Temple on, 
 60 ; View from, 61. 
 
 Tansan Bridge, 264. 
 
 Tariff of Boat Hire in Kashmir, 
 292. 
 
 Tartar Princes of Kashmir, 75. 
 
 Tattamoola, 68. 
 
 Tawi River, 37. 
 
 Temples : On Takt-i-Suliman, 
 60 ; Rarity of Vestiges of 
 Hindu, 127 ; in Wilderness, 
 227 ; Pandritan, 236 ; Payech, 
 241 ; Samma Thang, 243 ; 
 Martand, 255. 
 
 Thanna Mundi, 42. 
 
 Tibet, 2, 183. 
 
 Tiger Cats, 211. 
 
 Tinali, 50. 
 
 Tour of Valley, 177. 
 
 Transmigration of Soul of Gulab 
 
 Singh into a Trout, 115. 
 Treaty of Amritsar, 86, 282. 
 Trees and Shrubs, 139. 
 
 Umur (see Ambernath), 247. 
 Uncleanly Habits of Kashmiris, 
 93- 
 
 Vegetables and Fruit, 1 37. 
 
 Venag, Spring at, 263, 265. 
 
 Veshau River, 268. 
 
 Vigne cited: On Beauty of Kash- 
 mir, 3 ; on Name of Kashmir, 
 8 ; on Routes to Valley, 1 5 ; 
 on Geology of Valley, 66 ; on 
 Desiccation of Valley, 71 ; on 
 Natural Capabilities and Re- 
 sources of Valley, 84; on 
 Language of Kashmir, 107 ; 
 on Cave of Ambernath, 247 ; 
 on Temple of Martand, 255. 
 
 Villages, 203. 
 
 Vishnu, 71, 243. 
 
 Wangat and its Ruins, 183. 
 Wardwan Valley, 259. 
 Waterfowl, 215. 
 Weean, 240. 
 
 Weavers and Weaving, 145. 
 Wild Dogs, 212. 
 Wilson on Origin of Name of 
 Kashmir, 7; Early History, 74. 
 Wine and Cider, 138. 
 Winter, 112. 
 Wolves, 212. 
 Women of Kashmir, 98. 
 Woolar Lake, 197. 
 
 Yakub Khan, 80. 
 
 Zerab Khana, 'the Mint,' 125. 
 Zinulabudin, 78, 198 ; Tomb of, 
 124. 

 
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