UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ANDREW SMITH HALLIDIE: 1868 ->. w ^ vk. \ GAS, GASOLINE $ OIL ENGINES AN UP-TO-DATE BOOK ON THE SUBJECT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTOR POWER DESCRIPTIVE OF THE THEORY AND POWER OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, ILLUSTRATING THEIR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION FOR STATIONARY, MARINE, AND VEHICLE MOTIVE POWER A WORK DESIGNED FOR THE GENERAL INFORMATION OF EVERY ONE INTERESTED IN THE NEW AND POPULAR PRIME-MOVER, AND ITS ADAPTATION TO THE INCREASING DEMAND FOR A CHEAP, SAFE, AND EASILY MANAGED MOTIVE POWER FOR ALL PURPOSES Giving the Construction and details of nearly every type of American Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engine tf OF THE UNIVERSITY BY GARDNER D. HISCOX, M?~ ^*= Author of "Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices," etc., etc. "Compressed Air and its Applications," etc., etc. Tenth Edition. Reset, Revised and Enlarged WITH 312 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK W. HE^I^EY <&c CO. 132 NASSAU STREET 19O2 HALLIDIE COPYRIGHTED, 1897, COPYRIGHTED, 1898, BY BY NORMAN W. HENLEY & Co. NORMAN W. HENLEY & Co. COPYRIGHTED, I9O2, BY NORMAN W. HENLEY & Co. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, CONDON, ENGLAND. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. MACGOWAN & SLIPPER, PRINTERS, 30 BEEKMAN STREET, Ni.w YORK, U. S. A. PREFACE TO THE TENTH EDITION. The rapid progress in explosive motor design, and the adaptation of this class of prime movers to a vast extent for almost every want for small and intermediate power purposes in all parts of the world, has made a demand for the publication of more extensive details and descriptions of motor working parts, and especially of the hereto- fore troublesome conditions experienced in converting the fuel of explosive combustion into its best form for economical consumption for power, and its reliable ignition and combustion. With this view the Author has revised the former editions of this work and added much new matter that shows progress in design, especially in the atomizing and vaporization of fuel ele- ments, together with extended discussions on the management and care of explosive motors, with fully illustrated and described methods of ignition by the electric current and its generation. The illustrated details of new Gas, Gasoline and Oil Vapor Motors and their parts, newly introduced, are in such proportions, together with the table of sizes of parts of motors of various powers, has been made so clear that almost any mechanical engineer or amateur draughtsman should be able to make the working drawings for an explosive motor for any kind of fuel in use for such purpose. The new fuel, Alcohol, and its combination with gasoline for motive power is making an extended and economic exhibit in Europe and only requires legal regulation and freedom from revenue tax to make it a most acceptable material of explosive power for motor service in the United States. The great increase of late in the number of motor builders with improved and special designs of motors for vehicle, launch and yacht propulsion, and as auxiliary power for yachts and fishing boats, has been the means of largely increasing the range of usefulness of this modern power. Its adaptation to the successful operation of bicycles has become a fact and is shown by illustrated descriptions of the latest models. The ideal of a prime moving power, so cheap, so safe, and so easily managed, that is now in successful operation, and that has culminated in its real growth in the past quarter of a century, marks an epoch for the beginning of the twentieth century, that is a marvel in promoting our industries by the use of this new and economical power. In view of the progress of the subject matter of this book the pub- lishers have therefore reset this entire work, bringing it up to date. SEPTEMBER, 1902. GARDNER D. Hiscox. PREFACE. THE entire lack of literature on explosive motors made in the United States, with the exception of such as have appeared from time to time in our journals and magazines, and the constant inquiry for information -on the subject, has in- duced the author of this work to endeavor to present in practical shape for the ordinary reader the principles and practice of this. class of motors as they are manufactured in our own country. German, French, and English books on gas, gasoline, and oil engines scarcely allude to American engines or American practice. The author has been favored by a large number of explo- sive-motor builders with illustrations and details of motors of their manufacture. He hopes that, by the publication of his work, many inquiries will be answered, and that seekers for small power will find in the explosive motor the economical prime-mover they desire. GARDNER D. Hiscox. JANUARY ist, 1897, PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE early exhaustion of the first edition has verified the author's prediction that there was need of a work of this charac- ter. The second edition has been corrected, revised, and con- tains much new matter, including data relating to the adaptation of these motors to vehicles and launches, a branch of the subject that is of great and growing interest. The patents of 1897 under their proper heading have been added, and, to forestall inquiry, a list of the names and addresses of the builders of explosive motors in the United States, so far as they could be ascertained, has also been appended. THE AUTHOR. APRIL i5th, 1898. CONTENTS. CHAPTER i. PAGE Introductory, . ... . . . . . . i Historical, . . . . ..'.. . . . '..; 3 CHAPTER II. Theory of the Gas and Gasoline Engine, . *^v . . / CHAPTER III. Utilization of Heat and Efficiency in Gas Engines, . . 18 CHAPTER IV. Heat Efficiencies, .' . . . . . . .25 CHAPTER V. Retarded Combustion and Wall-Cooling, . .. . 30 CHAPTER VI. Causes of Loss and Inefficiency in Explosive Motors, ' . 38 CHAPTER VII. Economy of the Gas Engine for Electric-Lighting, -. ' . 42 CHAPTER VIII. The Material of Power in Explosive Engines, Gas, Petro- leum Products, and Acetylene Gas, Alcohol, . . 47 CHAPTER IX. Carburetters, Atomizers and Vapor Gas for Explosive Mo- tors, . . . . . '. . . . . 60 CHAPTER X. Cylinder Capacity and Dimensions of Gas and Gasoline Engines, . . . . . . . 81 Mufflers on Gas Engines, ... . . . .88 v iii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. PAGE Governors and Valve Gear, . . 9 CHAPTER XII. Igniters and Exploders, Hot Tube, Electric, Jump Spark, Hammer Spark, Induction Coil and Dynamo, 103 CHAPTER XIII. Cylinder Lubrication, ... 146 CHAPTER XIV. On the Management of Explosive Motors, . .149 Pointers on Explosive Motors, 156 CHAPTER XV. The Measurement of Power by Prony Brakes, Dynamom- eters and Indicators, Speed Measure, . . ^T" 160 CHAPTER XVI. Explosive Engine Testing, . . . . . . 173 CHAPTER XVII. Types of the Explosive Motor, . . . . .178 CHAPTER XVIII. Various Types of Stationary Engines, Marine and Vehicle Motors, ........ 196 CHAPTER XIX. Various Types of Stationary Engines, Marine and Vehicle Motors ; Continued, ...... 324 CHAPTER XX. United States Patents on Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines, and their Adjuncts 1875 to July ist, 1902, inclusive, 392 ^, OF THE UNIVERSITY GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES, CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. MUCH attention is now being given by mechanical engineers to the economical results developed in the working of gas, gas- oline, and oil engines for higher powers from producer and other cheap gases. In an economical sense, for small powers steam has been left far behind. It now becomes a question as to how to adapt the design of the new prime-movers to a wider range of usefulness. The best steam engines now made run with a consumption of about one and three-fourth pounds of coal per horse-power per hour ; while from two and one -half to seven pounds is the cost of power per horse-power per hour in the various kinds of engines now in use. This only covers the cost of fuel ; the at- tendance required in the use of small steam power is often far greater in cost than the fuel. When we come to require the larger powers by steam, in which economy may be obtained by compounding and condens- ing, the facility for obtaining the requisite water-supply is often a bar to its use. The direction in which lies the line of improvement for larger powers with the utmost economy is as yet a mooted point of discussion in explosive motor engi- neering. The expansion of single-cylinder dimensions involves prac- tical problems in the progress of ignition of the charge, as well as the thoroughness of mixture of the combustibles, and 2 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the interference of the products of the previous combustion by producing areas of imperfect or non-combustion or " stratifica- tion," as treated in foreign publications. The enlargement of cylinder area is a source of engine-fric- tion economy, while, on the contrary, the multiplication of cyl- inders involves numbers and complexity of moving parts, which go to make disparity between the indicated and brake horse-power, which is the measure of machine efficiency An impulse at every stroke, so desirable in an explosive mo- tor and so satisfactorily carried out in the steam engine in con- nection with the compound system, seems to have as yet no counterpart in the explosive motor. Condensation is impossi- ble, and the trials of explosion at every stroke in European en- gines have not proved satisfactory in service, and in order to accomplish the desired result resort has been had to duplicat- ing single-acting cylinders. This class of explosive engines seems to fill the bill in effect; yet the complication of a two- cylinder engine as a moving mechanism must compete with a single-cylinder steam engine. The principal types of explosive motors seem to have gone through a series of practical trials during the past thirty years, which have finally reduced the principles of action to a few per- manent forms in the design of motors, that show by long-con- tinued use the prospect of their staying qualities and their effi- ciency ; for these will no doubt be the principal points in the final judgment of purchasers in the selection of motive power. For a gas, gasoline, or oil explosive power to approximate an ideal standard as a prime-mover, it should be simple in design, not liable to get out of order, the parts must be readily accessi- ble, the ignition of the charge must be positive, the governing close, the engine must run quietly, and must be durable and economical in the use of fuel. These points of excellence have been striven for by many designers and builders, with varying success. But to get the entire combination without the sacri- fice of some good point is not an easy matter. INTRODUCTORY. 3 But for all, the internal combustion engine has come seem- ingly like an avalanche of a decade ; but it has come to stay, to take its well-deserved position among the poweis for aiding labor. HISTORICAL. Although the ideal principle of explosive power was con- ceived some two hundred years since, and experiments made with gunpowder as the explosive element, it was not until the last years of the eighteenth century that the idea took a pat- entable shape, and not until about 1826 (Brown's gas- vacuum engine) that a further progress was made in England by con- densing the product;^ of combustion by a jet of water, thus cre- ating a partial vacuum. Brown's was probably the first explosive engine that did real work. It was clumsy and unwieldy and was soon relegated to its place among the failures of previous experiments. No ap- proach to active explosive effect in a cylinder was reached in practice, although many ingenious designs were described, until about 1838 and the following years. Barnett's engine in England was the first attempt to compress the charge before exploding. From this time on to about 1860 many patents were issued in Europe and a few in the United States for gas engines, but the progress was slow, and its practical introduc- tion for ordinary power purposes came with spasmodic effect and low efficiency. From 1860 on, practical improvement seems to have been made and the Lenoir -motor was produced in France and brought to the United States. It failed to meet expectations, and was soon followed by further improvements in the Hugon motor in France (1862) followed by Beau de Rocha's four-cycle idea, which has been slowly developed through a long series of experimental trials by different inventors. In the hands of Otto and Langdon a further progress was made, and numerous patents' were issued in England, France, and Germany, and 4 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. followed up by an increasing interest in the United States with a few patents. From 1870 on, improvements seem to have advanced at a steady rate, and largely in the valve gear and precision of gov- erning for variable load. The early idea of the necessity of slow combustion was a great drawback in the advancement of efficiency, and the sug- gestions of de Rocha, in 1862, did not take root as a prophetic truth until many failures and years of experience had taught the fundamental axiom that rapidity of action in both combustion and expansion was the basis of success in explosive motors. With this truth and the demand for small and safe prime- movers, the manufacture of gas engines increased in Europe and America at a more rapid rate, and improvements in perfecting the details of this cheap and efficient prime-mover have finally raised it to the dignity of a standard motor and a rival of the steam en- gine for small and intermediate powers, with a prospect of largely increasing its individual units to the hundred, if not to the thou- sand, horse-power in a single engine. The efforts of Otto, in Ger- many, in developing the four-cycle type, have given his name to the compression engine, which is a well-deserved tribute to genius. The fourteen hundred patents issued during the past thirty years in the United States have had a simplifying tendency in construction, and have brought the efficiency of the gas, gasoline, and oil explosive engines to their present high degree of economy and widespread adoption as a prime-mover. In this work the various changes that the gas engine has under- gone in design in its European development are not considered es- sential to American readers, as the best European ideas have been adapted here with the spirit of American enterprise in perfecting details of construction and the application of the best material for wear in all its parts ; so that in representing as many engines of American manufacture as can be obtained, the whole range of practical design will be sufficiently illustrated and described as to INTRODUCTORY. 5 give a fairly good explanation of their operation to the general reader and the users of American gas, gasoline, and oil engines. The intense interest manifested by American engineers and in- ventors in the new motive power is well shown in the progress of patents issued during the past twenty-five years. In 1875 3 parents were issued in the United States for gas engines; 1876, 3 patents; 1877, 5 patents; 1878, I patent; 1879, 6 patents; 1880-81, 7 each year; 1882, 14 patents; 1883 was a booming year in gas-engine invention no less than 40 patents were issued that year, followed by 36 patents in 1884 and 40 patents in 1885, 46 in 1886, 25 in 1887, 31 in 1888, and 58 in 1889, with an average of about 80 patents per annum during the past thirteen years, over 1,400 hav- ing been issued up to July 1st, 1902. The application of the gasoline .motor to marine propulsion and to the horseless vehicle, the tricycle and bicycle, has had a most stimulating effect in adapting ways and means for applying this power to so many uses. Even aerial navigation has come in for its share in motor patents. Although the denser population of Europe claims a very large representation of explosive motors in use for all purposes, the manufacture in the United States is fast forging ahead in its output of explosive motor power, for there are now more than one hundred and fifty establishments in the United States engaged in their manufacture, and the motors in operation num- ber many thousands. Their safety and easy management as well as their economy have made in their adoption as agricultural helpers a marvellous inroad on the old-fashioned hand and horse power. Their later developed adaptability as a means for gen- erating electricity for electric lighting and transmission of power is fast expanding the use of lighting and power in fields that the higher cost of small steam power had precluded. Thus the incentive to invention has been the father to a fast-growing in- dustry, that has and will continue to ameliorate the labor of our small industries by the supply of small, reliable, and cheap power for all purposes ; and present indications are that the explosive 6 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. motor will become a prominent source of power for vehicles, for larger sizes of vessels than heretofore used, and for stationary power, rivalling steam power of but a few years since. The advent of the 2Oth century has been a progressive one in explosive engine building, with a large increase in the annual number of patents issued (122), mostly relating to the minor details of governing and ignition; although some general prin- ciples in compounding and compressing the air or charge by du- plex areas of piston and cylinder, in order to lessen the number of impulse cycles, have been patented. These complexities do not add to the needed simplicity of the perfect explosive motor, so much desired in the realm of this new prime-mover. The use of the explosive motor for marine and vehicle ser- vice has had large expansion. Launches and yachts fitted with explosive motors are now fast taking rank with steam and other motors on all the navigable waters of the United States ; nor does the explosive principle lag in its application to the motor vehicle, the tricycle and the bicycle. The amateur craze for motive power seems to have spread with the bicycle pace, until the fever has broken out in a multi- tude of young machinists with motor proclivities. The expiration of patents in England, Germany, France and the United States has now cast loose many of the bonds that have in a measure retarded the freedom of manufacture in the explosive motor line, so that the fundamental principles of con- struction are no longer a hindrance to the amateur experimenter. Over 500 patents in England and as many more in Germany and France and 160 in the United States have expired by lim- itation at this date, September, 1902 ; so that there should be no difficulty now in the construction of a good and economical ex- plosive engine without infringing on patents in force, September, 1902. CHAPTER II. THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. THE laws controlling the elements that create a power by their expansion by heat due to combustion, when properly un- derstood, become a matter of computation in regard to their value as an agent for generating power in the various kinds of explosive engines. The method of heating the elements of power in explosive engines greatly widens the . limits of temperature as available in other types of heat engines. It disposes of many of the prac- tical troubles of hot-air and even of steam engines, in the sim- plicity and directness of application of the elements of power. In the explosive engine the difficulty of conveying heat for producing expansive effect by convection is displaced by the generation of the required heat within the expansive element and at the instant of its useful work. The low conductivity of heat to and from air has been the great obstacle in the practi- cal development of the hot-air engine ; while, on the contrary, it has become the source of economy and practicability in the development of the internal-combustion engine. The action of air, gas, and the vapors of gasoline and petro- leum oil, whether singly or mixed, is affected by changes of temperature, practically in nearly the same ratio ; but when the elements that produce combustion are interchanged in con- fined spaces, there is a marked difference of effect. The oxy- gen of the air, the hydrogen and carbon of a gas, or vapor of gasoline or petroleum oil are the elements that by combustion produce heat to expand the nitrogen of the air and the watery vnpor produced by the union of the oxygen in the air and the hydrogen in the gas, as well as also the monoxide and car- 8 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. bonic-acid gas that may be formed by the union of the carbon of gas or vapor with part of the oxygen in the air. The various mixtures as between air and gas, or air and vapor, with the proportion of the products of combustion left in the cylinder from a previous combustion, form tht elements to be considered in estimating the amount of pres sure that may be obtained by their combustion and expansive force. .The phenomena of the brilliant light and its accompanying heat at the moment of explosion have been witnessed in the experiments of Dugald Clerk in England, the illumination lasting throughout the stroke ; but in regard to time in a four- cycle engine, the incandescent state exists only one-quarter of the running time. Thus the time interval, together with the non-conductibility of the gases, makes the phenomena of a high- temperature combustion within the comparatively cool walls of a cylinder a practical possibility. The natural laws, long since promulgated by Boyle, Gay Lussac, and others, on the subject of the expansion and com- pression of gases by force and by heat, and their variable pressures and temperatures when confined, are conceded to be practically true and applicable to all gases, whether single, mixed, or combined. The law formulated by -Boyle only relates to the compres- sion and expansion of gases without a change of temperature, and is stated in these words : If the temperature of a gas be kept const 'ant ', its pressure or elastic force will vary inversely as the volume it nr.r.ut>ies^_ __ It is expressed in the formula P x V = C, or pressure x C C volume = constant. Hence, = V and = P. Thus the curve formed by increments of pressure during the expansion or compression of a given volume of gas without change of temperature is designated as the isothermal curve in which the volume multiplied by the pressure is a constant THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. 9 value in expansion, and inversely the pressure divided by the volume is a constant value in compressing a gas. But as compression and expansion of gases require force for its accomplishment mechanically, or by the application or abstraction of heat chemically, or by convection, a second con- dition becomes involved, which was formulated into a law of" thermodynamics by Gay Lussac under the following condi- tions : A given volume of gas under a free piston expands by heat and contracts by the loss of heat, its volume causing a propor- tional movement of a free piston equal to ^fg- part of the cyl- inder volume for each degree Centigrade difference in tem- perature, or j-J-g- part of its volume for each degree Fahren heit. With a fixed piston (constant volume), the pressure is in- creased or decreased by an increase or decrease of heat in the same proportion of ^Jr P ar t of lt $ pressure for each degree Centigrade, or j-J-g- part of its pressure for each degree Fahren- heit change in temperature. This is the natural sequence of the law of mechanical equiv- alent, which is a necessary deduction from the principle that nothing in nature can be lost or wasted, for all the heat that i& imparted to or abstracted from a gaseous body must be ac- counted for, either as heat or its equivalent transformed into- some other form of energy. In the case of a piston moving in a cylinder by the expan- sive force of heat in a gaseous body, all the heat expended in expansion of the gas is turned into work; the balance must be accounted for in absorption by the cylinder or radiation. This theory is equally applicable to the cooling of gases by abstraction of heat or by cooling due to expansion by the mo- tion of a piston. The denominators of these fractions represent the absolute zero of cold below the freezing-point of water, and reads 273 C. or 492.66 = 460.66 F. below zero; and these are TO GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. starting-points of reference in computing the heat expansion in gas engines^ According to Boyle's law, called the first law of gases, there are but two characteristics of a gas and their variations to be considered, viz. , volume and pressure ; while by the law of Gay Lussac, called the second law of gases, a third is added, con- sisting of the value of the absolute temperature, counting from -absolute zero to the temperatures at which the operations take place. The ratio of the variation of the three conditions volume, pressure, and heat from the absolute zero temperature has a certain rate, in which the volume multiplied by the pressure and the product divided by the absolute temperature equals the ratio of expansion for each degree. The expansion of a gas ^ of its volume for every degree Centigrade, added to its temperature, is equal to the decimal .00366, the coefficient of expansion for Centigrade units. To any given volume of a gas, its expansion may be computed by multiplying the coefficient by the number of degrees, and by reversing the process the degree of acquired heat may be obtained approximately. These methods are not strictly in conformity with the absolute mathematical formula, be- cause there is a small increase in the increment of expan- sion of a dry gas, and there is also a slight difference in the increment of expansion due to moisture in the atmos- phere and to the vapor of water formed by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen in the combustion chamber of explosive engines. The ratio of expansion on the Fahrenheit scale is derived from the absolute temperature below the freezing-point of water (32) to correspond with the Centigrade scale; therefore r= .0020297, the ratio of expansion from 32 for each 492.66 -degree rise in temperature on the Fahrenheit scale. A.S an example, if the temperature of any volume of air or THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. II gas at constant volume is raised, say from 60 to 2000 F., the increase in temperature will be 1940. The ratio will be 520.66 .0019206. Then by the formula : Ratio x acquired temp, x initial pressure = the gauge pres- sure; and .0019206 x 1940 X 14.7 = 54. 77 Ibs. By another formula, a convenient ratio is obtained by absolute pressure of _i4^ = . 028233; the n, using the differ- absolute temp. 520.66 ence of temperature as before, .028233 X 1940 = 54.77 Ibs. pressure. By another formula, leaving out a small increment due to specific heat, at high temperatures : -r Atmospheric pressure x absolute temp. -\- acquired temp. Absolute temp, -f- initial temp. absolute pressure due to the acquired temperature, from which the atmospheric pressure is deducted for the gauge pressure, . 14.7 x 4 6o - 66 + 2000 Using the foregoing example, we have 6o~66"+~6o . = 69.47 14.7=54.77, the gauge pressure, 460.66 being the absolute temperature for zero Fahrenheit. For obtaining the volume of expansion of a gas from a given increment of heat, we have the approximate formula: Ij Volume X absolute temp, -f- acquired temp. , , Absolute temp, -f initial temp, volume. In applying this formula to the foregoing example, the figures become: I. y 4 6 - 6 f+* 00 = 4.7*604 volumes. 460.66 -f- 60 From this last term the gauge pressure may be obtained as follows : III. 4.72604 x 14. 7 = 69.47 Ibs. absolute 14.7 Ibs. atmos- pheric pressure = 54.77 Ibs. gauge pressure; which is the the- oretical pressure due to heating air in a confined space, or at constant volume from 60 to 2ooo Q F. By inversion of the heat formula for absolute pressure we 12 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. have the formula for the acquired heat, derived from combus- tion at constant volume from atmospheric pressure to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure as derived from Example I., by which the expression absolute pressure x absolute temp. 4- initial temp. initial absolute pressure = absolute temperature -f- temperature of combustion, from which the acquired temperature is obtained by subtracting the absolute temperature. mi. > i 1 69.47 X 460.66 -}- ^O Then, for Example i, -^-^ = 2460.66, and 14.7 2460.66 460.66 = 2000, the theoretical heat of combustion. The dropping of terminal decimals makes a small decimal difference in the result in the different formulas. By Joule's law of the mechanical equivalent of heat, when- ever heat is imparted to an elastic body, as air or gas, energy is generated and mechanical work produced by the expansion of the air or gas. When the heat is imparted by combustion within a cylinder containing a movable piston, the mechanical work becomes a measurable amount by the observed pressure and movement of the piston. The heat generated by the explosive elements and the ex- pansion of the non-combining elements of nitrogen and watei vapor that may have been injected into the cylinder as mois- ture in the air, and the water vapor formed by the union of the oxygen of the air with the hydrogen of the gas, all add to the energy of the work from their expansion by the heat of inter- nal combustion. As against this, the absorption of heat by the walls of the cylinder, the piston, and cylinder head or clearance walls, be- comes a modifying condition in the force imparted to the mov- ing piston. It is found that when any explosive mixture of air and gas- or hydrocarbon vapor is fired, the pressure falls far short of the pressure computed from the theoretical effect of the heat THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. 13 produced, and from gauging the expansion of the contents of a cylinder. It is now well known that in practice the high efficiency which is promised by theoretical calculation is never realized ; but it must always be remembered that the heat of combustion is the real agent, and that the gases and vapors are but the medium for the conversion of inert elements of power into the activity of energy by their chemical union. The theory of combustion has been the leading stimulus to large expectations with inventors and constructors of explosive motors ; its entanglement with the modifying elements in prac- tice has delayed the best development in construction, and as yet no positive design of best form or action seems to have been accomplished. One of the most serious entanglements in the practical de- velopment of pressure due to the theoretical computations of the pressure value of the full heat is probably caused by im- parting the heat of the fresh charge to the balance of the pre- vious charge that has been cooled by expansion from the max- imum pressure to near the atmospheric pressure of the exhaust. The retardation in the velocity of combustion of perfectly mixed elements is now well known from experimental trials with measured quantities ; but the principal difficulty in apply- ing these conditions to the practical work of an explosive en- gine where a necessity for a large clearance space cannot be obviated, is in the inability to obtain a maximum effect from the imperfect mixture and the mingling of the products of the last explosion with the new mixture, which produces a clouded condition that makes the ignition of the mass irregular or chat- tering, as observed in the expansion lines of indicator cards. Stratification of the mixture has been claimed as taking place in the clearance chamber of the cylinder ; but this is not satisfactory, in view of the vortical effect of the violent injec- tion of the air and gas or vapor mixture. It certainly cannot become a perfect mixture in the time of a stroke of a high- GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. speed motor of the two-cycle class. In a four-cycle engine, making 300 revolutions per minute, the injection and compres- sion take place in one-fifth of a second far too short a time for a perfect infusion of the elements of combustion. In an experimental way, the velocity of explosion of a per- fect mixture of 2 volumes of hydrogen and i volume of oxygen has been found to approximate 65 feet per second; and for equal volumes of hydrogen and oxygen, 32 feet per second; with i volume coal gas to 5 volumes air, 3 J feet per second ; i volume coal gas to 6 volumes of air, i foot per second; and with an increasing proportion of air, 10 to 9 inches per second. These velocities were obtained in tubes fired at one end only. When the ignition was made in a closed tube, so that compres- sion was produced by the expansion from combustion, the ve- locity was largely increased; and with compressed mixtures, a great increase of velocity was obtained over the above- stated figures. The different values of time, pressure, and computed heat of combustion are shown in Table i, and graphically compared in the diagram Fig. i. The mixtures were Glasgow, Scotland, coal gas and air. The table and the diagram (Fig. i) make an excellent study of the conditions of time and pressure, as well as also of the control of the work of a gas engine, by varying the proportions of the mixture. TABLE I. ---EXPLOSION AT CONSTANT VOLUME IN A CLOSED CHAMBER. Dia- gram curve Fig. i. Mixture injected. Time of explosion. Second. Gauge pressure. Pounds per square inch. Computed temperature, Fahr. a i volume gas to 13 volumes air. 0.28 52 1,916 b i " " " ii 0.18 63 2,309 c i " " " 9 it it 0.13 69 2,523 d i " " " 7 it ii 0.07 89 3,236 e i 5 0.05 96 3.484 The irregularity of the explosive curves in the diagram is fair evidence of imperfect diffusion of the gas and air mixture THEORY OF THE GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. !_ O) ffi i^ u> f 1 S . 8 $ 5 S '8 "383HdSOWlV 3A09 2 P $ 8 cc < oT O H z S t> 3090 3027 2832 2637 2468 2307 2115 Constant Pressure. Constant Volume. 6 to 7 to 8 to ,074195 .075012 .075647 .076155 .076571 .0769X7 .077211 .2668 .2628 .2598 .2575 .2555 .2540 .2526 I9!3 .1882 .1858 .1846 .1825 .1813 .1803 .014189 .014116 .014059 .014013 .013976 013945 .013922 94.28 82. 73-33 66. 60. 55- 50.77 6644.6 5844.4 5216 I 4709.9 4293. 3'H4- 3646.7 4^5 .518 543 56 575 .585 58 Q to 10 tO II tO 12 tO The weight of a cubic foot of gas and air mixture as given in Col. 2 is found by adding the number of volumes of air multiplied by its weight, .0807, to one volume of gas of weight .035 pound per cubic foot and dividing by the total number of volumes ; for example, as in the table 6 x .0807 = - = .074195 as in the first line, and so on for any mixture or for other gases of different specific weight per cubic foot. The heat units evolved by combus- tion of the mixture (Col. 6) are obtained by dividing the total heat units in a cubic foot of gas by the total proportion of the mixture, = 94.28 as in the first line of the table. Col. 5 is obtained by multiplying the weight of a cubic foot of the mixture in Col. 2 by the specific heat at constant volume (Col. 4), ' = Col. 7 the total heat ratio, of which Col. 8 gives the usual combus- tion efficiency Col. 7 X by Col. 8 gives the absolute rise in tem- perature of a pure mixture. .CHAPTER III. UTILIZATION OF HEAT AND EFFICIENCY IN GAS ENGINES. THE utilization of heat in any heat engine has long been a theme of inquiry and experiment with scientists and engineers, for the purpose of obtaining the best practical conditions and construction of heat engines that would represent the highest efficiency or the nearest approach to the theoretical value of heat, as measured by empirical laws that have been derived from experimental researches relating to its ultimate value. It is well known that the steam engine returns only from 1 2 to 1 8 per cent of the power due to the heat generated by the fuel, about 25 per cent, of the total heat being lost in the chimney, the only use of which is to create a draught for the fire ; the balance, some 60 per cent., is lost in the exhaust and by radia- tion. The problem of utmost utilization of force in steam has nearly reached its limit. The internal-combustion system of creating power is com- paratively new in practice, and is but just settling into definite shape by repeated trials and modification of details, so as to give somewhat reliable data as to what may be expected from the rival of the steam engine as a prime -mover. For small powers, the gas, gasoline, and petroleum oil en- gine is forging ahead at a rapid rate, filling the thousand wants of manufacture and business for a power that does not require expensive care, that is perfectly safe at all times, that can be used in any place in the wide world to which its concen- trated fuel can be conveyed, and that has eliminated the con- stant handling of crude fuel and water. The utilization of heat in a gas engine is mainly due to the manner in which the products entering into com- UTILIZATION OF HEAT AND EFFICIENCY. 19 bustion are distributed in relation to the movement of the piston. In the two-cycle engine, the gas or vapor and air mixtures are drawn in during a part of the stroke, fired, expanded with the motion of the piston, and exhausted by the return stroke. The proportions of the indraught to the stroke of the piston, and the volume of the clearance or combustion chamber, as it is usually called, have been subject to a vast amount of experi- FlG. 3. LENOIR TYPE. ment and practical trial, in an endeavor to bring the heat value of their power up to its highest possible limit. To this class belonged some of the earlier gas engines ; their indicator cards have a typical representation in Fig. 3. The earlier engines of this class used as high as 96 cubic feet of illuminating gas per horse-power per hour. The con- sumption of gas fell off by improvements to 70 cubic feet, and finally has dropped to 44 and to 36 cubic feet per indicated horse-power per hour. The efficiency of this class of gas engines has seldom reached 20 per cent, of the heat value of the gas used, while in the compression or four-cycle engines there are possibilities of 35 per cent. The total efficiency of the gas or vapor entering into combustion in an internal-heat engine is variable, depend- ing upon its constituent-combining elements and the degree of temperature produced. The efficiency due to heat only varies as the difference between the initial temperature of the explo- sive mixture and the temperature of combustion; and as this varies in actual practice from 1400 to 2500 F., then the re- ciprocal of the absolute heat of the initial charge, divided by 2O GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the assumed heat of combustion, would represent the total effi- TT _ TT1 ciency. The formula ^ represents this condition, so that if the operation of the heat cycle was between 60 and 1,400 F., 60 4- 460 the equation would be: - , . = .279 and i 279 = 1400 4- 460 .72 per cent. But this cannot represent a working cycle from the change in the specific heat of the gaseous contents of a cyl- inder while undergoing expansion by the movement of a piston. The specific heat of air at constant volume is .1685, and at constant pressure is .2375. Their ratio ' ^ D = 1.408. The . 1605 ratios of the other elements entering into combustion in a gas engine are slightly less than for air ; but the ratio for air is near enough for all practical operations. The formula for the application of the condition of work with complete . expansion is: i 1.408 -7^; or, as for above example, i 1.408 4 - 1400-!- 460 = .3928, and i .3928 = .6071, or 60 per cent. As the temperature cannot be utilized for work from the excess of heat in the products of combustion when the expan- sion has reached the atmospheric line, then the practical amount of expansion and the heat of combustion at the point of exhaust must be considered. In practice, the measured heat of the exhaust at atmospheric pressure, plus the additional heat due to the terminal pressure, becomes a factor in the equation ; and, assuming this to be 950 F. in a well-regulated motor, the equation for the above example becomes: r 1.408 X 460 = ;^- = -521 X 1.408 = .733, and i -.733 = -26. 1400 400 940 or an efficiency of 26 per cent. The greater difference in tern perature, other things being equal, the greater the efficiency. In this way efficiencies are worked out through intricate formulas for a variety of theoretical and unknown conditions of combustion in the cylinder : ratios of clearance and cylinder UTILIZATION OF HEAT AND EFFICIENCY. 21 volume, and the uncertain condition of the products of com bustion left from the last impulse and the wall temperature. But they are of but little value, except as a mathematical in quiry as to possibilities. The real commercial efficiency of a gas or gasoline engine depends upon the volume of gas or liquid at some assigned cost, required per actual brake horse power per hour, in which an indicator card should show that the mechanical action of the valve gear and ignition was as perfect as practicable, and that the ratio of clearance, space. FIG. 4. COMPARATIVE CARD. and cylinder volume gave a satisfactory terminal pressure and compression the difference between the power figured from the indicator card and the brake power being the friction loss of the engine. In practice, the heat value of the gas per cubic foot may vary from 30 per cent, with illuminating and natural gases to 75 or 80 per cent, as between good illuminating gas and Dow- son gas ; then, in order that a given size engine should main- tain its rating, a larger volume of a poorer gas should be swept through the cylinder. This requires adjustment of the areas in all the valves to give an explosive motor its highest effi-- ciency for the kind of fuel that is to be used. The practical effect of the work done by the half-cycle in the earlier type of the two-cycle engine is graphically shown in Fig. 4, in which t , 'd represents the stroke of the piston: the 22 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. dotted line, the indicator card ; and the space in the lines, a, b> c, d, the ideal diagram of a perfect gas exhausting at the point d, in its incomplete adiabatic expansion. In the valua- tion of such a card, the depression of the indraught below the atmospheric line and the pressure of the exhaust line should have due consideration as negative quantities to be deducted from the pressure values above the atmospheric line. This class of engines is fast becoming obsolete as a type. In four-cycle engines the efficiencies are greatly advanced by compression, producing a more complete infusion of the mixture of gas or vapor and air, quicker firing, and far greater pressure than is possible with the two-cycle type just de- scribed. In the practical operation of the gas engine during the past fifteen years, the gas-consumption efficiencies per indicated horse-power have gradually risen from 1 7 per cent, to a maxi- mum of 28 per cent, of the theoretical heat, and this has been done chiefly through a decreased combustion chamber and in- creased compression the compression having gradually in- creased in practice from 30 Ibs. per square inch to above 80 ; but there seems to be a limit to compression, as the efficiency ratio decreases with the increase in compression. It has been shown that an ideal efficiency of 33 per cent. for 38 Ibs. compression will increase to 40 per cent, for 66 Ibs., and 43 per cent, for 88 Ibs. compression. On the other hand, greater compression means greater explosive pressure and greater strain on the engine structure, which will probably re- tain in future practice the compression between the limits of 40 and 60 Ibs. In experiments made by Dugald Clerk with a combustion chamber equal to o. 6 of the space swept by the piston, with a compression of 38 Ibs., the consumption of gas was 24 cubic feet per indicated horse-power per hour. With o. 4 compres- sion space and 61 Ibs. compression, the consumption of gas was 20 cubic feet per indicated horse-power per hour; and with UTILIZATION OF HEAT AND EFFICIENCY. 0.34 compression space and 87 Ibs. compression, the con- sumption of gas fell to 14.8 cubic feet per indicated horse- power per hour the actual efficiencies being respectively 17, 2i % and 25 per cent. This was with a Crossley four- cycle engine. In Fig. 5 is represented an ideal card of the work of a per- fect compression cycle in which the gases are compressed. Ad- ditional pressure is instantly developed by combustion or heat at constant volume, and then allowed to expand to atmospheric FIG. 5. DIAGRAM OF A PERFECT CYCLE WITH COMPRESSION. pressure the curves of compression and expansion being adi- abatic, as for a dry gas. In this diagram the lines follow Carnot's cycle, in which the whole heat energy is represented in work. The piston stroke commencing at O, compression completed at D, pressure aug- mented from D to F, expansion doing work from F to B, and exhausting along the atmospheric line B A. The gases in this case expand till their pressure falls to the atmospheric line, and their whole energy is supposed to be utilized. In this im- aginary cycle, no heat is supposed to be lost by absorption of walls of a cylinder or by radiation, and no back pressure dur- ing exhaust, or friction, are taken into account. The efficiencies in regard to power in a heat engine may be divided into four kinds, of which I. The first is known as the maximum theoretical efficiency 24 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. of a perfect engine (represented by the lines in the indicator T X -T diagram, Fig. 5). It is expressed by the formula and T ' shows the work of a perfect cycle in an engine working be- tween the received temperature + absolute temperature (T\) and the initial atmospheric temperature -f- absolute tempera- ture (T ). II. The second is the actual heat efficiency, or the ratio of the heat turned into work to the total heat received by the en- gine. It expresses the indicated horse-power. III. The third is the ratio between the second or actual heat efficiency and the first or maximum theoretical efficiency of a per- fect cycle. It represents the greatest possible utilization of the power of heat in an internal-combustion engine. IV. The fourth is the mechanical efficiency. This is the ratio between the actual horse-power delivered by the engine through a dynamometer or measured by a brake (brake horse-power), and the indicated horse-power. The difference between the two is the power lost by engine friction. In regard to the general heat efficiency of the materials of power in explosive engines, we find that with good illuminating gas the practical efficiency varies from 20 to 30 per cent. ; kero- sene motors, 15 to 20; gasoline motors, 18 to 22; acetylene, 25 to 35 ; alcohol, 20 to 30 per cent, of their heat value. The great variation is no doubt due to imperfect mixtures and variable con- ditions of the old and new charge in the cylinder; uncertainty as to leakage and the perfection of combustion. In the Diesel motors operating under high pressure, up to nearly 500 pounds,, an efficiency of 36 per cent, is claimed. CHAPTER IV. HEAT EFFICIENCIES. THE efficiency of an explosive engine is the ratio of heat turned into work in proportion to the total amount of heat pro- duced by combustion in the engine. On general principles the greater difference between the heat of combustion and the heat at exhaust is the relative measure of the heat turned into work, which represents the degree of efficiency without loss during expansion. The mathematical formulas appertaining to the computation of the element of heat and its work in an explosive engine are in a large measure dependent upon assumed values, as the conditions of the heat of combustion are made uncertain by the mixing of the fresh charge with the products of a pre- vious combustion and by absorption, radiation, and leakage. The computation of the temperature from the observed pres- sure may be made as before explained, but for compression engines the needed starting-points for computation are very uncertain, and can only be approximated from the exact measure and value of the elements of combustion in a cylinder charge. Then theoretically the absolute efficiency in a perfect heat T T engine is represented by = -, in which T is the acquired temperature from absolute zero; T,, the final absolute tem- perature after expansion without loss. Then, for example, supposing the acquired temperature of combustion in a cylinder charge was raised 2000 F. from 60 : the absolute temperature would be 2000 -f 60 -f- 460 = 2520, and if expanded to the initial temperature of 60 without loss the absolute temperature of expansion will be 60 -f- 460 = 520, then 2 ^ 20 ' 51^ = .79 per cent., the theoretical efficiency for 26 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the above range of temperature. In adiabatic compression or expansion, the ratio of the specific heat of air or other gases becomes a logarithmic exponent of both compression and expan- sion. The specific heat of air at constant volume is .1685 and at constant pressure, .2375 for i Ib. in weight; water = i. for i Ib. Then ' = the ratio y = 1.408. . 1605 Then for the following formulas the specific heat = K r = .1685 constant volume, and K p = .2375 constant pressure. The quantity of heat in thermal units given by an impulse of an explosive engine is, K v (T t) = heat units. Then using the figures as before, .1685 X (2520 520) = 337 heat units per J>ound of the initial charge. The heat in thermal units discharged will be K p (T, t), (T\y 1 ; t == absolute initial temperature, say 520. Then using again the figures as before and assuming that T = 2,520 P., then T, = 520 = 520 x (log. 4.846 X .7102) = 1594 absolute, and 1594 520 = 1074 F. Then the heat in thermal units discharged will be .2375 x (1594 520) = .2375 x 1074 = 255 heat units. With the absolute temperature at the moment of exhaust known, the efficiency of the working cycle may be known, al- ways excepting the losses by convection through the walls of the cylinder. T t The formula for this efficiency is : eff . = i y ^ - r J then by substituting the figures as before, i 1.408 - = I2H .537 x 1.408 = .756, and i .756 = 24 per cent. 2OOO To obtain the adiabatic terminal temperature from the rela- tive volumes of clearance and expansion, we have the formula y_y_! rp y -^ = -=*, in which -==? is the ratio of expansion in terms of the charging space in engines of the Lenoir type to the whole HEAT EFFICIENCIES. 2 7 volume of the cylinder including the charging space, so that if the stroke of the piston is equal to the area of the charging or combustion space, the expansion will be twice the volume of V i T /i\-4 8 the charging space and -==? = -. Then -=i = (-1 and T, = (I \-4o8 /j\.4o8 -\ . Using the same value as before, T, = 2520 (-) i .408 and using logarithms for -, log. 2 = 0.30103 x = log. o. 12282 = index 1.32, and : = 1908, the absolute temperature T, at the terminal of the stroke. Then ^908 - 460 = 1448 F., temperature at end of stroke. For obtaining the efficiency from the volume of expansion V 2 from a known acquired temperature we have t = - X 520 = 1040 absolute = t,. Then ~ . i. - (T, t,) + y(t, - t) the efficiency = v * '__ 1 - Then using the values as above, efficiency = '- (1908 - 1040) + 1.408 (1040 - 5^) = 868 + 2520 520 1.408 X 520 = 732 -f- 868 = - = .80, and i .80 = .20 per cent. For a four-cycle compression engine with compression say to 45 Ibs, the efficiency is dependent upon the temperature of compression, the relative volume of combustion chamber and piston stroke, and the temperatures. Fig. 6 * is a type card of reference for the formulas for efficiencies of this class of ex- plosive motors, in which : t = abs. temp, at b normal. t o = abs. temp, of compression/". T = abs. acquired temp, e T, = abs. temp, at c. P = abs. pressure at b. P c = abs. pressure at/. P o = abs. pressure at c . 28 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. V = volume at b. V = volume at c. V c = volume at f. vo = V or volume at -compression = volume at exhaust. K T .1685 specific heat at constant volume. I vol. FIG. 6* THE FOUR-CYCLE COMPRESSION CARD. Let T = abs. acquired temp. = 2520 F. as before. t = abs. normal temp. = 520 or 60 F. t = abs. temp, of compression = t l^\ y = ^-^ /5 o \o.29 = 0.29. Then 520 f j = 777 absolute. T t 2520 X 520 T = abs. temp, of expansion = - or -* -- = -. t 1686. The terms being assumed and known from assumed data, the efficiency = i v (T - t c ) - K v (T, - t) K v (T-g T, -t Reducing, efficiency = i ,1* _ * ; substituting figures as- T, T 1686 520 T, above found, i * = ,333 per cent. ; also i ^ = 2520 777 1686 2520 j t 520 = .333 and i - = ^ = .333- 777 HEAT EFFICIENCIES. 2 9 For obtaining the efficiency from the relative volumes at "both ends of the piston stroke, with an expansion in the cylinder equal to twice the clearance space, by which the total volume at the end of the stroke will be three times the volume of the clear- ance space, efficiency in this case may be expressed by the formula I ; substituting, the values become i I - \rj \ 3l using logarithms as before, log. 3 = 0.477121 X .408 = 0.194665, i the index of which is 1.565, and - = .639. Then I .639 = .36 per cent. USUAL TEMPERATURES OF COMBUSTION. Clearance Per Cent, of Piston Volume. Ratio of Compression V P + C Vol. Ve Clearance. Rise in temperature of various mixtures of air and gas by explosion, from the compression temperature due to the ratio in col. 2, when mixed with the products of combustion from a previous explosion left in the clearance sphce. For gas of 660 thermal units per cubic foot. 6 to i. 7 to i. 8 to i 9 to i. 10 to i. II tO I. 12, to i. 50 444 . 3- 3-25 3-50 3-75 4- 40 5- 5 5 6. Deg. 2.027 2.107 2.177 2.237 2.290 2.378 2.448 2.506 2-554 Deg. I 877 1.960 2.032 2.094 2.149 2.242 2.317 2-379 2.431 Deg. 1.865 1.938 2 OOt 2.056 2 104 2.185 2.249 2.302 2,346 Deg. .739 .807 .866 917 .961 2.036 2 096 2. 145 2.186 Deg. .629 693 748 795 837 .907 .963 2.008 2.046 Deg. 524 584 635 .679 .718 .783 .836 .878 914 Deg. .398 452 500 540 576 636 683 .722 * 755 . 4.0 .363 333 .285 25 .222 .20 The above heat values are approximate resulting temperatures usual in gas engines, in consideration of the heat values of each element in the gas and its distribution to the air and heated con- tents of the clearance space from a previous explosion and the estimated absorption of heat by the walls of the clearance space at the moment of combustion. CHAPTER V. RETARDED COMBUSTION AND WALL-COOLING. SOME of the serious difficulties in practically realizing the condition of a perfect cycle in an internal-combustion engine are shown in the diagram Fig. 6, taken from an English Otto FlG. 6. VARIABLE CARD. gas engine, in which the cooling effect of the walls are shown by the lagging of the explosion curve, by the missing of seve- ral explosions when the cylinder walls have been unduly cooled by the water-jacket. The same delay is experienced in start- ing a gas engine. The indicator card IAD representing the normal condition of constant work in the cylinder; the curve I B D an interruption of explosions for several revo- lutions ; and I C D a still longer interruption in the explo- sions with the engine in continuous motion. In an experimental investigation of the efficiency of a gas engine under variable piston speeds made in France, it was found that the useful effect increases with the velocity of the piston that is, with the rate of expansion of the burning gases with mixtures of uniform volumes ; so that with the variations RETARDED COMBUSTION AND WALL-COOLING. 3! of time of complete combustion at constant pressure, as illus- trated on page 15, and the variations due to speed, in a way compensate in their efficiencies. The dilute mixture, being slow burning, will have its time and pressure quickened by increasing the speed. TABLE V. TRIAL EFFICIENCIES DUE TO INCREASED PISTON SPEED. Efficiency work of indicator diagram theoretical work. *w C "S " 5 c "2 "^ c/f ctf B ^ o '" C3 Q,4-> O ^ ^J ^ j3 -H o3 n I Mixtures. ill 8*J sSlf !"?! 'o XO2 0> 1 ^ O ^ Q O o 1^1 H I volume coal gas to 9.4 volumes air (.1093 cubic feet mixture) C-5 1.181 70 8 4QI7 1.44 volume coal gas to 9.4 volumes air .... OJ .40 1.64 / v ^' w 85-3 ny- 1 - / 49 1 ? 1.70 "9.4 ' .... .25 3.01 105-5 4917 2. IO "9-4 ' .... .16 4.55 125.8 4917 2.60 " " " 6.33 " (.073 cubic feet mixture) . 15 5.57 127.2 4793 2.60 volume coal gas to 6.33 volume air .09 9-51 289.9 *T / V*/ 4793 6.00 " " " 6.33 " " .... .06 14.1 364.4 4793 7.50 These trials give unmistakable evidence that the useful effect increases with the velocity of the piston that is, with the rate of expansion of the burning gases. The time necessary for the explosion to become complete and to attain its maximum pressure depends not only on the composition of the mixture, but also upon the rate of expan- sion. This has been verified in experiments with the Kane-Pen- nington motor, at speeds from 500 to 1,000 revolutions per minute, or piston speeds of from 16 to 32 feet per second. The increased speed of combustion due to increased piston speed is a matter of great importance to builders of gas en- gines, as well as to the users, as indicating the mechanical di- rection of improvements to lessen the wearing strain due to high speed and to lighten the vibrating parts with increased 32 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. -strength, in order that the balancing of high-speed engines may be accomplished with the least weight. From many experiments made in Europe, it has been con- clusively proved that excessive cylinder cooling by the water- jacket is a loss of efficiency. In a series of experiments with a simplex engine in France. it was found that a saving of 7 per cent, in gas consumption per brake horse-power was made by raising the temperature of Adual Tndfcafor Xtiatjram from Otto Engine. Exhaust linn. 1 Admission: '-TJiislength is proportional to the stroke of Engine.- FIG. 7. OTTO FOUR-CYCLE CARD. the jacket water from 141 to 165 F. A still greater saving -was made in a trial with an Otto engine by raising the tem- perature of the jacket water from 61 to 140 F. it being 9.5 per cent, less gas per brake horse-power. In view of the experiments in this direction, it clearly -shows that in practical work, to obtain the greatest economy per effective brake horse-power, it is neessary: i st. To transform the heat into work with the greatest rapidity mechanically allowable. This means high piston speed. 2d. To have high initial compression. 3d, To reduce the duration of contact between the hot gases and the cylinder walls to the smallest amount possible ; which means short stroke and quick speed. 4th. To adjust the temperature of the jacket water to ob- RETARDED COMBUSTION AND WALL-COOLING. 33 tain the most economical output of actual power. This means? -water tanks or water coils, with air-cooling surfaces suitable NOI.LIN9I JO J.NIOd XV Nl Q 3d '881 9f _LV ' 39UVH3 and adjustable to the most economical requirement of the en- gvne. 5th. To reduce the wall surface of the clearance space or 34 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. combustion, chamber to the smallest possible area, in propor- tion to its required volume. This lessens the loss of the heat of combustion by exposure to a large surface, and allows of a higher mean wall temperature to facilitate the heat of com- pression. It will be noticed that the volumes of similar cylinders in- crease as the cube of their diameters, while the surface of their FIG. 9. INDICATOR CARD, FULL, LOAD. cold walls varies as the square of their diameters; so that foi large c)'linders the ratio of surface to volume is less than for small ones. This points to greater economy in the larger engines. The study of many experiments goes to prove that combus- tion takes place gradually in the gas-engine cylinder, and that the rate of increase of pressure or rapidity of firing is con- trolled by dilution and compression of the mixture, as well as by the rate of expansion or piston speed. The rate of combustion also depends on the size and shape of the exploding chamber, and is increased by mechanical agi- tation of the mixture during combustion, and still more by the mode of firing. A small intermittent spark gives the most , uncertain ignition, whereas a continuous electric spark passed through an explosive mixture, or a large flame as the shooting RETARDED COMBUSTION AND WALL-COOLING. 35 of a mass of lighted gas into a weak mixture, will produce rapid ignition. The shrinkage of the charge of mixed gas and air by the union of its hydrogen and oxygen constituents by the produc tion of the vapor of water in a gas-engine cylinder, using i part illuminating gas to 6.05 parts air, is a notable amount, FIG. io. INDICATOR CARD, HALF LOAD. and of the total volume of 7.05 in cubic feet, the product will be: 1.3714 cubic feet water vapor. .5714 " " carbonic acid. .0050 " " nitrogen derived from the gas. 4.8000 " " " " " " air. products of combustion. 6.7428 Then 7.05 cubic feet of the mixture charge will have shrunk by combustion to 6.7428 cubic feet at initial temperature, or 4.4 per cent. This difference in the computed shrinkage at initial tern, perature is manifested in the reduced pressure of combustion due to the computed shrinkage, and amounts to about 2 per cent, in the mean pressure, as shown on an indicator card. With the less rich gas, as water and Dowson gas, the shrink- age by conversion into water vapor is equal to 5.5 per cent. In Fig. 7 is shown an actual indicator diagram from an English Otto engine, in which the sequence of operations are 36 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. delineated through two of its four cycles. The curve of explo- sion shows that firing- commenced slightly before the end of the stroke, and that combustion lagged until a moment after reversal of the stroke. . The expansion line is somewhat higher than the adiabatic curve, indicating a partial combustion tak- ing place during the stroke of the piston, and particularly FIG. XI. TYPICAL COMPRESSION CARD. MEAN PRESSURE, 76 LBS. PER SQUARE INCH. manifested by the rounding-off of the apex of the card. In Fig. 8 is represented a card from the Atkinson gas en- gine. The peculiar design of this engine enables the largest degree of expansion known in gas-engine practice. Fig. 9 is a card from a compression engine, showing an irregularity in firing the charge, and probably an irregular progress of combustion by defective mixture. This card- was made when running at full load, and computed at 69 Ibs. mean pressure. Fig. 10 represents a card from the same engine at half -load and lessened combustion charge. It shows the same charac- teristics as to irregularity, and also a lag in firing and a fitful after-combustion ; but from weak mixture and interrupted fir- ing the cooling influence of the cylinder walls has prolonged the combustion with ignition pressure. Mean pressure, about 68 Ibs. per square inch. Fig. ii represents a typical card of our best compression RETARDED COMBUSTION AND WALL-COOLING. 37 engines, with time igniter, at full load and uninterrupted firing. The kerosene motor card of the Mietz & Weiss engine (Fig. 1 1 A) taken from a 20 H.P. actual, motor with cylinder 12 inches X 12 inches, at 300 revolutions per minute, shows a compression of nearly one-half the explosive force. Its efficiency is very high, and by test gave 21^2 horse-power from i6 l / 2 pints of oil per hour. A most unique card is that of the Diesel motor, which involves a distinct principle in the design and operation of internal com- FlG. I IB. DIESEL MOTOR CARD. FlG. 1 1 A. KEROSENE MOTOR CARD. bustion motors, in that instead of taking a mixed charge for in- stantaneous explosion, its charge primarily is of air and its com- pression to a pressure at which a temperature is attained above the igniting point of the fuel, then injecting the fuel under a still higher pressure by which spontaneous combustion takes place gradually with increasing volume over the compression for part of the stroke or until the fuel charge is consumed. The motor thus operating between the pressures of 500 and 35 pounds per square inch, with a clearance of about j P er cent., has given an efficiency of 36 per cent, of the total heat value of kerosene oil. CHAPTER VI. CAUSES OF LOSS AND INEFFICIENCY IN EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. THE difference realized in the practical operation of an in- ternal-heat engine from the computed effect derived from the values of the explosive elements is probably the most serious difficulty that engineers have encountered in their endeavors to arrive at a rational conclusion as to where the losses were lo- cated and the ways and means of design that would eliminate the causes of loss and raise the efficiency step by step to a rea- sonable percentage of the total efficiency of a perfect cycle. The loss of heat to the walls of the cylinder, piston, and clearance space, as regards the proportion of wall surface to the volume, has gradually brought this point to its smallest ratio in the concave piston head and globular cylinder head, with the smallest possible space in the inlet and exhaust passage. The wall surface of a cylindrical clearance space or combustion chamber of one-half its unit diameter in length is equal to 3.1416 square units, its volume but 0.3927 of a cubic unit; while the same wall surface in a spherical form has a volume of o. 5 236 of a cubic unit. It will be readily seen that the volume is increased 33 per cent, in a spherical over a cylindrical form for equal wall surfaces at the moment of explosion, when it is desirable that the greatest amount of heat is generated and carrying with it the greatest possible pressure from which the expansion takes place by the movement of the piston. The spherical form cannot continue during the stroke for mechanical reasons; therefore some proportion of piston stroke or cylinder volume must be found to correspond with a spherical form of the combustion chamber to produce the least CAUSES OF LOSS AND INEFFICIENCY. 39 loss of heat through the walls during the combustion and ex- pansion part of the stroke. This idea we illustrate in Figs. 12 and 13, showing how the relative volumes of cylinder stroke and combustion chamber YlG 12. SPHERICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBER may be varied to suit the requirements due to the quality of the elements of combustion. In Fig. 12 the ratio may also be de- creased by extending the stroke. The mean temperature of the wall surface of the combustion chamber and cylinder, as indicated by the temperatures of the circulating water, has been found to be an important item in the economy of the gas FIG. 13. ENLARGED COMBUSTION CHAMBER. engine. Dugald Clerk, in England, a high authority in practi- cal work with the gas engine, found that 10 per cent, of the gas for a stated amount of power was saved by using water at a temperature in which the ejected water from the cylinder jacket was near the boiling point, and ventures the opinion that a still higher temperature for the circulating water may be used as a source of economy. 4O GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. This could be made practical by elevating the water tank and adjusting the air-cooling surface, so as to maintain the in- let water at just below the boiling-point, and by the rapid cir- culation induced by the height of the tank above the engine and the ' pressure, to return the water from the cylinder jacket a few degrees above the boiling-point. For a given amount of heat taken from the cylinder by the- largest volume of circulating water, the difference in tempera- ture between inlet and outlet of the water jacket should be the least possible, and this condition of the water circulation gives- a more even temperature to all parts of the cylinder ; while, on the contrary, a cold water supply, say at 60 F. , so slow as to allow the ejected water' to flow off at a temperature near the boiling-point, must make a great difference in temperature between the bottom and top of the cylinder, with a loss in econ- omy in gas and other fuels, as well as in water, if it is obtained by measurement. In regard to the actual consumption of water per horse- . power and the amount of heat carried off by it, the study of English trials of an Atkinson, Crossley, and Griffin engine showed 62 Ibs. water per indicated horse-power per hour, with a rise in temperature of 50 F., or 3, 100 heat units were carried off in the water out of 12,027 theoretical heat units that were fed to the motor through the 19 cubic feet of gas at 633 heat units per cubic foot per hour. Theoretically, 2,564 heat units per hour is equal to i horse- power. Then o. 257 of the total was given to the jacket water,. 0.213 to the indicated power, and the balance, 53 percent., went to the exhaust, radiation, and the reheating of the pre- vious charge in the clearance and in expanding the nitrogen of the air. Other and mysterious losses, due to the unknown condition of the gases entering into and passing through the heat cycle, have been claimed and mathematically discussed by authors, which have failed to satisfy the practical side of the question, which is the main object of this work. CAUSES OF LOSS AND INEFFICIENCY. 41 In a trial with the Crossley engine, 42 Ibs. of water per horse-power per hour were passed through the cylinder jacket, with a rise in temperature of 128 F. equal to 5,376 heat units to the water from 12,833 heat units fed to the engine through 20.5 cubic feet of gas at 626 heat units per cubic foot. In this trial, 41 per cent, of the total heat was carried awajr in the water; 2,564 heat units being equal to one indicated horse-power per hour, then 5,376 -j- 2,564 = 7,940 were directly accounted for, leaving 38 per cent, to the exhaust and other losses. As these engines were both of the compression type, and the Crossley engine having double the clearance space of the Atkinson engine, and with so great a difference in the vol- umes of the previous explosion held over, a just comparison of the effect of different cylinder temperatures cannot be made. The efficiencies were found, including gas used for ignition, to- be for the Atkinson, 22.8 per cent. ; for the Crossley, 21.2 per cent. ; and for the Griffin, a double-acting engine, 19.2 per cent, of the total gas power used. The efficiency of other engines- of the four-cycle compression type in Europe varies from 17 to 22 per cent., some of the lower efficiencies being claimed as due to the composition of the low-power Dowson and water gases. An experimental test of the performance of a gas engine below its maximum load has shown a large increase in the consumption of gas per actual horse-power, with a decrease of load, as the following figures from observed trials show: An actual 12 H.P. engine at full load used 15 cubic feet of gas per horse-power per hour; at 10 H.P., 15-^ cubic feet; at 8 H.P., i6 cubic feet; at 6 H.P. , 18 cubic feet; at 4 H.P. , 21 cubic feet; at 2 H.P., 30 cubic feet of gas per actual horse-power per hour. This indicates an economy in gauging the size of a gas engine- to the actual power required, in consideration of the fact that the engine friction and gas consumption for ignition are con- stants for all or any power actually given out by the engine. CHAPTER VII. ECONOMY OF THE GAS ENGINE FOR ELECTRIC-LIGHTING, IN the lighting of large dwellings or other buildings, where there is no power used for other purposes, the use of gas or gasoline engines for operating an electric generator is not only cheaper in running expenses than the steam engine, but the comparison holds good for the lighting of towns and villager at the usual cost of gas to consumers ; but when the generation of producer gas can be made for such use on the premises of the electric plant and by the same persons that operate the electric plant, the saving in cost of electric-lighting is several- fold less than by direct gas-burning. In many towns where oil producer gas is used, the cost of material used in making the gas is less than thirty-five cents per thousand feet of gas produced. In such places the labor of producing the gas for a town of say fifteen hundred inhabi- tants is from two to three hours per day, and in some towns, as observed by the author, three hours every other day giving ample time for the same operator to run the electric plant in the evening, or both may be run simultaneously. When the mere fact of the cost of gas for direct lighting and its cost for producing the same light by its use in a gas en- gine to run an electric generator is considered, the difference in favor of electric-lighting in preference to direct gas-lighting is most apparent. It has been known for some years that for equal light power but about one-half the volume of gas consumed in direct lighting will produce the same amount of candle-power when used in a gas engine for generating electricity for light- ing. THE GAS ENGINE FOR ELECTRIC-LIGHTING. 43 Again, when we leave the realm of a fixed gas and the cost of its producing- plant, the gasoline and oil engine again comes to the rescue of the fuel element for lighting, from an average cost of 7^ cents per hour for 192 candle-power in lights by direct illumination, and 2^ cents for the same amount of light by the use of illuminating gas consumed in a gas engine with electric generator, to one cent or less by the gasoline and oil engine for equal light. In English trials with a Crossley engine of 54 I.H.P. run- ning a 25-^ kilowatt generator (34 electrical H.P.), lighting 400 incandescent lamps (16 candle-power) consumed 1,130 cubic feet illuminating gas per hour, or 2.82 cubic feet of gas per lamp per hour. The gas used was 16 candle-power at 5 cubic feet per hour. Then, if it had been used for direct lighting, it would have produced nf^ = 226 i6-candle-power gas-lights, a little over one-half the amount of the electric light or the efficiency of the direct light would have been but 56.5 per cent. To show the difference between running a gas engine at full or less than full power, the same engine and generator when running with 300 incandescent lamps, 1 6 candle-power, used 840 cubic feet of gas per hour, and ? -p = 168 16 candle- power gas-lights, or 56 per cent, efficiency for direct lighting. When the lamps were cut out to one-half or 200, the con- sumption of gas was 740 cubic feet per hour, equal to ^ = 148 gas lights, with a direct gaslight efficiency of 74 per cent. the difference in efficiency being chiefly due to the constant value of the engine and generator friction in its relation to the variable power. Another trial with a Tangye engine of a maximum 39 I.H.P. running an 18.36 kilowatt generator (24.61 electrical H.P.), lighting 300 r6-candle-power incandescent lamps, consumed 770 cubic feet illuminating gas per hour With direct lighting, i-p = 154 gas-lights (16 candle-power), or an efficiency of 51 per cent, for direct lighting. With 220 incandescent lamps in. 44 GAS > GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. 640 cubic feet of gas were consumed per hour, equal to 128 gas-lights ' and a direct gaslight efficiency of J-f-J = 58 per cent. Again reducing to 100 lamps, 320 cubic feet of gas was^ used, equal to 64 gas-lights with an efficiency of 64 per cent, for direct gaslighting. It will readily be seen by inspection of these figures that the greatest economy in gas-engine power will be found in gauging the size of a gas engine by the work it is to do when the work is a constant quantity. In a trial by the writer of a Nash gas engine of 5 B. H. p. , driving by belt a Riker 3 kilowatt bipolar generator of 120- volts, 25 ampere capacity, the engine speed was 300 revolu- tions and the generator 1,400 revolutions per minute; con- sumption of New York gas, 105 cubic feet per hour. With 50 i2o-volt A. B.C. lamps in circuit giving a brilliant white light of fully 1 6 candle-power, the actual voltage by meter was 120, amperage by meter 24, voltage and amperage perfectly steady with continuous running. By turning in resistance and reduc- ing the voltage to no and the amperage to 21, the lights were still brilliant in the 50 lamps. With the lamps cut out to 40, the voltmeter vibrated 2 volts and immediately came back to no volts, with the amperemeter at 1 7. With a further and sudden cutting out the light to 20 lamps, the voltage fell to 105 witb but slight vibration; amperage, n. With 15 lamps on, the voltage crept up to no, amperage 6-J, and with 10 lamps only the voltage vibrated for a few seconds and rested at no, am- perage 4-J. The engine seemed to answer the change of load remarkably quick, so that there was no perceptible change in-, speed. The investment of local lighting-plants by the use of gas, gasoline, and oil engines in factories and large buildings in Europe has been found a great source of economy as against the direct use of municipal electric current or the direct use of gas. The gasoline or oil engine makes a most favorable return in economy when used for local lighting as against the prevailing. THE GAS ENGINE FOR ELECTRIC-LIGHTING. 45 price charged by the operators of large steam-power installa- tions for town and city lighting. In a trial of eleven days by a 10 H.P. four-cycle gas engine of the Raymond vertical pattern, belted direct to a 150- light direct-current generator making 1,600 revolutions per minute, with the current measured by a recording wattmeter, giving a steady current to 90 i6-candle-power lamps on a factory cir- cuit, the total cost of gas at $1.50 per 1,000 cubic feet with lu- bricating oils was $20. 1 6. The kilowatts produced by measure was 239. i or a cost of . 0844 cents per kilowatt. The price of the current by the same measure from the electric company was 20 cents per kilowatt a saving of 57 per cent. In places where gas is $i per 1,000 feet, the cost would have been only 5f cents per kilowatt. In the lighting of churches the gas or gasoline engine has been found to be not only economical, but has largely contrib- uted to the cheerful surroundings of a lighted church at less than one-half the cost of gas for direct lighting, and with no more attention in starting the engine, cleaning, etc., than re- quired for lighting and regulating the ordinary gas lights. The year 1902 has ushered in a most extended use of ex- plosive engines as prime-movers for generating the electric current for lighting and the transmission of power. For this purpose the duplex vertical engine and direct connected multi- polar generators are used, from which very favorable results have been obtained. Trials with a 2 2 B. H. P. two- cylinder verti- cal engine of the National Meter Co., direct coupled with a 15 kilowatt, 6 pole, compound wound Riker generator, using illumi- nating gas of 701 thermal units per cubic foot, with engine and generator running at 300 revolutions per minute, are quoted. The output was 13,125 watts, or equal to 345 lamps of 3.8 watts each say 16 candle-power, with a total B.H.P. =22.71. Total consumption of gas per B.H.P. = 17.62 c. ft. Relative illumi- 46 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. nating power of electric light 2.21 as compared with equal con- sumption by direct gas lighting. Efficiency of engine 20.6 per cent.; efficiency of generator 83.1 per cent. Statements of still greater economy for lighting by gas and gasoline engines, in which claims for from 14 to 16 cubic feet of gas and y% gallon of gasoline per B.H.P. are made for large- sized electric plants, and but a trifle more for smaller sizes. Electric lighting by the power of the explosive engine is con- ceded to be economical at all ranges of its power, but with gasoline and oil vapor the cost of fuel for light drops to less than i-io of a cent per 16 candle-power light per hour. Electric lighting plants operated by gas, gasoline and oil motors are making rapid advances in the number of units of power, and the small powers of the date of the early edition of this work, have gradually advanced to unit installments of 50, 100 and 150 horse-power in double and triple-cylinder motors, and by duplicating the motor-units, almost any desired installation can be made on the most economical running basis. The American practice of construction seems to favor the smaller cylinder volume and their duplication for the higher powers. In this manner power installations for from 1,000 to 10,000 incandescent lights may be made a most economical plant with illuminating gas, gasoline, producer gas or petroleum oil. CHAPTER VIII. THE MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. THE composition of gases, gasoline, petroleum oil, and air as elements of combustion and force in explosive engines is of great importance in comparisons of heat and motor effi- ciencies. By reported experiments with 2o-candle coal gas in the United States, by the evaporation of water at 212 F., a cubic foot was credited with 1,236 heat units; while reliable authorities range the value of our best illuminating gases at from 675 to 700 heat units per cubic foot. The specific heat of illuminating gas is much higher than for air, being for coal gas at constant pressure 0.6844 an d at constant volume 0.5196, with a ratio of 1.315 ; while the specific heat for air at constant pressure is 0.2377, an d at constant volume is o. 1688, and their ratio 1.408. The mixtures of gas and air accordingly vary in their spe- cific heat with ratios relative to the volumes in the mixture. The products of combustion also have a higher specific heat than air, ranging from 0.250 at constant pressure and 0.182 at constant volume, to 0.260 and 0.190 with ratios of 1.37 and 1.36. A cubic foot of ordinary coal gas burned in air produces about one ounce of water vapor, and 0.57 of a cubic foot of car- bonic acid gas (CO 2 ). Its calorific value will average about 673 heat units per cubic foot. A cubic foot of ordinary coal gas requires 1.21 cubic feet of oxygen, more or less, due to variation in the constituents of different grades of illuminating gases in various localities, for complete combustion. Allowing for an available supply of 20 per cent, of oxygen GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. in air for complete combustion, then 1.21 x 5 = 6.05 cubic feet of air which is required per cubic foot of gas in a gas engine for its best work; but in actual practice the presence in the engine cylinder of the products of a previous combustion, and the fact that a sudden mixture of gas and air may not make a homogeneous combination for perfect combustion, require a larger proportion of air to completely oxidize the gas charge. It will be seen by inspection of Table 2 that the above proportion, without the presence of contaminating elements, produces the quickest firing and approximately the highest pressure at constant volume, and that any greater or less pro- portion of air will reduce the pressure and the apparent effi- ciency of an explosive motor. There are other considerations effecting the governing of explosive engines, in which the gas element only is controlled by the governor, requiring an ex- cess of air at the normal speed, so that an economical adjust- ment of gas consumption may be obtained at both above and below the normal speed. TABLE III. THE MATERIALS OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES- GASES, GASOLINE, AND PETROLEUM OILS. Various gases, vapors, and other combustibles. Heat units, per pound. Heat units, per cu- bic foot. Foot- pounds, per cu- bic foot. Hydrogen 61,560 14,540 18,324 18,401 18,448 11,000 293.5 950 800 620 185 *5Q 104 1677 690 868 584 495 1051 226,580 773,400 617,600 478,640 142,820 115,800 80,288 492,680 670,090 450,846 382,140 Carbon Crude petroleum, West Virginia, spec. grav. .873. Light petroleum, Pennsylvania, spec. grav. .841.. Benzine. C 6 H B Gasoline 28 candle-power illuminating gas . . 19 * * 15 " " " Water gas, American Producer gas, English 66 to. . Water producer gas Ethylene olefiant gas, C 2 H 4 21,430 11,000 21,492 Oasoline vapor .... Acetylene C 2 H 2 . Natural gas, Leechburg Pa " " Pittsburg Pa Marsh gas (Methane) , CH 23.594 MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. 49 The various other than coal gas used in explosive engines are NATURAL GAS, ACETYLENE, liberated by the action of water on calcium carbide ; PRODUCER GAS, made by the limited action of air alone upon incandescent fuel; WATER GAS, made by the action of steam alone upon incandescent fuel ; SEMI-WATER GAS, made by the action of both air and steam upon incandes- cent fuel also named DOWSON GAS in England. Natural Gas. The constituents of natural gas varies to a considerable ex- tent in different localities. The following is the analysis of some of the Pennsylvania wells : NATURAL GAS CONSTITUENTS. BY VOLUME. Constituents. Clean, N. Y. Pitts- burg, Pa. Leech- burg, Pa. Harvey well, Butler county. Burns well, Butler county. Hydrogen H . 22 OO 47Q 1-5 CQ 6 10 Marsh gas CH 4 06 50 67 oo 80 6* 80 II 7C A A Ethane C 2 H 4 5 OO 4 30 e 72 18 12 Heavy hydrocarbons I. CO I OO 5 6 Carbonic oxide, CO .'io 60 26 trace trace. Carbonic acid, COa .60 35 66 .34 Nitrogen, N 3.OO Oxygen. O 2.OO .80 100.00 100.00 IOO.OO 100.00 100.00 Heat units, cubic feet, Fah. = 892 1051 959 1151 Density, o. 5 to o. 55 (air i). The calorific value of natural gas in much of the Western gas fields is below these figiires. In experiments recorded by Brannt, "Petroleum and Its Products," with the oil gas as made for town lighting in many parts of the United States, of specific gravity about 0.68 (air j), mixtures of oil gas with air had the following explosive properties : Oil gas, volumes. I . . Air, volumes. 4-9 5. 6 to 5.8 Explosive effect None. Slight. 5 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Oil gas, volumes. Air. volumes. Explosive effect. 1 6 to 6. 5 Heavy. i 7 to 9 Very heavy. i ; 10 to 13 Heavy. i 14 to 16 Slight. i 17 to 17. 7 Very slight. i 18 to 22 None. It will be seen that mixtures varying from i of gas to 6 of air, and all the way to i of gas to 13 of air, are available for use in gas engines for the varying conditions of speed and power regulation ; and that i of gas to from 7 to 9 of air pro- duces the best working effect. Its calorific value varies in different localities from 550 to 650 heat units per cubic foot. Ordinary oil illuminating gas varies somewhat in its constitu- ents, and may average: Hydrogen, 39.5; marsh gas, 37.3; ni- trogen, 8.2; heavy hydrocarbons, 6.6; carbonic oxide, 4.3; oxygen (free) , 1.4; water vapor and impurities, 2.7; total, 100;. and is equal to 6 1 7 heat units per cubic foot. Producer Gas. The constituents of producer gas vary largely in the dif- erent methods by which it is made ; in fact, all of the follow- ing gases are made in producers, so called. The constituents- of the low grade of this name are : Carbonic oxide, CO 22. 8 per cent. Nitrogen, N 63.5 Carbonic acid, CO, 3. 6 " Hydrogen, H , 2.2 " Marsh gas (methane), CH 4 7.4 ** Free oxygen, 5 ** 100. o The average heating power of this variety of producer gas is about in heat units per cubic foot. MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. 5! Another producer gas, called Water Gas 9 has an average composition of Carbonic oxide, CO 41 per cent. Hydrogen, H 48 " Carbonic acid, CO a 6 " Nitrogen, N 5 100 and has an average calorific value of 291 heat units per cubic foot. Semi-Water Gas, or, as designated in England, Dowson gas, from the name of the inventor of a water gas-making plant, has the following average composition: Hydrogen, H 18. 73 per cent Marsh gas, (methane) , CH 4 31 '* Olefiant gas, C 2 H 4 31 " Carbonic oxide, CO 25. 07 tt Carbonic acid, CO 2 6. 57 " Oxygen, O 03 " Nitrogen. N 48.98 " 100.00 " It has a calorific value of about 150 heat units per cubic foot. PETROLEUM PRODUCTS USED IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. The principal products derived from crude petroleum for power purposes may commercially come under the names of gasoline, naphtha (three grades, B, C, and A), kerosene, gas oil, and crude oil. The first distillate: Rhigoline, boiling at 113 F., specific gravity 0.59 to 0.60; chimogene, boiling at from 122 to 138 P., specific gravity 0.625; gasoline, boiling at from 140 to 158 P., specific gravity 0.636 to 0.657; naphtha "C" (by some also called benzin), boiling from 160 to 216 P., specific gravity GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. 0.66100.70; naphtha " B" (ligroine). boiling at from 200 to 240 P., specific gravity 0.71 to 0.74 naphtha "A" (putzoel), boiling at from 250 to 300 F. The commercial gasoline of the American trade is a com- bination of the above fractional distillates, boiling at from 125 to 200 F., specific gravity 0.63 to 0.74. Kerosene, boiling at from 300 to 500 F. , specific gravity o. 76 to 0.80. Gas oil, boiling at above 500 F. , specific gravity above 0.80, Crude petroleum, boiling uncertain from its mixed constitu ents, specific gravity about o. 80. The vapor of commercial gasoline at 60 F. is equal to 1 30 volumes of the liquid, sustains a water pressure of from 6 to 8 inches, and will maintain a working pressure of 2 inches, or equal to any gas service when the temperature is maintained at 60 F., and with an evaporating surface equal to 5^ square feet per required horse-power, using proportions of 6 volumes of air to i volume of gasoline vapor. Commercial kerosene requires a temperature of 95 F. to maintain a vapor pressure of from to -J-inch water pressure, requiring a much larger evaporating surface than for gasoline. It may be vaporized by heat from the exhaust, and is so used in several types of oil engines. TABLE IV. PERCENTAGE, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND FLASHING POINT OF THE PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM. Products. Per cent, of each. Specific gravity. Flashing: point, Fah. Rhigolene and chimogene Trace. Gasoline .02 0.650 10 Benzine naphtha .10 0.700 14 Kerosene, light . IO 0.730- 50 Kerosene, medium 35 0.800 150 Kerosene, heavy .10 0.890 270 Lubricating oil .10 0.905 315 Cylinder oil .05 0.915 360 Vaseline .02 0.925 Residuum and loss .16 1. 00 MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. 53 Crude petroleum and kerosene are available also by injection in a class of oil engines of the Hornsby-Akroyd type, in which the oil can be so atomized and vaporized as to make its entire volume available as an explosive combustible, in order that the accumulation of refuse shall be at a minimum. Crude oil is also used in the "Best" oil- vapor engine. ACETYLENE GAS. FOR EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. Much interest has been lately shown and some experiments made in regard to the availability of carbide of calcium for generating acetylene gas as a fuel in the motive power of the horseless carriage and launches. Liquid acetylene has been also suggested as the acme of concentrated fuel for power. The gas liquefies at 116 F. at atmospheric pressure, and at 68 F. at 597 Ibs. , per square inch. Its liquid volume is about 62 cubic inches per pound. The specific gravity of gaseous acetylene (C 3 H 2 ) is .91 (air i), and its percentage of carbon .923, and of hydrogen .077. Its great density as compared with other illuminating gases and the large percentage of carbon is probably the source of its wonderful light-giving power. It is credited by hydrocarbon heat values with 18,260 thermal units per pound of the gas (14^ cubic feet) and 1259 thermal units per cubic foot. One volume of the gas requires 2\ volumes of oxygen for perfect combustion, which is equivalent to 12^ volumes of air, provided that all the oxygen of the air can be utilized in the operation of a gas engine ; probably the best and most econom- ical effect can be had from the proportion of i of acetylene to 14 or 15 of air. This proportion has been used in Italian motors with the best effect. One pound of calcium carbide will yield 5! cubic feet of acety- lene gas, and requires a little over a half pound of water to com- pletely liberate the gas, so that where weight is a factor, as 54 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. with carriages, tricycles and bicycles, the output of gas will be but 3.83 cubic feet per pound of generating material. The large proportion of air required for perfect combustion makes a favorable compensation for the necessity for carrying water for generating the gas, as compared with gasoline, which yields but 2.8 cubic feet of vapor per liquid pound with its best explosive effect of 9 volumes of air to i volume of vapor. In liberating the gas from carbide in a close vessel the pres- sure may rise to a dangerous point, depending upon the clear- ance space in the vessel, say from 300 to 800 Ibs. per square inch. In this manner a few accidents have occurred. One pound of liquid acetylene, when evaporated at 64 F., will produce 14^ cubic feet of gas at atmospheric pressure, or a volume 400 times larger than that of the liquid. Its critical point of liquefaction is stated to be 98 F. ; above this tempera- ture it does not liquefy, but continues under the gaseous state at great pressures. The heat unit value of acetylene gas from its peculiar hydro carbon elements, it will be seen, is far greater than that of gaso- line vapor per cubic foot, but experiments seem to have cast a doubt upon the theoretical value, and assigned a much less amount, or about 868 heat units per cubic foot. As the comparative volume of explosive mixtures of gas or vapor and air is largely in favor of acetylene over gasoline, and as the weight of material for a given horse-power per hour also favors the use of acetylene, it will no doubt become a useful and economical element of explosive power for vehicles and launches ; always provided that the commercial production of carbide of calcium becomes available as a merchandise factor in cities and towns. The explosive mixture of acetylene and air spontaneously fires at lower temperatures than illuminating gas mixtures ; it varies from 509 to 515 F., while illuminating gas mixtures range from 750 to 800 F. Claims of a higher temperature have been made. MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. 55 In the use of liquid acetylene, the cost of liquefying the gas may be a bar to its ordinary use, but for special purposes there -are possibilities that only future experiments and trials may de- velop into useful work from this unique element. In trials of .acetylene for power in gas engines, made in Paris, France, it was found that a much less volume of acetylene was required for equal work with illuminating gas and that it was a practical explosive fuel. The only change required was found to be a more perfect regulation of the valve movement, or a smaller valve to meet the smaller volume of acetylene. In these exper- iments the explosive mixture was approximately i o parts air to i part acetylene ; and using from 4 to 7 cubic feet of gas per horse- power per hour. From another account of trials in France, it appears, as the result of experiments made by M. Ravel, that 6.35 cubic feet of acetylene gas generate i horse-power per hour, which is equiva- lent to a reduction of two-thirds as compared with petroleum. As to the explosiveness of mixtures of air and acetylene, it was found that 1.35 parts of this gas mixed with i part of air began to be explosive, the explosive force of such mixture rising rapidly as the dilution with air increases, attaining finally a max- imum when there are 1 2 volumes of air with i volume of acety- lene; then as the proportion of air is increased beyond this limit, the explosive force subsides, until at 20 to i it becomes entirely extinct. The flashing point approximates 900 F., whereas in the case of most other gases used to generate power the requisite ignition temperature is about 1100 F. The tem- perature of combustion is very much higher than that of the other gases with which it can be compared. The special charac- teristics of this gas, therefore, are great rapidity of the trans- mission of flame, low ignition temperature, high combustion temperature and extraordinary energy evolved in the explosion. 56 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. For comparison of gasoline and acetylene, a series of tests were made with mixtures of air and vaporized gasoline in the ratio 4 to i, which -gave the greatest explosive pressure, 165 pounds, at initial pressure of 20 pounds. At the same initial pres- sure the 9 to I mixture of air and acetylene produced a pressure 2/3 - greater than that by the gasoline, so that the volume of 165 1 165 acetylene to give the same pressure need only be X -3O4 2 273 of the gasoline. Taking the theoretical indicator diagrams for the explosion of these two mixtures, the area of the acetylene diagram measured 4.91 square inches, and that of gasoline 1.79 square inches, giving a ratio of power nearly 3 to i. Indicator diagrams show that .the time-rate of the acetylene explosion is five times faster than that of the mixture of gasoline and air. As vaporized gasoline acts more slowly than acetylene, the practical test makes acetylene (mixture 9 to i) 3.28 times more powerful than gasoline (ratio of 4 to i), whereas theoretically it should be only three times as great. The calorific value of the acetylene used was 1,350 thermal units and that of gasoline 700 heat units per cubic foot. A cubic foot of each of the above mixtures at initial atmospheric pressure would give 90 pounds and 43 pounds per square inch respectively. Allowed to expand adiabatically to 10 cubic feet, the calculated external work, i k (where A' =1.405), would be for acetylene 22,403 foot pounds, and for gasoline 12,132 foot-pounds. But only 0.0625 cubic feet of acetylene was used, while 0.20 cubic feet of gasoline vapor was needed, or 3.2 times as much. With the given ratios of mixtures only 0.0312 cubic MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. 57 feet of acetylene is required to do the same work that 0.20 cubic feet of vaporized gasoline will do. Or comparing equal quantities of the two gases, acetylene has about 6.5 times the intrinsic energy of vaporized gasoline at the given ratios of air and gas. Assuming an engine of total efficiency from fuel to useful work of 15 per cent., and a consumption of 22 cubic feet of gaso- line vapor per H.P. per hour, the cost of i H.p.-hour would be 1.3 cents, at 58 cents per 1,000 cubic feet of vaporized gasoline. The cost per H.P. per hour for acetylene in an engine of equal efficiency would be 2.6 cents, with acetylene $8 per 1,000 cubic feet, or 4 cents per pound. To do the same work with acetylene in place of vaporized gasoline, therefore, would be about twice as expensive. For this reason acetylene would only be of practi- cal use to produce power where safety and light compact engines were required, as in automobiles and launches. In the event of a 50 per cent, reduction in the price of calcium carbide, however, it might probably come into more general use for gas engines. ALCOHOL AS A MOTIVE POWER. For some time past the French public has been studying a question interesting from the standpoint of the engineer, impor- tant from an economical point of view; the question of alcohol in its domestic and. industrial applications. Among the latter the utilization of this combustible in explosive motors is the most interesting, and this is why the experiment has been tried of sub- stituting for imported gasoline a national product resulting from French or colonial crops. One of the unquestioned advantages of alcohol over gasoline is that alcohol is a fixed product, what- ever may be its use. The same alcohol for motive purposes can therefore be produced in any part of the globe, and its origin is revealed only by special aromas, which are of no consequence when it is used as a motive force. If the consumption of alcohol motors is compared with that of gasoline it is seen at once that the former consumes consider- ably more than the latter; and as the alcohol is the more costly of the two combustibles, the problem would seem a priori insolu- ble from an economic point of view. 58 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Since denatured alcohol contains 4,172 heat units per pound, while gasoline contains 11,000, it has been found necessary to raise the calorific power of the former and at the same time lower its price, and so it has been mixed with high grade gasoline of 70 degs. gravity, which contains about 11,000 heat units per pound, and which can be produced under good conditions at a low net cost. Mixtures containing from 50 per cent, to 75 per cent, of alcohol have been used ; but it is the 50 per cent, mixture, which has a calorific power of 7,586 heat units per pound, which seems to be the most advantageous at the present state of de- velopment. From the result of numerous trials made in France it has been found that the consumption of 50 per cent, carburetted alcohol is nearly the same as that of gasoline for a given power, and this notwithstanding the difference in the theoretical calorific powers of the two combustibles, from which it follows that the efficiency of the alcohol motor is greater than that of the gaso- line. Some very exact experiments made by Prof. Musil at Berlin have shown the efficiency of various kinds of motors to be as fol- lows : Motors run on city gas (according to the type), 18 to 31 per cent.; portable steam motors, 13; kerosene motors, 13; gaso- line motors, 16; alcohol motors (mean figure), 23.8 per cent. The high efficiency is evidently due to the great elasticity de- rived from the expansion of the water vapor that is contained or produced by the alcohol at the moment of its combustion, this expansion tending to make the explosions in the cylinders less violent than when gasoline is used, and thus giving a longer life to the wearing parts of the motor. So much has this been found to be the case that in order to increase the beneficial action of the water vapor the German Motor Construction Company, of Marienfeld, recommends a mixture containing 20 per cent, of water, and it has built motors to run on such a mixture that con- sume only .17 pound per horse-power-hour. The fact must not be overlooked that in order to secure good efficiency with either pure or carburetted alcohol recourse must be had to specially con- MATERIAL OF POWER IN EXPLOSIVE ENGINES. 59 structed motors having the following characteristics : The stroke nearly double the bore, high compression and a good spark. Finally, the result of the latest experiments recently made in France on the "Economic" motor, which was specially constructed for use with alcohol, has been a lowering of the consumption to .124 pound per horse-power hour for medium-sized motors, em- ploying a 50 per cent, mixture of carburetted alcohol. For sta- tionary motors the problem is therefore solved. When it has to do with automobiles the substitution of alcohol carburetted with gasoline is a matter of great interest, for it is evident from statistics that if a liquid containing 50 per cent, denatured alcohol could be used, a large industry would be in- duced. There is no doubt whatever that if the purchasers of automo- biles required of the manufacturers carriages that would work equally well on 50 per cent, carburetted alcohol or gasoline the manufacturers would devise practical and simple apparatus, so that one combustible could be immediately substituted for the other ; and that supply stations having carburetted alcohol would soon be established. A little perseverance and attention is all that is necessary, therefore, to make the alcohol motor prosper, as has already been done in Germany and France. It is the consensus of opinion and so far verified by practical work, that the regulation of the power of the explosive motor has its most economical working condition, first, in the variation of the quantity of fuel injected within certain limits for its highest explosive force with certain mixtures of air; and second, be- yond this limit by the regulation of the quantity of the fuel and air mixture in their best proportions for highest effect. It has been shown in other parts of this work that mixtures of good illuminating gas, one part to between five and six parts air, give the highest constant volume pressure and the highest temperature by explosive combustion. Also that the time of combustion is quickest under the above proportion. CHAPTER IX. CARBURETTERS. THE use of the vapor of gasoline, naphtha, and petroleum oil for operating internal-combustion engines is increasing to a PIG. 14. THE CIRCULAR CARBURETTER, PLAN. vast extent in all parts of the civilized world, and will be no doubt the cheapest medium for generating power so long as petroleum and its products are at the present low price. I OL V PlO. 15. THE CIRCULAR CARBURETTER, SECTION. gas-engine running, air saturated with the vapor of gasoline and naphtha is in general use, and when so used is produced by passing air through the liquid or over a surface largely ex- CARBURETTERS. 6l tended by capillary attraction of the fluid by fibrous surfaces dipping into the fluid, by vaporizing the fluid by means of the heat of the exhaust, and by injecting the fluid in small portions into the air-inlet chamber or under its valve, and directly into the clearance space of the cylinder. In Figs. 14 and 15 is illustrated a form of carburetter, PIG. 16. PLAN OF VENTILATING CARBURETTER. made by the writer many years since, for carburetting air and low-grade illuminating gas. This carburetter may be made of heavy tinplate. The spiral partition, made of tinplate, is perforated with sufficient small holes at top and bottom to fasten strips of cotton or woollen flannel on both sides of the spiral plate by stitching with coarse FIG. 17. SECTIONS OF VENTILATING CARBURETTER. thread and needle. The spiral plate should extend so as to nearly touch the bottom of the tank ; the bottom is to be soldered on last. The valve V, for the purpose of preventing the escape of the vapor when the carburetter is not in use, may be made as light as possible, of tin plate or brass, and faced with soft leather wet with glycerin or a composition of glycerin and glue jelly, 62 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. which always keeps soft and is not injured by the gasoline or its vapor. By this arrangement many square feet of surface may be obtained in a small space and perfect uniformity of saturation insured. As the enclosed walls of this form become very cold by long-continued use, an improvement was made by FIG. 18. UNION AND GLOBE ENGINE VAPORIZER. making each division wall with an outside surface, so that there was a natural down-draught of air on the outside of the entire evaporating surface of the carburetter. In Figs. 16 and 17 are shown the plan and sections. In this form the air spaces prevent excessive cold by a circulation of air downward against the cooling surface of the walls the whole interior vertical walls being lined with cloth fastened to a wire frame made to fit each section and pushed into place before the ends of the sections are soldered on. Very good carburetters have been made by a long cast-iron CARBURETTERS. FIG. 19. THE DAIMLER CARBURETTER. box with a cover bolted on wi'-h a packing of glue and glycerin jelly on felt or asbestos packing, in which a frame of wire- 64 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. work and cloth or yarn is made to give the desired evaporat- ing surface. For any carburetter of the forms here described, the depth should be limited to 8 inches, as the capillarity of the fibrous material is of little or no value at a greater height than 6 inches above the fluid, which should not be charged above 3 inches in depth for best effect. In Fig. 1 8 is represented a vaporizer used by the Globe Gas Engine Company of Philadelphia. It consists of a metal body E, inside of which is a ball-shaped valve N, seated on the end of a tube with its spindle extending below the air pipe and attached to a disc at J for regulating the lift of the air and gasoline valve ; O io spindle of gasoline valve. The gasoline tank is so placed as to flow the liquid to .the vaporizer. The air is heated by passing through a jacket on the exhaiist pipe. Fig. 19 represents a sectional view of the Daimler carbu- retter. The incoming air is heated by passing through a jacket on the exhaust pipe, and charged to saturation with vapor in the carburetter, the saturated air charge being regu- lated by a three-way cock, which allows a further dilution with air for the explosive mixture. The gasoline supply is made through the small central tube to the bottom of the carburetter, which insures a uniform density in the fuel. The float B by its weight keeps a con- stant level in the conical cup D, where evaporation takes place. The float and its guide-pipe move down as the gasoline is used. The hot air passes down through the guide-tube and -out through the perforation beneath the fluid in the conical cup D, then over two diaphragms, and through the perforated screen and to the vapor tube. The perforated screen in both inlet and outlet chamber prevents the jerky motion of the air caused by the suction of the piston. The lettering in the cut fairly explains the ignition arrangement. In Fig. 20 is represented the carburetter of the Gilbert -& Barker Manufacturing Company, Springfield, Mass. It is CARBURETTERS. c made of wrought iron, has four divisions, in which perforated capillary partitions are set around each division or story of the carburetter, thus greatly enlarging the evaporating surface. The air enters the lower compartment, becomes saturated, and leaves the carburetter from the top. Provision is made for FIG. 20. GILBERT & BARKER CARBURETTER. pumping out any residue that may require removal when the carburetter is placed underground. Many other forms of carburetter have been tried, without, however, securing better results than with those here described. vSaturated air with gasoline vapor has a heat value of about .200 heat units per cubic foot. A claim has been made in France that by saturating part of the exhaust and by heating the gasoline, also by the exhaust, a concentrated vapor was produced, which, used with the air, produced a power value of T f T of a gallon of gasoline per horse-power per hour. We await its confirmation. There is 66 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. no doubt that greater economics are in progress in the opera- tion of gasoline and oil engines, but the use of part of the products of combustion from the exhaust tends to lessen its value, if it has a value above its use as a part of the contents of the clearance space now in use in engines of the compres- sion class. The evaporation of gasoline of 74 specific gravity at a tem- perature of 60 F. varies somewhat from the form of its ele- mentary constituents ; so that an average of 1,173 grains per square foot of saturated surface per hour in the open air may be assumed as the basis for carburetting surface. When evaporated in a closed vessel, as a carburetter, the vapor may start at about 1,000 grains per square foot of sur- face per hour ; but if the area of evaporating surface is so ex- tended that little or no tension or pressure is produced by its evaporation, due to the draught upon it by the motor, and the temperature of the gasoline is kept near to 60 F., the evapo- ration may be relied on at about 800 grains per square foot per hour. This gives a basis for computing the area of carburetted surface at any assumed consumption of gasoline per horse- power per hour. For example, gasoline weighing 6 Ibs. per gallon, with an assumed requirement of ^ of a gallon per horse-power per hour, and an evaporation of 800 grain-* per hour per square foot, will require rg = 5i square feet ooo of evaporating surface in the carburetter per horse-power. With our present experience there is no doubt in regard to the advantage, economy and safety in the use of carburetters for gasoline, in which the air becomes thoroughly saturated with the gasoline vapor before it meets the free air at the charging" valve. Air saturated with gasoline vapor is not explosive, and is considered in practice to be as safe in pipes and gas holders as any other gas used for illuminating purposes. It does not become explosive until further diluted to 5 parts of air to i CARBURETTERS. 6/ part pure vapor. The mixture of air saturated with vapor of gasoline is largely in use in all parts of the United States for illu- minating purposes, conditioned as to safety and favorable insur- ance ; therefore there is no bar to its use under the same conditions as an explosive element for power. Its safety will always be insured by an excess of evaporating surface in the carburetter. So far as experience goes the sufficiency of the -carburetter surface is a most important detail in its application for the fuel supply of a gasoline engine, and its deficiency has been at the bottom of much trouble with the builders of these engines. A point of great value in the economy of fuel has been brought out by German engineers, in trials as to the time of combustion in a cylinder and its relation to the perfection of the mixture of air and vapor. It was demonstrated experimentally that in the ordinary method of mixing a pure gas or vapor with air at the instant of injection into the cylinder does not produce an instantaneous explosion, but from the first impulse the com- bustion continued throughout the stroke with a portion of unburned gas in the exhaust. This resulted, as observed, in a reduced initial pressure and consequent reduced efficiency by the indicator card. The continued combustion also increased the heat of the cylinder as shown by the increase of tempera- ture of a stated quantity of water for cooling a slow combustion cylinder. It was found experimentally that an injection of equal parts of gas and air into a cylinder required 6 seconds to become fully diffused, and that i part of gas to 6 parts of air required from i o to 1 2 seconds for perfect diffusion. When, therefore, the time of a single revolution of a gas or gaso- line engine is considered, as compared with the time for charging and compression in a four-cycle cylinder, it will be seen that the mixture cannot become sufficiently intimate to permit the desired instantaneous explosion necessary for the highest fuel efficiency. The tendency of efficiency in gas and gasoline engine con- 68 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. struction in the United States appears to be increasing in the line of more perfect mixture of the explosive fuel before injec- tion into the cylinder; and to this we probably owe the possi- bilities now claimed of from 12 to 14 cubic feet of good illuminating gas, and ^ of a gallon of gasoline per indicated horse-power per hour, and which in some cases has raised the pressure of explosion to 3^- times the pressure of compression in four-cycle engines. In Fig. 20 A is illustrated a novel atomizer and vaporizer for a marine engine. The rising vapor pipe is shortened in the cut for the convenience of illustration. FlG. 20A. GASOLINE ATOMIZER AND VAPORIZER. The gasoline tank is placed in the bow of the boat and the atomizer at the base of the engine. The gasoline flows to the chamber F by gravity and is stopped by the deep-seated conical valve E. The cage of the air inlet valve D is screwed into til*, metal box at B and is adjustable so as to bring the push-centd CARBURETTERS. 69 of the valve D to the proper distance for operating the gasoline inlet valve E. The lift of the air valve D is also adjustable in its lift by the lock-nuts at I on the spindle C, which is guided by a cross-bar near the top of the cage. The main air inlet is at H with a diffusion inlet at G regulated by a plug-cock. The gaso- line is thoroughly atomized by the action of the two valves E and D, and meeting the fresh air through G is vaporized in its passage through the pipe and inlet- valve chamber. VAPOR GAS FOR EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. Much of the risk and inconvenience of handling gasoline for motive power may be avoided by using the mixture of air and gasoline vapor as a gas, and under the same conditions at the motor as with illuminating gas. Many power plants now utilize the vapor of gasoline generated at or in the immediate vicinity of the motor cylinder. This requires the presence of gasoline in quantity within the building, which largely increases the insur- ance risk, and is always a source of discussion and doubt with underwriters. The vapor gas as now extensively used for lighting dwellings and factories has been brought to such perfection in its genera- tion and application to lighting purposes, as well also to many other applications for heat generated by Bunsen and other forms of gas burners, that it may now be considered the most conven- ient form for a gas-generating system for isolated places, where an element is required for both lighting and power. The uncer- tainty of perfect diffusion of vapor and air in the present methods of producing the mixture of vapor and air near or within the cyl- inder cannot be considered the highest economy in the element of power production, in view of the assumed fact that commercial gasoline of an average of . 75 gravity, weighing about 6J Ibs. per gallon, is claimed by the builders of the most economical mo- tors to require but ^ gallon per actual horse-power per hour. This is equal to . 78 of a pound, and the pound is credited with 11,000 heat units, or 8580 heat units per horse-power per hour. 7 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. This at 774 foot pounds per heat unit is equal to 8,640,920 foot pounds per horse-power per hour. The actual or brake horse- power per hour is 1,980,000 foot pounds or . 229 per cent, of the theoretical value of gasoline. With more perfect mixtures of vapor of gasoline and air the percentage in efficiency should B OBSERVATION POBT FlG. 20B. THE DIFFERENTIAL GRAVITY REGULATOR. be increased and a uniformity in the action of the motor obtained by a more perfect diffusion of the elements of combustion. One of the means for automatically regulating the mixture of vapor and air is illustrated in the combined mixer and regu- lator of the Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co. , 82 John Street, New York, Fig. 20 B, and in Fig. 20 c, the mixer and meter air pump placed CARBURETTERS. 71 within a building. The carburetter, as shown in Fig. 20, p. 65, is placed in the ground or a vault outside of the building. The air is forced by the air meter pump at a low pressure (i to i-J inches water pressure) to the carburetter on the outside of the building and returned through another pipe, loaded with the vapor of gasoline, to the regulator, where, by a differential gravity balance, a supplementary valve is opened by which a direct current of air enters from the pressure pipe of the air meter pump and dilutes the direct vapor charge from the carburetter to a uniform mix- ture, and thus producing a constant flow of gas of a gravity for the best effect in lighting, and also, when further diluted at the inlet valve, for the best explosive effect in a motor. The pure vapor of gasoline is of a gravity of 2.8 (air i) and the air gas vapor as it comes from the carburetter may be of varying gravities from 2.5 to 1.5 (air i), and it is the difference in the gravity of air and the heavier vapor of gasoline and air as it comes from the carburetter that operates the diluting mech- anism of the apparatus to produce a mixture of uniform qtrattty. For this purpose, the float B is a sealed metal can, containing air which with its weight and the air inlet valve C is exactly balanced by an adjustable counterpoise F and enclosed within a cast-iron case. The vapor gas enters at the bottom through an annular inlet Q from the carburetter and fills the case with a vapor mixture slightly heavier than the balanced can of air, which is thus caused to rise and open the direct air inlet valve C, admit- ting air at a slightly increased pressure, due to differential friction, as between the short-air connection with air pump and the long- pipe connection to the carburetter and back to the regulator. By the delicate screw adjustment of the counterpoise weight at O the exact conditions for a uniform gravity gas supply may be obtained for lighting. This is assumed to be also the most economical for combustion in an explosive motor; it then requiring only the regulating admixture of air at the inlet valve of the motor cylinder for adjusting the force of explosion and for regulating the speed of the motor. GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. CARBURETTERS. 73 Fig. 2OC shows the arrangement of setting the air pump and regulator with the short-circuit of the air pipe to give a prepon- derance to the air pressure at the regulating valve C. For motor service a gas equalizing bag should be used as with other kinds of gas supply. A strong feature of this carburetter, as illustrated at page 65, is the large evaporating surface, it being in fact a compound generator consisting of a number of independent and perfect evaporators, one placed over the other. The effect of cold by evaporation commences at the bottom pan, and the saturation of the air is completed in the next pan, and so on successively, so that deterioration does not commence until the last or top pan is partially exhausted. The air pump is of the wet gas meter type with the motion inverted and propelled by a weight as shown in Fig. 2oc, or by a small overshot water wheel operated by a jet from any source of water pressure. ATOMIZING CARBURETTERS AND VAPORIZERS. In Fig. 200 is illustrated a heat vaporizer used on the "Cap- itaine" motor in which the inlet nozzle V is ribbed on the outside FlG. 20D. HEAT VAPORIZEP. and is enclosed in a chamber through which the exhaust passes. Gasoline and air are drawn into the nozzle regulated by the small valve, and additional air for the explosive mixture is drawn in by the piston through the large valve. By this arrangement the 74 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. gasoline is broken up and thrown against the hot walls of the nozzle by the air drawn through the small air inlet. The atomizing vaporizer (Fig. 2OE) is conveniently placed on the side of a cylinder with the exhaust valve G spindle in line with the exhaust push rod. The gasoline is injected through the small valve C, opened FlG. 2OE. ATOMIZING VAPORIZER. l>y the lift of the air valve D. ihe inlet valve E makes a closure of the vaporizing chamber during the compression and exhaust stroke of the piston. The constant-level feed atomizer (Fig. 2OF) is of French origin and used on the "Abeille" automobile motor. It regulates irs feed from a higher level reservoir or tank, by means of a float B in the receiver A. which, by its floating position, opens a small conical valve on the lower end of the spindle C through the opera- CARBURETTERS. 75 tion of the lever D. The spindle C being a counterpoise weight to close the inlet valve when the float B exceeds the proper height. The level of the gasoline in the receiver is adjusted to stand just below the top of the jet nozzle at E. An inlet for air to meet the gasoline jet J at the neck of the double cone H is shown in the circular opening in the oval flange. The suction of the piston during the charging stroke jets the gasoline against the perforated cone with the annular jet of air from below, where it is met by the diluting air from the holes FlG. 20F. CONSTANT LEVEL ATOMIZER. in the cone. The cap L has holes corresponding with the holes on the inner section for adjusting the area of the diluting air inlet by rotation on its screw thread. The jet nozzle can be quickly removed, cleaned or adjusted by removing the plug F. A vaporizer having some excellent features for perfecting the vapor and air mixture before it enters the cylinder is detailed in Fig. 2OG and patented by Walter Hay, New Haven, Conn. The gasoline enters the small annular chamber aa through the pipe d. Several small holes open from the annular chamber upon the central line of the valve seat of the inlet air valve E, some of 7 6 GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES. which have screw needle valves for regulating the flow of gasoline. The inrush of air when the valve opens by the draft of the piston atomizes the inflowing gasoline and precipitates the atoms upon the deep wings of a fan h hung upon the central spindle /. The fan is set in motion by the inrush of air, and throwing the excess of gasoline against the hot walls of the annular exhaust chamber a'f, produces a perfect mixture of vapor and air before passing through the second inlet valve A. The exhaust in passing around the annular chamber also imparts heat to the annular gasoline FlG. 20G. THE ** HAY " VAPORIZER. chamber aa r and makes its final exit through the slotted apertures- in the outer casing, as at g, or may pass into an exhaust pipe. We illustrate in Figs. 2OH and 20 i two forms of atomizers or mixing valves which have been designed for use on gasoline en- gines. They take the place of carburetters, and, for certain pur- poses, users have found them efficient and reliable. The construc- tion of these valves is very simple. They have few parts, and CARBURETTERS. 77 there is no liability of their proving troublesome after having been used a short while. Referring to the sectional views it will be seen that the valve disk E is held against its seat by a light spring M. The seat of this valve is wide, and the port opening slightly smaller in diam- eter than the pipe connections. The body of the valve L below the valve disk is of full area. At the side of the valve body is a gasoline inlet O tapped for ^4-inch pipe thread. From the side gasoline inlet O a passageway of ample area leads around and through the valve body and is in communication with the main SECTION ON ArB. p FlG. 20H. ANGLE ATOMIZER. SECTION ON A-B. FlG. SOI. VERTICAL ATOMIZER. Talve seat. The opening of this passageway K into the valve seat is controlled by a small needle valve F, which has an indicator arm G. The valve stem F has a stuffing box H so as to enable it to be well packed to prevent leakage of gasoline. In this construction no gasoline is spilled, nor will it accumu- late in the valve body ; any excessive amount will be drawn into the vaporizing space between this and the inlet valve. The sizes 78 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. are designated by the pipe size of the screw and are rated for cylinder sizes as follows : Diameter of Cylinder, inches Size Pipe Connection on Generator 2 | 3* f 4* i 54 ii 7 Ti 8 2 IO 2i 12 7-J 14 3 The above proportions are based on a piston travel of not more than 600 feet per minute. For higher speeds than this the genera- tor valve should be the next size larger than shown above. The valves are made by the Lunkenheimer Company, Cin- cinnati, O. The plan and section of a noiseless automatic carburetter ;s Fig. 1.. FlG. 20J. KINGSTON CARBURETTER. shown in Fig. 20 j. It is well suited for charging multiple cylinder motors and is very uniform in its supply. The upper section of CARBURETTERS. 79 the cut shows the plan of the float tank, valve and the wire gauze in the air pipe, of which there are sufficient in number, say nine, to give a large wire surface for fully evaporating any charge of gasoline for the motor for which the size of carburetter is adapted. Referring to section of carburetter as cut on a line AB, with position of adjusting screw shown at a. The level of gasoline being lifted automatically by the suction of the motor, the supply is shown below point of adjusting screw, the gasoline being regulated by the needle point on screw which forms the spraying nozzle and the constant level being maintained at all times by the ball valve v, which has a capacity much greater than outlet at needle point, so it is easy to see that it would be impos- sible to lower the level of gasoline. And the float acting as it does on the lever I, and / resting as it does squarely on the center of the ball and the ball fitted in a perfect seat, the float being" hinged to lever, it will be seen that any vibration that would cause the float to shake within the cup will not disturb the ball, which will maintain a constant level through any kind of vibra- tion, making it perfectly adapted to engines and motors for trac- tion or marine purposes as well as stationary. This carburetter may be used with a throttling governor if desired. It is built in five sizes. No. o is the bicycle size ; No. i the light automobile, marine and stationary size, with i-inch pipe connection; No. 2 with 1*4 -inch pipe connection; No. 3 w r ith ij/2-inch pipe connec- tion ; No. 4 with 2-inch pipe connection, and larger sizes to order. They are made by the Kingston Manufacturing Company, Ko- komo, Ind. We illustrate in Fig. 2OK a vaporizer of the constant-level type with a regulating device in which the index to the gasoline feed is adjusted by a sector and worm screw which cannot be displaced by jar or vibration. A very suitable and easily attached vaporizer for medium to small sized motors. Referring to Fig. 2OL it will be seen that the device is very com- pact, practically all of it being contained in a space but little larger 8o GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. in diameter than the ordinary inlet pipe. Gasoline enters from the supply through the pipe m filling the reservoir d and over- flowing through the passage g to the pipe /. Air enters through the openings in the cap e, which serves to throttle the air supply. Passing around the chamber d it produces a draft which draws fuel from the reservoir through the nipple c and the plug valve i which is counterbored at j. Passing onward the mixture of gaso- line and air leaves the casing a through the pipe b which is threaded so that it may be connected to the inlet of the engine. FlG. 2OK. ALDRICH VAPORIZER. FlG. 2OL. SECTION. The vent h keeps the pressure constant within the reservoir and the gasoline may be drained through the cock k. Those who have had experience with gasoline vaporizers will at once recognize the good features of this device, which are the location of the gasoline nozzle in the center of the air passage, the location of the fuel valve close to the opening of -the nozzle into the air passage and the general compactness of the entire vaporizer. It is manufactured by R. & W. T. Aldrich, Millville, Mass. CHAPTER X. CYLINDER CAPACITY OF GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. THE cylinder volume of gas and gasoline engines seems to be as variable with the different builders as it is with steam engines in its relation to the indicated power. The proportion of diameter to stroke varies from equal measures up to 38 per cent, greater stroke than the measure of the cylinder diameter. The extreme volumes of cylinder ca- pacity (measured by the stroke) varies from 28 to 56 cubic inches for a i H. p. engine and from 48 to 98 cubic inches for a 2 H.P. engine; for a 3 H.P. engine from 77 to 142 cubic inches, while for a 6 H. p. engine it ranges from 182 to 385 cubic inches. This disparity in sizes for equal indicated power may be caused by the different kinds of gas and its air mixtures under which the trials for indicated power may have been made, or it may be partly due to relative clearance and facility for exploding the charge at some fixed time. It may be readily seen from inspection of the heat value of different kinds of gas varying as they do from about 950 heat units per cubic foot for the highest illuminating gas to from 185 to 66 heat units in the different qualities of producer gas that large variations in effective power will result from a given sized cylinder. It will also be plainly seen that with the ex- treme dilution of producer gas with the neutral elements that produce no heat effect, that no combination with air that also contains 80 per cent, of non-combustible element can produce even a modicum of power in the same sized cylinder as is used for a high -power gas. In view of this it seems necessary to build explosive engines with cylinder capacities due to the heat unit power of the -com- 82 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. bustible intended to be used, as well as to the method of its application. In the following tables are given the indicated and actual power, revolutions, and size of cylinder and stroke of various styles of gas engines for comparison : THE SINTZ. THE ATKINSON CYCLE. Horse- power. Revolu- tions per minute. Diameter of cylinder. Inch. Stroke. Inch. Horse- power. Revolu- tions per minute. Diameter of cylinder. Inch. Stroke. Inch. I 425 400 375 350 300 270 250 225 3* 4t 5 5f 6 8 9 31 4 6 6 8 9 2 1 80 1 80 160 150 150 140 130 1 20 41 5* * H 9i 10 12 4t 5* H H & ;$ 2 7 . . o. . 5 7 6 . . 8 .... 12 ... 10 16 m. . 20 THE NASH. PACIFIC. Actual horse- power. Resolu- tions per minute. Diameter of cylinder. Inch. Stroke. Inch. Actual horse- power. Revolu- tions per minute. Diameter of cylinder. Inch. Stroke. Inch. 1. a CQ i 4 I-J 2^O 4t 6 . . 2CQ 3-1 4i. . 22^ 6i I 12; 4 4-i 6 2OO 7 10 2 300 5 5 3. . ^oo 4 300 280 LAWSON ENGINE. STAR. Actual horse- power. Revolu- tions per minute. Diameter of cylinder. Inch. Stroke. Inch. Actual horse- power. Revolu- tions per minute. Diameter of cylinder. Inch. Stroke. Inch. I 1 80 *i 8 2 250 4i 6 2 1 60 5 10 a . . 240 5 6 1 60 8j 12 4 2 2O 5i 10 6 160 7} 14 6 2 2O 6^ 12 8 1 80 7 1^ 1 80 8 CYLINDER CAPACITY. RATING OF SOME ENGLISH ENGINES. Indicated Horse Power. Revolutions. Diameter. Inches. Stroke. Inches. Name. 164 6 16 Crossley. Q 164 8 16 20O y JC iti 16 1 60 H^ 2O Burl's Otto 18 1 80 nU 16 < t < IQ. 1 60 oV< 18 Crossley 2O 184 g3| 17 Stockport. 2O , 164 12 18 Wells. 24. . 1 80 IO 18 Barker's Otto 1 7O 12 20 1 1 formula = P, in which p c = absolute compression pressure Col. 3. T = absolute explosive temp. Col. 6. t = absolute com- pression temperature Col. 5, for each ratio in Col. 2. Col. 8 is the gauge pressure derived from the absolute pres- sures in Col. 7. Col. 9 is the explosive temperature on the Fahrenheit scale, T 461 degs. MUFFLERS ON GAS ENGINES. The method of muffling the sound of the exhaust, as well also the sound or clack of the valves, was a puzzling problem to the early builders of gas engines. The matter has finally sifted down to a plain cast-iron box of from i to 3 cubic feet capacity, set near the engine, and into which the exhaust pipe- is connected, and continued by a separate connection to the out- side of a building. Connection of the exhaust with a chimney should not be made under any circumstances, as there are unknown elements of explosion liable to be accumulated in the line of the exhaust that might do damage to a chimney; and for the same reason the muffler-box should be made strong enough for a pressure equal to the explosive power of the gas and air mixture, or say 175 pounds per square inch. This insures safety from any explo- sion that may accidentally occur in the exhaust by missed ex- plosions in the cylinder, or otherwise. The muffler pot is also a water-catch, in which part of the water vapor formed by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen is condensed. It should have a draw-off cock a few inches above the bottom, so that the muffler may always have a little water in the bottom, the water having been found to have a deadening effect on the exhaust. A second muffler pot has been found to still further deaden the exhaust, and is preferable to throttling the exhaust by mufflers- with perforated diaphragms. CYLINDER CAPACITY. 8(^ In all cases an enlargement of the exhaust pipe from the muf- fler to the roof by one or two sizes larger than the engine exhaust, will modify the intensity of the exhaust at the roof, and often abate a nuisance. Mufflers for automobiles and launches have been the subject of much designing in order to have them meet the requirement of almost absolute silence so much to be desired. The method of perforated tubes with wire cloth casings of large area for cutting the exhaust into infinitesimal streams and of so large an area that the back pressure may be reduced to an. imperceptible amount, seems to be in the right direction for vehicles, and an extension of the terminal under water at the stern of launches with a small vent above water has given good results. The vent prevents water drawing back to the muffler when the motor stops. For large stationary motors a variety of designs for the internal space of a muffler box have been made, all seeming to tend to obtain the desired conditions. A series of perforated plates, both flat and circular; small stones filling the muffler box, through which the exhaust passes ; a spiral case within the muffler box ; in fact almost any device that tends to stop the sudden impact of the exhaust and its expansion are the means that modify and in a 'measure prevent the noisy propensities of the explosive motor. To prevent nuisance to neighbors by open air exhaust, the turning down of the exhaust, pipe into a barrel or second muffler pot with a few inches of water, has given satisfaction in many cases. It prevents the spread of oil vapor into neighboring windows. CHAPTER XI. GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. THE regulation of the speed of explosive engines has an important bearing upon their usefulness and freedom from PIG. 21. THE ROBEY GOVERNOR. constant personal attention. By experience from trials during the few years of the growth of the new motor, much progress GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. 91 tias been made in perfecting the details of this important ad- junct of safety and uniformity in speed regulation through the -action of a governor. There are four principal methods in use PIG. 21 A. THE ROBEY GOVERNOR. for controlling the speed, viz. : (i) By graduating the supply of the hydrocarbon element ; (2) by completely cutting off the supply during one or more revolutions of the crank; (3) by holding the exhaust valve open or closed during one or more strokes ; (4) in electric ignition by arresting the operation of the sparking device. To vary the quantity of the hydrocarbon by the action of 92 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the governor is claimed to be the most economical as well as- the most satisfactory method in use, if the variation in the work of the engine does not carry the charge beyond the limit of combustion; otherwise the second method seems to give the best results. In Figs. 2 1 and 21 A are two elevations of the centrifugal ball FIG. 22. THE PICK-BLADE GOVERNOR. governor, as used on the Robey and other engines in Europe- and adopted with many variations on a number of American en- gines. In this type the bell-crank arm of the governor, by its centrifugal action, raises or depresses a yoke and sleeve which operates a bell-crank lever with a forked end astride a rotating disc which rides on the cam of the secondary shaft. The disc has a lateral motion on the end of the valve lever, so that the- GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. 93 action of the governor rides the disc on to or off the cam, and thus makes a hit-or-miss stroke of the valve. The centrifugal governor (Fig. 2 2) is another application of the hit-and-miss principle, by the use of a pick-blade operated FIG. 23. INERTIA GOVERNOR, PLAN. from the governor by a balanced bell crank and connecting rod The cut fully explains the detail of its construction and opera- tion, by which an abnormal speed of the governor pul Is the FIG. 24. INERTIA GOVERNOR, ELEVATION. pick blade away from the gas-valve spindle. In some forms graduated notches are made on the pick-blade or spindle-blade, so that in action the governor gives a varying charge within 94 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. certain limits and a mischarge when the speed is beyond the limitation. The inertia governor used on the Crossley engine in Eng- PIG. 25. THE VIBRATING GOVERNOR, ELEVATION. land, and with many modifications in use on American engines, is illustrated with plan and elevation in Figs. 23 and 24, in which A is the cam shaft, B cam, C roller, D lever, H lever FIG. 26. THE VIBRATING GOVERNOR, PLAN. pin, L spring to hold the roller C to the cam, J the governor weight, K the adjusting spring, G the pick-blade, and F the valve stem. In the action of this governor the initial line of motion of GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. 95 the ball J, in regard to its centre of motion H, is shown by the dotted curved line. By the siidden movement of its pivoted centre L, the ball is retarded in its motion by the regulating spring K, which tends to throw the pick-blade G off the shoul- der of the valve F. It will be readily seen that the inertia o the vibrating ball FIG. 27. END VIEW, ELEVATION. will vary as the speed of vibration, so that by carefully adjust- ing by the spring K, the action of the ball will vary the disen- gagement of the pick-blade to correspond with the over-speea of the engine, and make an entire miss at the limit of its varia- tion. The air valve may also be operated by the spud E, Another form of governor, involving the same principles of FIG. 88. THE PENDULUM GOVERNOR. inertia as the last one, is used on the Stockport engine in Eng- land, and is illustrated in Figs. 25, 26, and 27. It consists of a weight A, balanced on the vibrating arm B. A groove around the weight operates a bell crank, to which the pick- -96 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. "blade is attached. The balance spring is adjustable for regu lating the position of the pick-blade and its contact with the valve spindle. By the variation in overcoming the inertia of the weight by the spring with different vibrating speeds in the lever, the disengagement of the pick-blade with the spindle - blade is varied or a mis-stroke made. The pendulum governor (Fig. 28) is also an inertia gover- nor in the principle on which it operates. It is attached to the exhaust-valve push-rod, and vibrates horizontally with the rod. The weight or ball has an extension or neck, with a pivoted eye, a yoke, and a vertical lug. The eye is pivoted in the box, and the yoke embraces the push-blade stem, which is also piv- oted horizontally with the eye in the box or frame. The lug bears on an adjusting spring, which is set up by a screw so as to limit the swing of the ball to the normal speed of the engine, so that when the speed rises above the normal the inertia of the ball holds it back in its vibration and lifts the push-blade out of contact with the valve-stem. In some engines the position of the ball is reversed, and it stands above the valve push-rod on a finger and is made adjusta- ble in its length of oscillation by its distance from the fulcrum. Several modifications of the governors here described are in use, devised on the principles of inertia as illustrated in Figs. 2Ji. 25, and 28. Apart from the ordinary methods of operating the valves of explosive motors by reducing spur gear and the reducing screw gear for driving a cam shaft for four-cycle engines, we illustrate in Fig. 28 A and Fig. 286 two very simple methods of operating the charging or exhaust- valve by the direct action of a push-rod from an eccentric on the main shaft. In Fig. 28 A the vertical section shows the form of the cam on the central thread of a two-thread worm on the main shaft with the push-rod and valve. The horizontal diagram shows the worm and intermittent ratchet wheel pivoted in the fork of the push-rod. At every other revolution of the shaft the cam GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. 97 section of the worm falls into a shallow notch of the ratchet and thus gives a push stroke of the valve at every other revolution of the shaft. FlG. 28 A. THE WORM CAM PUSH-ROD, Fig. 286 illustrates another form of ratchet push-rod. In this device the ratchet is mounted on a friction pin which may be adjusted by a thumb- nut and soft washer so as not to turn FlG. 28B. THE RATCHET PUSH-ROD. backward, yet may easily be rotated forward by the motion of the cam -moved push-rod. The upper figure shows the tooth of the push-rod on the shallow notch and missing contact with the 98 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. valve spindle ; at the next revolution of the shaft the tooth catches the deep notch and makes contact with the valve spindle. The throw of the eccentric should be slightly greater than the dis- tance between two consecutive teeth in the ratchet. A governor of the inertia or ball type can be attached to the push-rod with a step contact on the valve spindle, making a very simple valve movement and regulation. GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. The ring valve gear (Fig. 28c) is another way of operating FlG. 28C. RING VALVE GEAR. the exhaust push rod of a four-cycle engine directly from a cam on the main shaft. The inner ring gear is swept around within the outer fixed gear, skipping by one tooth at each revolution of the engine shaft. The outer stationary ring has twice the number of teeth in the ring gear, plus a hunting tooth, which makes a contact of a ring gear tooth with the exhaust valve rod at every other revolu- tion. A double-grooved eccentric (Fig. 280) is another method of operating the exhaust valve of a four-cycle engine by traversing the push rod end, in the grooves which cross each other on one side of the cam; the groove on one section of the cam being enough smaller than the groove on the other section, to give the valve its direct proper movement. The spiral gear so much is use on four-cycle engines is a unique problem in design. Its velocity ratio cannot be determined by direct comparison of pitch diameters, as in spur gearing, but must be found from the angles of the spiral in each gear. Thus GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. 99 if the spiral angles of two matched gears are the same, the velocity ratio will be inversely as the pitch diameters; but if the spiral angles be not equal, the number of teeth per inch of pitch diam- eter will vary. In any case the velocity ratio will depend upon the number of teeth and their spiral angle, as expressed in the following pro- portion : v, the velocity of the small gear, is to V, the velocity of the large gear, as D, the pitch diameter of the larger, X by the cosine of its spiral angle, is to d, the pitch diameter of the smaller, X by the cosine of its spiral angle. For spiral gears of equal diameter for velocities of 2 to i to FIG. 280. CAM. FlG. 2SE. SPIRAL GEAR. match, with the shafts at right angles, the engine shaft-gear should have the lesser angle and the gear on the reducing or secondary shaft should have the greater angle as referred to their planes of motion respectively. The cosines of these angles must bear the same relation to each other on the pitch line as their velocities, and by inspection of a table of sines and cosines this relation is easily found ; for example, in following along the columns of sines and cosines we find .44724 is as 2 to i to .89448, which agrees nearly to 26 34' and 63 26', the respective angles of the teeth with their planes of motion for equal-sized gears. Their sum being equal to 90. The pendulum governor (Fig. 28r) is a simple and unique 100 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. arrangement derived from the musical beat pendulum. It is hung in a frame that is attached to and vibrates with the push rod. The swing of the pendulum is adjusted by the distance of the small compensating ball from the center of motion to vibrate FlG. 28F. PENDULUM GOVERNOR. synchronously with the push rod at the required speed of the engine. Increased speed increases the range of vibration and releases the curved pawl of the push blade C and catches it again at the next stroke. The differential cam (Figs. 280 and 28n) is much in use on the Otto engines in Europe and the United States. It is also FlG. 28G. DIFFERENTIAL CAM. FlG. 28H. DIFFERENTIAL CAM GOVERNOR. called the step cam and is made for from closed to four grades of valve lift with corresponding differential charge. The cen- trifugal movement of the governor balls slides the sleeve on ,the governor shaft and through the bell crank lever the step cam GOVERNORS AND VALVE GEAR. 101 sleeve a on the valve gear shaft. The disk roller b on an arm of a rock shaft, rolls upon one or the other cams at c, thus vary- ing the movement of the inlet valve, which is connected to another arm of the rock shaft. The tread of the roller b is beveled and the steps of the cam are also beveled to match, so that the roller cannot slip off the cam. The double port inlet valve (Fig. 28 i) is one of the methods of combining the charge of gas and gasoline directly into the cylinder. It is made in reverse design and with a groove around FlG. 28 I. DOUBLE PORT INLET VALVE. FlG. 28j. VALVE GEAR. one or both of the valve disk and valve seat, so that the gas or gasoline may be injected through the seat or from beneath the valve. In Fig. 28 j is shown a gas engine valve gear in which both are operated by an inlet and exhaust cam through a bent lever. The form and set of the cams give the proper time action and the set screws in the lever adjust the lift of the valves. E, inlet valve. F, exhaust valve. C, a double cam with groove that rides the sliding roller H alternately onto the inlet and exhaust section. The inlet valve is double seated, the small flat disk covering the gas inlet from the chamber K, the air inlet being between the disks. The "Union" valve gear has a double push rod. The one for .the charge is operated by a cam on the reducing gear with a straight lever to bring the rod in line with the valve. A second 102 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. cam and lever for the exhaust rod changes the direction of the push by a bell crank. The governing device of the Ruger and Olin gas and gasoline FIG. 28K. "UNION" VALVE GEAR. engine is of the centrifugal type and consists of two weighted levers L L, Fig. 28L, which operate a small bell crank and adjust- a/// FlG. 28L. CENTRIFUGAL GOVERNOR. able spindle which rides the push roller onto or off the exhaust cam, thus holding the exhaust valve open during excessive speed. CHAPTER XII. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. THE devices for firing- the charge in gas, gasoline, and oil engines may be divided into four types, with as many varia- PlG. 29. THE BUNSEN BURNER. FIG. 30. THE OTTO IGNITION SLIDE-VALVE. tions in the form of each type as may suit the requirements of construction or the fancy of designers. The simplest- arrangement is probably the direct-flame con- tact of a gas-burner in contact with the walls of the cylinder, with a hole through the cylinder wall that is uncovered at the proper moment for ignition by the movement of the piston, as in the earlier two-cycle non-compression engines the in- IO4 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Wr^rr^m n . ; ; wmm O O / 24- Cods \ C o m p v e s S ^ & i sjtPf*^. I o o I FIG. 31, OPERATION OF THE OTTO IGNITION SLIDE-VALVE. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 105 draught of the flame and explosion taking place at the point in the stroke at which the charge of gas and air mixture is com- pleted. This igniter may be in the form of a partially aerated gas or vapor mixture, flowing through a tube constructed like a Bunsen burner, as shown in Fig. 29, the burner being set with its mouth just below the igniting port in the cylinder, with an outside guard tube to keep the flame steady; or a large flame may be used in contact with the port, as shown in the illustration of the economic gas engine, further on. This form of igniter is also used on compression engines of the four-cycle type, with slide-valves enclosing ignition cham- bers, notably on European and American engines of the Otto slide-valve type. Fig. 30 shows a section of a cylinder head with position of flame, guard chimney, and slide-valve at the moment of ig- nition. Fig. 3 1 is a sectional view of the ports in the slide-valve and cylinder head of an Otto slide-valve engine, showing the posi- tion of the ports at different points in the stroke. No. i, cyl- inder charging with air and gas, in which a is the air port, g the gas port, b the back port in the slide .r, and b' the ignition port. No. 2, position of the slide during the return or com- pression stroke. No. 3, movement of the ignition port from the flame to the cylinder port. No. 4, reversal of the slide movement during the pressure stroke. Fig. 32 illustrates the piston igniter as used on some of the Nash engines, where e is the gas jet, d opening through the valve shell, g the passage into the ignition chamber. This igniter is based upon a new principle. The igniting jet of combustible mixture is caused to rotate in the circular chamber r in the piston, into which it enters through a passage tangentially placed. This forms a vortex of flame, which is positive in its action and simple. The piston valve is made of steel, and is hardened and ground to size. It moves in a reamed hole in the case, being so loosely fitted as to drop of its io6 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. own weight, and yet making a gas-tight joint. Since the valve is perfectly balanced as to gas pressure, it moves without fric- FlG. 33. THE TUBE IGNITER. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 107- tion, and therefore requires a very small quantity of oil just sufficient to prevent it becoming- dry. The valve is made long, and the lower part has a bearing in that part of the case kept cool by a water-jacket. As oil is only applied to the lower end r FIG. 34. SLIDE IGNITER. very little can work up to the hot end where the igniter is heated ; hence the formation of gummy oil is prevented, and the valve seldom needs cleaning. In actual use it has been found that the case and upper end of the valve never come into metallic contact, as, on account of the looseness of fit at that point, a scale of hard carbon is formed over the surface of each, which protects them from abrasion. The valve is positively- operated by an eccentric on the shaft. io8 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The tube igniter, as shown in Fig. 33, has taken a wide range of usefulness and is well adapted to compression engines. As originally made, there is a deviation in the time of ignition from the uncertain condition of the explosive mixture and va- FIG. 35. TUBE IGNITER. liable heat of the tube. The adjustment of the length of the tube and position of the heating flame, so that ignition will take place at the maximum compression or end of the com- pression stroke, is a somewhat delicate matter, but has been found by experiment for the different designs of gas engines. The degree of compression to just carry the fresh gas and .air mixture to meet the firing temperature of the tube by push- ing the products of the previous combustion before it, together IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. IOO/ with the adjustment of the Bunsen jet to a proper position in regard to the length of the tube, is a puzzling problem that has to be worked out experimentally for each style of engine. in Fig. 34 is shown the form of slide igniters as used on. FlO. 36. FRONT VIEW. European engines using both tube and slide. This form acts- as a time igniter, which regulates the time of ignition by the movement of the slide-valve or inlet piston, which opens- communication with the hot tube through the inner tube by compression the small vent tube and cock allowing of a free blowout of the igniting tube when accumulation of soot take? place. no GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES. In this plan the ignition tube is short, and may be made of platinum or porcelain. The hot-tubs igniter (Figs. 35 and 36) shows two views of an ignition tube used on the Robey engines, which is adjust- able for the position of the igniting surface of the tube as well as for the position of the Bunsen burner, A being the combus- tion chamber, B the igniter passage, C the Bunsen burner piv- oted to the chimney frame at D, which allows the burner to be tilted slightly to regulate the distribution of the flame around the tube. The set- screw in the chimney socket allows of a ready ad- justment of the position of the chimney and burner for the time of ignition. PRIMARY IGNITION BATTERIES. The Edison Primary Battery, formerly known as the Edison- Lalande battery, and exclusive- ly made by the Edison Manu- facturing Company, of New York, Chicago, and Orange, N. J., is now the leading type for efficiency and lasting quality for primary battery ignition for all types of explosive motors. The batteries are made in vary- ing sizes to meet the require- ments for stationary, portable, launch and automobile services. In the construction of these bat- teries, a double zinc plate forms the negative element and a sin- FIG. 37. TYPE RR, 7#xio^". gle plate of compressed oxide of copper forms the positive element of the battery. The fluid is a solution of caustic soda, which is sealed by a layer of paraffine oil to prevent evapora- PRIMARY IGNITION BATTERIES. Ill tion and creeping of the solution. The plates are all suspended from the cover of the battery, as shown in Fig. 37, which is the largest (or R R) size contained in a porcelain jar, of which five cells, having a capacity of 300 ampere hours, is the usual outfit of a large motor plant. For launch motors, the size V is in general use, having a liquid-tight cell of enamelled steeJ, which will stand hard usage, and of which six cells are sufficient for single or double FIG 38. TYPE v, 5|4fx8". FlG. 38A. TYPE Z, cylinder two-cycle or four-cycle motors. On three or four-cylinder motors two batteries of six cells each are recom- mended, which have a capacity of 150 ampere hours each. For automobile work, the size Z is re- commended for its compact size and less liability to splashing from the vibration of the vehicle. Their capacity is 100 ampere hours, and from 6 to 7 cells are used for spark coil ignition. The cell is in a liquid tight enamelled steel jar. These various types of Edison primary batteries have the smallest resistance and the most lasting capacity of any primary battery in use. The Edison spark coil (Fig. 386) is the result of large experience in an effort to produce the largest spark from the least battery current. Its short length and large number of wire turns make the magnetic changes instantaneous, producing a hot and powerful spark, so necessary in high speed motors. FIG. 388. EDISON SPARK COIL. 112 GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINES. Several forms of internal circuit-breakers have been devised, in which is represented a reciprocating rod which may be operated by a connecting rod with a cam The msuia- tion is made within a sliding tube, which allows of considerable motion in order to allow the contact piece to slip off suddenly from the stud which is fixed in the cylinder head. In Fig. 39 is represented a similar device, in which the in- sulated rod rotates by an outside gear driven from the valve FIG. 39. ROTATING SPARK-BRAKE. shaft. The rotating spindle carries the insulated rod and break-piece eccentrically, so that its contact and break can be accurately regulated by rotating the position of the teeth of the gears. The sparking coil used with this form of igniter is shown in Fig. 40. It consists of a bundle of iron wire, insulated and wrapped with insulated copper wire. It is a simpler device than the double or Ruhmkorff coil, but will not project a strong spark or at a great distance between the electrodes, as may.be obtained from a Ruhmkorff coil the breaking device being necessary in either case. In Fig. 41 is represented the Pennington double igniter, in which the breaker is a loop piece attached to the end of the piston. The contact finger swings on a joint with a spring that keeps it in a straight line with the insulated rod. As the. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. piston nears the end of its stroke, the loop pushes the finger over and breaks the contact at the end of the stroke ; and as the piston recedes, the finger, having sprung back in line with the insulated rod, is caught by the loop, and a second break spark FIG. 40. SPARKING COIL. PlG. 41. THE DOUBLE SPARK DEVICE. takes place. The time of sparking can be varied by the length of the finger and by adjusting the position of the insulated plunger. Ignition by direct current from a small dynamo with a cur- rent-breaker operated by the cam shaft is in favor with many gas-engine builders. GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. A current-breaker used on the Priestman engine is shown in Fig. 42, where an arm kept in position by a spring or weighted lever is made to touch a spud revolving on the sec- FlG. 42. THE CURRENT-BREAKER. ondary shaft. A movable sleeve on the shaft is set back or for- ward for time adjustment of the contact break. PIG. 43. ROCKING SHAFT SPARKER. Fig. 43 represents the sparking device used by the Union Gas Engine Company of San Francisco, and consists of a rock- ing shaft carrying a flattened pin, K, on the end inside of the IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. firing chamber, which by its rocking motion is brought in con- tact with an insulated spring, S. The spring-contact piece, bearing against and rubbing the rocking pin, secures perfect freedom of current circuit while in contact. FIG. 44. THE OPERATING DEVICE. The operating device is shown in Fig. 44, where the push rod R, connecting with an arm moved by a cam on the second- FlO. 45. THE PERMANENT FIELD GENERATOR. ary shaft, is adjusted to make the break contact at the required moment ; while the contact spring at M relieves the battery circuit during the time of three cycles. Ignition from the current of a small dynamo attached to the engine and driven at the proper speed from the engine shaft is 1 10 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. in successful use and does away with the care of a battery. This requires no induction coil, the spark being made directly through the break device and electrodes. Fig. 45 represents a generator used on the Sumner gas and gasoline engines. The spark is produced by a plunger contact with the commutator operated from a cam on the secondary shaft. IGNITING TIMING VALVES. The value of an exact time of ignition for producing uni- formity of speed in explosive engines is attested by the ex- FlG. 46. TIMING VALVE. haustive experiments of years with the many devices made for the ordinary tube igniters, and the final recourse to electric IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. ignition. A satisfactory result has been obtained in several designs for operating a valve at the mouth of the ignition tube that admits the compressed charge to the ignition tube at an exact point in the piston stroke. In Fig. 46 is illustrated a timing valve used on the Robey MqiU-^ FIG. 47. TIMING VALVE AND STARTER. engine, in which A is the combustion chamber ; B the passage leading to the hot tube, a double-seated valve and spindle held to its front seat by the spring D ; E a lever operated from the cam shaft; F adjusting spool with set nuts. In action the valve is opened at or about the end of the compression stroke and kept open during the exhaust stroke, thus clearing the ig- nition tube uniformly and insuring exact time of ignition. In Fig. 47 is illustrated a combined timing- valve igniter and starter, as used on the Stockport engines. In this ar- rangement a double tube is used, with an annular space be- tween the inner tube and the hot tube, through which the products of combustion may be blown out, followed by the Il8 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. explosive mixture, into the hot tube, by compressing the timing valve and the starting valve at the same moment. Referring to the cut, F is the timing valve, operated by the lever D ; A the starting-valve, with its waste outlet at V ; H is a mantle to draw the flame closer to the igniting tube. There are many variations in form and attachments for timing valves in use in Europe and the United States. They are fast coming into favor for hot-tube igniters for the larger gas and gasoline engines. HOT TUBE IGNITERS. Much of the difficulty in maintaining a constant and uniform explosive effect from the hot tubes used in the early or experi- mental period of the explosive motor was due to the inability to know or see what was the exact condition of the progress of combustion which was taking place within the tube and passage to the combustion chamber of the cylinder. The want of a durable and inexpensive material for the ignition tubes was an unsatisfactory experience in the early days of the explosive motor. The use of iron, with its uncertain and perishable nature, under the intermittent high pressure and at the continual high temperature of the Bunsen burner, oxidized the tubes on the outside, making them thin, so as to burst in a month, a week, or a day; but only occasionally a tube would last a month, although by the use of extra strong iron pipe their life has somewhat lengthened. One of the principal causes for the short life of the iron tube may be found in the management of the Bunsen burner. A tube of iron or any other metal should not be used at a white heat even at any one spot. A uniform band at a full red heat all around the central or other part of the tube suitable for timing the ignition is the most desirable temperature for ignition, and for the lasting quality of the tube. In the construction and setting of the Bunsen burners, the point of greatest heat in the flame is too often made to impinge directly against the tube, heating it to a white heat at one spot. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. ng This causes a change in its molecular condition, weakening it by crystallization and oxidation, when, in a short time, the con- stantly repeated hammering of the explosions bursts the weak- ened metal. The use of porcelain tubes are free from the oxidizing properties of metals, but require considerable care in fastening them in place. When once properly set their wear is imper- ceptible, and if not broken by accident, they seem to stand the pressure well and have a life of a year or more at the trifling cost of from 20 to 30 cents for the sizes ordinarily used, and in quantity at a much lower price. The usual lengths of porcelain tubes as made by the R. Thomas & Sons Co. , East Liverpool, O. , are 6, 8, i o, and 1 2 inches in length. Their agent, Mr. J. E. Way, 39 Cortlandt Street, New York, will furnish the porcelain tubes in any desired size, length, and quantity. Pass & Seymour, Syracuse, N. Y., also manufacture porcelain tubes for explosive engines. The best metallic tubes now on the market are made from the nickel alloy rods imported from the Westf iilisches Nickel walzer in Swerte, Germany. The rods are furnished in about 6 foot lengths, of sizes |, J, T \, |, and j-J- inch diameter. Herman Boker & Co., 1 01 Duane Street, New York, are the United States agents. They keep the rods in stock at 90 cents per pound, and also furnish the finished tubes of sizes to order. This metal is now largely in use by the leading gas-engine builders in the United States, and its lasting quality has been amply tested by more than a year's wear and in some cases a two years' wear for a single tube. The only trouble or shorten- ing of the running time of the nickel alloy tubes has been from excessive heating and from sulphurous gas, such as the unpurified producer gas and in a few instances from sulphurous natural gas, against which the porcelain tubes seem to be proof. The drilling- of the nickel alloy tubes requires considerable care in order to keep the drill centered in the rod, which is best done by revolving the rod in a dead-rest and feeding the drill by the back center. Drills 120 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Use milk for lubricating the should be hard and kept sharp, drill. The running out of the drill will make a thin side to the tube, which will be liable to overheat, and by expansion and contraction, due to unequal temperature, will cause the thin side to bulge and finally rupture. FlG. 47A. PORCELAIN TUBE SETTING. Platinum tubes have been used to considerable extent in Germany and a few in the United States ; their cost will proba- bly send them out of use in view of the lasting quality and cheapness of the nickel alloy and porcelain tubes. In Fig. 47 A is shown one of several methods for setting the porcelain tube in a socket to be screwed into the cylinder. The packing may be asbestos washers, dry or moistened with wet clay. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 121 The application of a new device in hot-tube ignition as used on the Mietz & Weiss engines, by which a short and plain porce- lain or lava tube, open at both ends and set between sockets with asbestos packing, is a marked progress in simplifying the care and adjustment of tubes and time of firing. A reinforcement of the combustion passage by an iron pipe extension enlarges the power of the small hot tube by prolong- ing the burning of the firing charge, and thus making a short tube available to meet the requirement for timing adjustment. Such tubes should last indefinitely; they are cheap, quickly changed, and easily cleaned. ELECTRIC IGNITION PLUGS. The ignition of the charge has undergone much change in the past five years in the various appliances and trials which have resulted in placing the electric jump spark in the lead for relia- bility and certainty of action. The form of the plug containing the electrodes has undergone many changes in order to eliminate the short circuit propensities of these simple devices by the car- bonizing of the insulating surfaces and to obtain adjustment to meet the abrading propensities of the electric spark. In Fig. 47 B we give a section of an ignition plug of French design much FlG. 47B. FRENCH IGNITION PLUG. in use on automobile motors. The plug and nut may be made of hard brass with an extension piece with an electrode of plati- num. The spindle of copper with a fixed collar for adjustment and terminating in a platinum blunt point electrode. The in- sulation is porcelain or of lava in two pieces with a mica disk between, thick enough to allow of closing the electrodes by 122 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. splitting off thin slices from the mica disk. The lava insulator can now be obtained from the makers, the D. M. Steward Manu- facturing Company, Chattanooga, Tenn. In Fig. 47 c is illustrated an ignition plug, the design of Mr. FlG. 47C. MAXWELL IGNITION PLUG. Harry B. Maxwell, Rome, N. Y., in which the terminals are blunt and spherical, which produce a more brilliant spark than plugs with small or thin terminals. In this design it is noted that the lava or porcelain insulating tube extends a distance beyond SPARK COIL FlG. 47E. HAMMER SPARK IGNITER. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 123- the iron plug that greatly increases the insulating surface and distance between the metallic parts of the plug. The extension finger electrode may be made of steel or copper with a cap of nickel or platinum brazed on. The center rod electrode with a nickel or platinum cap may fit loosely in the insulating tube with the shoulder packed with asbestos. Asbestos also makes a good and elastic packing for the shoulders of the lava or porcelain tube. The spring and nuts hold the central electrode firmly to- its seat and allow for differential expansion. In Fig. 47E we illustrate a simple and easily made hammer spark plug which may be inserted through the cylinder head with a flange joint, fixed with two studs or tap bolts. A spring at s holds the shoulder of the terminal a close to the plug P so that the shaft b may have free motion in the plug, d is the outside arm rocked by the cam rod. The fixed terminal is insulated by a lava sleeve which may be FlG. 47D. IGNITION PLUG AND VALVE POSITION. in two parts with asbestos washers to prevent breaking of the lava shoulders. The contact surfaces x and y, shown in the front view of the plug, should be made of platinum, brazed to the terminals. The method of connecting with the battery and spark coil is dis- tinctly shown in the cut. A sparking plug with an extended insulation cylinder with 124 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. a crossed wire electrode has been the subject of a recent patent, in which a double loop of two U-shaped platinum wires crossing each other at right angles at the sparking distance from the in- sulated electrode, is used in connection with the extended in- sulation plug, and so placed that the inlet charge sweeps across the wires and keeps them cool enough to prevent premature firing. The plug and valve positions are shown in Fig. 470. In Figs. 47F and 470 we illustrate the details of the mercurial sparker of Mr. J. V. Rice, Jr., Edgewater Park, N. J. It is well TIMING PLUNGER WATER IN- FlG. 4JF. RICE SPARKER. known that the break of contact with mercury produces a brilliant spark from the electric current, or what is called in gas engine parlance a "fat spark.'' This idea has been found in practice to meet some of the faults of the hammer break devices and seems to insure a constant service in this important adjunct in explosive motor running. The deep cup of mercury is enclosed in a small water chamber IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 125 forming part of the cooling circulation of the cylinder, and make- and-break contact is made by the movement of an insulated spindle operated direct from a cam in a two-cycle engine or the reducing shaft in a four-cycle type. The timing is regulated by screwing the spindle up or down, as shown in the cuts. The connections with a sparking coil and battery, or with a dynamo, are made in the same manner as with Other break-contact sparking devices. The sparker has been in use for many months on a gasoline TO BATTERy FlG. 47G. RICE VALVE GEAR. engine driving a machine shop motive plant, a launch and a high-speed tricycle, without misfires except by control. The evaporation of mercury from the- cell is exceptionally small and does not spill by the jar of the motor. The amount of mercury actually lost in a year's run of a 12-H.p. motor does not exceed 35 cents in cost. High speed, which sometimes inter- feres with the perfect operation of igniters, in a test of this device by the writer, has been found to give a perfect ignition at all speeds up to more than 2,300 revolutions per minute. A simple primary sparking coil may be made with a core of iron wire (No. 16) 10 inches long and one inch in diameter. Fasten heads for the spool on this, and cover the core with a 126 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL LNGINES. few turns of brown paper. Wind No. 14 single cotton-covered magnet wire on this to a depth of about ^ inch, insulating each layer from the next by a layer of paper. Give each layer a coat of shellac also. The coil is used in series with a battery, and the .spark is obtained when the circuit is broken. With six or eight .strong cells a thick spark will be given. This coil is illustrated m Fig. 40, only instead of four windings make six to eight windings. THE JUMP SPARK COIL. For a better understanding of the detail of construction of an induction coil of suitable size for the ignition of the explosive charge of a gas, gasoline or oil engine. We therefore illustrate in Fig. 47 H the details of such a coil without a vibrator, and in FlG. 47H. JUMP SPARK COIL. Fig. 47 i the same coil with 'the vibrator. A coil of the size here given and detailed should give a full and hot spark for any or- dinary engine across a 1-16 to 3-32-inch space between the elec- trodes. Its full-length spark should be equal to a jump of from y 2 to ^ of an inch between wire terminals. The iron core H H is made up of annealed wire, No. 20 wire gauge, 5 ^4. inches long, as many pieces as can be pushed into a ^-inch paper tube, 3 l /2 inches long, made by wrapping paper on a $/ rod with shellac varnish between the layers, say, a half-dozen layers, and shellac the outside. Push onto each end of the paper tube a .square wooden flange, ]/ 2 inch thick, 4 inches diameter, even IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 127 with the end of the paper tube and square with it. Fasten the wood ends strongly with shellac and shellac their entire surface. This will then make a spool 4^2 inches long for winding the coils. Bore a hole in one of the heads close to the paper tube to pass one end of the primary coil through and another a little further around to receive the other end. Wind on the spool two layers of No. 16 double cotton or silk-covered copper wire with the ends passed through the holes in the spool flange. Give the coil a coat of shellac varnish and dry. Then wrap the primary coil with three thicknesses of paper with shellac varnish between each wrapping with a perfect closure at the flanges and over the exit wires of the primary. Dry and shellac the outside. The secondary coil may be made of 8 ounces of double silk- FlG. 47 I. JUMP SPARK COIL WITH VIBRATOR. covered copper wire, No. 36 gauge ; commencing by passing one end through the hole in the opposite flange from "the primary terminals and winding closely but not tight, one layer, shellac and cover with two layers of paper, shellacked, and a third layer at each end to make a sure closure against a spark passing across the layers at the ends of the spool. Continue this back and for- ward method of winding for the whole amount of wire, covering each layer as the first, and terminate through a hole in spool flange at the same end as it commenced. This should not be a hurried job; give each layer time to dry. The perfection of the whole coil depends upon its thorough insulation, especially at the 128 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. ends of the layers where the difference in potential is greatest with a liability of sparking from layer to layer of the coil and the ruin of the work. Such a coil may be used without a vibrator, and referring to Fig. 4711, in which the leading principles of construction are shown, P P M M are the primary binding posts. The upper posts P and P are connected through the battery and switch. The lower posts, M and M are connected through the breaker on the reducing gear from the crank shaft represented at N F D G. The upper post, P and the lower post M are directly connected, making a complete primary circuit from the battery A through the switch J and post P around the core and post M to the breaker at D and through the lower post M and across by the upper post P to the battery. The condenser L is composed of strips of tinfoil separated by paraffined paper in series and are connected at M M as a shunt across the contact breaker for the purpose of absorbing an extra current induced in the primary coil by the break of the circuit, which would tend to prolong the magnetization of the core beyond the desired limit in a high- speed engine. The condenser may be made of a size to be enclosed in the hollow base upon which the coil is to be fixed, and made, up of about 71 sheets of plain uncalendered writing paper, say 5 by 8 inches, dipped in melted paraffine or varnished with shellac on each side ; interleaved with 70 sheets of tinfoil, cut 4 by 7 inches with an ear at one corner of each sheet to project beyond the paper sufficient to allow of the alternate sheets to be connected together on opposite corners. The pile may then be clamped to- gether with two pieces of board well shellacked. The ears of each set of 35 sheets may then be pressed together and clamped for connecting to the binding posts M M. Condensers are not absolutely necessary and many jump-spark coils are in use with- out them. The theory is that the electro-magnetic force of self- induction in the primary, which is principally instrumental in causing the spark at break contact, will expend most of its energy IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 1 29 in charging the condenser, causing the break spark of the primary to be less and the current to become zero with greater rapidity. The practical effect of the condenser on the spark volume of the secondary is very great, or what is commonly called a fat spark. The vibrating coil Fig. 47 i is of the same general construction as described with the addition of a spring vibrator shown at F G. The steel spring G F may be i l /> inches in length and y 2 inch in width, fastened to a post at F and fixed to a small armature of soft iron at G with a platinum or, what is better, an alloy cf platinum and iridium contact piece at E. D is a brass post with a platinum iridium point adjusting screw, and connected to the breaker N and to the condenser K L, completing the primary circuit through the post F, the switch J and the breaker B. S. S. FlG. 47J. THE INDUCTION COIL CASE. The office of the vibrator is to give a rapid intermission of the primary current while the commutator bar C is in contact with the spring B. By this means the induced secondary cur- rent also becomes intermittent and so secures a succession of sparks at the electrodes that insures a positive ignition. The complete induction coil may then be enclosed in a box as shown in Fig. 47 j, which illustrates a jump-spark ignition apparatus as made and sold by C. F. Splitdorf, 25 Vandewater Street, New York City, who also makes an up-to-date sparking Plug- 130 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. In Fig. 47 K is illustrated an ignition battery plant, in which the batteries may be from three to four in series, connecting with the binding post p of the primary winding of the induction coil T and continued through the other binding post p l to the breaker at k, which is operated by a break contact arm or cam on the re- ducing gear or shaft. The secondary winding of the induction coil is connected to the ignition plug P by the wires e e and continued through separate insulating sleeves, i i, terminating in the platinum points or preferably small knobs, c c. The distance apart of these elec-- trodes should be in proportion to the strength of the current. With an induction coil and battery of size to produce a half-inch FlG. 47K. ELECTRIC IGNITER. open jump spark, one-sixteenth to three-thirty-seconds of an inch should be the limit. With ^ to i inch open jump spark the limit may be one-eighth inch between the electrodes. The primary circuit is made and broken by the passage of the contact piece k, between the spring clips x x, at the moment required for firing the charge. DYNAMO-ELECTRIC IGNITION. The permanent field dynamo or magneto for producing the ignition current are coming into favor and are made in a variety of styles. They have a drum armature, enclosed so as to be proof ' against dirt, oil and moisture. They can be run by belt or by contact with the fly-wheel with a band of rubber stretched tightly and cemented upon the dynamo pulley. They are made IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. in several styles and are a favorite for marine and vehicle gaso- line engines. In Fig. 47M is represented the horizontal magneto as made by the Holtzer-Cabot Electric Company, Boston, Mass. It has a belt or wheel contact tightening device on a permanent plat- form. It is their No. 2 or automobile size, which is also best suited for launches. The sparking device for which they are specially designed is the break or wipe spark. This magneto igniter, while having an armature of the drum type similar to that used in di- rect-current dynamos, has permanent mag- net fields, so that not only is no current wasted to energize them, but the armature can be run in either direction and a wider range of speed employed without danger of a "burn-out," while a good hot spark can always be depended upon. The fields of this machine are composed of steel, permanent magnet, and unless subject to abnormal conditions will retain FlG. 47L. IGNITION DYNAMO. FlG. 47M. HORIZONTAL MAGNETO. their strength indefinitely. The 0-shaped bars shp ( uld never be removed from the fields without substituting an iron keeper across their prongs, and this same precaution should be taken before attempting to withdraw the armature. Either carbon or woven wire brushes may be used ; the copper 132 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. brush should be soaked in oil from time to time to prevent cutting the commutator. Carbon brushes will not cut the commutator, but occasionally may become glazed and fail to give reliable con- tact ; when this occurs their ends should be filed off to a new sur- face, when they will operate as well as new brushes. Fig 47 o represents the magneto dynamo of the Carlisle & Finch Company, Cincinnati, O. The distinctive feature of this magneto is the method of sup- FlG. 47N. VERTICAL MAGNETO. porting it. It is mounted on a strong pin on which it rocks. This permits of the "belt being tightened if it becomes loose, and an adjusting screw is provided for this purpose. The square base or pedestal is to be fastened to the floor, and the tightening screw inserted in the hole on the side toward the engine. This will allow the dynamo to be pushed away from the engine, so as to tighten the belt as it becomes loose. If it is desired to run the magneto by a friction pulley, a spring may be attached to the bottom of the magneto, so as to IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 133 draw it toward the fly-wheel of the engine. In this case, the tightening screw will be omitted. Friction pulleys are furnished. The armature is completely enclosed, and the magneto may be sprinkled with water without damage. For small engines, when the fly-wheel can be turned by hand, it is not necessary to use a battery for starting; but when the FlG. 47 O. VERTICAL MAGNETO. engine is so large that it can be turned but slowly, it is necessary to have 6 or 8 cells of open-circuit battery for furnishing the initial spark. Any good type of Leclanche battery will answer. Dry batteries may be used if the magneto is to be used on an automobile where the available space is small. To meet the wishes of those who have individual preferences for the dynamo type of igniter, and to meet conditions which de- mand an igniter that will deliver a large amount of energy con- tinuously, as for instance multiple cylinder engines, the Holtzer- 134 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Cabot Electric Company have brought out a dynamo type of igniter which is shown in Fig. 47 p. This new igniter will work through a range of speed from 1,000 R.P.M. to 2,500 R.P.M.; it may be used to advantage in automobile work, it being unneces- sary to use any governor whatever. It will deliver a continuous output of 50 watts and will serve under the most severe and exacting conditions. The igniter is pivoted on a sub-base and the belt is tightened or the pressure of the friction pulley regti- FlG. 47P. DYNAMO IGNITER. lated by means of two butt-screws which rock the machine for- ward or backward as the case may be. Fig. 47Q represents an igniting dynamo with belt tightener, made by the Carlisle & Finch Company, Cincinnati, O. This dynamo, like their magneto, is made to swing on a pin support, in order to tighten the belt, or to permit of its being driven by a friction pulley. An improvement in this dynamo is the means for shifting the brushes by rotating the brass cover at the com- mutator end a few degrees in either direction and a change of IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 135 connections, for setting the dynamo for any direction of the motor fly-wheel. In Fig. 47R is illustrated the break spark method of wiring for motor ignition from a dynamo either of the magneto type or the self-exciting field-wound type as before described, which will fur- nish sufficient current for a good spark at the low speed of 800 re- volutions per minute ; but for sure ignition at normal speed of the FlG. 47Q. IGNITING DYNAMO. motor, should run at a speed of about 1,200 revolutions per minute. The usual current is at about 10 volts and 2 amperes. When an igniter is used in connection with an engine having two cylinders, there should be a separate spark coil employed for each cylinder. 136 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. .Spark Coll FlG. 47R. DYNAMO WIRING. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 137 POINTERS ON VALVES AND IGNITION. Although the general designs of explosive motors, so far as their power-moving parts are concerned, are so much alike that, excepting their ignition devices, any explosive motor may be made interchangeable or readily convertible to the use of either of the explosive materials for power, for each requires an equal strength in all the parts of the motor as well as an equal treat- ment in the regulation of cylinder temperature. The value of the materials of explosive power has been as fully discussed under the head of "materials of power" as is con- sistent with our present knowledge of the experimental details in regard to the explosive values of such materials. Their study becomes an essential feature in motor design, especially in regard to cylinder volume to meet specified power. The details of valve gear may be made variable to meet the fancy of designers or their judgment of fitness ; but there are a few points in its operating principle which must be made to meet the requirements not only of each form , of explosive ele- ment to be used; but also the varied values of gases in gas en- gines from acetylene to producer gas and of the volatility of the variable grades of gasoline, kerosene and the cruder oils, and which dominate the sizes and relative proportions of the inlet and exhaust valves. The forms of the faces and seats of valves seem to have been varied to meet the fancy of designers in a great measure and even the crudity of a spindle riveted to the valve disk has been used and published as a desirable makeshift. The flat-faced valve is also in use, but from the author's experience, is unreliable and makes an imperfect seat by use. Conical seated valves with faces at from thirty-five to forty-five degrees from the axis of the spindle are giving good service. A flatter cone of from fifty to sixty degrees is in use with apparent wearable properties and with slightly less lift for its full area than with the deeper seated valves. Spindle valves with stems one-fifth to one-quarter the outside 138 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. diameter of the valves, well filleted under the disks give general satisfaction for ordinary speeds ; but for very high speed motors the valve stems should be somewhat larger. The general valve arrangements are well shown in their various modifications as illustrated in this work. The relative size of these valves has been a subject of enquiry and discussion with so far no fixed general rule applicable to the required conditions of each element. Some designated speed should first be assigned for any given sized cylinder volume from which the size of the valves may be computed for the full flow of the inlet charge and for the discharge, of the exhaust without undue back pressure during the times of the inlet and exhaust strokes. This means larger valves for high speed than for low speed motors a practice too often ignored to the detriment of motor efficiency by making these valves too small for the motor's best work; while if made to meet the requirements for highest speed capacity their efficiency action will be best for all lower speeds. This should be made a study with the designers of ex- plosive motors. The present practice with builders in regard to the size of the valves seems to vary the extreme diameter of the exhaust valve from a quarter to four-tenths of the diameter of the cylinder and the charging valve a little less, sometimes but one-fifth diameter of the cylinder. Indicator cards taken from motcrs with small valves, if properly done, plainly show the effect of back pressure from both the exhaust and charging strokes. Good practice suggests the larger valves with full lift of one-quarter their diameter for developing the full power of the motor. The ignition devices have been a puzzle to motor* builders and operators during the decades of explosive motor development, and so-called improvements are still in vogue. For gas engines, tube ignition has had its day for want of a better way and is still in use to a considerable extent, probably because it is simple and cheap to make ; but the short life of the tubes when made of iron IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 139 has made this material unreliable and the resort to a nickel alloy and porcelain has bettered the condition which still has its annoy- ances. Electric ignition has become the most reliable and is easily managed and adjusted to meet the requirements for timing. In its best designs it has been largely adopted by motor builders, and has become a favorite with motor engineers. Notwithstand- ing the troubles with early designs of electric igniters, from un- seen causes due to the hidden position of their vital parts, the later improvements have brought their action to almost a posi- tive condition. Of the types of electric igniters in use, the break contact or hammer type involves the motion of a spindle arranged as a rock shaft with a contact arm or hammer acting upon a station- ary electrode, or a vibrating spindle passing through the walls of the cylinder to make contact with the same hammering force, or, as in a late improvement, to dip into a small mercury cistern. The hammer type, whether it involves the action of a spring to cause a draw break contact or by a direct face contact, is subject to wear that either changes the adjustment for timing or pre- vents ignition by enlarging the contact faces to such an extent as to allow the spark to occur before the charge can pass in between the faces. Many igniters of this type are made with broad-faced hammers, which become fouled or are so tightly faced by the hammer action that the spark passes before the gas charge can reach the spark between the faces, causing misfires. This has been remedied by reducing the size of the contact faces and rounding their surface, which serves to give free access of the explosive charge to the spark at the moment of break of contact. The single wire-wound sparking coil and battery seems to be the most suitable means for storage of electric current for the in- ternal break contact igniter. The jump-spark igniter is increasing in favor among en- gineers and operators, owing to the simplicity and fixedness of 140 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. its cylinder terminals, which places the intermittent action on the outside of the cylinder, thereby allowing of ready observation and adjustment without stopping the motor. In the early form of the jump-spark igniter with both terminals passing through a single insulation in the plug, the space on the insulated face of the plug was made so short that by the fouling of the surface the electric current was short-circuited and no spark was pro duced; this gave much trouble from the necessity of frequently removing the plug for cleaning the insulating surface. Its con- struction has been modified so as to increase the distance between the terminals by an extension of one of the terminals from the body of the plug, which was an improvement, but still defective. A later improvement has been made by extending the porcelain insulator beyond the face of the plug from a half to three- quarters of an inch and extending the opposite terminal from the face of the plug with a hooked end and clearing the insulator by a quarter inch, thus giving more than three-quarters of an inch of insulating surface between the electrodes. In some motors the plug terminal is a single positive electrode, while the negative electrode is fixed to the cylinder head away from the plug, making a greater distance in which short-circuiting has to pass, but this is a mistake, for the insulated part of the plug is the limitation of short-circuit possibilities. The jump spark system of ignition requires a secondary or induction coil, and, for further efficiency, a condenser with a breaking device operated from the valve gear shaft to open the otherwise closed primary coil from which the secondary or jump spark is generated at the moment of closure for timing the spark. There are two methods of operating the jump spark ignition ; in one a magnetic vibrator is employed which makes ~and breaks the primary circuit many times during the open contact of the time switch on the secondary shaft, during which moment a series of sparks is sent across the terminal electrodes in the com- bustion chambers, thus ensuring ignition by repeated sparking. In the use of the induction coil without the vibrator, but a IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 141 single weak spark is produced at the opening and a single strong spark again at the closing of the timing switch, thus giving two sparks; but the first is not considered available, except from a more powerful induction coil than needed for the vibrating at- tachment. The distance or opening between the terminals of a sparking plug is of greater importance than generally considered, as much hidden trouble has arisen from the form and spacing of this important adjunct in the operation of explosive motors. For a satisfactory effect a four element battery in series and an induction coil for sure ignition should give a spark of maxi- mum range from three-eighths to 'half an inch, for which the terminals of the sparking plug should be set at from three to four thirty-seconds of an inch apart, or one-quarter of the ex- treme length of the spark. The voltage for a reliable spark need not exceed one and a quarter volts in each of a four-battery series, equal to five volts, acting through an induction coil con- sisting of a soft iron wire core five-eighths of an inch diameter, No . 12 gauge, insulated by a paper tube spool five inches in length between the shoulders, on which is wound two layers of cotton-covered copper wire, No. 12, B. & S. gauge, well insulated with paper and shellac varnish. For the secondary coil, wind 10 ounces of No. 36 B. & S. gauge cotton-covered copper wire, shellacking and covering each winding with a layer of uncal- lendered writing paper. A vibrating hammer and condenser adds to the efficiency of the jump spark igniter see these devices in other parts of this book. 142 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. THE APPLE IGNITION DYNAMO. In Fig. 473 and following we illustrate a neat and compact ignition dynamo made by the Dayton Electrical Manufacturing Company, Dayton, Ohio. It is entirely enclosed in a case, prac- FlG. 475. THE APPLE IGNITION DYNAMO. FlG. 47T. OPEN END SHOWING COMMUTATOR AND CONNECTIONS. tically water and dust proof. The pulley has a friction clutch governor acting on the rim of the pulley and attached to the spindle of the armature. The clutch shoes of the governor are IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 143 closed on the rim by the springs, while the centrifugal force of overspeed releases them, and between the action of the two forces, the dynamo runs steadily with a variable speed of the motor. The brushes attached to the spider as seen in the open end cut are a combination of wire gauze and carbon placed radially with the commutator, so that the dynamo may be run either way without readjustment of the brushes. In Fig. 470 is a sectional detail of the parts of the Apple dynamo, in which A is the cast-iron case ; B, the hinged cover ; C, one of the cast-iron pole pieces of the field magnets, which are fixed to the case by screws as shown ; D, the armature, the core FlG. 47U. SECTIONAL DIAGRAM OF THE APPLE DYNAMO. of which is built up from thin-toothed disks of soft sheet iron ; E, the coil of one of the field magnets ; F, brass bearing ; G and H, hard-fiber tubes covering the spindle; K, brass spider and spindle bearing ; L, commutator with mica insulation ; M, wick- feed oil cup ; N and P, beveled nuts clamping the commutator bars ; R, driving disk and rim containing the centrifugal clutch cover shown in the other figures ; S, pinion fixed to driving disk R and revolving freely on the spindle. 144 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. This company also make and attach to these dynamos a storage battery with two cells of three plates each and of four volts; so arranged that by moving a switch after the motor is started from the storage battery, the dynamo furnishes the re- FlG. 47V. GEAR AND PULLEY CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH GOVERNORS. quired current for ignition with a surplus for recharging the battery. These dynamos are made for both break and jump spark FlG. 47W. WIRING SYSTEM FOR IGNITION DYNAMO WITH STORAGE BATTERY, JUMP ' SPARK COIL AND TIMING DEVICE. ignition as desired, giving a constant current of about 4^ volts ..at from 1,000 to 1,200 revolutions per minute. IGNITERS AND EXPLODERS. 145 A wiring system suitable for these dynamos is shown in Fig. -47W, in which the dynamo is directly connected with the storage battery through a resistance switch, and also to the primary circuit of the induction coil, and to the timing break device, the secondary coil being in direct connection with the sparking plug. By the throw of the switch the full current from the bat- tery leads to the primary winding of the induction coil and is interrupted in its circuit by the break device, and at another posi- tion of the switch nearly the full current of the dynamo is in use for sparking, with a resistance shunt through the storage battery that restores its lost charge in a short time. There is much to be said in favor of this system of ignition, and as engineers and others in charge of explosive motors be- come more familiar with their apparent complication, the more they will become assured of their reliability and certainty of operation. The jump spark or induction coil with a storage battery reserva- tion supplied by a current from a dynamo will no doubt soon be- come the universal means of explosive motor ignition. CHAPTER XIII. CYLINDER LUBRICATION. THE lubrication of cylinders of explosive motors is a matter of great importance, as the intensely hot gases in immediate contact with the lubricating oil, although the oil is in contact with a comparatively cool metallic surface, has an evaporative FIG. 48. THE MECHANICAL LUBRICATOR. effect, tending to thicken the oil into a gummy lining on the surface of the cylinder. To avoid this and keep a perfect lu- brication, an oil that is adapted to this severe heat trial should be used and fed to the cylinder walls and piston in constant flow, and not too much or too little, but just enough so that the oil cannot be pushed into the combustion chamber in ex- cess, so as to be blown through the exhaust valve to clog the passages with oily soot. The sight feed and capillary drop-oil feeders have been per- fected to such an extent in the United States that they are al- CYLINDER LUBRICATION. 147 most in universal use. Yet on some engines with revolving valve-cam shafts, the facility for obtaining easily the motion PIG. 49. THE ROBEY OIL FEEDER, SECTION. for a mechanical lubricator has kept this form in use on many engines. In Fig. 48 is illustrated a mechanical lubricator used on the FIG. 50. THE ROBEY OIL FEEDER, PLAN. Crossley engines in England, and with some variations on other European and American engines. A small belt from the valve-cam shaft to the pulley A gives the required motion to 148 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the spindle and crank C C, to which is loosely attached a wire D, that dips into the oil and carries a minute portion to the wiper E, from which the oil drops into the passage to the cyl- inder. In Figs. 49 and 50 is shown a section and plan of a lubrica- tor used on the Robey engines, which is an improvement over the previous one, in that it has a small receptacle above the level of the main oil cistern, which is fed by a revolving shaft and crank arm with drop wire reaching to the bottom of the cistern and wiping the oil on a fixed wiper over the receptacle, from which a second crank arm and drop wire lifts the oil to the wiper that feeds the passage to the cylinder. By this ar- rangement the oil for the cylinder is drawn from a fixed level, and the feed is therefore perfectly uniform at any level of the oil in the cistern. Strict attention should be given to the quality of the oil used in the cylinder. Such oil is now made and sold as gas engine cylinder oil of a less density and viscosity than the ordinary cylinder oil and more fluid, so that it flows readily over the sur- face of the piston. Such oil does not readily gum in the cylinder and on the piston. It evaporates more readily than heavy oil and in a measure mixes with the explosive charge, is burned and discharged with the gases of the exhaust, thus avoiding the sooty oil that lodges in the muffler and exhaust pipe from the heavier oils. A very small quantity of finely pulverized graphite used with this oil, occasionally, gives good results as a cylinder lubri- cant and imparts a smooth and glossy surface to both cylinder and piston. For all other parts of the engine the best engine oil is none too good. The poorer grades of machinery oil are not economical at their price. CHAPTER XIV. ON THE MANAGEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. THE drift of constructive practice in the United States seems generally to be in the line of simplicity and least num- ber of parts, in order to conform to the needs of the people that have the care of such motive power. The explosive motor now appeals to no experience as an engineer for its care and running; yet it does seem to require some common sense as to cleanliness and the propriety of things that may assume a menacing or dangerous habit by neglect of some of the few points of attention required in persons having the charge of this rising prime mover. The ability to discover leakage of gas or oil vapors or the products of combustion in the pipe connections, through valves, or by a defective or worn piston ; the thumping in journal boxes, looseness of pins and piston thump is easily acquired when a person assumes the care of an engine. The regulation of the explosive mixtures are fully explained in the instruction pamphlets and display sheets of the builders, and from the completeness of instructions fur- nished there seems nothing to fear in the first start of an ex- plosive motor by any person of ordinary intelligence. y , Cleanliness being of the first order, due attention should be given to the cleaning of the cylinder, valves, and exhaust pipe at stated intervals ; in some motors at least once a month, in other motors several months may elapse without internal clean- ing being necessary, apparently without detriment. But we apprehend that the quality of the fuel has much to do with the fouling of the combustion chamber and exhaust pipe, and therefore the quality of the fuel should be suggestive of the times indicated for internal cleaning. The outside surfaces 149 150 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. should be wiped off before starting or at the close of work every day, especially where the location is in a room with working-people, as the odor of the lubricating oil is not agree- able when the oil is spread in excess over an engine. In workshops or rooms where dust prevails it is most desir- able to enclose the motor in a small room by itself, well venti- lated from without, for motor cylinders are mostly open and gather dust on their oily surfaces, and dust in the ingoing air of combustion leaves grit and ashes in the cylinder. The oil for lubricating the cylinder should be of the best " cylinder oil" of the trade, and is sold by many dealers as " gas-engine cyl- inder oil." It is not so expensive as to preclude its use for all the moving parts of an explosive motor, although a poorer quality is in general use. Automatic oil feeders are almost universally furnished with these engines, so that there should be very little waste of oil. In cleaning the internal parts from carbon and oil crust, no sharp scrapers should be used on any rubbing parts or the bear- ings of valves. If unable to remove the crust with a cloth and kerosene oil, a hardwood stick and oil will generally remove the incrustation down to the metal, while the valves, if not cut, only need rubbing on their seats with finely pulverized pumice or other polishing powder. Emery is not recommended, as valves often get too much grinding to their detriment by the use of this material. In starting a motor it should always be turned over in its running direction, and when compression makes this difficult the relief valve (most motors have one) or the exhaust or air valve may be opened to clear the cylinder, if an overcharge of gas or a failure has been made at the first turn. In most cases turning the fly-wheel two or three revolutionr . will clear and charge the cylinder under the usual conditions for starting. With most of the large motors a starting device is provided, which is described in Fig. 47, and in the special exhibit of the American explosive motors further on. MANAGEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTORS 151 Some of the troubles to be met are severe explosions after several misfires, by which the cylinder may become overcharged with the combustible mixture. This is often caused by irreg- ular work on the engine, and the consequent scavengering of the cylinder of the products of previous explosions, replacing with pure mixtures at the next charge. Again, by a misfire from failure in the igniter an explosive charge is intensified at the next ignition or exploded in the exhaust pipe. Other in- terruptions sometimes occur, such as the sticking of the exhaust valve open by gumming of the spindle or a weak spring. From this may also arise some of the back-firings in the muffler and exhaust pipe. All of these explosions taking place at irregular times may be attributed, first, to irregular work ; second, to ir- regularity in the operation of the valve gear or igniter, and al- though not pleasant to the ear may not be considered danger- ous, because the motors and all their parts subject to explosion are made equal in working strength to the greatest pressure made by such explosions. With the compression usual in American motors, 40 to 50 Ibs., the greatest force from misfire or back-fire explosives can scarcely reach 300 Ibs. per square inch in the cylinders and 150 Ibs. in the mufflers, unless, by a possible contrac- tion of the exhaust pipe by carbon deposit, a muffler pot may have possibilities of rupture. In no case should an exhaust pipe be turned into a chimney. With gas engines the full power is sometimes not realized from insufficient gas supply. The gas bag is a good indicator of this condition, caused by a too small gas pipe or a small meter, by which a flabby appearance of the gas bag shows that the motor is drawing more than the pipe or meter can supply with a proper working pressure. The muffler pots have been known to accumulate water in cold weather by condensation of the water vapor formed by the union of the hydrogen and oxygen of the gas and air, to such an extent as sometimes to cause fear in an attendant of a cracked cylinder and leakage of water in from the circulation. 152 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The water should be drawn off occasionally from the muffler pot by a cock. Gas motors running with electric igniters some- times do not start at first trial from the accumulation of air in the gas-pipe. Testing by a gas-burner or a second trial will show where the difficulty lies and its remedy. And finally, much caution should be observed in examining the interior of valve chambers and the electric exploders by taking off caps or plugs and using a light near them until assured that fuel inlets- are closed and the motor has been turned over several times to clear it of all explosive mixture. The consequences of explosion from peepholes are obvious. Even when a motor has been idle for a time it should be opened with the above caution. The adjustment of governors only require care and a careful study of the directions for operating the engines, as there are too many variations in the designs and methods of adjustment for definite instructions under this head. Much care is required in renewing the ignition tubes, especially after the spare tubes furnished with the engine have been all used. The same size gas-pipe and of the same length as the tubes furnished with the engine should be made and the end welded up or capped, so that they may contain the same volume as the original tubes. This caution will insure the uniform adjustment of the time of ignition by change of tubes; otherwise tinkering with the position of the Bunsen burner will not enable an attendant not experienced in regulating the time of ignition to regulate it with any degree of certainty. The regulation when once lost can be properly tested only by an indicator card. With a timing valve and the amount of lead for the return fire from the tube being known, the adjustment of the timing- valve throw can be made from the position of the dead centre of the crank at the end of the forward stroke. The timing lead is the time that is required for the mixture to pass the valve and become compressed in the igniting tube and the flame to return to the combustion chamber, as measured on the circum- ference of the timing- valve cam. MANAGEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. 153 Other than iron tubes are used, such as nickel, aluminum bronze, and porcelain, with satisfactory results. The porcelain tubes are made short and require a special fitting to adapt them to a chimney, or the chimney should be of special design (as shown in Fig. 34) , for a cross impact of the flame of the Bunsen burner. There are many points in the management of explosive motors that cannot be discussed in a general treatise, arising from the varied details of design, in which special reference to- the methods of operating the valve gears of igniters and gov- ernors of each individual design is required. The special in- structions furnished by builders are ample for the operation of their motors, and if carefully studied lead to success in their operation by any person of ordinary intelligence or tact in handling moving machinery. Another year's experience with gas, gasoline, and oil vapor engines has brought out more strongly the good qualities of well-made explosive motors, and placed them far ahead as a reliable, cheap and easily managed motive power, even up to several hundred horse-power in a single installation. The appli- cation of power from explosive motors for the generation of electricity for lighting and the transmission of power is no longer a mooted point of economy, but has become a fixed principle in the application of prime moving power. The gov- erning devices have been improved and applied in the line of uniform motion from intermittent impulse. An electric gas governing device for controlling the flow of gas to correspond with the required amperage is a new governing application that seems to break the last objection to the use of explosive motors for generating the electric current for lighting purposes. The hot tube ignition seems to hold its own with increased power and life by the use of the nickel alloy and porcelain tubes 154 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. as described in the article on Hot Tubes ; for while the elec- tric spark has its advantages in some respects, it has likewise its annoyances. When the spark or ignition fails, much deten- tion may follow the search for the fault. The hidden contact points, fouling of sparking insulation, battery faults and con- nections are to be looked after; or if a generator is used, the chances for faults in a constant current generator are no less, but also become a cause of watchfulness. As it is now well known that the full firing of an explosive charge is not instantaneous from the moment of ignition in the hot tube, and that the greatest mean pressure on the piston results from perfect ignition of the whole charge at the moment of the passage of the crank over the center, it becomes a matter of considerable importance that the hot tube and Bun- sen burner shall be adjusted so as to allow the compressed fresh charge to reach the part of the hot tube at which the tem- perature is high enough to cause ignition of the charge at a moment just before the crank reaches its center. The variable mixture of the charge either from misfiring of a previous charge or from the action of an over-sensitive governor has made this adjustment heretofore somewhat difficult, especially where short-lived tubes were in use, for a change of tube usually varies the moment of ignition. Since the advent of the nickel alloy and porcelain tubes this difficulty has been greatly overcome, and the ignition tube has been restored to favor with many engine builders who had adopted the electric system for its positive timing. The marine engine, however, will probably hold to electric ignition from the obvious difficulty in managing a gaso- line burner for such service. Many minor improvements of the past year have conduced to a general economy in running expense and to ease of man- agement, among which may be noted a new device on the White & Middleton engines, by the turning of which the time of sparking is retarded at starting, and the engine prevented from the MANAGEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. 155 possibility of starting backwards by explosion before the crank reaches the center. In this device the sparking push-blade has a double trip swiveled on the push-rod, the turning over of which changes the time of ignition. The use of a generator armature revolving within the sphere of a permanent magnet, and operated from a gear on the main shaft of the motor to a pinion on the armature, is in use on the Sumner engine, now made by the F. M. Watkins Co. , Cincin- nati, Ohio. It is growing in favor, and appears from inspection to be a reliable and satisfactory device. In trials of gasoline engines with gas engines of the same size and construction, it has been found that the indicated horse-power from gasoline is from 12 to 20 per cent, higher than from illuminating gas, when running at full power. This does not correspond with the assigned number of heat units per cubic foot of gasoline vapor and illuminating gas ; for gasoline vapor has been credited with almost the same value in heat units with 1 6 candle-power illu- minating gas. The excessive power of gasoline vapor is proba- bly due to modern methods in the manufacture of illuminating gas, by which a large percentage of non- combustible element is produced in the form of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These elements of non-combustion exist to a very large extent in the Dowson and water gas, which is well known to require a much larger engine for equal power with a high illuminating gas or gasoline engine. There is a tendency toward increase of compression to near its greatest theoretical economy, and en- gines are now in use with compression of 80 or more pounds per square inch, and with a clearance of 30 per cent, of the space swept by the piston, with claims of from 14 to 12 cubic feet of gas per indicated horse-power per hour. 150 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. POINTERS ON EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. The explosive motor now appeals to no experience and re- sponsibility of a professional engineer for its care and running, yet it does require much common sense as to cleanliness and the propriety of things that may assume a menacing or dangerous habit by neglect of some of the few points of attention absolutely essential. The ability to discover and locate leakage of gas or oil vapors or the products of combustion in the pipe connections, through valves or by a defective or worn piston ; the thumping in journals, looseness of pins and piston thump, is easily acquired when a person assumes the care of an explosive motor. The regulation of the explosive mixtures is so fully explained in the instructions now sent out with the motors that there seems nothing to fear in their first starting by any person of ordinary intelligence. In the operation of these motors, cleanliness is of the first order, and due attention should be given to the cleaning of the cylinder, valves and exhaust pipe at stated intervals, according to the kind of fuel used. The highly carbonaceous gases and vapors require more attention in internal cleaning than those containing an excess of hydrogen and nitrogen constituent. In using highly carbonaceous gases and vapors, cylinders, valves and exhaust pipes need cleaning at least once a month, while with the cleaner fuels, several months may elapse without cleaning. The outer surfaces, boxes and parts bespattered with oil should be kept clean, as well as the floor, which should have a zinc lining around the motor. Wiping up twice a day is none too much for cleanliness and the welfare of people working in the same room with a motor. It is better to enclose the motor in a small room by itself, well ventilated from without ; it keeps dust from the cylinder and foul odors from the workrooms. It pays to use the best cylinder oil MANAGEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. 157 for all parts of a motor, as it requires less of the good oil than of the poor quality for lubricating any surface and is inducive of efficiency. In cleaning the internal parts, avoid the use of a sharp scraper on rubbing surfaces and valve seats. A hardwood stick and kerosene oil will generally do this work and save much after trouble. For regrinding valves, emery should not be used; pulverized pumice stone and oil do the work well without over grinding. Some of the troubles met with in the operation of explosive motors are severe explosions after one or several misfires, by which the cylinder becomes overcharged with combustible mix- ture and on firing produces an excessive explosion and kick in the motor. This is due to irregular work of the motor or misfiring of the igniter. Other interruptions sometimes occur, such as the sticking of the exhaust valve open by gumming of the spindle. From this may also arise the back firing in the muffler pot and exhaust pipe, which although not pleasant to the ear, are not considered dangerous, because the motors and all their parts subject to this explosive force are made equal in working strength to the greatest pressure from such explosions. One possible evil is the rupture of a weak muffler pot from the choking of the exhaust pipe by soot a suggestion to make the exhaust pipe from the muffler pot two pipe sizes larger than the usually assigned size for the motor. In examining the interior of an explosive motor, care should be taken to remove any gas or vapor from all chambers and re- cesses by closing their inlets and turning over the fly-wheel sev- eral times with the air inlet open. This is most essential for safety in removing plugs for examining the sparking electrodes. A few accidents have happened when looking at the sparking device through a plug hole. An accumulation of air in the gas pipe is sometimes the cause of failure in starting with an electric igniter, and often attributed to the failure of the spark. A search in both directions will find the true cause of failure. 158 GAS; GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. On purchasing a motor, the one who is to operate it should carefully study the mechanism and the instructions, as the detail in operating the three kinds of fuel, gas, gasoline and kerosene or crude oil vary enough to require special inquiry for the opera- tion of each kind. The method of ignition is also peculiar and requires special instruction in either of the kinds of devices by which the motor is operated. Whether tube, hammer spark or jump spark is se- lected, they are each so different in detail as to need special in- struction. One of the annoyances in explosive motor service is the in- crustation of the water jacket by lime. Hard water or such as contains a considerable amount of carbonate or sulphate of lime when used as a free running stream, has been found to choke a water jacket in a few months so as to render the jacket almost useless as a cooling device. To obviate this difficulty a cooling tank of about twenty gallons per horse-power should be used, set above the cylinder and of such form as to give large surface to the air with a free circulation on all sides. A round tank gives the least air cooling surface, while a long tank of galvanized sheet iron with vertical corrugated sides has given the most satis- factory service. By the use of a cooling tank charged with the best water attainable, preferably rain water and a pound of caustic soda to each five gallons, an encrusted jacket can soon be cleaned or the incrustation so loosened that it can be easily scraped and washed out through the core openings. Acid and water has been recom- mended and used ; but such treatment is not as convenient as the soda circulation. The manufacturer, if he understands his interests, usually furnishes sufficient explanatory matter to enable the operator to understand all details. Often this has been a failure to the detri- ment of both maker and purchaser ; but if the seller thinks he can afford to be careless about this, the buyer need not, for all shut- downs and interruptions caused by failure to operate a motor satisfactorily are more or less expensive. MANAGEMENT OF EXPLOSIVE MOTORS. 159 Finally, in starting a gas or gasoline engine, it is well to re- member a few facts in regard to the explosive qualities of the gas or gasoline mixture. It has been shown in other parts of this work that the proportions of gas or gasoline and air have their limits for explosive effect and that too much or too little of the fuel element is non-explosive. This is often the real trouble, when in starting a motor it refuses to go, in which case it is better to shut off the fuel and turn the fly-wheel over to clear the cylinder of the first charge with the relief cock open ; it should always be open in starting to save the severe work of com- pression. The same difficulty may also occur in charging a self- starting motor of the larger size, which cannot be turned over to relieve the cylinder of the mis-fired charge, but by lifting the exhaust valve and charging lightly with some pure air or fuel, as the judgment of the engineer may suggest, the start may be made. Herein lies the value of positive and full instruction that every builder of explosive motors should furnish with each motor sent out, as well as a practical lesson whenever possible to the person that is to operate the motor. Do not once think because a motor slows down by the turning on of one or two more machines that it has been giving power to, that more fuel is all that is needed, for it may have been running with more or less fuel than was due to the greatest mean pres- sure. It may be noted that I part good illuminating gas to 6 parts air or i part of heavy oil gas to 9 parts air or I part gaso- line vapor to 8 parts air gives the quickest explosion, the highest explosive temperature and the greatest mean pressure. Any de- partures from these proportions in the mixtures are weakening in their effects, and where the highest power and efficiency of the motor is required any variation from the above-named propor- tions are not the most economical in practice. As between the hit-and-miss charges and the graduation of the charge in its best mixture, there has been and is a margin for discussion in which builders of explosive motors do not agree, and may not, until by long experience, trials and new methods of regulation may lead to the best practice. CHAPTER XV. THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. THE methods of measuring power are of but two general forms or principles, although the individual machines or instru- ments for accomplishing the measurement are of many kinds and of a variety of construction. The one form is especially adapted for the measurement of the available power of prime movers under the various condi- tions of the application of their elementary constituents, by the absorption of their whole output of power at the point of de- livery and there record the value of its force and velocity. Its representative is the brake dynamometer, or Prony's brake, in the various details of construction that it has assumed as de- signed and applied to meet the views or fancies of mechanical engineers. The second form is a marked departure from the structural form of the first, and with the principle in view of placing as little obstruction as possible to the transmission of power from the prime mover to the receiver of power, to measure the actual net or differential tension of a belt or gear, and with its veloc- ity indicate the exact amount of power delivered to a line of shafting or a machine. These are called transmitting dynamom- eters in distinction from the absorption dynamometers of the Prony type. They are of two kinds, one with a dial and index pointer, by which the hand on the dial must be constantly watched and recorded for a length of time and a mean pressure obtained from the varying record. The other carries a self- marking register moved by clockwork, by which the actual pressure is a constant record for any desired time, or a full day's work, the only personal observation required being the 160 THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. 161 speed of the pulley or belt or its average throughout the time or day In Fig. 5 1 we illustrate the first form, a simple absorption dynamometer or Prony's brake, named after its inventor, in which A is the radius of the pulley drum or shaft to which re- sistance may be applied; B the length of the lever from the 162 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. centre of the shaft to the point of attachment of the spring scale or other means of measuring the tension of the lever; C a spring scale, which is preferable for light woi k within its range ; and N N lever nuts for quick control of the pressure. In Fig. 52 is presented a simple and inexpensive arrange- men of a power- absorbing brake for a large driving-pulley or finished fly-wheel, in which a belt is lined with blocks of wood spaced and fastened to the belt with screws or nails, a few of the blocks projecting over the edge with shoulders to prevent the belt from running off the pulley. Spring scales may be purchased of the straight and dial pattern up to one or two hundred pounds capacity at reason- able figures, and are a source of satisfaction in showing the amount of vibration due to irregular pulsations of the motive element and crank motion. Where the measurement of power beyond the range of a spring balance is required, the use of a platform scale or any other weighing device may be made available. With a platform scale the light wooden strut, E, Fig. 52, may be adjusted to any length and vertically reaching^ from the platform to the horizon line, B, from the centre of the shaft; lanyards or any convenient means being used to keep the end of the lever from swaying. Water from a squirt can is the best lubricant for this class of dynamometers, as it can be easily thrown upon the face of the pulley at the interstices of the blocks and lagging, and by its quick evaporation carries off the heat generated by friction. Soapy water has been used to good effect in preventing irreg- ular pressure or stickiness of the friction surfaces. It matters not in what direction the brake lever is placed to suit the convenience of observation, so long as the pull of the scale is made at right angles to the radial line from the shaft center. Its weight, as indicated on the scale, with the friction blocks or strap loosened in any position that it may be set, should be noted and a record made of the amount, which must be deducted from the total observed weight of the trial. THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. 163 If it is necessary to reverse the position of the lever or the relative direction of the motion of the pulley (as shown in Figs. 51 and 52), then the weight of the lever must be added to the weight shown by the scale under trial. When the platform scale is used the weight of the lever must necessarily be down- ward and should be deducted from the weight shown by the FIG. 53. DIFFERENTIAL STRAP BRAKE. scale under trial. Making D equal the diameter of the face of the pulley, fly-wheel, or shaft upon which friction is applied, B the length of the lever from the centre of the shaft to the point of the scale suspension, A the radius of the pulley fly-wheel or shaft, and R the number of revolutions of the shaft per min- ute : the weight used in the formula must be the net weight of the power stress, or the gross observed weight less the weight of the lever. Then TD D X 3.1416 X R X - X weight = horse-power, 33,000 B X 6.2832 x R X W or - - - - = horse-power. 33,000 T> T- X weight = the stress or pull at the face of the pulley, and i6 4 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. D X 3.1416 X R = the velocity of the face of the pulley or of the belt that it is to carry. In Fig-. 53 is represented a simple and easily arranged dif- ferential strap brake or dynamometer for small motors of less than two horse-power. It consists of a piece of belting held FIG. 54. DIFFERENTIAL. ROPE BRAKE. in place on the pulley by clips or only strings fastened parallel with the shaft to keep the belt from slipping off; two spring scales, one of which is anchored and the other attached to a hand lever to regulate the compression of the belt upon the surface of the pulley, when the differential weight, B C, on the scales may be noted sim- THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. 165 ultaneously with the revolutions of the pulley. The simple formula D X 3.1416 X R X differential weight r= norse-power. 33,000 Fig. 54 illustrates a rope absorption dynamometer or brake with a complete wrap on the surface of the pulley, very suitable for grooved pulleys or fly-wheels used for rope transmission. In this form the friction tension may be regulated with a lever as at A. The weight (W) in the formula is the differential of the opposite tensions of the two scales, or B C=W, Fig. 54, D X 3.1416 X R X W and the formula will then be : =-* = horse- 33,000 power, as in the notation, Fig. 53. Thus it may readily be seen that the difference of the pull in a rope or belt on the two sides of a pulley, multiplied by the velocity of the rim in feet per minute, and the product divided by 33,000, gives the horse-power either absorbed or transmitted by the rope. The Measurement of Speed. The revolutions of a motor may be readily obtained by an ordinary hand counter with watch in hand to mark the time ; but for accurate work and to show the variations in the fly- wheel speed by the intervals of revolution between impulses, and especially the effect of mischarges or impulses due to gov- erning the speed, there is no more accurate method than by the use of the centrifugal counter or tachometer. These instruments are designed to show at a glance a con- tinuous indication of the actual speed and its variation within 2 per cent, by careful handling of the instrument. The tach- ometer (Fig, 55) with a single dial scale 3 inches in diameter, reading from 100 to 1,000 revolutions per minute, and by chang- ing the gear for the range of gas-engine indication 'the actual revolutions will be one-half the indicated revolutions, and each divided by 2 will represent the actual speed. In this manner r66 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. a very delicate reading 1 of the variation in speed may be ob- tained. For testing" the variation of speed in electric-lighting PlO. 55. THE TACHOMETER. FIG. S 5 A. THE TRIPLE INDEXED TACHOMETRE. plants operated by gas or gasoline engines, there is no method so satisfactory as by the use of the tachometer. The triple indexed tachometer (Fig. 5 5 A) ^ is a most con- THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. 167 venient instrument for quickly testing and comparing speed of great differences, as the motor and the generator, by simply changing the driving point from one to another gear stem. These tachometers are made by Schaeffer & Budenberg New York, and may be ordered for any range of speed, from 50 to 500 for gas engines and from 500 to 2,000 for generators, in the same instrument or separate as desired. The Indicator and Its Work. We have selected among the many good indicators in the FIG. 56. THE THOMPSON INDICATOR. market the one most suitable for indicating the work of the explosive engine. The Thompson indicator as made by i68 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Schaeffer & Budenberg, New York, and illustrated in Figs. 56 and 57, is a light and sensitive instrument with absolute recti- linear motion of the pencil with its cylinder and piston, made of a specially hard alloy which prevents the possibility of sur~ FIG. 57. SECTION OF INDICATOR. FIG. 58. SMALL PISTOL face abrasion and insures a uniform frictionless motion of the piston. It is provided with an extra and smaller-sized cylin- der and piston, suitable with a light spring for testing the suction and exhaust curves of explosive motors, so useful in showing the condition and proportion of valve ports. The large piston of the standard size is o 798 inch irt diam- THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. 169 eter and equal to square inch area. The small piston (Fig. 58) is 0.590 inch in diameter and equal to o. 274 square inch area, so that a 50 or 60 spring- may be used in indicating explosive en- gines with the small piston, which will give cards within the range of the paper for low-explosive pressure but full enough to show the variations in all the lines. With the 100 spring and inch area of piston 250 Ibs. pressure is about the limit of the card, but with this size piston a 120 or 160 spring is more generally used. The pulley V is carried by the swivel W and works freely in the post X ; it can be locked in any position by the small set screw. The swivel plate Y can be swung in any direction in its plane and held firmly by the thumb-screw Z. Thus with the combination the cord can be directed in all possible direc. tions. The link A is made as short as possible with long double bearings at both ends to give a firm and steady support to the lever B, making it less liable to cause irregularities in the diagram when indicating high-speed motors. The paper drum is made with a closed top to preserve its accurate cylindrical form, and the top, having a journal bearing at U in the centre, compells a true concentric movement to its surface. The spring E and the spring case F are secured to the rod G by screwing the case F to a shoulder on G by means of a thumb-screw H. To adjust the tension of the drum spring, the drum can be easily removed, and, by holding on to the spring case E and loosening screw H, the tension can readily be varied and adapted to any speed, to follow precisely the motion of the engine piston. The bars of the nut I are made hollow, so as to insert a small short rod K, which is a great convenience in unscrewing the indicator when hot. The reducing pulley (Fig. 59) is a most important adjunct. of the indicator. The revolving parts should be as light as I/O GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. possible and are now made of aluminum for high-speed motors with pulleys proportioned for short-stroke motors. In the use of indicators for high-compression motors it is advisable to have a stop-tube inserted in the cap-piece that holds the spring and extending down and inside the spring so as to stop the motion of the piston at the limit of the pencil motion below the top of FIG. 59. THE REDUCING PULLEY. the card. This will prevent undue stress on the spring and extreme throw of the pencil when by misfires an unusual charge is fired. With the smaller piston and the usual 100 or 1 20 spring any possible explosive pressure may be properly recorded. The proximity of the indicator to the combustion chamber is of importance in making a true record of the explosive action of the combustible gases on the card. The time of transmis- sion of the wave of compression and expansion through a tube of one, two, or three feet in length is quite noticeable in the dis- tortion of the diagram. It shows a delay in compression and THE MEASUREMENT OF POWER. 171 carries the expansion line over a curve at the apex lower than the maximum pressure, and by the delay raises the expansion curve higher than the actual expansion curve of the cylinder. An indicator for true effect should have a straightway cock screwed into the cylinder. Vibration of Buildings and Floors by the Running of Explo- sive Motors. Since this class of engines has so largely superseded small steam power, and the vast extension of their use in the upper part of buildings due to their economy for all small powers, the trouble arising from vibration of buildings and floors has largely increased. The necessity for placing motive power near its point of ap- plication has resulted in locating gas, gasoline, and oil engines in light and fragile buildings and on floors not capable of re- sisting the slightest synchronal motion. This subject has been often brought to our notice since the advent of the gas engine in the lead for small powers. It is a difficult question to advise remedies for it, from the variety of ways in which the effect is produced. Synchronism between the time vibration of a floor and the number of revolutions of the engine is always a matter of experiment, and can only be ascertained by a trial in varying the engine speed by uniform stages until the vibration has become a minimum. Then if the engine speed of least vibration is an inconvenient one for engine economy, or for the speed layout of the machinery plant, a change may be made in the time vibration of the floor "by loading or bracing. The placing of a large stone or iron slab under a motor will often modify the intensity of the vibration by so changing the synchronism of the floor and engine as to enable the proper speed to be made with the least vibration. A vertical post under the engine is of little use unless it ex- tends to a solid foundation on the ground : nor should a vertical 172 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. post be placed between the engine floor and floor beams above v as it only communicates the vibrations to an)' floor in unison with the vibrations of the engine floor. A system of diagonal posts extending from near the centre of a vibrating- floor to a point near the walls or supporting columns of the floors above or below, or a pair of iron sus- penders placed diagonally from the overhead beams near their wall bearings to a point near the location of an engine and strongly bolted to the floor beams, will greatly modify the vibration and in many cases abate a nuisance. In the installation of reciprocating machinery on the upper floors of a building in which the reciprocating parts of the motor, as a horizontal engine, are in the same direction as the reciprocating parts of the machines (as in printing pressrooms) the trouble from the horizontal vibration has been often found a serious one. It may be somewhat modified by making the number of the strokes of the engine an odd number of the strokes of the reciprocating- parts of the machine. It is well known to engine builders that explosive motors, like high-speed steam engines, cannot be absolutely balanced, but their heavy fly-wheels and bases go far toward it by absorp- tion, and the best that can be done with the balance is to make as perfect a compromise of the values of the longitudinal and lateral forces as possible by inequality in the fly-wheel rims. The jar caused by excessive explosions after misfires and muffler-pot explosions is of the unusual kind that cannot be easily provided with a remedy where the transmitted power is not uniform, for where it is uniform there is ample regulation from the governor to make the charges regular, and if the igniter is well adjusted there should be no cause for "kicking," as our European cousins call it. A good practice in setting motors is to locate them near a beam-bearing wall or column that extends to the foundation of the building. Many motors so placed are found to be free from the nuisance of tremor. CHAPTER XVI. EXPLOSIVE ENGINE TESTING. FOR the reason that elaborate and complicated tests have been made and exploited in other works on the gas engine, which may be referred to for the details of expert work, the author of this work has decided to reduce the practice of test- ing explosive motors to a commercial basis on which purchasers can comprehend their value as a business investment for power. The disposition of builders of explosive engines to follow the economics in construction in regard to least wall surface in con- tact with the heat of combustion, and of maintaining the wall surface at the highest practical temperature for economical running by the rapid circulation of warm water from a tank or cooling coil, leaves but little to accomplish, save the proper size and adjustment of the valves and igniters for the engines, in order that they may properly perform their functions. The in- dicator card, if made through a series of varying proportions of gas or gasoline and air mixtures, will show the condition of the adjustments for economic working. The difference between the indicated power for the gas used by the card and the power delivered to the dynamometer or brake shows the mechanical efficiency of the engine. The best working card of the engine should be a satisfactory test to a purchaser that the principles of construction are correct. A brake-trial certificate or obser- vation should satisfy as to frictional economy, and the price and quantity of gas per horse-power hour should settle the com- parative cost for running. The variation in the heating power of illuminating gas in the various parts of the United States is much less than its variation in price. Producer gas 173 174 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. is a specialty for local consumption, and its cost drops with its heating power, Apart from the actual cost of gas in any locality and the quantity required per brake horse-power, durability of a motor is one of the principal items in the purchase of power. In the use of gasoline, kerosene, and crude petroleum in explosive engines, their heating values are uniform for each kind, and as motors are generally adjusted for the use of one of the above hydrocarbons onty, the difference of cost be- tween these various fuels is the best indication as to the rela- tive cost of power. No instruments have yet been contrived for giving the tem- peratures of combustion, either initial or exhaust, in an in- ternal combustion motor ; for at the proper working speed the changes of temperature are so rapid that no reliable observa- tion can be made even with the electric thermostat, as has been tried in Europe. The computed temperatures are unreliable and at best only approximate; hence the indicator card be- comes the only reliable source of information as to the action of combustion and expansion in the cylinder, as well as to the adjustment of the valves and their proper action. The temperature of combustion as indicated by the fuel constituents, and computed from their known heat values, gives at best but misleading results as indicating the real tempera- ture of combustion in an explosive engine. There is no doubt that the computed temperatures could be obtained if the con- taminating influence of the neutral elements that are mixed with the fuel of combustion, as well as the large proportion of the inert gases of previous explosions, could be excluded from the cylinder, when the radiation and absorption pf heat by the cylinder would be the only retarding influences in the de- velopment of heat due to the union of the pure elements of combustion. For obtaining the indicated horse-power of a gas, gasoline, or oil engine, the mean effective pressure as shown by the card EXPLOSIVE ENGINE TESTING. 175 may be obtained by dividing the length of the card into ten or any convenient number of parts vertically, as shown in Fig. 6 1 for a four-cycle compression engine. For each section meas- ure the average between the curve of compression and the curve of expansion with a scale corresponding with the number of the indicator spring. Add the measured distances and divide FIG. 61. FOUR-CYCLE GAS-ENGINE CARD. by the number of spaces for the mean pressure. With the mean pressure multiply the area of the cylinder for the gross pressure. If there have been no misfires, then one-half the number of revolutions multiplied by the stroke and by the gross pressure, and the product divided by 33,000 will give the indicated horse-power. If there is any discrepancy along the atmospheric line by obstruction in the exhaust or sur tion stroke, the average must be deducted from the mean pressure. The exhaust valve, if too small or with insufficient lift, or a too small or too long exhaust pipe, will produce back pressure on the return line, which should be deducted from the mean pressure. A small inlet valve or too small lift, or any obstruc- tion to a free entry of the charge, produces a back pressure on the outward or suction stroke and a depression along the at- mospheric line, which must also be deducted from the mean pressure. 176 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. It is assumed that the taking of an indicator card must be done when the engine is running steady and at full load. Dur- ing the moment that the pencil is on the card there should be no misfires recorded, in order that the card may represent the true indicated horse-power of the engine. The record -of the -speed of the engine should be taken at the same time as the card, but the measurement of the quantity of gas used cannot be accurately observed on the dial of an ordinary gas meter during the few moments' interval of the card record and speed count. For the gas record, the engines should be run at least five minutes at the same speed and load and an exact count of the explosions made. The misfires or rather mischarges in an engine running with a constant load are of no importance in the computation for power because they are properly caused by overspeed, and the overspeed and underspeed should make a fair balance for the average of the run as indicated by the speed counter. The number of cubic feet of gas indicated by the meter for a few minutes' run, multiplied by its hour exponent and divided i>y the indicated power by the card or the actual horse-power by the brake, will give the required commercial rating of the engine as to its economic power. The difference as between the cost of gas for the igniter and the cost of electric ignition is too small to be worthy of consideration. In testing with gasoline or oil the detail of operation is the same as for gas, with the only difference of an exact measure of the fluid actually consumed in an hour's run of the engine tinder a full load. The loading of an engine for the purpose of testing to its full power is not always an easy matter ; al- though, when driving a large amount of shafting and steady- running machines, a brake may be conveniently applied to in- crease the work of the engine. In trials with a brake alone, a continual run involves some difficulties on account of the in- tense 'friction and heat produced, which makes the brake power vary considerably and cause a like variation in the ignitions. EXPLOSIVE ENGINE TESTING. 177 Probably the most satisfactory method of testing the power of a motor is by its application to generate an electric current, which, if properly arranged in detail, allows the test trial to be continued for a length of time and makes the test a perfectly reliable one. For this purpose the motor may be belted to a generating dynamo of the same or a little higher rating than that of the motor. A short wiring system with a volt and ampere meter and a sufficient number of 16 candle-power lamps in circuit, *of a standard voltage and known amperage, will indi- -cate the power generated in kilowatts, to which should be added the loss of efficiency in the dynamo. From this data the actual horse-power of the motor may be computed, which with the fuel measurement and the speed of the motor during test trial is all that is needed for a commercial rating. In testing motors with ordinary illuminating gas under street pressure as used for lighting purposes, the ordinary meter meas- urement will be found correct, but with natural or other gas sup- plied at high pressures the pressure should be reduced by a pres- sure regulator, or by drawing the gas from a properly weighted gas holder. A one-inch water pressure in a glass inverted siphon gives the proper pressure for meter measurement. The details for the finer tests of explosive motors have but little commercial value and require much expert experience in the details of such tests ; so that for ordinary purposes in testing for best effect the cylinder cooling water should be run long enough and with the engine running at full load to establish an overflow temperature of 175 Fah., which has been found to give a good working efficiency in the cylinder temperature. This may be readily ob- tained by regulating the quantity of flowing water. Then the actual measurement of the gas or other fuel and its cost as com- pared with the brake horse-power may be said to give a fairly just measure of its fuel economy. The test of endurance is a strictly mechanical one due to design and quality of construction, which may be obtained first by inspection or detailed examination of the motor, and further from guarantee of the builder. CHAPTER XVII. TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. The leading feature of two-cycle engines are essentially art embodiment of the Day model as first made in England, and noted for the absence of valves for inlet and exhaust, and for a compression initial charge from a closed crank chamber, made by the impulse stroke of the piston and a final compression and ex- plosion of the charge at every revolution of the crank shaft. The air and gas or vapor are drawn into the crank chamber by the FlG. 6lA. THE DAY MODEL. action of the piston and the mixture completed by the motion of the crank. From the absence of cylinder valves and valve gear this type of explosive engine has the peculiar advantage that it can be run in either direction by merely starting it in the direction required. This type of motors receive their charge and exhaust through cylinder ports at the end of the impulse stroke of the piston. In some modifications of the Day model a supple- mentary exhaust is provided for by the use of a valve in the cyl- TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 1/9 inder head or near it, which facilitates the passage of the fresh charge to meet the ignition tube or electrodes, and thus con- tributes to the regularity of ignition. Among the many designs for increasing the power of a gas engine the Root model for a duplex explosion seemed to be a step in the right direction. It is a four-cycle compression type with a secondary explosion chamber and cylinder port, which is closed by the piston at about half compression stroke and shutting off part of the explosive mixture, which is exploded at about one- third of the impulse stroke by the heat of the primary explosion FlG. 6lB. ROOT ENGINE. \ in the clearance space at the beginning of the stroke. The gas and air mixture was injected through the supplementary cham- ber, thus leaving a strong charge for the secondary explosion, and so largely increasing the pressure during expansion of the exploded charge. The non-vibrating gasoline motor Fig. 61 c is of French origin, but now adopted with modifications by a number of motor carriage builders for its quiet running. It is of the four-cycle type with the cylinders offset enough to allow of a double crank at 1 80. The ignition adjusted to take place at the same instant, i8o GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. thus almost entirely eliminating vibration, or ignition may be made alternately with a two-cycle effect. The radial ribs on the motors of suitable size for light vehicles are found efficient and FlG. 6lC. NON-VIBRATING MOTOR. most convenient in eliminating one of the troubles of explosive motor power the water jacket. The Crest Manufacturing Co., Dorchester, Mass., are building motors similar to this type. y A compact gasoline motor, rib jacketed, and designed for an automobile, Fig. 6iD, is of French origin. It has a special combustion chamber and attached valve chamber for facilitating ignition by tube or spark, the tube being shown in the sketch. FlG. 6lD. GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE MOTOR. P is a short platinum tube directly over the Bunsen burner G operated by gasoline vapor generated in the burner. H is the carburetter, which receives its charge through an automatic valve TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 181 where it is vaporized by warm air from over the burner. The vapor charge with its air mixture is drawn in through the valve E. A reducing gear, cam and lever, operates the exhaust valve, and speed is regulated by varying the charge of gasoline vapor, which is controlled by an index cock. The crank end and fly- wheel are enclosed in a light iron case, which holds the oil for lubricating the journals and gearing. The other lettered parts are self-explanatory. We illustrate the special construction of the Lewis gas and gasoline motor in Fig. 61 E and 61 F, built by J. Thompson & FlG. 6lE.~ LEWIS MOTOR. Sons Manufacturing Company, Beloit, Wis. The principal fea- ture of this motor is the addition of the cylinder port exhaust as an auxiliary to the regular exhaust valve, which is now a con- ceded measure of economy in reduced exhaust back pressure and in the saving of wear on the exhaust valve. The vaporizer is shown in section in Fig. 61 F, which consists of a chamber M, with an air pipe A, by which the mixture of gasoline and air is regulated by drawing the air pipe to or from the surface of the gasoline constant level, which is regulated by the overflow pipe at M. A further regulation of the charge mix- ture is made by the valve at the right of the vaporizing chamber. 182 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The gasoline pump is operated from the arm of the exhaust valve lever. The igniter is of the hammer break type and is attached by FlG. 6 IF. VERTICAL SECTION. a flange to the side of the inlet chamber and operated directly from a snap cam on the reducing shaft. The governor limits the lift of the inlet valve through the arm on its spindle. FlG. 6lG. SECTION, OIL CITY MOTOR. In Fig. 61 G we illustrate in a vertical sectional view the "Oil City Motor," built by the Oil City Boiler Works, Oil City, Pa. TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 183 An auxiliary exhaust by a cylinder port is one of the features of this four-cycle motor. The gas inlet and atomizing valve for gasoline, seen at the top of the cylinder head, is an annular chamber around a perforated valve seat, with space between it and the final inlet valve for thorough vaporization of the gasoline and mixing with the incoming air. In their smaller motors regu- lation is made by holding the exhaust valve open by the governor. In the large motors the throttling system is used. Hot tube or electric ignition as desired. In Fig. 6 1 H is shown a horizontal section of the cylinder FlG. 6lH. THE VAIVES. "head of a motor designed by H. J. Perkins, Grand Rapids, Mich. It is seen that the fitting of the inlet valve casing is recessed on its outside so as to make an annular gas chamber immediately behind the valve seat and through which 38 small holes are drilled around the face of the seat, thus making a simple and thorough mixture of the charge at the moment of entrance to the cylinder, the air entering through a side passage, as shown by the circle in the valve chamber. The motor is of the four- cycle type and the exhaust valve governs by the hit-and-miss action from the fly-wheel centrifugal governor. The regulation 1 84 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. is by holding open of the exhaust valve by a stop lever that catches the push rod when the valve is open and holding it until released by the governor. A single eccentric actuates the four- cycle principle by a pick blade that makes a miss push at every other revolution. In Fig. 61 i are shown some of the details of the "Wayne FlG. 6l I. SECTION, WAYNE MOTOR. Motor," built by the Fort Wayne Foundry and Machine Com- pany, Fort Wayne, Ind. A double cam on the reducing gear shaft operates the exhaust valve E through a push rod and lever across the cylinder head and also a supplementary gas valve, in- dependent from the free opening inlet valve. The igniter of the make-and-break type is operated by a pick blade on the end of the firing rod which engages with the arm of the igniter spindle.. The throw of the firing rod is controlled by the governor. The motors of the Lazier Gas Engine Company, Buffalo,. N. Y., have a peculiar valve arrangement, which we illustrate in: Figs. 6 1 j, 6 1 K, 6 1 L. The design is of the four-cycle type, with, the hit-and-miss governing gear, but is peculiar in the fact that its exhaust valve is the only one mechanically operated, and is so constructed that when the engine needs to miss an explosion TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 185 it is held open, telescoping over the seat of the air suction valve, cutting off all fuel supply and allowing the piston to travel in the cylinder without compensation, during which time the valves re- FlG. 6l J. THE LAZIER MOTOR. main in a state of resty/ Fig. 61 j shows a plan in section of the- cylinder, while Fig. 6iK is a horizontal and vertical section v FlG. 6lK. SECTION, VALVES. showing the valve mechanism upon a larger scale. Fig. 61 L. shows the position of the valves during a suction stroke, the ad- mission valves a A, being drawn open by suction, the explosive 1 86 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. charge entering as shown by the arrows, and the exhaust E being seated. On the next stroke the charge is compressed ; the next is the explosion or working stroke. At the end of the power stroke the piston uncovers the automatic port in the side of the cylinder, which allows the high terminal pressure to be reduced, thus permitting the main exhaust valve to open at atmospheric pressure, at which time the piston sweeps back, clearing the residue gas from the cylinder, and is then ready to take in a new mixture if governor permits, and on the next the exhaust valve is held open, allowing the products of combustion to escape. All FlG. 6lL. INLET VALVE OPEN. this time the pressure on the cylinder has been greater than the outside of the admission valve, and there has been no tendency for the latter to open. In fact, during the exhaust stroke the valve is in the position shown in Fig. 61 K, completely covering the admission valve. When the speed exceeds the normal, the exhaust valve remains in this position, so that on the suction stroke there is no vacuum created, the exhaust passage being open, and even if there were the admission valve is effectively closed by the telescoping of the exhaust valve. Neither is there any useless compression, the exhaust remaining open and the valve remaining motionless until another admission is required. TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. I8 7 The air suction and fuel valves are mounted in a cage with ground seats with ports registering with openings in the valve FlG 6lM. CYLINDER. chamber proper, thus allowing the valve cage to be taken out without disturbing the piping. The gas engine of the Dudbridge Iron Works Company, FlG. 6lN. VALVE GEAR. Strand, England, has some peculiarities worthy of record, and which we have illustrated in Figs. 61 M, 61 N and 61 o. The iSS GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. cylinder is overhung and bolted to the bedpiece and made in two pieces. The jacket and cylinder-head are cast in a single piece and the liner made of a specially hard mixture of iron for wear- ing quality and easy replacement when worn out. The valve casings are all contained in the cylinder-head, which is spherical and water- jacketed. All valves are contained in casings with flanges and shoulder joints, easily removed for cleaning or re- pairs. Ignition is of the hot-tube type, as shown at J I, and the gas inlet is regulated by an index cock at V (Fig. 61 o). FlG. 6l O. GOVERNOR. The governor, as will be seen by reference to the various illus- trations, is of the fly-ball type, controlling the engine on the hit- and-miss principle. The construction of the valve-gear may be more readily under- stood by reference to the figures. All valves are worked from the reducing-shaft L, which is driven from the crank-shaft by means of helical gears. F and G are air and gas valves respectively, valve G opening directly into the air inlet H. The exhaust valve E opens directly into the exhaust outlet O. The air valve F is TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 189 driven through the lever /' by means of the cam c. The exhaust valve is controlled by the lever e operated by the cam d. The gas valve is opened by means of a small arm B and the striker- blade A attached to the air-lever arm. Small arm B also carries a striker which is met by the striker-arm A as it moves toward the cylinder to open the air-valve. Arm B is under control of the governor through the arm C, and so connected that, as the gov- ernor rises, lever B is lifted and the striker b is lifted out of the path of A. In this manner, when the speed rises above the limit, the gas valve G is not opened, and the cylinder takes in a charge of pure air, thus missing impulses and developing less power. The speed of the engine may be increased by putting on extra weights as shown at D, or the speed may be decreased by re- moving weights. In Fig. 6 1 P is shown the sectional detail of a vehicle motor lately brought out in France. The engraving has been made on a scale of 3-16 inch to i inch, the diameter of the cylinder being 3% inch, with 4-inch stroke. It is rated at 4 horse-power at full speed. A novel arrangement for cooling the motor by means of a mechanical ventilator has been adopted, and is one of the most successful features of this motor. Motors with the ordinary type of cooling wings, of which the De Dion is a good example, offer great advantages of simplicity which make them preferred for the smaller powers, but unfortunately they do not always give entire satisfaction on account of the insufficient cooling when the vehicle moves slowly and the current of air is small ; this is espe- cially noticed in hill-climbing. To remedy this the motor runs a small fan which is mounted on ball-bearings and consequently takes but little power. It is set in motion by a friction roller in contact with the fly-wheel of the motor. This ventilator blows a current of air against the motor cylinder, and thus the cooling is independent of the speed of the vehicle. This motor drives by a shifting belt on tight and loose pulleys with separate speed and reversing gear. It is noticed that the crank shaft bearing is six 190 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. times longer than its diameter, which makes the balanced crank self-supporting, the pin of which carries freely a secondary gear crank (45) and pinion, gearing into a spur-wheel on the cam 33 43 FlG 6lP. SECTION OF AIR-COOLED MOTOR. Figured Parts of the Motor. 12, Crank-shaft. 13, Oil-cooling tube 14, Oil-duct. 19, Pet cock. 20, Key. 21, Washer. 22, Spring. 23, Valve-guide. 24, Admission-valve. 45, Valve-seat. 26, Igniter. 27, Porcelain, 28, Exhaust- valve. 29, Exhaust-valve seat. 30, Exhaust- valve stem guide. 31, Exhaust-valve stem. 32, Spring. 33, Collar. 34, Exhaust- valve operating rod. 35, Cam-roller controlling exhaust. 36, Thumb-screw. 37, Contact. 38, Platinum contact. 39, Screw- controlling platinum contact. 40, Distributing-crank bear- ing. 41. Distributing-gear wheel. 42, Distributing pinion. 43, Drain-cock. 44, Waste-pipe. 45, Distributing-crank. 46, Cam-shaft for exhaust. 48, Piston. 49, Pin of piston-rod. 50, Oil-groove in frame. TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 19! shaf^/\46), which also operates the electric current break (37-39) with a jump spark igniter (26). Oil is fed at the bottom of the cylinder into an annular groove into which the lower edge of the piston dips at each stroke. The main journal is oiled by the over- flow from the annular groove and the dash of the crank, through the long oil passages and the surplus returned to the crank cham- FlG. 6lQ. THE NASH GAS ENGINE. ber from the end of the bearing. A leather washer between the end of the shaft bearing and the fly-wheel hub prevents waste of oil and prevents entrance of dust. Speed is controlled by the gasoline feed through atomizing vaporizers, which see, ante. This class of motors makes an excellent study for amateur me- chanics. The latest design of the Nash gas motor in section is illus- trated in Fig. 61 Q. It is of the four-cycle type, with one, two 1 92 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. or three vertical cylinders. The speed is controlled through the governor by missed charges. The air chest surrounds the passage by which gas enters and is drawn with the air into the mixing chamber A. The admission valve B is open during each suction stroke and the mixture passes through that valve to the cylinder to be< compressed upon the succeeding stroke and then exploded. The toe which lifts the gas valve is carried upon the stem of the admission valve and is kept from engaging with the latch upon the gas valve stem when explosion is not required. The admission is operated by a positive cam upon the side shaft in an obvious manner, and the fact that it is opened every fourth stroke insures an indraft of fresh air, even when no gas is admitted, scavenging the cylinder of any products of combustion remaining. The exhaust valve is similar to the admission valve, but its roller can be thrown to a cam, relieving the compression when starting up. The igniter is at / and is operated by an eccentric upon a side shaft on the op- posite side of the engine, this side shaft being operated by a cross shaft geared to the other side shaft, which in turn is geared to the main shaft with two-to-one spur gears. The governor is driven from the first side shaft and simply regulates the position of the latch upon the gas valve stem. The Diesel oil engine has come to the front for economy and as a motor in which any of the fuel oils of commerce give most satisfactory results. It is of German origin and with the late improvements obtained from American suggestions in design and with the modifications brought out from its extensive use in Ger- many, its details have been much simplified, and in the hands of the Diesel Motor Company of America, whose office is at No. n Broadway, New York City, and factory at Worcester, Mass., it is now taking the lead for the larger powers and is especially adapted for operating electric plants. It is a two-cycle type and with duplex cylinders for driving electric generators brings the variation in light effect within one per cent. The points of diflfer- ence from other explosive motors are a small clearance of about TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 193 seven per cent, of the piston sweep, high compression to about 500 pounds per square inch, sudden^ injection of liquid fuel at a still higher pressure, and its spontaneous ignition by the heat of compression. Apparently there is no sudden explosion, but rather a gradual combustion of the charge of the sprayed oil and the oxygen of the hot compressed air during part of the stroke. The motor is of the four-cycle construction, operated on the two-cycle impulse, and is represented in its essential parts in the section Fig. 6iR. The steel reservoir T is the high pressure air reserve, FlG. 6lR. THE DIESEL ENGINE. supplied by an air pump -P, driven by the motor through the rocker arm y, while the small pump q, also operated from the same arm, supplies the fuel oil at the required pressure to be in- jected with the high pressure air used for spraying the charge. Further details are given in the general description of explosive motors. Also see indicator card, page 37. Of explosive motors of the larger units now in the market, we detail in the following table some of their most salient features as a study of the progress of this class of prime movers for large power instalments: I 9 4 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. J c Weight X o JO 1 O 1 System Type c 1 i u . Builders. u c OH* V of of 111 as ^5 5 'r s - o> a Governing. Engine. iK o V xs^ 4 a 5 OH* ^ -. fcc ** S-* EH fc. [^ 5 1 O 8|s h O On Struthers. Wells & Co (Warren)... National Meter 21 24 180 300 20 Throttling. Ver. 2-cyl., 4 cy. 75,000 250 12,000 Co. (Nash).. The Bessemer Gas 13 5 16 225 125 19 Hit and miss. Ver. 3-cyl., 4 cy. 28,500 1 228 3.6oO En". Co 13 5 20 180 ICO J 4 Throttling. Hor. 2 cyl., 2 cy. 23,000 1 2JO 5,800 Marinette Iron Wks (Walrath). Ths Alberger Co '4 I? 14 250 200 125 125 *3 21 Throttling. Auto cut-off. Ver. 3-cyl., 4 cy. 23.000 Hor. 2-cyl., 4 cy. 25,000 184 200 6.600 7,OOO Lazier Ga* Eng. Co 15 21 160 50 20 Hit and miss. Hor. i -cyl., 4 cy. 14 coo 280 4,000 National Meter Co. (Nash) 9 II 270 5 22 Hit and miss. Ver. 3-cyl., 4 cy. 11,000 220 3,6oo Westinghouse Ma- chine Co Westinghouse Ma- chine Co .... 18 8 22 lo 200 325 ~ 21 21 Throttling. Throttling. Ver. 3-cyl., 4 cy. 95,000 Ver. 3-cyl , 4 cy. 10.500 * 8.600 1,750 1,150 A novelty in the make-up of large vertical motors has been adopted by Struther, Wells & Co., of Warren, Pa., in their ''War- ren Motor." The connecting rods are made in two parts, as shown in Fig. 6is, joined by a heavy bolted flange near the FlG. 6 IS. THE TWO-PART CONNECTING ROD. center of the rod, which allows the piston to be taken down through the bottom of the cylinder for inspection and repairs without disturbing the cylinder head and valve gear, which is attached to the cvlinder head. TYPES OF THE EXPLOSIVE MOTOR. 195 One of the most convenient devices for facilitating the starting of an explosive motor when the load belt is on the pulley is the friction clutch. A side grip pulley clutch is detailed in section in Fig. 61 T, which consists of a carrier flange with a sleeve bolted ENGINE n.Y WHEEL YINO METHOD OF ATTACHUM CLUTCH FlG. 6lT. CLUTCH PULLEY. to the arms of a fly-wheel, the sleeve acting as a journal for the pulley. The hand wheel on a spindle is free to turn or be held in the hand. By pushing in the spindle the pulley is clutched by the action of the curved levers, which pinch the cap against the pulley hub and compressing the friction bearings. They are made by the Whitman Manufacturing Company, Garwood, N. J. CHAPTER XVIII. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. The Royal. The Royal gas and gasoline engine, made by the Monarch Gas Engine Company, Indianapolis, Ind., has been designed on the lines of experience in the modern practice of gas engine build- FlG. 6?. THE ROYAL GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. ing. The working parts are well on one side, a most convenient arrangement for setting the engine close to a wall. It is of the four-cycle type with an auxiliary exhaust from a cylinder port opened by the piston at the end of its impulse stroke. The valves are of the broad seat poppet type in a vertical position, the ex- haust valve being operated by a bell crank lever from a cam on the side rod. The gas or gasoline charge enters through a number of small holes in the seat of the intake valve which is wide enough to entirely close the gas or gasoline inlet except during the charging stroke. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. I 9 7 The cylinder head is cast solid upon the cylinders and is water jacketed. A hole in the center of the head receives the igniter plug, which is ground to a seat in the cylinder head and fixed by bolts. The sparking device is of the break or hammer type with platinum contact points and operated by a push rod and eccentric pin on the side rod. The governor is of the fly ball FlG. 63. CORNELL VERTICAL type of high speed, driven by a bevel gear from the side rod and governs by holding the exhaust valve open with a locking device. The company build this type of motor in vertical, single and double horizontal cylinders and from i l / 2 to 100 horse power. The Cornell Motor. Gas and Gasoline Engines of the Ellington Manufacturing I 9 8 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. Company, Quincy, 111. These engines have been designated as the "Cornell/' and are made in the vertical type with single and double cylinders as shown in Figs. 63 and 64. They operate on the four-cycle principle with the cylinder fixed upon an enclosed pedestal base. The valves are of the vertical type with a hit and miss regulation from a centrifugal governor in the reducing spur gear which throws the exhaust push rod roller off or on to the cam sleeve on the secondary FlG. 64 DOUBLE CORNELL PUMPING PLANT. shaft. Electric ignition by break contact in the inlet chamber; the break arm being operated by a small rock shaft and arm with a direct rod to an eccentric on the end of the reducing gear shaft. They are built in nine sizes from i l / 2 to 16 horse power with sin- gle cylinder and in six sizes with double cylinders from 20 to 50 horse power. The New Era Gas Engine is of the four-cycle compression type with a heavy and sub- stantial base. The valve-gear shaft being driven by a worm VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. I 99 gear from the main shaft, insures a smooth and noiseless motion. The illustration (Fig. 66) on this page has one of the fly- wheels left off to show the arrangement of the worm gear, which is also shown in Fig. 67 in detail. This method of driving the 200 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. valve-gear shaft is fast growing in favor, and is now largely in. use. The valves are of the poppet type, operated by cams on the secondary shaft, which also drives the governor through bevel- FlG. 67. THE WORM GEAR. FIG. 68. VALVE CHEST. speed gear. All the valve chambers have flanged plugs for facilitating the removal and cleansing of the valves. The end view of the lateral shaft and valve chest with the- FlG. 69. THE GOVERNOR. attachment of the tube igniter is shown in Fig. 68. The electric igniter is applied at the same opening in the valve chest as used for the tube igniter. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 2OI The governor is of the ball type, running direct from the secondary shaft by a bevel gear, and through a bell-crank lever and arm controls the gas-inlet valve. Fig. 69 shows the ar- rangement more in detail and also the great convenience in gas engines, a cap plug for quickly removing the valve and an inspection plug at the side of the valve chest. The fuel for these engines may be illuminating gas, pro- ducer gas, natural gas, or gasoline. The cost for running can be gauged only by the quantity, say 15 to 20 cubic feet illu- minating gas or one-tenth of a gallon of gasoline per indicated horse-power per hour. In using gasoline a small pump (Fig. 70) is attached to the FIG. 70. THE PUMP, engine bed and driven by a cam on the lateral shaft. The pump draws from a tank set in a safe place, underground if pos- sible and draws a few drops of gasoline at a stroke, forcing it into the air chamber, where it is vaporized and mixed with the incoming air. The surplus, if any, is returned to the tank, These engines are made in sizes from 10 to 50 B.H.P. The Pierce Gas and Gasoline Engine. This engine is built on the four-cycle compression type, as shown in the illustrations of both sides of the i to 5 H.P. engines (Figs. 71 and 72). This company also build engines of 6, 8, 10, 12, 15 and 20 H.P. These figures represent the brake or actual horse-power. The valve motion is taken from the main shaft with spur gears and secondary shaft upon which there is a cam that 202 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. operates the valves through a connecting rod. On the face of the cam is a wrist pin, carrying a connecting rod, which oper- ates both the governor and the electrical firing device. The poppet valves never require oil ; they lift squarely from their seats. They wear smooth and bright and are easily un- covered for regrinding when necessary. The entire operating mechanism is in plain sight and all wearing parts can be readily examined and adjusted without removing or taking the engine apart. The governor is very simple and sensitive. It is com- posed of three pieces : a hardened steel finger, weighted and VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 203 held to its proper position by an adjustable spring. The weighted finger acts as an inverted pendulum swung by the movement of the connecting rod, making a miss gas charge when the engine speed is too high. It is adjustable by mov- ing the weight on the stem and by a spiral spring and adjust- ing nut. These engines are built to run with coal gas, natural gas, and gasoline, can be changed from one fuel to another with little trouble, and are also made to change while the en- gine is running. The electrical firing device is very simple. It is composed 204 GAS GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. of two electrodes, one a flat piece of steel inch wide by f inch long- and ^ 'inch thick. The other is a piece of No. 1 6 wire. One is insulated from the engine and the other in circuit with it. A make-and-break spring at the side of engine (also in- sulated from the frame) forms the circuit when the electrodes- come together. In parting the spark is made which fires the charge. The electrodes never corrode, as they clean them- selves every time they pass each other, and they will remain clean until they are worn out. A four-cell battery is used and will run these engines 1,800 hours without recharging. Cost of Operation. These engines run with a consumption of illuminating gas of 16 cubic feet per actual horse-power per hour ; with gasoline, -fa of a gallon per actual horse-power per hour. For the use of gasoline, a small pump is attached to the engine, which pumps the gasoline to a small cup from a tank placed underground or in a safe place ; from the cup the gaso- line is fed directly to the cylinder air inlet. If more gasoline is pumped than required, the excess runs back to the tank ; o. 74 gravity gasoline is used. The Charter Gas and Gasoline Engine. The Charter is a representative of one of the earliest types of American gas engines. It has gone through its evolution of im- provement, and claims to be a model of simplicity. It is of the four-cycle compression type. It runs equally well with illuminating gas, natural gas, and gasoline. It is built in nine sizes, from i to 35 B.H.P. The cut (Fig. 73) represents five sizes, and Fig. 74 represents the smallest size, No. oo, which is vertical and of \\ B.H.P. Both tube and electric- ignition are used with these engines. In the horizontal engine the mix- ing chamber is attached to the head of the cylinder, into which the gas or gasoline is injected by the operation of the small pump G (Fig. 75), driven by a rod and levers operated by a cam on the secondary shaft. The nozzle H (Fig. 75) VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 20 5 projects upward so that the indraught from the air pipe N supplies the required quantity, while the overplus is re- turned to the tank when placed below the engine. When the gasoline tank is placed above the engine so that there is a gravity flow to the engine, the flow is regulated by two valves FIG. 73. THE CHARTER GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINE. in the flow pipe, a throttle valve at the pump, and by the operation of the plunger of the pump, which in this case does not force a specific 'quantity of gasoline, but only opens the way for an instant of time to a flow produced by gravity and the suction of the cylinder. In this arrangement, any stop- page of the engine other than by closing the gasoline valves will stop the flow of gasoline by the covering of the pump ports by the plunger. The governor is of the centrifugal type, mounted on the pulley, and consists of two balls held in ten- 206 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. sion by springs, which operate a sleeve on the main shaft through a bell- crank movement. The movement of the sleeve throws the injector-rod roller on to or off the cam on the secondary shaft, thus making a " hit or miss" injection from the pump. Communication between the mixing chamber and the cyl- FlG. 74. THE VERTICAL CHARTER. mder is cut off, at the moment the charge to the cylinder is completed and compression commenced, by a gravity-poppet valve at B (Fig. 75). The operation of the pump plunger is the same for gas as for gasoline : the plunger only opening a way for- the flow of the gas at the proper moment, and being governed in its operation the same as when gasoline is used. The exhaust valve is of the poppet type, operated by a cam on the secondary shaft, the movement of which also operates the oil cup on the cylinder by the levers and small-rock shaft, as shown in Fig. 75. The detail of the operating parts are well VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 207 I 5 ||* I 1 RHllii ii 208 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. shown in the skeleton cuts of the horizontal and vertical en- gines (Fig. 76 and Fig. 77). A relief valve for easy starting is placed on the cylinder of No. 2 and larger engines. The No. 6 and No. 7 engines are furnished with a perfect and practical starter. The ignition-tube burner is shown in the different illustrations, consisting of a gas or gasoline jet in a FIG. 76. THE VERTICAL CHARTER FOR GASOLINE. perforated sleeve, acting as a Bunsen burner upon the com- pression tube contained in the asbestos-lined chimney. For electric ignition a pair of insulated electrodes in a plug are screwed into the place of the tube igniter and operated by a spark breaker. The Charter Gasoline Pumping Engine. Fig. 79 shows an engraving of the Charter gasoline engine -and pump combined. This combination was designed for any VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 209 fcind of service that piston pumps are capable of. It is com- pactly built, a feature which, in places where floor space is valuable, is especially desirable. It is easily operated. When through pumping, nothing remains to do but shut off the gaso- line. As no special attendant is required, it is especially de- sirable for filling railroad tanks, as the station agent or his 2IO GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. assistant can take care of the engine and see that the pumping is done without interfering with their regular duties, thus saving the expense of employing a man to go from station to station to fill the tanks. It is a suitable pumping engine for hydraulic elevators. The gears are all machine cut, the pump cylinder is brass lined, and everything about the engine and pump is built on the interchangeable plan. The cut illustrates an en- VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 211 gine and pump capable of delivering- 60 gallons of water per minute against 100 or 200 feet head, or equivalent pressure. It is self-contained and may be set in operation almost any- where. The pump gear is easily detached and a pulley sup- plied for temporary power use, making this combination a val- uable one for agricultural work and irrigation. 212 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The Raymond Gas and Gasoline Engines. These engines are built in three styles., all in the vertical four- cycle compression type. The quadruple engine (Fig. 80), in which there are two impulses during each revolution of the shaft, are made in three sizes: 60, 85, and 100 H.P. (actual). VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS 213 The duplex (Fig. 81) with a section view (Fig. 82), in which one impulse is made for each revolution, are made in ten sizes, from 4 to 50 H.P. (actual). The details of construction are similar in all the styles and FIG. 81. THE DUPLEX RAYMOND. sizes. They are entirely enclosed in a base with a vent pipe at the back to prevent cushioning by the pistons, and, with the large flange on the front of the base, are removable for easy feed-oil access to the moving parts within. The valves are of the rotating type and are operated di- rectly from the crank shaft by a set of bevel and spur gear; 214 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. they are held to their seats by spiral springs and are supplied with steel ball bearings. The valves are lubricated from sight feed oil-cups. Fig. 82 shows a section of one of the cylinders of a duplex FIG. 82. SECTION OF THE DUPLEX RAYMOND. with the bevel gear, secondary shaft, and spur wheels of the valve gear. The governor is placed on the fly-wheels, and is of the cen- trifugal type, and regulates through piston valves the exact amount of gas or gasoline mixture required for each impulse to maintain a perfectly steady speed of engine under all con- ditions and variations of load. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 215 For the use of gasoline, naphtha, or light petroleum oil, a glass reservoir is placed on top of the vaporizer of the capacity of a half-pint which is connected to a small pump, which in turn is connected to a gasoline tank. A return pipe connects the reservoir with the tank for re- turn of the surplus gasoline. The adjustable needle valve, FIG. 83. THE RAYMOND, SINGLE CYLINDER. which governs the supply of gasoline necessary to give the en- gine its required power and steady motion, is in direct connec- tion with the shaft governor and works automatically. The hot and cold air valve, or air mixer, connects the vaporizer with a jacket around the exhaust pipe, in which the air is heated to more effectually vaporize the gasoline. An ex- plosive starter is provided for the large engines. Fig. 83 illustrates the Raymond single cylinder engine for 2l6 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. gas, gasoline, or light oil, showing the cover removed to expose the valve gear and adjustable spring for tightening the rotating valve. It is made in ten sizes, from i H.P. (actual) to 20 H.P, (actual) . It is claimed that an economy of 1 2 cubic feet of natural gas per actual horse-power has been attained, and a guaranty of 15 cubic feet per actual horse-power is made. The Sintz Gas Engine. This engine is of the two-cycle compression type, taking an impulse at every revolution, yet it is different from the usual FIG. 84. THE SINTZ ENGINE. action of the ordinary two-cycle non-compression type, for it is- a compression engine with enclosed crank and piston connec- tions, so that with the up-stroke of the piston air is drawn into- the crank casing and by the return stroke the air is slightly compressed. When the down-stroke of the piston nears the terminal, it opens an exhaust port in one side of the cylinder, and at a little farther advance of the piston opens an inlet port on the other side of the cylinder, through which the compressed air in the crank chamber rushes to charge the cylinder, at the same time the gas valve is opened by the eccentric ; or if gaso- line is used, the pump injects a charge of gasoline in a fine spray at the proper moment. By means of a deflector on the inlet side of the piston, the incoming charge is thrown upward toward the top of the cylinder, thus separating the discharging VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 217 products of the previous explosion from the fresh charge and by this means obtaining a purer mixture for the next explosion. The ascension of the piston gives a full compression and time for the mixture to become uniform for ignition by tube or electric igniter. It may be called a valveless engine, as the piston itself opens both the exhaust and inlet ports. A light check valve only is used to check the return of the air drawn into the crank chamber by the upward movement of the piston. In Fig. 84 is represented the stationary Sintz engine, front and side view. The governor is of the centrifugal type, lo- FIG. 85. THE SINTZ DUPLEX MARINE ENGINE. cated in the fly-wheel, where two balls held by springs operate through bell-cranks the movement of a sleeve on the main shaft carrying a cam, which by the position of the sleeve deter- mines the operation of the cam on the gas valve, or on the gasoline pump when gasoline is used. The cam is so con- structed as to regulate the flow of gas or gasoline to modify the explosive mixture, and not by the entire suspension of an ex- plosion. Fig. 85 shows the duplex marine engine with its reversing propeller. The reversing gear operated by the lever contains all the movements required for full head, slowing, dead centre, slow backing, and full back one of the neatest arrangements yet made for the management of boats driven by gas engines. Other arrangements of the reversing lever are made so as to place it in the forward part of the boat with the steering gear. 218 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. A section of the Sintz cylinder (Fig. 86) shows somewhat in detail the inlet and exhaust ports with the deflector on the piston opposite the inlet port. The compressed air port in a recess in the lower part of the cylinder shuts off a portion of FIG. 86. THE CYLINDER. the compressed air at the moment that the inlet port opens, by which means a measured charge of fresh air is forced into the cylinder at every revolution of the shaft. The slight compres- sion by the down-stroke of the piston is sufficient to charge the air chamber in the cylinder for an explosion charge by its expansion through the inlet port during the part of the crank revolution due to the amount of port opening. The electrode entering at the top through the cylinder cover makes contact and spark break by the rocking arm on a spindle passing through the side of the cylinder. The time VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 2I 9 regulation is adjusted by the insulated screw electrode, while the break arm is operated by a connecting rod from the pump arm ; both pump and breaker are operated by one cam. In the gasoline stationary engines the required quantity of gasoline is regulated by a needle valve operated by the gov- ernor, while in the marine engines the needle valve is operated by a rod extending to the steering wheel. With the extension of the reversing-gear connection to the steering wheel forward, all the operations for running a boat are managed by one person. "Nezv York" Kerosene Marine Motor. Fig. 87 illustrates a marine engine built by the New York ATER OUTLET FlG. 87. N. Y. KEROSENE MARINE MOTOR. Kerosene Oil Engine Company, New York City. This engine is provided with a combustion chamber B, into which kerosene is injected through an atomizer A. A lamp L is used to heat 220 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the chamber B, preparatory to starting. The air inlet valve and the exhaust valve are actuated by cams in the ordinary manner on a secondary shaft, the engine being of the four-cycle type. The injection of oil is accomplished by the pump D, actuated by FlG. 83. MARINE MOTOR AND BASE. one arm of a rock-lever, which is oscillated by a cam on the sec- ondary shaft. The charge of kerosene is regulated by the stroke of the pump, which is controlled by a lever in the marine motors and by a governor in stationary motors. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 221 The injection of the oil is in a very fine stream under con- siderable force by which it is atomized in the hot chamber B. The How pipe lamp L is made permanent in the stationary engines with an air pressure combination for gas or gasoline. In the r:arine motors a tank air-pressure kerosene torch is used which Leats the combustion chamber ready for starting the motor in about five minutes. The clearance is so adjusted that the com- pression is carried to 85 pounds, at which point or just before the piston reaches the dead center, the charge of oil is suddenly injected and vaporized by the heat of compression and the walls of the vaporizing chamber. By the late injection of the oil, pre- ignition is impossible and the atomizing of the oil being instan- taneous is followed by its perfect vaporization in its mixture with the hot air. The firing of the charge of partially mixed oil vapor and air is exact and instantaneous as to time and owing to the small volume of the clearance space carries the pressure up to about 190 pounds, and by continuous combustion during the impulse stroke gives a higher expansion curve than is due to the adiabatic line and showing by the indicator card a mean effective pressure of 74 pounds. This exceeds the usual mean pressure in gas and gasoline explosive motors. These motors are built in sizes of 2, 5, 10, and 20 h.p., with one, two and four cylinders. Marine Gasoline Engines of the Two-Cycle Type. We illustrate in Fig. 89 and following the two-cycle marine engines of Smalley Bros. & Co., Bay City, Mich. The manufac- turers of these engines believe that simplicity in the construction of gasoline engines of the two-cycle type can be carried too far and at the expense of efficiency, and have therefore discarded the valveless type and adopted an inlet .valve to take in the charge at the head of the cylinder and a peculiar arrangement for trans- ferring the charge from the crank case to the head of the cylinder through a port in the side of the piston near its head. This arrangement seems to insure the charge entering the 222 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. cylinder near the igniting device and so separating the fresh charge from the products of the previous explosion. A special atomizing device is shown with a needle valve to regulate the flow of gasoline with a check valve on the air pas- sage into the crank chamber. A lever operating on the inlet valve FlG. 89. TWO-CYCLE MARINE MOTOR. spring tension on top of the cylinder head, by a wedge move- ment, regulates the quantity of the charge. It will be seen that the charge passes through* the hollow part of the piston, around the pin bearings and through the port d, and into the passage e, during a small section of the crank revolution at the lower part of the stroke. This imparts warmth to the charge and cools the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 223 piston. The speed of the engine is controlled by the lever limit- ing the charge and also by a variable timing of the ignition. In Fig. 893 is shown a section across the crank shaft, with the FIG. 8gA. SECTION, TWO-CYCLE. dotted port d, and the inlet and outlet water ports. It will also be noticed that the cylinder head is of the depth of the clearance space and water jacketed; all good points in an explosion motor. B is the opening in the crank chamber for the atomizer. 224 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The motors of this company are made in single cylinder de- sign of i^, 2.y 2 , 4 and 6 horse power and in duplex cylinder design to twice the above named power. It will be seen that in the duplex motor the ignition gear for both cylinders is con- Woier&tofc FlG. 896. CROSS SECTION. ^ 'trolled by a single lever connecting the trip device on each cylin- der, so that ignition takes place in each cylinder at alternate strokes or half revolutions of the shaft, thus requiring but one "eccentric with a rock shaft. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 225 Fig. 890 shows the eccentric and igniter gearing. The igniter hook A is operated by the eccentric rod B, which is attached to the eccentric C. The sparking points or electrodes in the ignition chamber are brought together and separated by the action of igniter hook A upon the igniter latch 2 which is attached to a rock arm, which passes through the ignition chamber cover D. The sparking points are easily accessible, as it is only neces- FIG. 8gC. DUPLEX MARINE MOTOR. sary to remove the two screws when the whole igniter may be removed from the engine, and the spark examined while holding igniter in the hand. One of the important features of the Smalley engine is the device for changing the time of ignition. This can be done when engine is running, by simply throwing the lever H up or down, and the adjustment is so fine that the point of ignition can be varied to the smallest fraction of an inch. 226 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. FlG. 8gD. SMALLEY IGNITION GEAR. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 227 The Webster Gas and Gasoline Engine. These engines as now made are improvements on the Lewis engine as formerly made. Fig. 90 represents the ver- 228 GAS, GASOLINE. AND OIL ENGINES. tical gas and gasoline engine, with its connections with the gasoline supply, cooling tank, and muffler. The gasoline for the burner runs by gravity from a small tank on the wall. The vertical engines are made of 2 H. p. for power and pumping. In Fig. 9 1 is represented the horizontal gasoline engine of this company. It is of the compression four-cycle type, with FIG. QI. THE WEBSTER GAS ENGINE. poppet valves, tube igniter, gasoline pump, and regulating valves for both gasoline and air inlet, independent of the gov- ernor, which is of the centrifugal ball type, attached to the main shaft, and operates a regulating cam. The reducing gear from the main shaft, through a secondary shaft, operates the exhaust valve and gasoline pump through the lever across the front of the bed piece. In operation, the air charge is drawn in through the pipe and regulator valve from the hollow bed piece and vaporizing chamber to the valve chest, the inlet valve opening by the suc- tion of the piston. When running light the governor shaft causes the exhaust valve to miss its lift, as also the gasoline pump to miss its VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 22Q stroke, and thus the gasoline supply is cut off until released by the governor. A small lever serves to open the exhaust valve and relieve the pressure in starting the engine. A self-starting mechanism is furnished for the larger size engines, a novel and simple arrangement, consisting of a valve screwed into the top of the cylinder, in which is inserted an ordinary explosive match. By screwing the valve disc down to make tight, the head of the match comes in contact with the seat of the valve, which produces a flash and thus ignites the charge, which has been slightly compressed by turning back the fly-wheel with one hand, while with the other hand the operator turns the valve to its seat. The sizes of engines made by this company are of 4, 6-J, 10, 15, and 20 B.H.P., and adapted for the use of gas, natural gas, and gasoline. The Springfield Gas Engine. The engines of the Springfield Gas Engine Company are of the four-cycle compression type, adapted to the use of illumi- nating gas, natural gas, producer gas, gasoline gas, and gaso- line fluid by injection. The inlet and exhaust valves are of the poppet type, actu- ated by cams on a cross shaft over the cylinder head, the cross shaft being driven by a longitudinal shaft and two pairs of bevel gears. The cams Nos. 18 and 19 on the cross shaft (Fig. 93) oper- ate the inlet and exhaust valves by depression against in- ternal pressure, the valves being also held to their seats by springs. The governor is of the horizontal, centrifugal type, run- ning free on the end of the cross shaft and driven by a small belt from the main shaft. Fig. 93 shows an end view of the engine as fitted for gas. An air valve No. 8 and the gas valve No. 35 are on a vertical spindle, which is operated by a cam, rotating with the cross shaft and controlled in its longitudinal 230 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 231 motion by the governor, making an off-and-on charge. The portion of air charge is fixed by the set of the air valve, and ihe proportion of the gas charge is regulated by adjustment of FIG. , D; platinum igniters C, C; the gas flow pipe R; and regu- lating valve H : and the exhaust valve-gear with regulating stop-block and governor rod operated by the governor located in the pulley ; N* the free-air inlet ; /% th* regulating cock for the Bunsen burners. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 2QI 156), and also in the single-cylinder motor (Fig. 155). By this arrangement the movement of the piston, with the exhaust valve closed, simply compresses and recompresses the burned gases, and allowing no fresh charge to enter the cylinder until by the return to normal speed the governor allows the push-blades to act on the exhaust-valve spindle. The ingenious mechanism by which the alternating motion of the valve is secured without the use of gearing for both the double and single cylinders is worthy of notice. By this ar- rangement the reducing-gear and its noise have a substitute in the eccentric double continuous groove, in which sliding-pin blocks perform the operation of a single eccentric for each cyl- inder. The pin-blocks and push-rods being off from a radial line, allow the blocks to cross successively the intersection of the eccentric groove. In the new style of motors of this company the adaptation to the most ready fuel to be found in all parts of the world (kerosene), has made this style of motor a most desirable one for the foreign trade as well as a most economical one for home use. The Olds Gas and Gasoline Engine. We illustrate in Fig. 164 the latest design of gas and gaso- line engines built by P. F. Olds & Son. These engines are of the four-cycle compression type, with poppet valves larger than the usual size to facilitate the exhaust and charge, and to avoid the counterpressures usual with small-sized valves. The valve gear is a simple eccentric on the main shaft con- nected by a rod to a slide bar, moving in a bracketed box at the side of the cylinder. The slide bar carries a revolving alter- nating or toothed wheel, the alternating motion of which is governed by a pendulum swinging upon a concentric pivot. The ratchet and toothed wheel are pivoted to the slide, and the teeth become push-pins to the spindle of the exhaust valve, and are made to open the exhaust regularly at normal speed .and make a miss by throwing the notch in the wheel opposite 292 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. V.; VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 2 93 the spindle when the speed is above the normal. By throwing out the pawl which operates the alternating- wheel, compression will be omitted by the open exhaust, and the engine can be easily turned to any point for starting without the resistance of compression. The inlet valve is opposite and in line with the exhaust valve, and is opened by the suction of the piston. The vaporizing chamber for gasoline is in front of the cylinder head, and re- ceives near its bottom the air pipe from the engine-bed frame. When running with gasoline, a small pump is operated by 294 GAS GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the eccentric rod, which supplies a small reservoir over the inlet valve, arranged so that the surplus runs back to the reservoir below the level of the pump, thus avoiding the possibility of accidental overflow of gasoline. On the top of the reservoir is a sight glass that shows the flow of the gasoline, with a set valve to regulate the feed to the mixing-chamber, where it is atomized by the inrush of air to the cylinder during the charg- ing stroke. The igniter is by hot tube or electric, preferably a hot tube, with some special improvements that make this style of igni- tion very desirable. The igniters are not shown in the cut, but occupy the place of a plug seen on top of the valve cham- ber. This company also makes a vertical engine on the same principles as the horizontal one, in sizes of from i to 5 H.P. Their horizontal engines are made in five sizes, from 7 to 50 B.H.P. Also double-cylinder launch engines and launches 2 H.P. for 1 8- and 2o-foot launches, 4 H.P. for 25-foot, and 8 H.P. for 3 5 -foot launches. In these launch motors the gasoline for a day's run is stored in an iron receptacle at the motor, thus avoiding all danger from pipes and separate tank leakage. In these boats the engine is not required to be set exactly in line with the propeller shaft. A reversing friction-clutch is used with a flexible shaft connection, so that the setting of the engine and shaft in any boat is an easy matter. The cooling- water from the cylinders is discharged through the exhaust pipe, which is a rubber hose passing out at the stern. By this arrangement the rubber exhaust pipe is kept cool, and its flex- ibility makes a silent exhaust. f + The Weber Gas and Gasoline Engine. The engines of the Weber Gas and Gasoline Engine Com- pany are of the four-cycle compression type, with poppet valves operated by direct push-rods and cams on the reducing- gear, which is enclosed with the governor in an iron box, partly VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 2 95 filled with oil, which insures perfect lubrication of the gear and keeps out dust. The horizontal styles are made in eight sizes, of 3 to 15 B.H.P., as shown in Fig. 166; and in ten sizes, from 18 to 100 H.P., of the style as shown in Fig. 170. They also build a one size vertical engine, of 2 B.H.P., fot. pumping water, running ventilating fans and printing presses, etc., as shown in Fig. 168. The illustration (Fig. 169) repre- sents a self-contained gasoline engine hoister, of 10 B.H.P. a reliable and compact machine, designed to meet the wants of 296 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 297 miners, quarrymen, and contractors. The engines o this company are also designed for the use of kerosene, crude oil, and distillate. The style of horizontal engine (Fig. 166) of from 3 to 15 CHIMNEY BURNER LUBRICATOR EXHAUST FIG. 168. THE VERTICAL WEBER. B.H.P. has three valve push-rods the inner one opens the ex- haust valve, the middle one opens the inlet valve, and the out- side rod operates the timing- valve in the igniter passage. Referring to the lettered diagram (Fig. 167), which is ar- ranged for gasoline, A is the needle valve to the igniter burner, B the gasoline valve, C the handle of the gasoline mixing- valve, which is also the etarting-lever for letting in the first 298 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. charge of gasoline. When the engine is running this valve ia- opened by the suction of the piston. In the larger engines it is cotmterweighted, as seen in Fig. 170. D is a collar for con- necting the vaporizing pipe L ; E, valve for regulating the gas- oline supply; e, a lever to throw out the timing- valve when starting. The governor on the smaller engines is of the pendulum type. It operates the inlet or charging valve, opening the valve at every other revolution at normal speed, and missing the contact at increased speed when the spring holds the valve closed until decreasing speed allows the governor to act on the push-rod and again open the inlet valve. The governor on the larger engines is a fly- weight on the reducing-gear, adjusted by a spring and set nuts. O is a glass gauge to show the height of oil in the gear box ; J is its cover. In their latest style of engine (Fig. 170) the main exhaust is through ports in the cylinder opened by the piston at the termination of the stroke, with a supplementary exhaust valve in the cylinder head operated by a lever and push-rod. The timing- valve is operated by a lever pivoted on the cylinder, in contact with an adjustable push-block on the inlet-valve push-rod. In the later designs of the Weber many improvements have been introduced to facilitate easy starting and for adapting it for pumping water for irrigation, for which purpose it is well suited and largely used. Its adaptation for the use of kerosene and heavy petroleum oils, and also for crude petroleum, has made it a very -useful motive power for agricultural work. The Priestman Oil Engine. This has been long in use in Europe, and for several years past has been largely improved by the American builders, Priestman & Co., who have introduced a new system for per- fecting the atomization of crude and kerosene oils, or any of the cheap distillates of petroleum. By the svstem adopted in VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 299 this engine, perfect combustion is produced; ignition is made positive, and the fouling of the cylinder and valves is obviat- ed to such extent as to require cleaning only at periods of sev- eral months. The low cost of the heavier petroleum distillates used makes the cost of power the lowest that can be obtained in an explosive motor. In the cut, Fig. 1 72, A is the oil tank filled with any ordinary 300 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. high test (usually 150 test) oil, from which oil under air pressure is forced through a pipe to the B three-way cock, and thence con- veyed to the C atomizer, where the oil is met by a current of air and broken up into atoms and sprayed into the D mixer, where it is mixed with the proper proportion of supplementary air and -sufficiently heated by the exhaust from the cylinder passing around this chamber. The mixture is then drawn by suction through the I inlet valve into the E cylinder, where it is com- VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 301 pressed by the piston and ignited by an electric spark passing between the points of the F ignition plug, the current for the spark being supplied from an ordinary battery furnished with the engine, the G governor controlling the supply of oil and air proportionately to the work performed. The burnt prod- ucts are then discharged through the H exhaust valve, which is actuated by a cam. The I inlet valve is directly opposite the exhaust valve. The J air pump is used to maintain a small FIG. 173. THE AIR PUMP. pressure in the oil tank to form the spray. K is the water- jacket outlet. Fig. 171 illustrates the general features of this engine It is built on the straight-line principle, by which the moment of greatest strain from the power impulse is met by the frame in direct lines between the points of pressure. Th e design is of the four-cycle compression type, with pop- pet valves, and its regulation is by varying or cutting off the supply of atomized oil. The oil fuel is placed in the base of the engine in an air-tight chamber, A in Fig. 172. A small air-pump, J, operated from the reducing-gear shaft forces air into the oil chamber with a pressure sufficient to cause the oil to be lifted to the three-way adjusting cock B, which also ad- mits air from the compressed air in the oil tank ; and oil and air pass to the atomizer through two small pipes, where their proportion and quantity are regulated by the governor. 302 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The atomized oil and air are then injected into a jacketed cylinder, seen beneath the cylinder head and shown in section in Fig. 174, where it is completely vaporized by the heat from the exhaust in the outer chamber and further mixed with air to make a perfect explosive mixture by the indraught of air by the suction of the piston. The indraught of air by the suction of the piston is also regulated by the governor, and enters the FIG. 174. THE JACKET VAPORIZING CYLINDER, INLET AND EXHAUST VALVES. vaporizing jacket cylinder in an annular stream around the atomized jet, as shown in Fig. 175, which represents a section of the governor and inlet passages. For starting the engine a small hand-pump is used for the first charge. The bottom of the inside chamber of the jacketed cylinder is heated to perfect the vaporization of the first charge by a lamp placed under the D-shaped cover seen in Fig. 171. In this engine the lubrica- tion of the cylinder and piston is accomplished by'the oil of the working charge. A new heat device has been lately intro- duced for ignition for the Priestman engines, which for some reasons is preferred to the electric igniter. In Fig. 176 is represented an indicator card of the Priestman VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 303 engine, running under the three conditions of full load, half- load, and no load. The full line commences the compression A. o "A - AIA "Os" Jfi* ^fSACf ro-Sf>**Y>*'. ! S=' fi ! 170 '1,1 ion * ,^ 80 s ^s to V s v^ - /" ""'. >\ ^ ? ^^ ^v / "^^ -~. ^^ ^ _fl S p... ^- J m -.~~ ^~ ^.^ -a* 'rr?& b^ Otl 0-2 FIG. 176. INDICATOR CARD OF THE PRIESTMAN OIL ENGINE. -at three-eighths of the stroke, and, with a clearance equal to one-half the piston stroke, the compression reaches 22 Ibs. per 304 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. square inch and is fired just before the termination of the com- pression stroke. The quick combustion is shown by the nearly vertical line, and its velocity is shown by the bound of the in- dicator arm above the mean, and its vibration continued, pos- sibly helped by irregular combustion for one-half the stroke, as shown by the upper dotted lines, the continuous line showing the mean curve. The second dotted line, showing a half -load card, indicates very clearly the retardation of combustion by weakening the charge of both oil and air, and the consequent lowering of all the lines of the card, carrying the charging line far below the atmospheric line. In the lowest and light-running card, the whole value of the card drops so as to make the card mean value about equal to the engine friction. It is certainly an in- teresting card for study, and we only wish that we could show this class of cards on a larger scale and for all the conditions of governing by limitation of fuel to compare with governing by closure of the exhaust valve. The Lawson Gas and Gasoline Engine. The Lawson engines are built by Welch & Lawson. They are of the four-cycle compression type and of the vertical style. They are built in eight sizes, from -J- to 15 B.H.P. with single cylinders, and of 20 and 30 B.H.P. with double cylinders. The concern also builds gasoline engines for horseless wagons and carriages. Figs. 177 and 178 represent two styles of the ver- tical engine. The valves have a positive motion from two sets of reducing-gear, Fig. 177, one of which operates the poppet- exhaust valve by a push -rod and cam on the reducing-gear shaft. The gas and air inlets are on the opposite side of the cylinder from the exhaust. The gas valve is a "poppet, oper- ated directly by a push-rod from a cam on the reducing-gear shaft, while a piston valve operated by a push-rod from a crank-pin on the reducing-gear governs the air inlet indepen- dently of the gas-inlet valve. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 305 By this arrangement the air inlet is opened before the gas inlet is opened, and allows a sweep of pure air to enter at the head of the cylinder, followed by the mixture of gas and air ; thus in a measure keeping the explosive mixture of gas and air FIG. 177. THE LAWSON VERTICAL. separate from the products of the previous explosion by inject- ing it across and next to the cylinder head where the igniter inlet enters the cylinder. The same cycle of operation is made in the engine Fig. 178, by a single set of gearing. 306 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The igniter is of the hot-tube style, entering the side of the cylinder directly under the head. The governor is of the hori- zontal, centrifugal style, taking its motion through a bevel gear PlG. 178. THE LAWSON AIR AND GAS VALVE GEARING. from the reducing-gear shaft, and operates the gas-valve push- rod for a variable gas charge. The Lawson pumping engines (Fig. 179) are made in two VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 307 sizes, i and 2 B.H.P. These engines are constructed on the same principles as the power engines, only with inverted cyl- inder and with pump attachments on a single square base. PIG. 179. THE LAWSON PUMPING ENGINE. This company is now building kerosene- oil engines lar pattern as here described. 308 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The Racine Gas a/id Gasoline Engine. The engines of the Racine Hardware Company combine some of the most recent improvements in construction. They I ate of the four-cycle compression type. All valves are of the poppet style. The regulation of speed is made by a miss-open- VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 309 ing of the exhaust valve, by which a fresh charge is excluded when the piston cushions on the previous charge until the nor- mal speed is reached, when the governor again opens the ex- haust valve and allows a fresh charge to be drawn in. This company furnishes both hot-tube and electric igniter for all their engines, so that failures shall not occur by the disabling of one or the other of the igniting apparatus. The governor is of the horizontal centrifugal type, revolv- FIG. 181. THE RACINE GASOLINE ENGINE. ing on the main shaft, and by a lever connection produces a lateral movement of a rolling disc attached to the lever of the exhaust push-rod. The lateral motion of the governor-con- trolled disc rides the disc on to or off the exhaust cam on the reducing-gear for a miss-exhaust. The gasoline pump is ope- rated by a cam on a small shaft driven by the reducing-gear, and furnishes a surplus supply to a receiving cup over the mixing-chamber, with an overflow pipe returning the surplus gasoline to the tank by gravity. Between the supply cup and the mixing-chamber there is a sight-feed valve, by which the flow of gasoline to the mixing-chamber may be observed and regulated. Any surplus or overfeeding produces no dangerous conditions, as the gasoline entering the mixing-chamber in ex- cess fails into the recess at the bottom and is conveyed back to 310 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the tank through the overflow pipe from the supply cup. It will be observed by inspection of the cuts (Figs. 181 and 182) that the exhaust pipe is jacketed for a short distance above the engine, with inlet holes for the entrance of air at the top and a neck from the jacket to the mixing-chamber below, so that the air is warmed before meeting the incoming gasoline in the mixing-chamber, where by an extended surface the gasoline is perfectly vaporized and mixed with air for best effect. The FIG. 182. THE RACINE GASOLINE ENGINE. quantity drawn in for ignition is regulated by the index valve near the inlet valve, at which point a further admixture of air completes the proportions necessary for the desired explosive action. At present these engines are built of 2, 3, and 4 B.H.P. They are well adapted for small electric-lighting plants, as shown in Fig. 180. The Hornsby-Akroyd Oil Engine. . This engine is of English origin and now built by the sole licensees of the United States patents the De La Vergne Re- frigerating Machine Company in all sizes from 4 to 55 H.P They are of the four-cycle compression type, using any of the heavy mineral oils or kerosene as fuel. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 311 This unique explosive engine seems to be a departure in design from all other forms of explosive engines, in the man- ner of producing vaporization of the heavy oils used for its fuel and the manner of ignition. An extension of a chamber from the cylinder head, some- what resembling a bottle with its neck next to the cylinder head, performs the function of both evaporator and exploder. Otherwise these engines are built much on the same lines of design as gas and gasoline engines, having a screw reducing- FlG. 183. THE HORNSBY-AKROYD OIL ENGINE. gear and secondary shaft that drives the governor by bevel gear, the automatic cylinder lubricator by belt, and cams for operating the exhaust valve and oil pump. The bottle-shaped extension is covered in by a hood to fa- cilitate its heating by a lamp or air-blowpipe, and so arranged as to be entirely closed after the engine is started, when the red heat of the bottle or retort is kept up by the heat of com- bustion within. The narrow neck between the bottle and cyl- inder, by .its exact adjustment of size and length, perfectly controls the time of ignition, so that of many indicator-cards inspected by the writer there is no perceptible variation in the 3 I2 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. time of ignition, giving as they do a sharp corner at the com- pression terminal, a quick and nearly vertical line of combus- tion, and an expansion curve above the adiabatic, equivalent to an extra high mean engine pressure for explosive engines. FIG. 184. INJECTTON. AIR AND OIL. The oil is injected into the retort in liquid form by the ac- tion of the pump at the proper time to meet the impulse stroke, FIG. 185. -COMPRESSION. and in quantity regulated by the governor. During the outer stroke of the piston air is drawn into the cylinder and the oil is FlG. 186. COMBUSTION AND EXPANSION. vaporized in the hot retort. At the end of the charging stroke there is oil vapor in the retort and pure air in the cylinder, but non-explosive. On the compression stroke of the piston the air is forced from the cylinder through the communicating VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 313 neck into the retort, giving- the conditions represented in Fig. 184 and Fig. 185, in which the small stars denote the fresh air entering, and the small circles the vaporized oil. In Fig. 185 mixture commences, and in Fig. 186 combustion has taken place, and during expansion the supposed condition is repre- FlG. 187. THE HORNSBY-AKROYD PORTABLE ENGINE. sented by the small squares. At the return stroke the whole volume of the cylinder is swept out at the exhaust, and the pressure in the retort neutralized and ready for another charge. It is noticed by this operation that ignition takes place within the retort, the piston being protected by a layer of pure air. It is not claimed that these diagrams are exact representa- tions of what actually takes place within the cylinder ; never- theless, their substantial correctness seems to be indicated by 314 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. the fact that the piston rings do not become clogged with tarry substances, as might be expected. This has been accounted for by an analysis of the products of combustion, which shows an excess of oxygen as unburned air; which indicates that the oil vapor is completely burned in the cylinder, with excess of oxygen. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 315 316 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. In Fig. 187 is illustrated the adaptation of this engine for portable power. It is largely in use for electric work, for air compressing, ice machinery, and pumping. The United States Light-House Department has adopted this engine for compress- ing air for fog whistles. Traction engines and oil-engine loco- motives for narrow-gauge tramways and mining railways will soon be one of the manufacturing departments of the De La Vergne Company. In Fig. 1 88 is shown a sectional elevation, details of design of the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber and its case. It may be noticed that the combustion chamber is made in two parts, flanged together, so that by a special water jacket the front half is kept cool and to limit the firing plane in the combustion cham- ber to a definite position. The oil reservoir, located in the base of the engine, is partitioned to allow of traversing the intake air over and around the oil to take any vapors or odors from the oil and constantly sweep them into the cylinder. In Fig. 189 is shown the direct connection of an oil 'motor with 'a triplex pump by means of a friction clutch. This con- venient and most economical arrangement allows the motor to be easily started alone and its power gradually applied to the pump without undue strain or jar. The R. & V. Gas and Gasoline Engines. In Fig. 190 we illustrate the four-cycle engine of the Root & Vandervoort Engineering Co., East Moline, 111., and in Fig. 192 the bed frame with pillow blocks and spiral reducing gear. In the design of these engines the cylinder is overhung and bolted to the face of the bed frame. The journal bearings are of the quarter box type, babbitted and adjustable. Beneath each box is an oil chamber with chain oiler running over the journal. The side shaft operates the exhaust valve by a cam and also the gasoline pump, sparker trip, and drives the governor by bevel gear. The governing is by limiting the charge through the gas inlet valve or pump stroke. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 317 Ignition is by the hammer type with electrodes of hard platinum, with attachment at the center of the cylinder head, which is also water-cooled. The sparking trip, which is placed conveniently on the head of the cylinder, is simple and positive in its action ; is noiseless and quickly adjustable for timing the spark. FlG. IQO. R. & V. HORIZONTAL GAS AND GASOLINE MOTOR. THE ROOT & VAN DERVOORT ENGINEERING CO., EAST MOLINE, ILL. Each engine is furnished with a full equipment for any service with a sparking dynamo, or a set of batteries complete and ready for starting, together with plans and directions for setting, start- ing and taking care of engine. The horizontal engines are built in four sizes from 3 to 14 horse power, and of the vertical type in three sizes of I, 2 and 3 horse power. GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. In Fig. 191 is well shown the exhaust side of the cylinder and valve lever with the engine connected to a dynamo for lighting FlG. 191. R. & V. DIRECT-CONNECTED TO DYNAMO. purposes. The engines are also mounted without the sub-base on wagons for portable use and are becoming very popular among the farming community. FlG. IQ2. THE BED FRAME. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 319 In Fig. 193 we illustrate a vertical section of their vertical gas- oline motor, showing much of the details of its construction. FlG. 193. VERTICAL SECTION R. & V. MOTOR. The base is a closed chamber for holding from one to two days' supply of gasoline poured in at Y, with a pump connection 3 20 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. and drip at T ; U the pump and c a strainer. Special packings in the journals at a, b; the exhaust lever at D, and the hammer spark device at E, H, G. Lubrication of the internal parts is made by the dasher at the end of the connecting rod. In Fig. 194 is shown the arrangement for operating the spark- FlG. 194. EXHAUST VALVE ROD AND SPARKING TRIP DEVICE. ing device by a spring-clip rod attached to the exhaust valve push rod, the contact and break of the hammer being, adjusted as to time by a screw in a block just above the catch which accelerates or retards the ignition time with positive effect. The charging chamber at the left in the cut is of the constant level type with an excess of overflow back to the tank in the base of the motor. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 321 The White & Middle ton Gas Engine. This engine is equally suited to both gas and gasoline, an J is made by the White & Middle ton Gas Engine Company. All their engines are of the four-cycle compression type, with the principal exhaust ports opened by the piston at the end of its FIG. 195. THE WHITE & MIDDLETON ENGINE. explosive stroke, and with an additional or clearance-exhaust valve in the cylinder head. The valves are all of the poppet type. The supplementary exhaust valve is operated by a lever across the cylinder head and a push-rod direct from a differential slide mechanism, which does away with the reducing-gear used on other engines. An arm on the push-rod operates the gas- valve stem, which is provided with a regulating adjustment. The small roller disc on the push-rod mechanism is under the control of a centrifugal governor and a spring, being 3 22 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. thrown out of gear with the shaft cam whenever the speed of the engine exceeds the normal rate, and thus failing to open the gas supply and the supplementary exhaust valve until the speed of the engine has returned to its normal rate. There is a relief valve opening into the supplementary exhaust pas- sage for relieving the pressure in the cylinder when starting the FIG. 106. SECTIONAL PLAN OF THE WHITE & MIDDLETON ENGINE. engine. The whole design of the engine is exceedingly simple and its action noiseless. When gasoline is used the gas-supply valve is replaced by a small pump, which is operated by the push-rod, and its hit-or- miss stroke is governed by the action of the push-rod and its governor. These engines are built in nine sizes, from 4 to 50 B. H. p. The Light Weight Motor. In Fig. 197 we illustrate one of the lightest weight motors on the market, being but 27 pounds per brake horse power at its maximum speed of 1,800 revolutions per minute. The cylinders are 324-inch diameter by 3^-inch stroke. The cylinder and head are cast in a single piece, with a water jacket covering both cylin- der and head. No gaskets to blow out and no leakage of water to the cylinder. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 323 The base and all parts not necessarily of steel or cast iron are made of aluminum, nickel-plated; bearings of gun metal the complete motor weighing but 95 pounds. Speed regulation is made by throttling the charge or shifting the time of sparking as desired. It is a neat and compact motor, suitable for an or- FlG. 197. LIGHT WEIGHT MOTOR. FlG. Ig8. THE DUPLEX LIGHT WEIGHT MOTOR. dinary automobile carriage of 1,200 pounds gross weight, or a boat from 16 to 20 feet in length, and costs less than $50 per brake horse power. In Fig. 198 is illustrated the duplex motor of lighter weight per horse power suitable for a 30-foot boat or a high-speed automobile. Mohler & De Gress, Long Island City, New York, are the builders. CHAPTER XIX. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS- :ONTINUED Fetter's Gasoline Engine and Motor Carriage, THE Fetter engine is an English design and so simple in its parts that we give it a place here for the benefit of our amateur friends. As designed for a carriage for four persons, the cylinder is made 3^ inches diameter, 6 inches stroke ; the inner shell of the cylinder of cast iron, \ inch thick at the combustion end. The outer shell is made of thin tubing driven over the flanges FlG. 217. THE FETTER STATIONARY ENGINE. and calked. When made for a stationary engine the outer shell may be made of cast iron and pushed over the inner cylinder, as shown in the sectional cut, Fig. 218. The engine is of i H. p. actual at 200 revolutions. The prin- VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 325 ciples of both stationary and carriage engines are essentially the same. For a carriage, the cylinder is bolted to two parallel steel bars, which carry the main bearings. The crank shaft is balanced and has a bored recess for oil, holding sufficient for a day's run. The gasoline gravitates to the inlet valve A through a percolator G, Fig. 2 1 8, and atomized by the air drawn in through B by the suction of the piston. The exhaust- valve E is operated by a long lever from a cam on the reducing-gear. FlG. 2l8. SECTION OF THE FETTER GASOLINE ENGINE. Fig. 219 represents the general plan of the motor carriage and driving-gear. The first motion chain E E' conveys power to the intermediate shaft H by means of a friction-gear opera- ted by a lever in the carriage at the right hand of the driver at G, which presses the bell crank W, slightly moves the shaft and grips the chain wheel E' between the wooden blocks on the disks F F F F. The same lever pulled instead of pushed puts on the brake, and thus forms in one the starting, stopping, and brake lever. Another lever M is for changing the speed by releasing or closing the clutch of the high-speed sprocket N. 326 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The low-speed gear L K has an overrunning ratchet on the main axle at R. A removable handle S is used for starting the engine and at the same time by an arrangement not shown in the cut opens the exhaust until the first charge is fired. The water and gasoline are placed under the back seat and neatly enclosed. FlG. 2IQ. PLAN OF THE FETTER MOTOR CARRIAGE. The Otto Gas and Gasoline Engine. The "Otto Gas Engine" is essentially a historic name, and as now built by the Otto Gas Engine Works, Philadelphia, Pa., combines the fundamental principles first put in practice by Dr. Otto in Germany in 1867, and which is the basis of our best working engines. The four-cycle compression type seems to have become a standard, and in the workshops of the Otto Co. m the United States has been modified and developed into a most perfect action by improvements in the lines of the most ap- proved details of construction. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 327 The adoption of the nickel alloy igniting tubes has done away with the constant annoyance from the burning out of iron tubes at inconvenient moments. In the engines of the Otto Co. , among some of the minor improvements that have contributed to its noiseless running and wearing properties may be named the spiral gear for operating the valve- gear shaft, separate and removable casings for the valves, change-speed governors, and automatic oiler rings on main journals. FlG. 2J3- THE OTTO HORIZONTAL GAS ENGINE FITTED FOR ELECTRIC IGNITION. The cylinder oiling-device is also automatic and operated by a small belt from the valve-gear shaft. The crank-pin boxes and piston joints are also automatically oiled by a wiping oil- cup on the crank housing, the oil for the piston pin passing through the hollow connecting-rod. The gas-inlet valve is operated by a two-armed rocker shaft, one arm of which carries a pin and traversing roller-disk, which is guided on or off the step cam by a forked bell-crank lever connected with the governor, thus controlling a variable 328 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 329 charge. The electric or hot-tube igniter is furnished at the option of purchasers. The electric spark is made by breaking contact of platinum electrodes, one of which is insulated in the head of the cylin- der, the trip being operated on the outside by a swinging push- blade driven by an eccentric pin on the end of the valve-gear shaft. YlG. 235. THE VERTICAL ^ l / 2 H.-P. GAS ENGINE. The horizontal engines are built in various sizes from 3^ to 100 horse-power. The vertical type of the Otto engines is built in a neat and compact form for both stationary and ma- rine power the single cylinder from i to 1 2 horse-power, and with double cylinders from 17 to TOO horse-power. 330 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 331 FlG. 23Q THE DUPLEX MARINE ENGINE. LARBOARD SIDE, 33 2 VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 333 These engines are of the four-cyele Otto compression type, and equally adapted for the use of gas or gasoline fuel. For electric lighting power these engines have given a most satisfactory test. Fig. 236 illustrates the vertical two-cylinder or marine type of the Otto gas or gasoline engine with direct connection to a four-pole generator with elastic coupling, which ensures freedom from unequal journal pressures, as between the motor and generator, as well as the elimination of belt friction. FlG. 237. SMALLER SIZE MARINE ENGINE WITH REVERSING-GEAR. The Otto Marine Engine. The small marine engines have a single cylinder from i to- 1 2 horse-power and two cylinders from 17 to i oo horse-power,. 334 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. All sizes are made with reversing-gear or with reversible pro- peller blades, as desired. The same general principles of construction characteristic of the Otto type have been carried out in all the marine engines. The crank is enclosed in a case, FlG. 238. THE DUPLEX VERTICAL STATIONARY AND MARINE ENGINE. STAR- BOARD SIDE. BASE IS NOT USED IN THE MARINE ENGINE. and all wearing parts are oiled from sight- feed automatic oil- cups, so arranged as to be controllable and in view while the engine is running. The gasoline is forced to the cylinders in VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 335 positive and regulated quantity by a pump situated low down so that there may be no annoyance from overflow by the pitching of the boat, the gasoline being fed to the cylinder under the control of the governor, the surplus flowing back to the tank from the small receiver on the head of the cylinder. The reversing blade propeller is becoming a favorite device for controlling the speed or reversing for an engine that must run constantly in one direction ; it is simple and noiseless and allows of a gradual change without a shock a valuable feature in a pleasure boat. The fuel account, which is of great moment in a boat, has been reduced to one- tenth of a gallon of 76 gasoline per indicated horse-power per hour. A governor is provided on all the larger marine engines which controls the charging valves by the sliding of a differential cam on the valve-gear shaft, which operates the valve levers, the action being controlled by the governor through a bell- crank lever, as shown more fully in the illustration of the horizontal engine. In the reversible screw the blades are centered radially through the center line of the shaft, giving the hub a clean-cut appearance, and with the least possible resistance through the water. The boats are furnished in all sizes from 1 3 feet up, the 1 3-foot boat having a brass engine of i horse-power. The Hamilton Gas Engine. The engines of the Advance Manufacturing Company, Ham- ilton, Ohio, are of the four-cycle compression type, as shown 'in the two views of the horizontal engine as arranged for gasoline. A noiseless, smooth, and steady running engine equally adapted for gas, gasoline, natural or producer gas. It is very simple in its working parts and arranged for electric ignition with a governing- device that governs the speed of the engine by variable charges of fuel. The valves are of the poppet style, the exhaust-valve being 336 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES FlG. 242. THE HAMILTON GASOLINE ENGINE. FIG. 243. THE "HAMILTON." VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 337 opened by a cam on the secondary shaft and lever. The mixture of gas or gasoline and air is drawn through a regula- ted valve by the suction of the piston, always proportional for the best explosive effect, and governed as to quantity by a throttle directly actuated by the governor. In the gasoline attachment the pump is driven by a cam on the secondary shaft and draws the gasoline from the tank at a level below the engine, forcing it into a small receiver from which the surplus returns by gravity to the tank; the gaso- line being atomized and vaporized by the action of the indraft of air from the movement of the piston. The sparking- device is operated by a push-bar and eccentric pin at the end of the secondary shaft. The unshipping of a small lever noticed on the valve gear stops the fuel flow and the engine by closing the inlet throttle valve. The Mietz & Weiss Gas' and Oil Engines The gas engine of the Weiss patents is built by August Mietz, No. 87 Elizabeth Street, New York City. It is of the two- cycle type, taking an impulse at every revolution. It has an enclosed crank chamber with a supplementary small cylinder containing a free moving piston counterbalanced by a spring. An opening into the crank chamber under the piston pro- duces compression of the gas in the upper part of the small cylinder by the air pressure in the crank chamber during the impulse stroke and so feeds the gas charge with equal pressure with the air charge made by the outward stroke of the piston. The air charge enters through a port in the cylinder opened at the inward stroke of the piston, which produces a slight vacuum in the crank chamber and thereby causes the air to rush in while the port is open. The return or impulse stroke compresses the air in the crank chamber, which in turn compresses the gas by the movement of the small free piston. By the opening of a charging port in the cylinder by the 338 GAS, GAS<>LIXE, AND OIL EXGIXKS, piston at the end of its impulse stroke the compressed charge of air and gas enters the cylinder. A larger cylinder-port opening just before the end of the stroke exhausts the cylinder of the products of the burned gases. A projection or deflector on the piston directs the incoming charge towards the head of the cylin- der. The charge of gas is made through a small poppet-valve operated by a push-blade, rock-shaft lever, and an eccentric on the main shaft. FlG. 244. THE MIETZ & WEISS GAS ENGINE. The governing is by the inertia of a weight adjustable as to its position on the push-blade arm by a screw thread, and by the motion of the arm the weight rides up an incline and is released at the top of the incline to fall by gravity and catch the blade of the gas- valve. An excess in speed sends the weight too high to catch the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 339 valve stem and a mischarge is made. The hot-tube igniter is a novelty in its line. The tube is made of lava 4 inches in length and perforated with a central hole from end to end. It is held FlG. 245. THE MIETZ & WEISS OIL ENGINE. in sockets with asbestos washers and a screw clamp ; the chim- ney being held by a lug with a clear opening at the bottom for the indraft of air, at which point the gas jet is located, as shown in Fig. 244. 343 (>AS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The kerosene oil engines are built on the same general plan of the gas engine, only displacing the ignition device in the cylinder for a conical internally flanged vaporizer and igniter, upon the flanges of which the oil is projected in small and defi- nite quantities by the action of a small plunger held back by a spring and pushed forward by the governed push-blade, as in the gas engine. A small valve at the pump cylinder terminus, held back by a spring, limits the amount of oil injected to the exact volume of the plunger stroke. The air charge is exactly the same as described for the gas engine. To start the oil engine the conical vaporizer is heated by a FlG. 245A. OIL ENGINE. lamp to the proper temperature to induce ignition of the inter- nal mixed vapor and air by the increased heat of compression, when the engine becomes self-acting by a turn of the fly-wheels. In the experimental work of Mr. C. W. Weiss, he has carried the compression in the kerosene engine up to 400 Ibs. per square inch, at which pressure a very strong engine must be used; but with runs at 100 and up to 250 Ibs. compression pressure, a remarkable economy in fuel has been obtained; the combustion being so perfect that no residues are found in the combustion chamber, cylinder, and exhaust. In Fig. 245A is illustrated a direct-connected centrifugal pump with a high-speed oil engine of the Mietz & Weiss type. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 341 The ring lubrication of the main journal in a Mietz & Weiss oil engine is detailed in Fig. 24513. In this arrangement the oil FlG. 245B. LUBRICATING DEVICE. seeping to the outer end of the journal drops back into the oil well. In Fig. 2450 we illustrate the working detail of the Mietz & Weiss kerosene oil engine in a sectional elevation showing the 342 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. conical vaporizer E D, enclosed in a shell for confining the lamp flame when starting and to keep the outer walls hot when the engine is running. A front view of the vaporizer at the lower left-hand corner FlG. 245C. SECTION, MIETZ & WEISS OIL MOTOR. of the cut shows the extended web surface. The small spring held oil valve at h, holds the oil between it and the pump intact during the impulse stroke. The small oil pump at g is operated FlG. 245D. OIL PUMP AND PICK BLADE. by the pick blade c, with a hit or miss charge, governed by the momentum of a small weight sliding on an inclined plane. The amount of charge and the interruption being rapidly adjustable. In Fig. 2450 is shown an enlarged section of the pump and t VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 343 pick blade. The injection by the movement of the piston is of pure air drawn in to the crank case by the forward motion of the piston and compressed when at the opening of the cylinder port at the end of the impulse stroke. The compressed air is injected into and guided to the head of the cylinder to meet the vaporized oil in the vaporizing cone. Compression and the heat of the vaporizer fire the charge at proper moment. The Clifton Motor. In Fig. 245E we illustrate a i l /2 horse power two-cycle engine FlG. 245E. I^ HORSE POWER MARINE. of the Clifton Motor Works, Cincinnati, Ohio, showing the method of attaching their magneto-electric igniting device, and in Fig. 245F the reverse side of a 4 horse power marine engine. The magneto swings on a forked frame with its pulley in contact with the flv wheel. 344 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The spark is made by a hammer break operated by a rod and cam. The contact points are of platinum-iridium, which are very hard and have a lasting quality. A mixing valve regulates the supply of gasoline and air. This company also make four-cycle vertical and horizontal engines. The company also, as a concession to amateur mechanics, FlG. 245F. 4 HORSE POWER MARINE. furnish castings of their engines with working drawings, which are far cheaper than to undertake to make patterns. The cast- ings for a i horse power vertical with the cylinder bored and faced with the drawings are furnished for $30, and a l /4 horse power castings and drawings for $15. A fine chance for amateurs to indulge in gas engine work. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 345 Motors of the Lowell Model Company, Lowell, Mass. A new departure in the explosive motor business has been adopted by this company in undertaking the supply of not only the finished motors, but also of finished parts, partly finished castings, rough castings and every part that will contribute to the amateur's desire to construct a part or the whole of an explosive motor. They furnish, further, all the parts for the frame and FlG. 2450. THE GASOLINE MOTOR OF THE LOWELL MODEL CO. rig for a runabout vehicle. The stationary and marine two- cycle motors are made in four sizes, from fy to 4 horse power, with cylinders 3x3, 3^ x 4, 4^ x 5, and 5x6 inches, for which they supply shafts and reversing propeller wheels for each of the above-sized motors. The illustration shows the marine frame, which is bolted to a base for a stationary motor. In Fig. 245 H is shown a section of a special auto motor of 3^2 horse power, four-cycle type, of special design for automobiles. Tt has a 4 x 4-inch cylinder. Castings for these motors, rough, partly finished, with all the parts, with blue prints figured for construction, are furnished to order one of the finest opportuni- ties for exploiting amateur work. 34 6 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. In Fig. 245 i is shown the outline model of the light runabout all the parts of which are supplied by the Lowell Model Com- FlG. 245H. VERTICAL SECTION, LOWELL MOTOR. pany. The vehicle complete will weigh about 500 pounds, and with the motor described will be capable of a speed of from i& VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 347 to 20 miles per hour with two persons. The company furnish all the parts in rough or finished with working drawings. The company have published schedules and price lists of all their varied kinds of material for motors and the runabouts, as also of general model machinery. Their work in this line has FlG. 245 I. THE AUTO GASOLINE RUNABOUT. been a great spur to amateur work, which usually meets so much impediment from the necessity of designing and making pat- terns for this class of machinery. The Fairbanks Gas and Gasoline Engines. Ever onward is the progress of improvement in the design and construction of the explosive engine. The latest comes from the Fairbanks Company, New York city. In the production of the "Fairbanks" the best points in. former constructions and experiments have been adopted that would tend to perfection in running regulation and economy, as well as to make a light and strong motor. In appearance it is a finished machine. These engines are of the four-cycle compression type with screw-geared cam shaft which is thrown in and out of gear by the action of the ball governor, which is located just forward of the main shaft and driven by the screw gear on the shaft. The 348 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. governor operates a friction-clutch in contact with the screw on the secondary shaft, causing it to stop at the moment 01 overspeed. The main exhaust is through a, port in the cylinder at the end of the piston impulse stroke with a supplementary exhaust through a poppet-valve near the cylinder head, which is opera- ted by a cam on the side shaft. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 349 350 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The supplementary regulator is operated directly from the .-governor and is delicately adjustable, through the rod connecting -a small and independent throttle in the gas-inlet pipe. The gasoline supply consists of a small lifting pump seen in front, Fig. 251, which draws the gasoline from a lower level and forces it into the small cup reservoir at the right, from which ihe smaller pump seen at the rear and left forces the liquid in FlG. 251. THE GASOLINE SUPPLY. -adjustable quantity into the air pipe, where it is vaporized by the indraft of air by the suction of the piston. The surplus gasoline flows back to the main tank by gravity through the overflow in the receiving-cup. In Fig. 2 5 2 is shown the arrangement for a gravity feed from an elevated gasoline tank. The plunger at the right opens two minute ports, governed by the motion of the cam, that feeds a stated quantity of gasoline to the force pump at the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. FlG. 252. THE GRAVITY FEED. PlG. 253. THE CRANK-PIN OILING-DEVICE. 350^ GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. FlG. 254. CRANK END OF ENGINE, SHOWING DUPLEX GOVERNING-DEVICE FOR ELECTRIC-LIGHTING. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 351 left hand, which further regulates the quantity by the adjust- ment of the plunger throw and by the suspension of the cam motion by the governor. Fig. 253 shows the wiping-device for oiling the crank pin. The centrifugal action of the crank draws the oil from the wiper to the bearing without waste. FlG. 255. THE BRONZE BEARINGS AND RING OILERS. The oiling-device on the main shaft bearings consists of a bronze ring which rides on the shaft in a channel through the middle of the box, and dips down into a reservoir of oil. Each revolution brings sufficient oil to keep it thoroughly lubri- cated; any excess of oil flowing back into the reservoir, A small glass gauge attached to each reservoir shows the 352 GAS, GASOLINE, t AND OIL ENGINES quantity in it. The Fairbanks Company are prepared to make their engines in 1 2 sizes, from 2 to i oo horse-power, actual The Watkins Gas and Gasoline Engine. The engines of the F. M. Watkins Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, are of the four-cycle type, in which the gas and air ture is regulated outside of the combustion chamber by a single combination gas and air valve controlled by the governor. The gasoline engines are provided with a pump that lifts the gasoline from a lower level outside of the building, returning the surplus ' If VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 353 to the tank. A vaporizing- device is used for starting the engine in cold weather. The large size engines are provided with a self-starting apparatus. They are now making six sizes from 2 to 25 actual horse-power. A peculiar feature of these engines is in the use FlG. 257. THE GASOLINE ENGINE. FlG. 258. EXHAUST SIDE. of a magneto electric generator for ignition. It is shown as the " Sumner " generator in Fig. 45, page 95. The commutators are hardened tool steel. The brushes which bear on the commu- tators are of softer material and self-adjusting. The armature is encased in a brass box, made to ensure free- dom from dust. The armature in the smaller sized engines is 354 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. geared to the main shaft, and in the large size is geared to the reducing screw-gear shaft, which also operates the governor by belt and the pump of the gasoline engines from a cam. The armature is charged by a permanent magnetic field with a current sufficiently strong to produce an ignition spark by the turning over of the fly-wheels for starting and produces a brilliant spark at full speed. Both contact points are movable from the outside and can be cleaned while the engine is running, by simply pushing the spindles with the thumb,, they being held back by a spiral spring. With a current from the dynamo, as furnished with these engines, the mere turning over of the fly-wheel by hand produces a sharp and full spark, which is well shown by taking out a plug opposite the sparker contact points in the combustion chamber. Naphtha Yachts and Launches. The yachts and launches of the Gas Engine and Power Co., Morris Heights, New York City, are propelled by the vapor of a light grade of gasoline, which vaporizes at a comparatively low temperature under the required pressure for operating the three- cylinder, single-acting engine. The regulations of the U. S Board of Supervising Inspectors now class the naphtha yachts and launches with the explosive motor yachts and launches, so that all vessels of this class of 15 tons and under are not subject to inspection or license, but must comply with the government regulations relating to lights, steering, and the rules of sailing on navigable waters. Fig. 261 illustrates the general design of the naphtha motor, the leading parts for operating being designated by letters. The opening into the furnace case at A is for igniting the burner, and another, just above, for inspecting the flame. The small pump with its handle at E is for drawing vapor of naphtha from the chamber of the gasoline tank and forcing it into the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 355 356 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. burner for heating the vaporizer at starting, and also for blow- ing the whistle, which is done by shutting off the vapor pipe and opening an air inlet to the pump by the valve B. The valve wheel at D opens the naphtha flow-pipe from the tank to the feed-pump, which is driven from a cam on the main shaft, FlG. 26l. THE NAPHTHA ENGINE. as shown at the right in the sectional elevation, Fig, 262. The lever and small pump at F is for forcing naphtha into the vaporizer before starting the engine. When the pressure in the vaporizer becomes sufficient to operate the engine, the burner is made automatic by opening VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 357 the valve of the injector at C, by which the force of the vapor jet draws in air through a regulating- throttle and forces the mixture of vapor and air to the burner. The slide-valves are moved successively by a three-way eccentric shaft, driven from the main crank shaft by three spur gears that fill the intervening space between the two shafts and drive the valve shaft at the same speed with the main shaft. FlG. 262. VERTICAL SECTION OF NAPHTHA ENGINE The hand wheel at G is for reversing the position of the valve shaft a half revolution, which reverses the engine. The internal gear in the hand wheel consists of a toothed sector, pinion attached to the driving-gear, and a small spur gear attached to the valve shaft. By this arrangement it is only re- quired to turn the wooden hand wheel a quarter revolution, to start the engine in either direction ; and only to hold it during a 35 8 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. quarter revolution, to reverse the engine. The exhaust enters the crank chamber, which is closed and made tight on the main shaft by stuffing-boxes; thence by a pipe through the hull to the condenser along the keel, from which the condensed naphtha is discharged into the tank at the bow of the boat. The safety-valve is also a peculiar feature of this motor; it is held closed by a spring, and instead of discharging into the air, causing danger and waste of naphtha, it discharges into the crank chamber and passes the vapor through the condenser and to the tank as fluid naphtha. These motors have gained a high reputation for safety, durability, and economy in the ten years' experience with their use. v They are built in all sizes, from i horse power to as many as required for a 76-foot cruis- ing yacht. The Westinghousc Motors. In Fig. 290 and following we illustrate the general features FlG. 290. THE VVESTINGHOUSE THREE-CYLINDER MOTOR. and details of the Westinghouse Gas Engine of the Westing- house Machine Co., Pittsburg, Pa. In their general appearance the motors of this company bear a marked resemblance to the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 359 Westinghouse Steam Engines. They are built in two and three- cylinder patterns, and of the latter of sizes up to from 650 to 1,500 horse power. The large experience of this company in the building and operation of compact high-speed vertical multi-cylinder steam engines has given them facilities of design, which has greatly FlG. 291. SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF THE WESTINGHOUSE, aided in perfecting and giving a substantial form to their gas and gasoline engines, with a marvelous regulation of speed, and so .suiting these motors for electric generating power. The sectional elevation of one cylinder of a three-cylinder en- 360 GAS, GASOLINF, AND OIL ENGINES. gine is shown in Fig. 291 locating the position of the valve mechan- ism and igniter. A is the shaft which carries the exhaust valve cams, and is driven by gears from the main shaft. Each exhaust cam works against a roller carried on the free end of the guide lever G. The exhaust valve E has a long stem projecting down- ward and resting on a hardened steel plate on the upper side of the guide lever G. The spring surrounding the stem serves to FlG. 292. GOVERNOR, TWO-CYLINDER ENGINE. hold the exhaust valve to its seat and the stem in contact with the guide lever. From the exhaust cam shaft A a horizontal shaft with bevel gears leads to the opposite side cf the engine, engaging with a vertical shaft, not shown, which in turn drives the upper cam shaft B. Incidentally, the vertical shaft carries the governor. The upper cam shaft carries two cams for each cylin- der. One engages against a roller on the end of the horizontal lever C. As the throw side of this cam comes uppermost, the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 361 opposite end of the lever C depresses the stem of the inlet valve J, opening the latter for the admission of the mixture of gas and air. A spring on the stem of the inlet valve furnishes a means for closing it and keeping the cam and roller always in contact with each other. Immediately adjacent to the inlet valve cam is the ignitor cam, which at the proper instant operates a horizontal plunger working through the guide D to break the electric current through the wire S at the terminals of the ignitor fcfcr FlG. 293. GOVERNOR AND VALVE GEAR ON THREE CYLINDER ENGINE. F, which are of the hammer type and duplicated for a double spark. The gas and air enter the mixing chamber M by separate inlets, in proportionate amounts fixed by the attendant, and through the mixing device to the port N, and passage to the inlet valve J. The cooling water entering at H passes through the cylinder jacket and head, makes its exit at K. 362 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. In Fig. 293 is shown the governor for the two-cylinder en- gine, which is of the flyball type and located directly under the valve stems that regulate the volume of the charge, so that the regulation of the engine is made by the amount of the charge and not by hit and miss impulses. A lever and index at the top of the mixing chamber controls the gas inlet, and another at the bottom controls the air inlet, so that the proportion of the mix- ture may be made a set regulation, while the volume of the charge is regulated by the governor without changing the proportion of the mixture. In the three-cylinder engine the one regulating valve and governor controls the impulse of each cylinder alike, and to accommodate the positions of the driving gear and valve the motion of the governor is transmitted to the valve through a rock shaft and levers, as shown in Fig. 293. The rock shaft and lever are shown directly under the mixing chamber M in Fig. 292. The Diesel Motor. This motor is an innovation upon all former ideals in ex- plosive power and indicates the "Ultima Thule" of explosive motor compression, and possibly the limit of fuel economy in this type of prime movers. Mr. Diesel has attempted to realize, within the limitations of practice, an approach to the conditions of the "Carnot Cycle" by the production of a motor of very high thermal efficiency. In order to accomplish this result it was evi- dent that a much higher degree of compression was necessary than that used in existing motors, since it was demanded that the charge be compressed adiabatically to the maximum initial pres- sure at which the motor was to be operated, this pressure not to be exceeded by the gases generated during the combustion. Such a compression would naturally produce an increase in temperature sufficient to ignite the combustible, and hence it became apparent that the fuel must not be introduced with the air, but that the air must first be compressed adiabatically and that the fuel must then VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. be introduced and burned during the out-stroke of the piston isothermally, if the desired cycle was to be practically realized. In the Diesel motor the high temperature attained by the com- pression of the air is sufficient to provide for the ignition of the FlG. 294. 30 HORSE POWER DIESEL MOTOR. combustible, and it is only necessary for the fuel to be injected into the heated air for its ignition and combustion to take place. In his theoretical discussion of the subject, Mr. Diesel laid down four conditions as essential to the realization of the highest economy : First, that the combustion temperature must be attained not X^ rm "^> fg' Of THE >- 364 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES by the combustion, and during the same, but before, and inde- pendent of it, by the compression of pure air. Second, that this is best accomplished by deviating from the pure Carnot cycle to the extent of combining two of the stages of the cycle, and directly compressing the air adiabatically, instead of first isothermally from 2 to 4 atmospheres, and then adiabatically to 30 or 40 fold. Third, that the fuel be introduced gradually into the com- pressed air, and burned with little or no increase in temperature during the period of combustion. Fourth, that a considerable surplus of air be present. It will be seen from these conditions that a motor to meet them, although operating upon the so-called "four-cycle" principle, must differ essentially from engines of the Otto type, and it was to realize these conditions that the Diesel motor was designed. In general construction it resembles the design of a vertical steam engine, except that all parts are built to stand the high pressure employed. The working cycle is as follows : On one down-stroke the main cylinder is completely filled with pure air, the next up-stroke compresses this to about 35 atmos- pheres, creating a temperature more than sufficient to ignite the fuel. At the beginning of the next down-stroke, the fuel valve opens, and the petroleum, atomized by passing through a spool of fine wire netting, is injected during a predetermined part of the stroke into this red-hot air, resulting in combustion controlled as to pressure and temperature. This injection is made possible by the air in the starting tank, which is kept by the small air-pump at a pressure some 5 or 10 atmospheres greater than that in the main cylinder. A small quantity of this air enters with the fuel charge, which it atomizes as described. When the motor is running at full load, a very small quantity of injected air suffices, and the pressure in the air tank steadily rises. At half load, with less fuel injected, more air passes in. For this reason, the start- VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 36$ FlG. 295. SECTION OF THE DIESEL MOTOE, 366 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. ing tank is made large enough to equalize these differences, and a small safety valve is provided on the air-pump. The petroleum is pumped into the fuel valve casing by a small oil-pump bolted to the base-plate. This pump is arranged to pump a fixed maximum quantity of petroleum. A by-pass is provided so that this whole quantity, or any portion of it, can be returned to the supply tank. The governor controls the action of this by-pass valve, closing it just long enough to compel the exact quantity of the fuel required to pass into the fuel valve casing. The full charge of air being always supplied for com- plete combustion, it matters not whether the governor permits one or fifty drops of petroleum to enter the working cylinder at each motor stroke, the combustion is always complete. To stop the motor it is only necessary to close the valve which admits the petroleum into the fuel valve casing. The valve gear consists of a series of cams placed on a shaft journaled on brackets cast on the cylinder. The highest efficiency indicated has been found to be 37 per cent, at full load and 41 per cent, at half load, with a brake effi- ciency at full load of 25 per cent, and at half load 19 per cent. These high efficiencies are probably due to perfect combustion under high pressure, which is an essential feature of this motor. In Fig. 295 is illustrated a vertical section of the Diesel motor in which A is the cylinder, B piston, D air pump, E oil pump lever, F cam shaft driven by screw and bevel gear from the main shaft, H bell crank valve lever, I inlet oil valve, J clearance space, K inlet air valve gear, L exhaust valve gear, M oil valve lever, N high pressure air tank, O valve rod, R water jacket, S water- cooled cylinder head, T oil pump, U oil pump piston, V oil pump connecting rod. The largest size of these motors in use is a Ihree-cylinder model of 150 horse power. The offices of the Diesel Motor Co. of America are at No. n Broadway, New York City. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 367 The Lozier Marine Gasoline Engine. The great increase in the use of motor power for pleasure boats and as an auxiliary power in yachts has given a new im- pulse to the designing and building of gasoline motors for this special service, of which we illustrate in Fig. 296 and following the neat and compact motors of the Lozier Motor Company, FIG. 296. LOZTER LAUNCH ENGINE. Plattsburg, N. Y. They are of the two-cycle water-jacket type, built in sizes with single cylinders from i l / 2 to J l /2 horse power, and with double cylinders from 10 to 15 horse power. The company also build an elegant model of launches and covered motor boats. In operation the gasoline is vaporized in a separate compartment from the crank chamber in which it is atomized in contact with warm air drawn from a jacket over the exhaust 3 68 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. pipe, vaporized as an explosive mixture, and then passes into the crank chamber by the draft of the upstroke of the piston. A check valve at the crank chamber inlet allows of compression on the down stroke of the piston. In the passage between the crank chamber and charging port in the cylinder is located a regulating throttle, shown just over FlG. 297. LOZIER TWO-CYLINDER ENGINE. the flywheel in Fig. 296. Ignition is by a break or hammer con- tact, as shown in the detail figure. The electric current is generated by a magneto driven by a friction gear at the rim of the flywheel and fixed in position with jointed attachment to the flange on the crank case with spring tension. A battery for use as an auxiliary in starting makes VARIOUS TYPI-S OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 369 the ignition equipment complete. The magneto is well shown in place in Fig. 298. The propellers used with these motors are of the reversible blade type and are quickly handled for all positions by the move- ment of a lever. FlG. 298. LOZIER MAGNETO GENERATOR. There is a novelty in the operation of the Lozier motor, in that a rotary pump driven by a sprocket chain from the main shaft drives the cooling water through the cylinder jacket and jacketed head and out around the exhaust pipe into the muffler 37 , GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. with the gases of combustion and finally discharges with the ex- haust below the water line. In this manner all odors and noise from the exhaust are eliminated. This motor is well adapted as an auxiliary power for sailing WATER JACKET -'LL FlG. 29Q. SECTIONAL DETAIL OF THE LOZIER MOTOR. yachts and, together with a large launch service, is much in evidence on the waters of Lake Champlain. The launches are of elegant model and rigged as open, canopied and house boats. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 371 The Marsh Motor and Motor Bicycle. We illustrate in Fig. 301 one of the latest improvements in motor bicycles which are now taking a prominent lead in our methods of locomotion. The general design and arrangement of the motor parts seem to be faultless. The belt transmission with a tightening pulley appears to be in the line of best practice for FlG. 300. AIR-COOLED MOTOR. easy motion and freedom from the jerky action of sprocket wheels and chain. The diameter of the motor pulley is 3 inches, driving on an i8-inch pulley on rear wheel, 6 to I ; cylinder 2^> inches by 2^4 inches stroke. A carburetter of the constant level type, which atomizes and vaporizes the gasoline by the indraft of the 372 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. piston, is located within the frame. The gasoline tank under the top tube of the frame holds fuel for an So-mile run. An ample dry battery and sparking apparatus is located on the back tube of the frame, presenting altogether one of the neatest motor bicycles that we have seen. Weight complete, 90 pounds. Cost, $175. These bicycles and motors are made by the Motor Cycle Co., Brockton, Mass. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 373 The Mitchell Motor Cycle. We illustrate in Fig. 302 a motor bicycle made by the Wis- consin Wheel Works, Racine, Wis. The general model is of the ordinary type with a diamond tube frame with stronger reinforce- ments than used in the foot power machines. The motor is of the ribbed four-cycle type for air-cooling with a 3-inch by 3-inch diam- eter and stroke cylinder. The motor runs up to 1,400 revolutions per minute ; it drives the bicycle by a rawhide band and pulleys of varying sizes, suitable for heavy and light road work, or hill FlG. 302. MOTOR BICYCLE. climbing. An adjustable tightening pulley makes the one band suitable for all speeds. Weight of the complete outfit 120 pounds. Tank supply, seven pints of gasoline, which gives a mileage of from 60 to 70 miles. The ignition is by jump spark from a pair of dry batteries attached to the frame behind the seat and an induction coil under the seat, the gasoline being stored in a nar- row case inside the frame near the motor. A lever convenient to the right hand lifts the exhaust valve for ease of starting and allows of coasting with the gasoline cut off, thus cooling the motor and saving fuel. 374 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. The Truscott Launches and Motors. Motors of the Truscott Boat Manufacturing Company, St. Joseph, Mich. The special output of this company are four and FIG. 303. FOUR-CYCLE SINGLE MOTOR. two-cycle gasoline motors for launches, cabin boats and sailing yachts. Their boats are of exceptionally fine model, and are much in evidence on the Great Lakes. There is a studied elegance in their design and finish and VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 3/5 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. FlG. 305. THE SPARKING GEAR. I ii FlG. 306. REVERSING PROPELLER. their motors are no less so ; for the experience of the builders has brought out the best proportions in the individual parts and the VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 377 best material for the continued operation of a marine motor, that failures may not be the cause of disaster. We illustrate in Figs. 303 and 304 the important sectional de- FlG. 307. TWO-CYCLE SINGLE MOTOR. tails of the single and double cylinder, four-cycle marine motors.. They also build three and four cylinder motors on a single shaft up to 40 horse power. In Fig. 307 we illustrate the detail section of the two-cycle motor which is built in units of one, two,. 378 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 379 and three cylinders. Their design is in the general form of this class of vertical motors and iz well shown in Fig. 307. It will "be noted that the thrust bearing is of the ball bearing type. The ignition device is of the snap hammer adjustable type illustrated in detail in Fig. 305. The insulated spindle is made adjustable by 38o GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 381 a thread from end to end which allows it to be screwed up or down to meet the time of the hammer break. An automatic tim- ing device in the balance wheel is so designed that at starting the motor the spark is made at a moment that follows the crank center, and as the speed increases the centrifugal action causes the timing of the spark to fall back to a moment before the crank center, thus avoiding the possibility of starting backward. The Secor Engine. Manufacturers of small steam plants report that the gas engine has made serious inroads into their trade. This appears to be due to the fact that the internal combustion engine has unques- tionably attained a thermal efficiency in advance of the steam en- gine; and it also has the practical advantage over steam power, of labor saving, space saving, and weight saving; but notwith- standing the increasing demand for gas engines caused by the marked improvement in the modern engine over the "Street" gas engine of 1794, the steam engine still retains its commercial supremacy. The fact that 85 per cent of all the power used in America for industrial purposes is generated by steam plants and about 10 per cent is obtained from water power, while of the total power employed for industrial uses, only a fraction is sup- plied by the internal combustion engine, indicates unquestionably that, notwithstanding thermodynamic efficiency and labor saving are important considerations, the marketability of an engine is based only on commercial efficiency, which is itself the product of many other factors, and therefore more complex and less easily analyzed than thermodynamic efficiency. Mr. John A. Secor, of New York, has for several years been engaged in an exhaustive study of the internally fired engine with the view of increasing, if possible, its commercial efficiency. His researches have included not only the thermodynamics, mechan- ism and performance of the internal combustion engine, but also the commercial value and availability of all obtainable fuels. As a result of these investigations, he arrived at the conclusion that 382 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. FIG. 311. SECOR, OIL ELECTRIC PLANT, STANDARD STEEL FRAME TYPE. VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 383 when the engine which needs neither boiler nor fireman can show an operating cost less than steam, combined with a performance and availability equal to steam, it will have a field of usefulness far greater than steam engines now occupy. Industrial statis- ticians no longer classing it among auxiliary powers, it will rank first among prime movers. Experience has repeatedly demonstrated than an engine highly specialized, or improved in any one feature, is in less demand, commercially, than the ordinary gas engine. Such important advantages, for example, as the ability to use a better fuel than gasoline, or a considerable increase in thermodynamic efficiency, is rendered commercially abortive if accompanied by low me- chanical efficiency, increased wear, imperfect regulation, increased vibration, or excessive weight; current engineering criticism suggested the desirability of simultaneous improvement along three distinct lines, each of these lines of course including special desiderata of supreme importance as determining factors in the problem of increasing the commercial efficiency of the internal combustion engine. Primarily, every element of mechanical in- feriority must be eliminated; secondarily, the fuel flexibility should be increased and the engine adapted to use some low-cost and universally available fuel ; and finally, if the performance in any particular is inferior to that of a high grade steam engine, it must be improved until it is fully equal to standard steam engine performance. The problem, therefore, which Mr. Secor attacked, was to produce an engine which should be equal me- chanically to the steam engine, without being restricted to gas or gasoline for fuel, and which should also show such operative performance as would satisfy the most exacting conditions of in- dustrial service. The Secor Engine as a Machine. As the basic idea of this engine was to include and harmoni- ously co-ordinate all factors essential to high commercial ef- ficiency, it was considered important to combine in its design the 384 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. elements of accessibility to working parts, compactness, durability, simplicity, strength, reliability, and reduced weight. Among the factors which have contributed to its remarkable success is the mechanical excellence of its design and construction. The design FlG. 312. SECOR ENGINE, JUNIOR TYPE. preferably adopted resembles somewhat the vertical marine type now being largely used in important stationary steam engine in- stallations. The cylinder rests on columns of open hearth steel, diagonally braced by steel tension rods. The frame combines the maximum of strength with the minimum of weight, and although VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 385 the cylinder and crank shaft are heavier than in the usual prac- tice, the moderate weight of the engine bed, frame, and fly-wheels effects a marked reduction in weight of the complete engine. The open frame of course permits ready access to the main bearings, crank pin and connecting rod. All journals are unusually large in diameter and length and special provision is made for copious lubrication. The mechanical efficiency of these engines is 85 per cent. An engine of special design with enclosed frame is made in sizes below 20 horse power and is known as "The Secor Junior." These are designed so as to be as nearly automatic as possible and require little attention beside filling the fuel reservoir and cleaning. The cover for the cylinder and valve chest, both in the Standard and Junior types, is made in a single casting, which when re- moved, exposes the whole interior of the engine without dis- turbing any of the working mechanism. The shaft is carefully balanced by crank counterweights, and the connecting rod is of the English high speed marine type. The engine operates on the Beau de Rochas cycle. Cam operated poppet valves with spring closure are employed. The cam shaft is actuated by a vertical lay shaft which is connected to the crank shaft below, and the cam shaft above by helical gears. The governor is placed at the top of the lay shaft by which it is operated, the object being to permit close connection between the governor and the air and oil inlet valves. In engines of the Junior type the governor is attached to the hub of the driving pulley and is protected by the pulley. Speed regulation is accomplished by automatically varying the pressure of the working impulses so as to balance the engine load. Elec- trical ignition of the hammer-break type is used in these engines. The igniter is a removable plug inserted in the cylinder head over the valve box and secured by two bolts through a projecting flange. The binding posts for connecting the wire which con- ducts the electric current and the terminals inside the valve box, as well as the mechanism for making and breaking the current to produce the igniting spark are attached to the igniter plug. The 386 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. battery is connected to a switch so arranged that the direction of the current through the igniting apparatus may be periodically reversed. The Fuel Problem. The discovery of petroleum in large quantities in Europe and America appears opportunely to supply the missing link which will render the internal combustion engine available for general use, inasmuch as commercial mineral oil, commonly known as kerosene, includes every essential quality of a satisfactory com- bustible. Considered solely as a fuel oil for the generation of power for industrial uses, kerosene is without a rival. It is the only known fuel combining the following advantages : ( I ) It is safe; (2) its cost is always low; (3) it is obtainable every- where; (4) it possesses the highest thermodynamic value; (5) its chemical constitution is more constant than any other com- mercial hydrocarbon ; (6) when stored for long periods or even exposed in open tanks it is not subject to change from varying temperatures or other atmospheric conditions. Kerosene, there- fore, as a fuel combines the essential elements which are most important as contributing factors toward commercial efficiency in an engine. The commonly used fuels, city gas and gasoline, are totally unsuited for fuel, as they are variable in quality, costly and not everywhere obtainable. The duty of the engine is to convert the potential energy of fuel into available mechanical power. The mechanism must per- form the functions of receiving, transmitting and controlling mechanical energy resulting from recurring chemical reactions. Commercial efficiency demands that the control should be absolute and continuous, from the inception of kinetic energy to its trans- mission from the engine shaft as power. In fact,, the control must precede the chemical reaction, for commercial efficiency re- quires that every element of uncertainty connected with the chemical operation of the engine be reduced to the utmost mini- mum, or abolished altogether. To achieve this control, and abol- ish uncertainty, all the conditions affecting the combustion must VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 387 be subjected to positive and automatic mechanical control, so that it shall be impossible for them to vary without actual and sensible derangement of working parts. In proportion as this is accomplished, and only in proportion, does mechanical certainty take the place of conjecture, and reliability become a question merely of the number, intricacy and durability of the several parts. To utilize the heavy oils commercially is a difficult matter. In an engine working under the ordinary industrial conditions it is necessary to provide simultaneously for both correct combus- tion and satisfactory speed regulation. Under conditions purely academic, or nearly constant, no great difficulty is experienced in using kerosene either for illuminating or fuel purposes; but it has always been a difficult problem to vary the illumination of an oil lamp or the power of an oil engine without adversely affecting combustion. According to the usual method the fuel oil is supplied to a heated chamber, where it undergoes vaporization before en- tering the cylinder and partially mixing with the air, but it has been found impossible to design a vaporizer which will operate satisfactorily at all loads and under all conditions. If the tem- perature of the vaporizer is too low the oil cannot vaporize and the engine will finally stop, while on the other hand if the tem- perature is too high, partial decomposition of the oil takes place prematurely, causing the deposit of a carbon residue which after sufficient accumulation cavvses the vaporizer to work improperly ; if by careful manipulation these two extremes are avoided, even a slight change in temperature will in some cases prevent correct regulation, inasmuch as any alteration whatever in temperature will increase or decrease the volume of oil vapor and thereby reduce or increase the thermal units contained in a given charge. Every form of vaporizer has some detracting feature which pre- vents accurate governing and perfect combustion, excepting when adjusted to constant conditions of weather and load. In the Secor engine the fuel enters the cylinder in its liquid form, without pre-heating. The following postulates form the basis of the system of fuel supply : 388 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. a. It is desirable for the purpose of increasing the fuel flexi- bility to employ a system of fuel feed that can be easily adapted to suit either gaseous or liquid fuel. b. To insure positive starting, the fuel supplying mechanism must automatically prevent the passage of any fuel to the motor cylinder, or any approach thereto when the engine is not in mo- tion, regardless of the position assumed by the working mechan- ism at the time the engine ceases operation. c. To insure positive starting, the fuel supplying mechanism should automatically furnish only the requisite supply of fuel during the "starting up" of the engine, always automatically avoiding an excessive supply whether the engine starts rapidly or slowly. The absence of this feature causes uncertainty in starting and may result in danger to the operator. d. The fuel supplying mechanism should automatically insure absolute certainty of results during the continuous operation of an engine by preserving at all times the proper chemical relations between the fuel and the air which constitutes the explosive mix- ture from which the energy is derived. In order to obtain this result regardless of external weather conditions or internal load conditions it is necessary to provide for a more precise and homo- geneous mixture than has heretofore been considered essential. e. It was considered desirable to automatically provide for increased safety, by reducing to a minimum the quantity of liquid fuel at the engine or in the engine room, and in order to accom- plish this the main fuel supply for the standard type of engine is contained preferably in riveted steel tanks placed below the en- gine in brick vaults or underground. The supply in the engine room is contained in a small reservoir attached to the engine itself and similar to the usual lubricating oil cup. These postulates embodied in automatic methods of precision are covered by patents which include : i. A fuel feed which is alternative, and which increases fuel flexibility by permitting the use of gaseous or liquid fuel as de- sired, by changing the fuel inlet valve, and which also provides VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 389 means for measuring micrometrically a homogeneous and rela- tively uniform combustible mixture of hydrocarbon and air. 2. A direct means of using fluid fuel, which provides for the most efficient utilization of the low-cost hydrocarbons by auto- matic atmospheric pressure supply of cold fuel, dispensing with the vaporizer, and obviating all forms of either forced or gravity feed ; either of which is absolutely fatal to precision in continuous working, beside being considered unsafe as an underwriter's risk. The use of a combustible mixture in which the fuel is at atmo- spheric temperature and pressure, is peculiar to this system. 3. Positive starting and continuously steady operation are assured by automatically providing positive starting conditions, which automatically change as required, to positive operative conditions, which again automatically change when the engine is stopped to positive stand-by conditions. 4. A positive governing system, which automatically varies the working pressure with the utmost exactness to suit load re- quirements. The special designs and constructive methods used in these engines are also covered by design and construction patents. Performance of the Secor Engine. These engines are now superseding steam engines with satis- factory results in important industrial plants; especially in ma- chine shops where the power is subject to almost constant varia- tion. In every case the performance is equal to that of a steam plant, although the cost of operating is much less. Perhaps no one factor has had a more wholesome influence in developing the commercial efficiency of this engine than the effort to adapt it to the requirements of incandescent electric lighting, and more par- ticularly to plants of the direct connected type. When the lamps are supplied by direct current from a plant of this type without employing an intermediate storage battery, the conditions are much more exacting than for pumping, or ordinary power pur- poses. 3QO GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. If a 25 horse power engine, for example, falls a little short of its rated power, or is inferior in other respects, it cannot operate continuously for 10 or 12 hours, 250 16 candle power lamps, each requiring 50 to 70 watts, nor furnish a commercially steady light, automatically and irrespective of the number of lamps thrown in or out of circuit, with economy, and without readjustment or undue wear or distress of any kind. Nor can it, like a steam plant, continue this for 20 years or more without requiring more than a nominal cost for "upkeep," unless it possesses all those elements which are combined in the best steam plant. The ability to readily determine by means of electrical tests the load carried at any time by an engine operating electric light or power plants and to ascertain with absolute precision the speed regulation under varying loads, as well as the accurate check as to cost of operating afforded by a knowledge of the output in kilowatt hours and the corresponding cost of fuel and labor in the case of steam plants, has been found very convenient and use- ful in the evolution of this engine. The speed regulation under the electric tuning fork test is shown to be within one-third of one per cent under constant load. The Secor engine is therefore especially applicable for direct coupling to a dynamo for electric lighting or power service. Among the important advantages of the direct connected plants are the following: 1. The mechanism of these oil electric generating sets com- pares favorably in every detail with the best steam equipment. The single cylinder plants like steam plants are solid coupled, or else have continuous shafts from engine to dynamo. 2. These oil electric generators automatically produce electric light for isolated service from commercial kerosene oil at much less cost than is commonly charged by central stations for electric or gas light. 3. The Secor Solid Coupled Plants are self-regulating; no re- adjustment of rheostat being required when lights are turned on or off, the steadiness of E. M. F. is equal to the best steam engine performance. fL VARIOUS TYPES OF ENGINES AND MOTORS. 391 4. The oil electric plants are now practicable for either direct or alternating current, operating as units, or in multiple. 5. They are as easily installed and cared for in the smaller sizes as an ordinary house furnace. 6. They are more easily and quickly started and operated than any steam plant. 7. They are entirely reliable as generators of electricity for light and power. 8. They are simple, safe and remarkably compact. The limited space required is a great advantage in crowded districts in cities, while the possibility of obtaining power or elec- tric light from kerosene in the country, will open up an ever- widening sphere of usefulness. The cost of labor in a central station, and the unavoidable steam wastes as well as electric trans- mission loss, are all avoided by the new direct isolated system; the electric light is therefore no longer a luxury to be enjoyed only in homes of wealth located within the lighting area of a central station. The Secor Oil Electric Isolated System Surpasses Ordinary Central Station Service in Quality and Cost of Light, as well as in Greater Availability. The Junior Oil Electric Plants consist of the Junior engines solidly coupled to multipolar electric generators, with complete switch boards and all instruments, and are made in several sizes from 25 lights upward. They carry sufficient oil in their own bases for an automatic supply of fuel for more than a night's run. In addition to electric lighting the smaller plants are available for light farm work, such as pumping water, ensilage cutting, churning, etc., and for such household uses beside electric lighting as charging storage batteries for electric carriages or launches, operating electric fans, etc. The Junior sets are therefore adapted to universal use in every possible situation, being easily installed and operated by local unskilled labor. The General Power Company, No. 81 and 83 Fulton Street, New York City, are the sole manufacturers of the Secor engine in America. PATENTS Issued in the United States for Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines and their appli- ances, from 1875 to July I, 1902, inclusive. 1875 G.W.Daimler ................. 168,623 J. Taggart ..................... 161,454 P. Vera .................. ...... 160,130 1876 J. Brady ....................... 176,588 A. de Bischop .................. 178,121 T. W. Gilles ................... 179,782 -1877- J. Wortheim ................... 192,206 R. D. Bradley .................. 187,092 F. Deickman ................... 195,585 N. A. Otto ..................... 194,047 Otto & Crossley ................ 10,473 1878 J. Brady ....................... 200,970 -1879- F. Burger J. H. Connelly .................. 211,836 J. Robson ...................... 220,174 Wittig&Hees ................. 213,539 G. W. Daimler ................. 222,467 -1880- E. Buss ........................ 226,972 L. Durand ..................... 232,808 C. Linford ...................... 232,987 A. K. Rider .................... 233,804 Wittig&Hees ................ 225,778 D. Clerk ....................... 230,470 G. W. Daimler ................. 232,243 1881 E. Renier ...................... 247,741 C. J. B. Gatune ................. 240,994 A. K. Rider .................... 245,218 J. Robson ...................... 243,795 G. Wacker ............ . ........ 242,401 N. A. Otto ..................... 241,707 J. Ravel ........................ 236,258 C. G. Beechy ................... 264,126 R. Hutchinson ................. 253,709 A. P. Massey .................. 260,587 T. McAdoo .................... 253,406 P. Munsinger .................. 266,304 L. C. Parker ................... 269,813. C. M. Sombart .................. 260,620 K. Teichman ................... 269,163 < 259,736 ( 269,146 A. K. Rider .................... 267,458 E. W. Kellogg .................. 265,423 H. H. Burritt .................. 258,884 W. H. Wigmore ................ 260,5 13 H. Wiedling -1883- C. W. Baldwin. J. Charter. H. Denney Eteve & Lallemont. . . J. A. Ewins E. J. Frost W. Hammerschmidt. Geo. M. Hopkins. , G. M. & L. N. Hopkins. Jackson & Kirkpatrick... S. Marcus H. S. Maxim.., 276,747 276,748 276,749, 276,750. 276,751 287,897 288,399. 290,310 270,202 270,203 290,632 272,130- 278,421 273,269. 288,632 284,555 284,556 284,557 284,851 283,398- 286,030- 273,750 279,657- PATENTS. 393 L. N. Nash, 271,902 278,255 278,256 289,019 289,691 N. A. Otto L. C. Parker (reissue) G. 1. Reynolds. 288,479 10,290 284,061 J. Robson C. Rohn C. Shelburne.. T. W. Turner. L. C. Parker.. 280,083 J. Schweizer 292,864 N. H. Thompson & C. B. Swan. 300,661 1885 S. Wilcox 332,312 C. H. Andrews 314,284 C. W. Baldwin J 325,378 325,379 325,380 C. Benz 316,868 M. G. Crane 327,866 G.Daimler... .1313,922 l 313,923 W. A. Graham 330, 317 H. Hartig 324,554 G. M. & I. N. Hopkins. ... . J 326,561 I 326,562 T. McDonough 315,808 G. M. Allen 301,320 .i^iWf 312,496- 312,497 312,498 322,477 328,970 333,336 322,650 332,447 317,892 332,313 332,314 332,315 328,170- 324,244 312,906 3 I2 ,499 331,079- 331,080 331,210 320,285. 315,082- 311,214 341,538 337,226' 336,505 335,564 347,469 10,750 333,839 J Charter 292,894 -io2'478 J- F - Place -1 E Edwards Geo. M. Hopkins.. 306,254 D s Regan G M & I N Hopkins 305,452 -106024 c - Shelburne C. W. King & A. W. Cliff 293,179 D S Troy S Lawson. 306,933 307,057 g Wi i cox J H. S. Maxim , 295,784 | 296,340 j g Wood J. A. Menck A. Hambrock P Murray Jr.. ... 2 95, 4 T 5 ^ ^ Schleicher 305,464 H p Feigter 305,465 E. Schrabetz. . . . ,, B. Parker 305,466 305,467 308,572 L N Nash F. W. Rachholds 301,009 302,045 306,443 n ~ -P^o-an T. Spiel. W. L. Tobey S. L. Wiegand 297,329 o o intz J. S. Wood 300,204 p ,. W _ r j A. K. Rider 292,178 296,341 C. H. Andrews H. Williams. . 291 065 G. C. Anthony. .... . . C. G. Beechey H.S.Maxim T. Spiel . 293, 185 J. H. Clark 291 102 G. Daimler (reissue) . . . . . C.H.Andrews , ^01,078 E. Delamare Deboutteville.... 394 PATENTS. J. Hodgkinson J. H. Dewhurst 347,603 R. Van Kalkreuth 358,134 E. J. J. Lenoir ... 345,596 J.S.Wood 363,497 ... 335,462 N. C. Bassett 359,552 | 35i,393 T.Shaw 367,936 P. Murray, Jr ..j 351,394 W. Gavillet L. Martaresche. . . 357,193 ' 35^395 E. Korting 366,116 t 334,039 F. Von Martini 358,796 L. H. Nash ..^341,934 T. Backeljan 364,205 ' 341,935 H. P. Holt F. W. Crossley. . . . 370,258 N. E. Nash .. 340,435 N. A. Otto 365,701 J F Place (348,998 F. W. Crossley H. P. Holt F. 1348,999 H. Anderson 363,508 N. B. Randall ... 355,101 B.F. Kadel 374,968 A. L. Riker ... 349,858 -C. Sintz ... 339,225 1888 H. & C. E. Skinner ... 335,971 R. F. Smith i 345,998 1 347,656 H. T. Dawson . E. Delamare Ueboutteville, 392,191 J. Spiel . . . 349,464 10,951 -S. Wilcox ( 343,744 t 343-745 H. Hartig L. N. Hopkins 39^528 379,397 L. H. Nash I 334,038 I 334,040 E. Korting 1 377,623 386,208 E. Korting ... 346,374 L.H. Nash -< 386,210 J. H. Clark ... 353,402 386,211 C. E. Skinner j 352,368 1 335,970 J. Noble H. K. Shanck -j 379,807 376,212 F.Bain ... 354,881 1 390,710 -C. W. Baldwin ... 352,796 W. S. Sharpneck 391,486 N. A. Otto ... 350,077 C. Sintz 383,775 H. Robinson ... 346,687 H. Skinner 389,608 N. A. Otto ... 335,038 R. F. Smith 377,962 J. P. Holland ( 337,ooo < 335,629 G. W. Stewart J. Bradley 381,488 386,233 A. K. Rider ... 349,983 J.R.Daly 392,109 O. Daimler . . . 334, 109 386,214 J. Spiel ... 349,369 386,216 O. Ragot & G. Smyers ... 350,769 L. H. Nash 386,212 L. i Nash . . . 334,041 386,213 386,215 1887 286,209 J. Atkinson ... 367,496 R. Bocklen N. A. Otto 384,673 388,37? C. W. Baiawm l 368,444 H. Williams 386,949 H. Campbell ( 368,445 ... 367,184 N. A. Otto 386,929 101 118 J. Charter. . , ( 356,447 A. Rollason 1 394,299 L. T. Cornell 1 370,242 ... 359,920 C. L. Seabury 393,o8o F. W. Crossley C. J. B. Gaume ... 370,322 ... 374,056 1889 tf. W. Ofeldt ... 356,419 A. Schmid J. C. Beckfield 403,294 A Schmid J. C. Beckfield. . Reissue j 362,187 ' ' I 371,793 { 10,878 J. J. R. Humes C. W. Baldwin 400,850 | 407,320 1 407,321 PATENTS. 395 C. W. Baldwin 408,623 T. B. Barker 400,163 J. C. Beckfield 396,022 X. T. Cornell 406,263 W. E. Crist 417,471 H. J. Hartig 415,197 A. Histon 40x3,458 f 399,907 399,908 "S. Lawson >' 402,749 402,750 1 402, 75 1 J. Mathies 411,668 L.H.Nash 4401,453 I 4i8,4i7 D. S. Regan 408,356 N. Rogers J. A. Wharry 403,379 A. Schmid 396,238 C. Sintz 416,649 H. Tenting 402,363 W. von Oechelhaenser 417,759 C. White A. R. Middleton. ... 406,807 L. F. McNett 407,961 N. Rogers J. A. Wharry 403,378 W. E. Crist 417*472 L. H. Nash 418,419 E. D. Deboutteville L. P. C. ^ 400,754 Malandin ( 411,644 . Capitaine 408,460 E. Korting 417,924 N. Rogers-J. A. Wharry \ 403,377 1 403,376 L. H. Nash 401,452 L. C. & B. Parker 401,204 E. Capitaine 4 8 ,459 I. P. Allman 411,211 N. Rogers J. A. Wharry 403,380 J. C. Beckfield 417,624 S. Griffin 412,883 H. Hoelljies 408,483 L. H. Nash 418,418 E. Capitaine 406,160 C. S. A. H. Wiedling 398,108 J. J. Purnell 408,137 S. Wilcox 402,549 L. C. & B. Parker (403,367 I 405,795 W. J. Crossley 406,706 G. Daimler 418,112 J. Charter 4*5,446 N. A. Otto 407,234 M. V. Schiltz 399,569 A. Allmann F. Kuppermann . . 412.228 JC. Gramm 415,908 N. A. Otto. M. M. Barrett J. F. Daly. 1890 G. B. Brayton 432,260 W. D. & S. Priestman 430,038 E.Butler... .(423,214 ( 437,973 H. Lindley & T. Browett 440,485 N. A. Otto..., .J 433,8o6 ( 433,807 H. Campbell 428,801 G. McGee 432,638 J.Taylor 443,082 '433,809 433,8io 433,8n 433,8i2 433,813 433,8i4 437,5o8 . 424,345 j 434,695 1 430,504 F. Dtirr. 442,248 H. J. Baker 421,473 C. W. Baldwin 434,171 M. M. Barrett J. F. Daly \ 430,505 ( 430,506 J. C. Beckfield 432,720 i 421,474 J. C. Beckfield A. Schmid. . . . -j 421,475 ' 421,477 E. H. Gaze 437,776 J. Mobs 426 297 E. Quack 441,582 D. S. Regan (reissue) 11,068 A. Schmid J. C. Beckfield 421,524 H. K. Shank 439,200 W. S. Sharpneck 441,028 C. Sintz 426,337 J. D. Smith 418,821 E.A. Sperry 433,55* J. R. Valentine A. T. Grigg.. 425,116 C.W.Weiss (419,805 \ 419,806 C. White A. R. Middleton.... 438,209 J. J. Pearson J. Kunze 428,858 G. H. Chappell (Rotary) 441,865 J. H. Eichler. (Rotary) 442,963 G. E. Hibbard (Rotary) 424,000 W. S. Sharpneck (Rotary) 428,762 W. C. Rossney 420, 169 E. F. Roberts 424,027 C.W.Baldwin 439,232 J. J. Pearson 426,736 J. W. Eisenhuth 436,936 39 6 PATENTS. J. W. Eisenhuth ( 430,310 -1892 ( 430,312 G. B. Brayton ... 432,114 J. Joyce . 480,019. A. W. Schleicher P. A. N. B. Stein 478,651 Winand ... 434,609 D. Best . 484,727 P. A. N. Winand L. V. Go eb- J. Charter . 472,106 bels ... 435,637 J. A. Charter i 473,293 J. Roots . .. 425,909 ( 477,295 H. A. Stuart . .. 439,702 H. T. Dawson . 466,331 N. A. Otto... 437,507 E. W. Evans . 488,165 C. von Ltide .. 435,439 J. W. Raymond . 488,483 H. Warden . 486,143 1801 J. Wehrschmidt . 484,168 C. W. Weiss . 473,685 A. Harding ... 452,520 S. Withers D. S. Covert . 487,313 I. F. Allman ... 453,071 H. Schumm . 488,093 J. Charter ... 455,388 E. I. Nichols . 480,272 B.H. Coffee ... 446,851 H. Schumm . 482,202 P. T. Coffield C. H. Poxson E. W. Evans J. Fielding ... 456,284 ... 452.568 ... 450,406 A. Niemezyk G. W. Weatherhogg . 480,737 480,535 M. A. Graham . .. 445,110 O. Kosztovits G. W. Lewis ... 448,924 . . . 451,621 1893 E. Narjot ... 448989 F. E. Tremper < 495,28i B. C. Vanduzen ... 448,597 1 503,016 G. J. Weber ( 449.507 I 444,031 J. S. Bigger F. Cordenons . 49^403 500,754 M. M. Barrett ... 452,174 J. Foos C. F. Endter 494,134 M. M. Barrett J. F. Daly... ... 463,435 C. J. B. Gaume . 501,881 D. D. & J. T. Hobbs . . . 460,070 W. W. Grant . 497,239- {459,403 C. F. Hirsch A. Schilling. . . . . 507,436 F. W. Lanchester 459,404 D. D. Hobbs . 506,817 459,405 G. E. Hoyt ( 502,255 465,480 / 510,140 L. G. Wolley ... 450,091 S. Lawson . 498,476 J. S. Connelly 1 457,459 \ 457,460 G. W. Lewis W. von Oechelhaeuser H . 5u,535 v . Loutsky ... 460,241 Junkers . 508,833. P. Neil A. Janiot . .. 462,447 f 499,935 H. Williams ... 457,020 C. W. Pinkney 1 504,614 B. C. Vanduzen ... 448,386 1 505,327 P. C. Sainsevain . .. 461,802 I5ii,i58 ; G. Roberts J. W. Raymond . 491,855 F. S. Durand , ... 455,483 C. Sintz . 509,255 H. Schumm ... 458,073 C. V. Walls 498,700 H. Lindley ... 450,771 H. A. Weeks G. W. Le,wis. . . . 5",478 E. Kaselowsky ... 463,231 W. H. Worth . 504,260 G. W. Lewis .. 451 620 H. W. Tuttle . 510,213 ( 456,505 D. Best . 496,718 A. Rollason J. H. Hamilton ... |456,853 C. W. Weiss . 492,126: 457,332 A. Niemezyk . 508,042 O. Lindner , ... 453,446 C. B. Wattles . 509,981 L.Kessler ,.. 451,824 E. Delamare Deboutteville - D. S. Regan ,.. 448,369 5,593- PATENTS. 397 H. Schumm I 497, 689 ( 510,712 C. Stein 511,661 P. H. Irgens 505,767 H. Williams 490,006 8. Chatterton 505,751 A. Gray 504,723 W. Seek 509,830 1894 J. Low J. W. Gow 5*5,297 P. A. N. Winand 525,828 A. J. Painter 523,369 W. S. Elliott, Jr 523,628 H. F. Frazer 526,348 J.B. Carse... \ Si8,i 7 7 \ 518, 178 B. H. Coffey 514,211 H.T. Dawson J 5*3,486 I 530,508 W. W. Grant 525,651 J. W. Hartley J. Kerr 515,770 C. F. Hirsch 526,837 F.Hirsch ^22,712 < 530,523 C. S. Hisey 5i4,7 I 3 J. Labataille J. J. Graff 517,821 D. C. Luce 519,863 J. McGeorge 525,857 F. S. Mead 528,006 H. B. Migliavacca 528,105 E. Narjot 515,530 F. C. Olin 525,358 J. & W. Paterson 528,489 T. H. & J. T. H. Paul. 530,237 H. Pokony 514,271 'S. D. Shepperd 521,443 H. Swain 519,880 R. Thayer 5*7,077 H. Voll 527,635 J. Walrath 522,811 F. Hirsch 518,717 W. W. Grant 5*4,359 K. A. Jacobson 514,996 M. Lorois 529,452 W. A. Shaw 523,734 W. F. West 513,289 W. Seek 517,890 H. M. L. Crouan 5*5,1*6 H. H. Andrew A. R. Bellamy 5 526,369 1 528,063 H. Schumm 528,115 H. Campbell 523,511 L. Crebessac 530,161 R. B. Hain 531,183 1895 G. W. Waltenbough 543, 116 H. Schumm 548,142 F. M. Underwood 542,743 F. S. Mead 546,238 H. Thau 545,553 A. J. Signer 538,132 C. L. Ives 534,886 M. L. Mery 543,*57 C.W.Weiss... .$543,163 J. J. Norman J. J. Bordman J. Bryan E. E. Butler J. A. Charter F. W. C. Cock F. W. Coen G. F. Conner . F. E. Covey G. W. Haines W. L. Crouch E. E. Pierce.... J-Day J 548,922 547,4H 542,972 546,110 H. J. Dykes J. Froelich E. R. Gill H. H. Hennegin. F. Hirsch A. R. Holmes. . . L. M. Johnston . J. W. Lambert. . 544,2io 55i,579 548,628 532,869 535,8i5 543,6i4 544,214 539, * 22 550266 536,029 545,502 532,555 540,490 538,680 550,832 550,451 m e f 541,773 ' ' 1 545,709 532,980 C.M.Rhodes... (531,861 I 540,923 F. A. Rider S. Vivian 533,922 B. L. Rinehart B. M. Turner.. 552,332 C. Sintz 539,7*0 E. J. Stoddard 533,754 H. Swain 535,964 G. Van Zandt 537, 2 53 C. V. Walls 537,370 G. J. Weber 534,354 H. A. Weeks 543,8*8 C. J. Weinman E. E. Euchen- hofer 537,5*3 I H. A. Lauson J. J. Norman A. D. Nott F. S. Mead... ..} F. P. Miller. 398 PATENTS. C. White A. R. Middleton. . . . 545,995 C. Wagerell-A. A. Williams. . 555,355 D. Best 544,879 w.W. Grant.. . J 553,460 F. Burger 549,626 1 553,488 J. R. Bridges 548,772 S. M. Miller 553,352- J. W. Lambert 536,287 F. M. Underwood 553,i8i G. W. Roth 552,263 W. D. & S. Priestman 552,718- W. R. Campbell 550,742 J. S. F. & E. Carter 552,686 B. W. Grist 545,125 L. J. Monahan J. D. Termant. 561,123. J. Robison 532,098 P. A. N. Winand 561,302 P. Burt G. McGhee 550,674 H. L. Parker 560,920 G. W. Roth 539.923 J. W. Eisenhuth 558,369 F. S. Mead 544,586 G. Alderson 560,016 J. E. Weyman A. J. & J. A. A. F. Rober 560,149. Drake 542,124 L. H. Nash 563,051 P. Bilbault 532,412 T. M. Spaulding 562,673 A. R. Bellamy j 536,997 L.S.Gardner... ..J 537,963 f 562,720 558,943 O. Colborne 550,675 E. Kasalowsky 559, 2 90 J. Robison 532,099 I. F. Allman 556,237 C. & A. Spiel 532,219 H. C. Baker 563,249 J. E. Friend 550,785 F. S. Mead 563,670 S. Griffin 542,410 A. W. Bodell 563,543 W. Seek , 549,939 P. A. N. Winand 563,535 H. F. Wallmann 548,824 L. F. Allman 563,541 W. E. Gibbon 547,606 L. M. Burgeois, Jr 564,182 j 535,914 A. J. Pierce 564,643 V. List J. Kossakoff \ 536,090 E N Dickerson f 564,684 ( 550,185 I 565,157 A. W. Brown 532,865 H. Swain 564,769 F. Mayer 549,677 J. Robison 565,033 F. W. Ofeldt ] 538,694 R. E. Olds M. F. Bates 565,786 540,757 B. Wolf 566,263 535,837 A. Barker 566,125 J Robison ] 532,097 H. Ebbs 566,300 532,100 G. H. Willets 567,530 1896 H. A. Winter, 567,432 H. Van Hoevenburgh 567,928 J. F. Duryea 557,469 C. D. Anderson 567,954 J. F. Daly & W. L. Corson 557,493 J- S. Klein 568,115 G.E. Hoyt 561,890 J. S. R. D. W. D. &C. H. A. A. Hamerschlage 561 ,886 Cundall 568,017 G. F. Eggerdinger and G. R. G. A. Thode 568,814 Swaine 56l,774 p QJj n 569,386 G. W. Lamos ., 562,307 ] 569,564 FredMex 562,230 H. A. Winter 569,530 H. G. Carnell J 533,662 C. J. Weinman E. E. Euchen- ( 556,086 hofer * 569,365 F. W. Mellars 556,195 H. Schumm 569,942 C. J. Weinman E.E. Euchen- j 555,717 H. C. Hart 569,918 hoffer ( 555,791 M. W. Weir 569,694 F. W. Crossley & J. Atkinson . . 555,898 T. von Querfurth 569,672 M. G. Nixon 559,399 R. E. Olds 570,263. J.M. Worth G. L. Thomas 559,oi 7 E. j. Pennington. . . , , / 558,749 l 570,440 570,441 PATENTS. 399 R. Rolf son 570,649 L. Gathman 570,470 E. Prouty 570,500 C. W. Pinkney 571,239 C. A. Kunzel, Jr 571,447 G. W. Lewis 57*, 534 F. C. Olln 571,495 E. Rappe 571,498 M. Biakey 571,966 J F. Uu.yea 572,051 E. E. Ludi 572,209. E. Capitaine 572,498 F.J. Rettig 573,296 F. E. Culver 573,209 S. M. Balzer 573, J 74 J. Charter, Jr 573,762 G. S. Tiffany 573,628 M. F. Underwood 574,183. J. W. Eisenhuth 574,311 1897 F. Burger F. C. Southwell. J. Walrath. L. Benier H. S. Bristol., T. W. Cohen P. T. Coffield. O. Colborne. . W. L. Crouch , C. L. Grohmann G. Joranson J. Ledent L. H. Nash. . L.H.Watties G. W. Lamas J. D. Blagden. Rotary. . . E. W. Blum W. Donaldson E. Fessard W. F. Trotter. . W. Rowbotham, A. Peugeot G. W. Lewis O. Bamborn E. Merry W. Maybacho M. Biakey... J. G. Lewis G. H. Ellis and J. F. Steward H. C. Baker D. Best F. G. and F. H. Bates. . 576,430 575,8i2 577,898 578,377 579,378 575,326 575,878 579,789 579,860 574,670 575 502 574,535 574,6io 575,720 576,604 578,H2 577,567 574,6i4 575,517 579,554 577,160 574,723 575,66i 574,762 578,266 577,536 577,i89 578,034 579,068 577,i67 580,172 580,090 580,387 580,444 580,446 58o,445 W. O. Worth .............. 581,685, E. P. Wollard .............. 581,385 A. Winton ................. 582,108 T. Small ................. / 581,783. (581,784 F. S. Mead ................ 582,073 G. Alderson ............... 581,930 W. H. Knight... ........... 581,826 O. Mueller ................ 582,540 J. W. Lambert ............. 582,532 H. T. Dawson .............. 582,271 F. M. Rites.. j 582,231 1582,232 J. A. Charter ............... 582,620 G. W. Lewis ............... 583,399 G. Westinghouse and E. ^83 '584 Rund .................. (583)585 G. Langen ................. 583,600- H. B. Maxwell ............. 583,495 L. H. Nash ( 583,628- J. W. Raymond.. .. ^83,507 < 583,508 J.H. Tuffs ................. 583,872 F. Burger and H. M.Williams 584,282 F. C. Griswold ............ 584, 130 P. B. & S. D. McLelland . . . 584, i8& W. F. Davis ............... 583,082 P. A. N. Winand ____ . ...... 583,962- J. O. Brown ........... . ---- 584,622 E. B. Dake ................ 584,674. C. C. Wright and W. J. (_ ^^ Stephens ............... ) C. Quast ......... . ....... } 5 ^' (584,960 400 PATENTS. C. A. Miller 585,115 F. Conley and C. J. Macomber 59i,34i G. W. Starr and J. H.Cogswell 585,127 M. O. Godding 59^598 W. E. Gibbon 585,434 D. Best. Reissue 11,633 L. S. Brown 585,504 C. I. Cummings and J. C. ) CQT QC2 H. B. Steel 585,601 Hilton ) 3V*y>* F. Burger 585^51 c.W.Weiss.. . \ 592,033 J. A. Charter 585,652 I 59->34 C. Jacobson 586,3 1 2 P. Auriol 592,073 J. D. Russ 586,321 C. L. Mayhew 591,862 E. P. Woillard 586,409 C. Sintz 592,669 E. J. Pennington 586,511 F. C. Olin 592,881 T. A. Redmon 586,826 F. W. Spacke 593,34 A. A. Williams 587,627 F. W. Lancaster 5 62 ,794 P. Mueller 587,747 J. J. Heilmann 593, 2 96 H. C. Hart j 588,061 C. A. Schwarm 593'97Q 588,062 F. F. Snow 593-9" A. G. Pace 588,466 A. Rosenberg 593,859 S. A. Reeve 588,292 W. Bayley 594,372 C. Quast 588,876 J. Q. Chase 595,043 L. Ely 588,629 McFadden and Lloyd 595,324 White & Middleton 588,91 7 A. L. Harbison 595, 6 25 J. C. Wilson 589,150 E. Meredith , 595,489 E. R. Moffitt 589,509 W. Rowbotham 595,497 J. S. Walch 590,080 J. B. Fenner 596,239 A. J. Tackle 590,796 E. R. Bales 596,352 V. G. Apple 591,123 F. W. Lancaster 596,271 -1898 W. J. Wright...., 607,904 C. A. Lefebvre 614,1 14 W. E. White 599,376 A. A. Vansickle 615,766 J. Madlehner and F. Hamilton 616,059 P. E. Singer 600,971 W. von Oechelhaeuser 596,613 A. Howard 602,161 W. O. Worth 607,613 G. A. Marconrtett 611,813 J. S. Klein j 613,284 E Wieseman and J. Holroyd I 6i5,393 \ 600,107 I 600,974 T. M. Doyle 602,556 S. Rolfe 597,860 F. S. Mead j 603,914 S. Bouton 606,504 612,258 L. Halvorson 600,147 H. A. Humphrey 61 1,125 C. E. Henriod 603,986 W. Morava 608,968 P. L. Hider 599,235 W. R. Bullis 597>389 G. A. Newman 602,707 R. Diesel 608,845 J. A. Secor 602,477 F. L. Merritt 605.583 E. D. Strong 597,921 M. H. Rumpf 615,049 (598,832 G. L. Woodworth 607,317 A. Winton j 600,819 G. H. Gere 598,986 v 610,465 R. B. Hain 599,653 M. F. Bates 607,536 W. F. Trotter 603,297 M. Beck 602,820 PATENTS. 401 X,. F. Burger 598,496 L. H. Millen ... 612,047 H. G. Carnell = 6i3,757 J. J. Ohrt . . . 608,298 J. Carnes and C. W. McKibben 603,125 F. C. Olin ... 613,390 F. E. Culver 601,012 J. A. Ostenberg ... 612,756 A. H. Dingman 610,034 ( 597,326 J. F. Duryea 605,81 5 C. Quast . . j 607,878 J. Fraser 599,496 ' 607,879 C. Guyer 596,809 J. Reid . . 607,276 H. H. Hennegin 597,771 S. S. Simrak ... 598,025 T. H. Hicks 606,386 H. C. Strang . . . 615,052 D. D. Hobbs 613,417 D. M. Tuttle ... 604,241 C. Jacobson 607,566 B. C. Vanduzen ... 600,754 J. N. Kelly and W. M. Kelch . 610,682 W. E. White 599375 J. Lizotte 600,675 L. J. Wing . . . 607,580 S. E. Maxwell 601,210 W. J. Wright ... 607,903 -1899 A. G. Pace. (Reissue) 11,775 J.H.Hamilton ... 621,525 R. Mewes 633,878 J. B. Doolittle . . . 637,450 F. R. Simms 617,660 C. O. White . . . 634,679 F. R. Simms. (Reissue) . . . 1 1 ,763 J. A. Harp ... 628,316 E. Fessard 639,160 E. H. Korsmeyer . . . 636,048 F. Burger 623,980 E. L. Lowe ... 624,355 E. Brillie 618,638 J. W. Eisenhuth ... 620,554 W. Jasper 626,206 E j WoQlf ( 627,219 E. J. Fithian 626,155 ( 627,220 G. Hirt and G. Horn 630,083 c R Daellenbach f 632,917 H. Smith 632,763 1 632,918 H. C. L. Holden 622,047 L. B. Doman ... 625,839 S. N. Pond 633,484 T. C. Kennedy ... 621,572 A. Howard 617,529 G. W. Lewis . . . 620,941 F. Hayot 623,713 H, P. Maxim . . . 620,602 C. J. F. Mollet-Fontaine and \ 634,063 J ' A - Secor ... 623,568 L. A. C. Letombe S F. H. Smith ... 636,298 F. Diirr 625,387 H. Smith ... 624,555 F, C. Hirsch 622,469 E. J. Stoddard ... 623,190 H. N. Bickerton and H. W. \ 640,083 E.E.Truscott . .. 617,372 Bradley i J. Walrath ... 632,859 J. W. and P. L. Tygard 619,004 / 617,978 E. J. Stoddard 623,224 A. Winton . . ] 626,120 A. Mahon 625,180 ( 6 3 6,6r6 S. W. Zent 637,317 S. A. Hasbrouck ... 624,649 C. A. Anderson and E. A. ) . 630 838 J- W. Eisenhuth 620,431 Ericksson J E. E. Allyne and R. ( ' [ 622,876 J. H. Frew 623,361 Anderson G.W. Lewis 621,110 C. R. Alsop 618,972 H. J, Perkins 630,738 S. A.Ayres. ... 632,888 J. W. Weeks 635,624 E. and W. F. Bauroth ... 617,388 402 PATENTS C.P.Blake ................. 'C. W. Bogart ............... J. O. Brown ................ F. Burger .................. W. H. and J. Butterworth ____ O. F. Good ................ E. W. Graef ............... J. D. Hay and B. M. Bullock . L. J. Hirt ................. L. S. Kirker H. A. Knox A. Lee P. Murray A. H. Neale. R., Sr., and R. Nuttall, Jr G. Palm.. C. Quast. 631,003 628,518 635. 2 94 632,913 624,750 634,686 622,891 632,814 620,926 629,904 627,338 627,857 634,529 619,776 639,683 631,224 640,018 618,435 624,975 E. Rappe J. W. Raymond. C. C. Riotte . . W. S. Sharpneck. H. Smith G. S. Strong T. J. Sturtevant A. A. Vansickle G. A. Whitcomb J. Williams, Jr E. E. Wolf C. Hoerl G. Dahlberg, J. Clicquennoi, ( and E. Uhlin I J. H. Hamilton IpOO J. W. Eisenhuth | 640,890 ( 642,434 J. L. Baillie and P. B. Verity . 642,949 J. F. Craig 644,004 J. F. Duryea 646,399 G.W.Lewis.. {640,674 ( 640,675 T. Malcolmson 642,143 J. A. Secor. 640,71 1 C. Sintz 646,322 G. A. Tuerk 641,659 A. Heil 645,293 W. A. Kope 642,043 f 640,393 G. W.Lewis J 640,394 640,672 [640,673 A. L. Navone 642,706 A. T. Otto 645,044 G. S. Shaw. 641,156 J. Straszer 640,237 P. Robertson andC. Matson. . 641,727 B. M. Aslakson 644,566 A. J. Frith " 644,798 E. Thomson 642,176 J. E. Thornton and J. P. Lea . 644,951 A. G. New 642,871 L. Charon and F. Manaut. . . . J. G. Lepper and W. F. Dial . A. Bink E. Fahl H. A. Frantz C. O. Heggem C. W. Hunt A. J. Martin E. A. Sperry H. Stommel G. E. Whitney G. E. Whitney and H. Howard W. O. Worth A. Olson. . J. W. Lambert, 620,080 634,654 636,478 618,157 633,339 621,526- 645.45 s 644,295 644,843 644,855 644,590^ 644,598 641,514 641,313 643,258 645,497 642,771 642,943. 645,378 643,525 640,667 640,668 L. Jones, Jr. . F. J. Macey . C. R. Alsop . G. W. Lewis. H. F. Probert. D. Drawbaugh W. J. Perkins and C. H. Blomstrom , F. R. Simms. . 642,167 640,252 640,392 640,395 642,366 642,562 643,087 643,002 PATENTS. 403 W. Banes , E. T. Headech J. C. Anderson J. Craig, Jr G. A. Fleury C. A. Scott T. Cascaden, Jr., and T. C. Menges A. H. Goldingham H. Sutton W. J. Woodward and D. Barckdall J. H. Atterbury W. R. Dow W. W. Gerber J. S. Losch C. A. Miller C. K. Pickles and N. W. Perkins, Jr F. W. Toedt. A. Martini E. Funke J. McLean H. Swain H. Crouan J. Wickstrom A. Adamson H. T. and H. A. Dawson V. R. Stewart H. A. Bertheau C. E. Belcher T. Croil T. B. Dooley J. Greffe R. Hagen F. K. Irving F. A. La Roche. ..' .A. H. Overman and J. H. Bullard R. M. Owen L. W. Ravenez E. S. Sutch O. Waechtershaeuser J. A. Ostenberg W. J. McDuff O. Owens L. Hutchinson . . 644,027 646,282 651,741 650,525 651,966 647,5 8 3 652,470 650,583 650,736 649.7I3 652,382 647,651 652,539 650,789 652,544 652,724 650,549 651,216 651,875 650,312 646,452 650,571 651,237 650,576 651,062 651,780 650,661 648,914 650,816 652,534 651,323 652,673 646,982 646,993 652,278 648,286 652,486 650,950 648,059 652,571 648,520 650,266 646,867 648,689 E. S. Haines 652,104 W. F. Davis 648,122 W. H. Cotton 647,946 D. M. Tuttle 649,778 J. C. Anderson 651,742 C. E. Duryea 649,441 W. E. Gary 657,810 C. Hautier 656,020 F. C. Olin 653,876 T. B. Royse 653,040 C. W. Shartle and C. E. Miller 658,594 H. Smith 657,576 E. C. Wood 655,473 G. W. Starr and J. H. Cogswell 657,140 S. F. Beetz 657,384 C. R. Daellenbach 653,379 0. J. Fairchild 656,101 H. A. Bertheau 655,186 F. J. Sproehnle 653,971 S. Messerer 654,996 V. V. Torbensen 653,854 R. H. Little 656,823 E. Haynes and E. Apperson . . 658,367 M. F. Marmonier 657,226 R. A. Frisbie 656,539 G. E. Hoyt 657,934 W. J. Baulieu 653,651 C. L. Mayhew 652,909 J. J. Simmonds 658,127 J. Rambaud t 654,356 G. Palm 654,761 W. E. Simpson 658,595 S. W. Rea 657,451 F. A. Law 653,353 L. Witry 655,289 G. W. Henricks 653,957 R. R. von Paller 655,269 C. H. Blomstrom 657,055 A. C. von Fahnenfeld and E. ) ^ S. von Wolfersgrun \ ' J. G. MacPherson 655,407 G^ Kiltz 657,739 R. Diesel 654,140 F. A. La Roche 657,662 1. H. Davis 657,760 J. G. MacPherson 655,406 H. Wegelin 654,693 G. L. Reenstierna . , . , 65 5,66 T. 404 PATENTS. A. J. New 656,143 G- H. Rogers 660,338 S. A. Hasbrouck 654,894 C. Bonjour . . 660,41 2 H. C. Thamsen 654,818 F. Diirr 660,292 L. S. Clarke, W. Morgan, ,653501 A ' Haves 660,954 and J. G. Heaslet ' J. W. Lambert 660,778 r 653,167 E. T. Birdsall 660,786 653,168 J. W. Lambert 66l,l8l 653,169 G. L. Reenstierna 661,276 C. J. Coleman j 653, 170 A. Johnson 66l,29I 653,172 A. and E. Boulier 661,439 657,516 T. M. and F. L. Antisell 66l,3OO 657,899 F. C. Dyckhoff 661,369 ^658,238 J. B. Rodger 66l,078 P. J. Collins | 655,853 L. Charon and E. Manaut 661,235 656,389 X. de la Croix 661,854 E. P. Cowles 654,716 J. Day 661,559 J. T. Dougine 655,329 N. A. Guillaume 661,865 C. E. Duryea 653,224 M. Flood 662,189 J. W. Eisenhuth 656,396 F. R. Simms 662,317 C. D. P.Gibson 656,962 A. J. Signer 662,315 654,797 T. L. and T. J. Sturtevant 662,040 1 658,068 A. J. Signor 662,155 H. W. Libbey 654,741 G. J. Althamand J. Beattie, Jr. 662,l8l C. A.Lieb 653,102 G. A. Timblin (designs) 33,59 2 J. H. Munson 653,199 H. B. Steele 662,631 L. J. Phelps 653,879 P. Swenson 662,507 W. Scott 656,483 O. F. Good 662,718 C. T. Shoup 658,046 M, S. Napier 663,388 F. E. and F. O. Stanley 657,71 1 H. W. Strauss 663,106 V. V. Torbensen 653,855 A. D. Garretson 663,091 f 652,940 G. A. Tuerk 663,798 652,941 W. H. Cotton 663,653 G. E. Whitney J 652,942 G. Buck 663,725 652,943 L. S. Clarke and J. G. Heaslet 663,729 [652,944 F. R. Simms and R. Bosch . . . 663,643 W. S. Halsey 659,027 H. Smith 663,475 L. H. Nash 658,858 C. O. White 664,IIO J. M. Olsen 659,095 A. T. Otto 664,360 E. A. Mitchell 658,993 L. H. Nash 664,025 A. A. Williams 659,426 C. O. White 664,2OO W. F. Davis 660,073 J. Dougill 664,134 D. E. Barnard 659,91 1 J. W. Eisenhuth 664,018 H. D. Weed 659,944 H. Sutton 664,689 P. H. Standish 660,129 G. Miari and F. Giusti 664,661 F. G. Bates 660,482 W. K. Freeman 664,632 PATENTS 405 1901 W. Maybach 668,111 C. E. Dawson 668,954 S. Miller 667,846 H. L. Arnold 666,838 S. M. Zurawski 668,250 O. B. Johnson 669,416 E. Courvoisier 670,311 C. R. Daellenbach 665,881 L. H. Solomon 665,665 L. F. Burger 666,260 J. Walrath 669,272 E. Thompson 669,737 T. McMahon 670,803 W. O. Worth 670,550 W. E. Simpson 667,590 H. F. Walman 666,368 C. F. Bergman 665,849 H. L. Arnold 666,839 W. H. Aldrich 668,617 Kopp & Preston. 674,421 J. A. McLean 674,979 G. A. Bronder 673,109 J. Eckhard 673,427 W. O. Worth 673,809 J. Rourk 674,709 M. L. Wood 676,523 G. L. V. Chauveau 671,160 C. C. & E. A. Riotte 671,934 Schumm & Munzel 675,796 J. Doorenbos 672,615 J. A. McLean 670,907 H. F. Wallman 677,048 H. Schwarz 676,449 J. Sterba 672,432 A. T. Stimson 677,001 Tuck & Wassman 682,003 E. Butler 678,715' E. T. Birdsall 679,410 C. W. Weiss 680,953 C, E, Duryea 682,606 W. J. Pugh 680,616 A. F. Bardwell 680,907 S. W. Zent 682,583 W. S. Sharpneck 680,985 E. N. Dickerson 681,111 C. C. Bramwell 678,823 R. R. Darling 679,367 M. W. Jamieson.. ../ 68l ' 7 4 1 681,705 Campbell & Hawkins 682,788 B. F. Stewart 683,080 V. St. John 683,152 A. C. Wolfe 681,162 O. Snell 677,898 F. Reichenbach 682,567 Toepel & Widmayer 682,822 W. B. Cuthbertson 677,949 J. D. McFarland 682,385 A. Tourand 687,084 E. J. Wolf 683,886 J. Valentynowicz 684,011 H. Enge 686,806 A. Hayes 688,245 F. Burger 684,743 W. S. Halsey 684,813 M. E. Durman 687,678 H. M. McCall 687,924 C. L. Mayhew 688,426 W. G. Marr 688,536 M. F. Bates 689,351 J. Badeker 683,587 E. Caillavet 689,791 L. Genty 687,152 H. F. Wallman 688,907 C. A. Hirth 685,141 C. A. Marrder 685,722 Box & G. Labedan 686,801 J. H. Reed 688,335 S. M. Williams 688,566 J. W. Plimpton 683,705 January to July i, 1902 F. D. Sweet 690,481 A. D. Richardson 690,610 H. F. Wallmann 690,542 F. W. Toedt. .J g 1 '* \ 691,084 Thompson 691,017 406 PATENTS. C. Robinson 691,489 W. J. Pugh 692,071 W. A. Swan 692,218 T. Myers 693,529 G. V. Fetter 694,186 W. S. & C. Hibbard 694,016 A. W. Clayden 694,090 H. Junkers 694,552 Freeman & Troop 694,735 C. F. Lembke 694,557 W. F. Davis 694,948 W. L. Judson 695,731 J. D. McFarland 696,251 E. Thompson 696,518 P. Burt 696,547 J. A. McLean 697,649 M. N. Hylland 698,285 J. V. Rice 699,014 R. L. Young 699,433 F. Durr 699,503 J. W. Stanton 700,100 W. J. Robb 700,241 S. S. Rose .'.. 700,243 H. A. Bertheau 700,295 A. L. Kull. 700,785 J. T. Metcalfe 701,069 D. A. Briggs 701,140 F. Reichenbach 701,505 F. L. Nichols 702,375 C. W. Kelsey 701,891 J. S. Rogers 702,246 J. F. Hobart 702,430 F. A. L. Sneckner 703,157 INDEX ABSOLUTE zero, 9 Absorption of heat by walls, 12 Acetylene gas, 53-57 Adiabatic temperature, ?j^A Air and gas regulator, 70 Air-cooled motors, 180, 190, 371 Air pumps, 72, 301 Alcohol for power, 57-59 Atkinson engine, 41 Atomizers, 73-8o, 302, 303, 312, 342 Apple ignition dynamo, 142 Automobile, 325, 347 B BACK fire, 151 Barnet's engine, 3. Batteries, 130, 141 Beau de Rocha, 3, 4 Bicycle, 372, 373 Boyle's law, 8, 10 Brake, Prony, 161 rope, 164 strap, 163 Brown gas vacuum engine, 3 Buildings, vibrating, 171 Bunsen burner, 103 CAM, differential, 100 Carburetters, vaporizers, 60, 72 Cards, Atkinson, 33 constant volume, 14, 16 Diesel, 37 four-cycle type, 28. 34, 35 full load, 34 half load, 35 Lenoir, 19, 21 mean pressure, 36 kerosene mptor, 37 Otto four-cycle, 32 test, 175 perfect cycle, 23 Priestman, 303 testing, 175 Carnot's cycle, 23 variable, 30 Carriage, 325, 347 Centrifugal clutch, 144 Causes of loss and inefficiency, 38 Clerks' experiments, 8, 22, 39 Clutch pulley, 195 Combustion chamber, 39 shrinkage and products, 35, 47 time and pressure, 14 Connecting rod, 194 Comparisons, effective power, i, 2 computations, 20-29 Cooling water of cylinder, 40 Cost of operation, 204, 216 Crossley engine, 41, 43 Current breaker, 114 Cycles, 19, 22, 23 Cylinder capacity, 81, 82 diameter and stroke, 83 dimensions, I, 39 . double-acting, 259 formulas, 87 lubrication, 146-148 ratios, 86 two-cycle, 218 408 INDEX. DE DION motor, 190 Details and sections, 182, 190, 210, 214, 218, 223, 224, 264, 274, 275' 281, 283, 287, 312, 314, 319, 322, 34i, 342, 346, 349, 357, 359, 365, 370, 374, 375, 377 Differential cam, 100 Diffusion, time, 67 Dimensions of motors, 84, 95 Double-acting motor, 258 Double port valve, 101 Dynamo generators, 115, j 3I , I34 142 Dynamo section, 143 ECCENTRIC gear, 98 Efficiencies, heat, 25 engine, 19-24, 57, 58, 366 Electric ignition, 110-115, 121-136 Electric lighting economy, 42, 45 Electric plants, 278, 308, 318, 330 Electrodes, 218, 233, 236 Engine parts, 85 testing, 173, 176 trials, 41, 43 Evaporation of gasoline, 66. Examples, computation, n, 12, 84 Expansion, gas, 10 Explosion at constant volume, 14, 16 Explosive engine testing, 173-177 Explosive pressures, 86 Explosive temperatures, 86 Explosive volumes, gas and air, 16 17 FIGURED dimensions, 85 Fly-wheels, 85, 86 Fly wheel governors, 276 Foot pounds of power, 48 Formulas, 8, 11, 26, 27, 56, 87 Formulas, horse power, 84 Fuel problem, 386 GAS ENGINES. See oil engines. Allman, 267 American, 256 Bach us, 261 Charter, 204 Columbus, 285 Clifton, 343 Cornell, 197 Dayton, 237 Daimler, 288 Diesel, 362 Fairbanks, 347 Fairbanks-Morse, 247 oos, 234 amilton, 335 4 kroyd, 310 Lambert, 281 Lawson, 304 Lightweight, 322 Lowell, 345 Lozier, 367 Marsh, 371 Mietz & Weiss, 337 Mitchell, 373 Naphtha, 356 Nash, 270 New Era, 198 New York, 219 Olds, 291 Otto, 325 Petter, 324 Pierce, 201 Priestman, 298 Prouty, 279 Racine, 308 Raymond, 212 Royal, 196 Ruger, 254 R & V, 316 Secor, 381 Sintz, 216 Smalley, 221 Springfield^ 229 Truscott, 374 Victor, 238 Vreeland, 260 INDEX. 409- Watkins, 352 Weber, 294 Webster, 227 Westinghouse, 358 White & Middleton, 321 Wolverine, 242 Gas and air mixtures, 17 Gas engines, various makes, 196-374 Gas engine troubles, 157 Gas and electric lighting, 43 Gas, acetylene, 53-56 coal, 47 natural, 49 oil, 49, 50 producer, 50 semi-water, 51 water, 51 Gases of combustion, 8 Gases, various values, 48 Gas gravity regulator, 70 Gasoline, 51, 52, 56, 66 pump, 201 Gay Lussuc's law, 9 Gear, worm cam, ratchet, 97 cam, 99, 100 ring valve, 98 spiral, 99 Generators, magneto, 115, 131, 136, 142 Governor adjustment, 152 Governors and valve gear, 90-102 Governors, centrifugal, 102, 144, 1 88, 200, 203, 360 Governor, inertia, 93 pick-blade, 92 pendulum, 95, 100, 262, 292 Robey, 90 vibrating, 94 Gravity regulator, 70 Hoisting engine, 296 Horse power of motors, 84, 85 Hot tube igniters, 118 Hugon motor, 3 I Indicator, 167 Indicator cards, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 28, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 175, 303 Igniters and exploders, 103, 136, 233 Igniter, Otto, 103 piston, 105 slide igniter, 107 tube, 106-110, 118-120 Ignition, electric, 110-115, 121-136,. 369 Ignition dynamos, 131-136 hammer spark, 122 gear, 115, 226, 231, 233 Ignition pointers, 137,141 plugs, 121, 122 timing valves, 116, 117 wiring, 130, 136 Induction coil, 126-129 Isothermal curve, 8 JOULE'S law, 12 Jump spark coil, 126-129 Jump spark notes, 140, 141 K KANE-PENNINGTON motor, 31 Kerosene, 52 Kerosene motors, 219, 298, 310, 337, 339, 381 H L HAMMER spark, 122 LAUNCH details, 332, 380 Heat efficiencies, 25-29 Otto, 332 formulas, 26-28 Truscott, 380 units, 40, 47, 48 vapor motor, 355 Heat units in explosive mixtures, 17 Law of thermodynamics, 9 Heat value, 21 Lenoir motor, 3, 332 Historical progress, 3 Lenoir efficiency, 19 INDEX. Light in the cylinder, 8 Lighting economy, 42-48 Loss and inefficiency, 38 Lubricators, 145-148 M MANAGEMENT of motors, 149-159 Magneto igniters, 115, 131-133, 369 Marine motors, 217-219, 221, 244, 246, 323, 33i, 333, 343, 344, 345, 356, 367, 374, 377 Material of power, 47-59 Measurement of power, 160-170 Measurement of speed, 165 Mechanical equivalent, 9 Mixtures and pressures, 8 Motor bicycle, 372, 373 Motor carriage, 325 Motor details, 190-210, 214, 218, 219, 223, 224, 264, 274, 275, 281, 283, 287, 312, 314, 319. 322, 325, 341, 342, 346, 349, 357, 359, 365, 370, 374, 375, 377 Motor parts, 85 Motor pointers, 156 Motor starters, 250, 251 Motors, triplex, 379 Mufflers, exhaust. 88. 89 N NAPHTHA, 51, 52 Naphtha engine, 357 Naphtha launches, 354, 355 Nash engine trials, 44, 45 Nickel alloy tubes, 119 PATENTS, number of, 4-6 Patent list, 1875 to 1902, 392 Pendulum governor, 100 Petroleum products, 51, 52 Phenomena of explosion, 8 Plugs, 119 Pointers on valves and ignition, 137 Pointers on explosive motors, 156- 159 Porcelain tubes, 120 Portable engines, 313 Pressures and temperatures, 86 Pressure and volume, 8-u Products of combustion, 35 Prony brake, 161 Propeller, reversing, 376 Pulley clutch, 195 Pumping plants, 198, 208, 211 266, 307, 315, 340 Push rod ratchet, 97 RATIOS, compression, 86 Ratchet push rod, 97 Ratio of expansion, 9, 10 Rating of English engines, 83 Raymond engine trial, 45 Reducing pulley, 170 Regulator and gas bag, 284 Retarded combustion, 30 Reversing propeller, 376 Ring valve gear, 98 Rope brake, 164 Rotating spark brake, 112 OIL engines, various make, 298, 310, 337, 339, 38i Oils for cylinder, 148 Oil pump, 342 Otto card, 32 Otto and Langdon progress, 3, Otto launch, 332 Otto slide valve, 104 SELF- STARTING motors, 250, 251 219, Simplex engine, 32 m ' Sizes of motor parts, 85 Shaft bearings, 341, 351 Shrinkage by combustion, 35 Sparking coils, 113, 126-129 4 Spark, continuous, 34 Spark break. 111-115, 320 Spark, intermittent, 34 INDEX. Sparking dynamo details, 143 Sparking gear, 376 Sparker, Rice, 124 Specific heat, gas, air, 20, 47 Spiral gear, 99 Strap brake, 163 Stratification of mixture, 13 TABLE, clearance ratios, 86 cylinder capacity, 82 material of power, 48 mixtures gas and air, 16 efficiencies, speed, 31 motor power, 194 motor parts, 85 natural gas, 49 petroleum products, 52 rating of motors, 83 explosion at constant volume, 14, 16 explosive temperatures, 17, 29 Tachometer, 166 Tangye engine trial, 43 Temperature and pressures, 86 Temperature, jacket water, 32 Testing, 173-177 Timing valves, 116, 117 Theory of explosive motors, 7-17 Theory of combustion, 13 Time of explosion, 14-16, 31 Tubes, ignition, 119 Types of explosive motors, 178-194 Types. the Day, 178 Root, 179 De Dion, 190 Dudbridge, 187 Nash, 191 Diesel, 192 non-vibrating, 180 Lewis motor, 181 Oil City, 182 Lazier, 185 rib cooled, 180 valve head, 183 Wayne, 184 U USEFUL effect from speed, 30 Utilization of heat, 18 V VALVE gear, 97-102, 286, 287, 361 Valve gear, Rice, 125 Valves, 101, 182, 183, 184-187 Valve chest, 200 Valve gear, ratchet, 97 Valves and ignition points, 137 Valves, rotating, 213 Valves, sizes, 138 Various types of engines and motors, 196-391 Vaporizers and atomizers. 60-80, 302, 342 Vapor gas, 69 Vehicle motor, 190 Velocity of explosion, 14 Vibration of buildings, 171 Volume, constant, 9 Volumes, gas and air, 14, 16 W WALL cooling, 30 surface, 33 Water for cooling, 40 Water vapor from combustion, 47 Wiring, HI, 130, 136, 144 Work of expansion, 9 Worm cam push rod, 97 Worm gear, 200 YACHTS, 332, 354, 380 ZERO, absolute, 9 THE PEERLESS Piston & Valve Rod Packing It will hold 400 pounds of steam. In boxes 3 to 8 pounds Will run twelve months in high -speed engines 1-4 to 2 inches diameter Made in three different shapes : Straight, Spiral and Square Spiral SOI,E MANUFACTURERS OF THE Celebrated "Rainbow Packing," "Eclipse Sectional Rainbow Gasket," " Hercules Combination," "Honest John," "Success," "Arctic" and "Germane" Packings Manufacturers of a full and complete line of superior Rubber Goods, including Gas Bags, Belting, Fire Buckets, Diaphragms, Disks for Valves, Rubber Gaskets, Air, Steam, Hydrant, Garden and Suction Hose, Landing Pads, Mats and Matting, Nipple Caps, Pack- ing, Pails, Pump Valves, Gauge Glass Rings, Springs, Tubing, etc. Copyrighted and Manufactured Exclusively by PEERLESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING CO. 16 Warren Street, New York For Sale by all First=Clasi Dealers Edison Primary Batteries Formerly known as KDISON-!,ALANDB TYPES Q, V AND RR For Stationary Gas and Gasoline Engines Gasoline Launches Agricultural Engines and Automobiles v* v* Full particulars !!ilif||l!l|||i" *r Catalogue No. 14 EDISON flANUFACTURINQ COMPANY Factory, Orange, New Jersey, U. S. A. New York Office, 83 Chambers St. Chicago Office, 144 Wabash Avenue THE MIETZ & WEISS Gas and Kerosene Engine Burns Kerosene Cheaper and Safer than Gasoline. Automatic, Simple and Reliable. No Electric Battery or Flame used. Perfect Regulation. Belted or Directly Coupled to Dynamo. Send for Catalogue. Sizes from i to 60 H. P. For All Power Purposes. A. MIETZ 128=138 MOTT STREET, NEW YORK Highest award for direct coupled generator set, Paris Exposition, 1900. Gold Medal, Pan- American Exposition, 1901. GENERAL POWER COMPANY Specialists in Isolated Lighting 81=83 Fulton Street, New York TTME OIL ELECTRIC PLANT USI NG Secor Engines is the only lighting and power system guaranteeing all the elements essential to satisfactory, reliable and economical operation. This system is suitable for all classes of property all over the world for lighting and power. LIGHTING PLANTS CHARGING PLANTS SHOP ENGINES HOISTING PLANTS PUHPING ENGINES PORTABLE PLANTS COMPRESSING PLANTS 65 Light Secor Plant The Apple Igniters WITH DOOR CLOSED. as illustrated elsewhere in this volume are the most complete outfits ever offered for the purpose of ignition. They are guaranteed to be absolutely reliable and represent the most economical system on the market, saving as they do the expense of battery renewals. We will be glad to furnish printed matter as well as blue prints and wiring plans for both touch and jump spark. The Dayton Electrical Mfg. Co. 40 South St. Clair Street DAYTON. OHIO DOOR OPEN. GASOLINE MOTORS MARINE AND STATIONARY Automobile Motors and Running Gears, Castings of flotors and flaterial for Constructing Complete Automobiles ... LOWELL MODEL CO. Lowell, Mass. *...We Manufacture Kerosene Oil Engines For flarine, Industrial and Carriage Work.... The engine that gives the best result is what everyone wants. The cheapest to operate, with safety, and avoiding the horrible accidents caused by gasoline is worth the consideration of every person. Engines of every description. The New York Kerosene Oil Engine Co. 31 Burling Slip, New York The "R & V" Direct Connected Lighting Outfit Guaranteed to give a Steady I*ight up to the Full Capacity of the Machine. THE ROOT & VAN DERVOORT ENGINEERING Co. EAST JVTOl-IWE, IJLI-. Manufacturers of Gas and Gasoline Engines in the Medium Sizes. MOHLER & DE ORfSS, Makers of High-Class Modern MOTORS, AUTOMOBILES, TRANSMISSION GEARS, RADIATORS, PUMPS, MIXING VALVES, Etc. 284 Albert Street, ASTORIA, N. Y. CITY. CHAS. D. SHAIN, Selling Agent. New York. Mica Washers and Bushings FOR SPARK PLUGS Send for Samples and Quotations A. O. SCHOONMAKER. Fulton Stjreet, JVew York Established E. H. KELLOGG & CO., 1 1 ! yWWf0 k V?sf^ Sole Manufacturers of the World Renowned Railway , Dynamo, Gas Engine, Ice Machine, Steamship, Automobiles, 243 $ 244 $c*m $t. , new York, u, $. j?. SPLITDORF COILS PATENTED. PATENTED. have made JUMP SPARK Ignition a Success. They are the Ideal Gas Engine Igniters. Simple construc- tion. Moisture proof. A high grade instrument at a low price. These coils are specially constructed for igniting the charge in the combustion chamber of Gas, Gasoline or Oil En- gines by the use of fixed Electrodes. Acknowledged by authorities to be the best Coils for the most " Up-to- date" method of Electric Adopted by all first-class Manufacturers. Ignition. Manufactured by G. F. SPLITDORF, Manufacturer of ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES, 17-27 VANDEWATER STREET, NEW YORK. TKe Franklin Model Shop. GAe FRANKLIN Model Shop PARSELL <& WEED, 129-131 West 31st Street, ^e NEW YOR.K. Fine Accurate Model and Experimental Work. The Franklin Gas Engine Castings. HORSE POWER. Can be built on an eight-inch lathe with plain slide rest except turning the fly-wheels. These we keep in stock turned. The Franklin Dynamo. 50 Watts. Weight 514 Ibs. Will furnish current as a generator for 6-6 c. p. Lamps (lo-volt). As a motor it will run one or two sewing machines, or a dental engine. Sold complete, partially finished or in the rough. Complete instructions and blue prints. IF INTERESTED WRITE FOR "CIRCULAR H." Gas Engine Construction. A Practical Treatise Describing in Every Detail the Actual Building of a Gas Engine. BY HENRY V. A. PARSELL, Jr., Mem. A. I. Elec. Eng., and ARTHUR J. WEED, M. E. Twenty -five Illustrated Chapters. Large 8vo. Handsomely Illustrated and Bound. 3oo pages. Price, = $2.5O. This book treats of the subject more from the standpoint of practice than that of theory. The principles of operation of G-as. Engines are clearly and simply described, and then the actual construction of a half-horse power engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the making of a Gas Engine. First come directions for making the patterns ; this is followed by all the details of the mechanical operations of finishing up and fitting the castings, and is profusely illustrated with beautiful engravings of the actual work in progress, showing the modes of chucking, turning, boring and finishing the parts in the lathe, and also plainly showing the lining up and erection of the engine. Dimensioned working drawings give clearly the sizes and forms of the various details. The entire engine, with the exception of the fly-wheels, is designed to be made on a simple eight-inch lathe, with slide rest. The book closes with a chapter on American practice in Gas Engine design and gives simple rules so that anyone can figure out the dimen- sions of similar engines of other powers. Every illustration in this book is new and original, having been ma .e expressly for this work. *^* Copies of this book sent prepaid to any address in ^he world on receipt of price. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., PUBLISHERS 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK JUST PUBLISHED. HORSELESS VEHICLES AUTOnOBILESA- flOTOR CYCLES OPERATED BY Steam, Hydro-Carbon, Electric and Pneumatic Motors By GARDNER D. HISCOX, M. E. Author of "Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines," and "Hechanical Movements, Powers, Devices and Appliances." Nineteen Illustrated Chapters. 316 Illustrations Large 8vo. Cloth. 4OO pages Price, $3.00 A Practical Treatise for Automobilists, Manuf acturers, Cap- italists, Investors, Promoters, and everyone interested in the development, care and use of the Automobile. This work is written on a broad basis, and comprises in its scope a full description (with illustrations and details), of the progress and manufacturing advance of one of the most important innovations of the times, contributing to the pleasure and business con- venience of mankind. The make-up and management of Automobile Vehicles of all kinds are very liberally treated, and in a way that will be appreciated by those who are reaching out for a better knowledge of this new era in locomotion. This book is up to date and very fully illustrated with various types of Horseless Carriages, Automobiles, and Motor Cycles, with many details of the same. It also contains a complete list of the Automobile and Motor Manufacturers with their addresses, as well as a list of patents issued since 1856 on the Automobile industry. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. Publishers 132 Nassau Street, New York Copies sent prepaid to any address in the world on receipt of price. ^^^S^s ^ OF THE * UNIVERSITY OF .// i-/^ov\\N ^S -Section VII. Hydraulic Power and Devices. Water Wheels, Turbines. vernors, Impact Wheels, Pumps, Rotary Pumps, Siphons, Water Lifts, Eject- ors, Water Rams, Meters, Indicators, Pressure Regulators, Valves, Pipe Joints, MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS, DEVICES, AND APPLIANCES. By GARDNER D. HISCOX, fl.E., Author of "Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines." 8vo. Over 400 Pages. 1649 Illustrations, with Descriptive Text. PRICE $3.00. A dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, with 1649 illustrations and explanatory text. This is a new work on illustrated mechanics, mechanical movements, de.'ices, and appliances, covering nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field, for the use of Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, Draughtsmen, and all persons interested in mechanical contrivances. SBJOTTOIVS. Section I. Mechanical Powers. Weights, Revolution of Forces, Pressures, Levers, Pulleys, Tackle, etc. Section II. Transmission of Power. Ropes, Belts, Friction Gear, Spur. Bevel, and Screw Gear, etc. Section III. Measurement of Power.-Speed, Pressure, Weight, Numbers, Quantities, and Appliances. Section IV. Steam Power- Boilers and Adjuncts.-Eneines. Valves and Valve Gear, Parallel Motion Gear, Governors and Engine Devices, Rotary En- gines, Oscillating Engines Section V. Steam Appliances.-Injectors, Steam Pumps, Condensers, Sepa- rators, Traps, and Valves Section VI. Motive Power Gas and Gasoline Engines. Valve Gear and Appliances, Connecting Rods and Heads. n VII. Hydraulic Power and De Governors, Impact Wheels, Pumps, Rotary Pumps, Siphons, Water Lifts, Eject- ors, Water Filters, etc. Section VIII. .Mr Power Appliances. Wind Mills, Bellows, Blowers, Air Compressors, Compressed Air Tools, Motors, Air Water Lifts, Blow Pipes, etc. Section IX. Electric Power and Construction. -Generators, Motors, Wir- ing, Controlling and Measuring, Lighting, Electric Furnaces, Fans, Search Light and Electric Appliances. Section X. Navigation and Roads. Vessels, Sails, Rope Knots, Paddle Wheels, Propellers, Road Scraper and Roller, Vehicles, Motor Carriages, Tricy- cles, Bicycles, and Motor Adjuncts. Section XI. Gearing. Racks and Pinions, Spiral, Elliptical, and Worm Gear, Differential and Stop-Motion Gear, Epicyclical and Planetary Trains, "Fer- guson's " Paradox. Section XII. Motion and Devices Controlling Motion. Ratchets and Pawls, Cams, Cranks. Intermittent and Stop Motions, Wipers, Volute Cams, Variable Cranks, Universal Shaft Couplings, Gyroscope, etc. Section XIII. Horological. Clock and Watch Movements and Devices. Section XIV. Mining. Quarrying. Ventilation, Hoisting, Conveying, Pulver izing, Separating, Roasting, Excavating, and Dredging. Section XV. Mill and Factory Appliances.-Hangers, Shaft Bearings. Ball Bearings, Steps, Couplings, Universal and Flexible Couplings, Clutches, Speed Gears, Shop Tools, Screw Threads, Hoists, Machines, Textile Appliances, etc. Section XVI. Construction and Devices. Mixing, Testing, Stump and Pile Pulling, Tackle Hooks, Pile Driving. Dumping Cars, Stone Grips, Derricks, Con- veyor, Timber Splicing, Roof and Bridge Trusses, Suspension Bridges. Section XVII. Draughting Devices. Parallel Rules, Curve Delineators, Trammels, Ellipsographs, Pantographs, etc. Section XVIII. Miscellaneous Devices.-Animal Power. Sheep Shears, Movements and Devices. Elevators, Cranes. Sewing, Typewriting and Printing Machines, Railway Devices, Trucks, Brakes, Turntables, Locomotives, Gas, Gas Furnaces, Acetylene Generators, Gasoline Mantle Lamps, Fire Arms, etc. V Prepaid to any address on receipt of price & CO,, Publish era, 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. JUST PUBLISHED. COMPRESSED AIR ITS PRODUCTION, USES AND APPLICATIONS. BY GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E. Author of "Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines," "Mechanical Movements," Etc., Etc. I^arge Octavo. 820 Pages. 545 Illustrations. Bound in Cloth. Price $5.00. Half Morocco Binding, Price $6.50. A complete treatise on the subject of compressed air, comprising its physical and operative properties from a vacuum to its liquid form. Its thermodynamics, compres- sion, transmission, expansion, and its uses for power purposes in engineering, mining and manufacturing work. Air compressors, air motors, air tools, air blasts for cleaning and painting. The sand blast, air lifts for pumping water, oils and acids, submarine work, aeration of water, railway appliances and propulsion. The air brake, pneumatic tube transmission, refrigeration and cold rooms. The hygiene of compressed air, its liquefaction and phenomena, including forty tables of the physical properties of air, its compression, expansion and volumes required for various kinds of work, and a list of patents on compressed air from 1875 to date. These forty air tables cover most of the relations of our atmosphere and its con- tained moisture in its various conditions from a vacuum to its highest pressure and its power for work ; its final liquefaction and the phenomena of extreme cold. The tables are fully explained and the formulas given and worked out. The thermodynamic formulas for air compression and expansion are given in a precise form with full explanations and worked out examples, so that anyone can solve the problems in air compression, transmission, expansion and the power required in atmospheric work. CHAPTERS. CHAP. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VIL VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. Historical Progress of Air Work Physical Properties Air in Motion and Its Force Air Pressure below Atmospheric Pressure Flow of Air Under Pressure Power of the Wind isothermal Compression and Expansipn of Air, its Law, Diagrams and Formulas Thermodynamics Adiabatic Compression and Expansion Compressed Air Indicator Card Actual Work of Compressor Multi-Stage Air Compression Expansion of Compressed Air Transmission of Power by Compressed Air Reheating and Its Work The Compressed Air Motor Efficiency of Compressed Air at High Alti- tudes Air Compressors CHAP. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. Air Compressors of Various Makes Can. Air Compressors- Continued Air Compressors Continued Compressed Air in Mining, Rock Drills Pneumatic Tools Pneumatic Tools Continued Air Pyrometer Compressed Air in Railway Service Pneumatic Sheep Shearing The Compressed Air Blast Compressed Air in the Bessemer Con- verter and Blast Furnace Pneumatic System of Tube Transmission Compressed Air in Warfare Compressed Air for Raising Water Refrigeration by Vacuum Hygiene of Compressed Air Liquid Air and Its Generation A list of patents on compressed air from 1875 to July, 1901. application. '** Copies of this book, prepaid to any address in the world, on receipt of price. r Catalogue of Scientific and Practical Books, sent free to any address on NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers, 15 Beekman Street, New York. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. MAY 18 1948 LD 21-100m-9, t 47(A5702sl6)476 12687 SUb I HSf 103672 c^Sw*' ^ 4IU&k r J v f>* t m " " tm*ifc &m j?n ^. r / ^ ^ '^ M^S ^ ^