,v V .¥o.. Dlidsion x^^^s Range Shrlf. Pi C reived ^^y/^rlA^^'t-PcSe^lSyf^. FOWLER'S STEAM Printed frnni Phitcs made In Ixcds, En S- i,ki THE HANDY-BOOK OF HDSBANDKY: A GUIDE FOR FARMERS, YOUNG AND OLD. CONTAINING PKACTIOAL INFOnMATION IN KEGAED TO BUYING OB LEASING A FARM— WHEN AND WHERE TO BUT— COMMENCING OPERATIONS— KEY-NOTE OF PRACTICAL FARMING FENCES AND FARM BUILD- INGS—FARMING IMPLEMENTS— DRAINAGE AND TILE MAKING PLOWING, BUB80ILING, TRENCH- ING, AND PULVERIZING SURFACE SOIL — MANURES — ROTATION OF CROPS — ROOT CROPS — FORAGE CROPS — LIVE STOCK, INCLUDING CATTLE, HORSES, SHEEP, SWINE, POULTRY, ETC., WITH WINTER MANAGEMENT, FEEDING, PASTURING, SOIL- ING, ETC., WITH DIRECTIONS FOR MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREAT- MENT OF THE SAME — THE DAIRT IN ALL ITS DEPARTMENTS — USEFUL TABLES FOE FARMERS, GARDENERS, ETC., ETC. BY GEOEGE E. WAEIl^G, JE., OF OGDEN FARM, POBMEHLT AGEICULTUBAL ENGINEER OF THE CENTRAL PARK, NEW TOBK, "elements of agriculture," "DKAININO FOB PROFIT AND FOB HEALTH,' "EARTH- CLOSETS AND EARTH SEWAGE." I31.IliTJSTRA.TEr). SOLD BY SUBSCEIPTION. NEV/ YORK: E. B. TREAT & CO., 654 BROADWAY; W. T. KEENER, CHICAGO; A. H. HURRARD, PHILADELPniA; E. HANNAFOPwD & CO., CINCINNATI; H. 11. BANCROFT & CO., SAN FRANCISCO; J. n. HUMMEL, NEW ORLEANS; J. C. DERBY, AUGUSTA, GA. ; TV. C. STOW, CLEVELAND; N. S. PAYNE, PORTLAND, ME. 1870. ^S^' Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by GEORGE E. "WAPaNG, Jr., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Rhode Island. Alvord, Printee. S£-0 I HAVE on my shelves an old book — worm-eaten and time-worn — which professes to teach every art connected with the domestic animals of a hun- dred years ago, from horses and cattle to goats and fighting-cocks, including their diseases, their habits, and their uses, together with every art belonging to the complete education of a sporting man of the last century j — all writ- ten " By a Country Gentleman from his own experience" I cannot claim such sublime originality for my present work ; for while none of the operations of the farm are unfamiliar to me, and while I pro- fess to be, by education and experience, a practical farmer, I have tried to t-ellin its pages not only what I have learned over my work, — which, in the case of any individual, is woefully little, — but also what I have gained from the recorded experience of other farmers, who have been accumulating, little by little for 2,000 years and more, the precious sap of wisdom with which our tree of knowledge is fed. I have endeavored, too, to look beyond the farmer who has done so much for the unfolding of the riches that Nature, our universal mother, showers upon her industrious sons, and to question, as well, those devoted friends of the farmer, the chemist and the student, who ask from Nature something more than her material gifts, who seek the very cunning of her deft handicraft, who — not satisfied with the fact that she rolls up her bounty from seed-time until harvest — ask how her work is done ; how the seed sprouts, the leaf shoots, the blossom unfolds, the fruit ripens ; how re- newed life and vigor spring from death and decay ; how fields are exhausted, and how made fertile ; how crops are increased, and kine are grown ; how from only arir and earth and water such a marvel as man is made to live and move. I trust that my experience as a farmer has enabled me to separate, with tolerable completeness, the chafF from the wheat, or at least to select from the teachings of others (whether in the field or in the study,) the infor- mation that the farmer, as a farmer, will be most benefited by gaining. I have endeavored to forego all theorizing, and to state the leading facts of the art and of the science of farming as plainly and clearly as I could, so that any man who can read a-t all, and who has ordinary intelligence, may find my statements as free as possible from "hard words," and that he may feel, as he goes along, that it is a brother farmer who is talking to him, and that what he is saying both his reason and his experience lead him to believe worth the telling. If any reader of this page is inclined to raise the cry of " book-farm- ing," I beg to tell him that such a reception might have irritated me a dozen years ago, when I had less irreverence than I now have for a man who thinks that he has inherited, or pulled out of his hoe-handle all of the agricultural wisdom of the age; and to suggest that if he lives twenty years longer, he will live to be ashamed of himself. It is now too late in the day for any sensible man to abandon himself to such ridiculous folly as to look with any thing but profound respect on the invaluable aid rendered to agriculture by the discoveries of science and by the practical application of these discoveries; and if any farmer feels the old carping spirit rising within him, he will, if he be wise, look for a mo- ment at the other side of the question and consider in what important particulars his own life has been improved by that which he denounces as book-farming,-to which he owes the iron plow, the mowin? machme, and probably the house over his head. My book is intended especially for the use of those practical, working fanners who are willing to believe that, while they have learned much from their own experience, it is not impossible that other farmers (and men in other vocations as well) may have learned something too-somethmg that it may benefit them to learn also; and who are liberal enough to see that all the truth and value of a fact is not destroyed by its being printed. As will be seen by reference to the Table of Contents a wide range oi subjects is discussed : in fact I have endeavored to write just such a book as a young man leaving another occupation and turning his thoughts to farming would be glad to take for his guide, and to such I say that there is not an important statement in these pages that I do not know to be reliable, nor a theory advanced that my own experience has not taught me to approve. Calling especial attention to the third and eighth chapters of the book, — '* The Key-Note of Practical Farming," and *' Manures," — the only ones in which the chemistry of farming is much noticed, — I would say that they are the result of years of study and speculation, kneaded into shape by other years of experience. It is sad to look back to the days when " Agriculture " was a rosy future with me ; when my work was done with the regularity and precision of clock- work by cheap and respectable farm hands ; when my crops were all large and my cattle were all fat ; when an analysis of my soil, and a chemical ledger- account with each field, kept fertility at the top mark ; and when the bal- ance-sheet at the end of the year was always adding to my fortune, — and then to bring my sobered gaze down over the hill-side of hard realities that ended in a plain of simple " Farming," of hum-drum hard work, dear labor, scant manure, small crops, bad markets, sick animals, and — the least in the world — a sick heart ; with " soil analysis " an ignis-fatuus, and nothing but patience and toil and skill and experience and hard study to take its place. I make no complaint of my disappointment, for even the harder ex- periences of life are not without their advantages, — when they are past, — but the hope that I might turn the steps of other young farmers into pleasanter paths was not the least of my motives in writing this book. GEO. E. WARING, Jr. Ogden Farnit 1870. LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOJl^S. Page 1. Fowler's Steam Plow in Operation Frontispiece. 2. Stone Wall, Cross Section op. Fig. 1 45 3. " " Fig. 2 45 4. Farm Gate 47 5. Gate Fastenlno Fig. 4 48 6. " " Fig.5 49 7. Outline of Farm-Yard and Buildings at Ogdkn Farm 53 8. Sectional View of Barn " " 55 9. Perspective " " " 56 10. Arrangement of Cattle Floor " " 57 11. " Basement Floor " " 58 12. " KooT and Manure Cellar " " 62 13. Cross Section of Barn Plan " " 60 14. Sklf-Eegulating Windmill. Fig. 10 59 15. " " Fig.13 64 16. Perspective View or Medium-sized Barn 67 1 J. Principal Floor " •' 68 18. Basement Floor " " 70 19. View OF Barn Ventilator. Fig. 16 63 20. " " Fig. 17 68 21. Perspective Elevation of Barn and Sheds 71 22. Ground Plan of tue Same 72 23. Second Floor " 73 24. Section of the Main Barn 74 25. Section of Wing 75 26. Farm Eoads. Fig. 24 81 27. " Fig. 25 82 28. " Fig.26 82 29. « Fig.27 83 80. Drains, Link op Saturation between 94 Si. " Outlets of, SECURED BY Masonry, etc.. 99 32. Drainage Map op a Ten-Acrk Field 101 83. Defective Grade Illustrated 103 34. Measuring Staff 105 35. Bracing the Sides in Soft Lands 105 86. Finishing Scoop 106 37. Boning Rod 106 88. Position of Workman and Use op Scoop 107 39. Sighting by the Boning Rods 107 40. Pipe Tile and Collar 108 41. Pick for Dressing Tile, etc 109 42. Lateral Drain 110 43. Sectional View of Joint 110 44. Silt-Basin of Six-Inch Tile Ill 45. Square Brick Silt-Basin Ill 46. Silt-Basin, built to the Surface 112 47. Maul fob Ramming 113 48. Silt-Ba«in op Vitrified Pipe 113 49. Boynton's FiRB-CLAT Tile. Fig. 48 124 60. " " " Fig.49 124 61. " " " Fig. 50 124 52. " " " Fig.61 125 53. " " " Fig.52 125 &4. " u « Fig.53 125 8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Pasc 55. Botnton'b Fire- Clav Tile. Fig. 54. I'-i^ 56. Tile-Drainino Implemests .■ 1-T 57. Opening the Ditch and Laying the Tile. .'. 1:28 58. Dp.ainage by means of Plank 132 59. Holbrook's Stubble Plow 186 60. Allen's Cylinder " 138 61. Ames' Eagle " 138 62. Holbrook'8 " Skim Attachment 139 63. " Sii>e-Hill " 139 64. Smith's Patent Cast Steel Plow. Fig. 63 140 65. " " " Fig. 64 140 66. " " " Volkman's Guide 141 67. Laying ottt a Field for Plowins 147 68. Subsoil Plow. Fig. 67 150 69. " " Fig.68 150 70. " " Fig.69 152 71. Trenching " Fig. 70 153 72. " " Fig. 71 154 73. " " Fig.72 154 74. Section op Furrow in Sandy Land 155 75. " " Clay " 155 76. Sod and Subsoil Plow 156 77. Steam Plow at Work 160 78. Engine for Steam Plowing 161 79. Anchor " " 169 80. Engine " " Fig. 79 164 81. Apparatus " " Fig. 80 165 82. " " " Fig. 81 166 83. " " " Fig. 82 ..167 84. " " " Fig. 83 168 85. " " " Fig. 84 169 86. " " " Fig. 85 170 87. " " " Fig. 86 171 68. " " " Fig. 87 172 89. " " " Fig. 88 172 90. Whiffletrek and Evener FOR Three Horses 176 91. Reins " " 177 92. Patent Plow Clevis " " 177 98. Field Roller ISO 94. Common SquafvE Harrow 182 95. Geddes Folding " 182 96. Double Square Scotch Harrow 183 97. Shares Patent Colter " 184 98. Expanding Cultivator 185 99. Horse Hob 186 100. Holbkook's Horse Hoe 188 101. Allen's " 188 102. The Mullek 188 103. Patent Earth Closets. Fig. 102 220 104. « " Fig.103 221 105. " " Fig.104 223 106. Corn Crib, rat and mouse proof. Fig. 105 305 107. " " " Fig.106 SOS 108. Horses' Hoofs and Feet Illustrated. Fig. 107. 463 109. " " " Fig.108 463 110 " " » Fig.109 464 111. " " " Fig.llO 467 112. " « " Fis.lll ...467 L I li i: A :. . UN IV KIJSITY o rALIF<)U*NlA. CHAPTER I. BUYING A FARM, The very large class of men in America who are either leaving other pursuits to establish themselves in the country, or who, having been brought up on their fathers' farms, are about starting for themselves, find the question of buying a farm to be, for the time, the all-absorbing question of their lives j and it is very natu- ral that it should be so, for the business is, emphatically, one of a lifetime. Being, unfortunately, the occupier of leased land, which has so much of another man's affection and interest invested in it, that its purchase is impossible, I can rpeak with very cordial earnestness on this point ; and I can all the more strongly urge absolute ownership, as of all things almost the most desirable, be- cause I daily feel the uncertainty and unsatisfactoriness of a lease- hold tenure. So much of the man himself, so much of the daily sweat of his face, so much of his hope, and of his anxiety, goes to the ground that he tills ; so many of the assoQiations of his home, with its joys and sorrows, are entwined around every tree and shrub in his door- yard, that I can conceive for him no more dismal thought in life than that, some day, he must pull himself up by the roots, and, further on in his years, must take a fresh start, with all his inter- est to cultivate anew. Apart from any question of economy or of interest, I would strongly urge every man, who finds it possible for him to do so, and who means to end his days on a farm, to buy his land. Let the farm be smaller than he could hire, and less convenient ; let him go in debt for it if he must, but I deem IQ HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. him to be a happier man who owns a small place, even with a mortgage for his shadow, than is he who, with better facilities for his daily occupations, and better conveniences for his daily life, has hanging before his eyes the fact that some day, when he is older and less able to commence farming again, he must resign his im- provements to his landlord, turn the key on his home, and pitch his tents in strange fields. The question of economy, however, cannot be set aside. There are, I know, many farmers whose aim in life seems to be to see how much money they can screw out of the land to invest on bond and mortgage, and the more often they can move and apply their leeches to fresh cheeks, the more tully they will gratify their lowest ambition. They save at the spigot of improvement, and are unconscious of the open bung of exhaustion ; in their way they are happy. But every man who means to take a broader view of farming, and recognizes the fact that the most substantial part of the returns of his labor, and of his outlay, consists in better buildings, better soil, and better stock, will see a sufficient reason for wishing to become the owner of the fee of (lis farm. In the other transactions of life, where the principle holds good that any thing is worth what it will fetch in the market, business men invest money with a view to the chances of its return at any time when they choose to sell. In farming, this principle does not hold good — at least not with regard to the farm itself. It is better that the question of selling be not at all considered, for a valuable farm is always a very difficult thing to sell, and very rarely brings so much as it is worth. There are persons who speculate in farms, who buy worn-out land at a low price, and, after improving it, sell it at a high price. They often make money by the operation, and they generally do good. They are a useful class of enterprising men, but they are not the kind of men that I have in my mind now — men who intend to "follow" farming as a permanent occupation, who have made up their minds that it is the thing to do, and who regard it not so much an enterprise as a living. To such, I say, buy your farm judiciously, and, of course, as cheaply as you can. Make up your mind whether it will suit you. BUYING A FARM, — OR LEASING. H before you buy, and, having bought it, don't entertain the idea of selling it, nor consider the money you invest in improvements in the light of the selling value they will add to the farm, so much as with reference to the annual return they will bring in conve- nience, economy, or fertility. In short, consider your farm as a part of yourself, and let it "grow with your growth, and strengthen with your strength;" — you will find your yearly advantage in so doing. Under all circumstances, make the purchase of a farm a matter of the most careful study. Probably it is the only farm that you will ever buy, and it will have very much to do with your pros- perity and your happiness throughout your whole life. If you have been bred a farmer you will be able to decide what you want, and can form an opinion that will be more satisfactory (to yourself at least) than any that you will get from books or from men. If you have passed your previous life in another occupation, and now mean to make your living by farming, the best advice that any one could give you would be to go and pass a whole year with the best farmer you know. Become a regular "farm hand," with an understanding that you are to be allowed to learn to do all kinds of farm work. "Work away for dear life at his farm, " and make him tell you all he knows. Fancy it is your money in- " stead of his that buys every ton of manure he expends."* After such an experience, and with the aid of what you can learn from books, you will probably be able to judge for yourself, better than any one else can judge for you, what sort of farm you want. It is a good plan, (for a man who has an opinion of his own,) to ask the advice or opinion of others pretty freely, not that such opinions are generally worth much, but they are often suggestive of new points to be considered. I do not propose to say much in the way of advice on the subject of farm buying. The variety of tastes to be suited, and the variety of wants to be supplied, are about as numerous as the men themselves who are seeking farms, and, while taste may be in a great measure educated and modified, and while the real * Talpa. ^2 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. requirements of all systems of farming might be enumerated and discussed, it would be far beyond the scope of this book to attempt either. There are, however, a few general principles whose appli- cation is so universal that they should always be borne in mind, but beyond these I do not deem it practicable to go. To those who want to buy for a home rather than for 2.farm^ — who want an ornamental farm, or a sort of agricultural country- seat, — these directions can be of use only in so far as they apply to the strictly agricultural aspects of their case. The very im- portant considerations of beauty, society, and the conveniences of luxurious living must be determined by the light of other con- siderations than those with which simple farming has to do. At the same time, every farm must be the home of the farmer's family, and must, (or should,) comprise the influences which are to have the most weight in the development of his own and his wife's characters, and in moulding the habits, the tastes, and the constitutions of his children. As a man has but one life to live, he should be very careful that he so lives as to get from it the greatest possible amount of health, comfort, cultivation, and ability for usefulness for himself and for his family. This requires a healthy location, a good house, good facilities for education, good neighborhood, and good land. To get all of these is the lot of but few men. Generally, we must be content with only a part of them. Inasmuch as, — after health, — money is not the greatest good, but the means for attaining the greatest good, the quality of the soil is of more importance than any other thing except healthfulness of situation. A hundred bushels of corn or forty bushels of wheat to the acre, will not compensate a man for a houseful of fever and ague, but if they can be had without the disease, they will lead the way to almost every thing else that is needed. The first thing to be decided is, whether to remain in well- settled parts of the country, or to emigrate to virgin land. In the latter case, the question should be, in how far will large crops and lighter work compensate for the want of good schools, good society, and good home-markets. In the former, in how far will BUYING A FARM, — OR LEASING. 13 the social, educational, and commercial advantages make up for the poorer quality of the soil. I assume that in either case the consideration of health is the most important of all. The far West, with its newer and more fertile land, is very tempting to one class of men, and the older-settled parts of the country, with their older civilization and their more dense popula- tion, have equal charms for another class. There is much to be said in favor of both ; but as the broader culture, and more careless feeding which is practiced on the larger farms of new countries, requires less exact knowledge and less close economy than is in- dispensable on higher-priced land, the objects of my book will be best attained if I confine my attention to the requirements of the more thorough system of agriculture that small farms make necessary. These are based on universal principles, and the ex- tent to which they may be, or must be, modified, as land grows cheaper, farms larger, labor dearer, and produce less valuable, must be decided by every man for himself. It is possible to keep fifty cows on a farm of fifty acres. Whether it will pay to do so must be decided by the prices of milk and of labor. It would pay to do it near New York City. It certainly would not pay in Western Kansas. Still, a farmer in Kansas could only be benefited by knowing how it may be profitably done by the farmer in New York. While the settlement of wild lands is often a good thing for the settler, and always a good thing for the country, I think tiiat it is often undertaken under a very mistaken notion that it offers the only chance for a man of small capital. Let us suppose a young man, just married, to have a cash capital of $i,ooo, (and the same principles will hold good in the case of a smaller or a much larger amount,) with which he pur- poses to commence farming. He starts life with his own head and hands, the head and hands of his wife, and his $i,ooo in money. His object is to so use these advantages as to get out of his life the greatest amount of good. The world lies before him for a choice. He can buy — with a mortgage — five or ten acres on the outskirts of a manufactuiing town at the East, or he can 14 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. have a hundred and sixty acres at the West for the taking. If he is the right sort of man, he may grow rich, with the same amount of labor, during his whole life-time, on either place. Fifty years hence he would have, at the West, a capital farm, well fenced, well watered, with good out-buildings, and with a good house. Probably, he would also have his share of political honor and of social distinction. At the East he would have glass-houses, hot- beds, rich land for vegetables, a house " with all the modern con- veniences," and the most agreeable kind of work for the evening of his life. He would be less likely to achieve personal distinc- tion, but, on the other hand, his wife would have, at least at the commencement, less drudgery, and his children would have better advantages for education near home. These are the two extremes which are open to him, and his opportunities cover the whole ground between. It is for each man to weigh well the arguments on both sides of the case, and decide for himself, — what no book can tell him, — which path promises the most of what he considers the most desirable. In choosing a farm in the far West, the considerations which should influence one are rather political and commercial than agricultural. . There is so much perfectly good land to be had, that it is much more difficult to decide upon the most desirable location, than it is to find good land in the chosen situation. Farther east, however, good situations are plenty, while good land is not always to be found, and the more nearly we approach the Atlantic coast, the less easily can we suit ourselves in this respect. I can say little about the South that ought to have weight in deciding a quiet farmer to go there. The state of society is so unsettled and the prospect of the immediate fortune is so uncer- tain, while so many Northern men who went there under the most favorable circumstances, and with the most flattering pros- pects at the close of the war, have come home wiser and sadder than when they went, that it seems to me that a prudent person should leave the Southern lands, with their many great advan- tages, for the settlers of some future day. Supposing the region for the new home to be decided on, and BUYING A FARM,— OR LEASING I5 that it be near one of the larger towns at the East, what are the considerations which should decide us in the selection of the farm ? First. — Avoid a malarious district. There is no* curse like fever and ague, — which will bring more misery to a family than any amount of prosperity can overcome, and of which there is far too much both at the East and at the West. Second. — Choose a small farm, — small, that is, in proportion to your capital. I think no man is wise who at the East goes in debt for more than fifty acres. With plenty of capital, a farmer of good executive ability can hardly have too much land. Any one who has to work himself out of debt, mainly by the labor of his own hands will find fifty acres better than more. His chances will be better with ten acres than with a hundred. So far as one man's work is concerned, especially with small means for the purchase of stock, implements, and manure, the more it is con- centrated, the better it will tell in the end, and fifty acres brought to the highest state of cultivation of which the land is susceptible, will produce more at much less cost than will a hundred acres only half so well cultivated. Third. — Buy a farm that is very much run down and out of repair, rather than a good farm with good improvements which are not exactly what you will require, unless you can get the im- provements for much less than it would cost you to replace them. Better pay fifty dollars an acre for a place that fifty dollars more will make exactly right, than a hundred dollars for a place that never will be exactly right. Fourth. — Remember that to clear up swamps, build stone walls, and dig out rocks and stumps costs much labor, and delays legit- imate farm operations. Farmers are not apt to reckon these things at their full cost, because they do not usually pay out money to have them done — forgetting that their own labor, thus spent, might be more advantageously applied to better land. The tile drainage of wet clays may be undertaken with more con- fidence, because such soils when thoroughly drained are usually the most profitable of all for cultivation. Still, in purchasing 10 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. land of this sort we should calculate to pay out from thirty to sixty dollars an acre for draining tiles and labor, — an expenditure which not unfrequently comes back in two or three years, from the increased production ; while the improvement is permanent, and often increases yearly for a long time ; yet which does con- sume capital. Fifth. — Be sure that the place is adapted to the sort of farm- ing you mean to follow. Do not hope to raise the best fruit on moist, cold land, exposed to the highest winds, nor to raise the best grass on a ground that is too high and dry. If your soil will require heavy manuring, and your system of farming will not produce much manure, you should be near enough to a town to haul out stable manure or other fertilizers without too great cost. Sixth. — I don't know but that this should follow next after the question of health. Bear in mind the fact that the farm is to be your home. You are a man and your work is out of doors. If you have comfortable lodging, and sufficient shelter, you may get on without being made unhappy by a dismal house. But your wife and your children have equal claims to consideration, and you make a grave mistake if you compel them to live in an uncomfortable or cheerless house, with no pleasant surroundings, and no hope of having them. Unhappily a very large majority of farmers do make this mis- take, and they are rewarded for it by the promptness with which their children run from the old roof-tree as soon as their age and circumstances will allow it, not always, it is true, to better their condition, but always in the hope of a more agreeable life. It will be better for agriculture in America, and, therefore, better for America and for the world, when farmers' children can find no pleasanter place than the home where they were born and when they realize the fact, (for it is a fact,) that the life of a farmer may be as comfortable and as elegant as that of a mer- chant or a manufacturer. Buy a good farm, — or one that you can afford to make good, in a good situation, — with schools, churches, and society for your family, and you will have a good prospect of a happy life. BUYING A FARM, — OR LEASING. 17 Or, if you decide to move to the West, get as many of these advantages as you can, and trust for the rest to the fact that schools, society, and markets are working their way intothe newer States with great rapidity. By the time that your children are grown up, it is probable that your new home will be much better surrounded by all of these than would now seem possible. There has recently been published in London, under the title of " Practice with Science," a series of essays on various agricultural topics. Eighty of its four hundred pages are devoted to the question of leases. There, the farmer who owns his land is an exception. Here, fortunately, the leaseholder is an exception, and an exception so rare that we need not devote much time to the discussion of his position, — one which is generally temporary, inasmuch as he almost always looks forward to the time when he will be able to buy a farm of his own. The main thing to be said about leases is, that it is for the mutual benefit of both landlord and tenant that they be made as long as possible, in order that the tenant may afford to make such improvements, and to pursue such a course of cultivation as his advantage and the good of the farm may require ; that he be allowed every possible facility for good farming, and that he be restrained from any course of cultivation or any sale of crops that will lessen the value of the land for future use. A lease for a single year at a time, and the privilege of selling hay without returning manure, will usually end in the impoverish- ment of the farmer, and of the farm too. 2 CHAPTER II. THE COMMENCEMENT OF OPERATIONS. The farm is bought, cheaply because it is in a badly run-down condition, but it is only the middle of September, vid there is time enough yet to do a good deal in the way of improvement before winter sets in. The house is pretty good, — a little painting and lime-washing and paper-hanging, will make it cosy enough for a commencement, and it can be patched up so that it will be a snug house, until there is money to make it better. There is too much demand for money on the farm for much to be spent for ornament now. On the whole, it is not a bad purchase : seventy-five acres of land, — fifty cleared and twenty-five in wood, — two miles from a busy town which gets two-thirds of its food from the West, and most of its butter from the city markets, and which affords a good supply of stable manure. Our end of the town stretches out in a sort of village which has a nice-looking school-house, hardly more than a mile from us. The neighborhood immediately about is good, and the place looks home-like, if the house is an old one. On this score, our young man is quite satisfied, but he has plenty of hard work ahead, a heavy mortgage on his farm, and barely capital enough to work his way to prosperity. It will take a stout heart, a strong arm, and a clear head to bring him through, but it can be done, and I have placed him in this position because his is the lot of most men who marry young and start in life as farmers. His course must be marked by the most patient industry, but the industry must not be all of the body. Farmers who have THE COMMENCEMENT OP OPERATIONS. 10 gone before him — for thousands of years — have learned a good deal, and what they have learned has been w^ritten'and printed. Other farmers are trying experiments, the results of which are as valuable for him as for them. Men in other walks of life have applied their knowledge to finding out how plants grow and what influence is exerted on them by soils and manures. Their discoveries have been published, and many of them have been approved by practice on farms. Altogether, this constitutes more knowledge about the operations of the farm than he could gain by experience if he lived ten lives, and spent every day of all of them in the most energetic work on his farm ; — more than he could '' think out for himself" if he were to keep up a steady thinking until Doomsday. And it is, very much of it, knowledge which he, as a farmer, needs to have, just as much as a doctor needs to know what others have learned of medicine. The best use he can make of a portion of his money is to spend it for agricultural books and papers, and the best use he can make of his leisure time is to spend a fair share of it in reading them. Let his neighbors call him " book farmer," if they will, and let them decry " theories ;" he will work none the less faithfully for any thing he learns out of agricultural books, and in the end he will find that a ton of hay will cost him no more because he knows something of the principles of hay-making, and of the laws which operate in the growth of grass. The condition of his farm, ten years hence, will be a sufficient answer to those who have ridiculed his habit of reading about farming. Still, he should read with great caution and with judgment. There is a great deal in agricultural books, and still more in agri- cultural papers, which is crude and fanciful, and which cannot be successfully applied in practice. While he should read faith- fully, he should make use of what he reads only with great care, and avoid trying, at least on a large scale, any thing which is not actually proven to be suited to his case. The first of his out-of-door operations should be to make a map of his cleared land, with the division fences, and the location of the buildings. This map need not be very accurate — what is 20 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. most necessary is to have something that will serve as a reminder when he is studying over his future operations, in the house in bad weather. It will cost very little to have a surveyor make a diagram of his boundary lines from the description in his deed, and he can pace off the starting-points of his division fences, so as to make a map good enough for his own use. Very soon after taking possession, he should manage to get in five or six acres of rye. This will never come amiss. If the pastures are backward in the spring, he can cut enough, daily," for a green bite for his animals, and what he does not need to use in this way will be worth, in straw and grain, much more than it will have cost. Other necessary work, in repairing buildings for temporary use, building up fences where they have fallen down, providing winter food for his stock, and getting ready for winter generally, will occupy his time until cold weather actually sets in. Even if he have ready money for improvements, I would recommend him to be very careful about commencing them at once. He needs at least a whole winter to make up his mind what he really wants, though, if he has swamp land on his place, he can make no mistake in hauling out muck to be composted with the manure as fast as made. As soon as he can decide which field he will put in corn the next year, if he intends to buy manure from stables in the town, he should commence hauling and spread it directly on the sod to be plowed in in early spring. If he is sure of early pasture, he may omit sowing rye, and plow his corn land as early as possible, spreading the manure on the furrow. The crop will probably be better for it, and he will, at least, have that much spring work done beforehand. This fall-plowing should be con- fined to land which will not be likely to wash, and if the subsoil is an unfertile " blue-pan," great care should be taken not to bring it to the surface. On many soils it is best, late in the fall, to defer the plowing until spring, — enriching the soil as much as possible by top-dressing. When the winter has really set in, and he has long evenings and stormy days for house-work, he should study his map well THE COMMENCEMENT OF OPERATIONS. 21 and develop a plan for future operations. What to do about buildings, what fences to remove, so as to enlarge his fields, what to rebuild, what land, if any, to drain, what crops to plant, what stock to keep, how to improve the pastures, which meadows to break up, which to top-dress and bring into better mowing condition — these and a hundred other questions will present themselves, and they must all be decided with most careful judgment. Though he do his best, he will make many mistakes, and when, in the spring, he comes to review in the field his winter's work in the house, he will see reasons for chang- ing many of his plans. But, for all that, his plans will have been profitable to him, in many ways, and he will be in a better posi- tion to decide on the best course after having made them. When he really gets at work, in March or April, he will have his hands full, and his head full, too, with the management of each day's operations. Then, his practical experience will come into play, and, tempered by what he has learned by his winter's reading, must carry him through planting, haying, and harvest, as best it may. It would be too much a work of mere imagination to describe all the labors of the season ; to fancy this field to be drained ; that one to be made smaller ; this larger ; a barn to be built here ; a shed there ; and all that, — I prefer to leave these details to the young man's own discretion, and, (as I cannot write out direc- tions for all farms,) to turn to the discussion of the various prin- ciples and operations which all farmers need to know about, so that not only he, but all others, may have, so far as I am able to give it them, a convenient hand-book of their occupation. CHAPTER III. THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. The teachings of agricultural chemistry and of vegetable physi- ology are very much less positive now than they were fifteen years ago, concerning many matters of very great importance to the farmer. The old idea of the practical value of soil analysis exploded long ago, and it shook the very foundations of "Book J'arming." Still, there are many things that are positively known — proven by simple and unmistakable evidence — that are of practical value, yes, of vital consequence. Many other things we are led to believe are undoubtedly true, and we know are of great importance, but their positive proof lies, thus far, among the hidden processes of nature's workshops, waiting the day when a keener-eyed science than ours shall unfold them. Thus far we can only draw infer- ences from them — valuable inferences, it is true, but not yet absolute rules. To enter upon the discussion of these facts and inferences, so as to develop their full influence in agriculture, would compel me to entirely change the purpose of my work. I can only touch upon a few fundamental truths which lie at the root of the great economies of our art. I desire, at the outset, to disclaim all sympathy with the popular outcry against theory^ believing that agricultural writers have done much harm by catering to the prejudice on which this outcry is based. Theory is a correct statement of the principles by which any effect is produced; it is a recognition of unchangeable laws, and is as necessary to the farmer who grows Indian corn, as it is to the mechanic who makes the mill by which corn is ground. THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 23 To guess at the cause of any effect, and to imagine that certain laws may be made to act in a way in which it is not proved that they can act, is by no means theory, — it is a mere fancy, and it is this fancy that has been decried under the name of "theory." A knowledge of theory is necessary to real practice, and I desire, so far as my limits and my ability will allow, to justify good practice with theory, and to prove theories by practice, stating the whole case so far as possible, in the plain English of common life, avoid- ing, wherever practicable, such purely technical terms as are not familiar to farmers. The first great aim of all farming is to raise the largest possible crops at the least possible cost, and good farming considers any mjury to the soil as a part of the cost. The use that is to be made of crops after they are raised, is an important but a secondary consideration. How to raise the crops is the first question, and in answering it we should know what plants are made of, whence their constituent parts come, and how they are put together. The farmer should recognize the fact that he is a manufacturer, whose object it is to make roots, or stems, or leaves, by putting together the raw materials in his store-house, in the most complete, most satisfactory, most workmanlike manner. To do this he should understand his machinery and his material, at least so far as the present state of agricultural knowledge enables him to do so. In a certain sense the requirements of all cultivated plants are the same. They all need the assistance of the soil, the air, the light and heat of the sun, and water to attain their growth, and they will be more or less perfect in their development according to the completeness with which all of these different agencies are allowed to act. I have not the space to give such a complete statement of the teachings of chemistry as applied to agriculture as is necessary to a profitable understanding of the more intricate laws of vege- table growth, but there are certain leading principles which chem- istry has unfolded, that should be familiar to every farmer, and which, fortunately, may be plainly stated and easily understood. If a hundred pounds of grass is laid upon a shelf, in a warm 24 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. room, it wilts and shrivels up, losing much of its weight. This results from the drying out of the water with which its pores are filled. If it is allowed to become rotten, it loses much more of its bulk, its texture is broken up, and it gives off foul odors. In this case it loses a part of its own substance, (not only the water which filled its pores and gave it its natural form, but a part of the very material by which its pores are surrounded,) and, if kept under circumstances favorable to decomposition, it will finally be reduced to a blackened mass, almost a mould, with no indication of its original form, and with not a twen- tieth part of its original weight. If this small residue is burned, only a handful of ashes will remain of the once luxuriant grass. The same result would come of a like treatment of every plant that grows. Some would be more and some less rapidly reduced by the original decay, while fire, which is only a more active decay, would drive away water, fiber, bark, leaves, and roots, and leave only the ashes behind. Our grass is destroyed, — where has it gone ? The water has " dried up," become vapor, and gone to help make the rains and the dew. The gum and stafcti, and flesh-forming parts have rotted away, and have floatecj off as gases into the air whence they originally came, and where they are again on duty, ready to enter the leaves of plants, or, being dissolved by the moisture of the soil, to travel up their roots and again take on a useful form. The woody matters that have burned away have followed the same law, and will follow it again and again as long as growth and decay last. All that remains to us is our poor handful of gray ashes, — this is the only part of our grass that can be sup- plied by the soil alone, and to the soil we must give it again. Let us now examine the different sources of plant-food : — A fertile soil contains various proportions of clay and sand, and mixed earthy substances and decayed vegetable matter ; these, together, forming nearly its whole bulk, and acting in a mechanical rather than in a chemical manner upon the growth of plants. THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. £5 That is, they constitute a porous mass ; with a certain power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, from rains and from the " water table," * which lies at a greater or less depth below the surface j with a greater or less ability to admit the circulation of air ; with a certain power to absorb and retain heat ; and with pores between its particles into which roots may penetrate. So far as these qualities are concerned, the most fertile soils are those which are loose in their texture, and neither light enough to become too easily dry, nor so heavy as to be too excessively wet in rainy seasons. Such soils may have a wide range of composition with- out materially differing in fertility. All that is required is that they contain enough clay to give them a good consistency, and enough marl, or vegetable mould, or sand to prevent their being too stiff". They may contain very little or very much sand, very little or very much vegetable matter, and very little or very much marl. Even the clay may be present in large or small proportion without necessarily making the soil much richer or poorer. These mechanical ingredients of soils may vary in the follow- ing proportions without materially affecting its fertility, pro- viding, of course, that they are so apportioned to each other as to make a mass of the proper consistency. Organic matter (vegetable mould) from 8 ozs. to 70 lbs. in 100 lbs. Clay «' 5 lbs " 35 " Sand (silicious) "20 " "90 " " Marl (calcareous or limy sand) " 5 " " 20 " " A perfectly fertile soil, out of which the water has been dried, may contain as much as 98 or even 99 per cent, of matters which never enter the roots of ordinarily cultivated plants, and which only perform the mechanical offices set forth above. Intimately mixed with this mass of material, and, like it, de- rived from the decomposition of the rocks or from the decay * By the " water-table" is meant the level of the standing water in the ground — the water which is neither dried up from the surface, nor drained away below, by natural or artificial means. It is nearer to the surface or farther away from it in proportion to the completeness of the drainage, the dryness of the season, and the amount of rain-fall. 26 IIANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. of the vegetable matter from which the soil was formed, are from one to three pounds in each one hundred pounds of other sub- stances which go to form the ashes of all cultivated plants, and the fertility or barrenness of any soil which is in good condition in other respects, depends on the presence or absence of these parts. All soils, once fertile, which, without growing more wet, have become unproductive (which have been exhausted) through an improper system of cultivation, have become so in consequence of the removal of the available supply of 6ne or more of this class of ingredients, and their fertility can be restored only by the addition of the missing substance, by the application of some agent like lime or unleached wood ashes, or by deeper plowing, better draining, the use of green crops, or exposure to the action of frost. The first process is a direct return of the materials which have been taken away ; the others either bring up similar matters from the unexhausted subsoil, or, by causing the corroding, or the pulverization of coarser particles of the soil, they expose to the action of roots, the same constituents, which had been locked up within them. The following table gives the names of the most important of these plant-feeding materials, and the proportion which they bear to the whole weight of the soil : — * Phosphoric acid I lb to 4 lbs in 1000 lbs of soil Sulphuric " i " 3 " " " " Magnesia 5 " 10 " " " " Chlorine I " 1 " " " " Soda 3 " 8 " " " " Potash I " 20 " " " " In all, from 1 1 J- " 47 " " < " These proportions vary a good deal within certain limits, but they are always exceedingly small. Lime varies very much more widely. To sum up the case, then, the soil, in a practical point of view, may be regarded as a mass of material, which admits the * For greater simplicity, I make no account of the silicates, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese, and which should be considered in a scientific treatment of the subject ; but which are not of great practical importance in this connection. THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 27 roots of the plant, and holds it in its position; absorbs the heat, air, and moisture which are required to be about them ; and contains in very small quantities, certain materials which are necessary to growth, and which can be supplied only by the soil. Nitrogen and carbonic acid, which are absorbed by the roots, are necessary constituents of the soil, but as they come originally from the air, I have deemed it best to postpone their consideration. THE AIR. The air, like the soil, consists of an immense bulk of ma- terials which, so far as the growth of plants is concerned, have mainly a mechanical action. This immense mass contains car- bonic acid in the proportion of about one part to twenty-five hundred, and ammonia in very much smaller proportion ; it also contains very varying, amounts of watery vapor. These three substances, — for, although only thin air to our senses, they are as substantial as the soil itself, and can be weighed, and measured, taken apart and put together again with as much accuracy as though they were wood or stone, — are the great sources of the material of which all plants are composed.* All of the plant, whether the smallest grass or the largest tree, is made up of the constituents of water ^ carbonic acid^ and ammonia ; save only the small part that remains as ashes after burning. One thousand pounds of red clover hay, out of which the water had been dried, contained — Ash 77 lbs. (from the soil.) Carbon 474 " ( '• carbonic acid.) "y'^''°g'^" 50 " |( . ^3,er.) Oxygen 378 « J ' Nitrogen 21 " ( " ammonia.) 1,000 lbs. * As in the case of some of the minerals in the soil, I make no account in this con- nection of nitric acid, nor of the many gaseous results of vegetable and animal decompo- sition, as I desire to state the leading principles of growth in the simplest form possible. So far as these gases are definitely known to have an influence on vegetation, 28 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. These proportions vary somewhat in different analyses, but not materially. Such of these substances as exist in the air are taken into the plant by the leaves, or, having been carried to the soil, by rains, (or added to it by manure, or by the decay of vegetable matter,) through the roots. The ashes are taken directly from the soil. The manner in which they are taken, and the sources from which they are taken most readily, will be discussed hereafter. What I desire to especially emphasize in this connection is the fact, that by far the larger part of all plants comes originally from an atmo- spheric source, and that only a small percentage of their constitu- ent parts is supplied by the mineral portion of the soil. THE PLANT AND ITS FOOD. The cultivated plant has two sets of feeding apparatus : the leaves and green stems, and the roots. The leaves and green stems absorb carbonic acid from the air, and the roots absorb from the soil the mineral matters^ am?nonia^ and carbonic acid. Within the organs of the living plant such changes take place as are necessary to separate these different compounds, to reject what is not needed, and to assign to its proper place in the organism each element that is to be retained. These changes take place without our aid, are beyond our control, and are therefore, in a practical point of view, not necessary to be discussed here. In red clover hay fully ninety per cent., — and in all other prod- ucts about the same proportion, — of the dry weight consists of carbon^ oxygen^ and hydrogen^ which are always abundantly sup- plied to the plant by the decomposition of carbonic acid and water. Of the ashes, certain ingredients, as magnesia., silica^ sulphuric acid., oxide of iron., chlorine., soda., the oxide of man- ganese^ and generally lime.^ are either found in all arable soils in they need in no way affect the practices of the farmer. The word " ammonia" is used here (in accordance with a common though not strictly scientific usage) to designate those nitrogenouscompounds which under certain circumstances may assume the form of ammonia. THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 29 such abundant quantities that it is not necessary to add them in manure, or they may be so cheaply and easily obtained that they are of secondary importance in practice. Therefore, it is chiefly desirable for the farmer to give his atten- tion to the sources from which the plant may derive its three remaining ingredients, — nitrogen^ phosphoric acid^ znd potash. With- out these none of our cultivated plants will attain their full de- velopment, and when a soil ceases to produce good crops, (supposing it to be in good mechanical condition,) it is almost always in con- sequence of a deficiency of one or more of them.' I propose therefore to restrict my remarks about agricultural chemistry to a consideration of these three substances, — without a proper manage- ment of which no man can be an entirely practical farmer. He raises no crop which does not contain them, he sells no animal or vegetable product which does not take them from his farm, and he has no soil so rich that they, or some of them, need not be returned to it to keep up its fertility. Whatever course of culti- vation he pursues, he should never lose sight of these elements, and he should pay no greater heed to the dollars and cents that he receives and pays out than to the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and POTASH which constitute his real available capital, and whose increase and decrease mark the rise and fall of his true wealth. Other constituents of his soil are removed in the crops and in the animal products sold, but they are such as are usually con- tained by the soil in larger quantities, or as may be cheaply pro- cured from other sources, and they are rarely removed to a suf- ficient extent to cause an impoverishment of the land. The elements spoken of above, as well as lime and other min- eral manures, will be more fully treated in the chapter on Ma- nures ; but I desire, at the outset of my work, to call especial attention to the characteristics and uses of these three cardinal elements. 30 HAXDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. NITROGEN. Nitrogen is an element not only of all plants, but of every part of the plant. Root, stem, branch, and leaves, at some period of their growth, contain it in every minutest part of their structure. Its quantity, in comparison w^ith the other elements, is extremely small ; but, in vegetable growth, the importance of any constitu- ent of the tissues is not to be measured by its quantity. It may play the smallest possible part in the building up of the plant, but so much of it as is necessary must be at the right spot at the right time. If the sap lacks the atom of nitrogen that is required, all the other atoms in the sap go for nothing. It generally forms from lo to 40 parts of every 1,000 parts of the dry weight of the whole plant — by far the largest proportion being lodged in the grain. The experiments of Boussingault showed that 1,000 lbs. of each of the following articles contain the amount of nitrogen stated in the table. (The substances were thoroughly dried at a high temperature). Wheat 23 lbs. " Straw , , . . , . 4 " Rye 17 " " Straw 3 " Oats 22 «< " Straw 4 « Peas 42 " " Straw 23 «< Potatoes I c « Beets '7 Turnips 17 «< Red Clover hay 21 " This, like all other tables based on vegetable analysis, is to be regarded as indicating the general proportion which the different elements bear to each other, rather than the positive amount of each. They vary a little, according to the conditions of growth, but not very materially. Tllfe KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 31 In the crops, as grown, of course these proportions will vary according to the amount of water they contain: i,ooo lbs. of turnips contain about 900 lbs. of pure water, while 1,000 lbs. of ripe peas contain only about 86 lbs. Therefore, 1,000 lbs. fresh peas contain about 39 lbs. of nitrogen, while 1,000 lbs. fresh turnips only contain about i|^ lbs. The reason why nitrogen, although forming a so much smaller part of the substance of our crops, is more necessary to be con- sidered by the farmer than the other substances that are derived from the air, is because, while there is a certain amount furnished by natural means, — enough to enable plants to make a tolerable growth, — they are generally benefited by the addition of an in- creased supply as manure. The other atmospheric elements take care of themselves. The air about the leaves and the water of the sap contain them abundantly, in a form that is always avail- able. With nitrogen the case is different. Although it exists in the atmosphere in the form most useful to vegetation, — that of ammonia and nitric acid, — the plant cannot usually obtain its sup- ply through the leaves, but it must find its way into the soil and enter the roots with the water that goes to form the sap. Ammonia and nitric acid are the universal sources of the supply of nitrogen to vegetation. Ammonia is a gas formed during the decomposition of vegetable and animal matters. These all con- tain nitrogen, and when they are destroyed, either by fire or by decay, their nitrogen escapes in the form of ammonia, or as nitric acid. Usually, the original product of all destruction of organic matters containing nitrogen is ammonia, which gives great value to all animal manure, which is one of the manurial ingredients of rain water, and which is the farmer's best assistant in making his land produce the largest crops that with its supply of mineral food, it is capable of growing. Liebig, speaking of the sources or the nitrogen of plants and of the supply of ammonia, says : — " We cannot suppose that a plant could attain maturity, even " in the richest vegetable mould, without the presence of matter " containing nitrogen, since we know that nitrogen exists in every 32 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " part of the vegetable structure. ******* \Ye " have not the slightest reason for believing that the nitrogen of " the atmosphere takes part in the processes of assimilation of *' plants and animals ; on the contrary, we know that many plants " emit nitrogen, which is absorbed by their roots, either in a " gaseous form or in solution in water. But there are, on the *' other hand, numerous facts showing that the formation in plants '' of substances containing nitrogen * * * * takes place in " proportion to the quantity of this element conveyed to their '' roots in the state of ammonia derived from the putrefaction '' of animal matter. ******* l^^ ^g picture " to ourselves the condition of a well-cultivated farm, so large *' as to be independent of assistance from other quarters. On ''this extent of land there is a certain quantity of nitrogen con- " tained both in the corn and fruit which it produces, and in the " men and animals which feed upon them, and also in their ex- '' crements. We shall suppose this quantity to be known. The " land is cultivated without the importation of any foreign sub- '' stance containing nitrogen. Now, the products of this farm " must be exchanged every year for money and other necessaries " of life — for bodies, therefore, destitute of nitrogen. A certain " proportion of nitrogen is exported in the shape of corn and " cattle, and this exportation takes place every year, without the " smallest compensation ; yet after a given number of years, the " quantity of nitrogen will be found to have increased. Whence, " we may ask, comes this increase of nitrogen ? The nitrogen in " the excrements cannot reproduce itself, and the earth cannot *' yield it. Plants, and consequently animals, must, therefore, '* derive their nitrogen from the atmosphere. ****** '^ A generation of a thousand million men is renewed every thirty '' years ; thousands of millions of animals cease to live, and are " reproduced in a much shorter period. Where is the nitrogen " contained in them during life ? There is no question which " can be answered with more positive certainty. All animal bodies " during their decay yield to the atmosphere their nitrogen in the *' form of ammonia. Even in the bodies buried sixty feet under THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 33 " ground, in the church-yard of the Egitse des hinocens^ at Paris, " all the nitrogen contained in the adipocere was in the state of " ammonia. ******** The nitrogen of putre- " fied animals is contained in the atmosphere as ammonia, in the " state of a gas which is capable of entering into combination " with carbonic acid, and of forming a volatile salt. Ammonia " in Its gaseous form, as well as all its volatile compounds, is of " extreme solubility in water. Ammonia, therefore, cannot re- " main long in the atmosphere, as every shower of rain must " effect its condensation, and convey it to the surface of the " earth. Hence, also, rain water must at all times contain " ammonia, though not always in equal quantity. It must con- " tain more in summer than in spring or winter, because the " intervals of time between the showers are in summer greater, " and when several wet days occur, the rain of the first must con- " tain more of it than that of the second. The rain of a thunder " storm, after a long protracted drought, ought, for this reason, " to contain the greatest quantity conveyed to the earth at one " time. * * * * " It is worthy of observation that the ammonia contained in " rain and snow-water possesses an offensive smell of perspira- " tion and putrefying matter, — a fact which leaves no doubt " respecting its origin." To repeat, — while there is a certain amount of ammonia and nitric acid presented to the roots of plants in a state of nature, the excessive growth at which good farming aims, can be stimulated only by the addition of increased supplies, either by the applica- tion of manures, or by such a system of cultivation as shall cause an increased absorption of ammonia from the air. Nitrogen is not only a necessary element of all plants, it is even more largely a constituent of the bodies and of the milk of animals, and it remains an object of the greatest care of the farmer through the whole course of his operations. He must first procure it to apply to his growing crops, must next so use it in his stock feeding as to produce the greatest development of meat, of milk, or of wool, and then must so economize that which the 34 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRi. animal has rejected, in the manure, as to have the largest possible supply for his future crops. PHOSPHORIC ACID. Phosphoric acid is, in a certain sense, even more important to the farmer than nitrogen. This latter is supplied in limited amount by natural process, — it is absorbed by the soil directly from the atmosphere, and it is brought down in the water of rains. Phosphoric acid, on the contrary, is a fixed ingredient of the soil, and it is never brought to it by wind and rain. We have, in the soil, a certain amount, and only a very small amount, while of this, the larger part is locked up in the interior of pebbles, or compact clods which no root can penetrate. All that is available to a crop is that which, being on the surface of the particles of the soil is directly within the reach of roots, and of such roots as come in contact with those particles. Probably, when any soil has been exhausted by improper husbandry, it is, in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, the phosphoric acid that is gone. From Maine to Minnesota the gradual advance of " enterprise," — that sort of enterprise which, as it passes from east to west, reduces the yield of wheat from 30 to 12 bushels per acre, — has been marked by the taking up of new lands, by the production of good crops for a few years, and of a precarious subsistence for a few more, and by the destruction of the profitable fertility of the soil within the life-time of the second generation, — all through ignorance or disregard of the value of phosphoric acid, and of the limited ability of the most fertile soils to supply it to consecutive crops. It is commonly urged, when phosphoric acid is mentioned, that most farmers do not know what it is, that a very large majority of them never heard of it. Speak of the use of phosphate of lime, (which is valuable mainly on account of its phosphoric acid,) to a man who is unacquainted with it, and he will probably say that it may be a good manure in "some parts," but that he does not know that it would do any good on his land. If he has just settled on new land at the West, he will show you his deep black loam, that " has THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 35 more richness in it than you can get out in a thousand years." This would be all very well, if it were possible for a farmer to compel his crops to live on the food that he happens to know about, if roots took nothing from the soil that he has not heard of, if plants did not require the same nutriment in "all parts," and if "richness" meant only good color and good tilth. So long as we were farming the stubborn hillsides of New England, and while our population needed elbow-room, while the Mohawk and Genesee valleys in New York, the Western Reserve and rich river bottoms of Ohio, and the wonderful prairies of the farther West invited the hard-worked farmers of the East to better crops, and an easier life, it was at least excusable that all who could get away should mind the bidding, and go ; and the world is better for their having gone, — richer and more free for the marvelous people and the marvelous opportunities of the North- west. But now, the case is greatly changed. The richest lands of the country have been brought under cultivation — many of them have been, already, ground under its heel. Emigration from the Genesee Valley, or from Illinois, to Kansas or to Colorado, is not excusable, on any agricultural grounds, and it can only do harm if its object is to seek richer lands. Richer than the pres- ent lands once were, the new lands cannot be, and any course of cultivation that would keep these from speedily running down would equally renovate the older soils. In the monthly report of the Department of Agriculture for October, 1867, the editor, in an article headed "Wheat Culture Ruinous," says, " Is proof of impoverishment wanted .f* one witness *' only is needed, — the soil itself. First thirty bushels per acre, is *' the boast of the farmer ; then the yield drops to twenty-five, to " twenty, to fifteen, and finally to ten and eight. Minnesota *' claimed twenty-two bushels average, a few years ago, (some of " her enthusiastic friends made it twenty-seven,) but she will " scarcely average, this year, twelve, and will never again make " twenty-two under her present mode of farming. To be sure, " there are excuses. The seasons do not suit as formerly, blight " or rust comes, or the fly invades, but all these things are evi- 36 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. • " dences of exhaustion, and prey upon the soil in proportion to its ** deterioration. * ''• '^ '" '•• The average yield of wheat in *' England is stated at twenty-eight bushels per acre, never less " than twenty-six, unless in a year of unusually bad harvests. *' The average in this country, is less than half of the lowest of " of these figures. Why is it.? Certainly not because our soil is *■*■ naturally poorer than theirs, neither because our climate is so " much worse for wheat culture. It is mainly for want of a " suitable rotation of crops, of a more careful husbandry of '' resources of fertilization, of a more thorough and careful cul- " ture." To show to what extent the element under consideration enters into the composition of the crops that we raise, and the various farm products that we sell, attention is asked to the following table : — Amount cf Phosphoric Act J contained i:i l,ooo lbs. of the Ashes of each of the folloiv- iug substances : — Grain of Wheat (average of six analyses) 498 lbs. " Indian Corn 501 " " Rye (average of tvi-o analyses) 490 " « Oats (with shell) 149 " " Buckwheat 500 " " Beans 357 " Hay 1 20 " Clover 63 " Potatoes 113 '* Beets 60 " Milk 217 « Bones 3 90 *' Lean Meat (about) 300 * It may be true that farmers generally do not know much about phosphoric acid, but it is equally true that it is high time they learned. In England they have got this knowledge to a certain degree — as we are getting it now, — at great cost, — and they are putting their knowledge to such eager account that they even ransack the battle-fields of Europe for human bones, and quarry the phos- phatic rocks of the whole world to replenish their soils. We are THE KEY-NOTE OF GOOD FARMING. 37 beginning to follow the same course here, and in the older parts of the country phosphates of lime, (good and bad,) meet with ready sale. Still, as a class, we are learning only one-half of what we ought to learn. We should know not only hew to get a supply of phosphoric acid for manure, but how to economize what we already have, and how to keep up the available supply in the soil ; and I bespeak attention to the further treatment of this subject under the heads of " Manures," " P'eeding," and '•'■ Rotation of Crops." POTASH. What has been said of the importance of phosphoric acid is in a measure true of potash. P'ortunately this substance has a name and many characteristics which are familiar to all, and its discussion does not require the use of " new-fangled " names and expressions. It is second to phosphoric acid in the extent to which it is used by plants, as will be seen by the following table: — jimount of Potash contained in l,O0O lbs. of the Ashes of the following substances: — Grain of Wheat (average of six analyses) 237 lbs. " Indian Corn 250 " " Rye 220 « " Oats (with shell) 123 « " Buckwheat.. 87 " " Beans 462 " H: y SC'O Clover , 161 " Potatoes 515 " Beets 390 " Tobacco leaves 264 " Note. — The proportion of potash varies considerably in growth under different cir- cumstances. The exhaustion of the tobacco lands of the South, and of the potato fields of western Connecticut, is mainly due to the removal of their potash, I postpone the further discussion of this subject also to the chapters on " Manures," etc. 38 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Having in the foregoing remarks struck what I believe to be the key-note of the scientific practice of agriculture, and indicated the points which seem to me to be of the most vital importance to every farmer who would regulate his operations, so far as is possi- ble, by what is positively known of the fundamental laws of fer- tility and growth, I proceed to the consideration of the daily de- tails of his business, the " How to do it" of practical farming ; — and I shall, whenever the occasion offers, recommend that the treatment of the soil and its products, of the live stock of the farm, and of manures, be based on what has already been shown to be the very groundwork of true economy in agriculture. CHAPTER IV. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. What fences to have, and how to make them, arc questions which may well engage the attention of the new occupier of a farm, — and of the old occupier too, for that matter. There is a great deal said about the advantage of dispensing entirely with fences, as they do in many parts of Europe, — and it is said with much truth. But, unfortunately^ in this respect Eu- rope is not America, and so long as we keep cattle at pasture, and have not pauper children to watch them, so long must we build fences to keep them from encroaching on our neighbor's property, and from straying into our own grain fields. It will be a happy day for American farmers when they can escape the necessity for building expensive fences, and can bring into their fields, and into clean cultivation, the weedy headlands which are now worse than wasted ; but that day will not come in many a long year, and, for the present, we must content ourselves with making fences as little expensive, and as little of a nuisance, as is possible. There are whole counties in New England, and probably in southern New York, in which all the farms are not worth so much to-day as it would cost to build the fences within their boundaries; and there are whole townships in which the fields will not average two acres in extent. I think I have seen farms in which they average less than one acre. I know some fences, 40 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. in Conn'ecticut, which are eight feet wide at the top, the sides being of immense blocks of granite laid to a face, and the center filled with smaller stones. Under the best management such a fence, with its headlands, will occupy land a rod wide, — or an acre for every half mile. Of course, the reason for building fences such as this is that there are stones to be cleared from the land ; but it would be much cheaper to bury the larger stones where they lie, by digging pits under them and dropping them out of reach of the plow, while the smaller ones could be disposed of much more cheaply, and in a way to do good instead of harm, by digging large trenches and making stone drains. It costs less to dig a ditch four feet deep and two feet wide, on an average, and put the stone in them than to lay up a good wall of the same dimensions. In the one case we make quite a serviceable drain, and in the other we encumber the land and obstruct cultivation. Of course, in our ordinary method of managing a farm, we must have fences around all fields which are to be used entirely or partly for pasture. We must have lawful fences around the whole farm, and must inclose the roads by which cattle are to be driven to pasture. Still, the smallest possible amount of fencing that will accomplish this, we should always seek to have. Pasture fields should be as large as is consistent with the neces- sity for giving them occasional rests. The whole pasture land of a farm should be divided into not more than three fields, and two would be better ; although, if they are never to be plowed, division fences, which may be standing, will do less harm than on cultivated land. So far as the arable land of the farm is concerned, I think that the greatest economy of cultivation, and the best results in crops would be secured if it were not divided by fences at all. The only reason why it should be, is, to enable us to pasture mowing lands in the fall, or to use them for pasture after they have ceased to produce paying crops of grass, — neither of which practices are consistent with the best cultivation. A good hay field should never have a hoof upon it, except during the operations of top- FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 41 dressing, rolling, or harvesting. If it produces a heavy crop of hay, that is enough to ask of it, and any attempt to get more by pasturing animals upon it will lessen its value for future crops, much more than its use as pasture will be worth. If it has ceased to produce good hay, in paying quantities, it should be renewed, either by being brought into cultivation, or otherwise. In giving this advice, I assume that we have no more land under the plow, and in meadow, than we can properly attend to. If we have, it will probably pay best to turn the excess out to pasture. When we go to the expense of plowing, cultivating, and harvesting, we should so manage as to get the largest possible return for our labor, and that we shall get by raising the largest crops that can be got with a reasonable outlay of money and work. Three tons of hay per acre is within the easy possibilities of any ordinarily good land, if it is properly managed ; and it will cost less, and pay better to get it from one acre than from two, to say nothing of its better quality. This subject will be discussed more fully hereafter, in consider- ing the rotation of crops, and the treatment of grass lands. If the course suggested above is adopted, it will be best not to have the course of the plow and of the mowing-machine inter- rupted by fences, and to have no weed-breeding headlands bordering our plowed fields. Even with a board fence, or an iron one, which occupies but little room, we must leave a space of at least four feet on each side that cannot be well cultivated — a total width of a half-rod given up to weeds, or at least wasted from the field, and an annoyance in many ways. The fence and head- lands around a square field of five acres will occupy nearly three- quarters of an acre. To this loss add the time spent in turning at the ends of furrows, in plowing and in cultivating, and the trampling of the rows in one case, and of the plowed land in the other, and the expense of keeping fences in repair, and we shall have a formidable sum total of the cost of too many fences. It would be impossible to establish any universal rule for all farms, and for all farmers, but it may be stated as a good general principle that every farm should have the smallest amount of 42 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. fencing that will answer the only purpose of fences, — that is, to keep loose animals where they belong. All that has been said against the inordinate use of fences, does not by any means lessen the importance of making such fences as we do have in the best and most thorough manner. In the first place, boundary fences must be " lawful fences," which have been described, (more forcibly than elegantly,) as *' horse high^ built strong^ and pig tight." Mr. Todd* says : " Our civil law, in relation to fences, which appears to be " founded on principles of strictest equity, provides that where land " is inclosed, and lies contiguous, and possessed by two different " owners, each must build and maintain a good lawful fence on " one-half the distance of the entire line between their land. *' According to law, A may not build his half of the fence exactly " on the line, neither may B, but each must erect his fence on " his own land as near to the line as he desires, but neighbors " usually erect their fences exactly on the line. * * * * * " If A refuses to build or maintain one equal half of a line *■'■ fence between his land and the land owned by B, by giving A '' thirty days' legal notice that he must build or repair his line " fence, and A neglects to do so, B may build or repair such " fence and collect of A the expense of building, the same as for " any other indebtedness. " If A has land not inclosed, or ' open to the commons,' which " lies contiguous to the land of B, if B desires to have his land " inclosed, he must build all the fence between them. If A should " then inclose his, he cannot hold one-half of the line fence. *' He must allow B to remove one-half of the fence, and he (A) " must build a fence in the room of it, or he may purchase one- " half of it. If he refuses to do either, B, the owner of the " fence, may prosecute A, and recover pay for half of the line " fence. " B may not, in a fit of resentment or frenzy, remove his " division fence, and throw open his own fields to the commons * Young Farmers' Manual, vol. i., page 285. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 43 " with impunity, unless he gives A ten days' notice of his inten- " tion to throw open his fields to the commons between Novem- " ber and April. During the time from April to November, if a " line fence is removed by B, and A is made to sustain any loss *' by such removal, B is responsible for the damage." Four feet and six inches is considered a lawful barrier against any animals, and a fence lower than that is, in the eye of the law, a sufficient barrier against the smaller animals. The court must decide whether the trespassing animals were unruly^ and whether the fence was sufficient to keep them out if they had not been. So far as interior fences are concerned, it should be remembered that a poor fence makes an unruly animal and a good fence an orderly one. It is better, where horses and cattle are to be kept, to make all fences four and a half feet high, though a part of this height may consist of a narrow bank of earth on which the fence is built. The material of which the fence is to be made must depend mainly on what is most easily accessible. In heavily wooded, new countries, capital fences are made of the roots of large trees, torn from the ground and set up edgewise. Where wood is plenty and stone scarce, rail fences are generally cheapest, although, in good lumber districts, board fences, with their greater durability, are more desirable, while, for general use, about houses, lawns, and gardens, a picket fence has some great advantages ; and when there are good stones to be had, nothing can supplant stone walls. TVherc notl.ing is to be had but a fertile soil, that of itself must furnish the fencing by producing a stout growth of hedge -row. If the material for the fence must be brought from a distance, iron wire netting is best to be used. To discuss the manner of making all kinds of rail, board, picket, and iron fences, (which offer a very great variety of charac- teristics, and may be made to suit,) and the growing of hedges, which is a study by itself, would either swell this volume to a very undesirable size, or compel the exclusion of other topics which are of greater importance.* * Those who seek information on these subjects will find them treated at length in the "Young Farmers' Manual," and in Warder's '" Hedges and Evergreens." 44 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY STONE WALLS. Stone walls and rail fences are the great fences of the country. The latter require very much less skill to build in an enduring manner than the former, and their proper construction is very much easier. In any country where they are much used, they are generally well made, and the different forms of " worm," "post and rail," " stake and rider," etc., are too well understood to need more than a passing notice in a hand-book. The stone wall, however, — when well made the best of all fences, — is generally built in the most unpractical and uneconomi- cal way possible. Probably the majority of the stone fences in New England commenced their career as a tier of boulders and irregular stones set one above the other, on the surface of the ground, and kept in position by a very nice adjustment of their centers of gravity; and such of them as were without yearly care have ended it as long heaps of rubbish, covered with brambles and elder bushes, — a sort of spontaneous hedge with a stone founda- tion, flanked by thistles, cockles, iron weed, and golden rod ; — possessing all the disadvantages and performing few of the offices of a fence. A poor stone wall is the worst fence that can be imagined. It is thrown down by every winter's frost, and must be repaired, — not merely every year, but, worst of all, every springy after the frost is all out of the ground, and when spring work is pressing. A good stone wall, with a broad base, a sure foundation, plenty of lock-stones, and well capped, is expensive to make, but when made it is made for a life-time. No unruly animal can break it down, no frost can " heave " it, and it need never be touched from one end of the year to the other. The two great requisites are, a solid and dry foundation and proper construction. More than in the case of almost any thing else there is a good and a bad way to do the work. Two walls may be built with the same stones, on the same ground, and at the same expense, and one be good and the other good for nothina;. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 45 The following cut (Fig. i) shows the cross-section of a wall two and a half feet wide at the base, one and a half at the top, and four and a half feet high, which is hardly worth the stone it con- tains. It stands on level ground, with no t ;,.. ,. drainage, and no foundation other than a moist soil. Its stones are laid up on the independent principle — all that each one asks of another is a place to rest. The sides are straight and the top level. To all outward appearance, it is perfectlv good. But when winter sets in, the freezing ground will raise the whole con- cern perhaps, an inch, in the air ; warm weather comes and thaws out the warm side first, and it settles an inch below the level of the other side ; then another frost lifts it up again, and another thaw settles it. A few such rackings topple down a lot of stones against the side of the wall ; then comes another frost, and these stones keep in the ground until after the opposite side has thawed, when that goes down, and more stones fall that way, or the wall gets a twist. A few winters of such racking work will finish the wall, and it must be rebuilt. Fig. 2 shows the cross-section of a wall built of the same stones laid in the proper manner, on a suitable foundation. The first thing has been to make a sufficient drain (which, for this purpose, 46 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. need not be more than two and a half feet deep) to remove the water of saturation. Then the earth has been plowed up into a ridge a foot above the general level of the ground, with a good water furrow at each side. On this ridge, after it has had a year to settle, the foundation course has been laid of the largest stones well bedded, well " chocked up," and with " broken joints " wherever the stones were not long enough to reach entirely across the wall. If some of the stones are so large as to reach six inches or a foot beyond the wall on each side, there is no objection to their use next to the ground. Above this course the stones should be well selected and so laid (on their best faces) that all of the smaller ones shall be bound together by long ones which reach entirely across the wall, or at least have a good bearing on each side of the joint between them. This "locking" is the most important part of the whole operation, and without it, no wall, even if built of square blocks of hewn stone, will withstand the movement against which even the best foundation cannot entirely protect it. The cap-stones, selected during the building of the wall, should reach entirely across the top. They had better be even six inches too wide than one inch too narrow, and the heavier they are the better will be their binding effect. Concerning the face of the wall, it is worthy of remark that, as a genera! rule, too much smoothness should not be sought after. The general line of the face should be true, and the crevices should be sufficiently well chinked to give each stone a firm sup- port, but the smooth faces of the stones had better be laid down than toward the face, as solidity is of more value than smoothness. In a park wall a smooth surface is very desirable ; in a farm wall extra smoothness should be sacrificed to solidity. If a stone wall is built in the manner last described, the chief care that will be necessary for its preservation will be to prevent boys from accepting the invitation which its broad, level top offers for a run ; if the cap-stones are not disturbed, and if its chinks are not loosened by climbing, it will not need repairing for many years. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 47 A very common and a very good substitute for the ridge at the bottom of the w^all, is a trench from one to two feet deep, filled with small stones, but even in this case it is better to have an underdrain, directly beneath, or at the side of the wall. If beneath it, with at least six inches of well-rammed earth separating it from the small stones in the trench, lest earth be carried into the drain by surface water and choke it up. Gates are so much better than bars that they ought to be uni- versally used wherever frequent passage with vehicles is necessary. Bars being much simpler, and not liable to get out of order, are sufficiently good for the entrances to pasture-fields, but the time lost in taking them entirely out, when the entrance must be fre- quently used for wagons, is a sufficient objection to their use in Fig, such cases. The difficulty of making a gate that will swing well on its hinges, latch easily, and swing clear of the ground, year after year, is to me one of the mysteries. The tendency of gates 48 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. to " sag," and of hinge hooks to work loose, seems to defy the wisest mechanical skill and to overturn all our preconceived ideas of the strength of material. There are gates which are always in order, which close of them- selves, and which latch when closed, but they are generally either very new or very expensive. A good, cheap, farm-gate, which will always be in order, is very much needed, and the need has given rise to no end of inventions. These, however, seem generally to seek to overcome the diffi- culty by a complication of parts, or by some device which sooner or later fails in practice. So far as our present experience extends, the simplest gate is the best. Probably as good a form as any is that shown in Fig. 3. Its most important parts are the heel post^ A, the arm^ B, and the struts C. On these we must chiefly depend to prevent sagging. They form together a right-angled triangle, and if made of hard wood, accurately fitted together and well pinned or bolted, will maintain their position as well as any other form. The other parts of the gate should be made as light as possible, and all, except the latch post, D, are as well made of pine as of heavier wood. The arrangement of the slats and tie-pieces is not very essen- tial. The strap of the upper hinge should run out at least two feet on each side of the arm, and be securely bolted. The hook of the top hinge should pass entirely through the post and be fastened by a nut, the thread being cut far enough down on the hook to enable us to draw it up, little by little, as the front end of the gate settles. The lower hinge of the gate is better, in all cases, to be made as represented in Fig. 4. This is so arranged that the gate, unless fastened open, will close of itself. It is much better to be obliged to fasten a gate open, in case of need, than to run the risk of its being carelessly left open. The post on which the gate hangs is a very important part of the arrangement. Unless FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 49 it remains firmly in its perpendicular position, the best gate will work badly. The best gate-post for farm purposes, is a single long stone, but a good stick of hard wood, set not less than five feet in the ground, and filled around at least for three feet below the surface with small stones, so that the frost can have no effect on it, is good enough — while it lasts. The various devices for holding the post upright by rods, or braces, are of little effect. The post against which the gate is fastened when shut, it is not so important to have set deeply. It need only be firm enough to withstand the racking to which it will be subjected when a high wind blows directly against the gate. It ought, for this pur- pose, to be a stout stick or stone, set not less than three and a half feet in the ground, and protected against the action of frost as recommended for the other post. The gate may be fastened by a hook, a latch, a bolt, or a pin. In either case, the fastening should be about half way between the top and the bottom, so that the force of direct winds will have an equal bearing above and below. If fastened at the top or bottom, the gate would be more racked in heavy blows. The form of latches are various. That which seems to me the best for farm-gates is shown in Fig 3, which is a bar of hard wood passing easily through two slots in the gate, and hung lightly on the short straps of iron, so that it will swing freely back and forth, hanging natu- rally in such a position that it will enter a groove in the post (Fig 5), or better, a space between two blocks in front of the post. This space should be at least half an inch wider than the thickness of the bolt, and the blocks should slope off gradually, and be faced with sheet-iron, over which the end of the latch will slip easily. When the gate is closed, this inclined plane or slope forces the latch back, and when it reaches the groove it drops in by its own weight. 50 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. FARM BUILDINGS. Concerning the dwelling-house, it is not worth while for me to say any thing, except so far as relates to the dairy department, and this will be treated hereafter under its proper head. Although the dwelling is a very important element of farm economy, the tastes of individuals and their ability to spend money for ornament and for convenience vary so greatly, that even a tolerably full discussion of the architecture of farm dwelling-houses would require very much more space than could here be given to it. In the vicinity of towns there are always architects and builders whose services can be commanded when- ever necessary. In the more remote frontier districts, the simpler style of dwelling, which is all that the opportunities of the situa- tion allow, is usually built without the aid of skilled labor, and for temporary purposes only. Barns, sheds, hay-barracks, sheep- folds, poultry-houses, etc., belong more properly to the range of subjects under consideration. The first principle to be observed is, so far as possible, to bring every thing within the same four walls and under the same roof, and to adjust the size of the structure, not so much to the present requirements, as to the future needs of the farm. In a very large majority of cases, however, it is not practicable to follow this rule. It would require a larger investment at the outset, than most farmers would be able to make, especially in view of the many other necessary expenses which must be de- frayed from their usually limited capital. Yet in all cases where such a complete barn as is above referred to cannot be built at once, the possibility of building it at a future day, and the import- ance of approaching it as nearly as possible at the outset, should be constantly kept in view. A given amount of space can be more cheaply inclosed in one large building, than in several small ones, while the concentration of stock and food under one roof, the greater ease with which barn work may be done in a conve- niently arranged large barn, and the much more complete super- FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 51 vision which a farmer is enabled to have over the indoor work of his assistants, are strong arguments in favor of the plan. Formerly, when hay wagons had to be unloaded entirely by hand, the height of the hay bays of a barn had to be regulated by the height to which it was practicable to pitch hay ; but the rapidly extending use of the horse fork or elevator has done away with this restriction. Hay can now be easily and rapidly raised to any height, and not only may we gain the extra space which the greater height of the bay gives, but a considerably greater capacity in proportion to the height, which comes from the closer packing at the bottom of a high bay. That it is much more convenient, easier, and cheaper to feed stock in the building in which all of the hay and other fodder is stored, every farmer knows without being told. How much easier it is, is only known to those who have spent their lives in foddering cattle in sheds and yards from distant hay barns, from which every forkful of hay must be carried in bundles or on a cart. Furthermore, the more hay has to be carried about the more it is wasted, and the more liable it is to be injured by bad weather, while the convenience of keeping manure is in exact proportion to the concentration of the stock, under the most favorable cir- cumstances. I have recently had occasion to give much attention to this question in undertaking the improvement of a worn-out and " run-down" farm of sixty acres,* on which, with sufficient capital at command, I am endeavoring to prove that good farm- ing may be made to pay, where bad farming has been starved out. My aim is to make sixty acres of land which would not, when I took it, support five head of cattle, furnish all the food, winter and summer, that will be required hy fifty head — except meal and grain for working animals. To do this, I need the best sort of a barn, with every convenience for storing hay, fodder, and roots, for cutting and steaming food, for sheltering animals, in hot * Ogden Farm, near Newport, R. I. 52 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. weather and in cold, for keeping all manure made, under cover, from the time when it is dropped until it is carted on to the land, and for " soiling" my animals in summer. It would not be difficult to make a plan of a barn with more various capacities and more conveniences than that at Ogden Farm for the handling of grain, etc., but it seems to be desirable that recommendations for the construction of farm buildings should be based as far as possible on the personal experience of the writer, — and in my own case I have endeavored to combine every thing that is really essential to convenience and economy. I have prepared drawings of this barn exactly as it is built, and with only such attachments as I purpose having in regular use. This is in no respect a " fancy " building. It is as plain as a pike-staff, as all farm barns should be, with not a dollar expend- ed anywhere for ornament, and, although it has many of the *' modern conveniences," they are all such as I have seen in practical and profitable use elsewhere, except in the single item of the railway and car to carry the feed to the heads of the stalls, which is a cheap arrangement that recommends itself, especially where animals are to be " soiled," — that is, fed on green fodder in their stalls all summer. The first problem that presented itself was to so arrange the barn that there should be no pitching up of any thing — that the hay should be hauled in wagons on to the top floor of the barn, and there stowed away by horse-power; thence thrown down to the feeding floor ; and the manure from this to the cellar ; — or, in summer, that the corn fodder or other green food should be dumped from a cart directly into the car, by which it will be taken to the cattle. In short, I wanted a side-hill barn, but had no side-hill to build it on, the land sloping only two feet in a length of one hundred feet. The barn stands in the middle of an old apple-orchard, about two hundred and twenty feet wide and three hundred feet long, two rows of trees being left all around the space occupied by the barn. The whole is surrounded, except at the entrance end, by a stone wall FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. Fig. 6. 63 54 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. five feet high, and is to be divided, by vv^alls of the same height, into four yards, communicating by gateways. Each yard contains about one-third of an acre, and is to be used as an exercising ground for one-fourth of the stock. The arrangement of the yards and buildings is shovi^n in Fig. 6. The arrangement of the entrances at the opposite ends by which the different floors are reached is shown in Fig. 7, which represents a sectional view through the barn at the head of the stalls on one side. A perspective view is shown in Fig. 8, which shows the east end and south side of the barn. The north side is exactly the same as the south, except that the stone foundation is carried up to the level of the top floor for better protection against cold north winds. Figs. 9, 9I, and 12 show the arrange- ment of the cattle, hay, and basement floors. The cellar was dug out seven feet deep at the east end and five feet deep at the west end, the earth excavated being mainly de- posited back of the abutment, making an easily graded road, strik- ing the level of the ground about two hundred feet east of the barn. The descending driveway, by which the cellar is entered from the west, slopes about four feet in a distance of thirty feet, the steepest grade about the barn. The entire basement on each side of the gangway is for the storage of manure, except that por- tion which is taken off by the root cellar, 22 x 25 feet. The walls are of stone, laid in lime and cement mortar, and the wall about the root cellar is topped out with brick, fitted closely around the floor timbers. The root cellar is ventilated by a window on the south side, which is also used for shooting in the roots. The gangway is left clear for wagons to be taken in to be loaded with manure. The arrangement of the feeding floor is tolerably well shown in the cut. Its only peculiarities are — (i) A railway which extends from the west end, the entire length of the barn, on which runs a four-wheeled truck, holding in summer a rack large enough to contain a horse cart-load of green fodder, and in winter a large box for cut and steamed food. (2) An open-slatted floor occu- pying a length of seven feet from about the middle of the line of FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 55 Fig- 7. 56 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Stalls to within five feet of the outer wall. This floor is made of slats six inches wide, placed one and a half inch apart. This arrangement gives light to the basement and allows all of the urine to run through, while the treading of the cattle presses through most of the dung, the remainder of which is thrown through small scuttle-holes near the outer wall. So far as I can judge from over a year's trial, this open floor is excellent, though, had the timbers been prepared for it, it would have been better to have had the slats run lengthwise of the barn, as in that case they would have given an equally good footing if only three inches wide, and the space for the passage of manure would have been doubled. It is intended that all of the horned cattle should feed from the level on which they 'stand. Green fodder, or long hay, being thrown directly on the floor between the front of the stalls and the elevated border of the railway, the cut feed being given them in tubs, which may be frequently set out in the sun, or, like the long fodder, being placed on the floor, which, as it is free from obstruc- tions, can be swept and washed out at pleasure. The cattle are tied by the neck. Should stanchions be preferred, (and it is an open question which is best,) they could still be fed in the same way. The oxen are fed from mangers inside of their stalls, so that the gangway between them and the horses, where the food is re- ceived from the upper floor, may remain unobstructed. The two loose boxes on the south side of the barn are of equal size, with a space of about a foot and a' half above the partitions for ventilation and for the lighting of the inner one, which has no win- dow. The entire floor of these boxes is slatted in the same man- ner with the floor under the hind quarters of the cattle. A rail from the division of the stalls to the outer wall, at the center of each side of the barn, may be used to separate the cattle of each range of stable into two sections, each having its own door com- municating with its own exercising ground. The hay floor, which is reached by a very easy grade over the embankment and bridge, has no center posts. The space from the floor to the bottoms 'ig. 8.— Perspective View of Barn, showing the east and south sides. To face page 56 Fig, 9. To face page 57. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 57 of the trusses (eighteen feet) is entirely unobstructed, save by the side braces of the three center frames, which were necessary to give stiffness to the building. The feed-room, tool-room, work- shop, and chamber are independent structures, seven and a half feet high, with strongly timbered ceilings, capable of holding any weight that it may be necessary to put upon them. The space above the workshop, etc., will be used for storing hay, while that over the feed-room will be used as a receptacle for cut hay, to be taken up from the cutting machine, which stands on the main floor west of the feed-room, by an elevator similar to that used for grain. The capacity of the hay floor will be about one hundred and twenty tons, besides ample space for wagons. The trap-door opposite the door of the chamber corresponds with one between the rail tracks on the floor below. Through these, roots are hoisted from the cel- lar to the upper floor, where they are cut by a root-slicer. The steam-box, grain and meal bin, etc., are in the feed-room, leaving sufficient space for the mixing of cut food, and its delivery through the trap-door to the rail-car below. A steam-boiler and a small engine for driving the hay-cutter will be erected in a shed north of the ox stalls, against the stone wall which, as already stated, is, on this side of the barn, carried up to the upper floor. Greater safety against fire makes this arrangement advisable. The reasons which have induced me to adopt this method of preparing winter food, and the details of the system will be set forth in the chap- ter on " Feeding." One winter's experience with a Prindle steamer and a horse- power hay-cutter has proven both the advantage of this mode of preparing food and the necessity for better means for cutting a large supply, and more abundant steam for cooking. A windmill of the style shown in Fig. 13, has been erected over a spring one thousand feet distant, forcing water through a pipe into a tank on the hay floor, communicating with iron water- troughs, one in front of each pair of cattle stalls, so arranged as to be always supplied with water, a system which has been in satisfactory use for some years on the farms of Messrs. S. & D. Wells, near Wethersfield, Conn. This arrangement for supply- 68 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Fig. 9>^. ! n ^ _ 3 f===- . -j B i . 1 / »•••:;:-: - 1 . 1- (..;b -o «j -a .. ■- -c c E / ! llllllllll 3 -JC i tf '~' , -^ .b o FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 50 ing water has now been in operation for a year, and it is in all respects perfectly satisfactory. The windmill is entirely self-regu- lating, and works steadily and well in all winds, having passed uninjured through some of the most severe storms ever known on this coast. It seems to be now as effective and secure as when it was first put up, and is all that could be desired. A windmill Fig. 10. SSBI of the same pattern, but of larger size — sufficient for driving a small grain-mill, thrashing machine, feed-cutter, etc., may be erected on the top of a barn, as shown in Fig. lO — which repre- 60 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY - I I I I-IILI-LI-L! j Lo-j-i I an 21 I I I I I xn Fig. II.— Barn at Ogden Farm— Cross-Section. a. Cattle Stalls. i. Hay-room (capacity of 120 tons). e. Feed room in one corner of hay-room. d. Passage between cattle, r /. Manure cellar — one end of the right-hand space being walled off for roots. g. Water tank. h. Tool-room, etc., in one corner of hay-room. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS Ql sents the mill with its sails "out of the wind." To set the mill running, they are drawn up, as shown in Fig. 13, and held in posi- tion by a weighted lever which yields to the action of too violent winds or too great speed. The ventilation of the barn not yet completed, will be by means of a simple covered opening, in the center of the peak for the hay floor, and two more active ventilators, one at each end, com- municating through wooden funnels, following the slope of the roof on each side, and descending through the hay-floor and the cattle- floor to the cellar. The manure cellar being entirely closed from the outer air, the ventilating pipes can be supplied only by drawing down the foul air of the cattle floor room, through the slatted floor. I append herewith the specifications for the carpenter work, which includes the sizes of the timbers. " All the materials for this building will be furnished by the " owner, and the contractor is to put them together in the most " thorough and workmanlike manner. The work of framing, rais- " ing, and covering, including shingling sides and roof, to be com- " pleted in thirty days from the time that the foundation walls are " ready for the sills. " On the north side of building and wing the foundation wall will " be carried up to height of under side of second story floor. On " the south and ends the wall will be carried up one foot above the " grade level, and on these there will be an 8 x 8 sill, the ends " to be carrjed up to and built into north wall. " The summer-breasts in this floor will be tenoned into the sill " on the south, and the north ends will rest on an 18-inch buttress. " Each summer-breast will be supported on two piers, as shown on " plan, and will be pinned to the sill. All these sticks will be " 6x8, placed edgewise. " On the first floor and over piers there will be 6x8 sup- " ports under two-inch flooring. " Corner posts 6x8, other posts 6x6, and one at every bay. " The girt will be 6 x 8 placed edgewise, and the beams of " second story floor will be framed the same as those of first " floor. 62 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Fig. iz. m^ TH K- -^ m o P .-^ nil Q - Lg m QC ■ 1 ■ ■ Q: B i Uj ■ » lo ct Q; ^ S 5 ^ s i ■ 1 ■ 1 ■ 1 tu 1 HiHI^H a O -1 w FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 63 " The girt on the north will rest on the wall, and will form the " sill on that side. " The plates will be 6 x 6. " All the posts will be framed as shown in framing plans, and the " braces 4x6 will be tenoned and pinned in a thorough manner. " The studs 2x6, and there will be six in each bay. Those " in the ends and in the lean-to will be spaced out in the same " manner. All outer studs will be properly framed. " The trusses will be framed as shown on section. The tie- " beams will be 9 x 6, made of three thicknesses bolted together. '' The principals and straining pieces will be 6x8. The tie- *' beam will be notched down to the plate and will be kept in *' place by means of an iron strap, secured on each side to the post " below the plate. The principals and tie-beams will be strapped *' together, as shown on section, and the tie-beam, to crown not " less than 2 inches, will be supported by means of iron rods, nuts, *' and washers, as shown on section. " Purlins 6x6, and to be notched in jack-rafters, also to be " notched in, to be 2 X 8. There will be 34 pairs on the main " roof. Rafters for lean-to will be of same size, and will be spaced *' in the same manner. They will also have braces or collar beams. " The ridge board will be 2 x 10. " On the west end of main building to give the necessary " amount of strength to carry the load, frame a truss above the " girt on each side, making the girt the tie-beam, and put in 6 x 8 " principals. Frame the whole together properly, strap the princi- " pals to the girt, and put a suspension rod with nuts and washers " into each truss. " Cover exterior of building, roof included, with hemlock " boards, set window and door frames, and shingle the whole build- *' ing, lean-to included. " The rafters will project 18 inches beyond the hne of the build- " ing, and the boarding will run up by the rafters till it meets the " roof boarding. " All floor joist will be 2X 12 and 16 inches apart from cen- " ters. Headers and trimmers for hatchways 3x12. g4 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Fig. 13. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. (55 " Make first floor gangway, front half of cow stalls, five feet '' out from the side walls, and floor of horse stable of 2-inch plank " matched with splines. Cover the rest of first floor with 2x3 *' joist one inch apart and spiked down. " In the stable floor and back of the horses there will be a gutter " with a pitch to the west, to take the water to the manure pit. " Cover second story floor with 2-inch plank, matched with " splines and spiked to floor beams. The flooring to be notched *' for posts and studs, and to fit up close to outer boarding. " All the windows are to have plain cases. They will be glazed '' with ordinary 8x10 glass. Besides the number of windows '' shown in the plan there will be one of the same size in each peak. " All doors not otherwise described will be hung with rollers at ** the top, and the frames of sliding doors will be of 2-inch plank. " Fit up the horse stables with permanent partitions the whole '' height of the story, making the stall divisions of the usual height. *' Close the mangers up at the bottom and in front up to the ceil- " ing. In the center there will be an opening, horse-collar shape, " with a cast-iron rim, and the bottom of mangers will be covered " with sheet zinc. " From gangway on second floor there will be covered openings " to let down feed into the mangers. " Opposite the horse stable there will be an ox stable as shown " on plan, fitted with a permanent partition, and to have openings *' on gangway for feeding. " On the second floor there will be permanent partitions set and " ceiled on one side and overhead with |-inch matched spruce. " The doors will all be battened, and that to the chamber will have " a lock and catch. " The hatches on both floors will be hung on hinges and will " each have a ring and staple flushed in. " Over the hatches there will be an eye secured to the ridge- " board for a fall. " There will be a bridge to floor of second story, made of "8x8 chestnut sleepers, and covered with 3-inch plank. "On each side of main" building there will be eave troughs. QQ HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *' with a pitch from the center to the two ends, and wooden " spouts to take off the water from the roof, also at end of lean-to. " All the outside doors have platforms in front as shown in ele- ** vations." For poultry, animals sick with contagious diseases, and such uses, small inexpensive buildings have been erected in the yard, as remote as possible from the barn. The swine are kept entirely in the manure cellar, being fed through a shoot from the feeding floor. The entire cost of this barn, including the digging of the cellar, materials and labor, and a liberal estimate for the cost of steam and water-works, and a horse hay-fork, will not exceed $7,500, or a yearly cost for interest, repairs, and insurance, of $700. It would be difficult to estimate in figures the yearly va/ue of such a barn ; but the perfect protection of all manure made, the sheltering of fifty animals and of all the implements and vehicles required on the farm, the saving of the labor of watering stock, the great economy of such convenient feeding arrangements, a saving of at least 30 per cent, of the food by steaming, (not in itself an ex- pensive operation,) the ability of two men to cut a week's supply of fodder in two hours by the aid of a steam-engine, the storage of 120 tons of hay, and the reduction of the labor of " soiling " to its very lowest point, must be worth far more than $700 a year. The increased value of the manure alone, over that which lies in an open barn-yard exposed to rain and sun, to " drenching and bleaching," would go far toward making up the amount, which is only $14 per annum for each animal accommodated. The barn is somewhat more expensive in the item of doors an- windows than it would need to be if soiling were not intended. For this, it is important to secure the most perfect ventilation in warm weather, which is accomplished in the case in question by the use of six doors, five feet wide, one door ten feet wide, ten single windows, and one double one, and by very thorough ventila- tion from above. The doors are all hung from the top on iron rails, and the single ones close against stout jambs. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 67 Of one thing I am very sure ; many a farmer in this country has detached barns and sheds which could not now be built for $10,000, yet which, from their small size and disconnected location, have much less capacity than the barn at Ogden Farm, and offer few of its conveniences, while they include no provision for the care of manure. A very good plan for a small barn, " for a farm of fifty acres or less," is given in Thomas's Register of Rural Affairs, vol. iii., p. 129, which is here given with his own description : — "The plan here given is sufficient for a farm containing fifty "acres under cultivation, and yielding good crops, with general " or mixed husbandry. For special departments of farming, it " must be modified to apply to circumstances. "Fig. 15 is a plan of the principal floor. Being built on a " moderately descending side-hill, the thrashing floor is easily " accessible through the wide doors on the further side, and the Fig. 14. — Perspective View. " wagon, when unloaded, is backed out. These doors should " be each at least five feet wide, so as to give an opening of ten " feet ; and about twelve feet high, to allow ample space to *' drive in a load of hay. The door at the other end of the " floor is about five feet wide, and is used for throwing out *' straw. A narrow window on each side of this door, and one " with a row of single horizontal lights over the large doors, "keep the floor well lighted, when stormy weather requires the " doors to be shut. 68 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " The bay, on the right, will hold at least one ton of hay for . 51^ every foot of height, or some 20 or 25 in I [ " I "all. By marking the feet on one of the " front posts, the owner may know, at any " time, with some degree of accuracy, how " many tons of hay he has in this bay, " after it has become well settled. The Fig. .5.-Principai Floor. u upright shaft, V, servcs at the same time A. A trap door, for throwing . ., , 1111 1 r down manure. to vcntilate the stablcs below, and for B. Closet for harness, saddle, u throwing down hay directly i.n front of buffalo skins, etc. *= TuiJi J C c. Tool room. the COW stablcs. It should be made or E. Trap-door for straw and roots, c^ianed boafds insidc, that the hay may F. Ladder to bay. ^ . V. Ventilator and hay shoot. " fall frccly, and for the same reason it S. stairs to basement. " should bc slightly largCf downward. It " should have a succession of board doors two feet or more " square, hung on hinges so as to open downward, through the " openings of which the hay is thrown down for the animals. " When not in use, these doors should be shut by turning " upward and buttoning fast. A register should be placed in *' this shaft, to regulate the amount of air in severe weather. " This may be a horizontal door at the bottom, dropping open on " hinges, and shut by hooking up closely or partially, on different " pins. "Fig. 16 shows the form of the ventilator at the top of the build- " ing. It is made of " wood, except the four " iron rods or bolts at the " corners, and secures the " advantages of Emer- " son's excellent cap, "which causes the air to draw upward at all times when there "is wind from any quarter. Fig. 17 is a section showing the " interior. "A fixed ladder, on the line between the bay and the floor, " enables the attendant to ascend readily at any moment. "As a basement is usually too damp for horses, a stable large Fig. 16. Fig. 17. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 69 " enough to hold five is placed on this floor. The middle stall " will receive two horses to stand abreast ; and being placed " opposite to the door six feet wide, will readily admit a span in " harness, for temporary feeding, which is often a great conve-? " nience. A narrow passage from this stall admits the attendant to " the barn floor. A trap-door at A allows the cleanings of the " stable to pass at once to the manure heap below. " These stalls are represented as only four feet wide. Five " feet would probably be better, making but one narrow stall on " each side the wide one, and allowing room for four horses in all. " A door under the girth, at E, allows straw and roots to be dis- " charged into the root cellar below — the roots being first depos- " ited there, and then a few feet of straw upon them, protects " from freezing." *' The Granary^ 8 by 13 feet, contains three bins which have " a part of the front boards movable or sliding, so that when all "are in their place, they may be filled six feet high. They will "hold, in all, about 350 bushels. The contents of each bin may " be readily determined by me-asuring and multiplying the length, *' breadth, and depth, and dividing the number of cubic feet thus *' obtained by 56, and multiplying by 45. The result will be " bushels. It will, therefore, be most convenient to make each " bin even feet. A scale should be marked inside, showing the " number of bushels at any height. Bags may be marked in the " same way, after trial, with considerable accuracy, and save *' much trouble in measuring, for many purposes, but not for " buying and selling. A short tube, with a slide to shut it, may " pass downward from one or more of these bins, so that bags " placed in a wagon in the shed below, may be easily and rapidly " filled. " A bay for unthrashed grain occupies all the space over the " horse stable, tool room, and granary ; and movable poles or *' platform over each end of the floor also admit a considerable " quantity besides. " The basement^ (Fig. 18.) This needs but little explanation, " The cows are fed from the passage in front of them, into which 70 HANDY -BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *' the hay-shoot discharges, in front of which a door opens to Fig. is.-Basement. " ^he shcd, for the ready feeding of an- "imals outside. The two inner stalls " shut with gates, and serve for calf-pens " when needed. Coarse implements, as fe I " sleds in summer, and wagons and carts " in winter, may occupy the inclosed space ROOTS &i STRAW I MANURE iSHEO li^ 1 " adjoining, entered by a common gate." For the very comprehensive requirements of a farm devoted to "mixed husbandry," — when live stock, fruit, grain, etc., are each to receive their share of attention, — I have seen no plan for building a barn and sheds that seems so complete as that prepared by Dr. Hexamer for the Agricultural Annual of 1867, and which he describes as follows : — " Explanation of Ground Plan, — The Main Building^ "50x80 feet, exclusive of the approach, contains ist. The " Cook-room for boiling or steaming and preparing feed, which isglso " a convenient place for butchering in winter ; , ^, are ventilators running to the roof; next this is the The *' Fruit-cellar^ and beyond this /', the cider press ; k^ place for *' coopering, cleaning barrels, etc. ; m^ a vault under the approach " to the third floor, intended for an ice-house, but which may be " used as a cellar, or very well as an engine-house, detached from *' the barn and made fire-proof; /, cool cellar for hanging meats; " «, «, «, «, descending planes from second story ; . " corn floor may be over one of the lofts. '^ ^ Dr. H. also recounts, as follows, "the conditions of a good barn," etc. : — " I. There should be one head, and " he should be able to control com- " pletely everybody and every thing in the whole barn. To "obtain this, 'Centralization' and one general system are " necessary. Without this no man can farm with profit, and no " barn plan is good which is incompatible with a high degree of "both. " 2. Arrangements for saving labor as much as possible, in " taking care of stock and other work. The easiest way should, " when possible, be the right way. " 3. Security for fodder, grain, roots, fruit, and all crops. " 4. Facilities for protecting, and means of making manure. " 5. Provision for the comfort and health of animals. " a. Full and direct light in the stables. " b. Ventilation of stables, cellars, and loft. " c. Southerly exposure of yards. " 6. Shelter for all tools and implements. " 7. Provision for work on rainy and cold days." Mr. Thomas, in the Register of Rural Affairs, quoted above, gives the following very useful hints to those who are about building barns : — " ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF BARNS. " Very few farmers are aware of the precise amount of shelter " needed for their crops, but lay their plans of out-buildings from " vague conjecture or guessing. As a consequence, much of " their products have to be stacked outside, after their buildings " have been completed ; and if additions are made, they must of "necessity be put up at the expense of convenient arrangement. 76 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRT. " A brief example will show how the capacity of the barn may "be accurately adapted to the size of the farm. " Suppose, for example, that the farm contains one hundred " acres, of which ninety are good arable land ; and that one- " third each are devoted to meadow, pasture, and grain. Ten " acres of the latter may be corn, stored in a separate building. " The meadow should afford two tons per acre, and yield sixty "tons ; the sown grain, 20 acres, may yield a corresponding bulk " of straw, or forty tons. The barn should, therefore, besides *' other matters, have a capacity for one hundred tons, or over " one ton per acre as an average. Allowing 500 cubic feet for " each ton (perhaps 600 would be nearer) it would require a bay " or mow 40 feet long and 19 feet wide for a ton and a half to " each foot of depth. If twenty feet high, it would hold about " thirty tons. If the barn were forty feet wide, with eighteen " feet posts, and eight feet of basement, about forty-five tons " could be stowed away in a bay reaching from basement to peak. " Two such bays, or equivalent space, would be required for the " products of ninety well-cultivated acres. Such a building is " much larger than is usually allowed ; and yet without it there " must be a large waste, as every farmer is aware who stacks his " hay out ; or a large expenditure of labor in pitching and re- *' pitching sheaves of grain in thrashing. " In addition to this, as we have already seen, there should be " ample room for the shelter of domestic animals. In estimat- " ing the space required, including feeding alleys, etc., a horse " should have 75 square feet ; a cow 45 feet ; and sheep about " 10 square feet each. The basement of a barn, therefore, 40 " by 75 feet in the clear, will stable 30 cattle and 150 sheep, and " a row of stalls across one end will afford room for eight horses. " The thirty acres each of pasture and meadow, and the ten *' acres of corn-fodder, already spoken of, with a portion of grain *' and roots, would probably keep about this number of animals, " and consequently a barn with a basement of less size than 40 " by 75 would be insufficient for the complete accommodation of " such a farm in the highest state of cultivation. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 77 " FORM OF BARN BUILDINGS. *' It has formerly been a practice, highly commended by *' writers, and adopted by farmers, to erect a series of small build- *' ings in the form of a hollow square, affording an open space " within this range, sheltered from severe winds. But later ex- " perience, corroborated by reason, indicates the superiority of a *' single large building. There is more economy in the materials " for walls ; more in the construction of roofs — a most expen- *' sive portion of farm structures ; and a saving in the amount of *' labor, in feeding, thrashing, and transferring straw and grain, " when all are placed more compactly together. The best barns " are those with three stories ; and nearly three times as much " accommodation is obtained thus under a single roof, as with the " old mode of erecting only low and small buildings. " An important object is to avoid needless labor in the trans- " fer of the many tons of farm products which occupy a barn. " This object is better secured by a three-story barn than by any " other, where a side-hill will admit of its erection. The hay " and grain are drawn directly to the upper floor, and nearly all " is pitched downward. If properly arranged, the grain is all " thrashed on this floor, and both grain and straw go downward " — the straw to a stack or bay, and the grain through an opening *' into the granary below. Hay is thrown down through shoots " made for this purpose to the animals below, and oats are drawn " off through a tube to the horses' manger. The cleanings of *' the horse stables are cast through a trap-door into the manure " heap in the basement. These are the principal objects gained '' by such an arrangement ; and as the labor of attendance must " be repeated perpetually, it is very plain how great the saving " must be over barns with only one floor, where hay, grain^ " manure, etc., have to be carried many feet horizontally, or ^' thrown upward. " HOW TO PLAN A BARN. " The first thing the farmer should do who is about to erect a " barn, is to ascertain what accommodation he wants. To 78 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " determine the amount of space, has already been pointed out. " He should next make a list of the different apartments required, " which he may select from the following, comprising most of " the objects usually sought : — I. Bay or mow for hay. 8. Root cellar. a. Bay or mow for unthrashed grain. 9. Room for heavy tools and wagons. 3. Bay or mow for straw. lO. Manure sheds. 4. Thrashing floor. II. Granary. 5. Stables for horses. 12. Harness room. 6. Stables for cattle, and calf pens. 1 3. Cisterns for rain water. 7. Shelter for sheep. 14. Space for horse-power. " If these are placed all on one level, care should be taken " that those parts oftenest used should be nearest of access to " each other ; and that arrangements be made for drawing with " a cart or wagon in removing or depositing all heavy substances, " as hay, grain, and manure. In filling the barn, for example, " the wagon should go to the very spot where it is unloaded ; the *' cart should pass in the rear of all stalls to carry off manure ; " and if many animals are fed in stables, the hay should be carted " to the mangers, instead of doing all these labors by hand. " If there are two stories in the barn, the basement should con- " tain, — I. Stables for cattle. 4. Manure shed, a. Shelter for sheep. 5. Cistern. 3. Root cellar. 6. Horse-power. 7. Coarse-tool room. '' The second floor should contain, — I. Bays for hay and grain. 3. Stables for horses, a. Thrashing floor, 4. Granary. 5. Harness room. " For three. stories, these should be so arranged that the base- " ment may be similar to the two-story plan, and the second '' story should contain, — 1. Bay for hay, 3. Granary. 2. Stables for horses. 4. Harness room. " The third or upper story, — 1. Thrashing floor. 3. Bays for grain, including space over floor. 2. Continuation of hay bay. 4. Openings to granary below. FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 79 " In all cases there should be ventilators, shoots for hay, lad- " ders to ascend bays, and stairs to reach quickly every part ; " besides which every bin in the granary should be graduated *' like the chemists' assay-glass, so that the owner may by a " glance at the figures marked inside, see precisely how many *' bushels there are within. A blackboard should be in every '' granary, for marking or calculating ; one in the stable, to '^ receive directions from the owner in relation to feeding, or " keeping accounts of the same ; and a third should face the " thrashing floor, for recording any results." So much for barns. I have used all the space that can be de- voted to the subject in a work having the wide range which this has ; yet I have hardly done more than to introduce the subject in its more important aspect, and have attempted only to enlist the interest of the reader, and, by showing him what others have done or described, to induce him, if he have need for a barn on his own farm, to give the subject, (which is more fully treated in other publications,) the fullest attention, and to study well the requirements of his own particular case. Other farm buildings will be considered in connection with the particular branches of industry to which they belong : corn-cribs, with corn culture, for example ; poultry houses with poultry, &c. In conclusion, I would say that I have found it to be to my own advantage, and am sure that other farmers would find it to theirs, to employ a competent architect to make complete plans of the whole work before commencing operations. It saves material, saves time, and saves the cost and annoyance of many alterations, which are sure to suggest themselves during the progress of the work, unless the details have been previously studied out as they only can be with the assistance of complete drawings made to a scale. BARN-YARDS. The barn-yard must necessarily be regulated by the character of the land on which, largely for other considerations, it has been found necessary to locate the buildings, yet it should have its due weight in determining the location. 80 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. When cattle are kept at pasture, at least during the day-time in summer, it should be a very good reason that induces a farmer to so place his barn that he cannot have the yard on the vi^armest and sunniest side of it. Ordinarily the coldest winds of winter blow from the north and northwest, while the warmth of the morning sun in winter falls best into nooks whose lookout is toward the southeast. Therefore a southeast exposure is usually the best. If there are to be several buildings, they should be so arranged as to shelter the yard from the north and west. Shelter from the east is not so important, but if it can be conveniently procured it has a certain advantage if so arranged as to allow the early morning sun to fall in the yard. A close fence, six or seven feet high, would be better than a high building. When a shed is to be used, it is a good plan to build the barn on the north side and the shed on the west side of the yard. The barn-yard ought, always, to have sufficient slope for sur- face drainage, but the wash should be collected in a pit or deep pond hole at one side, and into this, straw, leaves, and muck may be thrown to absorb the liquids reaching it. If cattle are to be fed in the yard, and are expected to make manure of a large amount of corn-fodder and straw, it is very well to have a nearly level yard, with a slight depression in the center, and to give them a dry footing by a profuse feeding of these materials, of which they will consume the best parts, trampling the refuse under foot. Such an accumulation properly composted during the summer will make excellent manure for autumn use. No farmer, however, who has once learned the feeding value of both corn-fodder and straw, when cut and mixed with other food, will continue to waste them under the feet of his animals, unless he is entirely careless of his own interest, or has a superabundance of fodder that he cannot sell to advantage. By hook or by crook, he will contrive, in some way, to make them available for food. Whatever plan is pursued the surface of the barn-yard should receive no water, save that which falls directly upon it from the clouds. Surface gutters should protect it against the flow of FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 81 water from other ground, and the roofs should be supplied with eave-troughs, discharging into cisterns or outside of the yard. It will always pay to build a rough shed over that part of the yard which is to contain the pit or hollow for the manure, and the yard drainage, — especially if the droppings of the cattle are daily removed from the rest of the yard and added to a compost under the sheds. FARM ROADS. I would not feel justified in recommending that extra men and teams be employed to make substantial farm roads, but there are at least a hundred half days in the year, when the regular force of the farm can be occupied with such work — adding by every hour's work to the permanent future efficiency of the teaming appliances. Any thing which will enable each team, in all future time, to carry a heavier load than is now practicable, or to carry the same load more easily, must add to the permanent money value of the farm. The foundation of all good roads — at least when any improve- ment of the natural roadway is necessary, — lies in good drainage. Roads are made soft only by water. Either the subsoil is so badly drained that the water of the surface soil cannot sink into it, or it is so wet that the frost is a long time in leaving it in the spring. So long as the frost remains in the subsoil it forms an effectual barrier to the descent of the water which makes the surface soft. Land on a well-drained subsoil parts with its frost very much earlier in the spring than that on an undrained one does. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance that the subsoil be as dry as it can be made. Fig. 14. Thorough draining will not make a road always hard, but it will very much lessen the duration of the muddy condition, both when 82 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the frost is coming out of the ground and in times of protracted rains. A narrow road, say not more than twelve feet wide, may be sufficiently drained by a single Hne of tiles laid under its center, as shown in Fig. 24 ; but if it is much wider than that it will be better to lay a drain at or near each side, as shown in Fig. 25. These drains should not be less than three feet deep. The manner of constructing them is given in the chapter on " Drain- Fig. 25. age." They should be made with the same care and in the same manner as ordinary land drains, and may often be connected with the same system. While a good underdrain, alone, will often very much improve a good road, it is usually advisable, especially in heavy land, or on land with a heavy subsoil, to use stones, and if possible gravely which will make a road good at all seasons of the year. As in the case of many other sorts of farm work, there are two ways of making a stone road, both equally costly, but by no means equally effectual. One way is to dig out the road to a depth of a foot and a half for its whole width, and fill it to within six inches of the surface with stones carefully laid on their flat sides, and brought to a uniform face at the top — then to cover them with gravel or other fiUing. If gravel cannot be obtained, a mixture of broken stones and common earth makes a good Fig. 26. surface. This sort of road (shown in Fig. 26) is excellent when first made, but a few years of heavy teaming will " shake it to pieces." The jarring caused by heavy teams passing over it will FENCES AND FARM BUILDINGS. 83 displace some of the stones in the lower bed, and the gravel from above will work under them. When this disturbance is once commenced it goes on more and more rapidly, until finally some of the stones will have worked their way to the top, some of the gravel will have gone to the bottom, and the road will be really in a worse condition than before the improvement was undertaken — but ior farm roads the plan is a good one. A much better and more durable road, made on a modification of what is called the Telford plan, although no more expensive than that just described, is very much more satisfactory and enduring, especially for public highways. The ground is dug out to a depth of two feet at the sides, and nine or ten inches in the center, but in a curved line, as shown in Fig. 27. The depressions at the sides are solidly packed with Fig. 27. small stones to the line of the slope of the surface of the road. Larger stones — as flat ones as can be found — are then set on edge as closely as possible over the whole bed, and " spalls" or " chink- ing stones," are tightly wedged in between their tops.' A heavy iron maul or sledge-hammer is then used to drive in the wedging stones, and to break down the projecting points of the larger stones, until the whole mass is as firm as a floor. Sufficient " crown" should be given to this bed to afford surface drainage, (say 3 inches in an i8-ft. road,) and only so much gravel or earth put upon it as will completely cover the stones, and prevent the wheels being jarred by them. If properly drained and well made, such a road will last a life-time, and will require very little atten- tion to keep it in order. CHAPTER V. DRAINAGE. DRAINING WITH TILES. To condense within the limits of a few pages even a tolerably complete description of the construction and mode of operation of tile-drains, and to give a clear statment of the theory of under- drainage in general, is no easy task, and it would probably be of little use for me to attempt to do it more satisfactorily than by making the following extracts from what I have already written on the subject.* The following articles on the subject, which I have at various times furnished for the Evening Post^ properly bear upon this branch of it: — WHAT IS UNDERDRAINING ? It is an axiom of good farming that all land should be thoroughly underdrained : underdrained, of course, either naturally or arti- ficially. There is nothing mysterious either in the operation or in its effect. The ability to plow and plant early in the spring, the perfect germination of seeds, the rapid and luxuriant growth of healthy plants, the ability to plow and otherwise cultivate growing crops, *I. An Essay on "Tile Draining," in the American Agricultural Annual for 1867. New York : Orange Judd & Co. a. "Draining for Profit and Draining for Health," published by the same house. {1867.) 3. A Chapter on "Tile Draining," in the Farmers and Mechanics' Manual. New York : E. B. Treat & Co. (1868.) 4. Various Communications to the American Agriculturist and to the Ne-w Tori Evening Post on the same subject. DRAINAGE. 85 and the opportunity for seasonable harvesting and for fall plowing, all depend more upon the condition of the soil as to moisture than on any other single circumstance. For the purpose of illustration, we will suppose an acre of land to be inclosed in a water-tight box, its bottom being four feet below the surface, and its sides reaching to the surface, with no outlet at any point. The whole acre lies open to the rain, and the whole depth is saturated by every heavy storm. This acre of land may have the most thorough cultivation of which it is capa- ble, and may be manured as land was never manured yet, and its produce will inevitably be precarious. In very good seasons it may be fair. In wet seasons it will be weak and badly matured, and in dry ones it will be mean and stunted. It will be the first of May instead of the middle of March when we plow it ; the plowing will paste together more than it crumbles it ; the har- rowing will do as much harm as good ; the seed will probably rot in the ground and have to be planted a second time ; and the growth will be slow except during the short interval (often only a few days) between the conditions of "too wet " and "too dry." In short, the soil will be putty one-half of the time, and brick the rest of it : " It girns a' the summer and it greets, a' the winter." It is such a soil as no man can afford to cultivate at all. Now let us knock the bottom out of our box and see the result. Of course we must assume that it is underlaid by a stratum of gravel or other porous material. The water which has filled the spaces between the particles of the soil, lying there until evaporated at the surface, sinks slowly away and leaves the whole mass pervaded by air, the particles themselves holding by absorption enough water to make them sufficiently moist for the highest fertility, but affording very little for the cooling operation of evaporation at the surface. When a heavy rain falls, the soil may be for a short time saturated (soaked full) with water, and this drives out all of the air it has contained. As the water settles away, after the rain, fresh air follows and embraces every atom with its active fertilizing oxygen, and deposits, in the upper layers, carbonic acid, and ammonia, and all else that makes air impure and soil rich. Indeed, the water itself has washed 86 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the air clean, and then on filtering through the loose soil, has deposited, near enough to the surface to be within the reach of roots, all of its impurities. Seed planted now finds as much moisture as it needs for germ- ination, and only as much ; its rotting in the ground is impossible. And if we will follow all of the processes of growth, and all of the operations of cultivation and harvesting, we shall find that the former are never impeded by too great wetness of the soil, and that the latter may be performed always in good season and with the best effect. Neither are the crops destroyed, or even greatly injured by drought, for if there is one effect of underdraining that is established beyond doubt, it is that it is at least the basis of all those operations by which we most successfully attempt to over- come the effect of drought ; and it isfitself the greatest of all preventives of drought. Instead of being a pest to the farmer, disappointing half of his hopes, and baffling his best skill, this acre of land has become a pliant tool in his hands. So far as it is possible for him to be independent of the changes of the weather, he has become inde- pendent of them, and he works with a certainty of the best reward, which changes his occupation from a game of hazard to a work of fair promise. To answer the question, then, which stands at the head of this article, underdraining is the knocking out of the bottom of the water-tight box in which our soil is incased. If we are the happy occupiers of land through which water settles away as it falls, we have no need of the operation. But if our only (or our chief) outlet is at the surface, with the drying sun and wind for draining tiles, we do need it, and we can never hope for the success to which our seed, our manure and our labor entitles us until we adopt it. How it is best to do the work depends on soil, situation, price of labor, price of material, and depth of outlet that can be secured. Stone drains, tile drains, brush drains, board drains, mole plow tracks, and all other conduits for water are proven pretty good, so long as they continue to afford a channel through which the water can run freely. The choice between them is based on the DRAINAGE. 87 questions of durability, cost, and availability. The only positive rules applicable to all cases are that the drain should be a covered one, and not an open ditch, and that it should be, w^henever possi- ble, at least three, and better four, feet deep. FARM DRAINAGE. While it would hardly be fair to say that farmers are more slow than men of other classes to adopt improvements in the methods of their trade, as hardly any other industry has been, within the same time, so completely revolutionized as has farming, in the single item of hay-making, since the introduction of the mowing machine — still there are some improvements whose practical use- fulness, and whose applicability are universally acknowledged, yet which seem to find it hard work to fight their way to general adoption.* The drainage of moist land is one of these. We use the ex- pression 7nQist land^ because land which is absolutely wet is either drained or let alone, as a matter of course. Every farmer knows that his swamps must either be made dry (or at least only moist) or must be left to the bulrushes. The far larger part of our cul- tivated farms, which come under the designations " late," " naturally cold," " heavy," " sour," " springy," etc., — the larger part of all our more fertile lands, that is, — are cultivated year after year, under very heavy disadvantages ; their half crops, and the extra labor and "catching" work that they entail, being accepted as a sort of doom from which there is no available means of relief. Almost every farmer of such land is ready to admit that it would be better for being drained, but he has got on so long with- out it, and draining is such expensive work, that, having no example for its benefits before his eyes, he " gets on " without it to the end of his days. It does seem hard to believe that on solid upland, that only cost fifty dollars an acre in the first instance, and produces fair crops in fair seasons, it will pay to spend from fifty dollars to one hundred dollars an acre more to make it a little dryer, where more of the same sort can be bought at the original price. But exactly this 88 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. must be believed before farming can become in America what it already (and by means of drainage) has become in England, and before our farmers can be so successful as they ought to be and as they have the means of becoming. The cost of draining (and its cost is the great obstacle to its adoption) should be compared, not with the cost of the land, but with the capital on which the yearly cost of labor, seed, and manure is the interest. For instance, the following is a very moderate estimate of the expense of raising an acre of Indian corn, when it is intended to be the first crop of a rotation running through four or five years : — Plowing $5 oo Harrowing I 50 Manure 1 2 00 Seed 50 Planting *2 00 Cultivation (hoeing, &c.) 7 50 Harvesting 10 00 $38 50 This is a constant quantity, and is an outlay that must be made on wet land as well as on dry, on cheap land as well as on dear. It is (at seven per cent.) the interest on over $500. That and the $50 paid for the land make the total investment of capital in the operation. It will be a good crop — a very good one — on such land as we are describing (" naturally cold " land) that yields fifty bushels of corn and two tons of fodder, worth $57 50 — or about 10 per cent, on the investment of $550. By precisely the same manuring and cultivation, on the same land, after thorough underdraining, (say at a cost of $100 per acre, although this is too high,) in a season that would yield the above crop on the undrained land, we should surely get seventy-five bushels of corn and three tons of fodder, worth $86 25, or thir- teen and a third per cent, interest on an investment of $650. This difference of crops, (an increase of fifty per cent.,) costmg only the interest on the outlay for draining, which is as permanent as the land itself, is not more than may be expected under average DRAINAaE. 89 circumstances ; yet we have stated only a part of the argument on which the apostles of drainage justly depend for the advance- ment of their ideas. Land that remains wet so far into the spring as often to delay the plowing until it is time to plant, may, after being drained, often be plowed in March instead of May ; when the seed is planted, it will never be rotted in the ground and call for a new planting, if the water can find its way to the drains below. Weeds, which grow while the land is too clammy to be hoed, and get beyond our control, so that when the ground is dry hoes and horse-hoes have to wage an unequal warfare against them, may, on drained land, be attacked on almost any sunny day and killed with little work ; and when the time comes for hauling off the crop, as in spring in hauling on manure, it will not be necessary to wait weeks for the ground to be solid enough for the teams to work, nor will the ground be so much injured in the operation. In short, work can be done in proper season, done in a proper manner, and done with a definite certainty of a fair return, and with very much less dependence on the weather than when the water of heavy rains has to lie soaking in the soil until dried up by the sun and wind. It may be objected to the above calculation that it is unfair to capitalize the annual cost of cultivation, manure, etc., because these expenditures come from the yearly income of the farmer, and do not represent the interest on his capital. If this view of the case be taken, it will surely be fair to charge the cost of drain- ing by its annual interest, and not by its gross amount, for it bene- fits not only the crop of the first year, but of all subsequent years — and often in an increasing degree — while it is subject to no deterioration, but remains as permanent and as safe an investment as is a mortgage on a neighbor's farm. What is needed is that we have more general information on the subject, more practical examples of the beneficial effects of draining, and cheaper draining tiles. All of these will come slowly at first, but they are coming surely ; and they cannot fail to increase in rapid progression, by the very effect of their own influence. 90 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. UNDERDRAINING versus DROUGHT. That land should be made damper by being made more dry, that underdraining should be one of t^e best preventives of the ill effects of drought — this is the apparently anomalous proposi- tion on which one of the strongest arguments in favor of draining is based. When we see a field baked to the consistence of a brick, gap- ing open in wide cracks, and covered with a stunted growth of parched and thirsty plants, it seems hard to believe that the simple laying of hollow tiles four feet deep in the dried-up mass would do any thing at all toward the improvement of its condition. For the present season it would not ; but for the next it would, and for every season thereafter, and in increasing degree, so long as the tiles continued to act as effective drainage. The baking and the cracking, and the unfertile condition of the soil are the result of a previous condition of entire saturation. Clay cannot be moulded into bricks, nor can it be dried into lumps, unless it is made soaking wet. Dry or only damp clay, once made fine, can never again be made lumpy unless it is first made thoroughly wet, and is pressed together while in its wet condition. Neither can a considerable heap of pulverize'd clay, kept covered from the rain, but exposed to sun and air, ever be- come even apparently dry except within an inch or two of its surface. Underdraining, if the work is properly done of course, after it has had time to bring the soil for a depth of two or three feet to a thoroughly well-drained condition, will equally prevent it from becoming baked into lumps, or from being, for any considerable depth below the surface, too dry for the purposes of vegetation. In the first pjace, the water of heavy spring rains, instead of ly- ing soaking in the soil until the rapid drying of summer bakes it into coherent clods, settles away and leaves the clay, within a few hours after the rain-fall ceases and before rapid evaporation commences, too much dried to crack into masses. Of course, this is only the beginning of the operations of :m- DRAINAGE. 9I provement. It is merely the foundation, but on heavy soils it is the necessary foundation, of the processes (natural and artificial) by which the improvement is effected and made permanent. The only direct effects of draining are to prevent the soil from ever being completely saturated for any considerable time, and to re- move from below water, which if not so removed would be evaporated from the surface. The formation of a crust on the surface of the ground is in direct proportion to the quantity of water that is removed by evaporation, and the crust constitutes a barrier against the admis- sion of ait in direct proportion to its thickness. Consequently, the larger the quantity of the water that is removed by the drains the smaller is the obstacle offered to the entrance of air. The more constantly the lower parts of the soil are relieved from excess of water and supplied with air, the more deeply will roots descend, and the more frequently will the air in the lower soil be changed — the easier its communication with the atmos- phere. On these two principles depends the immunity from drought which underdraining helps us to secure. In dry weather the soil gets its moisture from the deposit of dew — on the surface during the night, and on the surfaces of the particles of the lower soil constantly, day and night. The familiar example of the " sweating " of a cold pitcher that stands in the sun and wind on a hot July day, illustrates the manner in which the dew-laden air of our dryest weather gives up its moisture (greater then than at any other time) to the parti- cles of the cool-shaded lower soil with which it comes in con- tact. A box of finely pulverized earth, two feet deep, previously dried in an oven — placed in the sun and wind on the dryest and hottest day of summer, would soon become sufficiently moist for the growth of plants, by the deposit of dew among its lower and cooler particles. Let the same earth be saturated with water and closely compressed, and it would, under the same circum- stances, be baked and dry throughout its whole depth. No air could enter for the deposit of dew, and, from Its compact con- 92 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. dition, all of the moisture that it contains would move, by capillary attraction, from particle to particle, to supply the evaporation at the surface, vi^hile the crust thus formed on the surface would prevent the free admission of air, even if the lower soil were loose and porous. It is the same in the field. A heavy clay soil, saturated with water, dries up to a condition that will not admit of the circula- tion of air. Even if the thin surface-soil, containing much vege- table matter, is loose enough, it is soon heated to such a depth that the little moisture it receives during the cooler parts of the day is dried out by the midday sun, while the compact subsoil is impervious to all atmospheric influence. Plants grow well enough during the weeks that separate the rains of early spring from the heat of midsummer ; but when the drought sets in — the roots being only in the surface-soil — for roots will not enter a cold, saturated subsoil — vigorous vegetation ceases, and we accuse Providence of having sent us a scourge for our sins. As well blame Providence for our loss if we neglected to plow and har- row and plant at seed-time, as for loss from neglect to drain away the water that places us at the mercy of the drought. If we underdrain the land, even without the use of the sub- soil plow, — but rather with it,— the early growth will be less pre- carious and more uniform, and the roots of our crops will push down into the subsoil, where they will find, all through the dryest summer, enough moisture for their uses. For the first year or two, of course, we could only hope to modify our evils, but in time we should find, as the writer has found in his own practice, that if we keep the surface of our underdrained ground well stirred, a six weeks' drought, that lays the whole country side bare, has little power to diminish our crops. KINDS OF SOIL WHICH ARE BENEFITED BY TILE-DRAINING. All soils which are so retentive that the water of rains is not (at least during the season of growth,) absorbed as it falls, and carried readily down to a point below the ordinary reach of the roots of crops — say to a depth of at least three feet — will be DRAINAGE. 93 benefited by draining. With the exception of actual swamps, the soils which derive the greatest advantage, are, of course, those which, during the spring and fall, are completely saturated with water, and during the heat of summer, are baked to a hard crust and broken with fissures ; but all heavy loams, friable soils, which rest on impervious subsoil (or hard pan), — indeed all but sands, and the lighter deep loams and gravels — are very much benefited by such a removal of their excess of water as can be economically effected only by tile-draining. THE MODE OF ACTION, AND THE EFFECT OF UNDERDRAINS. A thoroughly underdrained field is one which is underlaid, at suitable intervals, with lines of continuous pipe drains, which admit the water of the soil, and convey it to an outlet, from which it is completely removed. The water which falls upon the surface is at once absorbed, and settles through the ground until it reaches a point where the soil is completely saturated, and raises the general water level ; when this level reaches the floor of the drains, the water enters at the joints and is carried off. That which passes down through the land lying between the drains, bears down upon that which has already accumulated in the soil, and forces it to seek an outlet by rising into the drains.* For example, if a barrel standing on end be filled with earth which is saturated with water, and its bung be removed, the water of satura- tion (that is, all which is not held by attraction in the particles of earth) will be removed from so much of the mass as lies above the bottom of the bung-hole. If a bucket of water be now poured upon the top, it will not all run diagonally toward the opening ; it will trickle down to the level of the water remaining in the barrel, and this will rise and run off at the bottom of the orifice. In this manner the water, even below the drainage level, is changed with each addition at the surface. In a barrel filled with coarse pebbles, the water of saturation would maintain a nearly level surface ; if the material were more compact and retentive, a true * Except from quite near to the drain, it is not probable that the water in the soil runs laterally toward it. 94 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. level would be attained only after a considerable time. Toward the end of the flow the water would stand highest at the points farthest distant from the outlet. So, in the land, after a drenching rain, the water is first removed to the full depth, near the line of the drain, and that midway between two drains settles much more slowly, meeting more resistance from below, and for a long time, will remain some inches higher than the floor of the drain. The usual condition of the soil (except in very dry weather) would be somewhat as represented in the accompanying cut (Fig. 28.) Fig. 28. ^f^?" -i.'.ti-^i DRAINS The dark shading to the line b represents the water of satura- tion in the soil, which, immediately after a rain has stood at 8o3 " Ammonia 55 Soluble phosphoric acid 1 2 " Insoluble " " 12 " Potash 47 « Total of the more valuable parts 127 « This seems, at first sight, to be an exceedingly small propor- tion of the more valuable fertilizing ingredients ; yet, if we esti- mate them at their market price, we shall find that they alone are sufficient to give great value to the manure. In Judd's "Agricultural Annual " for 1868, (p. 40,) we find the following : — " From a comparison of the cheapest available sources of the " most valuable ingredients in manures, we give the following as " not far from fair prices by which to estimate fertilizers (it is 202 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " well, in making these estimates, to fall a little below, than to go " above the real value) : — " Ammonia, 20 cents per pound. " Phosphoric acid, (insoluble,) 5 cents per pound. " Phosphoric acid, (soluble,) 14 cents per pound. " Potash, 5 cents per pound." Estimated at these rates, and supposing Dr. Voelcker's analysis to be of an average sample of manure, the value per cord would be:— Ammonia, 55 lbs. at 20c $11 00 Soluble phosphoric acid, 13 " " 14.C I 82 Insoluble " " 12 " " 5c 60 Potash, 47 " " 5c 2 35 $15 77 Of course the only real dependence to be placed on this calcu- lation is confined to the question of comparative value, when con- sidering the relative advantages of different manures. Still, it shows, unmistakably, that in all localities where manures are used at all, that made on the farm is very much too valuable to be kept under the eaves of a barn, or in a yard that will not protect it from being washed away by the rain. It is difficult to believe that these four constituents of average farm-yard manure are worth so much as the above estimate, espe- cially when we consider that the value of the lime, sulphuric acid, salt, and soda, of the very large amount of carbonaceous matter, and all the mechanical effect of such manure, (greater than that of any other,) are amply sufficient to repay all of the labor of handling and of a long haul. Yet, is it not, after all, this very remarkable money value which has so strengthened the opposition of " practice " to " science }" The "good old stuff" has always been upheld by farmers as the great manure, — almost the only one that is worth using. Those who first commenced the advocacy of more scientific cultivation were led away by the glittering promises of chemical analysis of the soil and the plant, and believed that it would be possible MANURES. 203 to do away with the use of the more bulky manures, and to ac- compHsh the best results by the use of concentrated chemical compounds. The truth is now known to lie between these two extreme opin- ions, and all fertilizers are to be regarded as belonging to the same system. The same ingredients are of the same value in all, — if only their condition is such as to render them equally easy of assimilation, — for the nutrition of plants ; the same salts have the same solvent action ; the same materials have the same absorbent power, as affecting the soluble and volatile elements of plant-food ; and they have the same mechanical effect on the soil. All ma- nures, therefore, whether organic or mineral, are to be measured by the same rule, and their value must be estimated according to their ability to perform the various offices of manure. So measured, farm-yard maruire is very much the best, in pro- portion to its price, of all that we buy in the market. The old practice is justified by theory, and theory is sustained by practice. Probably Dr. Voelcker's analysis would not exactly apply to afiy other sample of farm-yard manure that could be produced. Some would be richer and others poorer. The variations result from the kind and quantity of food and litter used ; the condition of the animal, and the use that is made of its products and of its labor. The full-grown horse or ox, standing all day in the stable, neither increasing nor decreasing in size, and fed just enough to supply the natural wastes of the body, produces manure which contains a full equivalent of the nitrogen and earthy matter of its food. If used on the road, so much of the elements of the food as are contained in the manure dropped away from home is lost. If growing, by the development of bone and muscle, a part of the nitrogen and earthy constituents of the food is kept in the body, and there is so much less in the manure. The manure of a pregnant animal does not contain those parts of the food that are taken up by the growth of the fetus. The milch cow turns a portion of her food into milk arid voids so much less in the manure. 204 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. The fleece of a sheep contains much that would be valuable In the dung-heap. The manure of poultry is less valuable in proportion to the quantity of the food that is contained in the eggs laid. In short, every product of the animals of the farm, whether it be labor, meat, bone, milk, eggs, wool, or progeny, takes away from the value of the manure, and in proportion as these are sold away, in just that proportion will the manure of the farm be less valuable. Probably the least amount of fertilizing matter is removed where only butter is sold ; — next in order would be the fattening of full- grown animals. As the more valuable part of manure consists of unassimilated food, of course its composition must depend directly on the char- acter of the food. Grain, which is rich in nitrogen and the phosphates, yields manure relatively rich in these substances. Cotton-seed meal, and oil (linseed) meal, being the residuum after the pressing out of the oil from seeds — none of the nitrogdn nor of the phosphates having accompanied the oil — make richer manure than other grains. Hay makes better manure than straw. These differences will be more precisely shown from the analysis of the different sorts of food, in another chapter. Of course, it is not to be expected that the farmer will watch the character of his cattle food and the condition of his animals for the purpose of ascertaining, minutely, the quality of his dung- heaps. He should, however, keep a very close watch over the exports and imports of his farm, and be careful that the balance of trade is not against him. If he sells away lOO lbs. of potash, he should buy back, in gram, or green sand marl, or wood ashes, or stable manure, or in some way, another lOO lbs. to take its place; — and so with all of the more valuable earthy constituents of produce sold. If this is not done, there will follow — now or later — a deterioration of the soil. If it will not pay to replace the lost matter now, of course it will MANURES. 206 not be done; but when the soil is once so reduced as to need manure to enable it to bring paying crops, this process must be commenced, unless by a resort to clover, fallows, etc., the land can be, for a time, brought back to a state of fertility. In this case, the imperative need of fertilizers will be postponed — not rendered forever unnecessary. So much for the quantity and value of the manure of the stable, — which will be increased or diminished according to the quantity and quality of the food consumed, — and the purposes for which animals are kept. The next question is, how to take care of that which we have. By the force of old usage, we speak of all of the manures of the stable as " yard-manure." The farm-yard, or barn-yard, however, as Dr. Voelcker has told us, and as a very little reason- ing will demonstrate, is, under the ordinary circumstances of yards, the worst possible place to keep or to make manure. If the yard be so shaped that no drop of its liquid, even in the heaviest rains, can escape from it, and if the ground be covered a foot deep with swamp-muck, or with a mixture of clay and sand, the loss will be very much modified ; will sometimes be reduced to insignificance. Ordinarily, it is any thing but insignificant. In ninety-nine out of every hundred barn-yards in America, the manure is subjected to an evaporation of volatile ammonia, and to a washing away of fertilizing soluble parts that must vastly reduce its value. When we come to speak of " barn cellar " manure, or " shed manure," we shall have changed our practices for the better. The best place of all in which to store manure, until it can be carted on to the land, is in a tight cellar immediately under the animals by which it is made, where it will absorb all of their urine, and will be protected from freezing, from the drying effect of winds, and from the action of rains. No labor of handling and forking over is required, save what will be done by the hogs that fatten upon the undigested food, while they mix and compost the mass better than any number of forkings would do it. Manure kept in this wav need never be touched, nor even 206 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. looked at, until the time comes to throw it into the wagons to be hauled out. If the floor of the cellar is a tight clay soil, and if there be no escape for the liquid portion of the manure by surface- draining, there will have been no appreciable loss. When a cellar cannot be made, a shed will be found to be a very good substitute. It should be so tight as to. exclude all rain, and its floor so arranged that none of the drainings of the manure can flow away — should be low enough to receive all of the urine of the stable. To keep manure in this way will require much more labor than to drop it directly into a cellar, and the saturation of the whole mass with the urine will be far less complete and uniform ; but it will entail much less loss — very much less — than is inevitable under entire exposure to the weather, in heaps, or spread in the barn-yard. Under certam circumstances, the best storage place for the manure of the stable is the field where it is to be used. If the land is so situated, and if the soil contains a fair amount of clay, and is in such condition that the water of heavy rains will wash the soluble parts of the manure, not off from, but into, the ground, the surface of the field is the best place for it. We can in no other way distribute the nutritive parts of the manure among the parti- cles of the soil so thoroughly as by allowing them to be washed in among them by falling rains. The only loss sustained in this practice will be by a very slight evaporation of ammonia — very slight, because the formation of volatile ammonia will almost entirely cease when the manure is so spread as to become too cold for rapid decomposition. The soluble ammoniacal salts, and the soluble earthy parts, will be washed into the soil, of which the clay and decomposed organic matter have a very strong absorption action, and which will hold all fertilizing matter that may coat its particles — very much as the fiber of cloth holds the coloring matter of dye stuffs. To continue the comparison, the coating of the par- ticles of soil is not a *' fast color," but is removed by the water of the sap in the roots of plants, and is appropriated to their use. The recommendation to spread stable manure directly upon the MANURES. 207 land as soon as it is made, or as soon as it can be hauled out, applies only to such soils as are in a condition to receive and to retain its soluble parts. On steep hill-sides, very leachy sands, and over-vv^et clays, the practice would often, no doubt, result in loss. When the ground is locked fast with frost, the manure would run away with the water, that, unable to gain entrance, would flow over the surface in times of heavy rain. In the case of thin sandy soils, there is danger that it will be washed down too deeply to have its best effect. On steeply sloping land, of course, the water of heavy rains would flow off over the surface, and some of the manure would go with it. To state the case simply, wherever and whenever the water of rains and melting snows can find its way into the soil, the best way to use the manure of the stable is to spread it broadcast over the surface — except on very light sandy soils. Where the inclination is too steep, — where, from springs or want of drainage, the water would be kept out of the soil and would flow away over the sur- face of the ground, such use would, probably, be about the worst. Where the snow lies so deep as to prevent the freezing of the ground, and where, as it melts in spring, it will all, or nearly all, soak into the soil, it is a good plan to spread the manure upon the snow ; but it is a very bad plan to do this, when, from the frozen condition of the ground, or from its rapid inclination, the melting snow would run away over the surface. The principle upon which the advantage and disadvantage of the practice depends is, that the manure will go with the water in which it is dissolved. If it goes into a soil containing a fair pro- portion of clay or organic matter, it will be distributed in the best places and in the most complete manner ; if it runs away over the surface, it will be lost. Coarse, unfermented manure should be spread upon the land before plowing, and turned well into the soil, where its decompo- sition will be more rapid than if harrowed into the dry surface, while its best mechanical effect will be more completely and more lastingly exerted. In the case of thoroughly rotted manure, although there are 14 208 ■ HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. good arguments in favor of plowing it in, I am inclined to very strongly recommend that it be spread upon the furrow, — after rolling, if the roller is used at all ; if not, after once harrowing, — and then be thoroughly worked into the surface with the culti- vator. Shares' harrow, or common harrow. So treated, it will lie where the earliest roots of the crop will feel its effect, and its constituents will be more evenly distributed by rains than if it were more deeply covered. I have lingered over this branch of my subject, and have given it what may seem to be an undue share of attention ; but the uni- versal applicability and usefulness of manure made by the domes- tic animals, together with its almost universal production, give greater importance to the methods of its preservation and use than attaches to any other fertilizer. There remains, still, one question connected with the manure of the farm that is of some consequence. That is, as to the rela- tive value of the excrements of different animals. The broad statement of the case is, that the quality of the manure depends on the food, and not on the animal by which it is consumed ; that is, no matter what animal it may be to which we feed a bushel of corn, if he is of mature age, not increasing in any of his parts, be he horse, ox, sheep, or hog, he will return, in his ma- nure, the full equivalent of the nitrogen and earthy parts of his food. In proportion as parts of his food are taken to make bone, flesh, wool, etc., the manure will be of less value ; but the bones of a horse do not differ materially from those of other animals, nor does his muscle. The difference of fertilizing power must be attributed, mainly^ to a difference of food. Still, the completeness of digestion varies somewhat, in the various species, and this has an effect on the character of the manure — more, however, on the rapidity than on the amount of its action. There is not very much to be said as to the use to be made of the different manures, when well rotted, save with reference to that of the pig-sty, which should never be used, no matter how thoroughly decomposed it may be, for any of the hrassica tribe, (cabbage, cauliflower, ruta-baga, or any of the smooth-leaved tur- MANURES. 209 nips,) as it is quite likely to cause the disease known as " club- foot," or " finger and toe." POULTRY MANURE. The droppings of poultry deserve especial consideration, as the richest, most concentrated, and most active of all manures pro- duced on the farm. This superiority arises from two causes. Fowls live on the most concentrated, the richest food — mainly seeds and insects, and they void their solid and liquid excrement together, or rather, the urine is solid, combined with the evacuations of the bow- els, or dung, and the whole is of uniform quality and of great richness. Under the best circumstances, (when dry,) it is often nearly equal to Peruvian guano, which is worth $85 per ton. It has been stated that on land that is naturally good, but exhausted by cultivation, the excrement of a given number of fowls will produce enough extra corn to feed them for a whole year. As a very large part of the manure of birds is already soluble, it is very much reduced in value by exposure to the rain ; while, if it accumulates in too large quantities, — remaining damp, — its decomposition is very rapid, and very exhausting, inasmuch as it does not, like coarse stable manure, contain a large amount of car- bonaceous matter, capable of assuming an absorbent form on its decay. When ammonia is formed by the decomposition of this manure, it is much more free to escape than when formed in a heap of the droppings of the stable. The best, most simple, and most practicable way to protect poultry manure against loss is to have a floor of loose earth in the roosting-house, under the perches, and to spade in the droppings every few days. This will entirely prevent the escape of the fertilizing gases, as well as of all offensive effluvia, and the whole depth of the spaded earth will become as rich, in time, as the droppings themselves. * 210 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. NIGHT-SOIL. The empire of Japan, with an area about equal to that of some of our smaller States, has a population, probably, equal to that of the whole United States. For thousands of years, its small hand- tilled fields, without the importation of a grain of food from any foreign source, have supported its teeming millions in comfort and plenty. Shut off, until within a few years, from commercial intercourse with the nations of the West, this remarkable people have, like the Chinese, maintained themselves in sober and indus- trious prosperity, while they have achieved a civilization, difterent from ours, it is true, and to be measured by a different standard but which has, far more successfully than that of America or of Europe, compassed the comfortable subsistence of all classes of a dense population. • u .« The secret of their ability to accomplish what the agriculture of our more favored race has failed to secure, is to be found in the fact that the rule of their life and of their industry has always been to allow no element of the fertility f their soil to go to waste. Pro- hibited by their religion from eating flesh, milk, butter, or cheese, and with farms so small as to forbid the use of draught animals almost their only source of manure is found in the vegetable food and the fish which they themselves consume. Human excrement, which we name only in an undertone, and which, when we consider it at all, we generally hurry into the nearest stream of water, is to them the foundation-stone of subsist- ence It is their chief prop in all of their cultivation. Their methods of collecting, preserving, and applying it are any thing but delicate, but they are safe and sure, and without them, or their equivalent, Japan would long ago have gone the way of ancient ^Disregarding the lessons of the past, (and of the present, as shown in the East,) the British Empire is now preserving itself from annihilation only by the commerce which brings bread and manure from all parts of the world to supply the enormous waste that swallows up nearly every atom of the food of its population. MANURES. 211 Equally disregarding the same lessons, we, with a newer soil, and a more remote necessity for economy, so long as the crops of our fields bring present money, are heedless of future want for our- selves or for posterity. In the "American Agricultural Annual" for 1868, there was published an article of mine on " Sewers and Earth Closets, and their Relation to Agriculture," from which article the following is extracted : — " The average population of New York City — including its *' temporary visitors — is, probably, not less than 1,000,000. This " population consumes food equivalent to at least 30,000,000 *' bushels of corn in a year. Except the small proportion that is *' stored up in the bodies of the growing young, which is fully off- *■'■ set by that contained in the bodies of the dead, the constituents "of the food are returned to the air by the lungs and skin, or are " voided as excrement. That which goes to the air was originally *' taken from the air by vegetation, and will be so taken again — *■'■ here is no waste. The excrement contains all that was furnished *'by the mineral elements of the soil on which the food was pro- " duced. This all passes into the sewers, and is washed into the '* sea. Its loss, to the present generation, is complete. " In the present half-developed condition of the world, there is " no help for this. The first duty in all towns is to remove from " the vicinity of habitations all matters which by their rlecomposi- ** tion would tend to produce disease. The question of health is, ** of course, of the first importance, and that of economy must fol- *' low it ; — but it should follow closely, and perfect civilization *'must await its solution. " Thirty million bushels of corn contain, among other minerals, *' nearly seven thousand tons of phosphoric acid, and this amount " is annually lost in the wasted night-soil of New York City.* * " Other mineral constituents of food — important ones, too — are washed away in even "greater quantities through the same channels ; but this element is the be;t for illustra- " tion, because its effect in manure is the most striking, even so small a dressing as " twenty pounds per acre producing a marked effect on all cereal crops. Ammonia, too, "which is so important that it is usual in England to estimate the value of manure in " exact proportion to its supply of this element, is largely yielded by human excrement." 212 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " Practically, the human excrement of the whole country Is " nearly all so disposed of as to be lost to the soil. The present " population of the United States is not far from 35,000,000. On " the basis of the above calculation, their annual food contains '' over 200,000 tons of phosphoric acid, being about the amount "contained in 900,000 tons of bones, which, at the price of the " best flour of bone, (for manure,) would be worth over $50,000,000. " It would be a moderate estimate to say that the other constitu- " ents of food found in night-soil are of least equal value with the " other constituents of the bone, and to assume $50,000,000 as *' the money value of the wasted night-soil of the United States. " In another view, the importance of this waste cannot be es- " timated in money. Money values apply rather to the products " pf labor and to the exchange of these products. The waste of " fertilizing matter reaches farther than the destruction or exchange " of products ; — it lessens the ability to produce. " If mill-streams were failing year by year, and steam were *' yearly losing force, and the ability of men to labor were yearly " growing less, the doom of our prosperity would not be more " plainly written than if the slow but certain impoverishment of " our soil were sure to continue. " Fortunately, it will not continue always. So long as there are " virgin soils this side of the Pacific, which our people can ravage "at will, thoughtless earth-robbers will move West and till them. " But the good time is coming, when (as now in China and in *' Japan) men must accept the fact that the soil is not a warehouse "to be plundered — only a factory to be worked. Then they " will save their raw material, instead of wasting it, and aided by " nature's wonderful loom, will weave, over and over again, the " fabric by which we live and prosper. Men will build up as fast " as men destroy, old matters will be reproduced in new forms, " and as the decaying forests feed the growing wood, so will all " consumed food yield food again. " The stupendous sewers which have just been completed in " London, at a cost of $20,000,000, and which challenge admira- " tion, as monuments of engineering achievement, are a great MANURES. 213 '* blessing to that filth-accursed town, and in the absence of any " thing better, they might, with advantage, be imitated elsewhere. ^' They have had an excellent effect on the health of the popula- '* tion, by removing a prolific cause of typhoid fever and other *' fatal diseases. As affording needed relief from malaria, they are " of immense importance. Still, they are a great (although neces- " sary) evil, inasmuch as they wash into the sea the manurial " product of 3,000,000 people, to supply whom with food requires " the importation of immense quantities of grain and manure. " The wheat-market of one-half the world is regulated by the " demand in England. She draws food from the Black Sea, and " from California ; she uses most of the guano of the Pacific " islands ; she even ransacks the battle-fields of Europe for human '■'■ bones, from which to make fresh bones for her people ; and, in '■'■ spite of all this, her food is scarce and high, and bread-riots " break out in her towns. • " An earnest effort is now being made to use the matters dis- '' charged through these sewers for the fertilizing of the lands " toward the eastern coast. For this purpose it is intended to " build a sewer forty miles long, and nine and a half feet in " diameter, which, with the incidental expenses of its construction "and management, will cost about $10,000,000. The Sewage " Company have a farm at Barking, on which they have ex- " perimented very successfully, one acre of their irrigated mead- " ows having produced nine tons of Italian rye grass in twenty- " two days, and fifty tons during the past season up to August " 15, with a prospect that the yield for the whole season will be " at least seventy tons from a single acre. " The system of sewage irrigation has earnest adherents, and " eq-ually earnest opposers. It does seem a pity, that for every " pound of excrement given to the land, three or four hundred " pounds of water must go with it, and it is probable that such " highly diluted manure can be used with advantage only on grass " crops. It is further asserted, that as the best results can be " obtained only by the application of from 6,000 to 10,000 tons " of the liquid per acre, the cost of the process must prevent its 214: HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. ** general adoption. However, the scheme is about to be thor- *' oughly tested, and it is to be hoped that its success will be such " as to secure a return to the soil of a vast amount of valuable *' matter, which, hitherto, has been worse than thrown away. " The many attempts that have been made to extract the fer- *■*" tilizing parts of the sewage from the deluge of water with " which they are diluted, have entirely failed of their object. If, ** as now seems probable, the best and cheapest way to remove *' waste matters from large towns is by dilution in large quantities *' of water, the efforts of agriculturists must be directed to the *' best means of making use of the mixture." ******* " So much for the night-soil of large cities. The health of the " community demands that it be removed, and the prosperity of " the country demands that it be not wasted. To fulfill these two *' requirements should be the aim of sanitarians and political ** economists. " But a comparatively small part of the population of the *' United States live in large cities, — a far larger number live in "small towns and in the country. For their uses the regularly *' organized systems of sewerage are not available. Yet they *' greatly need some radical improvement in their privy accommo- *■*■ dations. Except in those comparatively rare cases in which *■*■ water-works are introduced into houses, the arrangements for *' this purpose are almost always offensive and wasteful ; and not *' unfrequently detrimental to health, and indecent in their character *'and tendency. " The problem of improvement is an exceecTmgly difBcult one. ** While, by an enlightened control, the inhabitants of cities can ** be compelled to conform to certain requirements, those who " live in villages and on farms are subject only to a much more **lax discipline, which stops far short of the minuteness of the ** Mosaic law regulating personal habits. If they adopt improve- *' ments, — especially of the sort under consideration, — it will be " because they find it for their own pecuniary interest, or very *' decidedly for their convenience to do so. No question of MANURES. 215 " national economy will move them, and they have not generally " been educated to the importance of a strict observance of the "laws of health, — not always of those of decency." In continuation of the same subject, I publish herewith an article recently furnished to the New York Evening Post : THE EARTH CLOSET AND ITS POSSIBILITIES. In the 'Journal of the London Society of Arts^ for May 1 6, 1863, there is published a series of tables which had been sub- mitted by Dr. Tudichum, concerning the commercial value of the constituents of human excrement. The most curious are those relating to the composition of urine. He says : " Taking into " account that there are many thousand persons who come to " London during the day, but sleep without (and are not enumerated " as living within) the metropolitan districts, and deposit their fluid " excretion in town ; also many thousands of casual visitors ; taking " further into account the rapid increase of London, we are justified, " I think, in assuming that the population of London excretes an "•amount of urine and valuable ingredients equal to that of two " million adults or middle-aged males." Table XIX. gives the amount and value of the fluid void- ings of the population of London, which, calculated as 2,000,000 adults, makes per day : — Urine, 650,000 gallons, or 2,901 tons, 176 gallons. Ammonia from urea, 36 tons at £60 per ton 5 value, £2,160. Ammonia from its salts, ^ "1 Ammonia from uric acid, I ^ „ lom. Ammonia from creatinine, j vah £174. Ammonia from other nitrogenous matters, j Phosphoric acid, 6.2 tons — £86 i6s. Sulphuric acid, 4 tons — £37 6s. Chloride of sodium, 26 tons — £122 16s. Potash, 7.3 tons — £233 12s. Lime and magnesia, 1,714 lbs.— 17s. lod. Total urine, 2,901 tons, 176 gallons. And in this : Total solids, 84 Ions, or one ton of solids in 34.5 tons of urine. Total value, £2,832. 216 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Table XX. computes the annual amount and value of the urine voided in London, making the total amount of urine 1,052,151 tons, and the total solids contained therein, being i in 34, 30, 735 tons, v^^orth £34 per ton. Table XXI. gives the annual value of the fluid voidings of the population of London as follows : — Summary. f From urea £788,400 I " ammoniacal salts -7>93° Ammonia.^ " uric acid 9,648 I " creatinine (^ " other nitrogenized matters Phosphoric acid 31 ,805 Sulphuric I3»6i4 Chloride of sodium 44,972 Potash 86,700 Lime and magnesia 325 15,108 12,000 Total £1,030,502 Value of one ton of urine rather less than £1. Value of annual urine of one adult male rather less than 10 shillings. By this computation the value of the liquid excrement of the people of the United States would amount to at least $50,000,000 per annum. The value of the solid excrement would be some- what less than this. Of course, very much of this value would be wasted if the most perfect system that our ingenuity could devise were adopted for every community of sufficient size to come under any sanitary or economic discipline. But the amount which might be saved is of sufficient magnitude to make the subject one of the most important that we can consider. It may be objected that Dr. Tudichum's standard of value is too high. Some writers place it at a higher figure, others at a lower, and it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to make an exact estimate ; at the same time, the experience of the world, ever since agricultural operations and opinions began to be record- ed, shows that human excrement, and especially human urine, is of the utmost value as a manure. Its economical application has enabled the most populous MANURES. 217 countries of the world to sustain themselves without the aid of importation, and its waste has brought destruction upon the most prosperous empires. History affords no example of an exception to the rule that the careful use of human excrement as manure insures prosperity, and that its waste entails destruction. At a recent meeting of the Farmers' Club of the American Institute, a paper on " Earth Closets " was presented by Mr. A. Crandall, in which occurs the following paragraph : " Wasted " excrement," says Liebig, " hastened the decay of Roman agricul- ^' ture,and there ensued a condition the most calamitous and fright- " ful. When the cloacae of the Seven-Hilled City had absorbed " the well-being of the Roman peasant, Italy was put in, and then " Sicily and Sardinia and Africa." Not one of these countries has regained its lost greatness and prosperity. Longer ago than twice the age of Rome, China was a pros- perous, industrious, and in many respects a cultivated country. From that day to this, every particle of human excrement has been almost religiously returned to the soil. Yet, to-day, with about one-third of the world's population living exclusively upon her productions, she has less abject poverty than has any other country in the world except Japan, where the same practices pre- vail. It is difficult to read history in the short chapter that our own country presents, yet the washing of towns into rivers, and of rivers into the sea, is even here telling an unmistakable tale. That myth, " virgin land of inexhaustible fertility," is traveling yearly westward. Once it was found in the Mohawk Valley, then on the Genesee Flats, then the Western Reserve of Ohio and the Miami and Sciota bottoms, then the wonderful prairies of Illinois, then the States bordering the Mississippi River on the West ; and now, from the very last of these, comes the cry, which has trav- eled toward them by steady steps from the Mohawk valley, of the disastrous effect of midge and rust and Hessian fly, and dry sea- sons and wet seasons, and the endless list of calamities which we rarely hear of save on lands of waning fertility. By a better system of agriculture, with the aid of underdrain- 218 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. ing, subsoil plowing, cattle feeding, and rotation of crops, we are fighting the fiend of exhaustion with much success. We are ran- sacking the remote corners of our soil's pores for plant food which is no longer yielded spontaneously, and, in many cases, we seem to be regaining the original productiveness. But by-and- by, perhaps a hundred years, and, perhaps, five hundred years hence, we shall have exhausted even this hidden fertility of the soil, for there is nothing more certain than that the material which we take from the land and deposit in mid-ocean will never return to the land by any natural process. And until we learn to care- fully save and faithfully return to the soil the rejected elements of our food, we shall continue to follow, whether apparently or not, the road which Rome has traveled before us. It is in consideration of the foregoing facts that we are inclined to attach great importance to the possibilities of the earth closet. So long as the use of human excrement is degradingly offensive, neither American farmers nor American citizens will willingly subject themselves to the annoyance of doing any thing with it, save to get it out of the way by the shortest practicable course. If there are sewers to carry it into rivers, or into the ocean, that is all that our highest civilization asks. If there are no sewers, then kindly holes in the ground serve to remove it from sight. We accustom ourselves to its odors, and give it no further thought until necessity compels us to pay for its surreptitious removal by night. Its money value is nothing ; the supply is precarious, and the ofFensiveness of the removal more than offsets for its value as manure. So long as this state of affairs continues, we cannot expect much attention to be given to the subject. When the time arrives — and it will arrive — that farmers who gladly pay eighty-five dollars a ton for Peruvian guano can pro- cure an equally valuable fertilizer for seventy-five dollars per ton, they will readily offer it, and their offers will stimulate organized companies to turn into their own treasuries the present income of the Peruvian government. The means by which this is to be accomplished are within the reach of every community. The Rev. Henry Moule's earth MANURES. 219 closet^ simple as it is, and dealing only with materials which are accessible to all, is competent to compass the entire reform which we have suggested. Through its aid, (and we write from actual experience,) that which has been an offense in our lives need be an offense no longer ; and the material on which, as long experience has demonstrated, the permanent prosperity of nations is founded, may be preserved, concentrated, and deodorized without losing its value, and presented in a form in which it may readily become an article of commerce which will bear long transportation, may be kept an indefinite time, and is the best of all concentrated fertili- zers for every crop that the farmer raises. We have in this paper set forth, no more strongly than the established facts of the case warrant, what must seem to all thoughtful men the strongest argument on which the use of earth closets depends. We propose, in a future paper, to discuss those features of the subject which will commend themselves more especially to those who care more for the questions of health and decency than for questions of political economy. The earth closet, alluded to in the foregoing extracts, is a simple mechanism invented by Mr. Moule, whereby a given quantity of sifted dry earth is thrown upon faeces in such a manner as to entirely cover them, the quantity of earth being sufficient to wholly absorb the escaping odors. Of course the mechanism is only incidental. It affords a con- venient means for accomplishing a result which would be as com- pletely attained if the earth were deposited in any other manner j and in some public institutions and military barracks of British India, this apparatus is not in use, but its principle is availed of by the aid of a box of dry earth and a tin scoop or measure, with which the covering is done by the individual. The Earth Closet Company, of Hartford, Ct., having purchased Mr. Moule's American patent, is now manufacturing commodes, and the machinery for fixed closets, and they are being rapidly introduced in all parts of the country. The invention is fully illustrated and described in the Scientific American^ from which the following is extracted : — 220 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. MOULE S PATENT EARTH CLOSET- CLOSETS. -EARTH VS. WATER FOR " Our readers having read the article on Earth Closets, pub- "lished on page 313, vol. xx., of the Scientific American^ will be " prepared to duly appreciate the value of the invention we this " week present to their consideration. Fig. 102. H/7. 1 lig. *' In that article we called attention to the enormous waste " attendant upon the present general system of sewerage in large " cities, to the contamination of waters by the discharge of sewage *' into them, to the danger to the public, arising from the saturation "of soil with fecal matter in the immediate ^icinity of dwellings, " to the intolerable nuisance arising from water closets on shipboard, " and to the complete remedy for all these evils afforded in the " earth closet, if properly constructed. MANURES. 221 " In the light of the facts set forth in the article referred to, " and also referring to an article entitled ' Hidden Generators of " Disease/ published in another column of the present issue, let us " examine the construction of the celebrated Moule earth closet, " which forms the subject of the present article. "Fig. 102 is a perspective view of the uprights, bearers, and " frame employed to support the seat, earth reservoir, and chucker, " showing the lower portion of the earth reservoir, with the " chucker andievers attached to it. A represents the lower part of " the earth reservoir, which is of hopper form, and may have placed Fig. loj. at its top, a high rectangular box as large as convenience may dic- tate. B is the ' chucker' attached to a rod playing loosely in bear- ings, C. An arm, D, projecting at right angles from the chucker rod is pivoted to short bars, E, pivoted to the long bar, F, which 222 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " is pivoted to the upright, G. This bar is operated by a handle, H, " which, when raised, operates through the connections described, *^' to rotate the chucker, B, and throw the bottom of it forward. '' The lower part of the ' chucker ' is open, a platform, I, serving " to stop the fall of the earth when the chucker hangs vertically, "as shown in the engraving. "Fig. 103 shows the completed closet in vertical section, the " bar being actuated by a spring seat instead of the handle, H, as " shown in Fig. 102. In this case, the chucker, B, is so formed *' that the flow of earth from A is cut off when the closet is not in " use ; and, when the weight of the body is thrown upon the seat, " it is thrown into the vertical position to receive a charge of earth. *•'• Upon rising, the spring of the seat elevates the forward end of the *' bar or lever, F, and tilts the chucker suddenly forward into the " position shown in the engraving, again cutting off the passage " from A, and precipitating the charge of earth contained in B " upon the fecal matter deposited. An earthenware pan, J, with " open bottom, conducts the urine into the receptacle below, or " it may be dispensed with by using an apron, K, of slate or other " suitable material. " It will be seen that we have here a simple practical and efFec- " tive apparatus, generally applicable in town or country, which may *' be used in the form 06 a commode for sick-rooms or sleeping "apartments, is capable of being elegantly finished, and equally " adapted to use on shipboard as in dwellings on land. " Various reservoirs to receive the deposits may be employed — " a pail, or a drawer, or a tank, as circumstances may dictate. " Anthracite coal ashes are nearly equal to earth in their deodor- "izing effects, although the dust, in filling the earth reservoir, is an " objection. This objection may be obviated by the admixture " in the ashes of a very small q.uantity of damp earth. " The removal of the mixed earth and fecal deposits is unat- " tended with any discomfort not attending the carrying out of ashes " from a stove, and the compost produced forms one of the best " fertilizers known. " We can see no obstacle to the general adoption of these MANURES. 223 "closets, and among the more intelligent thinking people it is already " being considerably patronized. The greatest obstacle it will en- " counter is prejudice, the great enemy of progress, but we are con- *' fident that any such prejudice must be eventually overcome by '' the irresistible logic of facts. The use the improved earth closet " will at once receive in sick-rooms, from which it will eliminate one *' of the greatest annoyances, will open the eyes of the public to its " more extended advantages. Fig. IC4. " The patent on this invention was granted to Rev. Henry " Moule and Henry John Girdlestone, residents of England, "through the Scientific American Patent Agency, on the 15th "of June, 1869. A company has been formed in this country, 15 224 HANDY -BO OK OF HUSBANDRY. " under title of ' The Earth Closet Company,' for the manufac- " ture and sale of the article on an extensive scale." For the use of farmers, who can easily obtain and store a large quantity of earth, a barrel or large box of this kept in the privy, a small quantity being thrown down after each use, will obviate some expense, and will accomplish tolerably well the desired result without annoyance or inconvenience. For the use of those, however, who care for greater conveniences in connection with every department of their daily life, the patented closet will be found very convenient. In a pamphlet on earth closets, recently published by the Tribune Association, in New York,* working drawings are given, which show the construction of Mr. Moule's apparatus, and full directions are given for its use. For use in the sick-room, or, indeed, anywhere in the house, the Commode (Fig. 104) is admirably adapted. The space in the back is occupied by the hopper, and the box beneath the seat contains a hod (like a coal-hod) made of galvanized iron. I have had one of these commodes in constant daily use in my house for more than a year, and have found It in all respects better than a water-closet, while the fact that it may be moved to the side of the sick-bed and kept in use, without danger or ofFensiveness, makes it of unspeakable value. Concerning the earth required for the earth closet, the follow- ing directions, copied from the New York Evening Post^ will be found a sufficient guide : — THE MANAGEMENT OF EARTH CLOSETS. DRYING THE EARTH. The earth used in the earth closet must be dry — as dry as it is possible to keep it by protection from rain, dew, and mist. How- ever dry it may be made by artificial means, it will absorb the hygrometric moisture of the atmosphere, which could be excluded only by hermetical sealing. This amount of moisture, which is not perceptible to the sight or touch, in no way interferes with ■• " Earth Closets : How to make them and how to use them." By George E. Waring, Jr. MANURES. 225 its efficiency. But it must be air dry, or it will not fully accom- plish its purpose. The best and cheapest drying apparatus is the sun and wind of a summer day. During a drought the parched surface of naked land is in precisely the condition needed for use, and a year's supply may then be taken into a close out-building or a dry cellar, and stored until wanted. Those who have not made, or cannot make, this provision, may store damp earth in a well-ventilated dry place, from which mists can be excluded, and in a shorter or longer time, according to the climate, it will become dry — just as bread so kept would do. The writer has had a commode in constant use for nine months, and nearly all of his winter's supply of earth has been dried and redried in a hogshead lying on its side,- its open end — facing the south — being protected from rain and mist by a close screen of rough boards leaning against it. The sun had very little chance at it, but the wind had, and the drying has been sufficiently rapid for such a limited supply as is needed for one commode. At the experimental station of the United States Engineers (at Fort Adams) there is in use a sort of hot bed raised a little from the ground with a broad floor, and provided with movable sashes bat- tened at the joints. The earth is thrown loosely in to a depth of about six inches, and whenever a drying wind blows, the sashes are raised at both ends. In damp weather they are kept close, and when the sun shines, without there being much wind, they are raised at the back only enough to allow the escape of the moisture evaporated. This plan is cheap, simple, and perfectly effective. To dry the earth in a more systematic way, especially for the supply of towns or large factories, it will be necessary, particu- larly in winter, to employ the aid of fire heat. The scale on which this is to be done must determine the extent of the appli- ances for the purpose. Earth enough for the use of a family may be dried in a shallow box near the furnace, or the kitchen stove or range. For the supply of larger establishments or for towns, when the requisite quantity of earth has not been stored in the 226 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. summer, it will be well to use a drying apparatus, made with a plate of l^-inch boiler iron, — condemned for other use, — set on brick walls high enough to allow a small stove to be placed under it, the pipe or flue running from the stove, which is in the front of the space, to an opening at the rear. The earth is spread upon the plate a few inches deep, and is very rapidly made ready for use. RE-DRYING. In the country, where earth is plenty and where there is use on the farm or in the garden for the manure, it will be best to compost the accumulation of the closet until required for use, and to supply the closet with fresh earth ; not because it is more effective than that which has been several times used, but because it is better to have the manure as bulky as possible for ease of even distribution. But in towns, and in all cases in which the manure has to be transported to a distance, making it desirable that it be as concentrated as possible, the same earth should be used over and over again. It has been demonstrated that the same earth may be used six or seven times over, until it becomes equal to Peruvian guano in richness, without losing its efficiency as a deodorizer. Earth owes its deodorizing power to both its clay and its decomposed organic matter, and — as in the case of the soil of an old garden which has been heavily manured for many years — the manure itself, when thoroughly decomposed, only adds to the disinfecting strength of the earth, by adding to its humus. In fact, instances are cited in which the same earth has passed ten times through the closet, receiving at each use an addition to its manurial value. Of course in time the limit will be passed and the preponderance of organic matter will tell on the effect, so that it is found in most cases that more than six or seven uses are enough to reduce the deodorizing effect. When the earth is removed from the closet or the commode, it should be emptied into a barrel, a cask, or a bin, in a sheltered but well-ventilated place. Here it will soon so far decompose that all traces of paper and solid faeces will disappear, and it will MANURES. 227 be to a considerable extent dried. It should now be worked over with a shovel or a rake until its parts are perfectly mixed, and it may then be dried by natural or artificial means, as circum- stances suggest, and prepared for another use. Until the decom- position of the foreign matters has become complete, it is better that the mass be kept in a compact body ; after that, the more it can be spread the more rapidly will it dry, though it will in time become dry in the barrel or bin. In the case of fixed closets holding a three months' supply, it is hardly necessary to resort to any artificial means of drying, nor even to any manipulation. The accumulation in the vault or box must be leveled off with a rake from time to time, and this will sufficiently mix the earth and fasces. In such cases it would be the best arrangement to have two bins equal in size to the capacity of the reservoir and of the vault of the closet; these may be in a shed connected with the privy. One of the bins and the reservoir above the hopper being filled with sifted dry earth, and the other bin with freshly-collected earth, we go on and use out the supply in the reservoir. In three months it has all passed into the vault, and is mixed with fasces. We now fill the reservoir with contents of the first bin, and put the contents of the vault in its place. When the reser- voir is again empty, the earth that was freshly collected and moist six months before, is dry and fit to be sifted into the reservoir, the bin from which it is taken being filled from the vault. When the reservoir has been again emptied, the first clearing of the vault will have had six months to become dry, and may be sifted and used. If the same earth is used six times over, the original supply will last four years and a half, at the end of which time it will be worth fullv fifty dollars per ton as manure. , THE QUANTITY OF EARTH. The quantity of earth that it is necessary to supply will depend on the frequency with which the closet is used, and on the quan- tity of earth that it is made to contain. The writer has, without 228 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. other facilities for drying than those described above, found four barrels to be sufficient for a commode constantly used by three persons. Under the arrangement discussed above, with a reservoir and two bins, each holding a three months' supply for a family of ten persons, each receptacle would require a capacity equal to that of a cube of three and a half feet, which would give an abun- dant supply for all emergencies. These receptacles once being filled, no more earth would be needed for from four to five years. All that would be required would be that four times a year the earth be shifted, and that occasionally the contents of the vault be leveled off^. By Professor S. W. Johnson's estimate of the value of night- soil as manure, this earth, after it has passed six times through the closet, would be worth from $200 to $250. Other estimates would give it a much higher value. SIFTING THE EARTH. The earth for the closet must not only be dry, it must be sifted. Up to a certain point, the finer it is the more efi^ective it is. That is, while it will answer the purpose if it is passed through a common coal-sifter, it will much better envelop the deposit, will distribute itself more widely, and will make more dust in every part of the vault, (a desirable thing, on account of the exhalations from the uncovered fresh faeces,) if it has been passed through a sieve having four meshes to the inch. The finer the sieve the more will small pebbles be excluded. These are objec- tionable not only on account of the space they occupy, but they dilute the earth proper, and do no good. THE KIND OF EARTH TO BE U/ED. The best earth is that used for making bricks or earthenware ; that is, a strong clay, containing enough sand or vegetable matter to prevent it from caking ; but any soil or subsoil that contains MANURES. 229 enough clay or vegetable matter to make it arable will answer a satisfactory purpose. A very sterile gravel and a nearly pure sandy soil should be rejected. The " mould " of an old garden or field is excellent, and the " yellow dirt " below it is still better. Either of these, treated as above described, will be found to entirely absorb and destroy the odor of the most offensive faces from the moment when it envelops it, until — years afterward, if necessary — it is removed to the field ; so that the earth closet may be in the house or out of the house, as is most convenient, with- out considering the question of foul odors or of ventilation. Wood ashes must under no circumstances be used, as the potash that they contain has the eff'ect of driving off the volatile parts of the deposit. Anthracite coal ashes mixed with a little dry earth can be used with perfect success in winter, and probably in summer as well, but we cannot say this positively. We can see no reason why the ashes of bituminous coal may not be equally efi^ective. All ashes are objectionable for use in commodes in the house from the dust that flies when they are put into the hopper, but in the case of fixed closets this difficulty would not be noticed. On shipboard, especially on steamships, where water-closets are always a nuisance, the use of ashes would be entirely successful. The earth closet, like all other human contrivances, needs attention. The earth in the vault will not deodorize the fouling of the seat ; wet earth will not deodorize the faeces that it covers ; and if "the accumulation is not occasionally leveled, the earth will not be so ■ thrown as to entirelv cover recent deposits. These things must be looked to, but they require no more atten- tion than does the care of the water-closet ; and if the needed attention is given, the depressing odor that so often accompanies 230 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. even the best arranged water-closets will be eyitirely unhnoivn^ while the full convenience of having accommodations in the house, and even in the sick-room, may be better and much more cheaply attained by the aid of the earth closet than by that of the water- closet. The earth required may be collected during dry weather, and stored during winter under cover, in sufficient quantity for the year's use. The one fact which makes the universal introduc- tion of Moule's earth closet practicable is the ability to use the same earth, over and over again, even as many as ten times. I have a closet now in use in my house which has done constant service for three persons during a year, and the whole amount of earth it has required has been only a little more than four barrels. It is claimed, and, so far as my experience enables me to decide, with truth, that there is absolutely no odor in earth which, after being several times used, has again been prepared for the appara- tus. I have used the same earth the third time, and neither by its appearance nor by its odor, can it be distinguished from that freshly taken from the ground. The organic matters of the manure itself, on being decomposed, become an excellent deodor izer, and after being dried and sifted, they cannot be distinguished from the other particles of organic matter in the soil. Concerning the value of the manure resulting from the use of the earth closet, the following, which is extracted from a paper furnished by Mr. Moule to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and published in the twenty-fourth volume of their jour- nal, is more definite than any thing else that has appeared : — " In the present stage of the working of this system, the diffi- '* culty of ascertaining the value of the manure thus manufac- " tured is very great. The varieties in the earth used, and the " want of exactness in observing the relative weights and propor- " tions of the ' soil,' and of the absorbing earth, as well as in " obtaining a thorough mixing of the two, combine to create this " difficulty ; I therefore prefer to give a few instances of the " practical appHcation of it to the garden and to the field, rather MANURES. oo| " than to attempt to offer a scientific analysis of its composition. " In planting cabbages, I have taken a handful or two of what " has passed through the closet five times, and, putting it into a " watering-pot, have used it in a liquid form, filling the holes in " which the plants are to be set ; and I have found that if this " liquid manure be made too strong, it burns the root of the plant, *' even as guano would. A new gardener, not believing that there " was much virtue in a heap of earth he found lying in a shed, " thought if there was any thing in it his celery plants should have " enough of it. He threw over them a little more than a hand- '■'■ ful, and this burnt them up. With six pounds weight I planted " in a piece of unmanured ground, forty dozen broccoli and Savoy " plants. No plants could be finer than they were. A cottager " at Bradford Abbas commenced the system in his large cottage " garden, in the spring of 1862. He applied the manure to " patches of mangolds and Swedes ; and the land-steward, who " persuaded him to try it, states that he never saw such fine roots " as were then grown." ******* " Again, in the spring of 1862, Mr. R. Hayne, of Fordington, " received from me four hundredweight of earth which had '' passed seven times through the closet, and had afterward laid *' for six months in the shed. This he used at the rate of one " hundredweight to an acre, instead of crushed bones, on a " piece of very poor land to be sown to turnips. Both he " and Mr. R. Damen, of Dorchester, a well-known agriculturist, " consider the crop to have been remarkably good, and that *' crushed bones could not have answered better as a manure." ****** :|: " In conclusion, I would remark, that let one-fifth of the pop- " ulation of Great Britain adopt and thoroughly carry out this " system, and one million tons of manure, equal to guano, will " every year be added to our supply of fertilizers." The following is from a letter written by Mr. Moule to the London Builder^ of April 4, 1868 : — 232 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " The value of night-soil must be affected both by the neces- " sity for its removal, and by the offensiveness of the operation. " The earth, after it has absorbed the excretions, is so perfectly *' inoffensive, that I have known some that had been mechanically " mixed, taken the same day to London in a box in his carpet- " bag, by a chemist ; and by two engineers' clerks it was taken,. " wrapped in brown paper, in their side-pockets," In an article in the London Times^ of October 8, 1868, in dis- cussing the manner in which human excrement shall be disposed of, it is stated that, " in the country all difficulty is avoided by the " earth-closet system, which stood this year so severe a test at " Wimbledon," (Wimbledon being the common on which the annual muster of the English volunteers takes place, and where the management of the latrines has hitherto involved very serious difficulties.) It seems strange that the Mosaic law, which is to be found in Deuteronomy, chapter xxiii., 12 and 13, should have fallen into such long disuse. The requisition at that period referred, of course, only to the sanitary requirement of man, and had no agri- cultural foundation. It is as follows : — " Thou shah have a place also without the camp^ zuhlther thou shalt go forth abroad : and thou shalt have a paddle upon thy zueapon ; and it shall be^ when thou wilt ease thyself abroad^ thou shalt dig therewith^ and shalt turn back and cover that which cometh from thee.'''' Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, author of " How Crops Grow," and the first authority in the country on all questions relating to agricultural chemistry, as well as to the practical use of manures, wrote the following article for the New Haven Palladium : — " There are two grave questions which enforce attention from " every dweller in the city, and should not be neglected by those "who have the country for their home. These questions relate " to the disposition of the liquid and solid waste of the human " body. One of them is. How shall the waste be effectually pre- " vented from being an annoyance and source of disease ? and MANURES. 233 " the other, How shall it be made a means of fertility to the soil, " and thus an item of national wealth ? " The annoyance that results from want of care in putting our *' exuv'tcs out of the way is not often encountered among us in " the public manner that is common in the old countries where *' poverty and necessity have made people less fastidious than we " are. We do not establish our privies in our front halls or next *' the staircases of our houses, and the openings of our sewers do *' not send forth the choking stench that nearly prostrates the *' stranger walking by, as is the case in many a German city. We *' provide well-ventilated temples in our groves and gardens in " honor of Stercutius, or by the costly aid of plumber and potter " furnish water transportation by a speedy route to some dark " grotto of earth or ocean cave, and this is well as far as it goes. " But our poor are already in their own filth, and as our towns " enlarge and build more densely, the well-to-do, and even the " rich, must sooner or later be swamped in the impurities of their " own and of past generations. " Nothing is better established than the connection between " human excrement and certain fearful epidemics. " It is on all hands admitted that cholera is most frequently and *' certainly transmitted to healthy persons by the intestinal evacu- " ations of those who have been sick with this disease. The " instance of the outbreak of this malady in a country town of " Maine, that followed the unpacking of a sailor's chest contain- " ing the soiled garments that eight months before had served in " his last hours on the other side of the globe, is but one of a *' multitude that settle this point. " Typhoid fever, a form of disease very prevalent among us, is " often traceable, with scarcely less certainty, to privy vaults, sess- " pools, and sewers. It is stated that Prince Albert, of England, " probably contracted the disease that was fatal to him from the " foul air that found its way into his study out of a forgotten " sewer through a crack in the wall. " Most often it is our drinking-water that brings into us the con- " tamination. New .Haven is built upon a gravel plain, and the 234 IIAKDY-BOOK OF nUSBANDRY. " open soil gives free passage to the liquids that fall upon it. In " multitudes of cases the well is but a few yards or feet from a '' sess-pool that receives the kitchen slops on one hand and a privy *' vault on the other. Earth has a remarkable power of absorp- " tion and disinfection, but this power chiefly resides in its fine *' arkd impalpable portions — in the clay, and not in the coarse " particles of sand. A well, distant fifty feet horizontally from *' a privy vault, both in a clayey soil, the writer knows, which has *' yielded excellent drinking-water for thirty years, as attested by " its taste and by the fact that for that period no case of fever *' occurred on the premises. The writer knows another well *' similarly situated in New Haven, which furnished good water *' for about five years after it was excavated, in what was until " then a vacant lot, but after this interval became unpleasant in *' taste, its flavor plainly suggesting the nature of its impurities. " In his researches on the cholera in Bavaria, in 1854, Petten- " kofer traced its spread in several cases in the most indubitable *' manner, to the use of water which had been in contact with the " faeces of cholera patients. " The use of open vaults, or water-closets emptying into sess- " pools, tends to fill up the soil with fecal matter. A single vault *' poisons a circumscribed space around it. External to this limit " the filth is destroyed by the action of the oxygen of the air, which " is the great purifier. Within the limit named the animal *' matters preponderate either constantly or at some period of the " year. They may long remain simply disagreeable without being " dangerous, and may again, of a sudden, in a way whose details " have as yet escaped investigation, become the seed-bed or the " nursery of the infection that breaks out in fevers and dysentery. " The danger increases as the quantity of filth and the number " of its receptacles increase. To cover them up does not neces- " sarily remove the evil. The putrid matters soak into the soil, " and move upward and downward in it with the motion of the " soil water. When we have copious rains, they are carried down, " perhaps, to nearly the level of the water in our wells. In the " heat and drought of August these matters rise again. In the MANURES. 235 " absence of rain, the rapid drying of the surface creates an up- " ward capillary flow of the ground water. The matters which " in rainy times follow the surface water to the depths, in drought " follow the ground water to the surface. "The. safest mode of escaping the evils in question, hitherto " adopted in closely-built towns, consists in removing all human " excreta to a distance by subterranean sewerage. In paved cities " the street hydrants, which, with the rains, wash the surface filth " into a system of underdrains, and the water-closets which con- " nect every house with the same, would seem to offer every " immunity against the accumulation of fecal matters. The " immunity is, in fact, very considerable in those cases where the " system is well carried out ; where the water supply is sufficiently " copious and the sewerage is promptly carried off to the sea. " There always remain the objections that poverty cannot, and " indolence will not, ' make the connections,' that sewers will " leak, and rivers and harbors are made noisome with the rotten- " ness that is poured into them. "The waste involved in the ' civilized' way of treating the " materials under notice is immense. Every harvest brings from the " country to the city, from the West to the East, vast bulk of beef, " corn, and hay, whose use to the city people does not, for the " most part, consist in any permanent giving of its elements, but " which, after having weighted the wheel of life through half a turn " and dropped off as waste, admits of conversion into food again, " if but carried back to the fields. The gardeners and farmers in " our immediate vicinity are obliged to disburse heavy sums each " year for the phosphates and nitrogen which their crops demand "and which their land cannot adequately supply. The guanos " and fish-manures which are brought from a distance or manu- " factured at heavy cost for their use, are in reality paid for not by " them, but by those who purchase their produce in the city mar- " kets. The animal who stands at the head of creation requires the " richest food, and yields to the food-producer the richest return. " It requires but little art to convert his excrement into increment, "and the conversion may be made extremelv orofitable. 236 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " In countries where the thing has been tried it has been found " that the annual evacuations of a well-fed man suffice to manure *' half an acre of ground, and their fertilizing value may be safely " stated at $5. Indeed, if put into a suitable form as regards *' dryness and texture, they would compete with our standard " fertilizers at twice this sum. We are told, in fact, that formerly *' they were valued at $9 gold, in Flanders, and it is hardly to be " supposed that they have fallen in estimation. " The writer has it from undoubted authority that the Chinese " agriculturists near Fuh Chau will give a day's work for ten " gallons of urine, and it is well understood that the teeming " population of China and Japan could not subsist if they wasted '' this means of enriching the soil, as do we and most other of the " ' barbarians ' west of the Celestial and Flowery kingdoms. " If it be true that the value of the waste in question amounts *' to but one-third of the sum above named per head annually for " the entire population, old and young, then not less than $80,000 "is every year lost to New Haven j for of all this treasure next "to nothing is ever saved, on account of its excessive proneness " to decomposition. To economize this fertilizer it must either " be used after no long interval, as is the Chinese practice, or it " must be dried and disinfected when perfectly fresh. All at- " tempts to accomplish this result by manufacturing or chemical " processes, involving carriage of the fresh material, have signally " failed. " The means of satisfying at once all demands of sanitary " science and of agriculture is, however, fortunately everywhere at " hand, and of extreme simplicity and cheapness in its application. " Dry and fine earth is the material. " This property of earth is no new discovery. Its use was "prescribed to the Israelites, (Deuteronomy xxiii. 12, 13,) and is " turned to good account by the instincts of our domestic car- "nivorae. The Rev. Henry Moule, an English clergyman, was " the first to elaborate, by a careful study of the subject, a plan " for the systematic employment of earth for this purpose. In "1858 he published a pamphlet entitled * National Health and MANURES. , 237 " Wealth,' and in 1863 he contributed to the Journal of the " Royal Agricultural Society of England, a paper headed ' Earth '' versus Water for the Removal and Utilization of Excrementi- '' tious Matter.' In these publications he pointed out the fact "that, 'first, a very small portion of dry and sifted earth (ij " ' pints) is sufficient, by covering the deposit, to arrest effluvium, " ' to prevent fermentation (which so soon sets in when water is used) and the consequent generation and emission of noxious gases. Secondly, that if within a few hours, or even a few days, the mass which would be formed by the repeated layers " ' of deposit be intimately mixed by a coarse rake or spade, or by " ' a mixer made for the purpose, then in five or ten minutes " ' neither to the eye or sense of smell is any thing perceptible but " ' so much earth.' He found, further, that ' when about three " ' cart-loads of sifted earth had been used for a family which " ' averaged fifteen persons and left under a shed, the material first " ' employed was sufficiently dried to be used again. This pro- " ' cess of alternate mixing and drying was renewed five times, " ' the earth still retaining its absorbent powers apparently unim- " ' paired. Of the visitors taken to the spot none could guess the " 'nature of the compost, though in some cases the heap which " ' they visited in the afternoon had been turned over the same " ' morning.' " ' Three cart-loads of earth served fifteen persons for half a " 'year, being used five times over in that time.' 'At Bradford- " ' on-Avon, the same earth having been dried and used repeatedly " ' at the school of the union-house, in which there are fifty-five " ' children, the whole compost did not exceed a cart-load and a " ' half, or thirty cwt., at the end of five months.' "The arrangements required to constitute an earth closet are " not necessarily complex or expensive. It is only needful that "a space be had below the privy-seat, the bottom of which " should be of flagging or cement, and a little above the ground " level, or at least protected from the wet of rain and of the "ground. This space should communicate with a shed at the " rear of the privy, to hold on one side a load or two of dry fine 238 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " earth (not sand) or sifted coal-ashes, and leave an equal room '' unoccupied on the other. Daily, or as often as need be, the " droppings are covered with enough of the dry earth to absorb *'all liquid, and when the space is filled, the mass is hauled out, "raked over, and thrown to one side. When the whole has " been once used it may be put through a second time. If the *' seat be so constructed that every thing falls clear to the bot- *'tom, it may be within the dwelling, and even be warmed by "a register, or otherwise, without danger of unpleasantness. It " may be placed on an upper floor, or a seat may be arranged for *' every floor. It is, however, then important that each rise of "the seat should be promptly followed by a dash of earth. The " patent fixtures of Mr. Moule, to be had of the Earth Closet "Company, provide for this, it being simply needful that a supply "of earth be laid in, in a suitable reservoir, which need not, *' however, be raised above the ground floor. For hospital or " sick-room use, either a simple commode, or pail, with a hod of " earth to apply, or the self-acting commodes of Mr. Moule, " may be used. " Very important it is that hotels, schools, and we may add, "colleges, should be provided with this labor and health saving " arrangement. In large schools it is sufiicient to put the appli- *' cation of earth in charge of an attendant. In hotels, the self- " acting apparatus is better. "The fertilizing value of the properly-managed compost should " be abundant remuneration of parties supplying earth; especially *'as its carriage is not attended with the slightest odor, and re- *' quires not the cover of darkness to mitigate its terrors, while *' its use is less disagreeable than that of Peruvian or fish guano, " and not worse than the employment of any old compost. " Reader, you should lose no time in providing yourself, and "inciting your neighbor to provide, some form of earth closet in " lieu of the vault which has hitherto sufiiced. Health and " economy both demand it ! " City authorities, you would do well to enact that all privies " within a hundred feet of dwellings, or of wells in use, should MANURES. 239 " be converted into earth closets, and to provide for their sys- ''tematic and thorough inspection." In concluding these remarks, it need only be stated, in general terms, that whatever process is adopted for the economical saving, and the proper application of night-soil as manure, its use must inevitably be attended with the best results, not only on the in- dividual farms to which it is applied, but as most favorably affect- ing the agriculture of the whole country; and probably it will be found that the use of dry earth in some form, and by means of whatever appliances may be within the most convenient reach of the farmer, will afford very much the most economical and satis- factory solution of the problem. MINERAL MANURES. By reference to remarks in preceding chapters, concerning the composition of plants and their uses in the animal economy, it will be remembered that certain portions of them, which consti- tute the ash left after the burning of any vegetable matter, are of a mineral character and origin ; that is to say, they exist in a state of nature, always and only as constituents of the soil or of the rocks from which the soil is originally formed ; — and while they are absolutely necessary to the growth of plants, they can be taken up only by the roots from the soil ; for they never exist, except as dust, in the air. While these mineral or earthy constituents constitute but a very small proportion of the plant, and of the animal which gets the substance of its body from the digestion of plants eaten, they are absolutely indispensable to all organic growth ; and their im- portance in agriculture is by no means to be measured by the extent to which they are used. The amount of potash required in the formation of the integral parts of a blade of wheat, is so small as to escape any but the most careful scrutiny. Yet it is absolutely impossible to produce a blade of wheat without furnish- ing the necessary supply of this apparently insignificant element. The same is true, in a greater or less degree, of all the mineral parts of plant-food. 16 240 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. The analysis of the ashes of all agricultural plants shows that they contain the following substances : — Potash, Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Sulphuric acid. Phosphoric acid, and Silicic acid. Oxide of iron. Chlorine. Of these the following are always found in abundant quantity in every even tolerably fertile soil, — probably in every soil that it will pay to attempt to cultivate : — Soda, Sulphuric acid. Chlorine, and usually Oxide of iron. Silicic acid. Magnesia. These, then, need never be taken into consideration in any case where the only object is the supply of the materials which the plant requires. With the other elements, however, the case is quite different, and Phosphoric acid. Lime, and occasionally Potash, Magnesia, require the utmost care on the part of the farmer, and a constant vigilance to prevent their waste, and to restore always at least so much of them as is taken away by the crops.* The analysis of any tolerably fertile wheat soil will show that It contains, within a foot of the surface, an amount of phosphoric acid sufficient to supply the needs of probably a hundred times as many bushels of wheat as could be grown upon it in a hundred * Probably the analysis of every cultivatable soil in the world would show the presence of a large proportion of lime ; and the rule which requires the use of lime as manure is by no means a definite one. Whether the lime supplied acts only as a plant-food, or whether its chief benefit depends on its action in developing plant-food already con- tained in the crude soil, is not absolutely known. Probably, however, the latter proposition is the true one, inasmuch as we find that soils which are formed almost exclusively by the crumbling of limestone rocks are quite as much (and often more) benefited by the application of very small quantities of burned lime, as are those in which analysis shows only a trifling proportion of lime ; therefore the above is to be understood as being such a statement of the case as seems most necessary for practical purposes, although not in all respects scientifically correct. MANURES. 241 years without the use of manure. Of this phosphoric acid, how- ever, a very large proportion is contained in the interior of pebbles and coarse particles, or is in such a state of combination as not to be available ; for plants can take up by their roots only such matters as are exposed on the surface of the particles of soil, and of these even, only such as are sufficiently soluble to yield to the absorptive influence of the moisture which is contained in and about the feeding surfaces of the roots, and the same is true of every other element of plant-food in the soil. Therefore, neither the actual amount of material in the soil, as shown by analysis, nor even the amount which could be dissolved by a strong acid from the surfaces of the particles, is the exact measure of the amount which that soil may be able to supply to the crop ; and, in the absence of absolute knowledge on the subject, all that can be considered as strictly demonstrated is : — That the amount of mineral plant-food contained in any soil, in such a position, and in such a condition as to solubility, as to be able to supply the demand of roots, is always limited, — limited, indeed, to such a degree that no soil in the world, which does not receive extraneous supplies by means of inundation or irrigation, can, even through the life-time of a single man, be made to pro- duce maximum crops of any given plant, without the return of some form of manure, either by the feeding of the crop to animals pasturing on the ground, by the death and decomposition of the stems and leaves of the plants, or by the return of animal manure or of some form of mineral manure, which will make up the waste. Practice has demonstrated, even this early in the history of our country, that in order to cultivate any land, year after year and generation after generation, with success, it is necessary that manures be added to the soil ; and more careful practice and in- vestigation have shown that the most economical return of manure is such as will supply in the cheapest form the leading mineral elements that have been removed by the crops sold ; — or, rather, the leading ones of those which we have stated above to be necessary in artificial application. 242 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. In nine cases out of ten, that which is most needed, and whose return produces the best result, is undoubtedly phosphoric acid. Such lands, however, as have been long devoted to the cultivation of tobacco, potatoes, etc, most need additions of potash ; and in almost all cases it will be found advantageous to apply both potash and phosphoric acid. It should be borne in mind that we are now speaking only of the requirement of manure for the actual feeding of plants. The solvent action of certain sub- stances makes it frequently profitable to apply fertilizers whose constituents belong to the list given above of matters which the soil always supplies in sufficient quantity. This subject will be discussed hereafter. Phosphoric acid being, then, the most important mineral element of foreign as well as of home-made manures, it will be well for us to examine the sources from which it may be most cheaply and most advantageously procured, and the best method for its application to the soil. The bones of animals consist, vC^hen thoroughly dried, of about two-thirds earthy matter and one-third organic or combustible matter. The earthy part is almost entirely phosphate of lime, which is also called bone earth, and this consists of about forty- six per cent, of phosphoric acid and about fifty-four per cent. of lime. Bones, therefore, are the most common and most pro- lific source of the phosphoric acid used in agriculture ; although it is also a very important element of Peruvian guano, and still more largely of what are called phosphatic guanos, and of the phosphatic deposits recently discovered near Charleston, South Carolina. The manner in which phosphate of lime is used as a manure affects in very great degree its efficiency, and consequently the economy of the application. To state the case in a single sen- tence, the finer the particles of the manure the more active and the more valuable it will be. In order to attain the greatest degree of fineness, it is found best to manufacture it into what is called superphosphate of lime ; — that is, a compound containing more phosphoric acid and less lime than the simple phosphate does. I MANURES. 243 The chemistry of the phosphates of lime has been very clearly set forth by Professor S. W. Johnson in his report on manures, made to the Agricultural Society of Connecticut, and it may be worth while to reproduce here, in a very brief form, the principal features of this portion of the report. A single atom of phosphate of lime contains one atom of phosphoric acid and three atoms of lime. Any process which will remove from the compound two atoms of the lime, leaving the whole amount of phosphoric acid, will convert it into superphos- phate of lime, which is very much more soluble than is the origi- nal or basic phosphate; and it is the custom in the manufacture of superphosphate of lime to apply such an amount of sulphuric acid as will remove these two atoms of lime, the result being a compound containing superphosphate of lime and sulphate of lime or gypsum ; and when no other matters are added to increase the rapidity of the action of the manure, this is the composition of the pure superphosphate of lime of commerce. It contains very much more lime and sulphuric acid than phosphoric acid, but the latter is in such a state of solubility as will allow it to be carried by rains very readily into the soil, and if applied while plants are actually growing, it may be taken up by them without delay. Ordinarily, however, when superphosphate of lime is applied to the soil, it immediately hunts out particles containing potash or lime or magnesia or soda, with which its unsatisfied phosphoric acid may again combine ; and it is not likely that the true super- phosphate ever remains for any considerable length of time as an element of the soil ; and the question may readily arise, why is it worth while to resort to such an expensive and troublesome process to reduce the phosphate of lime to the superphosphate, when we are almost certain that within a short time after it is applied to the soil it will have returned again to the condition of the comparatively insoluble phosphate ? The reason why this is worth while is to be sought only in the degree of fineness to which the article is reduced by the chemical changes through which it has passed. Professor O. N. Rood, of the Troy University, at the request 244 HA.NDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. of Professor Johnson, measured under the microscope the size of the particles of the finest bone-dust, and of the phosphate of lime which had passed through the process described above. He found that the smallest particles of bone-dust would not average less than one one-hundredth of an inch in diameter, while the particles of the prepared phosphate measured only one twenty-three-thou- sandth of an inch in diameter. If, as is probably the case, the degree of solubility of both is the same, the amount of surface which the finer article exposes to the solvent action of water is so infinitely greater than that of the former, that the total amount which may be dissolved by the action of a given amount of water in a given time must be almost inestimably greater; and we find in practice that the finest phosphate of lime that it is pos- sible to produce by the burning of bone, is very much less rapid in its action than is that which results from the chemical processes in use in the manufacture of commercial superphosphate. Probably it makes but little difference what sort of phosphate of lime is used in the manufacture of a superphosphate, — whether the original substance be the earthy matter of bones, the phos- phatic deposits of South Carolina, or what is known as Colum- bian guano ; for, probably, the chemical action in the use of each will be the same, and the same quality of superphosphate, and of the phosphate which is formed on the application of this to the soil, will result. Many directions are given for the manufacture of superphos- phates on the farm by the decomposition and preparation of bones. The best of these is, perhaps, the following, which is given by Dr. James R. Nichols, in his " Chemistry of the Farm and the Sea " : — " Take a common sound molasses cask ; divide in the middle " with a saw ; into one-half of this place half a barrel of finely- *' ground bone, and moisten it with two buckets of water, using " a hoe in mixing. Have ready a carboy of vitriol, and a stone "pitcher holding one gallon. Turn out this full of the acid, and " gradually add it to the bone, constantly stirring. As soon as " effervescence subsides, fill it (the pitcher) again with acid, and MANURES. . 245 " add as before j allow it to remain over night, and in the morning '■*■ repeat the operation, adding two more gallons of acid. When *' the mass is quiet, add about two gallons more of water, and " then gradually mix the remaining half-barrel of bone, and allow " it to rest. The next day it may be spread upon a floor, where " it will dry speedily if the weather is warm ; a barrel of good " loam may be mixed with it in drying. It may be beaten fine " with a mallet or ground in a plaster mill. If several casks are *' used, two men can prepare a ton of excellent superphosphate '' after this method in a day's time. * * * * ^f-- Much less "acid is used in this formula than is demanded to accomplish the "perfect decomposition of the bones ; but it is important to guard " against the possibility of any free sulphuric acid in the mass, " Dr. Nichols also gives the following recipe for preparing bones for use without reducing them to the condition of a superphos- phate ; and bones applied to the soil, with the addition of the other materials of the compound, cannot fail to constitute an excellent manure : — "Take 100 pounds of bones beaten into as small fragments "as possible; pack them in a tight cask or box with lOO pounds " of good wood-ashes. Mix with the ashes before packing 25 "pounds of slaked lime, and 12 pounds of sal soda, powdered " fine. It will require about 20 gallons of water to saturate the " mass, and more may be added from time to time to maintain " moisture. In two or three weeks the bones will be broken " down completely, and the whole may be turned out upon a " floor and mixed with two bushels of dry peat or good soil, and "after drying, it is fit for use." Whether it will pay the farmer to manufacture superphosphate of lime, or to reduce coarse bones according to the process de- scribed above, must depend upon the amount of labor at his com- mand and upon the extent to which he can profitably apply his labor to other farm work during the winter season. Probably, if he has muck which he might be hauling to his barn, or any other profitable work for his hands, it will be better to purchase such superphosphate as he may require in the general market ; — for the 246 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. material required in this domestic manufacture will be somewhat expensive, and the process more or less troublesome ; while there is no doubt that, except in the most remote regions, good super- phosphate may be procured at a cost, delivered on the farm, that will be amply justified by the result of its application to the crops. In purchasing, however, a farmer runs a considerable risk of being swindled ; for nothing is easier than to add to any commer- cial fertilizer such an amount of sand, sifted ashes, or other worthless material, as will very much reduce its value. Still, even the most unscrupulous dealer in fertilizers will probably have the wit to supply a genuine article to any customer whom it seems unsafe to cheat ; and if the farmer will purchase directly from the manufacturer, and with the stipulation that every pack- age of the fertilizer shall analyze up to a given standard, the chances are that the adulterated article will be reserved for shipment to some other person ; and I am confident at the same time that there are manufacturers who conduct their business on strictly honest principles, and who will always send a genuine article. The superphosphates of lime which are sold in the American market, contain, generally, a considerable proportion of ammonia, which adds to their value for use in connection with the stable manure of the farm ; but probably, where there is an abundant supply of stable manure, it would be cheapest to invest the whole amount of purchase-money in the mineral matters, as it is these which it is, beyond all question, the most important to procure from external sources. Concerning the method of application of superphosphate of lime, two opinions prevail. One is, that it is better to spread it, if possible, with the use of a broadcast sower evenly over the whole surface of the land, so that no part of the soil may fail to receive a certain amount. And the other is, that it is pref- erable to compost it with stable manure, which, undoubtedly, ' adds to its efficiency, but is subject to the objection that as stable manure is always more or less lumpy, and is necessarily spread by hand, its distribution when applied in the field is less uniform than MANURES. 247 it is desirable that it should be. In either case the manure should be spread broadcast over the whole surface, and not applied directly to the hill or furrow, for the reason that phosphoric acid is most necessary in the development of the seed of the plant, and generally during the latter stages of its growth, at a time when the roots are supposed to occupy every part of the soil, and when many of them, at least, would have passed beyond the narrow limits of the hill or furrow. The application of phosphoric acid is not most profitable when made most strictly in accordance with the generally accepted scien- tific theories concerning its use by plants ; for it is shown by long experience that it is not so active a manure for wheat as ammonia is, although wheat contains, in the ashes of its seed, about 50 per cent, of phosphoric acid ; and that it is a most valuable stimulant for turnips, although the ashes of these contain only about 7 per cent. Possibly the reason for this apparent discrepancy between theory and practice is to be found in the fact that during the early stages of growth, when the plant is acquiring its ability to make use of the materials already contained in the soil, the phosphoric acid is more necessary to the turnip than to the wheat ; whereas, the wheat, by the time it requires a considerable proportion of phosphoric acid, is in a condition to take up an amount which could not be made use of by the young turnip plant. We often hear farmers make a distinction between manures which act quickly, and those which are lasting ; and in ordinary practice, the preference is almost invariably given to the "lasting" manure. This idea is not founded, in my opinion, upon reason ; for it may be stated, as a general principle, that manures are last- ing only in proportion as they are "lazy." For example: Twenty dollars' worth of whole bones, spread upon an acre of land, would not produce a very marked efFect upon the crop im- mediately following the application ; while twenty dollars' worth of fine bone-dust would probably produce an excellent, and an equal value of a good superphosphate — a capital result. On the other hand, the effect of the whole bones would be perceptible on 248 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. the crops of a life-time; that of the fine bones would probably disappear or grow greatly less after five or ten years ; and that of the superphosphate would probably not be very marked after two or three years. It is the old story of " the nimble sixpence and the slow shilling." In either case the material applied to the soil produces a given amount of effect on vegetation ; that in the superphosphate being developed within two or three years, results in a few large crops which are immediately available, and the extra money which they produce may be in part applied to the renewal of the manure ; the whole bones, on the other hand, produce the same amount of growth, only during a long series of years, while the interest on their cost, and the interest on the value and on the cost of cultivating the land, are constantly running on. The chance for profit is very much greater in the case in which large immediate returns give through the current year a greater amount of increase or profit above the necessary expenses and loss of interest. Farmers also speak of superphosphate of lime, Peruvian guano, and other intense manures as being exhausting ; and there is no doubt that in the experience of many districts, as, for instance, those parts of Maryland where, during a few years, the yield of wheat was raised to a very high figure by the use of Peruvian guano, and where it was found that, after these few years, guano failed to produce a beneficial result, they have a good apparent reason for their opinion. Any manures which do not supply all that the plant requires, or all at least of such elements as the soil can furnish in only a limited degree, are exhausting manures. For instance, there may be in the soil a certain amount of phosphoric acid available for the uses of plants, and in the ordinary course of growth without manure a sufficient addition to this supply may be made available by natural chemical processes to constantly furnish fair average crops, that is, to furnish the phosphoric acid required by such crops as grow m the natural condition of the land, of which the capacity may be kept at a low point owing to a defi- ciency of potash, for instance. Now, if we apply any manure (such as wood ashes) which supplies MANURES. 249 potash in considerable quantity, the result will be the production of as large a crop as, in view of the composition and circumstances of the soil, it is possible for potash to produce, and the crops may be doubled or quadrupled, as the result of the application of the potash alone. But they, at the same time, remove from the soil double or quadruple the quantity of phosphoric acid that was required by the smaller crop ; and the result is, that while the manure has by no means had the effect of exhausting the soil, but has rather added to its valuable ingredients, the crops produced in consequence of the use of that manure have exhausted the soil of some ingredient which the manure did not supply, namely, phosphoric acid. In the case cited above — that of the production of large crops of wheat by the aid of Peruvian guano in Maryland — it is prob- able that the ammonia of the guano increased so largely the pro- duction of wheat, that the soil was robbed, in the course of a few years, of elements which the guano did not supply in sufficient quantity ; and, these elements being once removed, no amount of any other constituent would suffice for the growth of plants to which they are absolutely requisite. Therefore, in the use of either superphosphate of lime, or of bones or bone-dust, the principal available ingredient supplied being phosphoric acid (and perhaps ammonia), the soil may, as a con- sequence of the greater production, be robbed of potash, or some other element, to such an extent as to be permanently injured. It is wrong, however, in this case to blame the manure for the result. We should rather blame ourselves for having pursued such a system of cultivation as has taken away elements of the soil's fertility, trusting to some other element to supply its place. To use a homely illustration of our meaning, we will take the case of a merchant tailor who receives a large accession to his stock in the form of woolen cloth, and has not the means of increasing, materially, the quantity of his other supplies. If stimulated by this addition to his stock, he takes an army contract for overcoats, and employs a sufficient number of hands, under contract for the season, to make them, the result will probably be that he will run 250 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. out of buttons and grogram, and be obliged to throw up his contract, .and to expend the last dollar of his substance in compounding with his hands, with whom he is not able to keep his engagements. It would be as just to blame the cloth for ruining the tailor as it is to blame Peruvian guano for exhausting the land. It is very well to have a large amount of the purely stimulating elements of ma- nure, but, unless the farmer keeps a sharp eye to the " buttons and grogram," he will wish that he had never seen any thing but the "good old stuff" of the barnyard, and had been content with the ordinary retail trade on which he was making a comfortable living. But, on the other hand, it is as easy for him to procure what is necessary to keep up the balance of his stock in trade as it would be for the tailor ; and he would make a grave mistake, if, by reason of any bugbear of exhaustion, he neglected to use every available fertilizer which, by any means, might add to the bulk and value of his productions. Concerning the importance of phosphoric acid, so much has been said, incidentally, in treating of the use of night-soil and stable manure, that it is not worth while to give more space to its consideration here. It is a capital manure in whatever form it may offer itself; and it is, furthermore, the manure of which all grain and meat produ- cing farms stand in the greatest need. Its importance to the agriculture of the country may be safely assumed to exceed that of all the other elements of imported or of home-made fertilizers — that is, if we take into consideration, not the results of a few years, but the prosperity of the country for generations. Potash. — Second in importance among the earthy ingredients of plants stands the article which is familiar to every one as " potash." This is known to us all as the chief constituent of the lye which results from the leaching of wood ashes ; and, even as we find it to a greater or less extent in the ashes of all wood burned for fuel, so in the laboratory the chemist finds it as a more or less important constituent of every crop grown on the farm. Its proportion as MANURES. 251 an element of the ashes of plants is by no means slight, as will be shown by the following table giving the amount of potash removed from the soil by various crops : — * I o bushels of wheat 3 lbs. 1,200 lbs. of wheat straw 9 " 10 bushels of rye 2.L " 1,600 lbs. of rye straw 1 1 « 10 bushels of corn 2! " I ton of corn stalks 8 " 10 bushels of oats if «< 1,700 lbs. of oat straw 12 « 10 bushels of beans 5^^ " 1,100 lbs. of bean straw 36 " ton of turr 'Ps 7 700 lbs. of turnip tops 5 I ton of potatoes 28 ton of red clover I ton of meadow hay 18 " I ton of cabbage r " Assuming the production of a farm to be 500 bushels of wheat, 100 bushels of rye, 10 tons of turnips, 40 bushels of potatoes, lO tons of clover hay, and 20 tons of meadow hay, and assuming the production of the grain to require the proportion of straw stated above, the amount of potash taken from the soil in a single year would be about 2,500 lbs., being the amount contained in over 1,000 bushels of unleached oak wood ashes, and worth, according to Professor Johnson's estimate, about $100. This is not an unusually large estimate for the production of any good farm ; and the amount of potash removed is more than the amount returned in the form of purchased manure in any twenty years to an average farm in New England. The sources from which potash may be most advantageously obtained by the farmer are wood ashes — leached or unleached — green sand marl, sea-weed, and swamp muck. The most universally accessible source, in any new country like this, is, of course, wood ashes. And such as have not been * Small fractions are disregarded, as it is only desired in this connection to show gen- eral results. 252 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. leached are very much the most valuable, especially so far as their amount of potash is concerned, as the leaching has for its object only the removal of this ingredient. At the same time, the value of hard-wood ashes for the production of potash is often too high to allow of their use as a manure ; and the chief supply of farmers within easy carriage of leaching establishments, is in the applica- tion of leached ashes, which still contain a considerable amount of potash that the imperfect leaching has not withdrawn from them, owing to a low degree of solubility, but that is perfectly available to the roots of plants. The value of leached ashes (along the New England coast usually about 28 cents per bushel) is fixed solely by an agricultural demand, and may be taken as a fair price for the article as a manure j although, of course, its entire value is not represented by its content of potash, as it yields, also, an appreciable amount of phosphoric acid, and possibly some readily available silicic acid. In regions where lime is burned with wood fuel, the ashes (un- leached) are sold as a manure, but the large amount of lime that becomes mixed with them considerably lessens their value as a fertilizer, while its uncertain proportion makes it difficult to deter- mine what their actual value is. Ordinarily, within reach of the limekilns of Maine, they are estimated to be worth about the same as leached ashes ; but there is always room for guessing in making the purchase — they may be worth sometimes more and sometimes less. The green sand marl of New Jersey, which has been devel- oped within the past twenty or thirty years, has had the effect of regenerating a very large tract of the South Jersey country which was considered almost valueless for agricultural purposes, and of doing much toward raising the entire State to the very first rank as an agricultural region — for, probably, there is no district in the country which, in proportion to the selling value of the land, and to the population employed in agriculture, yields, year by year, so large an amount of money as does that which lies within easy hauling distance of the marl-pits stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Delaware River ; and there is reason to believe that MANURES. 053 the barren lanas which comprise almost the whole of New Jersey south of a line drawn from New York to Philadelphia may be profitably brought, by the use of marl, to a state of the highest fertility,-^to a condition in which they will even rival the prairie lands of the West. The soil is light and easily worked, but is of so poor a character that the whole country is covered with a stunted vegetation, and is known as the "Barrens." Much at- tention has been drawn to this region by the profuse advertising of the Vineland tract, and by the efforts which are being made to draw population to other settlements between Vineland and Sandy Hook. In the autumn of 1867, I visited the farm of the New Jersey Agricultural College at New Brunswick, and Professor Cook, the State geologist, and President of the Agri-cultural College, showed me a tract of heavy clay land upon which he had experimented with the use of marl. Three pieces of land, in all respects the same, and each measuring one quarter of an acre, were set apart for the experiment. The first received a dressing of 100 pounds of the best flour of bone ; the second received nothing ; and the third an application of green sand marl, costing, delivered on the ground, the same amount as the 100 pounds of bone dust. There were no means for accurately weighing the crop, but by a careful estimate, the result was as follows : The tract manured with bone dust produced at the rate of 54 cocks of hay to the acre j that which received no manure produced at the rate of 36 cocks ; and that which was manured with green sand marl produced at the rate of 85 cocks. The following table of analysis will show the composition of green sand marl : — * Protoxide of iron I5'5 Alumina 69 Lime 5 "3 Magnesia 16 Potash 48 Soluble silica 324 Insoluble silica and sand 1 9'S * Elements of Agriculture. G. E. Waring, Jr. Page Z40. 254 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Sulphuric acid 06 Phosphoric acid i -^ Water 80 Carbonic acid, etc g-g lOO'OO This is an average of three analyses copied from Professor George H. Cook's report of the geology of New Jersey. Ac- cording to this estimate, one ton (2,000 lbs.) of green sand marl contains — Lime io6 lbs. Magnesia 32 " Potash 96 " Soluble silicic acid 648 " Sulphuric acid 12 " Phosphoric acid 26 " (Equal to phosphate of lime, 56^ lbs.) It will be seen by this analysis that the amount of phosphoric acid contained is sufficient to add very much to the effect of the marl, but its content of potash is so great as to account for its chief value, and all regions which are within reach of the marl- beds, even by the aid of a cheap water carriage, may be greatly benefited by the use of the material, which is found in comparatively inexhaustible supply. It is to be recommended, however, that its first introduction be only in an experimental way, as it is not equally efficient on all soils. As a source of potash anywhere along the Atlantic coast, it will probably be found an economical fertilizer. In the fall of 1867, I purchased a cargo of about 140 tons of marl, which cost, delivered on the wharf at Newport, $3.60 a ton; and used it in various ways in my market-garden and at Ogden Farm. In the garden its effect was, in every case, very decided, espe- cially on one tract of three-quarters of an acre of Jersey Wakefield cabbage. The land was manured very heavily, of course, with stable manure, but no more so than is customary in garden culti- vation — no more heavily than my cabbage fields had previously been manured. After the plants had been set out, a single handful of a compost of equal parts of green sand marl and clear horse MANURES. 255 manure was put on the surface about the plants, and I attribute chiefly to the influence of the marl thus applied the fact that the crop thus produced was the finest that had ever been seen in the neighborhood, and better than any I have ever seen anywhere else. At Ogden Farm, however, where most of the marl was used, I have thus far In no Instance seen any decided benefit resulting. But this fact should by no means condemn the marl, for the rea- son that the land, not then having even been drained, was so excessively wet during the entire season that no manure could have fair play. The only noticeable advantage resulting from Its use was to be found in the spontaneous growth of a very thick mat of white clover in an old meadow. Whether the draining of the farm which is now completed will have the effect of demonstrating the value of the marl remains to be seen. It is my opinion that it will, since not even fish guano and other active manures were able during this wet season to produce a marked result on any part of the farm. It is hardly fair to confine our account of sea-weed to the simple consideration of the potash which it furnishes, since its most valu- able constituent is probably nitrogen — producing ammonia, and It contains other earthy elements in perceptible quantity. But its chief value as a permanent fertilizer is no doubt due to the potash which results from its decomposition. The use of sea-weed, however. Is confined to such limited localities, and is so thoroughly well understood by all farmers re- siding near the sea-coast, that it Is hardly worth while in a practical treatise of this sort to devote much space to its consideration. Certainly nothing that we could say could possibly increase the enthusiastic devotion to its "getting" which actuates all sea-board farmers. I once asked a neighbor, who is remarkably "well-to-do" in the world, how he could make up his mind to get up at 3 o'clock on cold winter mornings, and go with his team to a beach, four ' miles distant, to haul home sea-weed ; and to find his chief winter 17 256 HANDY-BOOK OF nUSBANDRT. amusement, even in the coldest weather, in working in the surf, remarking that it did not seem to- me that, to a man situated as he was, the sea-weed was worth the trouble. His reply was as follows : " There's more than sea-weed in it — the devil's in it, — *' and I don't know how it is, but I had rather sit up all night to " get sea-weed than to go out early in the morning duck-shooting." Indeed, in many sea-board neighborhoods feuds and lawsuits, generations old, are based solely on contests and jealousies con- cerning " sea-weed rights ; " and the fertility of the grass lands to which sea-weed is habitually applied is sufficiently great to estab- lish its value. Swamp muck being, so far as its organic matter is concerned, entirely the result of the decomposition of vegetable matter, its ashes, of course, are rich in various earthy ingredients of vegeta- tion. Professor S. W, Johnson publishes a table, giving the average of the analyses of 26 specimens of muck or peat, and in the ashes of these there is an average amount of potash equal to T^oV "^ °"^ P^^ cent. And when we consider the average amount of ash, including the earthy deposits which are added to peat in its formation, and the very large quantities that are used on farms on which it is used at all, we see that the total amount of potash to be derived from this source is by no means insignificant, and that it constitutes an important element of the value of muck as a manure. Lime. — This material, although forming an important part of the ashes of plants, is to be more properly considered, in its applica- tion as a manure, under the head of " mechanical manures," and will, accordingly, be treated hereafter. Special Fertilizers. It would be hardly prudent in any work of the character of this to describe the various special fertilizers, under their different names and according to the reputation of their manufacturers. There are many different brands of phosphate of lime, all of which, if made strictly according to the recipe by which they profess to be compounded, should be valuable manures. But the farmer in MANURES. 257 purchasing them should be guided by other considerations than those o( general vAuG. The probity of the manufacturer, and the care with which his subordinates carry out his instructions, have so much to do with the value of the product of any establishment, that purchases from each should be made according to more infor- mation than it would be safe or proper to give'^in this book. Peruvian guano^ when purchased from the regular agents of the Peruvian government, or from any thoroughly honest dealer, may be depended on as an extremely valuable manure for certain pur- poses, but it must always be used with great judgment and discre- tion. Its valuable constituents are so perfectly prepared for the uses of vegetation, that even so small a dressing as loo pounds per acre, evenly spread over the land, produces such a marked effect on early vegetation as to give nearly all crops a start so rapid that they are enabled to take up with great vigor from the soil itself such plant-nutriment as it may be able to offer. Probably, even in addition to Its influence as an easily assimilated food, it acts as a solvent of certain elements of the soil, and makes them much more readily available. The result is, in many cases, that a soil, which, in its natural condition, would furnish the mineral food for only a small crop, will, with this slight assistance, furnish the mineral matter required for a very much larger crop, the mineral matter taken up being many times greater than that contained in the guano. Herein lies, probably, the only secret of what is called the "exhausting" influence of Peruvian guano, for up to this point (the raising of the crop) no injury has been done. The final result of the cultivation must depend on the judgment and care of the farmer. If, elated by the excessive production or tempted by an exceptionally high price of the crop in market, he sells off from his farm all that has been produced by the aid of the guano, the land must inevitably suffer in consequence ; but if the crop be consumed on the farm, or in any manner so made use of that its mineral ingredients are returned to the soil on which it grew, it will be found that the effect of the guano has been per- manently beneficial. In improving waste land with the aid of a stock of cattle to 258 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. consume the crops raised, there is no other agent so valuable as Peruvian guano ; for the cultivation of hired land, or land which has been bought ^t a low rate for a specific purpose, the crops being sold away, nothing is more injurious. This manure is as powerful and almost as dangerous as gun- powder. It may tfe made to produce the best permanent results, and to add more than almost any thing else can to the prosperity of the farmer. But unless managed with care and prudence he might almost as well blow up his whole concern, for certain im- poverishment of the land, and probably of the farmer too, will result from such a system of robbery as Peruvian guano makes possible and strongly tempts us to. Fish guano is subject to all of the recommendations, and to all of the strictures which have been applied in the case of Peruvian guano. It is the refuse of fish-oil works, which have been estab- lished within a few years, along our eastern coast, where the menhaden, or moss-bunker, is subjected to hydraulic pressure for the extraction of its oil. The refuse, which is ground more or less fine, is sold for manure, and, containing all of the bones and all of the nitrogenous elements of the fish, has a very highly stimulating effect, and is, undoubtedly, a capital fertilizer when used with discretion. Several manufacturers of superphosphate of lime add fish guano to their products in order to give them a more rapid action. It is a question, however, whether they do not get so high a price for the guano added as to make their fertilizers too expensive for use. Unfortunately, also, there are no means by which they may be restrained from adding sand, ashes, and other worthless material to the mass, and so swindle their purchasers to an unlimited extent. Such fertilizers should be purchased only by careful chemical analysis, their price being regulated ac- cording to the value of their useful constituents. Solvent Manures. It is hardly possible — indeed, it is quite impossible — to separate into a class by themselves those manures whose action is due to MANURES. 259 their power of rendering the earthy ingredients of the soil more soluble, or in any way more available to the roots of plants ; for it happens in almost every instance that the solvent effect is pro- duced by the action of materials which also come under the head of nutrient manures. If there is any single fertilizer which is a solvent, and only a solvent, it is common salt. This contains, it is true, only ele- ments (chlorine and sodium) which are found in the ashes of nearly all cultivated plants, and which are more or less important to their growth ; but the amount of either of these that is absolutely requisite to the perfection of the growth of any crop is so slight, and the quantity of each that is to be found in every cultivated soil is so great, that it would be fair to assume that crops can always obtain from the natural source all of either chlorine or sodium that they require. The marked action which generally follows the use of small dressings of salt — say from 5 to 8 bushels per acre — and the exceptional action in those cases where it seems to be almost as active as Peruvian guano itself, indicate that it exerts an influence on vegetation which can by no means be ascribed to its supply of food directly to the plant. The manner in which it is supposed to act as a dissolving agent is very well described in the following quotation from Liebig's last work : — * "When the exhaustion of a field is not caused by the absolute " deficiency of food elements, when even a more than adequate *' supply of all the needful nutriment is there, but not in the pro- *' per form, and where Consequently fallowing will again render *' the crop remunerative, the farmer has means at his disposal to *' assist the action of the natural agencies, whereby the conversion " of the food into the state of physical combination is effected", *' and thus to shorten the fallowing season, or even, in many in- " stances, to make it altogether superfluous. " We have seen that the diffusion of earthy phosphates through *' the soil is effected exclusively by water, which, if containing a *' certain amount of carbonic acid, dissolves these earthy salts. * The Natural Laws of Husbandry. J. Von Liebig, Munich, March, 1S63. 260 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. '•" Now there are certain salts, such as chloride of sodium, (com- " mon salt,) nitrate of soda, and salts of ammonia, which experi- '' ence has proved to exercise, under certain conditions, a favorable " action upon the productiveness of a field. *' These salts, even in their most dilute solutions, possess, like '' carbonic acid, the remarkable power of dissolving phosphate of " lime and phosphate of magnesia ; and when such solutions are " filtered through arable soil, they behave just like the solution of " these phosphates in carbonic acid water. The earth extracts '' from these salt solutions the dissolved earthy phosphates, and " combines with the latter. " Upon arable soil mixed with earthy phosphates in excess, " these salt solutions act in the same way as upon earthy phos- " phates in the unmixed state, that is, they dissolve a certain pro- ^' portion of the phosphates. " Nitrate of soda, and chloride of sodium suffer, by the action " of arable soil, a similar decomposition to that of the salts of *■'■ potash. Soda is absorbed by the soil, and in its stead lime or *■'■ magnesia enters into solution in combination with the acid. " If we compare the action of arable soil upon salts of potash " and salts of soda, we find that the soil has far less attraction for " soda than for potash ; so that the same volume of earth which " will suffice to remove all the potash from a solution will, in a " solution of chloride of sodium or nitrate of soda of the same '' alkaline strength, leave undecomposed three-fourths of the dis- *' solved chloride of sodium, and half of t^ie nitrate of soda. " If, therefore, a field exhausted by culture, which contains " earthy phosphate scattered here and there, is manured with *' nitrate of soda or chloride of sodium, and by the action of rain *■'■ a dilute solution of these salts Is formed, a portion of them will "remain undecomposed in the ground, and must in the moist " soil exert an influence, weak in itself, but sure to tell in the " long run. " Like carbonic acid generated by the putrefaction of vegetable '■'■ and animal substances, and dissolving in water, these salt " solutions become charged with earthy phosphates in all places MANURES. 261 *' where these occur. Now when these phosphates diffused " through the fluid come into contact with particles of the arable " soil not already saturated with them, they are thereby withdrawn " from the solution, and the nitrate of soda or chloride of sodium " remaining in solution again acquires the power of repeatedly ex- " erting the same dissolving and diffusing action upon phosphates " which are not already fixed in the soil by physical attraction, " until these salts are finally carried down by rain-water to the " deeper layers of the soil, or are totally decomposed." " Of nitric acid, it is generally assumed that it may, like am- " monia, serve to sustain the body of the plant. Thus, chloride " of sodium and the nitrates act in two distinct ways, one direct, " by serving as food for the plant ; one indirect, by rendering the '' phosphates available for the purposes of nutrition. " The salts of ammonia act upon earthy phosphates in the same '' way as the salts just mentioned, but with this distinction, that " their power of dissolving phosphate is far greater ; a solution of '' sulphate of ammonia will dissolve twice as much bone-earth as "a solution of an equal quantity of chloride of sodium. " However, as regards the phosphates in the soil, the action of " the salts of ammonia can hardly be more powerful than that of " chloride of sodium or nitrate of soda, since the salts of ammonia " are decomposed by the soil much more speedily, and often even "immediately; so that, as a general rule, no solution of such a " salt can be said to be actually moving about in the soil. But as " a certain volume of earth, however small, is required to decom- " pose a given quantity of salts of ammonia, the action of those " salts upon this small volume of earth must be all the more " powerful. While, then, the action of salts of ammonia is barely " perceptible in the somewhat deeper layers of the arable surface " soil, that which they exercise on the uppermost layers is so " much the stronger. Feichtinger observed that solutions of salts " of ammonia decompose many silicates, even feldspar, and take up " potash from the latter. Thus, by their contact with the arable " soil, they not only enrich it with ammonia, but they effect, even 262 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *' in its minutest particles, a thorough transposition of the nutritive " substances required by plants." The above quotation describes the action of all those elements of manure vi^hich come under the head of solvents, and precludes the necessity of a further discussion of the subject by my less skillful pen. Absorbent Manures. There are no manures applied to the soil which probably depend entirely for their beneficial action upon their ability to absorb fertilizing gases from the atmosphere, or fertilizing solutions from other sources ; and it need only be stated, in general terms, that clay and decomposed organic matter, and, less conspicuously, charcoal dust and plaster, in addition to their other modes of action, have, to a considerable extent this accessory power ; and, whether in compost with animal manures or as direct applications to the sur- face of the soil, they are worthy of the farmer's careful attention and preservation. In this respect it will be enough to follow the recognized rule, that, in agriculture, every thing which can in any way add to the fertility of the land should be secured, from what- ever source, and nothing whatever should be allowed to go to waste. Mechanical Manures. Interlacing, also, in almost every part, with the feeding and solvent action of special fertilizers, and of the results of the de- composition of organic manures, we find another effect which can hardly in any single instance be set down as the sole source of the benefit of any manurial application, and which is known as me- chanical. Probably the effect of the application of sea-sand, espe- cially such as by exposure to rain has been washed clean of its small amount of salt, is to be ascribed pretty nearly, if not altogether, to its purely mechanical effect in loosening the rigidity of clays, and in rendering heavy soils lighter, and it may, perhaps, be set down as a simply mechanical manure. MANURES. 263 But there is scarcely any thing which we apply to the land that does not owe very much of its fertilizing influence to its mechani- cal action. For instance, stable manure, when plowed into the soil, by its decomposition elevates its temperature, by its fibrous texture separates its particles, and by the power of its organic matter to absorb moisture prevents very light soils from becoming too dry, while, from its loosening action, it hastens the drying of heavy wet lands. Nearly all manures, also, of which the con- stituents have a chemical action on the particles of the soil have the effect of breaking down the coarser clods or larger particles, and lessening or increasing their adhesion, and of roughening their particles, giving them greater ability to absorb moisture and greater ability to transmit excessive moisture to or through the sub-soil below. It would require more space and consideration than is consist- ent with the plan of this book to enter very largely into the dis- cussion of this branch of the subject. But any farmer who will give himself the trouble to consider the different points enumer- ated above, and to watch the effect on the mechanical condition of the soil of almost every manure that he applies, will see that this mechanical action constitutes no mean part of the influence that manures exert on vegetation. Lime^ however, an element which exists in almost all soils in considerable quantity, almost invariably in sufficient quantity to supply the lime required for the simple formation of the ashy part of plants, is found to be in many districts the most powerful agent for the amelioration of the condition of the soil, and for the per- manent increase of its fertility. It is a singular fact that precisely such soils as are formed by the decomposition of limestone rocks, and which, as a necessarv consequence, contain a very large per- centage of lime, are the very ones which are most benefited by the application of caustic or slacked lime. In these cases it is undoubtedly true that the action of the lime as a solvent and as a mechanical manure must account for its beneficial effect. From an article entitled, " Lime on Hill Pastures," contributed by Prof. Johnson to the first number of Hearth and Home^ I quote 264 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDIiY. the following, which sets forth more clearly than any thing that I have hitherto met, one of the chief reasons why lime often pro- duces an action that justifies the high estimation in which practi- cal farmers hbld its application on heavy clays or wet hill lands : — " I well remember the former condition of your hill-side '' at Edgewood, which, as you mention, has been restored from " great poverty, and mainly by lime alone. The present beauty " of that slope is but another evidence of the truth of an asser- " tlon that has passed into a maxim in agriculture, namely : ' Lime " has reclaimed more waste land than all other applications put " together.' " The pasture, which once, no doubt, was comparatively pro- '' ductive, probably came to be mossy and worthless by a slow " change in its chemical constitution, analogous to what occurs '' in the formation of hardpan in ochrous soils, in the setting of " hydraulic cement, and, generally, in the process of rock making " that has gone on in all ages, and still proceeds, whereby sand " and gravels are changed to freestone, and conglomerate clays are " indurated into slates, and shell-mud is cemented into limestone." '' If I rightly remember, the slope has some springs upon it, *' and a drain or two has been made to assist them to a speedy *' outflow. This oozing of water which, perhaps, made the *' ground mossy when covered by the original forest, was not " enough, I suppose, to prevent good pasturage coming in so soon " as the wood was cleared ofF, for the decay of the leaf-mould " would have left the surface-soil porous and readily able to free " itself from excess of water. The springs, however, have al- " ways tended to stagnation, and when the soil, through oxida- " tion of its mould and much cattle treading, became more com- " pact, the free flow of water was checked, and the stopping of " the springs reacted powerfully upon the soil to increase the "evil. " If I should venture a surmise as to the nature of the indura- " tion, it would be that oxide of iron and the acids resulting from " a peaty decomposition of vegetable matter — humates, ulmates, MANURES. 2G5 geates, or whatever chemists choose to name them — have done the mischief. The soils of this neighborhood are, for the most part, decidedly, often highly ferruginous, and the very sandstone that crops out here and there in the vicinity of New Haven is, to all appearance, a sandy gravel, cemented by oxide of iron. The hillside at Edgewood, before your renovation began, was in the early stages of becoming a moor^ such as, in humid cli- mates, occupy immense stretches of country, producing noth- ing but moss and heather. Were Edgewood situated in the north of Ireland, or Scotland, or in Labrador, the hill-side, left to itself, would in all probability soon be covered with plat moss, and the heather-bell would make it as poetical as It would be useless. The heat and dryness of our summer have prevented this combination of beauty and worthlessness, and made it simply an ordinary old mossy pasture, until, for a mar- vel, it became a feature of Edgewood. " These little-known humates of Iron are poison to all the nutritious grasses. As they accumulated, the proper pasturage died out, the soil became more and more moist or springy, be- cause of Its Induration on the one hand, and still more so, on the other, by reason of the water-loving vegetation increasing upon it, " In our climate sufficient drainage alone would surely cure this evil ; but to drain a hill-side so abrupt as that of Edgewood would seem absurd. Yet it is not absurd to squeeze a sponge, and the soil was a sponge that would not let the water flow out of it even on a slope of twenty-five degrees, more or less. By drainage the land would be reclaimed, the incipient rock would be broken up, the sponge would pass by insensible degrees into proper soil, the waters would escape, and then the mosses, that live In wet but perish in tilth, would give place to better herbage, and the harsh, sharp-edged sedge would be supplanted by the true grasses. " In drainage, it is the air^ and especially its oxygen^ which cuts to pieces the cement that threatens the life of the soil. The air car- ries away in its invisible embrace the moisture — takes position 266 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY, ' among the particles of earth, consumes away the humus, com- ' bines with the black and styptic iron protoxide, burning it to red ' and innocuous peroxide, literally as well as figuratively warms ' the soil, and sets up those inorganic activities that must always ' precede and prepare for the sway of organic life. " Lime has long been known as a substitute for drainage. ' Even level-lying clays have been made friable and dry by heavy ' liming. In the Ober-Lausitz, (Germany,) in the north of Eng- ' land and Scotland, this effect has been abundantly seen. Lord ' Karnes noticed, seventy years ago, that some soils are rendered ' so loose by overdoses of lime as to retain no water. This is ' especially the case with their moorish soils and reclaimed peat. ' Such land becomes pufFy and hollow to the tread when limed too ' copiously. If soil or pulverized rocks, like porphyry and ' basalt, are mixed with one per cent, of quicklime, or two per ' cent, of c&rbonate of hme, (air-slacked lime,) then moistened ' with water and set aside for some months in a closed bottle, it ' will be seen by the eye that a very perceptible change of bulk ' has taken place in the mixture. The rock or soil becomes ' more voluminous and more porous by this treatment. " The effect of lime in loosening the soil is partly the result ' of chemical action, whereby particle after particle is detached ' from each grain of firm stone, the volume of the whole in- ' creasing, just as the bulk of an ounce of iron is made more by ' cutting it to filings, or that of a rag of linen by tearing it to ' lint. "The effect is also in part mechanical, especially in clay, ' whose plastic particles adhere together when the mass is swol- ' len with wet, and, on slow drying, still cohere and harden to ' clods. When clay is limed, the lime, being dissolved in rain, ' is carried wherever the rain penetrates, and coats the fine ' grains of clay as the atoms of a dye fix themselves upon the ' fiber of cloth, so that, when the water wastes, it is not any ' longer adhesive clay settling to a doughy paste, but clay rolled ' in lime, that no more sticks together than bread-dough sticks to ' the pan or fingers dusted with flour. Clays that naturally con- MANURES. 267 '' tain a few per cent, of lime-carbonate (clay-marls) are friable *' and unplastic, and a copious dressing of lime upon a clay field " converts it, after a year or two, into a marl with a highly im- " proved texture." I have found in my own practice, in the cultivation of heavy moist land in garden vegetables, that an application of a single barrel of air-slacked lime per acre, spread with perfect uniformity by a broadcast sower, resulted in a growth of cabbages and root crops which I think it would have been impossible for me to have attained on such soil without it. As an incidental advantage of the use of lime, I am led by my own experience to indorse most fully the opinion of Peter Hen- derson concerning its effect on certain insects which are especially injurious to vegetation. He claims that the reason why those few favored market-gardeners who cultivate a little tract on the shores of Communipaw Bay are able to grow cabbages year after year, on the same land, is, that this region was used for ages, in the olden time, as a clam-baking ground by the Indians of New Jersey, and that the immense number of clam-shells that are found to the depth of a foot or more in all of the land of that region, exert an influence on the soil which renders it unfavorable to the " club- foot " insect. That this effect exists there is no doubt, although it is not in accordance with our generally-received ideas to sup- pose that bits of insoluble shells should produce a result at all similar to that of caustic or even more crumbling carbonate of lime. The practice of ages has shown that, both by increasing the power of the soil to admit of the filtration of water and by render- ing more available its hidden stores of plant food, an application of lime to heavy land is productive of the very best immediate results ; and in this case, as in that of Peruvian guano, the applica- tion must be made with care and judgment. It is an old saying among farmers of certain districts in this country that " lime kills the land ;" and there is a very old couplet current in England, which runs as follows : — 268 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBAXDRT. " He who limes without manure Will leave his farm and family poor." The fact in this case is, as in that of Peruvian guano, that the application of the single agent stimulates a production which takes from the soil other elements of the ashes of plants than those which the application itself furnishes. Therefore, while lime is one of the most valuable agents that the farmer can employ, it is only by a careful husbanding of the soil elements these increased crops extract that he will be able to maintain the increased, or even the original fertility of the land. GREEN CROPS. After a poor soil has been brought to a condition in which it is possible to produce upon it any considerable amount of vegetation, the road to its entire reclamation is simple and easy. Probably the most important agent in the production of all fertile soils has been the growth and decomposition of vegetation. In some cases, forests, and in other cases, wild grasses have for ages occupied the land, and by the yearly decomposition of their dying parts — their stems and their leaves — have added, little by little, to the bulk and richness of the earth. By this means not only does the soil receive organic matter which had been drawn chiefly from the atmosphere, but every leaf and every stem rejected by the plant and added to the soil contains potash, lime, phosphoric acid, and other elements of vegetable ashes, which had been slowly withdrawn from the crude soil by the roots of the earlier vegeta- tion — perhaps, in many instances, from considerable depths below the surface. And thus, little by little, perhaps during ten years, and perhaps during a thousand years, a constantly continuing pro- cess has brought the soil from a condition in which it would support only the lower orders of plants, or the more vigorous feed- ing trees, to that in which it is susceptible of supporting plants useful to man. The practice of manuring by the aid of green crops is an appli- cation of the same principle to the requirements of agriculture ; MANURES. 269 and the success with which this process is availed of for our purposes depends almost entirely upon a proper selection of the plant which is to be used. In America it has come to be an established fact that, wherever clover will grow, it is, all things considered, the best plant for our use ; but the same rules which regulate its adoption and the extent to which we may avail our- selves of its action, govern the cultivation of all other plants for this purpose. Clover is a plant which is capable of germinating and commencing its growth under circumstances of sterility which would be unfavorable to almost all other farm crops. Often, where nothing of value would grow, the application of a few bushels of ground plaster to the acre will be sufficient to stimulate this plant to an active vegetation. Its roots are exceedingly strong, descend to a great depth into the soil, and have an extraordinary power of absorbing matters which, to the roots of other plants, would be entirely unavailable. Its foliage is abund- ant and fleshy, and, under favorable circumstances, it absorbs ample supplies from the atmosphere. It is asserted, though, perhaps, not quite proven, that clover takes up the free nitrogen of the air. Whether this is true or not, there seems little doubt that it either avails itself of the small quantities of ammonia that come in con- tact with its leaves, or that it has the peculiar power of extracting ammonia from the soil which would not be yielded to most other crops. Certain it is that both its upper part and its roots contain much more nitrogen than would any other plant with which we are acquainted, grown under similar circumstances. The mineral food which it gets from the soil and subsoil — notably from the latter — and the supplies from the atmosphere, are stored up, not only in the stems and leaves, but, to a very hrgh extent, in the roots also. And when the crop is turned under by the plow, or even when the principal growth having been removed for hay, the roots are killed by the plow, and mixed, as so much dead organic matter, with the soil, their decomposition adds to it, in a readily available form, all of those contents of root and stem bv which the growth of future crops is to be benefited. And, in addition to all this, the lower ends of the roots, below where they arc cut off 270 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. by the plow, being deprived of their atmospheric support, die, decompose in their places, and form inviting channels for the penetration of the more delicate roots of wheat and grasses. Even as Peruvian guano stimulates a production which may be made use of as a means for permanently and largely increasing the fertility of the soil, so clover, a little more slowly but much more cheaply, accomplishes the same result. And even as Peruvian guano, when used as a means for obtaining the largest immediate crops for sale, is a most exhausting agent, so clover may become, in the hands of an injudicious cultivator, the surest means for speedy exhaustion. And the same rule applies here as in all other similar cases — that where the results of any fertilizing agent are properly husbanded, the fertility of the land and the wealth of the farmer increase, and that where the immediate results of the fertilizer are turned into money, both the soil and the farmer must ultimately be impoverished. This- subject will be more fully treated in the chapter on Forage Crops GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. To sum up, in a few words, all that it has been attempted to teach in this chapter, it may be stated that manures of all kinds should be employed in the light of a comprehensive understanding of their various effects ; and the general principle should be con- stantly adhered to, that, in the policy of the farm, nothing should be allowed to go to waste, and nothing should be sold without the return of an equivalent, or pretty nearly an equivalent of its mineral value. If, by the us^ of lime, Peruvian guano, common salt, or any other manure whose effect exceeds its ability to supply food to the plant, the crop is largely increased, that part of the earthy con- stituents of the crop which has been supplied by the soil and not by the manure, must be regarded as so much of the original bank- ing capital of the land, which is only to be put in circulation — not to be permanently disposed of. If we sell wheat, the important mineral constituents of the wheat should be purchased and returned MANURES. 2T1 to the soil. If we sell milk, or wool, or flesh, the phosphate of lime and potash contained in those products should be returned from some foreign source ; and it should be our constant aim to keep the ability of the soil to furnish plant-food continually increasing rather than diminishing. The greatest care of the farmer should be given to the husband- ing of these mineral elements, and while it is, perhaps, on these alone that the permanent fertility of his soil depends, he will find that his true interest requires him to increase, as much as possible, by home manufacture, by purchase, and by absorption from the atmosphere, the amount of ammonia or nitrates on which the extra productiveness of his land must depend. For, although the old " mineral theory " of Liebig is undoubtedly true, it is also true that the amount of ammonia that the soil receives from the at- mosphere under natural circumstances may be with advantage increased, both by application 'in manure and by offering facilities for a still larger absorption from the air. The careful observance of these rules, coupled, of course, with due attention to the mechanical condition of the soil, especially to its draining, and incidentally to all of those other parts of the farmer's business which help to increase the results of his labor, must inevitably make the cultivation of any land — no matter how poor it may be originally — more and more profitable as years pass on. And it may be stated as a fixed rule, that no system of farm- ing under which land does not, year by year, grow better, can be called good farming ; for, however much money soil-robbery may put into the farmer's pocket, it is more than balanced by the deterioration of his original capital and of the fertility on which alone his true prosperity is based. 18 CHAPTER IX. ROTATION OF CROPS. Much has been written during the past two thousand years concerning the rotation of crops ; yet we are, probably, at this day less certain concerning the various principles upon which the importance of rotation depends than concerning those which govern almost every other branch of agriculture. It is one of those cases in which, v/hile science and practice un- doubtedly walk hand in hand, the relation which each bears to the other has never been very definitely defined. In different countries, and in different parts of our own country, different rotations have been adopted ; and, in the absence of any good reason for objecting to the local custom, it will be usually the safest guide for the farmer to follow it. In this country, perhaps the most generally prevailing rotation is the following : First, Indian corn ; second, oats ; third, wheat j fourth, grasses for mowing ; fifth, pasture. This rotation is subject to the objection that it leaves no place for the root crops, and probably, as a general rule, the scarcity of labor in most parts of the country, and the consequent difHculty of taking proper care of root crops, justifies their omission ; but it is very certain that we can never achieve complete success until, by an increase of population or by an increased ability to cultivate these crops by horse-power, we are able to bring them up to their proper position as a part of the rotation — that is, to cultivate as large an area of roots as we do of corn, of oats, or of wheat. The rotation that I have adopted in my own case, v/here exceptional circumstances allow me to perform more labor on a ROTATION OF CROPS. 2T3 given area than is usual in American agriculture, is the following ; First year, Indian corn ; second year, roots ; third year, soiling crops ; fourth year, soiling crops during the first half of the sea- son, seeding down to wheat or rye in the autumn ; fifth year, wheat or rye with clover and timothy ; sixth year, mowing ; the single year's mowing to be followed by corn again. It is proper for me to say that, while this rotation has been adopted after a careful consideration of the practices of different regions, and of my own circumstances, it has not yet been so fully tried in practice as to warrant its unqualified recommenda- tion for general use, even where, as at Ogden farm, soiling is to be adopted to the entire exclusion of pasturing ; and it is not unlikely that, after the fertility of the soil has been sufficiently increased, the cultivation of corn and even of wheat or rye may be given up, and their places supplied by crops which, while they will require somewhat more labor, will produce a larger money result. In the London Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Ga-zette^ there is an editorial article on the subject of the rotation of crops, in which there appears the following very sensible remark : " Practically, a good rotation should distribute the farm work " equally, and it should give an opportunity for cleaning the land," And it is generally advised that the details of the rotation be^ regu- lated very much more by the prices of products, and by the farmer's demand for food for his cattle, than by any arbitrary rule, the two objects being constantly kept in view, of furnishing, so far as pos- sible, regular employment for men and teams throughout the busy seasons, and of pursuing such a course as shall supply the land with the requisite manure at the proper time. As a matter of general advice, it is to be recommended that the bulk of the farm manures be applied to such crops (like Indian corn) as cannot be injured by even the most stimulating applica- tion ; that crops which require a settled fertility of the land, but which are injured by the immediate application of animal manures, (and this is true of most grain crops,) should follow those to which the stable manures were originally applied ; that crops which have 274 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. but feeble power of sending their roots deep into the soil in search of food (as wheat, for instance) should succeed such crops (like clover and buckwheat) as have this power in an extraordinary degree ; that crops which require clean culture, and the expense of whose cultivation is very much increased by the foulness of the land, should follow crops which leave the land free from weeds, (as roots after grain ;) and that crops which require a large amount of decomposing organic matter in the soil should follow the decom- position of the roots and stubble of grass. So far as science is able to indicate a guide in this matter, the case is very well laid down in the following quotations from Lie- big:-^= " If a given space of a soil (in surface and in depth) contains '' only a sufficient quantity of inorganic ingredients for the perfect '' development of ten plants, twenty specimens of the same plant, ^' cultivated on this surface, could only attain half their proper "maturity; in such a case there must be a difference in the num- "ber of their leaves, in the strength of their stems, and in the " number of their seeds. " Two plants of the same kind growing in close vicinity must " prove prejudicial to each other, if they find in the soil, or in the " atmosphere surrounding them, less of the means of nourishment ** thau they require for their perfect development. There is no " plant more injurious to wheat than wheat itself, none more " hurtful to the potato than another potato. Hence vve actually *' find that the cultivated plants on the borders of a field are much ^' more luxuriant, not only in strength, but in the number and *' richness of their seeds or tubers, than plants growing in the *' middle of the same field. " The same results must ensue in exactly a similar manner *' when we cultivate on a soil the same plants for successive years, " instead of, as in the former case, growing them too closely to- *■'■ gether. Let us assume that a certain soil contains a quantity of " silicates and of phosphates sufficient for i,ooo crops of wheat, * Agricultural Chemistry. J. von Liebig. Giesscn, 1843. ROTATION OF CROPS. 275 "then, after i,000 years, it must become sterile for this plant. " If we were to remove the surface-soil and bring up the subsoil *' to the surface, making what was formerly surface-soil now the " subsoil, we would procure a surface much less exhausted than *'the former, and this might suffice to supply a new series of ** crops, but its state of fertility would also have a limit. " A soil will naturally reach its point of exhaustion sooner the *' less rich it is in the mineral ingredients necessary as food for " plants. But it is obvious that we can restore the soil to its " original state of fertility by bringing it back to its former com- " position ; that is, by returning to it the constituents removed by " the various crops of plants. " Two plants may be cultivated side by side, or successively, *' when they require unequal quantities of the same constituents, " at different times ; they will grow luxuriantly without mutual *■*■ injury, if they require for their development different ingredients " of the soil." " Different genera of plants require for their growth and perfect " maturity either the same inorganic means of nourishment, although " in unequal quantities and at different times, or they require dif- " ferent mineral ingredients. It is owing to the difference of the " food necessary for the growth of plants, and which must be " furnished by the soil, that different kinds of plants exert mutual " injury when growing together, and that others, on the contrary, "grow together with great luxuriance." ******* " There are certain ashes of plants wholly soluble in water, " others are only partially soluble, while certain kinds yield only " traces of soluble ingredients. " When the parts of the ashes insoluble m water are treated " with an acid, (muriatic acid,) this residue, in the case of many " plants, is quite soluble in the acids, (as, for instance, the ashes " of beet, turnips, and potatoes ;) with other plants, only half the "residue dissolves, the other half resisting; the solvent action of 276 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " the acid ■■, while in the case of certain plants only a third, or *' even less of the residue is taken up by the acid. " The parts of the ashes soluble in cold water consist entirely " of salts with alkaline hases^ {^potash and soda.) The ingredients " soluble in acids are salts of lime and magnesia ; and the residue " insoluble in acids consists of silica. " These ingredients being so different in their behavior to water " and to acids, afford us a means of classifying the cultivated plants " according to their unequal quantity of these constituents. Thus '' potash plants are those the ashes of which contain more than half " their weight of soluble alkaline salts ; we may designate as li/ne " plants and as silica plants those in which lime and silica respect- '' ively predominate. The ingredients thus indicated are those " which form the distinguishing characteristics of the plants which " require an abundant supply of them for their growth. " The potash plants include the chenopodia, arrach, wormwood, " etc. ; and among cultivated plants, the beet, mangel-wurzel, ^' turnip, and maize. The lime plants comprehend the lichens, " (containing oxalate of lime,) the cactus, (containing crystallized *' tartrate of lime,) clover, beans, peas, and tobacco. Silica plants " include wheat, oats, rye, and barley. Salts of Salts of Pot-ish and Lime and Silica. Soda. Magnesia. r Oat straw with seeds 3400 400 62*00 I Wheat straw 2200 7-20 61 OC Silica Plants. <„,,.,, ^ j Barley straw with seeds 1900 -57° SS'Oj (^ Rye straw 18-65 16-52 63-89 r Tobacco (Havana) 24-34 67-44 8-30 I " (Dutch) 23-07 62-23 ^S'-S " (grown in an artificial soil) 2900 59-00 12-00 Lime Plants, -'do. or ■j Pea Straw 2782 6374 7-81 Potato herb 4-20 59'+o 36*40 l^ Meadow clover 39-20 56-00 4-90 Maize straw 71-00 6-50 iS'OO Turnips 81 60 18-40 Potash Plants. -^ Beet-root 88-00 12-00 Potatoes (tubers) 85-81 ^4-'^9 [^ Helianthus tuberosus 84-30 157° ROTATION OF CROPS. 27T " This classification, however, is obviously only a very general " one, and permits division into a great number of subordinate " classes ; particularly with respect to those plants in which the " alkalies may be replaced by lime and magnesia. * * * " The potato plant belongs to the lime plants as far as regards " the ingredients of its leaves, but its tubers (which contain only " traces of lime) belong to the class o^ potash plants. With refer- " ence to the siliceous plants, this difi^erence of their parts is very " marked. " Barley must be viewed as a lime plant, when compared with " oats or with wheat, in reference to their ingredients soluble in " muriatic acid ; but it would be considered as a siliceous plant, if '' viewed only in reference to its amount of silica. Beet-root " contains phosphate of magnesia, and only traces of lime, while " the turnip contains phosphate of lime and only traces of mag- '' nesia. " When we take into consideration the quantity of ashes, and *' their known composition, we are enabled to calculate with ease, " not only the particular ingredients removed from a soil, but also " the degree in which it is exhausted of these by certain species of " plants belonging to the potash^ lime^ or siliceous plants. This will " be rendered obvious by the following examples : — "A soil, consisting of four Hessian acres, has removed from it by a crop of — Salts of potash Salts of" lime, magnesia, and soda. and peroxide of iron. Silica, lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Wheat./;" ""'^ 95-31 \o-5i 3475 | 67-55 ^6005 ( In corn 35-20 J •* ^ 32-80 J ■'-' -* o f In straw 150-4.0) ^ 54-80 ) , Peas, ■< T ^ }■ 104-41 ^J; ,„ J- -!7i-46 4660 (.In corn 44'02 j ^* ^ 16-68 J ^' ^ ^ „.,_ ( In straw 40-73 ) o o 3600 / „ ^y^- 1 In corn 4^-05! ^^-7^ L-Szf 57-8z 13977 Beet-root without leaves 361-00 37'8'}- Helianthus tuberosus 55600 104-00 "The same surface is deprived by these crops of the following quantity of phos- " phates : — Helianthus Peas. Wheat. Rye. tuberosus. Turnips. 117 II--43 7705 1^2 3784 278 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " According to the preceding views, plants must obtain from " the soil certain constituents, in order to enable them to reach " perfect maturity— that is, to enable them to bear blossoms and " fruit. The growth of a plant is very limited in pure water, in " pure silica, or in a soil from which these ingredients are absent. " If there be not present in the soil alkalies, lime, and magnesia, " the stem, leaves, and blossoms of the plants can only be formed " in proportion to the quantity of these substances existing as a " provision in the seed. When phosphates are wanting, the seeds " cannot be formed. " The more quickly a plant grows, the more rapidly do its leaves " increase in number and in size, and therefore the supply of *' alkaline bases must be greater in a given time. " As all plants remove from the soil certain constituents, it is " quite obvious that none of them can render it either richer or *' more fertile for a plant of another kind. If we convert into '' arable land a soil which has grown for centuries wood, or a *' vegetation which has not changed, and if we spread over this *' soil the ashes of the wood and of the bushes, we have added to " that contained in the soil a new provision of alkaline bases, *' and of phosphates, which may suffice for a hundred or more *' crops of certain plants. If the soil contains silicates susceptible " of disintegration, there will also be present in it soluble silicate '' of potash or soda, which is necessary for the rendering mature " the stem of the siliceous plant ; and, with the phosphates *' already present, we have in such a soil all the conditions neces- ** sary to sustain uninterrupted crops of corn for a series of years. " If this soil be either deficient or wanting in the silicates, but yet " contain an abundant quantity of salts of lime and of phosphates, *' we will be enabled to obtain from it, for a number of years, suc- " cessive crops of tobacco, peas, beans, etc., and wine. " But, if none of the ingredients furnished to these plants be " again returned to the soil, a time must come when it can no " longer furnish these constituents to a new vegetation, when it " must become completely exhausted, and be at last quite sterile, " even for weeds. ROTATION OF CROPS. 279 " This state of sterility will take place earlier for one kind of " plant than for another, according to the unequal quantity of the " different ingredients of the soil. If the soil is poor in phos- *' phates, but rich in silicates, it will be exhausted sooner by the '' cultivation of wheat than by that of oats or of barley, because a " greater quantity of phosphates is removed in the seeds and straw " of one crop of wheat than would be removed in three or four " crops of barley or of oats. But if this soil be deficient in lime, " the barley will grow upon it very imperfectly." " In a soil rich in alkaline silicates, but containing only a limited " supply of phosphates, the period of its exhaustion for these salts " will be delayed if we alternate with the wheat plants, which *' we cut before they have come to seed ; or, what is the same " thing, with plants that remove from the soil only a small quan- " tity of phosphates. If we cultivate on this soil peas or beans, " these plants will leave, after the removal of the crop, a quantity " of silica in a soluble state sufficient for a succeeding crop of " wheat ; but they will exhaust the soil of phosphates quite as " much as wheat itself, because the seeds of both require for their " maturity nearly an equal quantity of these salts. "We are enabled to delay the period of exhaustion of a soil of " phosphates by adopting a rotation, in which potatoes, tobacco, " or clover, are made to alternate with a white crop. The seeds " of the plants now named are small, and contain proportionally " only minute quantities of phosphates ; their roots and leaves, " also, do not require much of these salts for their maturity. But " it must be remembered, at the same time, that each of these has " rendered the soil poorer, by a certain quantity of phosphates. " By the rotation adopted, we have deferred the period of cxhaus- " tion, and have obtained in the crops a greater weight of sugar, " starch, etc., but we have not acquired any larger quantity of the " constituents of the blood, or of the only substances which can be " considered as properly the nutritious parts of plants. When the " soil is deficient in salts of lime, tobacco, clover, and peas will " not flourish ; while under the same conditions the growth of 280 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDBY. " beet-root or turnips will not be impeded, if the soil, at the same " time, contain a proper quantity of alkalies. " When a soil contains silicates not prone to disintegrate, it " may be able, in its natural state, to liberate by the influence of " the atmosphere, in three or four years, only as much silica as " suffices for one crop of wheat. In this case, such a crop can '' only be grown on it in a three or four years' rotation, assuming " that the phosphates necessary for the formation of the seeds " exist in the soil in sufficient quantity. But we can shorten this " period by working well the soil, and by increasing its surface, '' so as to make it more accessible to the action of the air and " moisture, in order to disintegrate the soil, and to procure a greater " provision of soluble silicates. The decomposition of the sili- " cates may also be accelerated by the use of burnt lime ; but it is " certain that, although all these means may enable us to insure *' rich crops for a certain period, they induce, at the same time, " an earlier exhaustion of the soil, and impair its natural state of " fertility. * * * . * * * * " It follows, then, from the preceding observations, that the " advantage of the alternate system of husbandry consists in the " fact that the cultivated plants abstract from the soil unequal *' quantities of certain nutritious matters. " A fertile soil must contain in sufficient quantity, and in a *' form adapted for assimilation, all the inorganic materials indis- " pensable for the growth of plants. " A field artificially prepared for culture contains a certain '' amount of these ingredients, and also of ammoniacal salts and " decaying vegetable matter. The system of rotation adopted on " such a field is, that a potash plant (turnips or potatoes) is suc- " ceeded by a silica plant, and the latter is followed by a lime " plant. All these plants require phosphates and alkalies — the "potash plant requiring the largest quantity of the latter and the "smallest quantity of the former. The silica plants require, in " addition to the soluble silica left by the potash plants, a consid- " erable amount of phosphates ; and the succeeding lime plants ROTATION OF CROPS. 2FI " (peas or clover) are capable of exhausting the soil of this impo:- " tant ingredient to such an extent that there is only sufficient " left to enable a crop of oats or of rye to form their seeds. '' The number of crops which may be obtained from the soil " depends upon the quantity of the phosphates, of the alkalies, or " of lime, and the salts of magnesia existing in it. " The existing provision may suffice for two successive crops " of a potash or of a lime plant, or for three or four more crops of " a silica plant, or it may suffice for five or seven crops of all " taken together ; but after this time all mineral substances re- " moved from the field, in the form of fruits, herbs, or straw, " must again be returned to it ; the equilibrium must be restored, '' if we desire to retain the field in its original state of fertility. " This is effected by means of manure." Since these views were published, further investigation of the subject has so far modified the opinions of scientific men, that Liebig's statements (concerning silica especially) arc no longer accepted as correct in all their details. His general principles, on the other hand, have only beeh more fully demonstrated to be correct, and the deductions that he drav/s from them, so far as the practice of farming is concerned, bear with undiminished force. To continue the quotation from this author's works, I take from his " Modern Agriculture"* the following : — " Innumerable facts have taught the practical farmer that, in " many cases, the successful cultivation of an after-crop on a field " depends upon the nature of the preceding crop, and that it is by " no means a matter of indifference in what succession or rotation " he grows his crops. The previous cultivation of some under- *' ground crop, or some plant with extensive root ramifications, " will tend to make the soil more favorable for the subsequent " growth of a cereal. The latter will, in such cases, thrive better, " and it will do so without the use (or with the sparing application) '' of manure, and will yield a more abundant crop. But as re- " gards succeed'mg harvests, there has been in reality no saving of * "Modern Agriculture." J. Von Liebig. Munich, 1859. 282 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *' manure, nor has the field increased in the conditions of its fer- *' tility. There has been no augmentation in the gross amount of "the elements of food in the soil, but simply an increase of the ^'■available effective portion of these elements, and an acceleration *' of the results in a given time. " The physical and chemical condition of the fields has been *■*" improved, but the chemical store has been reduced ; all plants^ ^'"without exception^ exhaust the soil^ each of them in its own way^ of *' the conditions for their reproduction. " There are fields that will yield w^ithout manuring for six, " twelve, fifty, or a hundred years successively, crops of cereals, *' potatoes, vetches, clover, or any other plants, and the whole " produce can be carried away from the land ; but the inevitable " result is at last the same, the soil loses its fertility. " In the produce of his field, the farmer sells in reality his *' land ; he sells in his crops certain elements of the atmosphere " that are constantly being replaced from that inexhaustible store, "and certain constituents of the soil that are his property, and " which have served to form, out of the atmospheric elements, "the body of the plant, of which they themselves also constitute " component parts. In altogether alienating the crops of his " fields, he deprives the land of the conditions for their reproduc- " tion. A system of farming based upon such principles justly *' deserves to be branded as a system of spoliation. Had all of *' the constituents of the soil carried ofF from the field in the " produce sold, been, year after year, or rotation after rotation, *' completely restored to the land, the latter would have preserved " its fertility to the fullest extent \ the gain of the farmer would, ** indeed, have been reduced by the repurchase of the alienated " constituents of the soil, but it would thereby have been rendered " permanent. ** The constituents of the soil are the farmer's capital, the " elements of food supplied by the atmosphere the interest of this " capital J by means of the former he produces the latter. In " selling the produce of his farm he alienates a portion of his " capital and the interest ; in returning to the land the constituents ROTATION OF CROPS. 283" "of the soil removed in the crops he simply restores his capital " to his field. " Every system of farming based on the spoliation of the land " leads to poverty. The country in Europe w^hich, in its time, " most abounded in gold and silver was, nevertheless, the poorest. *' All the treasures of Mexico and Peru brought to Spain by the '' richly laden silver fleets melted avi^ay In the hands of the nation, "because the Spaniards had forgotten, or no longer practiced, the " art of making the money return to them which they had put *' into circulation in commerce to supply their wants ; because " they did not know how to produce articles of exchange required " by other nations who were in possession of their money. There " is no other way of maintaining the wealth of a nation. " It is not the land in itself that constitutes the farmer's wealth, " but it is in the constituents of the soil, which serve for the " nutrition of plants, that this wealth truly consists. By means of " these constituents alone, he is enabled to produce the conditions *' indispensable to man for the preservation of the temperature of " his body, and of his ability to work. Rational Agriculture^ in " contradistinction to the spoliation system of farming, is based " upon the principle of restitution ; by giving back to his fields " the conditions of their fertility the farmer insures the perma- " nence of the latter. " The deplorable effects of the spoliation system of farming are *' nowhere more strikingly evident than in America, where the " early colonists in Canada, in the State of New York, in Pennsyl- "vania, Virginia, Maryland, etc.,- found tracts of land, which for " many years, by simply plowing and sowing, yielded a succession " of abundant wheat and tobacco harvests. No falling off in the " weight or quality of the crops reminded the farmer of the ne- " cessity of restoring to the land the constituents of the soil " carried away in the produce. " We all know what has become of these fields. In less than " two generations, though originally so teeming with fertility, they " were turned into deserts, and, in many districts, brought to such " a state of absolute exhaustion that, even now, after having lain 284 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. '■'■ fallow more than a hundred years, they will not yield a remuner- *' ative crop of a cereal plant." While the case with reference to the regions of America, to which allusion is made, is perhaps too strongly stated, the principle on which those statements are made is entirely correct, and there can be no greater fallacy than to suppose, as many of our farmers do, that a well-selected rotation of crops furnishes a sure means for constantly increasing the fertility of the land. While one crop may prepare the soil for the growth of another, and while during the growth of one crop certain elements which another would require are developed by natural agencies acting within the soil, the effect of all cropping — that is, of the removal of vege- tation from the land on which it grows — is to lessen the supply of mineral ingredients in the soil ; and the longer we may be enabled to carry on such a process the more complete will be the exhaus- tion of the land in the long run. Certain excellent writers in America and in other countries are de'voting a great deal of attention to the question of renovating the soil by the growth of clover; and, so far as the present result of the practice is concerned, they have every thing their own way ; that is to say, it is an almost invariable result of the growth of this plant that the increased fertility which its advocates promise is sure to follow. By reference to the subject of " Green Crops " in the preceding chapter, it will he seen that the poWer of certain plants to prepare for the uses of other plants certain elements of the soil not previously fitted for assimilation by them is very great. And it is this action on which the confidence in clover culture is based ; and it may be set down as a fact, that any land on which, by the aid of plaster or any other fertilizer, even a tolerable crop of clover may be grown may be, without the application of any other manure, brought, generally within a short time, to a high state of fertility. But there is one feature of the case which these writers over- look, or the existence of which they persistently deny ; that is, that so far as the earthy constituents of vegetation are concerned, the effect of the clover is simply to develop matters already ROTATION OF CROPS. 985 existing in the soil, and the removal ot" these matters by other crops, which are sold away, must inevitably lessen the total amount of them contained in the soil. The fact that within a few years, or even within a few genera- tions, their supply may not be reduced to so low a point as to prevent the cultivation of valuable crops is no argument in favor of a blind dependence upon them. As surely as two and two make four, and two taken from four leave only two to be taken again, just so surely will it, sooner or later, be found that from a given, (limited,) quantity of phosphoric acid in the soil, a yearly quantity cannot be taken without reducing the amount that is left. And if, by the growth of clover, we succeed in hunting out the last hiding-place of an atom of phosphoric acid, and placing it within the reach of a crop of wheat that is to be sold, we shall render the ultimate exhaustion of the soil complete ; whereas, by a judicious return of what is taken away, we might make most valuable and repeated use of the soil's constituents. If we depend upon it alone and return nothing but what it contains, we shall finallv reach a point where not even clover, where no crop can be grown, and from which it will be impossible to regain fertility without the expenditure of more money than the land would be worth, I should be glad if I could add to the completeness of this book by specifving certain rotations as being the best to adopt under certain circumstances, and I have tried hard in an examination of the rotations followed in different regions to do this. But the re- sult of my investigations has been simply to convince me that there are so many circumstances of soil, climate, locality, market, home supply, and need of selling crops in order to get money for special uses, and, after all, so much to be left to the fancy or whim of the farmer, that it is not safe to do more than to state general principles, which bear equally on all cases, and, in view of which, each cultivator should select for himself, after due con- sideration, the system of cultivation that it will be best for him to adhere to. This selection, however, should not he made without such con- 286 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. sideration, for it costs a good deal of trouble to arrange a farm for a systematic course of rotation, and the trouble will be equally great, if not even greater, in changing the system after it has once been decided upon. If the system of soiling be adopted, either entirely or mainly, it will be better, where it is practicable, to do away completely with all interior fences, and to divide the land into so many parts as there are crops to be grown, the crops of each to follow in the course of the rotation. But where pasture forms a considerable element fences will be necessary, and it should then be the study of the farmer to make them conform as nearly as possible to the requirements of his rotation, and, also, to the necessity, which may be greater or less in different cases, of having more than one field for pasture. It has been advocated by Prof. Ville and others, that, under certain circumstances, where there is a ready sale for particular crops, the system of rotation should be dispensed with, and that only such crops should be grown as will find a ready market. There is no doubt that, within certain limits, this course may be followed with advantage ; but it is not a safe one to recommend for any thing like general adoption, and it is only where the crop grown is such as to keep the soil in a high state of fertility, or where special fertilizers can be secured with special ease, that it will be found at all practicable. Indeed, there is no case, so far as my experience extends, except, perhaps, with the cultivation of onions and permanent grasses, where purely agricultural crops can be so well grown without rotation as with it. And, in ad- dition to this, the advantage of having work for a given force of men and teams during the whole season is a very great one, and this is rarely compatible with the requirements of any special cul- tivation. In certain favored districts, such as the blue-grass region of Kentucky, it is best to keep the land in grass as long as possible — indeed, sometimes it may be kept permanently in grass ; but on average farms it will pay better, and, consequently, it will be better, to constantly vary the crop to which any field is devoted. ROTATION OF CROPS. 287 I cannot better close this chapter than by quoting (almost entire) an article on the " Rotation of Crops," furnished to the New York Tribune^ by the Hon. George Geddes, of Syracuse, N. Y. Although he attaches less importance to the cultivation of root crops than seems to me just, his remarks are so sensible and so practical that they should be carefully read by all farmers : — *' The idea of preserving the fertility of land, and at the same " time greatly increasing the aggregate of crops produced, by a ju- '■'■ dicious rotation^ is quite modern. '' In England great attention is paid to rotation, and many " elaborate experiments have been made and reported in the agri- " cultural works of that country, showing its importance and its " influence in increasing the agricultural productions of the king- "dom. " English writers have marked out with much care various '' systems of rotation of crops, giving the proper place to each, in " view of the food it demands of the soil, and its power to appro- " priate the food that may be derived from the different stages of " decomposition of the various manures used. " The only useful lesson we American farmers can derive from " all this English knowledge is the proof that a proper rotation does " preserve the fertility of the soil, and greatly increase its products, " when the aggregate is considered. " The climate of England is so unlike ours that we must strike " out for ourselves in laying down our plans of rotation. We have " a climate that matures in its perfection the most valuable cereal, " all things considered, that a beneficent Providence has given to " man — that England cannot produce in the open air at all — I " refer to maize or Indian corn, a native of our own country, and " adapted, in its different varieties, to nearly every part of the " United States. " Admirers of English systems of agriculture have long urged " on the American farmers extensive cultivation of root crops. " Though constantly urged thereto, the practical Yankee has " gone on raising his Indian corn, well knowing that, as a leading " croD, it was, beyond all comparison, of more value, in view of its 19 288 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " cost, than any root crop, for his own food, or for food for his cat- " tie, sheep, and horses. Near cities, root crops will be culti- " vated ; but far away from markets, where land is comparatively " cheap, the wise farmer will only produce roots for special purposes, " such as feed for ewes having lambs in early spring, or as a condi- " ment for some pet animal. For special reasons, a farmer of my " acquaintance has his lambs yeaned in December and January, to *' the number of two or three hundred. This man raises about " eight acres of roots to feed with his dry hay to the mothers of " these lambs, and by the time grass Comes the next spring these " lambs weigh fifty, sixty, or even more pounds each. This man " can afford to do as he does, but his case is a very peculiar one. " The stalks of an acre of corn are generally considered by " farmers in Central New York to be worth as much as an acre " of hay to feed their stock in winter. The stalks should pay " for the whole cost of the corn crop up to husking. The acre " of grain should average not less than 2,500 pounds when dry, " One pound of corn will feed a fattening sheep one day, and "eight pounds will feed a fattening steer a day, the proper quan- " tity of hay or other forage being given in each case. " The Illinois farmer is quite as likely to continue to raise great " fields of Indian corn, and go on feeding it in his wasteful way, " and totally neglect raising roots to feed his cattle, as the Eng- ** lishnian in Canada is to follow up his traditions and feed roots "during his hyperborean winters. At any rate, all exhortations " to the Western corn-raisers on this point are useless, for he " thinks he knows what he is about — and he does. " With these preliminary remarks we will discuss the question " of rotation, counting Indian corn in, and root crops out. "our rotation. " Ffnt Tear. — The land having been well seeded with tim- "othy grass and medium red clover, the first crop taken is hay. ROTATION OF CROPS. 289 *' CLOVER-SEED CROP. *' As soon as the hay has been removed from the ground, the " clover starts a new growth ; and as gypsum is applied and warm " rains come, by the middle of the month of September there will " ordinarily be a fine crop of seed matured and ready to cut. " This seed crop has varied with us from one to seven bushels to " the acre. It is not the custom here to cut this seed crop close " to the ground, but to leave a very considerable proportion *' standing. We do not wish to get much more than the heads, " preferring to leave most of the stalks on the ground. Of " course, in doing this, we do not get all the seed. " In the seed crop the timothy shows but little, but it has *■'■ helped make a good sod, and was of considerable value in the *' hay crop. The crop of hay should not average, for a series of *' years, less than two tons to the acre, weighed the next winter, "and the seed crop should average three bushels to the acre. " This is the way we manage the first year of our rotation, " taking two valuable crops. " Second Tear. — This year is devoted to pasture, with the ex- " pectation that each acre will abundantly feed one cow in an " ordinary season. " Gypsum, sown about the first day of May on this pasture, *' brings forward the white clover, which abounds, self-sown^ in " our pastures ; and the timothy and natural grasses will make a " dense sod several inches thick, and the red clover roots will get " to their greatest depth and size, such of them as are left. '■'■Third Tear — Indian Corn. — About the tenth day of May plow " the land in the most perfect manner possible, and deep enough "to bring on top of the reversed sod a sufficient supply of soil " that is not held too firmly together by the grass roots to allow " of harrowing and marking without disturbing the sod. The " roots of the red clover will be either cut off by the plow or *' drawn out by it. Six or seven inclines will be about the least ** depth to give the plowing. 290 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " Indian corn is a gross feeder, and will send its roots through " the sod and down below it to a great depth, unless the subsoil " is so hard they cannot penetrate it. As the grass roots decay '' they furnish food to this wonderful plant. I say wonderful, *' for in about one hundred days an immense crop of stalks, and " perhaps 3,000 pounds of the richest grain (second only in its " fattening powers to flaxseed) will be produced. " When the crop is sufficiently ripened, it should be cut near *' the ground, and put in ' stooks' to cure ; and no cattle should " be allowed to tramp over the field in the late autumn or early " winter, to make tracks in and puddle the soil. In warm cli- ^' mates, where the larger varieties of corn are raised, this process " of harvesting cannot be adopted, and on sandy or other loose ''soils it is not so important to keep cattle off the field. '"''Fourth Tear. — Barley or oats are sown on the corn-stubble, '' the ground being plowed but once, but that one plowing being " done perfectly, after the ground has properly dried in the spring, " cutting narrow, deep furrows. " Some farmers entertain the opinion that barley is the best " crop to precede wheat. If the ground is clean, that is, free " from Canada thistles and other bad weeds, it is ; but if the " ground is not in first-rate condition in this respect, oats are " better. " Barley must be sown early to warrant the expectation of a " good crop. Oats should be sown two weeks or so later than '' barley. By sowing an oat crop late, time is given for the " thistles and other foul stuffs to commence growing, and make " quite a show above the ground before the plowing ; then a " perfect plowing does much for their extirpation, and the warm " weather, that at that time of the season may be reasonably '' expected, will force the oat crop forward, and give it greatly " the start of the weeds, and thus the crop will out-top and keep " under these pests. Another consideration is the character of " the soil, in deciding whether barley or oats shall be selected for " the crop of the fourth year. Barley delights in a clay soil, and " but rarely does well on a quick sandy soil. ROTATION OF CROPS. 291 *' Whichever of the crops may be selected, the treatment or " the land after harvest is the same. The stubble being raked " clean as possible from all the grain ; if the land is not clear of " weeds plow it, shallow, say four inches, at once, and harrow, so " as to insure the growth of all the grain left on the ground, and " the bringing to the surface the roots of weeds. At this season " of the year the sun is usually hot and the weather dry ; and six " weeks of summer fallowing in August and the forepart of Sep- '^ tember, properly managed, will do much toward freeing the " land from even couch (quick) grass, especially if the roots are " gathered by a strong steel-toothed horse- rake, and then drawn " off the field and destroyed. " If the land is free from foul stuff, the best course is to turn " on the stubble sheep or young cattle, and let them pick oft '' what they can, until near the time for sowing wheat, and then *' plow once perfectly, and harrow for the next crop, which will " be wheat. '-''Fifth y'ear. — In the fall of the fourth year wheat was sown, " and with it, by a device connected with the drill, six quarts of " timothy-seed. In the spring of the fifth year red clover is to be ^' sown. When the wheat is harvested, the ground should be all " covered with clover and timothy, which are to make the *' meadow or hay crop of the first year of the next rotation. " This is the first five-year rotation as practiced by the best " farmers of my acquaintance when no circumstances cause a " modification — such, for instance, as the failure of clover-seed to " take and grow well, or, perhaps, an uncommon demand in the " market for some one crop. " Our farmers expect, as the proceeds of this five-year rotation, " from each acre two tons of hay, three bushels of clover-seed, " the pasturage of one cow for a season, fifty bushels of corn, " and the forage produced by the corn crop, forty bushels of " barley, or fifty bushels of oats, as the case may be, and twenty " to twenty-five bushels of wheat, " If the ground has previously been well tilled, and is not " infested with foul weeds, each grain crop is raised by one plow- 292 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " ing. Land free from stone and all other obstructions, and that *' has been previously properly managed, can be perfectly cul- '■'■ tivated by one plowing, that is, the furrow can be turned over *' and pulverized, if the right plow is used, and the right man has ** the holding of it. " MODIFICATIONS OF OUR ROTATIONS. " To carry out strictly the five-year rotation, we have to sup- " pose the farm to be divided into five equal parts, and that the *' owner will find it to his interest to raise crops in just the pro- '' portion laid down. As has been already suggested, for Various " reasons, this is not always so, and thus modifications are from " year to year made. Some of them will now be stated. " The yield of grass the first year after the wheat has been " taken ofF is much greater than it is the second year ; that is, a " larger crop of hay can be cut the first year ; there is more " clover this year than afterward. The convenience of the " farmer often causes him to pasture the first year, until late in '' August, and then by one perfect plowing turn all the clover *' that he can and sow wheat. By just this process we have pro- '' duced crops of wheat at the least cost per bushel of any we " have raised. A case occurs to me in which we treated a " twenty-acre field in this way, and got thirty-three bushels to '' the acre. This was the cheapest wheat to us of any ever *' raised on the farm. " The next year this land went into barley, followed by wheat, '' when it was again seeded to grass. *' It has, in some few instances, happened that wheat has been *' sown on wheat stubble, thus taking two wheat crops in suc- " cession, sowing grass seed on the second crop. But this can ''be justified only on land in high condition. *' Various other modifications, that will readily suggest them- " selves to the minds of grain-raising farmers, become necessary *' or verv convenient. But the leading point is constantly kept '' in view. Fill the ground with clover-roots and the roots of ROTATION OF CROPS. 293 grasses as often as practicable, and then kill them with the plow, and convert their decomposed substances into grain. "The grass crop is the basis of all improvement, where it can be made to grow well. "AT WHAT TIME IN THE ROTATION SHOULD THE BARN-YARD MANURE BE APPLIED ? " For many years I have been trying to learn the best methods *' of taking care of and using barn-yard manure, and now I am '■'■ ready to confess my lack of knowledge in regard to this impor- *■*■ tant matter. " Farmers that raise much grain, and keep a proper stock of " sheep or cows to consume their coarse fodder, or, if not con- " sume it, to trample it under foot during the winter, and get it in " condition to be applied to the land, make immense quantities of " manure that costs them much labor to handle, and it is always "a matter of great interest to them to learn the best methods of " doing this work. I do not propose to enter into the discussion " of this topic now, but will state the practice most approved " here. '' Sheep are the best farm stock to manufacture manure. " Properly wintered, under sheds that can be closed against " storms, having small yards connected with them, sheep will *' trample much straw under foot, and will dispose in like manner " of the coarser part of the corn-stalks so well, that twice or *' three times during the winter the manure can be drawn on *' sleds from the sheds and yards, and spread on the snow that *' then covers the pastures and ground designed for the next year's " crop of corn. The manure must be quite fine to justify its " being put on the ground designed for corn. Spread on pastures, " a bad flavor is given to the grass next year ; but, aside from this " objection, I know of no place where it does so much good. A " pasture treated in the winter to raw unfermented manure will " be so strong in grass, and the soil will become so rich, that, " whether plowed the next summer for wheat, or after being one 294 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " year grazed, and then put into corn, the maximum yield " may be reasonably expected. This winter manuring costs the " least of all methods, and probably saves the most of the value " of the manure of any known to me. *' But the barn-yards of a productive grain farm will be covered " in the spring a foot or two deep with the butts of corn-stalks, " straw, and manure from cows, young cattle, etc., that will be " so coarse that it requires reducing in bulk by fermentation. " This matter is pitched into large piles in the yard, from time to ** time sprinkled with gypsum, and about the first of July the *' sides of the piles cut down and cast on the top, to promote the " decay of the part of the manure that has been so exposed to the ** air that fermentation has been very slight. " Thus treated, this coarse manure will be so reduced that by the " time wheat is to be sown in the fall it can be drawn out and *' scattered on the top of the wheat ground immediately before " harrowing and drilling in the seed. Selecting that part of the " wheat ground that most requires help, we top-dress it with this " rotted manure, not mixing it with the soil more than the harrow " and drill buries it, with a very slight covering. " This last-described method of handling barn-yard manure is " vastly more expensive than the one first given ; but, all things " considered, I know of no better way to take care of the coarser " parts of it. '* In this very summary statement of our methods of using " barn-yard manure, I have avoided arguing the controverted "points that are involved — some of them may come up for con- " sideration at a future time. " ROTATION OF CROPS INVOLVES MIXED AGRICULTURE. " There are sections of country where rotation of crops and a " system of mixed agriculture is impracticable. And there are " districts where the plow cannot be used at all. But a very " large proportion of this country is in all respects well adapted ^' to the production of a great variety of crops, and to the sup- " port, at the same time, of large flocks of sheep, or herds of cattle. ROTATION OF CROPS. 295 *' Wherever mixed agriculture is practicable, it results in vastly " increasing the grand total of the yield of the fruits of the earth. '' That strange tendency of the American mind to run to " extremes in every thing appears among the farmers as strongly as " anyw^here else. If fine wool happens to be profitable to raise, a *' fever takes hold of the owners of flocks, which soon becomes a "mania. Individuals become noted as breeders. Some fancy " name becomes famous, and the sheep of certain men rise in price, " first to hundreds, soon to thousands of dollars each, until a single '' animal has been sold for the price of a farm adequate to the sup- " port, when managed by a rational man, of an ordinary family. *■'■ This sheep fever in due time results in over-production of wool ; " low prices follow ; men begin to rub their eyes, as though waking *' from some strange dream, and the bubble bursts. A reaction " follows ; good sheep are slaughtered by the thousand, saving only '' their pelts and tallow, and the business of wool-raising, as a regu- " lar branch of farming, is as unduly depressed as at the time of the "popular insanity it was unduly elevated. " A few men have made money ; many men have lost money ; " but there has been one real gain. Sheep have been greatly " improved, and the knowledge of the best manner of managing " flocks has been very much extended. " FARM STOCK, WITH GRAIN-RAISING, IS NECESSARILY CON- NECTED WITH A PROPER ROTATION. " In the rotation suggested in this paper, one-fifth of the farm *' is pasture, besides the pasturage derived in the early spring from " ground that is to be plowed for corn, and that which is derived " from the fields from which wheat has been harvested. The " wheat stubbles will, without injuring the grass, give a large " amount of pasture — at a time when usually most desired — that " will be fresh, and much liked by the farm stock. " A grain farm, under a proper rotation, will carry through the "summer a large stock, and produce none the less grain, if we " take a period of, say ten years, into account. This farm stock, " in the winter, will work the corn-stalks and straw into manure. 296 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *■' In fact, the stock is a necessity to the grain farmer in the " winter. Before the grain-raisers of centiial and western New " York understood this thing, the straw from their grain was a *' great incumbrance, and much of it was burned up immediately " after the grain was thrashed, in the fields where it grew. " To sum this matter up, a proper farm stock, over and above " the teams, cows, etc., necessary to meet the wants of the farm, '' can be supported on a grain farm with very little cost, except " the care and attention required. " It may be said that the straw, corn-stalks, etc., might be sold " for money. Near large towns this may be true, but it is not *' true away from such markets. But it should not be sold off the " farm unless the owner of the farm intends to sell the soil within *' a few years. The barn-yard manure made by cattle and sheep, " by trampling this coarse forage under foot, is an important *' matter in that system that looks to making a farm self-sustaining "and self-improving. " A well-managed grain farm should sell grain, clover-seed, " meat, wool, cheese, and butter — but not hay, corn-stalks, or "straw, until it has become so fertile by its own self-sustaining " and creative powers, that too much straw is produced in the *' grain crops. Then, perhaps, it will do to sell a little hay — *' when it brings a large price. " Such persons as have done me the honor of reading my com- " munications lately published in T'he Tribune^ will have learned *' that I believe in a farm sustaining itself, and that with very " little aid from outside, it should be,' by judicious cultivation, " carried to the very highest point of production that the climate "will allow. I fully recognize the inherent differences in soils, "and their adaptability to special crops, and I do not say that the " exact methods I have pointed out are applicable everywhere. " But I have no sympathy whatever with that school of writers " who appear to think that the world is going to ruin by reason "of the deterioration of the farming lands. " There is a period in new countries in which bad farming is *' almost universal j then comes the necessity of reform, and ROTATION OF CROPS. 29T " reform becomes the order of the day. So far as I know, farm- *' ing is now improving in all the older sections of the country, " except, perhaps, in the neighborhood of cities. The temptation " to raise hay arwd sell it at high prices, in a great city, leads to the " worst farming that has come under my notice. Whenever I " hear a farmer say that he pays fifty or sixty dollars an acre for "manure to put on his fields, and then learn that this manure is " mostly straw that has become stained a little in some city stable, " fifty or more miles from where it is applied as manure, I am " quite apt to tell that farmer that his money has been badly laid " out, and that, in a proper system of mixed husbandry, and with "a proper rotation of crops, he would have saved this expense." I- I l: I; ' ■^■"■'■•■i.-Mrv ,,,, CHAPTER X. GRAIN CROPS. The principal grain crops of America are Indian Corn, Wheat, Rye, Oats, Barley, and Buckwheat. The chief of these is the king of the cereals. INDIAN CORN. This is by far the most important product of American agri- culture, and it feeds more human beings than any other grain except rice. It takes, in a great measure, the place of the turnip crop of England, and, both as a source of food and as a means for placing the soil in a good condition for the cultivation of other crops, it is the very backbone of our system of farming. Its range of cultivation is almost co-extensive with the bounda- ries of the nation, as it grows to perfection from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. The varieties of corn are numerous. In fact, they are con- stantly increasing in consequence of the ease with which the plant hybridizes ; — two sorts growing in the same field usually produ- cing' many crosses, having each more or less of the qualities of one or the other of the original sorts. There seems to be two dis- tinct classes of corn, one peculiar to the North, and the other to the South. The Northern corn, of which the Dutton is the type, has a round, smooth seed, which is entirely coated with a hard, horny substance. This contains less starch and more oil and gluten than does the Southern, or gourd-seed corn, in which the starch occu- pies the center of the grain quite to its upper end ; — the oil and GRAIN CROPS. 299 gluten which exist in smaller proportion than in Northern corn, being confined mainly to the sides of the grain. As the grain of this variety ripens, and the starch shrinks, the top of the kernel falls in, producing a dent or depression. As a general principle, it may be stated that the Southern corn is less nutritious than the Northern varieties. CULTIVATION. Corn delights in a soil filled with decaying organic matter of both animal and vegetable origin. It also requires for its perfect growth that the soil be warm^ sufficiently moist^ loose in its texture^ and, above all, not too wet. As the plant is peculiarly suited to tropical climates, — and requires, at some time during its growth, an intense heat, — it should not be planted until all danger of frost has passed, nor until the soil has become thoroughly warmed. In the latitude of New York the seed should not be put in before the tenth of Mav, and, — on land that is perfectly adapted for its growth, — it is as well to defer planting until early in June. Put in at this time, the seed will germinate very rapidly, and the growth will proceed without the check that often results from the cold storms of May. It takes longer to recover from a serious checking of the growth than to make a good growth later in the season. The chief advantages of early planting are, that the work is out of the way, and that, in exceptional seasons, the crop will arrive a few days earlier at maturity. This is not always, — perhaps not generally — the case, and in this latitude it is considered quite safe to post- pone planting until June. The moisture that the soil requires is rather the natural damp- ness of freshly-stirred land than the drenching wet of heavy rains. If the soil is loose and friable, so that the air can circulate among its cooler shaded particles, enough water will be condensed from this air to fully supply the crop, and if cofh, growing on good land, could be well hoed every day, it would not require a single drop of rain during the whole period of its growth. On the other hand, if the soil is stiff and compact, and is not hoed or cultivated 300 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. more than two or three times during the season, it will suffer materially for want of water, even though the soil is wet one-half the time ; — because during the other half, it will be baked dry and hard, excluding the air by whose circulation alone, in time of drought, can a sufficient supply of water be deposited in the soil. Looseness of texture in the soil is important, not only as affording access to air, but also because it allows of the free and wide- spread ramification of the smaller feeding roots. These would not penetrate a solid clod of even the richest earth, while, if the same clod were finely pulverized, every part of it would be pene- trated by corn roots, and the plant food contained in it would become available. Therefore, it is best that the soil should be of a sort not apt to bake, and that it should be made as fine as possi- ble before planting, and kept as fine as possible as long as the size of the crop will allow it to be worked. Drainage is more important than any other item in the prepara- tion of land for corn, unless the soil is already naturally drained. Stagnant water in the soil — and upon it — is absolutely fatal to suc- cess, and whatever care we may take might almost as well be thrown away if we allow the want of proper under-draining to keep the soil sometimes too cold, sometimes too dry, and always too stiff and compact. That the want of draining will produce all of these unfavorable conditions, no one need be told who has had an opportunity to see how they all gradually vanish when wet land is thoroughly under-drained. The manner in which the corn crop of much of our best corn- growing region has been this year (1869) destroyed by excessive wet^ the farmers of Central Illinois do not need to be told. In view of the foregoing principles, I submit the following as a good course to pursue in the commencement of a rotation, of which corn is the first crop. (Other plans may be as good — under certain circumstances they may be even better — but, so far as it is possible to lay down gen- eral rules, I believe that this is, on the whole, the best ; and I am confident that all who follow it will be satisfied with the result.) GRAIN CROPS. 301 It is assumed that the land on which it is prepared to grow corn next year is now in grass, and that the hurry of the summer work is past. 1. The first step is to haul out manure — commencing in August, if possible — and spread it broadcast on the land. The more heavily it is applied the better, — for corn cannot be over-fed. The sooner the manure is spread on the land, after it has been dropped, the better — for in no other place is it subjected to so little loss, and its effect, early in the fall, or in the spring, com- mences from the moment of its application. I am satisfied that the best practice will be to use as much manure as can possibly be spared, and to get it on the land as early as practicable after the hay is removed. It stimulates the growth of a luxuriant sod, which it also enriches by its own decomposition; and this sod, with its roots immensely increased in number, in size, and in succulence, is the best supply of food for corn that it is possible to secure. The grass may be eaten off in both fall and spring, but not too closely, and espe- cially the spring feeding should be very slight, if not entirely given up. The chief object is to secure a luxuriant crop of roots. So early in the season the grass does not amount to much as a green crop, but the extent to which the growth of the roots may be increased is very great, and these — together with the constit- uents of the manure absorbed by the soil are of the utmost im- portance. 2. A few days before it is intended to plant, (the fewer the better,) with ample teams, and implements in good order, the land should be plowed to a depth of not less than/o«r inches, and not more than seven inches — the object being to keep the mass of roots near to the surface, only turning up enough earth to secure good " covering." The furrow should be laid flat, and no grass should be allowed to show on the surface. The surface plow should be followed by a subsoil plow, drawn by a good team and loosening the bottom of the furrow as deeply as possible, — for, although we ought to keep the organic matter in the soil near to the surface, we should at the same time open a passage by which 302 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the deeper roots of the corn can go down below the reach of drought. 3. As soon as the plowing is finished, the land should be heavily rolled and dressed with not less than 200 lbs. of Peruvian guano, 300 lbs. of cotton-seed meal, or some equally stimulating manure, and thoroughly harrowed — preferably with Shares harrow. This implement should run lengthwise over the furrows, and the op- eration should be continued until a fine covering not less than two inches deep is secured. 4. Before the soil has had time to become dry, it should be marked out and planted, either in " drills " or in " hills." If the latter plan is adopted, it will be necessary to wait until the whole field is made ready, so that it may be marked both ways. If the planting is in drills, it may be commenced as soon as a single land — or a few furrows can be harrowed. The more rapidly the planting can be made to follow the plowing, the less time will be allowed for the starting of weeds. The hill system of planting, as it allows the crop to be culti- vated by horse-power, in both directions, is much cheaper, and in the absence of an abundant supply of labor, it is undoubtedly the best ; but if the help can be procured for the extra work of plant- ing in drills, and for the greater amount of hoeing that will be necessary when the cultivator can be worked in but one direction, the extra production of grain, — and especially of fodder — will amply repay it. In drill planting, it will be easier (and equally good) to drop three seeds in a place, at intervals of two feet, than to drop single seeds at intervals of eight inches, and the hoeing of the crop will take much less time. The seed should not be covered more than one inch deep. This will be enough to protect it against too much drying, and it is important that it be within the influence of the sun's heat. After the planting is finished, it will be well to give the whole field a light rolling to compact the earth about the seed, and to make the surface so even as to render the subsequent work of cultivation lighter. As soon as the rows can be distinctly seen, the work of culti- GRAIN CROPS. 303 vation should be commenced. It is easier to prevent the growth , of weeds than to kill them after they are grown. If the corn is planted in " hills " the horse cultivator may be run both ways, and thus reduce the handwork to the lowest point. If in " drills," the hoeing should be done with great care — all grass and weeds being thoroughly cleaned out from the rows. This first hoeing should be finished when the crop is not more than six inches high, and the second cultivation should be given before weeds have time to make any considerable headway. A third hoeing, which is erroneously neglected in many instances, should be com- pleted before the crop is so large as to be injured by the working of the horse, and the whiffletree used at this time should be as short as possible. It is now pretty well settled that " hilling " corn is an injurious practice. It undoubtedly had its origin in the custom of the Indians, who had no other means of giving the plant a bed of fine soil to grow in than by scraping it from the surface with their hoes, and piling it up about the stems. Probably it was continued longer than it otherwise would have been, from the belief that the " brace shoots " that are thrown out above the soil are roots^ — which they are not. They are intended to hold the stalk in its position, and they do this much more thoroughly than any system of hilling can possibly do, and by being covered with earth they lose their power to act as braces. A little earth should be drawn about the stem of the plant at the first hoeing, — raising the soil, say an inch or so, — as there is danger that a little earth will be drawn away by the cultivator at the second working, and this would leave the true roots too little protected against the drying influence of sun and wind. If the soil is thoroughly loose and clean all about and between the plants when they are about two feet high, the crop should be "laid by" until harvest. The less it is disturbed after this the better it will be. If it is desired to raise turnips on the land, they should be sown broadcast after the last hoeing, before the earth is beaten down by rain. One pound of turnip-seed per acre is an ample allowance, and the best way to sow it is with a " French " 20 304 II ANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. mustard jar, or a broad-mouthed bottle, with a tin cover pierced with large holes. The jar should not be more than half full, and a little practice will soon indicate the extent to which the holes should be covered by the fingers as the seed is flirted out in walk- ing across the field. The turnip seed, — or enough of it, — will be planted by the first rain, and the plants will be well established by the time the corn is cut up, after which they will make fair-sized roots. The Strap Leaf Red Top is the best American variety for this use. Whether it is wise to raise this stolen crop of turnips depends on the circumstances of the case. They will, if properly man- aged (properly planted, that is), yield an abundant supply of valu- able food for the early winter, but they are so hard upon the land that they will probably cost all they will be worth. If roots can be as well grown on ground of their own, the corn-field should not be charged with their production, — for they will inevitably use up manure that should remain for the second crop of the rotation. Harvesting. — Corn should never be " topped." The little that will be gained in fodder, will be more than lost in the grain, which in its maturing assimilates some of the contents of the juices of the whole plant, — above as well as below. As soon as the kernels are glazed, — as soon as the thumb nail cannot be easily pressed through its skin, — the stalks should be cut up near the ground, and bound in " stooks " to cure. The earlier it is so cut the better will be the fodder, and after the glazing is complete the grain will mature as rapidly and as per- fectly on the severed stalk as though it was still in communication with the root. Late in the fall the ears should be husked and stored in cribs and the stalks tied in bundles for stacking. They will keep much better if the stacks are thatched with rye straw — to exclude rain j and in no case should the diameter of the stack be more than twice the length of the bundles ; — that is, it should be built around a pole, and each bundle should reach from this to the outside of the stack. The tops should lie toward the center, and the GRAIN CROPS. 305 butts outward. If it is attempted to store corn-stalks in barns or in very large stacks, they will almost invariably decay, owing to the large amount of water they contain, which it is impos- sible to dry out by any amount of exposure. Storing the grain. — Corn cribs are such a simple affair that it would not have occurred to me at all to describe their con- struction did I not frequently receive applications for plans by which to erect them. The fundamental principle for the arrangement of the crib is to give the freest possible admission to air, and to keep out rats and mice. Of course there are many considerations of convenience, which it is best to study, and the mode of construction must depend very much on the amount of grain to be stored. For a Northern farm, where from 500 to 1,000 bushels of shelled corn are to be kept, (double that bulk of ears,) the plan shown in Fig. 105 will be found effective. It is 10 feet high Fig. 105. at the sills, 12 feet wide, the plate 7 feet high from the floor to the eaves, and as long as the requirements of the farm make necessary. It has a passage-way 4 feet wide from the door at the end to within 4 feet of the rear end where there is a bin 306 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. 4 feet square for shelled corn. The plan of the floor is shown in Fig. 1 06. The building should stand on posts 2-|- feet above the ground, these being capped by inverted tins made in the shape of ordinary milk-pans, but without the wire in the rim. Fig. 106. BIN FOR EARS sis -1^ BIN FOR EARS — which, for this purpose, is unnecessary. This arrangement will effectually prevent the access of rats, — especially if the approach to the doorway is an iron stirrup or wagon step let down from the sill and not coming nearer than within 18 inches of the ground. The sides of the crib should be made of vertical slats not more than three inches wide, and placed at intervals of at least one inch so as to admit of a free circulation of air j for the same reason the partitions between the passage way, in the .middle of the crib and the bins, and the floor under the bins, should be made of slats. The entrances from the passage way to the bins, on either side, should be only wide enough to admit of the passing of baskets, and they may be closed, as the corn is put in, by loose boards cut to fit a groove, into which they are dropped from the top. The roof should project enough to shed water clear of the sides, which, for further protection against wet, have a pitch outward of one foot on each side. In such a crib, the bins will be 3 feet wide at the bottom, 4 feet at the top (a mean width of ^h feet), and 7 feet high, which will give a section of 24^ square feet. Six and a half (6^) feet in length of such a bin will hold 100 bushels of ears — round measure ; about 1,000 bushels being held by both sides of a crib 30 feet long. GRAIN CROPS. 307 In writing about the cultivation of wheat, it is but just for me to say that I never raised a bushel of wheat in my hfe, and that what I have to say on the subject is the purest " book-farming j" it is the result of study only, and is, of course, not to be con- sidered so reliable as are those parts of this book which relate to matters in which I have had the advantage of personal experience. The production of wheat seems, from the custom of the whole world, to belong, properly, to the two extremes of farming, the most careless and inconsiderate, and the most complete and well directed. In the wide interval that covers the good, bad, and indifferent agriculture lying between these two extremes, wheat is, to say the least of it, not the most important crop. On such virgin soils as are better adapted to the growth of wheat than of corn, there is no crop that is at once so easily raised, and so valuable when raised ; and for a few years after the first breaking up (sometimes for many years). " Wheat is the crop every time." In many newly settled countries, 40 bushels of wheat to the acre have been common, and fine crops have been raised for successive years on the same ground. Sooner or later, however, the constant cultivation of this single crop begins to tell on the land, and the yield falls off, while the constitution of the plant suffers more and more from the unfavorable condition of the soil, and the door is opened for the attack of rust, weevil, and blight, which add to the risk and help to reduce the result. The best wheat lands, treated as they almost invariably (and necessarily) are by new settlers, commence at 40 bushels per acre -, and after two or three years they begin to grow smaller and smaller; — 35 — 30 — 20 — 15 — 12 — sometimes even 8 bushels per acre, marking the steadily decreasing return until the cultivation is abandoned. Usually, every reason but the right one is given for this decrease. Climate, the removal of forests, the proximity of the sea, or of mountains, bugs, blight, " bad luck," winter kill- ing, too much snow, or too little — hundreds of plausible reasons are given why wheat ceases to grow. The right reason is almost 308 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. never hit upon, and but few farmers seem to know, what is abso- lutely the fact, that wheat ceases to grow well, to produce largely, and to withstand the vicissitudes of the weather and the attacks of insects when, — and because, — those parts of the ashes of the grain which are most essential to its perfection are no longer supplied by the soil in sufficient quantities, and where, from inju- dicious plowing and harrowing, (especially from plowing in wet weather), the land has been brought to a condition unfavorable to its growth. Wheat requires for its best growth a soil that is compact rather than loose, and that has been made rich by previous cultivation with manure, rather than by the application of heavy dressings of fresh manure during the immediate preparation for the crop. Peruvian guano, nitrate of soda, super-phosphate of lime, — any manure in fact which is not subject to an active fermentation, — may, with advantage, be harrowed in after plowing, or applied as a top dressing after planting ; but, as a rule, it is better to apply the manure to a previous crop, thus giving it time to become thoroughly decomposed before the wheat is sown. The universal fertilizer for wheat, one which is nearly always accessible, and always effective, is clover. If this is sown in the spring, with barley or oats, allowed to grow without being closely fed off in the fall, top-dressed with plaster the second spring, cut once in June and again in August, it will have accumulated in the soil an enormous quantity of long, deeply-reaching tap-roots, which, — with the leaves that will have fallen during growth, — constitute the best manure for the wheat crop ; for, in addition to the fertilizing effect of the decaying roots, (rich with nutriment drawn from the lower soil and from the atmosphere,) every fiber that reaches down into the subsoil, opens the way for the more delicate roots of the wheat to penetrate in search of food, and, by its own decomposition, helps to prepare the soil by which it is immediately surrounded for easy assimilation. The mechanical effect of the plowing down of a strong clover sod, is very great. It warms the soil, and makes it easy for the GRAIN CROPS. 309 wheat roots to penetrate every part of it. In fact, in so far as it is a question of manuring, it may be safely assumed that if we can secure a good growth of clover, we neetl have no uneasiness about the wheat. While compact clay soils (what are known as strong soils) are the best for wheat, it is of the utmost importance that they be well drained. There is no crop that is grown by American farmers that is more impatient of undue moisture than wheat is ; and it may be considered that every argument that has been advanced in support of tile-draining, applies with redoubled force to the draining of land intended for wheat. There is now an active discussion going on throughout the wheat-growing world concerning the quantity of seed to be sown per acre. The doctrines of heavy seeding and light seeding have each their earnest advocates, but, as a conclusion drawn from a careful reading of the arguments in favor of each plan^ I think the weight of reason and the weight of evidence are both on the side of the thin seeding. One bushel of wheat per acre, planted so carefully as to give a fair proportion of seed to each square foot of land, will give an ample stand, — completely occupying the ground, and returning the largest yield of grain. Of course the seed should be planted at a uniform depth and with great regularity. It has recently been stated that a field of wheat planted with selected grain, one kernel in a place, rows a foot apart both ways, yielded 159 bushels per acre. This is a marvelous story, and it is not unlikely that the land on which the experiment was tried was in an exceptional state of fertility, nor is it impossible that the truth has been largely overstated. However, it may be assumed as a fact, that a field of wheat planted as above described, with the largest and finest kernels only, has been made to produce much more largely than has ever a field sown in the ordinary way. The quantity of seed used in this planting would not be more than four quarts ; while a single bushel, evenly sown over the whole surface, would give one kernel to each three inches 310 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. square ; in the case under consideration there was only one kernel to each twelve inches square. The quantity of seed that it is most judicious to use depends very much on the quality of the land. The richer the land, the larger the growth of the individual plant, and, consequently, the fewer the plants required to occupy the land. Wheat multiplies itself very largely, by sprouting at the crown ; and under the best circumstances, a single seed may result in a stool of from fifty to seventy shoots, each bearing a perfect head of well-filled grain. This process of multiplication is called " tillering." It can only take place under favorable conditions. The too close prox- imity of other plants, and the checking of the root growth by stagnant water, or by an unfavorable subsoil, will arrest it ; — so that a field which has not been too heavily seeded can never bear too many shoots, — no matter how rich it is, — nor can it bear a full crop unless both the mechanical and the chemical condition of the soil are such as to conduce to a sufficient continuation of the tillering process. WINTER WHEAT.- The great drawback in the raising of winter wheat is found in the liability of the plant to be killed by frost. As winter wheat is a perfectly " hardy " plant, this winter killing is never the result of the direct action of the frost on the plant itself, but rather on the soil. If wheat is deeply rooted, a single hard freezing of the soil, by its lifting effect, actually breaks the upper part of the plant from its lower roots, and so greatly injures it. The worst effects are produced, however, by the repeated freezing and thaw- ing of the soil. Thus : a hard frost lifts up the soil, (and carries the plant with it,) then comes a warm sun which thaws the upper soil and allows it to fall back to a lower level, leaving the crown of the plant out of the ground ; the next frost takes a fresh hold on the plant and raises it again ; another thaw leaves it still higher ; and thus the process goes on until the crown is so far above the ground as to be exposed to the action of the weather, entirely GRAIN CROPS. 311 unprotected by the soil in which it properly belongs, and the plant is killed. As this winter killing is largely due to an excess of moisture in the soil, it is very much modified by under-draining ; but not entirely prevented. A top-dressing with sea-weed, stable manure containing a great deal of straw or other suitable material, will be of great service ; but there is nothing so good as a complete cov- ering of snow throughout the winter. This, of course, is a matter of climate, and is entirely beyond the farmer's control. In cold regions, where snow does not lie throughout the winter, and where top-dressing is not practicable, the seed should be sown as late as the first of October, and covered not more than half an inch deep. Planted in this way, the roots will nearly all be in the immediate surface, and there will be less danger from freezing than where the seed is covered several inches deep. SPRING WHEAT. Spring wheat is somewhat less productive and less valuable (because making a less attractive flour) than winter wheat, but in regions where the latter is apt to be winter killed, it is the safer variety to grow. It should be planted as early as possible in the spring, and is said to grow best in a somewhat lighter soil than winter wheat. Wheat, from its great importance, has received much and most careful attention from scientific men and from practical farmers. There is an immense number of varieties cultivated ; valuable experiments have been made with all conceivable sorts of manures ; the diseases to which the plant is subject have been made the subject of especial study and investigation ; the insects by which the crop is sometimes almost swept away have been carefully examined, and their habits clearly described ; and almost innu- merable implements for planting, manuring, weeding, harvesting, thrashing, and cleaning have been invented and put in use. To enter satisfactorily into these details, in this limited space, would be 312 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. impossible, and the reader is referred to the various works on the subject which are to be obtained from agricultural booksellers. In considering all that I have myself read on the subject, the following points strike me as being especially worthy of the atten- tion of all wheat growers : — I. The land may, with advantage, be made as rich as possible, — the application of fresh stable manure in the immediate prepa- ration of the crop being avoided. II. It should be — either naturally or artificially — thoroughly well drained. III. The seed should be selected with care, and of the sort that is most likely to succeed in the climate and soil of the locality. IV. The seed should always be drilled rather than sown broad- cast. V. The ridges made by the drill should not be leveled by the harrow or roller until after the ground has settled in the spring. VI. The amount of seed should be from one bushel, or even less, on very rich land, to two bushels on the least rich on which it will pay to grow wheat. VII. Wherever sufficient help can be obtained, it will probably pay to hoe the crop early in the spring, — and it will certainly pay to remove all weeds growing among it. VIII. The crop should be cut from ten days to two weeks before the grain is thoroughly ripe. By proper attention to these requirements, I believe that the wheat crop of the United States may be increased from its present average of about 12 bushels per acre (or less) to the 28 bushels (or thereabout) which is the average in Great Britain. I also believe that much of the so-called worn-out land of New England may be made to produce profitable crops of wheat. The freight on 30 bushels of wheat from a farm in Minnesota to the city of New York is more than the interest on the total value of an acre of good land in New England, and New England is sup- plied with its^breadstuffs very largely from the far West. GRAIN CROPS. 313 More hardy and better suited to land of inferior quality than wheat, rye may be considered the great bread crop of northern countries in which wheat cannot easily be grown. It makes a nutritious, though dark-colored, bread, and its bran is more valu- able than the bran of wheat as a food for domestic animals. Ordinarily, the cultivation of rye is much more careless than is that of wheat, probably for the reason that a paying crop can be much more easily grown. But if it received in all respects the same attention, there is no doubt that the result in money would be almost, if not quite, equally good, for while the yield of grain is increased in proportion to the care bestowed, the straw which, under the best circumstances, yields very largely, is, when hand- thrashed, of great value, being worth now, in the Eastern markets, about $35 per ton. Rye is much better able than wheat is, to withstand rough treatment in winter. In fact, except upon very wet land, it is rarely winter-killed to any great extent. It grows best on rather light land, and may, with advantage, be sown early in Sep- tember, though, if the autumn is long and warm, it will grow so large as to make it advisable to feed it down before winter sets in. A well-established field of rye is the first field on the farm to turn green in the spring, and it is frequently sown to be used exclu- sively for spring pasture, being plowed under as a green crop after the grass is well started. As a soiling crop, rye is, by reason of its earliness, very import- ant, and it will be further considered in this connection, in the chapter on soiling. The cultivation of oats is so universal and so well understood, that it is hardly necessary to say more here on the subject than that they should be sown at the earliest practicable moment after the frost is out of the ground ; that they do much better when drilled 314 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. than when sown broadcast, and that they are better adapted to light than to heavy lands. They are an exhausting crop, but for some years they have borne so high a price that their cultivation is suffi- ciently profitable to enable us to buy manure to repair the damage. Perhaps it is not exactly correct to attribute their injurious effect entirely to the exhaustion of the land, as some of the injury that they cause is no doubt due to the fact that their roots bind the soil together in clods which it is difficult to reduce. Oat straw is more valuable than any other for fodder for domestic animals. If the crop is harvested as it should be, before the grain is fully mature, the straw will be but little inferior to common hay, especially if fed in connection with roots. Barley may be sown somewhat later than oats, and it is best suited to rather heavier soil than these prefer. On any soil, how- ever, that is in good condition, provided it is sufficiently drained, it is, at the usual prices, a profitable crop, though the straw is less valuable for feeding purposes than is that of either oats or wheat. BUCKWHEAT. I can say but little concerning this crop, save that it will grow better than almost any other will on poor, thin, light soils ; that it should not be sown in the latitude of New York before the lOth of July, and that it must be harvested before the frost. Planted early in the season, it makes a luxuriant growth of stem, but produces but little grain. It is sometimes so planted to be plowed in as a green crop on land intended for wheat or rye, but it is much less valuable for this purpose than is clover, its only advantage being that much less time is required for its pro- duction. It is especially important, as a green crop, on foul land, as it fully occupies the ground to the exclusion of every thing else, and as three crops may be grown and plowed under during a single GRAIN CROPS. 315 season, poor, weedy land may sometimes be more cheaply reclaimed by its aid than in any other way. Buckwheat is considerably grown by farmers who produce milk for sale to the large cities, for the sake of its bran. Having the grain ground at home, they sell the flour, and feed the bran to their cows, adding very much to the quantity, and taking no little from the quality of their milk. yt'ou:s\ CHAPTER XL ROOT CROPS. It would not be an extravagant statement to say that the cultivation of root crops is not known in America ; for, notwith- standing the fact that it is usual to see one or two acres of turnips or carrots on a farm, the cultivation of these crops to the extent to which they are grown in Europe almost never occurs in America. The reasons for this are obvious, and are based chiefly upon the high price of farm labor, and upon the fact that, except in certain limited regions, women and children rarely work in the field. The growth of turnips and mangels forms one of the leading items of the cultivation of nearly all English farms, and a very large part of the work is done by women and children, frequently working in gangs under a contractor, and moving from one part of the country to another, as their services may be required. It will be a long time before farmers in this country will be able to make any thing like the important use of these crops to which they have attained in more thickly settled regions ; — for where a farm of from fifty to two hundred acres is operated entirely by two or three hands, they have quite enough to do to attend to the cultivation of the corn crop and the harvesting of the hay, both of which occur at the time when the most labor is required in the root fields. This state of affairs, however, while it is often an argument against the growth of very large areas of roots, by no means mili- tates against the cultivation of such smaller patches as it may be within the power of the farmer to properly attend to. On good ROOT CROPS. 317 land, in a good state of preparation, and with skillful management, the amount of food produced is very much greater, in proportion to the labor and expense attending the cultivation, than can be obtained in any other way •, and when we consider the great value of roots for the winter feeding of animals, and the incidental value of their tops for fall feeding, it may be safely stated, that, even where the amount of help on the farm is in small proportion to its area and the requirement for other work, it would really pay the farmer better to concentrate his efforts and his manure upon a smaller surface, and let the rest of the farm run into natural pas- ture. However, I am not disposed to recommend this or any other revolution in the farming of the United States ; — for, in the first place, the recommendation would be disregarded •, and, in the second place, it is very questionable whether revolutions in agri- culture, except such as are brought about in a slow and natural way, would be of any permanent value. Our farms are now suited in size and in general arrangement to the ideas and to the capacities of our farmers ; and, as fast as these ideas and capacities change, or range themselves in accordance with higher requirements, just so rapidly will the farms themselves conform to the altered condi- tions. And an effort to bring about a rapid general change in favor of any given new system would probably be attended with quite as much disadvantage as benefit. Holding this view, I propose only to state some of the results which it is possible to attain by means of root culture, and to give directions for the cultivation of the different crops. The extent to which, and the manner in which, the growth of roots shall be adopted on any given farm, must rest entirely with the judgment of the farmer himself. He will, if he is a good farmer, do exactly that which promises the best compensation for his capital and his labor. Successful root cul- ture requires that the land be in the best possible condition. Many a field will produce large crops of corn, and of other grain, on which it would be folly to attempt to raise roots in any consider- able quantity. The land must be rich, well and deeply cultivated, thoroughly well drained, and free from stones ; and it had better be exposed rather to the morning than to the afternoon sun. On 318 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. such a field it is hardly possible that the proper amount of labor, judiciously directed, should fail to produce most profitable results. But if the land is only half-rich ;_ if, in wet weather, it is too moist, and in dry weather too hard-baked ; if it is filled with the seeds of troublesome weeds, or with the roots of quack-grass, or if its ex- posure is a cold and unfavorable one, it may be fairly assumed that the labor and manure expended in an effort to raise root crops will bring but a meager and unsatisfactory return. While the cultiva- tion of roots is a necessary accompaniment of high farming, — with poor farming, at least so far as the root land is concerned, they can hardly fail to produce a large crop of disappointment to the grower. It is possible to produce on an acre of land two thousand bushels of mangels, or fifteen hundred bushels of tur- nips. It is hardly possible to produce such a crop as this without deriving a large amount of profit from the operation ; for it can onlv be done under such circumstances as will give the greatest possible effect to the amount of manure used for the crop, and to the labor that its care involves. It is easy on ordinary soils, ordi- narily manured and not very carefully attended, to raise three hundred bushels of beets and from one hundred and fifty to two hundred bushels of turnips. Probably under no circumstances would there be a profit attending the growth of such a crop. It will be readily seen, then, that the adoption of root culture on a large scale implies a willingness to resort to such careful modes of cultivation, and such effective means of fertilizing, as will suffice for very much larger crops than are now common on American farms. In favorable seasons, and under the most favor- able circumstances, mangels should yield a thousand bushels to the acre, and rutabaga turnips not less than from six to eight hundred, and such crops should pay very well. It is frequently the case, — indeed, it is very common through the sea-board regions of New England and New Jersey, that the demand for roots for the general market is so active and reliable, that it will pay to go to greater expense, and submit to greater inconvenience, for the sake of growing root crops, than would be possible, or at least profitable, in a purely agricultural region. EOOT CROPS. 319 For instance, rutabaga turnips are now (January, 1869) selling in the New York market for $2.50 per barrel, which is very nearly $1.00 a bushel. These turnips probably yield to their producers, after deducting the cost of transportation, commissions, etc., 75 cents a bushel; and, at this price, even the small crops of the unfavorable season of 1868 must have been generally profitable. It is hardly necessary to tell a farmer, however, that, except as a condiment with other food, being fed in very small quantities, roots are worth for feeding nothing like 75 cents a bushel. By reference to tables, showing the theoretical and experimental value of different sorts of food, it will be seen that the amount of roots necessary to be fed, in order to produce the same effect as a given weight of hay, is very large ; and, if we were to take only this table as a basis for our estimate of the value of roots in feed- ing, it would seem questionable whether it would pay to raise them at all, except under the very best circumstances. It is not true, however, that in the feeding of farm stock the importance of roots can be exactly measured by this standard. In addition to their nutritive elements, they have the very great advantage of being a fresh and succulent food, that may be easily kept through- out the whole season, and the effect of which, on the animal organization, is similar to that of salad, celery, and other green vegetables, used on our own tables during the winter season. They keep the system in a more healthy and better lubricated con- dition, and greatly stimulate the growth and thrift of young stock. Where they are largely fed, all animals, both old and young, come out in the spring of the year in much better condition than if kept only on dry food, however rich it may be. The value of roots in their influence on the manure that results from their consumption, is also very great, and should constitute a consider- able element of any estimate of their value. The roots which it is most advantageous to grow for use on the farm are the fol- lowing : — Common Turnips, Carrots, Rutabaga Turnips, Mangels. 21 320 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Parsnips are sometimes grown, and they yield largely ; but the labor required in digging them is often an argument against their cultivation, except on very light lands. Except for the growth of common turnips, which may gener- ally be raised as a " stolen crop," or on land lying fallow late in the season, the field on which it is proposed to raise roots of whatever kind should, first of all, be most thoroughly under- drained. If it is of a light texture and is underlaid with a soil through which the water of rains will percolate freely, and if it receives no ooze-water from land lying above it, the natural drainage is sufficient ; — but wherever this is not the case ; wher- ever, either early in the spring or late in the fall, the surface of the land, when plowed, appears damp and soggy when other land is dry ; or wherever, during seasons of excessive drought, it cracks into hard clods, it is useless to attempt to raise paying crops of these vegetables unless a thorough system of under- draining with tiles or stones or brush or some other material is first carried into effect. The land being properly drained or naturally sufficiently dry, it should receive the most careful and thorough attention. If the use of the land can be spared, at least one season should be exclusively devoted to the preparation for the growth of the roots. Clover, buckwheat, or some other green crop should be grown to be plowed in in the fall. Probably the best course would be to manure the land quite heavily with stable manure in August or early in September, and then to plow it up deeply and thoroughly, burying, at as great a depth as possible, the green crop and the manure that has been applied to the surface of the land ; and then to run a subsoil plow in the bottom of each furrow as deeply as it can be done with the force at command, thus loosening the earth that has been indurated by the treading of teams and by the sole of the plow during years of previous cultivation. This plowing being done, the surface should be left exposed in the furrow to the action of the frosts of winter and the fall and spring rains. The fall plowing having been done not later than September, the roots and stems of the green crop will be sufficiently rotted not to interfere with subsequent cultiva- ROOT CROPS. 321 tion ; and, as early as possible in the spring, the land should be rolled and the harrow (preferably Shares' harrow) should be run lengthwise of the furrow, at least once, and, if necessary, two or three times. The ground should then be cross-plowed, and again rolled and harrowed. After this, it should receive a copious top- dressing of stable manure, or not less than five hutidred pounds per acre of a thoroughly good superphosphate of lime or of Peruvian guano ; — and this manure, whatever its kind, should be only lightly harrowed by a single operation, and then left undis- turbed until after a heavy rain, when a second harrowing and rolling will prepare the ground for the reception of the seed. The operations detailed above will have the effect of loosening the soil to a great depth, of giving it a good supply of organic matter, and of thoroughly enriching it with the different elements of plant food that the coming crop will require ; while its surface will be so freed from clods and other inequalities as to place it in the best condition for the rapid germination of the delicate seeds with which it is to be sown. Except as to the character of the special commercial fertilizer to be applied, the operations, as far as detailed, are suited to the growth of rutabagas, carrots, or mangels, but subsequent operations must depend on the variety of root that it is intended to grow. RUTABAGA TURNIPS. What is called in England the Swedish turnip, is known here as the rutabaga, or white French turnip. It is distinct from the common turnip, being more like the cabbage in many of its characteristics. Its German name is " cabbage-turnip." It is subject to the same diseases as cabbage, — notably to the club-foot, — is consumed in. its early stages by the skipping-beetle, and grows to its greatest perfection under circumstances which are best adapted to the growth of cabbage, which it cannot success- fully follow or be followed by, except in very rare cases, — and it has the same advantage that it may be easily and safely trans- planted. 322 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. While the rutabaga contains a not very large quantity of phos- phoric acid, it is more specifically benefited than is almost any other plant by the use of bone-dust, superphosphate of lime, or any other fertilizer in which phosphoric acid is the leading ingre- dient ; and, singularly, while it does contain a very large amount of nitrogen, its growth is often rather injured than benefited by the excessive use of ammoniacal manures. For this reason it will always be found prudent to mix the stable manure used so thoroughly with the soil that its more active stimulating effect may be modified by its combination with earth ; and, in all cases to use bone-dust or superphosphate of lime, and not Peruvian guano, which, although it contains a good deal of phosphoric acid, is a highly stimulating ammoniacal manure. It is a very general belief, which has been borne out in my own experience and which I believe to be well founded, that, both in the case of cabbages and of rutabagas, the manure of swine is injurious from its tendency, real or supposed, to increase the formation of "clump roots," or what in turnips is known as " fingers and toes." As a special fertilizer for rutabagas, nothing that I have ever tried has been so effective as a liberal application of New Jersey green-sand marl ; and I have always imagined that I obtained very beneficial results from the even sowing of air-slacked lime, applied by means of a broadcast sower, immediately before plant- ing the seeds or setting out the plants. Peter Henderson asserts, that lime is a sure agent in preventing the clump-foot disease ; whether this is the case or not, the effect of a light application of lime is, in many ways, so beneficial that its use is strongly to be recommended, wherever it can be obtained. It is the almost universal custom in England, where roots are very largely grown, to raise turnips, and mangels as well, on raised ridges or back-furrows ; and the facts that in this way we increase the depth of soil directly under the plant, and that horse cultivation during the early stages of growth is easier, are argu- ments in favor of the custom. Generally, however, flat cultiva- tion for all crops, being the most natural, is considered the most advisable ; and the question whether to ridge or not to ridge ROOT CROPS. 323 should be decided, perhaps, with reference to the character of the land. If it is either very stony or very " cloddy," or if, for any reason, it is not of uniform fineness, it will be well to throw it into ridges, even if the ridges be afterward raked off or flattened down by rolling a barrel over them. By some means they should be so depressed that there will be no danger of the ele- vated bank of earth becoming too dry during the heat of summer. Rutabagas are grown both by planting the seed in place, and by raising young plants in a seed-bed for subsequent transplanting. The almost universal system is to sow the seed where the plants are to grow, transplanting only as may be necessary to fill up vacant spaces. All things considered, this system is probably the most advisable, although an experienced farmer of my acquaintance, who has experimented carefully during the past three years, asserts that he finds the growth of his transplanted roots to be so much greater as to amply compensate for the trouble. From my own experiments in this direction, not only with this crop but with sev- eral others, I am strongly inclined to believe that the labor of the whole season is less under the transplanting than under the seed- planting method, for the reason that with turnips and mangels 'the early growth is so slow, and the small plants so delicate, that the cleaning of the ground for the first and second times requires very careful hand-work, which adds greatly to the cost of cultivation. As the transplanting takes place much later in the season than the sowing, we have ample time for at least three light cultivations by horse power, which will destroy the started germs of a very large portion of the weeds, that, under the planting system, would have to be removed by the hoe. The manner in which trans- planting should be done is referred to more at length under the head of mangels. For turnips, the process requires only such modification as their smaller size and greater delicacy render obviously necessary. The ground being in thoroughly good condition, and in all respects suited for the production of a large crop, the. most import- ant consideration is the distance at which the rows are to be placed, and the distance in the rows to which the plants are to be 324: HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. thinned out. The temptation is always to plant at too narrow in- tervals. The rows should never be nearer together than twenty- seven inches, and even thirty would probably produce better results. This gives ample room for thorough cultivation by horse-power, reducing the amount of hand-work to only the cultivation of the rows themselves. The roots are thinned out at distances varying from six to fifteen inches. Six inches is very much too close, and fifteen inches may be a little wider than necessary. It is believed, however, that a larger weight of roots from a given area of land will be produced if the plants stand at intervals of twelve inches than if nearer together. At this distance, and with thirty inches between the rows, the entire surface of the ground will be covered by the leaves, and each plant will have, not only ample feeding- ground for its roots, but ample room for the largest development. If the land is thoroughly well pulverized, and enriched with per- fect uniformity, at these distances every root should be perfect. When the crop is to be transplanted, the seed should be sown in a thoroughly prepared seed-bed, about the middle of May. The young plants should be dusted with soot, ashes, road dust, or air-'slacked lime, or with some other powder that will drive away the skipping-beetle, which often causes serious loss. The rows need not be more than twelve inches asunder, and the plants may stand quite thickly in the row, at intervals of not more one-half inch or one inch. The plants for an acre may, in this way, be raised upon a few square rods of ground ; although, for fear of accidents, it is always best to be liberal in this respect. The amount of seed sown for the transplanting of an acre should be not less than three-quarters of a pound ; and, if there is the least danger that the seed may not be of uniformly good quality, it will be poor economy not to use at least twice this quantity. The seed-bed should be kept thoroughly clean, free from weeds, and well pulverized ; and, if the weather is dry, should be occasionally watered, in order that the plants may be as strong and firm as" pos- sible at transplanting time. They should be set out in place, not later than the middle of July, if the crop is intended for consump- tion on the farm. But the first of August will be early enough, ROOT CROPS. 325 if it is intended for the market. In this latter case the seed-bed need not be planted before June first. If, between the time of planting the seed and setting out the plants in the field, the weather is such that they threaten to grow to too large a size, they should be retransplanted, and their growth in this way checked. Every transplanting of turnips, or any thing else that bears transplanting at all, has the eff'ect of increasing the bushiness of the root, and, ultimately, the stamina of the plant. Perhaps it would pay to sow the seed as early as the first of May, and to transplant twice be- tween that time and the first of August. These earlier trans- plantings are accomplished with very little work, as they are done by the process known as heeling in. A narrow furrow being made with the end of a spade, and the plants set almost touching each other against one side of the furrow, the earth is returned and pressed closely against them with the foot. Each transplanting will check the growth of the leaves for a week or ten days, and during this time the severed roots will establish themselves by making several strong branches. When transplanted again, these branches will branch again, and when the plant is finally put into its place in the field, its feeding roots will be much more numer- ous than if grown directly from the seed. When the seed is sown directly in the field, the amount required for an acre is about one pound ; and it should be distributed by a drill-barrow, — Emery's and Holbrook's being probably the best. The proper time for field planting is not very well de- fined. For the production of large roots for home consump- tion, possibly the middle of June would not be too early for sowing ; — for market, however, from the seventh to the tenth of July is quite early enough. If the seed germinates well, there will be at least twenty times as many plants produced as are to be left after the final thinning. Therefore, any slight attack of the skipping-beetle may be disregarded ; but the field should be closely watched, and if in any place its ravages threaten to become seri- ous, the plants should be carefully dusted. As soon as the plants have grown to a sufficient size to mark the rows, the intervals between them should be very lightly scarified by the horse-hoe, 326 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. although no sign of a weed may have shown itself. In fact, the more frequently the ground is disturbed, and the more thor- oughly the growth of weeds is nipped in the bud, the cheaper and more complete will be the season's cultivation. It will, indeed, be found profitable, if so much as from five to ten acres of roots are grown, to keep a horse-hoe going constantly whenever the land is sufficiently dry. When the turnips have produced one or two rough leaves, the sides of the rows should be lightly hoed by hand immediately after the passage of the horse-hoe. This will destroy all weeds except those starting directly in the line of the turnips ; and when the leaves of these are three or four inches long, the singling out should be carefully done, leaving the strong- est plants at intervals of from ten to fourteen inches, and thor- oughly cleaning all of the intervening ground. The eff'ect of this thinning on the appearance of the field is always such as to leave a very poor promise of a crop, but within a few days the plants, which have been deprived of the support of their neighbors, will gain strength, assume a more stocky form, and commence their real growth. From this time on, until the roots have a diameter of about an inch, the hoeing by both horse and hand power can- not be too frequent or thorough for profit. The best of all horse cultivators, so far as my experience goes, is the light one-horse steel subsoil plow, which can be run in well-cultivated land to a depth of six or eight inches, and which produces such a thorough disturbance of the mass of soil as it is difficult to accomplish in any other way, while it is easily drawn, and is not apt to throw dirt on to the leaves of the crop. If I were obliged to discard all but one of my horse-hoeing implements, I should retain this one for all work, including the horse-hoeing of corn. After having attained the diameter of an inch, and being by this time thoroughly cleaned, the crop had better be left to itself, unless the land is unusually weedy ; — for the development of the roots of the turnips so completely fills the soil, that even its very surface is occupied by fibers, whose destruction would be injurious. The crop may now be safely " laid by," and left to take care of itself until har- vest time. If it is not now doing well, no effort of the farmer ROOT CROPS. 327 can help it. His care should have been applied during the previ- ous autumn and spring, and during the earlier growth of the plants. Nature will now do all that can be done, and, under favorable circumstances, all that can be desired. In cultivation by transplanting, very much of this labor may be dispensed with. Soon after the plants are set out they should receive one thorough horse cultivation and hand-hoeing, but they will soon so far occupy the ground, that, except the use of the subsoil plow, there is no room, and, indeed, no necessity, for further cultivation. The turnip has the one great advantage, that its harvesting may be postponed until nearly all other farm work is closed for the season. I have learned by ample experience that even the sever- est freezing, provided the crop is not locked in the ground for the winter, is rather beneficial than injurious. During the autumn of 1867, my turnips were left out until after the thermometer had marked 12 degrees Fahrenheit, yet they were excellent for the table, and kept perfectly until late in the spring. If left, however, all winter in the ground, in the latitude of New York or of Phila- delphia, they would undoubtedly be destroyed by frequent freezing and thawing. Even the leaves will bear severe frost without in- jury. The only precautions that it is necessary to take are, not to touch either tops or roots until the frost is thoroughly withdrawn, and to be very careful not to postpone the harvesting so late that they cannot be removed, free from frost, before winter finally sets in. The harvesting is easy and simple, and requires no directions, beyond the statement that the tops and the tap-roots should be cut off, but that the turnip generally should not be " trimmed " until it is required for use ; as each abrasion of the surface establishes a weak point at which decay first attacks it, and the less cutting it receives before being stored away, the better its chances for re- maining sound until wanted. At this season of the year, the leaves will bear stacking in considerable heaps without fermen- tation, and may be relied on as a source of valuable fodder for some weeks. During the harvesting of the crop, the roots may be thrown to- 328 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. gather in heaps of from ten to twenty bushels, and covered with a few leaves or a little earth, which will prevent their being attack- ed by frost, until they can be finally put away for the winter. These are an exceedingly valuable root for the farmer, and have the advantage over turnips, that they impart no unpleasant flavor to milk and butter, and that they add somewhat to its richness and color. For horses, they are especially good food, and, when administered with oats and hay, have the effect of facilitating their complete digestion. Carrots cannot be transplanted, and the seed must be sown where they are to grow. As they form very much less top than turnips do, the rows may be put much closer together, although, unless hand labor can be obtained to advantage, it will be necessary to make the distance sufficient for the use of the horse-hoe. The seed is exceedingly slow in its germination, and the crop is a perplexing one during the first two or three weeks of its growth, as many weeds, unless great care is taken, will push beyond it and obliterate the rows. A common fault in the cultivation of carrots is to plant the seed too early in the season. Put in the ground early in May, as is a quite common custom, the seed Hes dormant, often for nearly a month, during the whole of which time weeds are growing and work is accumulating, at the busiest season of the year ; while the plants, after they do come up, are so feeble that their early growth is exceedingly slow. Certainly, the labor of cultivation will be much less, and the amount of the crop probably quite as great, if the seed is not planted till the tenth of June, the preceding weeks having been industriously employed in the de- struction by horse-power of the early sprouting weeds. It will ordinarily be found that a crop planted at this time, will very soon catch up with one that was put in the ground a month earlier ; while the cost of its cultivation will not be one-fourth so much. As soon as the rag-leaf of the plant is fairly shown, the crop should be thinned out, as, owing to the length of the root, if it ROOT CROPS. 329 is left much later than this, there is danger that it will be broken off at the crown and that a subsequent growth will ensue, re- quiring the operation to be repeated. The distance at which the plants should be left in the rows should not be less than six inches, and probably even more than this would give a larger crop. During the whole of the months of June and July, the carrot field should be very closely attended to, and should be kept thoroughly clean, as during all this time the growth of the plant is slow, and the effect upon it of the growth of weeds is almost disastrous. After this it will require less work, but at no time should it be allowed to become absolutely weedy. Carrots must be harvested before any severe freezing of the ground takes place, and the roots should be immediately protected against the action of even a slight frost, as any freezing, after they are taken up, greatly increases their tendency to decay. Properly harvested and well secured for the winter, however, they keep perfectly well until spring. The yield of the crop will, of course, depend very much on the character of the land, and the care with which it has been cultivated. Probably no one thing, however, affects the result so much as the perfection of the thinning. In Rhode Island, where large quantities of carrots are grown as a "stolen crop" between onions, and where the seed is merely dropped between the rows of onions, sometimes a dozen in a place, no thinning ever being done, two or three hundred bushels is considered a large crop. In 1819, my father raised a crop on very stony and naturally poor land, in Westchester County, New York, thinning the plants to intervals of from six to eight inches in the rows ; and received from' the Westchester County Agricultural Society, in 1820, the silver cup awarded for the largest crop of carrots, on proof of a yield of over one thou- sand bushels to the acre. In the description of the manner in which the crop was raised, published in the Memoirs of the Board of Agriculture of the State of New York, 1823, there appears no evidence of any especially favorable circumstances beyond the perfect natural drainage of the ground. The land was stony, would produce only thirty bushels of corn to the acre 330 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY, with the same amount of manure used for the carrots, and was by no means such as would be selected as best adapted for the growth of this crop. The large crop obtained was the result mainly of very careful and very thorough management. In those days of low prices the total cost of the cultivation and harvesting was only $30 per acre — about three cents a bushel for the roots produced. Of course, so cheap a result could not now be ob- tained, and it is not likely that it ever can be again ; though when we consider the relative value of the crop, as compared with that of others requiring more or less labor, any yield nearly so large as this must be obtained at a cheap rate. As they require considerable more labor and are not quite so easily kept in winter, carrots are not so valuable to the farmer as either rutabagas or mangels. A small quantity should always be raised as giving an excellent variety in feeding ; but the main crop should be of the other roots, unless there is some reliable local demand for carrots, as there sometimes is, for feeding livery and private horses. Whenever so high a price as 30 cents a bushel can be relied on, and especially where women and children can be hired to do the weeding and thinning, for a portion of the crop, (on shares,) or for moderate daily wages, it will pay exceedingly well to raise carrots. They may be raised, year after year, on the same land ; and, if the crop is kept thoroughly cleaned throughout the season, the work of weeding will be yearly less and less. Carrots are grown very largely in certain districts of New England as a second crop among onions, and probably a great deal of the accumulated capital of the farmers of the island of Rhode Island has been derived from this double cultivation. Latterly, the injury of the onion crop by the maggot has greatly lessened the extent of their growth, and the consequent production of carrots. The custom in Rhode Island is, to plant the onions at regular intervals in narrow rows, planting a few car- rot seeds between each two plants of every row. After the onion crop is taken off the carrot has all the time that it requires to make a handsome growth ; but, owing to the fact that the carrots ROOT CROPS. 331 grow in bunches together and are not thinned, and that the land is generally only cultivated to a slight depth, the produce is much less than it is where they have a proper depth of soil, and stand singly so that each plant may grow to its full size. One carrot, two inches in diameter at the top and fifteen inches long, contains a great deal more substance than do four carrots an inch in diam- eter and only five inches long. The variety of carrot that it is best to raise, taking into view both its quality for feeding and the effect of its coloring matter on the product of the dairy, is the Long Orange. The White Bel- gian produces more largely, but is inferior for use ; while the Crecy, the Horn, and the Altringham, though richer and excel- lent for the table, yield less. MANGEL-WURZELS. The mangel is the king of the root crops. The yield per acre is larger, under favorable circumstances, than that of any other root ; the quality is much better than that of the common turnip, and quite as good as that of carrots or rutabagas. It is only exceeded in richness by the potato and the Jerusalem arti- choke. The amount that it is possible to produce from an acre of land has probably never been definitely ascertained, for there has never been an acre grown on which all of the plants were so large and perfect as individual plants frequently are. If I had land exactly suited to the cultivation of this root, and were so circumstanced that I could give it as much manure as it could make profitable use of, and could give the land and the plants in all respects the fullest opportunity to do their best, the limit of my modest ambition would be two thousand bushels per acre, or fifty tons of roots. To descend from the possible to the actual, instances are nu- merous of the production of from ten to thirteen hundred bushels per acre ; and there is no crop that is grown which, in proportion to the amount of labor required for its production, is so profitable as this. Three hundred and forty-one pounds of mangels are 332 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. equal in feeding value to one hundred pounds of the best meadow hay, and eight and a half tons from an acre of land have the same actual nutritive value, as proven by experiment, as have two and a half tons of hay, which is a remarkably good yield from an acre of excellent grass land, laid down with much expense, and its crop harvested and stored with care. Of course the labor required for the production of the mangel crop is larger, area for area, than is required for the hay crop, — very much larger, — but it bears no proportion to its excessive superiority in feeding value. There are two varieties of mangel that are grown quite largely, and it is still questionable which, if either, is superior to the other. These are the Long Red, and the Yellow or Orange Globe, — the former growing chiefly out of the ground, often to a length of eighteen or twenty inches, and sometimes even more, and having a circumference nearly equal to its length. The Yellow Globe is almost a perfect sphere, and has been grown to a diameter of thirteen inches. The crop requires the whole growing season for its perfection, and the seed should be sown as early in spring as the danger of late frosts will allow. Fresh seed germinates readily, and it prob- ably would not be safe to plant, in the latitude of New York, much earlier than the loth of May. The preparation of the land should be the perfection of all that has been described in the early part of this chapter. Depth of thorough cultivation, completeness of drainage, and the richest possible manuring, are all necessary to the best results. The crop may be grown either on the flat or on ridges. The rows should be at least thirty inches apart (many consider three feet none too much), and the plants should stand twelve, or, better, fifteen inches asunder in the rows. The dis- tance between the rows, and the intervals between the plants, should be regulated according to the richness of the ground. It is desirable that during the latter part of the season the entire sur- face should be covered by the leaves of the crop, and especially desirable that these leaves should not crowd each other by reason of too narrow intervals. Mangels may be grown by planting the seed where the crop is ROOT CROPS. 333 to Stand, or by transplanting. After several years of experiment, I am induced to recommend the system of transplanting. The plants may be grown in the seed-bed to a considerable size ; — in fact, it is better not to remove them until the roots are, on the average, as thick as one's thumb, or even an inch in diameter. This will bring the removal to so late a period that the ground on which they are to grow may be thoroughly cultivated and cleaned of weeds, so that a single hand-hoeing, one horse-hoeing, and one thorough cultivation between the rows with the one-horse steel sub- soil plow will be all that the plant requires. If the seed is sown in place, it should be sown thickly by a seed-drill, say at the rate of six pounds to the acre ; for, in view of the occasional defective germination of the seed, it is best to secure one's self against the possibility of loss from this source, — the cost of the extra seed being a slight insurance as compared with the general result. The rows should he kept thoroughly clean, and the plants slightly thinned out, that is, so that only one shall stand within the space of an inch. As soon as the fleshy leaf commences to show itself, and at about the third hoeing, the rows should be thinned to the intervals recommended above, and every weed, however small, should be carefully taken out. After this time about the same cultivation will be required that is necessary for the transplanted crop. In transplanting, the following plan will be found safe, economical, and satisfactory. The land having been put in a good state of preparation and thoroughly cleared of weeds, scarify the surface with a cultivator, and pass a roller over it to crush such lumps as may remain, and then rake the field by hand with common wooden hay-rakes. The first operation is the marking of the lines, and I have found that this may be cheaply and rapidly done by the use of a cord (common tarred spun yarn is as good as any thing), long enough to reach from one side of the field to the other. Let one man hold each end of the line, standing at oppo- site sides of the field and near to one side, drawing the line per- fectly straight, laying it in the position intended for the first row, and securing the ends by stakes pressed into the ground. Let them now walk toward each other, placing the whole length of 334 IIANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the foot upon the line at each step. When they reach the middle they return rapidly to the end, and, each being provided with a gauge marking the distance, move the line to its second position and walk over it as before, — proceeding in this manner until the whole field, or so much of it as can be planted in one day, is marked out. The indentation made in the ground by the line under the foot will be clear and sufficient for the purpose. This plan has the advantage of being nearly as rapid as marking out by the plow, and of making perfectly straight lines at absolutely uni- form distances. The whole cost of the operation detailed need not exceed two dollars per acre, including the scarifying, rolling, and raking ; — and the straightness of the rows and the finely com- minuted condition of the ground will amply compensate for this in subsequent cultivation ; while the appearance of the crop will be much more satisfactory than if the lines were not perfectly straight. Transplanting is regarded by those who are not accustomed to it as a great bugbear ; and the objection that is most frequently raised to this system of cultivating roots is based on the cost of the operation. Until a little experience is gained, the objection has some value ; but as soon as one is accustomed to the use of the dibber, it will be found that the labor of setting out an acre of plants is less than that of weeding a sowed crop the first time, or of thinning out in the second hoeing ; while the effect of the transplanting on the roots is most beneficial, and the crop produced will be enough larger than is possible by the other pro- cess to fully repay the cost. In transplanting not only mangels, but turnips, cabbages, and, indeed, all plants, the work can in no way be done so rapidly and so well as by the use of the dibber, which is a stick about a foot long and an inch in diameter, having an iron-shod point. This tool may be made by any blacksmith, and should find a place on all farms where roots are grown. It is universally used by the market gardeners in the vicinity of New York ; and the rapidity with which its work is accomplished in the hands of a skillful man is truly remarkable. My foreman, who has had ten years' ROOT CROPS. 335 experience in market gardening, can, with a boy to drop them, set out nine thousand plants in a day, and it is rarely that a single plant fails. The field being ready, the plants should now be drawn from the seed-bed, the largest being selected first. The crown of the plant being held in the hand, the leaves should be cut ofF about six inches above the crown, and the point of the tap-root a little below the swelling. The plants should be stacked up so that the leaves will all lie in one direction, and should be covered from the rays of the sun. Each planter should be preceded by a boy carry- ing a basket of plants, which he drops down across the line with the tops toward the left hand of the planter, who follows him. The latter, bending his back for his day's work, picks up the plant with his left hand, makes a hole with the dibber, sets the root in about half an inch below the crown, and by a peculiar twisting thrust of the dibber compacts the earth about the root. If there are men enough, one should be detailed to follow each two or three planters, pressing lightly with his foot over the hole left by the dibber, so as to compact the earth still more around the newly-set plant, and the operation is done. It is better, of course, to select cloudy or damp weather for this work ; and it should never be performed during a drought, if there is a hope of rain within a week. The cutting off of the leaves, as it very much reduces the evaporation of water, by the plant, enables it to remain nearly dormant until its newly-formed roots have taken hold upon the soil. For ten days or two weeks after trans- planting, but little evidence of growth can be seen ; but from that time on the growth is rapid and uniform ; so that, if the land is in good condition and the plants all good, there will be an equality of appearance over the whole field that cannot be equaled by the most successful cultivation by means of seed planting. If the dryness of the ground is very great, and it is not deemed advisable to wait for a rain, the following operation will be found beneficial : Take equal parts of garden loam and cow-dung, mixing, if convenient, a little guano or superphosphate of lime with the mass, and make it into a semi-fluid paste with 22 336 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. water. Into this dip each handful of roots, as they are trimmed, on being first taken from the bed. So treated, mangels, cabbages, and, probably, •rutabagas, can be set out even in the dryest weather with success ; and in any case this addition of a rich fertilizer at the point at which the new roots are to seek their first food will be found advantageous. The process of growth of the mangel, and probably of all root crops, is about as follows: — During the early stages the energies of the plant are devoted chiefly to the forming of leaves ; and, even after these have attained sufficient size to absorb atmospheric matter, the growth is confined chiefly to their extension. Later in the season, by the transformation of the contents of the cells of the leaves, these contents, again becoming soluble, pass down and increase the bulk of the root. Thus we see at harvest time that a large proportion of the leaves of the crop have withered and fallen away. It is the erroneous custom, in many districts, to forestall this withering by stripping them ofF, and using them for cattle food._ It is hardly necessary to say that this custom results in great detriment to the crop, as the roots are thus robbed of a large part of the matter which it is the design of nature to store in them for winter use or for the next season's seed-growing. The crop should be left entirely untouched after the leaves have covered the ground until harvest time, which should be before any frost severe enough to seriously affect the roots themselves. Early frosts have but slight effect, even on the leaves, and so long as the ground is well shaded from the morning sun, a slight freezing of the roots does no harm, as the frost will be withdrawn by the gradually increas- ing heat of the air, before the cuticle is struck by the direct rays of the sun. In harvesting mangels, the leaves should be twisted or torn off by hand, and not cut off by a knife, — it having been found that cutting induces early decay. As the root grows chiefly above ground, and is rather smoothly rounded even under the surface of the earth, it is not necessary to trim off the rootlets, which are of but very little amount. As the roots are stripped they ROOT CROPS. 337 should be laid on the row, or, at most, each three rows should be laid on the line of the middle one, the leaves being deposited in the intervening spaces. They should be left in this situation until they become thoroughly dry, a slight wilting being beneficial. While turnips and carrots may be thrown together in heaps, or even thrown into carts, mangels require to be handled in the most careful and delicate way,' for a slight abrasion of the skin hastens decay. They should be laid with care into baskets, and emptied thence with equal care into carts, from which they should be subsequently removed by hand, and not dumped.* As the work of this season is generally pressing, and as it is not well to put roots into warm winter quarters until the weather becomes permanently colder, it is a good plan to stack mangels in the field, in heaps containing from ten to twenty bush- els, covering them first with leaves and then with a little earth, to secure them against frost ; but before the weather becomes cold enough to penetrate this thin covering they should be removed to the cellar, or stowed away in pits or banks where they may be safely left even until May. Mangels, as well as other roots, may be stored in the field in either of two ways. One plan is, to build them up compactly in heaps about five feet wide, and as long as the quantity to be stored makes necessary. They should be drawn together to a ridge at the top, and at intervals of about ten feet along this ridge trusses of straw should be built in, projecting about two feet above it. The whole heap should then be covered about six inches thick with straw, (long straw running up and down the sides is best,) and later, the whole should be covered a foot thick with earth, leaving only the trusses sticking out, for ventila- tion. The earth should be taken from a trench dug completely around the heap, and a sufficient drain should lead away from this. Probably it would be best to so regulate the size of the heaps, that when one is opened its entire contents can be put into the root- cellar at once. If this is not done, the end of the heap that is left when a part of the roots are removed must be covered as above directed. The other plan, which we think preferable to the foregoing, is 338 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. to Store the roots in a trench in the ground, three feet deep and four feet wide. Commence by building up a tier of roots entirely across one end" of the trench, and' extending back two feet from the end, sprinkling a little fine earth or sand among the layers to exclude the air. After this tier is built to the top, commence a second one, six inches from the first ; and, as you build up, fill the space between the two with earth. Proceed in this manner, laying up successive tiers, until the trench is filled. Then cover the whole with a thin layer of straw, to be increased gradually in thickness as the weather becomes colder. After the first six inches of straw are put on, there is more to be feared "from too great heat than from frost ; although, after the winter has fairly* set in, the covering (being beaten down by rain and snow) shouJUl be at least ten or twelve inches thick. Roots stored in this way may be taken out as wanted, (one tier at a time,) and usually keep better than in over-ground ridges. Of course the ground must be naturally dry at all seasons, for the whole depth of the trench, or it must be artificially drained. The same caution against too rapid covering should be used in the case of the ridge system, and in no case should corn-stalks be used for covering, as these are very apt to decay and communi- cate decay to the roots. Parsnips can hardly be regarded in this country as a farm crop ; for, while they are excellent for feeding and their productiveness is bountiful, the labor of digging the crop is serious, and, either in the autumn or in the spring, is likely to interfere with other opera- tions. At the same time, theSe roots possess the great advantage of remaining in the ground where they are grown without protec- tion during the severest winter, coming out in perfect condition at any time before their second season's growth has commenced in the spring. They should be planted, and cultivated in all respects, as has been directed for carrots, — save that the intervals between the plants in the rows should not be less than eight inches. 1. i t T'N I ' 11^ CAl.liM >m\nI.\ CHAPTER XII. FORAGE CROPS. In its widest sense, the term forage crops applies to all herba- ceous plants which are used as food for domestic animals. Such grasses, however, as are chiefly grown for hay, are so familiar to all farmers, that in a book of the character of this they may well give place to other matters about which information is now more generally sought, and I shall confine my attention mainly to such plants as are grown for green fodder, — whether for a com- plete system of " soiling," or for an occasional feed where pastures are not reliable. The great crops for these purposes in this country, are : Indian Corn ; Sorghum, or Chinese Sugar-Cane j Clover ; Oats ; Rye j and Millet. *' Sowed Corn " is familiar to all good farmers, and all who have grown it under favorable circumstances, will concede that it produces much more food on a given area than any other grass that we have, unless it be its congener^ Chinese sugar-cane, or sorghum. It has the drawback of not being very early, and of not withstanding the early autumn frosts ; it must be planted late enough to avoid the late frosts of spring, and it must be harvested before the weather becomes severe in the fall. But, during the intense heats of summer, it grows (on rich and well-drained land) as nothing else will, affording, during August and September, a most luxuriant supply of the very best food for all animals not kept for work. Even swine will thrive on it as thev will on hardly any thing else, and for milch cows it is unequaled by any thing with which we are acquainted. 340 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. It is supposed by some who have little experience in the matter that green corn fodder lessens the flow of milk and reduces the quantity of butter. To this opinion I am able to oppose my own experience of the past summer (1869) in the management of a herd of Jersey cows. The quantity of milk was not definitely ascertained, but it was easy to see that the corn increased the flow much more than any other feed. During the months of June and July, the weekly average of butter was 44yoV l^s., — the animals being copiously supplied with the best of clover, and with green oats. During August and September, when we fed, practically, nothing except green corn fodder, the average per week was S7 i%\ ^^s. of butter, of even a finer quality and a better flavor. But few farmers, even of those who are in the yearly habit of planting a little sowed corn, know what the crop is capable of. They usually prepare a small corner of a field on which they sow the seed broadcast, and harrow it in. For want of air and light, and from the compactness of the surface, the growth has a pale and sickly look, and the produce is very much less than it should be. The land intended for this use should be the richest and best prepare.d on the whole farm, and the seed should be put in in drills at least three feet apart, so that they may be thoroughly worked out with the cultivator, or horse-hoe, at least three tinies during the early growth, and so that there may be an abundant circulation of air, as well as a free access of light. It is a common mistake, when the corn is planted in drills, to put in so little seed that the stalks grow so large and strong that they will be rejected by the cattle, only the leaves being consumed. There should be at least forty grains to the foot of row. This will take from four bushels to six bushels of seed to the acre, but the result will fully justify the outlay, as the corn standing so close in the' row will grow fine and thick, and when it is fed out the whole stalk will be consumed. The variety planted is important. The hard, Northern varie- ties of corn, wh'ich do not produce a luxuriant growth of stalk and FORAGE CROPS. 34j^ leaf, are not nearly so good as the gourd-seed varieties, and of these the large, white. Southern corn is much better than the yellow corn of the West. There is no doubt that sweet corn is better for forage than any other variety, as even the stalk contains much more sugar ; but the seed is costly, and is sometimes not to be obtained at any price, while " white Southern " is always to be had in abundant supply, and it is — in the absence of sweet corn — good enough to satisfy any reasonable man. My crop of this variety, during the past season, — planted as above described, — grew to a height of six feet, and occupied the whole area, — the leaves interlacing between the rows, — as com- pletelv as a heavy crop of any grass would do. I had no means of measuring the precise quantity grown, but I am confident that it would have made eight tons per acre, dry weighty while so far as I could judge from its effect when fed green, as compared with green grass, it would have been fully equal to eight tons of the best hay. When at its full growth, a half rod of it was ample for the daily support of a cow in full milk, while young stock and swine flourished on it as well as they possibly could have done on any other feed. The most profitable time to cut corn fodder, whether for green feeding or for curing, is when one half of the plants are in full tassel. At this stage the nutritive constituents are the most evenly distributed throughout all parts of the plants. The best means of curing fodder corn is a question that has long occupied the attention of thoughtful farmers, but as yet no satis- factory result has been attained. It seems almost impossible to thoroughly dry a heavy crop on the ground on which it is grown. I have tried many experiments, and the best one I have thus far been able to hit upon has been to spread it as evenly as possible during the hottest days of September, occasionally turning it by hand. Even after two weeks of such exposure it contains too* much water for safe storing, while the effect of dews and rains must be very injurious. Unless some means of drying it rapidly and cheaply by artificial heat can be devised, I see no hope of being 342 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. able to store it properly for winter use. It may now be made dry enough to be put up in small stacks, (butts outward,) but this is far less satisfactory than it would be to store it securely in a tight barn or a well-thatched, large stack. The main crop should be planted at the usual time of planting corn for grain, but, so far as it is desired to secure a succession of fodder during the pasturing season, it may be advisable to plant at intervals until the middle of July. When no suitable implement is available, the planting may be rapidly done by hand, but I have found a grain drill, with all but the middle one and outer two teeth removed, (the hopper being arranged to deliver only to these teeth,) a perfect tool for the pur- pose, planting three rows at a time as fast as a team can walk, and planting them very evenly. After planting, it is well to pass over the ground with a heavy roller, and as soon as the rows can be distinguished the cultivator should be set at work, — keeping the ground always loose and light, until the corn is so thick that a horse cannot pass through it without material injury. Sorghum (or Chinese sugar-cane) is very similar to Indian corn, and, as it contains more saccharine matter, it may be, in those parts of the country in which it thrives, even better as a green fodder ; but, as I have had no experience with its growth for this purpose, I cannot speak positively about it. From the greater amount of sugar it contains, it would probably be more likely to sour in curing. Clover. — After Indian corn, there is no forage crop to com- pare with red clover, and if we take into account its effect on the land, it should be placed at the very head of the list, for, while Indian corn requires rich land and ample manuring, clover is the most fertilizing crop that is grown, and may justly be called the poor man's manure. We constantly meet in agricultural writings the statement that clover benefits the land because it derives most of its constituents from the atmosphere. This is an absurd reason, because every FORAGE CROPS. 343 plant that is grown has precisely the same peculiarity, and there is, practically, no difference among all of our crops as to the pro- portions in which they take their constituents from the soil and from the atmosphere. The whole reason for the fertilizing effect of clover has never been satisfactorily set forth, and science seems to be thus far at fault in its investigations on this subject. Some things, however, are definitely known which help to account for the manurial value of this crop. Clover is a very strongly tap-rooted plant, striking its feeders deep into the earth and finding nutriment where the more delicate roots of cereal plants would be unable to go. The proportion which the roots bear to the top is very large, and on the removal of the crop these are all left to decompose and add their elements to the soil. Not only does the soil in this way receive a large amount of fer- tilizing matter taken from the atmosphere or developed in the sub- soil, but the very mechanical structure of the root causes a fertile- channel to be left, reaching into the lower soil, and easily traversed by the roots of succeeding plants, while the carbonaceous matter that remains after the decomposition of the clover root increases the porosity of the soil and adds very much to its ability to retain moisture. Lands that have been exhausted by long-continued cropping, without manure, if they can be made to produce even a small crop of clover, may be, by its persistent growth, rapidly and cheaply restored to the highest fertility. Not only will the growth of clover restore the carbonaceous matter that repeated cultivation has burned out of the ground, but its vigorous and deeply penetrat- ing roots extract valuable constituents from the stubborn sub- soil, and these, disseminated through the entire root, remain, on its death and decay, easily available for the uses of succeeding crops. Thus much concerning the effect of this crop is easily compre- hended, but there are other facts with regard to it that are not so readily explained. For instance, it is amply proven that when the second crop is fed off on the land, the manure that it makes being deposited upon it, the effect on the succeeding crop is less favorable than when this second growth is allowed to ripen into 3M HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. seed, and the whole is harvested and removed from the land. This branch of the question is thoroughly discussed in a paper by Dr. Voelcker, vi^hich is published herewith ; but it seems probable after all, — so great is the manurial influence of clover, — that it must actually absorb and appropriate into its own substance the nitrogen of the atmosphere, though there is no proof, and as yet no means of proving that this process actually takes place. The paper of Dr. Voelcker referred to above, is copied entire fj^om the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England." (This paper is so thoroughly scientific and valuable, and is so logically arranged from beginning to end, that it would be unfair to its author to attempt any condensation of it. Every farmer who cares to consider the reasons for what he does, who realizes the importance of understanding nature's modes of operations, will find its careful perusal to be of the greatest value. Those who, from lack of information or lack of time, desire only to know the conclusions to which it leads, will find them conclusively stated in the summary with which it closes.) "on the causes of the benefits of clover as a prepara- tory CROP FOR WHEAT. BY DR. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER. " Agricultural chemists inform us that, in order to maintain the productive powers of the land unimpaired, we must restore to it the phosphoric acid, potash, nitrogen, and other substances which enter into the composition of our farm crops ; the constant re- moval of organic and inorganic soil-constituents by the crops usu- ally sold off the farm, leading, as is well known, to the more or less rapid deterioration and gradual exhaustion of the land. Even the best wheat soils of this and other countries become more and more impoverished, and sustain a loss of wheat-yielding powej, when corn crops are grown in too rapid succession without manure. Hence the universal practice of manuring, and that, also, of consuming oil-cake, corn, and similar purchased food on land naturally poor, or partially exhausted by previous cropping. " While, however, it holds good, as a general rule, that no soil can be cropped for any length of time without gradually becoming more and more infertile, if no manure be applied to it, or if the fertilizing elements removed by the crops grown thereon be not, FORAGE CROPS. 345 by some means or other, restored, it is nevertheless a fact that after a heavy crop of clover carried off as hay, the land, far from being less fertile than before, is peculiarly well adapted, even without the addition of manure, to bear a good crop of wheat in the fol- lowing year, provided the season be favorable to its growth. This fact, indeed, is so well known that many farmers justly regard the growth of clover as one of the best preparatory operations which the land can undergo in orde^r to its producing an abundant crop of wheat in the following year. It has further been noticed that clover mown twice leaves the land in a better condition as regards its wheat-producing capabilities, than when mown once for hay, and the second crop fed off on the land by sheep ; for notwith- standing that in the latter instance the fertilizing elements in the clover crop are in part restored in the sheep excrements, yet, con- trary to expectation, this partial restoration of the elements of fertility to the land has not the effect of producing more or better wheat in the following year than is reaped on land from off which the whole clover crop has been carried, and to which no manure whatever has been applied. " Again, in the opinion of several good practical agriculturists with whom I have conversed on the subject, land, whereon clover has been grown for seed in the preceding year, yields a better crop of wheat than it does when the clover is mown twice for hay, or even only once, and afterward fed off by sheep. Most crops left for seed, I need hardly observe, exhaust the land far more than they do when they are cut down at an earlier stage of their growth ; hence the binding clauses in most farm leases which compel the tenant not to grow corn crops more frequently nor to a greater extent than stipulated. However, in the case of clover grown for seed, we have, according to the testimony of trust- worthy witnesses, an exception to a law generally applicable to most other crops. " Whatever may be the true explanation of the apparent anoma- lies connected with the growtii and chemical history of the clover plant, the facts just mentioned having been noticed, not once or twice only, or by a solitary observer, but repeatedly, and by num- bers of intelligent farmers, are certainly entitled to credit ; and little wisdom, as it strikes me, is displayed by calling them into question, because they happen to contradict the prevailing theory, according to which a soil is said to become more or less impover- ished in proportion to the large or small amount of organic and mineral soil-constituents carried off in the produce. *' Agricultural experiences contradicting prevailing and, it may 346 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. be, generally current theories, are, unless I am much mistaken, of far more common occurrence than may be known to those who are either naturally unobservant or unacquainted with many of the details of farming operations. Indeed, an interesting and instruc- tive treatise might be written on the apparent anomalies in agri- culture, and a collection of trustworthy facts of the kind alluded to would afford valuable hints to intelligent farmers, and suggest matter for inquiry to chemists and others engaged in scientific pursuits. " To me it seems inconsistent with the exercise of common sense, and opposed alike to the whole tenor of a well-regulated mind and the progress of scientific agriculture, to discuss agricul- tural matters in the dogmatic spirit too often so painfully observa- ble when people meet together for the discussion of subjects relating to farm practice ; but still more painful is the spirit which pervades the writings of certain scientific men who are bold enough, from isolated or even a number of analogous facts, to frame general and invariable laws, in accordance with which they propose to regulate the profession of agriculture. That there are certain fixed laws which determine the growth of the meanest herb and the mightiest forest tree, no one can gainsay, but it may well be doubted whether our corn or forage crops would remain as flourishing as they at present are, if, in preference to some pretty theory, the farmers of England suddenly threw aside their past experience, and endeavored to grow corn in accordance with a mathematical formula which men may fancy they have discovered, and by which they may suppose the development of our corn- crops to be governed. Even great men, by taking too general, or, as it is often erringly termed, a comprehensive view of agricultural matters, sometimes totally misrepresent the very law they are endeavoring to establish. " The patient investigation of many of these details, with which those only are perfectly familiar whose daily occupation is in the field or in the feeding-stall, is, however, often rewarded by suc- cess. Mysteries which puzzle the minds of intelligent farmers are cleared up, the influences which modify a general rule or prac- tice in farming operations are clearly recognized, and by degrees principles are established, which, assigning the benefits or disad- vantages of a certain course of proceeding to their real cause, must ever tend to confirm the experienced in good practice, and afford valuable hints in guiding those inexperienced in farm management. " In the course of a long residence in a purely agricultural dis- FORAGE CROPS. 347 trict, I have often been struck with the remarkably healthy appear- ance and good yield of wheat on land from which a heavy crop of clover hay was obtained in the preceding year. I have likewise had frequent opportunities of observing that, as a rule, wheat grown on part of a field whereon clover has been twice mown for hay is better than the produce of that on the part of the same field on which the clover has been mown only once for hay, and after- ward fed off by sheep. These observations, extending over a number of years, led me to inquire into the reasons why clover is specially well fitted to prepare land for wheat, and in the paper which I have now the pleasure of laying before the readers of the "Journal^ I shall endeavor, as the result of my experiments on the subject, to give an intelligible explanation of the fact that clover is so excellent a preparatory crop for wheat as it is practically known to be. " By those taking a superficial view of the subject, it may be suggested that any injury likely to be caused by the removal of a certain amount of fertilizing matter is altogether insignificant, and more than compensated for by the benefit which results from the abundant growth of clover roots and the physical improvement in the soil which takes place in their decomposition. Looking, how- ever, more closely into the matter, it will be found that, in a good crop of clover-hay, a very considerable amount of both mineral and organic substances is carried off the land, and that if the total amount of such constituents in a crop had to be regarded exclu- sively as the measure for determining the relative degrees in which different farm-crops exhaust the land, clover would have to be described as about the most exhausting crop in the entire rotation. " Clover-hay, on an average, and in round numbers, contains in 100 parts : — Water X70 ♦Nitrogenous substances (flesh-forming matters) 1 5' 6 Non-nitrogenous compounds 59'9 Mineral matter (ash) 75 lOO'O * Containing nitrogen 1'5 "The mineral portion or ash in 100 parts of clover-hay con- sists of- Phosphoric acid 75 Sulphuric acid 4'3 Carbonic acid 180 Silica 30 348 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Lime 300 Magnesia 85 Potasli 200 Soda, chloride of sodium, oxide of iron, sand, loss, etc 87 *■'■ Let us suppose the land to have yielded 4 tons of clover-hay per acre. According to the preceding data we find that such a crop includes 224 lbs. of nitrogen, equal to 272 lbs. of ammonia, and 672 lbs. of mineral matter or ash constituents. '' In 672 lbs. of clover-ash we find — Phosphoric acid 51^ lbs. Sulphuric acid 29 " Carbonic acid 1 i i " Silica 20 " Lime -. 201 « Magnesia 57 " Potash , 134* " Soda, cliloride of sodium, oxide of iron, sand, etc 58 " 672 lbs. " Four tons of clover-hay, the produce of one acre, thus con- tain a large amount of nitrogen, and remove from the soil an enor- mous quantity of mineral matters, abounding in lime and potash, and containing, also, a good deal of phosphoric acid. " Leaving, for a moment, the question untouched, whether the nitrogen contained in the clover is derived from the soil or from the atmosphere, or partly from the one and partly from the other, no question can arise as to the original source from which the mineral matter in the clover-produce is derived. In relation, therefore, to the ash-constituents, clover must be regarded as one of the most exhausting crops usually cultivated in this country. This appears strikingly to be the case when we compare the pre- ceding figures with the quantity of mineral matters which an average crop of wheat removes from an acre of land. '' The grain and straw of wheat contain, in round numbers, in 100 parts : — Water ♦Nitrogenous substances (flesh-forming matters). Non-nitrogenous substances Mineral matter (ash) • Containing nitrogen. Grain of Wheat. Straw. 15-0 .. . 160 Ill 7^■^ ... 17 40 • 749 • 51 loo-o . I OO'O 178 •64 FORAGE CROPS. 349 " The ash of wheat contains in lOO parts : — Grain. Straw. Phosphoric acid 50-0 .... 50 Sulphuric acid o'5 .... 2'7 Carbonic acid Silica 25 67-0 Lime.. 35 •••• SS Magnesia 115 .... 20 Potash 300 130 Soda, chloride of sodiunn, oxide of iron, sand, etc ... . ao .... 4'8 lOO'O .... loo-o "The mean produce of wheat per acre may be estimated at 25 bushels, which, at 60 lbs. per bushel, gives 1,560 lbs. ; and as the weight of the straw is generally twice that of the grain, its produce will be 3,000 lbs. According, therefore, to the preced- ing data, there will be carried away from the soil : — • In 1,500 lbs. of the grain . . 25 lbs. of mineral food (in round numbers). In 3,000 lbs. of the straw. .150 '< " »' Total 175 lbs. " On the average of the analyses, It will be found that the com- position of these 175 lbs. is as follows : — In the Grain. In the Straw. Total. Phosphoric acid 12-5 lbs 7-5 lbs 20.0 lbs. Sulphuric acid 01 " .... 4-0 " .... 4-1 *♦ Carbonic acid Silica 06 " .... 100-5 " .... loil " Lime 09 " .... 82 " .... 91" Magnesia 29 '* .... 30" .... 59" Potash 75" .... 19s " .... 270 " Soda, chloride of sodium, oxide of ) iron, sand, etc J 05 " .... 73" .... 7"8 " 2S lbs. 150 lbs. 175 lbs "The total quantity of ash-constituents carried off the land in an average crop of wheat thus amounts to only 175 lbs. per acre, while a good crop of clover removes as much as 672 lbs. " Nearly two-thirds of the total amount of mineral in the grain and straw of one acre of wheat consists of silica, of which there is an ample supply in almost every soil. The restoration of silica, therefore, need not trouble us in any way, especially as there is not a single instance on record proving that silica, even in a solu- ble condition, has ever been applied to land with the slightest advantage to corn or grass crops, which are rich in silica, and 350 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. which, for this reason, may be assumed to be particularly grateful for a supply of it in a soluble state. Silica, indeed, if at all capa- ble of producing a beneficial effect, ought to be useful to these crops, either by strengthening the straw or stems of graminaceous plants, or otherwise benefiting them ; but after deducting the amount of silica from the total amount of mineral matters in the wheat produce from one acre, only a trifling quantity of other and more valuable fertilizing ash-constituent of plants will be left. On comparing the relative amounts of phosphoric acid and potash in an average crop of wheat and a good crop of clover-hay, it will be seen that i acre of clover-hay contains as much phosphoric acid as ij acres of wheat, and as much potash as the produce from 5 acres of the same crop. Clover thus unquestionably removes from the land very much more mineral matter than is done by wheat J clover carries off the land at least three times as much of the more valuable mineral constituents as that abstracted by the wheat. Wheat, notwithstanding, succeeds remarkably well after clover. " Four tons of clover-hay, or the produce of an acre, contain, as already stated, 224 lbs. of nitrogen, or, calculated as ammonia, 272 lbs. ' "Assuming the grain of wheat to furnish 1*78 per cent, of nitrogen, and wheat-straw "64 per cent., and assuming, also, that 1,500 lbs. of corn and 3,000 lbs. of straw represent the average produce per acre, there will be in the grain of wheat per acre 26*7 lbs. of nitrogen, and in the straw 19*2 lbs., or in both together 46 lbs. of nitrogen ; in round numbers, equal to about 55 lbs. of ammonia, which is only one-fifth the quantity of nitrogen in the produce of an acre of clover. Wheat, it is well known, is speci- ally benefited by the application of nitrogenous manure, and as clover carries off so large a quantity of nitrogen, it is natural to expect the yield of wheat, after clover, to fall short of what the land might be presumed to produce without manure, before a crop of clover was taken from it. Experience, however, has proved the fallacy of this presumption, for the result is exactly the oppo- site, inasmuch as a better and heavier crop of wheat is produced than without the intercalation of clover. What, it may be asked is the explanation of this apparent anomaly ? " In taking up this inquiry, I was led to pass in review the cele- brated and highly important experiments undertaken by Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the continued growth of wheat on the same soil for a long succession of years, and to examine, likewise, carefully, many points, to which attention is drawn, by the same FORAGE CROPS. 351 authors, in their memoirs on the growth of red clover by different manures, and on the Lois Weedon plan of growing wheat. Abundant and most convincing evidence is supplied by these inde- fatigable experimenters that the wheat-producing powers of a soil are not increased in any sensible degree by the liberal supply of all the mineral matters which enter into the composition of the ash of wheat, and that the abstraction of these mineral matters from the soil, in any much larger proportions than possibly can take place under ordinary cultivation, in nowise affects the yield of wheat, provided there be at the same time a liberal supply of available nitrogen within the soil itself. The amount of the latter therefore, is regarded by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert as the measure of the increased produce of grain which a soil furnishes. " In conformity with these views, the farmer, when he wishes to increase the yield of his wheat, finds it to his advantage to have recourse toammoniacal or other nitrogenous manures, and depends more or less entirely upon the soil for the supply of the necessary mineral or ash-constituents of wheat, having found such a supply to be amply sufficient for his requirements. As far, therefore, as the removal from the soil of a large amount of mineral soil-con- stituents by the clover crop is concerned, the fact, viewed in the light of the Rothamsted experiments, becomes at once intelligible ; for, notwithstanding the abstraction of over 600 lbs. of mineral matter by a crop of clover, the succeeding wheat-crop does not suffer. Inasmuch, however, as we have seen that not only much mineral matter is carried off the land in a crop of clover, but also much nitrogen, we might, in the absence of direct evidence to the contrary, be led to suspect that wheat after clover would not be a good crop ; whereas the result is exactly the reverse. " It is worthy of notice that nitrogenous manures which have such a marked and beneficial effect upon wheat do no good, but, in certain combinations, in some seasons, do positive harm to clover. Thus Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in a series of experi- ments on the growth of red clover by different manures, obtained 14 tons of fresh green produce, equal to about 3I tons of clover- hay from the unmanured portion of the experimental field ; and where sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, or sulphate of pot- ash and superphosphate of lime were employed, 17 to 18 tons (equal to from about 4^ to nearly 5 tons of hay) were obtained. When salts of ammonia were added to the mineral manures, the produce of clover-hay was, upon the whole, less than where the mineral manures were used alone. The wheat grown after the clover on the unmanured plot, gave, however, 29^- bushels of corn, 23 352 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. while in the adjoining field, where wheat was grown after wheat without manure, only 15!^ bushels of corn per acre were obtained. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert notice especially, that in the clover- crop of the preceding year very much larger quantities, both of mineral matters and nitrogen, were taken from the land than were removed in the unmanured wheat-crop in the same year, in the adjoining field. Notwithstanding this, the soil from which the clover had been taken was in a condition to yield 14 bushels more wheat per acre than that upon which wheat had been previously grown ; the yield of wheat after clover, in these experiments, being fully equal to that in another field, where very large quantities of manure were used. " Taking all these circumstances into account, is there not pre- sumptive evidence that, notwithstanding the removal of a large amount of nitrogen in the clover-hay, an abundant store of availa- ble nitrogen is left in the soil, and, also, that in its relations toward nitrogen in the soil, clover differs essentially from wheat ? The results of our experience in the growth of the two crops appear to indicate, that whereas the growth of the wheat rapidly exhausts the land of its available nitrogen, that of clover, on the contrary, tends, somehow or other, to accumulate nitrogen within the soil itself. If this can be shown to be the case, an intelligible explanation of the fact that clover is so useful as a preparatory crop for wheat will be found in the circumstance that, during the growth of clover, nitrogenous food, for which wheat is particularly grateful, is either stored up or rendered available in the soil. " An explanation, however plausible, can hardly be accepted as correct if based mainly on data which, although highly probable, are not proved to be based on fact. In chemical inquiries espe- cially, nothing must be taken for granted that has not been proved by direct experiment. The following questions naturally suggest themselves in reference to this subject : What is the amount of nitrogen in soils of different characters ? What is the amount, more particularly after a good and after an indifferent crop of clover ? Why is the amount of nitrogen in soils larger after clover than after wheat and other crops ? Is the nitrogen present in a condition in which it is available and useful to wheat ? and lastly. Are there any other circumstances, apart from the supply of nitrogenous matter in the soil, which help to account for the beneficial effects of clover as a preparatory crop for wheat ? " In order to throw some light on these questions, and, if possi- ble, to give distinct answers to at least some of them, I, years ago, when residing at Cirencester, began a series of experiments. FORAGE CROPS. 353 and more recently I have been fortunate enough to obtain the co- operation of Mr. Robert Vallentine, of Leighton Buzzard, who kindly undertook to supply me with materials for my analyses. " iVIy first experiments were made on a thin calcareous clay soil, resting on oolitic limestone, and producing generally a fair crop of red clover. The clover-field formed the slope of a rather steep hillock, and varied much in depth. At the top of the hill, the soil became very stony at a depth of 4 inches, so that it could only with difficulty be excavated to a depth of 6 inches, when the bare limestone rock made its appearance. At the bottom of the field the soil was much deeper, and the clover stronger than at the upper part. On the brow of the hill, where the clover appeared to be strong, a square yard was measured out ; and, at a little dis- tance off, where the clover was very bad, a second square yard was measured ; in both plots the soil being taken up to a depth of 6 inches. The soil where the clover was good may be distinguished from the other by being marked as No. i, and that where it was bad as No. 2. '' Clover-soil No. 1, {good clover.) *' The roots having first been shaken out to free them as much as possible from soil, were then washed once or twice with cold distilled water, and, after having been dried for a little while in the sun, were weighed, when the square yard produced i lb. io| oz. of cleaned clover-roots in an air-dried state ; an acre of land, or 4,840 square yards, accordingly yielded, in a depth of 6 inches, 3*44 tons, or 3I tons in round numbers, of clover-roots. " Fully dried in a water-bath, the roots were found to contain altogether 44'67 per cent, of water, and on being burnt in a plati- num capsule yielded 6-089 of ash. A portion of the dried, finely powdered, and well-mixed roots was burned with soda-lime in a combustion-tube, and the nitrogen contained in the roots otherwise determined in the usual way. Accordingly, the following is the general composition of the roots from soil No. i : — Water 44^75 ♦Organic matter 49236 Mineral matter 6-089 lOO'OOO * Containing nitrogen ii97 Equal to ammonia i '57! " Assuming the whole field to have produced 3I tons of clover- 354 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. roots per acre, there will be 99*636 lbs., or in round numbers lOO lbs., of nitrogen in the clover-roots from i acre ; or about twice as much nitrogen as is present in the average produce of an acre of wheat. " The soil which had been separated from the roots was passed through a sieve to deprive it of any stones it might contain. It was then partially dried, and the nitrogen in it determined in the usual manner by combustion with soda-lime, when it yielded '313 per cent, of nitrogen, equal to '38 of ammonia, in one combus- tion ; and '373 per cent, of nitrogen, equal to -46 of ammonia, in a second determination. " That the reader may have some idea of the character of this soil, it may be stated that it was further submitted to a general analysis, according to which it was found to have the following composition : — " Genera/ composition oy Soil N'o. I, {gooci clover.) Moisture 1873 ♦Organic matter 9'7^ Oxides of iron and alumina 1 3 24 Carbonate of lime 8iJz Magnesia, alkalies, etc r 72 Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay) 47 77 1 00 00 • Containing nitrogen -jij Equal *' The second square yard from the brow of the hill where the clover was bad, produced 13 ounces of air-dry and partially clean roots, or 1-75 tons per acre. On analysis they were found to have the following composition : — " Clover-roots No. 2, [bad clover.) Water 55732 ♦Organic matter 39"4o8 Mineral matter (ash) 4-860 lOO'OOO * Containing nitrogen 792 Equal to ammonia -901 " The roots on the spot where the clover was very bad yielded only 31 lbs. of nitrogen per acre, or scarcely one-third of the quantity which was obtained from the roots where the clover was good. FORAGE CROPS. 35 " The soil from the second square yard on analysis was found, when freed from stones by sifting, to contain in 100 parts : — " Composition of Soil No. 2, [had clover.) Water 1724 ♦Organic matter 9 64 Oxides of iron and alumina 11 89 Carbonate of lime l4'5o Magnesia, alkalies, etc 1-53 Insoluble silicious matter 45 '20 1 0000 zd determination. * Containing nitrogen •jo6 ... -jSo Equal to ammonia "jyo .... -470 *' Both portions of the clover soil thus contained about the same percentage of organic matter, and yielded nearly the same amount of nitrogen. " In addition, however, to the nitrogen in the clover-roots, a good deal of nitrogen, in the shape of root-fibers, decayed leaves, and similar organic matters, was disseminated throughout the fine soil in which it occurred, and from which it could not be sepa- rated ; but unfortunately I neglected to weigh the soil from a square yard, and am, therefore, unable to state how much nitrogen per acre was present in the shape of small root-fibers and other organic matters. Approximatelv, the quantity might be obtained by calculation ; but, as the actual weight of cultivated soils varies greatly, I abstain from making such a calculation, even though it might be done with propriety, as I took care in the following sea- son to weigh the soil of different parts of the same field. "■ Before mentioning the details of the experiments made in the next season, I will here give the composition of the ash of the partially cleaned clover-roots : — " Composition of Jsh of Clover-roots^ [partially cleaned.) Oxide of iron and alumina U 73 Lime 18 '49 Magnesia 3 03 Potash 6-88 Soda 1-93 Phosphoric acid 3-61 Sulphuric acid 224 Soluble silica 19*01 Insoluble siliceoun matter i4'83 Carbonic acid, chlorine, and loss 8 •15 lOO'OO 356 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *' This ash was obtained from clover-roots, which yielded, when perfectly dry, in round numbers, 8 per cent, of ash. Clover-roots washed quite clean, and separated from all soil, yield about 5 per cent, of ash ; but it is extremely difficult to clean a large quantity of fibrous roots from all dirt, and the preceding analysis distinctly shows that the ash of the clover-roots analyzed by me was mechanically mixed with a good deal of fine soil, for oxide of iron and alumina and insoluble silicious matter in any quantity are not normal constituents of plant-ashes. Making allowance for soil- contamination, the ash of clover-roots, it will be noticed, contains much lime and potash, as well as an appreciable amount of phos- phoric and sulphuric acid. On the decay of the clover-roots, these and other mineral fertilizing matters are left in the surface-soil in a readily available condition, and in considerable proportions when the clover stands well. Although a crop of clover removes much mineral matter from the soil, it must be borne in mind that its roots extract from the land soluble mineral fertilizing matters, which, on the decay of the roots, remain in the land in a prepared and more readily available form than that in which they originally occur. The benefits arising to wheat from the growth of clover may thus be due partly to this preparation and concentration of mineral food in the surface-soil. " The clover on the hill-side field on the whole turned out a very good crop ; and as the plant stood the winter well, and this field was left another season in clover without being plowed up, I availed myself of the opportunity of making, during the following season, a number of experiments similar to those of the preceding year. This time, however, I selected for examination a square yard of soil from a spot on the brow of the hill where the clover was thin and the soil itself stony at a depth of 4 inches ; and another plot of one square yard at the bottom of the hill, from a place where the clover was stronger than that on the brow of the hill, and the soil at a depth of 6 inches contained no large stones. " Soil No. I ( Clover thin) on the brow of the hill. *' The roots in a square yard, 6 inches deep, when picked out by hand and cleaned as much as possible, weighed, in their natural state, 2 lbs. 1 1 oz. ; and when dried on the top of a water-bath, for the purpose of getting them brittle and fit for reduction into fine powder, i lb. 12 oz. 31 grains. In this state they were submitted, as before, to analysis, when they yielded in 100 parts : — FORAGE CROPS. 357 " Composition of Clover-roots^ No. l, {from brow of the hill.) Moisture 4' 34 ♦Organic matter 2653 Mineral matter 6913 loo'oo * Containing nitrogen "816 Equal to ammonia '99' " According to these data an acre of land will yield 8 tons 12 cwts. of nearly dry clover-roots, and in this quantity there will be about 66 lbs. of nitrogen. " The whole of the soil from which the roots had been picked out was passed through a half-inch sieve. The stones left in the sieve weighed 141 lbs. ; the soil which passed through weighing 218 lbs. " The soil was next dried by artificial heat, when the 218 lbs. became reduced to 185*487 lbs. " In this partially dried state it contained — - , Moisture 4'^i ♦Organic matter 9-78 ■I^Mineral matter 1 . . 1 . 1. . • . . . 1 1 86-oi lOO-OO * Containing nitrogen 'jgi Equal to ammonia '47 J t Including phosphoric acid '264 " I also determined the phosphoric acid in the ash of the clover- roots. Calculated for the roots in a nearly dry state, the phos- phoric acid amounts to '287 per cent. " An acre of soil, according to the data furnished by the six inches on the spot where the clover was thin, produced the fol- lowing quantity of nitrogen : — Tons. cwt. lbs. In the fine soil I ii 33 In the clover-roots o o 66 Total quantity of nitrogen per acre I 11 99 *' The organic matter in an acre of this soil, which cannot be picked out by hand, it will be seen, contains an enormous quantity of nitrogen ; and although probably the greater part of the roots and other remains from the clover crop may not be decomposed so thoroughly as to yield nitrogenous food to the succeeding 358 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. wheat-crop, it can scarcely be doubted that a considerable quantity of nitrogen will become available by the time the wheat is sown, and that one of the chief reasons why clover benefits the succeed- ing wheat-crop is to be found in the abundant supply of available nitrogenous food furnished by the decaying clover-roots and leaves. " Clover-soil No. 2 from the bottom of the hill., {good clover.) " A square yard of the soil from the bottom of the hill, where the clover was stronger than on the brow of the hill, produced 2 lbs. 8 oz. of fresh clover-roots, or i lb. 11 oz. 47 grains of par- tially dried roots, 61 lbs. 9 oz. of limestones, and 239*96 lbs. of nearlv dry soil. " The partially dried roots contained : — Moisture 5 "06 ♦Organic matter 31 "9+ Mineral matter ..it. 6300 lOO'OO * Containing nitrogen '804 ** An acre of this soil, 6 inches deep, produced 3 tons 7 cwts. 65 lbs. of clover-roots, containing 61 lbs. of nitrogen — that is, there was very nearly the same quantity of roots and nitrogen in them as that furnished in the soil from the brow of the hill. "The roots, moreover, yielded -365 per cent, of phosphoric acid, or, calculated per acre, 27 lbs. " In the partially dried soil I found — (Moisture 4*70 ♦Organic matter 10-87 j-Mineral matter 84-43 loo-oo * Containing nitrogen -405 Equal to ammonia -491 t Including phospiioric acid -J21 "According to these determinations an acre of the soil from the bottom of the hill contains — Tons. cwts. lbs. Nitrogen in the organic matter of the soil ... 2 2 o " clover-roots " . . . o o 6l Total amount of nitrogen per acre. . . 2 2 61 FORAGE CROPS. 359 " Compared with the amount of nitrogen in the soil from the brow of the hill, about ii cwt. more nitrogen was obtained in the soil and roots from the bottom of the hill where the clover was more luxuriant. " The increased amount of nitrogen occurred in fine root-fibers and other organic matters of the soil, and not in the coarser bits of roots which were picked out by the hand. It may be assumed that the finer particles of organic matter are more readily decom- posed than the coarser roots ; and as there was a larger amount of nitrogen in this than in the preceding soil, it may be expected that the land at the bottom of the hill, after the removal of the clover, was in a better agricultural condition for wheat than that on the brow of the hill. *' Experiments on Clover-soils from Burcott Lodge Farm^ Leighton- Buz-zard. "The soils for the next experiments were kindly supplied to me in 1866, by Mr. Robert Vallcntine, of Burcott Lodge, who also sent me some notes respecting the growth and yield of clover, hay, and seed on this soil. " Foreign seed, at the rate of 12 lbs. per acre, was sown with a crop of wheat which yielded 5 quarters per acre the previous year. " The first crop of clover was cut down on the 25th of June,^ 1866, and carried on June 30th. The weather was very warm from the time of cutting till the clover was carted, the ther- mometer standing at 80° Fahr. every day. The clover was turned in the swathe on the second day after it was cut ; on the fourth day it was turned over and put into small heaps of about 10 lbs. each ; and on the fifth day these were collected into larger cocks and then stacked. "The best part of an ii-acre field produced nearly 3 tons of clover-hay, sun-dried, per acre ; the whole field yielding on an average 2J tons per acre. This result was obtained by weighing the stack three months after the clover was carted. 'Fhe second crop was on 21st of August and carried on the 27th, the weight being nearlv 30 cwts. of hav per acre. Thus the two cuttings produced just about 4 tons of clover-hay per acre. " The 1 1 acres were divided into two parts. About one-half was mown for hay a second time, and the other part left for seed. The produce of the second half of the ii-acre field was cut on the 8th of October, and carried on the lOth. It yielded in round 360 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. numbers 3 cwts. of clover-seed per acre, the season being very unfavorable for clover-seed. The second crop of clover mown for hay was rather too ripe and just beginning to show seed. *' A square foot of soil, 18 inches deep, was dug from the second portion of the land which produced the clover-hay and clover-seed. " Soil from \\ -a ere field twice mown for hay. " The upper 6 inches of soil, i foot square, contained all the main roots of 18 strong plants ; the next 6 inches only small root- fibers ; and in the third section, a 6-inch slice cut down at a depth of 12 inches from the surface, no distinct fibers could be found. The soil was almost completely saturated with rain when it was dug up on the 13th September, 1866 : — lbs. The upper 6 inches of soil I foot square weighed 60 The second 6 " " " 61 The third 6 " " " 63 " These three portions of one foot of soil, i8 inches deep, were dried nearly completely, and weighed again ; when the first 6 inches weighed 51^ lbs. ; the second 6 inches, 51 lbs. 5 oz. ; and the third section, 54 lbs. 2 ozs. " The first 6 inches contained 3 lbs. of silicious stones (flints) which were rejected in preparing a sample for analysis ; in the two remaining sections there were no large-sized stones. The soils were pounded down and passed through a wire sieve. "The three layers of soil, dried and reduced to powder, were mixed together, and a prepared average sample, when submitted to analysis, yielded the following results : — Composition of Clover-soil.^ 18 inches deep., from part of I l-acre field., twice mown for hay. C Organic matter 5*86 -i I Oxides of iron 6-83 ii ! Alumina 7- Carbonate of lime 2-13 c J Magnesia 2-oi J ] Fotash -67 ^ Soda -08 -o Chloride or sodium -02 ^ 1 Phosphoric acid •!% [Sulphuric acid -17 FORAGE CROPS. 361 f Insoluble siliceous matter. . . .74*61 {Consisting of — Alumina 4-27 Lime (in a state of silicate) 4-07 Magnesia '46 I Potash -19 I Soda 23 (^ Silica 65-29 9968 ''This soil, it will be seen, contained, in appreciable quantities, not only potash and phosphoric acid, but all the elements of fer- tility which enter into the composition of good arable land. It may be briefly described as a stiff' clay-soil, containing a sufficiency of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid to meet all the requirements of the clover crop. Originally rather unproductive, it has been much improved by deep culture ; by being smashed up into rough clods early in autumn, and by being exposed in this state to the crumbling effects of the air, it now yields good corn and forage crops. " In separate portions of the three layers of soil, the proportions of nitrogen and phosphoric acid contained in each layer of 6 inches were determined and found to be as follows : — Soil dried at 212° Fahr. 1st 6 inches. 2d 6 inches. jd 6 inches. Percentage of phosphoric acid '^49 .... *I34 .... '172 Nitrogen -162 .... '092 .... 064 Equal to ammonia " In the upper 6 inches, as will be seen, the percentage of both phosphoric acid and nitrogen was larger than in the two following layers ; while the proportion of nitrogen in the 6 inches of surface soil was much larger than in the next 6 inches ; and in the third section, containing no visible particles of root-fibers, only very little nitrogen occurred. " In their natural state the three layers of soil contained : — Moisture Phosphoric acid . . . Nitrogen Equal to ammonia. 1st 6 inches. 2d 6 inches. }d6inche I7i6 .. •198 .. •134 .. •162 .. .. 18-2+ .. •109 .. ■075 .. •091 .. . 1662 ■143 •053 •064 lbs. lbs. lbs. 6o . . 6i ... 63 Weight cf I foot square of soil. . " Calculated per acre, the absolute weight of i acre of this land, 6 inches deep, weighs : — 362 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. lbs. First 6 inches 2,613,600 Second " 2,657,1 60 Third " 2,746,280 " No great error, therefore, will be made if we assume in the subsequent calculations that 6 inches of this soil weigh 2^ millions of pounds per acre. " An acre of land, according to the preceding determinations, contains : — 1st 6 inches. 2d 6 inches. }d 6 inches, lbs. lbs. lbs. Phosphoric acid 4)95° .... 2,725 .... 3)575 Nitrogen 3>350 •••• '1875 .... i»325 Equal to ammonia 4)05o .... 2,275 • • • • 1,600 " The proportion of phosphoric acid in 6 inches of surface soil, it will be seen, amounted to about two-tenths per cent. ; a proportion of the whole soil so small that it may appear insuffi- cient for the production of a good corn-crop. However, when calculated to the acre, we find that 6 inches of surface soil, in an acre of land, actually contain over 2 tons of phosphoric acid. An average crop of wheat, assumed to be 25 bushels of grain, at 60 lbs. per bushel, and 3,000 lbs. of straw, removes from the land on which it is giown 20 lbs. of phosphoric acid. The clover-soil, analyzed by me, consequently contains an amount of phosphoric acid in a depth or only 6 inches, which is equal to that present in 2474- average crops of wheat ; or supposing that, by good cultiva tion and in favorable seasons, the average yield of wheat could be doubled, and 50 bushels of grain at 60 lbs. a bushel and 6,000 lbs. of straw could be raised, 124 of such heavy wheat-crops would contain no more phosphoric acid than actually occurred in 6 inches of this^clover-soil per acre. '■'• The mere presence of such an amount of phosphoric acid in a soil, however, by no means proves its sufficiency for the produc- tion of so many crops of wheat ; for, in the first place, it cannot be shown that the whole of the phosphoric acid found by analysis occuis in the soil in a readily available combination; and, in the second place, it is quite certain that the root-fibers of the wheat- plant cannot reach and pick up, so to speak, every particle of phosphoric acid, even supposing it to occur in the soil in a form most conducive to "ready assimilation by the plant." " The calculation is not given in proof of a conclusion which would be manifestly absurd, but simply as an illustration of the FORAGE CROPS. 363 enormous quantity, in an acre of soil 6 inches deep, of a constitu- ent forming the smaller proportions of the whole weight of an acre of soil of that limited depth. It shows the existence of a practically unlimited amount of the most important mineral con- stituents of plants, and clearly points out the propriety of render- ing available to plants the natural resources of the soil in plant- food ; to draw, in fact, up the mineral wealth of the soil by thoroughly working the land, and not leaving it unutilized as so much dead capital. " The exact determination of phosphoric acid in a soil, it may be observed in passing, is attended with no difficulty, if certain precautions, which it is feared are sometimes neglected by chemists, be taken. I will, therefore, give a brief outline of the plan — com- monly known to chemists as the molybdic acid plan of determin- ing phosphoric acid — which yields accurate results. " Not less than lOO grains, or better, 200 grains, of the dried and finely-powdered soil are digested for an hour, or thereabouts, with 3 or 4 ounces of moderately strong nitric acid. The acid solution is then passed through a filter, and together with the wash- ings from the insoluble portion of the soil left on the filter, is evaporated to a small bulk ; thus getting rid of the greater part of the acid employed for effecting the solution. During evaporation a large excess of molybdate of ammonia is added to the solution, care being taken to keep it strongly acid. " If there be much phosphoric acid in the soil, a bright yellow precipitate, consisting of molybdic and phosphoric acid, makes its appearance at once ; if traces only be present, the yellow precipi- tate appears only on the concentration of the liquid, after the great excess of nitric acid has been been expelled by evaporation. The yellow precipitate containing the whole of the phosphoric acid present in the soil, molybdic acid, together with a little silica, and frequently some oxide of iron, is thrown on a filter and washed with a solution of molybdate of ammonia rendered strongly acid by nitric acid, until a drop of the washings passing through the filter ceases to show a reaction of iron with yellow prussiate of potash solution. It is then dissolved on the filter in an excess of ammo- nia, and the ammoniacal liquid precipitated with an ammoniacal solution of sulphate of magnesia, which throws down the phos- phoric acid as phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. After stand- ing at rest for about 12 hours, the magnesia precipitate is collected on a small filter and washed clean with strong ammonia water. Together with the phosphoric acid, traces of silica, and generally also traces of oxide of iron, are thrown down with the magnesia pre- 364 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. cipitate. In order to separate these impurities the precipitate is dis- solved in a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and the acid solution carefully evaporated to complete dryness. The hard, dried resi- due is again made acid with muriatic acid, a little water is then added, and the liquid passed through a small filter, on which are left insoluble traces of the silica originally thrown down with magnesia. A few drops of citric acid having been added to the acid solution, with a view of keeping any traces of iron in solu- tion, strong ammonia is finally added, which throws down a second time phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, now free from silica and oxide of iron. The precipitate is collected, washed with ammonia water, dried, burned in a platinum crucible or capsule, weighed, and the phosphoric acid calculated from the weight of the tri-basic phosphate of magnesia left on burning. *' Following this plan and the precautions here indicated, the smallest amount of phosphoric acid in a soil can be determined with great precisions If the magnesia precipitate be not redis- solved and freed from silica, as pointed out, a higher percentage of phosphoric acid necessarily is obtained than the actual quantity which the soil contains. *' Clover-roots. — The roots from i square foot of soil were cleaned as much as possible, dried completely at 2I2°, and in that state weighed 240 grains. An acre consequently contained 1,493^ ^^^- °^ ^^'^^^ clover-roots. The clover-roots contained : — Dried at 412° Fahr. ♦Organic matter 8" '3 3 f Mineral matter (ash) 1 8 67 loo-oo * Yielding nitrogen >"6jJ Equal to ammonia 1'98S f Including insoluble silicious matter (clay and sand) Wby " Accordingly, the clover-roots in an acre of land furnished 24^ lbs. of nitrogen. We have thus : — lbs, of Nitrogen. In the 6 inches of surface soil 3>350 In large clover-roots 24^ In second 6 inches of soil ',875 Total amount of nitrogen in i acre of soil 12 inches deep. 5,249] Equal to ammonia 6,}74i FORAGE CROPS. 0(55 or, in round numbers, 2 tons 6 cwts. of nitrogen per acre, an enormous quantity, which must have a powerful influence in encouraging the luxuriant development of the succeeding wheat- crop, although only a fraction of the total amount of nitrogen in the clover-remains may become sufficiently decomposed in time to be available to the young wheat-plants. " Clover-soil from part of I l-acre field of Burcott Lodge Farm^ Leighton-Buzz.ard^ once mown for hay^ and left afterward for seed. " Produce 2^ tons of clover-hay and 3 cwts. of seed per acre. •■' This soil was obtained within a distance of 5 yards from the part of the field where the soil was dug up after the two cuttings of hay. After the seed there was some difficulty in finding a square foot containing the same number of large clover-roots as that on the part of the field twice mown ; however, at last, in the beginning of November, a square foot containing exactly 18 strong roots was found and dug up to a depth of 18 inches. The soil dug after the seed was much drier than that dug after the two cuttings of hay : — lbs. The upper, 6 inches deep, i foot square, weighed 56 The next, " " " 58 The third, « " " 60 "After drying by exposure to hot air, the three layers of soil weighed : — lbs. The upper 6 inches i foot square 49^ The next " " 5o| The third « " 5 1 i^ "Equal portions of the dried soil from each 6-inch section were mixed together and reduced to a fine powder. An average sample thus prepared, on analysis was found to have the following composition : — < 366 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Composition of Clover-soil once mown for hay^ and afterward left for seed. Dried at 212"' Fahr. r Organic matter 5*34 ^ I Oxides of iron 607 Alumina 451 Carbonate of lime 751 Magnesia 1 '27 Potash 52 Soda 16 Chloride of sodium 03 Phosphoric acid 15 Sulphuric acid 'i<) 'Insoluble Silicious matter 73'84 Consisting of— Alumina 4-14 • Lime (in a state of silicate) 2*69 Magnesia '68 Potash 24 Soda -21 Silica 65-88 9959 " This soil, it will be seen, in general character resembles the preceding sample ; it contains a good deal of potash and phos- phoric acid, and may be presumed to be well suited to the growth of clover. It contains more carbonate of lime, and is somewhat lighter than the sample from the part of the field twice mown for hay, and may be termed heavy calcareous clay. "An acre of this land, i8 inches deep, weighed, when nearly dry : — lbs. Surface 6 inches 2,407,900 Next " 2,444,200 Third " 2,480,500 " Or in round numbers, every 6 inches of soil weighed per acre 2j millions of pounds, which agrees tolerably well with the actual weight per acre of the preceding soil. " The amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in each 6-inch layer was determined separately as before, when the following results were obtained : — In Dried Soil. 1st 6 inches. 2d 6 inches. jd 6 inches. Percentage of phosphoric acid .. . "159 .... "166 .... "140 Nitrogen '189 .... '134 .... 089 Equal to ammonia 229 .... -162 .... -108 FORAGE CROPS. 367 " An acre, according to these determinations, contains in the three separate sections : — lbs. lbs. lbs. Phosphoric acid 3)975 • • • • 4. ' 5° • • • • 3>5oo Nitrogen 4)7-5 ••■• 3)35° •••• 2)2^5 Equal to ammonia 5)7-5 • • • • 4,050 .... 2,700 *' Here again, as might naturally be expected, the proportion of nitrogen is largest in the surface where all the decaying leaves dropped during the growth of the clover for seed are found, and wherein root-tibers are more abundant than in the lower strata. The first 6 inches of soil, it will be seen, contained, in round num- bers, 2^ tons of nitrogen per acre, that is, considerably more than was found in the same section of the soil where the clover was mown twice for hay ; showing plainly that during the ripening of the clover-seed the surface is much enriched by the nitrogenous matter in the dropping leaves of the clover-plant, " Clover-roots. — The roots from i square foot of this soil, freed as much as possible from adhering soil, were dried at 212'', and when weighed and reduced to a fine powder, gave, on analysis, the following results : — ♦Organic matter 6476 •j-Mineral matters 3 5 '^4 * Containing nitrogen l-yoz Equal to ammonia 2066 t Including clay and sand (insoluble silicious matter). i&04 *' A square foot of this soil produced 582 grains of dried clover- roots, consequently an acre yielded 3,622 lbs. of roots, or more than twice the weight of roots obtained from the soil of the same field where the clover was twice mown for hay. " In round numbers, the 3,622 lbs. of clover-roots from the land mown once, and afterward left for seed, contained 51 J lbs. of nitrogen. " The roots from the soil after clover-seed, it will be noticed, were not so clean as the preceding sample, neverthele^, they yielded more nitrogen. In 64*76 of organic matter we have here 1702 of nitrogen, whereas in the case of the roots from the part of the field where the clover was twice mown for hay, we have 8 1 "33 parts — that is, much more organic matter, and 1*635, or rather less of nitrogen. It is evident therefore, that 24 368 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the organic matter in the soil after clover-seed occurs in a more advanced stage of decomposition than found in the clover-roots from the part of the field twice mown. In the manure in which the decay of such and similar organic remains proceeds, much of the non-nitrogenous or carbonaceous matters, of which these remains chiefly, though not entirely, consist, is transformed into gaseous carbonic acid, and what remains behind becomes richer in nitrogen and mineral matters. A parallel case, showing the dissi- pation of carbonaceous matter, and the increase in the percentage of nitrogen and mineral matter in what is left behind, is presented to us in fresh and rotten dung ; in long or fresh dung the per- centage of organic matter, consisting chiefly of very imperfectly undecomposed straw, being larger, and that of nitrogen and mineral matter smaller, than in well-rotted dung. " The roots from the field after clover-seed, it will be borne in mind, were dug up m November, while those obtained from the land twice mown, were dug up in September ; the former, there- fore, may be expected to be in a more advanced state of decay than the latter, and richer in nitrogen. " In an acre of soil after clover-seed, we have — lbs. Nitrogen in first 6 inches of soil 4>7*5 Nitrogen in roots 51^ Nitrogen in second 6 inches of soil 3)35° Total amount of nitrogen per acre in 12 inches 8,1 26 j Equal to ammonia 9,867 or, in round numbers, 3 tons and 12J cwts. of nitrogen per acre, equal to 4 tons 8 cwts. of ammonia. ^' This is a very much larger amount of nitrogen than occurred in the other soil, and shows plainly that the total amount of nitro- gen accumulates, especially in the surface soil, when clover is grown for seeds ; thus explaining intelligibly, as it appears to me, why wheat, as stated by many practical men, succeeds better on land where clover is grown for seed than where it is mown for hay. " All the three layers of the soil after clover-seed are richer in nitrogSn than the same sections of the soil where the clover was twice mown, as will be seen by the following comparative state- ment of results : — FORAGE CROPS. 369 I. Ciover-soil twice Mown. Clover-soil once Mown, and then left h^T Seed. Upper ! Second 6 inches. 6 inches. Third 6 inches. 6VnX;. Next 6 inches. Lowest 6 inches. Percentage of nitrogen in •I 68 -092 •198 j -112 •064 •078 •189 •"9 ■134 089 •108 Equal to ammonia *' This difference in the amount of accumulated nitrogen in clover-land appears still more strikingly on comparing the total amounts of nitrogen per acre in the different sections of the two portions of the i i-acre fields : — Percentage of nitrogen per acre : — 1st 6 inches. 2d 6 inches. Jd 6 inches, lbs. lbs. lbs. * I. In soil, clover twice over .. . 3,350 .... 1,875 •••• ')3^S I II. In soil, clover once mown and seeded afterward 4)72.5 .... Z)35° .... ^12.25 Equal to ammonia : — , * 1. Clover twice mown 4,05° 2,i75 1,600 t II. Clover seeded 5,725 4,050 4,70O * I. Nitrogen in roots of clover twice mown 24^ + II. Nitrogen in clover, once mown and grown for seed afterward . 512- I. Weight of dry roots per acre from Soil 1 1,4932 II. Weight of dry roots per acre from Soil II 3, 622 * Total amount of nitrogen in i acre, 12 inches deep, of Soil I 5,249^ f Total amount of nitrogen in 1 acre, 12 mches deep, of Soil II 8,126^ * Equal to ammonia 6,J74J f Equal to ammonia 9,867 Excess of nitrogen in an acre of soil, 12 inches deep, calculated as ammonia in part of field mown once and then seeded. 3,492^ " It will be seen that not only was the amount of large clover roots greater in the part where clover was grown for seed, but that 3Y0 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. likewise the different ayers of soil were in every instance richer in nitrogen after clover-seed than after clover mown twice for hay ; or as it may be expressed : In i lb. of ammonia there were 3,492° of ammonia in the land where clover-seed was grown than where other clover was made entirely into hay ; or the former part of the same field produced rather more than half the total quantity of nitrogen yielded by the latter. " Reasons are given in the beginning of this paper which it is hoped will have convinced the reader that the fertility of land is not so much measured by the amount of ash-constituents of plants which it contains, as by the amount of nitrogen which, together with an excess of such ash-constituents, it contains in an available form. It has been shown, likewise, that the removal from the soil of a large amount of mineral matter in a good clover crop, in conformity with many direct field experiments, is not likely, in any degree, to affect the wheat crop, and that the yield of wheat on soils under ordinary cultivation, according to the experience of many farmers, and the direct and numerous experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, rises or falls, other circumstances being equal, with the supply of available nitrogenous food which is given to the wheat. This being the case, we cannot doubt that the benefits arising from the growth of clover to the succeeding wheat are mainly due to the fact that an immense amount of nitro- genous food accumulates in the soil' during the growth of clover. " This accumulation of nitrogenous plant-food, specially useful to cereal crops, is, as shown in the preceding experiments, much greater when clover is grown for seed than when it is made into hay. This affords an intelligible explanation of a fact long observed by good practical men, although denied by others who decline to accept their experience as resting on trustworthy evi- dence, because, as they say, land cannot become more fertile when a crop is grown upon it for seed which is carried off, than when that crop is cut down and the produce consumed on the land. The chemical points brought forward in the course of this inquiry show plainly that mere speculations as to what can take place in a soil and what not, do not much advance the true theory of certain agricultural practices. It is only by carefully investigating subjects like the one under consideration that positive proofs are given showing the correctness of intelligent observers in the fields. Many years ago I made a great many experiments relative to the chemistry of farm-yard manure, and then showed, among other particulars, that manure, spread at once on the land, need not there and then be plowed in, inasmuch as neither a broiling sun nor a FORAGE CROPS. 3Y1 sweeping and drying wind will cause the slightest loss of ammonia, and that, therefore, the old-fashioned farmer who carts his manure on the land as soon as he can, and spreads it at once, but who plows it in at his convenience, acts in perfect accordance with correct chemical principles involved in the management of farm- yard manure. On the present occasion my main object has been to show, not merely by reasoning on the subject, but by actual experiments, that the larger the amounts of nitrogen, potash, soda, lime, phosphoric acid, etc., which are removed from the land in a clover crop, the better it is, nevertheless, made thereby for pro- ducing in the succeeding year an abundant crop of wheat, other circumstances being favorable to its growth. " Indeed no kind of manure can be compared, in point of effi- cacy for wheat, to the manuring which the land gets in a really good crop of clover. The farmer who wishes to derive the full benefit from his clover-lay, should plow it up for wheat as soon as possible in the autumn, and leave it in a rough state as long as is admissible, in order that the air may find free access into the land, and the organic remains left in so much abundance in a good crop of clover be changed into plant-food ; more especially, in other words, in order that the crude nitrogenous organic matter in the clover-roots and decaying leaves may have time to become transformed into ammoniacal compounds, and these, in the course of time, into nitrates, which I am strongly inclined to think is the form in which nitrogen is assimilated, par excellence^ by cereal crops, and in which, at all events, it is more efficacious than in anv other state of combination wherein it may be used as a fertilizer. " When the clover-lay is plowed up early, the decay of the clover is sufficiently advanced by the time the young wheat-plant stands in need of readily available nitrogenous food, and this, being uniformly distributed through the whole of the cultivated soil, is ready to benefit every single plant. This equal and abundant dis- tribution of food, peculiarly valuable to cereals, is a great advan- tage, and speaks strongly in favor of clover as a preparatory crop for wheat. " Nitrate of soda, an excellent spring top-dressing for wheat and cereals in general, in some seasons fails to produce as good an effect as in others. In very dry springs the rain-fall is not suffi- cient to wash it properly into the soil and to distribute it equally, and in very wet seasons it is apt to be washed either into the drains or into a stratum of the soil not accessible to the roots of the young wheat. As, therefore, the character of the approaching season 372 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. cannot usually be predicted, the application of nitrate of soda to wheat is always attended with more or less uncertainty. " The case is different when a good crop of clover-hay has been obtained from the land on which wheat is intended to be grown afterward. An enormous quantity of nitrogenous organic matter, as we have seen, is left in the land after the removal of the clover crop ; and these remains gradually decay and furnish ammonia, which at first, and during the colder months of the year, is retained by the well-known absorbing properties which all good wheat-soils possess. In spring, when warmer weather sets in, and the wheat begins to make a push, these ammonia compounds in the soil are by degrees oxidized into nitrates ; and as this change into food, peculiarly favorable to young cereal plants, proceeds slowly but steadily, we have in the soil itself, after clover, a source from which nitrates are continuously produced ; so that it does not much affect the final yield of wheat, whether heavy rains remove some or all of the nitrate present in the soil. The clover-remains thus afford a more continuous source from which nitrates are produced, and greater certainty for a good crop of wheat than when recourse is had to nitrogenous top-dressings in the spring. " The remarks respecting the formation of nitrates in soils upon which clover has been grown, it should be stated, do not emanate from mere speculations, but are based on actual observations, " I have not only been able to show the existence of nitrates in clover-soils, but have made a number of actual determinations of the amount of nitric acid in different layers of soils on which clover had -been grown ; but as this paper has grown already to greater dimensions than perhaps desirable, I reserve any further remarks on the important subject of nitrification in soils for a future communication. " Summary. " The following are some of the chief points of interest which I have endeavored fully to develop in the preceding pages : — " I. A good crop of clover removes from the soil more potash, phosphoric acid, lime, and other mineral matters, which enter into the composition of the ashes of our cultivated crops, than any other crop usually grown in this country. " 2. There is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre. " 3. Notwithstanding the large amount of nitrogenous matter FORACxE CEOPS. 373 and of ash-constituents of plants in the product of an acre, clover is an excellent preparatory crop for wheat. " 4. During the growth of clover a large amount of nitrogenous matter accumulates in the soil. " 5. This accumulation, which is greatest in the surface-soil, is due to decaying leaves dropped during the growth of clover, and to an abundance of roots, containing, when dry, from ij to 2 per cent, of nitrogen. * " 6. The clover-roots are stronger and more numerous, and more leaves fall on the ground when clover is grown for seed, than when it is mown for hay ; in consequence, more nitrogen is left after clover-seed than after hay, which accounts for wheat yield- ing a better crop after clover-seed than after hay. " 7. The development of roots being checked when the produce, in a green condition, is fed ofF by sheep, in all probability leaves still less nitrogenous matter in the soil than when clover is allowed to get riper and is mown for hay ; thus, no doubt, accounting for the observation made by practical men that, notwithstanding the return of the produce in the sheep-excrements, wheat is generally stronger and yields better, after clover mown for hay, than when the clover is fed off green by sheep. " 8. The nitrogenous matters in the clover-remains on their gradual decay are finally transformed into nitrates, thus affording a continuous source of food on which cereal crops specially delight to grow. " 9. There is strong presumptive evidence that the nitrogen which exists in the air in the shape of ammonia and nitric acid, and descends in these combinations with the rain which falls on the ground, satisfies, under ordinary circumstances, the require- ments of the clover crop. This crop causes a large accumulation of nitrogenous matters, which are gradually changed in the soil into nitrates. The atmosphere thus furnishes nitrogenous food to the succeeding wheat indirectly, and, so to say, gratis. " 10. Clover not only provides abundance of nitrogenous food, but delivers this food in a readily available form (as nitrates) more gradually and continuously, and consequently with more certainty of a good result, than sucli food can be applied to the land in the shape of nitrogenous spring top-dressing. " Laboratory, 1 1 SALisBuiiy Square, Fleet Strcet, E. C, July, 1868." In addition to the foregoing, I extract the following from a paper written by the Hon. Geo. Geddes for the New York Tri- 374 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. hune. Mr. Geddes is one of the most skillful and enlightened farmers in the country. He says : — ■" At a meeting of the New York State Agricultural Society, " many years ago, I was awarded the first premium for the best " cultivated farm in competition that year, — 1845. The com- '*mittee that made the award said that I did not use enough "'manure. My four hundred to five hundred loads from the " barns and stables drawn out each year, and my fourteen tons of " gypsum, and all the ashes made on the premises, they said was "too little for the farm. A discussion followed the reading of " the report, and I tried to show that I did do all that true " economy dictated in the way of making barn-yard manure ; "that gypsum and clover furnished the means of increasing fer- "tility, at less cost than drawing leaves from the woods, muck *'from the swamps, and making expensive compost heaps. In " the years that followed, my friend, the author of this last edi- " tion of the book I have been noticing, has had not a little laugh "at my expense, growing out of my views on the manure ques- "tion. In several of the meetings for discussion of our State " Agricultural Society, manure has been the subject before us, " and for all these years, I have insisted that a farm should, " unless situated in the immediate vicinity of some village or city, "be so managed that its fertility should constantly increase, with- " out going off of it for manure, with the exception of gypsum, "and perhaps salt. In my report 'on the agriculture and indus- " try of the county of Onondaga,' made in i860, I said much of "the use of red clover as a fertilizer, and doubtless astonished "many of my readers by some things in that report. In turn I " was not a little astonished at some of the comments made on *' my statements. A very eminent writer on agricultural matters, *' living in New Hampshire, said over his own name, in an agri- " cultural paper, that he had never before heard of plowing in a " crop of clover for manure, and that where he lived the farmers " preferred to make hay, rather than manure, of clover. " In Mr. Allen's reference to what I said on this question, he " makes me say that the farmers in this vicinity ' would not draw " barn manure a mile, if it u^ere given to them.' I do not complain "of this, for perhaps, I have in some discussion said this ; but I "was speaking of barn manure, or rather ^-^jr-^ manure as it is " made here, where, as Mr. Allen says, ' we raise wheat "largely as well as other cereals.' In doing this, we raise a great " deal of straw and corn-stalks. The straw and corn-stalks FORAGE CROPS. 375 " are fed to our farm stock with great profusion. After every " heavy snow-storm of winter our barn-yards are covered deeply " with straw to be trodden under foot by the cattle ; the lead- " ing object being to get this straw wet and broken up, so that as " soon as the frost has gone out in the spring, the whole mass " can be flung into piles to rot, and become so reduced in bulk " that, by once turning a part of it, in midsummer, we can get " it into shape to draw on our wheat lands, or pastures, in the *' fall. Now, what is this barn-yard manure, as it is left when " the cattle are turned to pasture in the spring ? A great mass of " straw, and butts of corn-stalks, having a very small per cent, of "the dung of the cattle, — filling the yards two or more feet deep, " and saturated with water. What sensible farmer would go one " mile from home and draw this stuff to his farm, pile it, cut it *' down, and repile it, and in the fall find it reduced perhaps four- *' fifths in bulk, and then again load it, and draw it on his fields, to " fill them with the seeds of foul weeds, when fifteen pounds of "clover-seed, that would cost perhaps two dollars, and a bushel " of gypsum, would manure an acre of land far better than " would fifty loads of this barn-yard manure, as it was found in *' the spring ? " Where cattle are stall-fed, and given all the grain they will " eat, and in cases like this, the whole thing is changed. Manure " from such sources, perhaps, would bear even here transportation " for many miles. One load of the dung of high-fed horses would " be worth many loads of the strawy contents of a wheat-grower's "barn-yard. " But a i'ew words in regard to the Ohio farmer that our author " found wasting his hog manure, by allowing it to run into a con- " venient brook. There may have been, and probably was, much " water to a little manure in this case, and like city sewage, the " manure might after all have been so diluted as to have been worth "much less than would at first have been supposed. At any rate, " we have seen all through this country the streams made foul and " unhealthy to the fish in them, and to the people along them, " by the drainage of the hog-pens of distilleries. In a case near " me, no man but a raiser of fruit-trees could be found, who " was willing to provide water-tight wagon boxes and draw on " his nursery the very much diluted manure of a large establish- " ment of this kind, and within a few days I have seen the brook " that runs by it used to conduct the manure to Onondaga "Lake. " But to return to the clover. It is sometimes said, that it is 376 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. ' a great waste of a hay crop, and a great loss of time, to manure 'with clover. Let us examine this point a little. "• A farmer has a fine meadow, consisting of the clover that ' has grown from fifteen pounds of seed — not of the large ' pea- ' vine ' kind, but of the smaller variety of red clover — and from ' five quarts of timothy seed, sown on each acre, which has been 'treated to a dressing of gypsum (commonly, but very improperly ' called plaster). This meadow is cut for hay, as soon as the ' clover is in full bloom. A crop of two tons to the acre, of ' this best of hay ^ should be secured. Another dressing of gypsum ' is then sown, and unless the season is uncommonly dry, up ' starts the clover, and generally by the first day of October, ' in this latitude, there will be a crop of clover-seed averaging ' three bushels to the acre, that should pay, over and above ' all expense for labor, fifteen dollars. The timothy grass ' will in this second crop make very little show, and if the clover- ' seed is cut, as it should be, so high as to leave a large part of ' the stalks on the ground, there will be enough left to about fill 'the furrow, if plowed that autumn. The next year a crop of ' barley sown on the inverted sod, should give the highest yield ' for that grain. One plowing turns up this decayed sod and 'clover, and a crop of wheat should give its best yield. Clover 'and timothy seed sown on that wheat, enables the farmer to ' repeat the process. " I have supposed the land to be in good condition to begin 'with, and many years' experience justifies me in saying that 'it will be richer after these crops — four of them, in three 'years — have been taken off than it was before. But on this ' point, I propose, presently, to introduce a witness, whose testi- ' mony will have more weight than any thing I can say. I now ' ask what time has been lost, and what has been sacrificed in the ' way of a hay crop, or anv thing else, and what has been the cost 'of filling the ground with clover-roots, and the furrow with ' clover-tops ? " But perhaps the owner of the land desires to do more in the 'way of increasing fertility than I have thus far supposed. Let 'him plow under, if he can find a plow that will do it, the ' second crop of clover, and not cut his crop of seed. The crop ' of hay will pay full interest on the land for one year, and the ' barlev and wheat crops will do the same in their seasons. ' What grain-raiser can draw from his own barn-yard so much ' manure as this clover makes, for the cost of the clover and ' timothy seed, and of the gypsum, and the sowing .? But does FORAGE CROPS. 377 " the clover add to the land the fertilizing properties desired in '* the necessary quantities to replace all that is taken off by the *' crops named, and leave a satisfactory balance in bank to go to " new account ? " Here follow copious extracts from Dr. Voelcker's paper, quoted from above. ^ Mr. Geddes concludes as follows : — " About the time this great agricultural chemist, who perhaps "stands at the head of his profession, was delivering the lecture " from which I have been making quotations, before the Royal " Agricultural Society of England, I was writing articles for the *' readers of the T'r//'«w^, urging the use of clover as a manure, — using "myownandmy neighbors' experience from which to draw my facts. " I am not a little pleased at finding that this great chemist has got " out of his laboratory and gone into the field for his facts, and then "carried his facts, so obtained, into the laboratory, and gi\cn a " scientific explanation of them. His language is vastly stionger "than any I have ever used in favor of clover as compared with " other manures. His comparison of clover with Peruvian guano " goes further than I have ever gone, even in the heat of debate, "in an agricultural club meeting. " In addition to the advantages growing out of the use of clover "as a manure that have been stated by the learned professor, I "wish to call attention to the important fact that, as the clover "grows evenly all over the ground, it will, in its decomposition, *' reach with its fertilizing powers every square inch of land. No "reasonable expenditure of labor will so break up and distribute *' barn-yard manure that every part of the surface of the soil will " be reached. " All grain-growers that have extensively used clover as a " fertilizer have thereby enormously increased the quantity of *' barn-yard manure made on their farms ; and it certainly should be " comforting to that class of men who still believe that additional " value is imparted to vegetable matter by drawing it from the " field to the barn, and passing it through the bodies of farm stock, " and then drawing it back to the field, to learn that by raising " large crops of clover, and turning a part of them into the ground, " it will certainly follow that the barn-yard manure will be greatly " increased in quantity by the increased yields of straw and corn- " stalks produced by the clover. " The men who do the most at manuring with clover by no 378 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " means underrate the value of other manures, but they do " fall into the custom of laying out the least possible amount of " labor that they can on the contents of their barn-yards, and get "them back into the soil. The manure cart is apt to be emptied " on some field near the barn, and the ' back end of the back " field,' to use the expression of one of my volunteer correspon- " dents, never is visited by it. " No other class of farmers (I do not mean gardeners) with " whom I am acquainted manure as highly as the men who make "the freest use of clover the leading principle of their farm man- *'agement. ''Fairmount, N. Y, Oct. 23, 1869." While on this subject of the fertilizing effect of clover, I desire to record my belief, that, theoretically considered, clover may become a means for the more complete exhaustion of the soil in the end. Fertility depends for one of its chief supports upon mineral matters, of which even the best soils contain compara- tively but a very small proportion. These are absolutely neces- sary to the growth of all agricultural plants. Clover can create none of them. Its only ability is to develop and make more readily available that which the soil already con- tains, and, while a soil which has been so completely exhausted to the depth of its shallow plowing, that it will produce neither wheat nor corn, nor grass, may, by the aid of clover, have so much of the fertilizing minerals of its subsoil brought into action as to become more fertile than before, it may, by persistent plun- dering, — by constantly taking off and bringing nothing back, — be made so poor, (subsoil and all,) that not even clover will grow. In this condition the land is called " clover sick," and to restore it from this impoverishment, nothing will suffice but long-con- tinued exposure to the atmosphere, by frequent plowing, or the addition of enormous quantities of manure. Judiciously man- aged, clover culture may be made the means of restoring the most exhausted soils to more than their virgin fertility, and of keeping their productiveness always at the top mark ; but employed without judgment, it must in time (perhaps a very long time) effect an absolute impoverishment. FORAGE CROPS. 379 It seems hardly necessary, in a book of directions for practical farmers, to tell how clover is grown ; but as the crop is not univer- sally grown, the information may be of value to some of my readers. Clover is never (so far as I know) grown alone. It is bene- fited during its earliest growth by being sheltered from the sun and wind, and it takes a better hold of the ground when sown with oats or barley, or other spring grain, or among the standing plants of wheat or rye. The seed is sown broadcast on the surface as early as possible in the spring, (even on the snow in March,) or immediately after the harrowing in of spring grain. It is suffi- ciently covered by subsequent rains. Indeed, it seems hardly to require covering at all, and it takes root in the compact soil of a wheat-field, which has been beaten hard by the rains of a whole winter. After the grain has been mowed, the clover (with a moderate amount of rain) grows vigorously, and will, on rich land, attain a height of a foot or more. Under such circumstances, it should be fed down sufficiently to allow the free access of the sun and air to the soil, that the roots may become well established and the growth stocky. In this condition, it will much better withstand the vicissitudes of an open winter, which is its greatest enemy. In latitudes where the snow lies on the ground throughout the season, there is no trouble from v/inter-killing, but when this pro- tection is not to be depended on, it is well to top-dress the plants with sea-weed, strawy manure, or other rubbish. For manure, clover asks little else than ground plaster, or gypsum, and of this so small 3 quantity as a single bushel per acre will suffice, if it be sown evenly (on the plants rather than on the ground) when the leaves are wet with dew or with a misty rain. The amount of seed used on an acre is from one peck to four pecks, and I am by no means certain that the larger amount is not the more profitable, — costly though clover-seed is. Under the " soiling " system, and indeed on all farms where the highest cultivation is the rule, it will be found best to crop the clover but a single year, cutting three times during the summer, 380 handy-booe: op husbandry. except so much as it may be desired to save for seed. On rich land, such as is adapted for soiling, an amount of clover may be cut which w^ould, if cured, make four or six tons of hay, and there w^ould be left in the soil a mass of roots, that, with liberal manuring, would be an excellent preparation for corn, or any other crop desired. A good field of clover is one of the very earliest ready to cut for fodder, and after the third clip has been taken off, the soil will afford a capital bite for young stock late into the fall. For hay, the crop should be allowed to stand until two-thirds of the plants are in full bloom, and after cutting, it should be cured (in the cock) with the least possible amount of rough handling, as the leaves will be dry while the stems are yet quite green, and will be likely to be broken of?" and lost if much handled. From what has been said, it will be seen that clover is to be regarded as the "sheet-anchor" of American agriculture, and especially of the system of soiling. It enriches the land, and nour- ishes the herd as no other crop can. As a forage crop simply^ it is later than winter rye, and less productive (probably less nutri- tious) than Indian corn ; but its value as a fertilizer so far compen- sates for its shortcomings in these directions, that it should always play an important part in all cases where green fodder is used. As a hay crop, clover is excellent for cows, but less valuable than the grasses for horses. In my own practice I shall depend on it almost exclusively for hay for my dairy cows. Oats are not very much grown as a green forage crop, as it is generally considered more profitable to ripen the grain for mar- ket ; but whenever " soiling " is practiced, — and soiling is the only method yet devised that will, in the future, enable New England to keep dairy animals in competition with the, richer lands at the west, — oats will be found of the greatest importance as filling the gap between early rye, and the grasses and Indian corn. When grass has become too ripe and hard for the best use of milking animals, the oat-field is in its best estate, and will furnish FORAGE CROPS. 381 an excellent fodder, which is greatly relished by all stock, and which, up to the time of the hardening of its stem, is admirably suited to the production of milk. The only specific directions for its cultivation are to put the seed into the ground at the earliest practicable moment in the spring, and to sow thickly. An early start (on land that is not too wet) seems to be even more important than richness of soil. And (unlike this crop when grown for grain) the land cannot he too rich^ as it should all be removed before it is sufficiently matured to lodge. As soon as the crop has fairly blossomed, — if there is a bit of corn or clover that can be cut for the stock,— the oats should all come down. At this stage, (as is the case with all cereals,) the nutritive constituents of the plant are the most uni- formly distributed throughout all parts of its structure, and prob- ably it contains (straw and all) very nearly all that it will at any time contain. At all events, any slight disadvantage that may result from cutting the crop before it has ceased to receive nutri- ment from its roots, will be more than compensated for by the fact that even the butts of the straw will be sweet and nutritious, and will be consumed without waste. Cut at this stage of growth, and properly cured, oats will be little, if any, inferior to the best hay. A good growth of oats, from rich and well-cultivated land, will make from two and a half to three tons of hay, equal to average meadow hay. It is easily cured, and keeps perfectly. Therefore there is nothing risked in sowing much more than will probably be needed for green feeding. It may be very convenient to have it, so as to avoid cutting the corn too early, and if it is not needed green, it is worth all it costs as hay. Rye is the great lengthener of the seasons. Sown early in September, on rich land, using four bushels of seed to the acre, it will often afford a good bite for the stock well into the winter, if only the severe frosts hold off, and in the spring, almost before the snow is fairly off of the ground, it starts its vigorous growth, and may be cut or pastured fully two weeks before the first grass is ready. 382 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. To get the best results for early soiling, the cutting should not be too early^ but the crop is not injured (only delayed) by cutting or feeding ofF as often as is desired at any time before the "jointing" takes place, as a new and vigorous growth will follow every cutting, I am credibly informed that by being cut often enough, rye has been kept in luxuriant condition for five years. I have myself taken two heavy cuttings in one season, and had a crop of ripe grain afterward. Rye is a good green fodder only when in a comparatively green and immature condition. If left until it blossoms, the lower part of the straw, although it may still be green, is too hard to be readily eaten by cattle. Still more than oats is rye a safe crop to plant to excess, as when grown on land fit for soiling uses, its production of straw is very large, and rye straw, thrashed by hand, is always marketable at a very high price, usually much higher than the best hay, and the grain is of considerable importance. Millet, the remaining forage crop of our list, is one on which I do not feel qualified to give instruction, having never succeeded in producing a satisfactory crop. I am informed by those who have grown it regularly, that it is a valuable adjunct in green soiling. My own conviction is that it cannot compete with Indian corn, — nor can any thing else, — and that, therefore, as it cannot be produced any earlier than this, there is no advantage in growing it. Allen says:* "It grows to the height of two and a half to four " feet, with a profusion of stalks and leaves which furnish excel- " lent forage for cattle. From eighty to one hundred bushels of " seed per acre have been raised, and with straw equivalent to one " and a half to two tons of hay ; but an average crop riay be " estimated at about one-third this quantity. Owing to the great " waste during the ripening of the seed, from the shelling of the * New American Book of the Farm. New York : Orange Judd & Co. FORAGE CROPS. 383 " earliest of it before the last is matured, and the frequent depre- " dations of birds, which are very fond of it, millet is more profit- " ably cut when the first seeds have begun to ripen, and harvested " for fodder. It is cured like hay, and in good land yields from two " and a half to four tons per acre. All cattle relish it, and "experience has shown it to be fully equal to good hay. " Millet requires a dry, rich, and well-pulverized soil. It will " grow on thin soil, but best repays on the most fertile. It should " be sown broadcast or in drills from the first of May to the first " of July. If for hay and sown broadcast, forty quarts per acre " will be required ; if sown in drills for the grain, eight quarts of " seed will suffice. It will ripen in sixty to seventy-five days " with favorable weather. When designed for fodder, the nearer " it can approach to ripening without waste in harvesting, the *' more valuable will be the crop." It is possible that Mr. Allen is mistaken in this latter state- ment. It seems to be a well-established fact that all plants of this character are in their best condition for hay at about the period of blossoming. Flint says:* "It is very valuable and nutritious for milch cows, " both green and when properly cured. The curing should be very " much like clover, care being taken not to overdry it. For fodder, " either green or cured, it is cut before ripening. In this state all " cattle will eat it as readily as green corn, and a less extent wiTL " feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended cultivation, "particularly o"h dairy farms." If millet has any marked advantage which should bring it into common use, it lies in its ability to from the thinness of the soil or the heat of the sun, * Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. Boston : Tilton & Co. 25 UNI V Ki.-sn ^ oi ; ^ CAI.li-wu'MA. i CHAPTER XIII. LIVE STOCK. Live stock is more or less important to the farmer, according to the circumstances under which his business is carried on. In extensive grain-growing regions, where the poHcy is simply to raise the largest possible crops, rather by extent of cultivation than by excessive production per acre, and where it is intended either to trust to luck for the fertility of the land or deliberately to exhaust and abandon it, live stock forms no important part of the farm machinery, it being necessary only to keep such teams as are required for plowing, cultivation, and harvesting. In other extensive regions, where the chief, almost the entire, business of the farmer is confined to the grazing of large flocks and herds on natural pastures, he cares for little else than Hve stock ; but, at the same time, his animals live almost in a state of nature, require scarcely any attention beyond the annual branding and the annual selection of droves for market, and he needs to know almost nothing concerning their management as understood by skillful husbandmen. Live stock becomes an important element in the economy of the farm only when our object is to raise fine animals, to raise beef for market, or wool, or dairy products, or poultry, as a means for converting the production of the land into a marketable form. And in these cases its management always is, or alwavs should be, attended by a full appreciation of the value of manure. " No manure — no grass, No grass— no cattle, No cattle — no manure." LIVE STOCK. 385 This is the circle within which the reasoning of the best mod- ern agriculture constantly revolves. We may make our chief business the growth of large crops, yet, unless we are surrounded by some peculiar circumstances, we cannot hope to continue the profitable growth of large crops without the aid of manure result- ing from the feeding of animals. We may make it our chief object to raise fine beef or other animal products for sale, and we may regard every thing else connected with the farm as purely incidental to this ; — yet we shall soon find that the key to our success lies in the fertility of the land, increased by a judicious use of the manure that the animals make. It is impossible in any mixed husbandry, or in what may more properly be called general husbandry, to disregard for a moment the relation always existing between the three cardinal points of crops, cattle, and dung. If we do away with the cattle and sell our crops, we fall short of dung, and must buy it or its substitute in the market. If we fall short of food, our cattle and our manure-pits both suffer. If we allow our manure to run to waste, or use it with bad economy, both cattle and crops must suffer in the end. Of course there are circumstances in which spe- cial facilities for purchasing manure, extraordinarily high prices for grain, or the prevalence of diseases which make it unsafe to keep large stocks of cattle, compel a deviation from the foregoing principle. But, as a principle, it is a fixed one, and any change from its requirements should be adopted only with due considera- tion and for good and sufficient reasons, which, being generally of a local character, it is not necessary nor desirable to discuss in this connection. To return to the illustration with which this work commenced, — that of a young man about entering upon the improvement of a farm, — we find that one of the questions which it will be most important for him to decide is, that of the extent to which the raising of live stock should form a part of his plan, and having decided this, to fix upon the direction which his live stock efforts shall take. The following fields are open to him : the raising of horses. 386 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the making of beef, the making of pork, the sale of milk, the manufacture of butter or cheese, the growth of wool, the pro- duction of poultry and eggs, and the raising of thoroughbred animals for what is called the fancy market. Ordinarily he will find it best to select as his main object such a branch of industry as his farm, his buildings, and his market indicate as most desirable ; but to couple with this in all cases some collateral branch of stock-keeping, so that, to use a com- mon expression, he may not have his eggs all in one basket ; and that he may be able to make one department assist somewhat in the development of the advantages of another. For example, in the manufacture of butter or cheese there should be at least a sufficient herd of swine to consume the refuse products of the dairy ; — and in the case of all animals to which grain is fed, it will be found advantageous to have at least enough poultry to pick up the sweepings of the stables and the waste of the thrashing- machine. Again, whatever his business may be, it will be neces- sary for him to keep working-teams, and if the production of beef promises to be profitable, he will find it advantageous to keep several yokes of oxen, working each pair only sufficiently to stimulate their appetites and keep them in an improving condition ; while, if he prefers to use horse-teams, there will be generally a decided advantage in having mares from which one or two colts each year may be expected. It is, of course, impossible to say, that, as a general rule, any branch of stock-raising is more profitable than any other branch ; and it is probably true that over the whole country there is, in ordinary husbandry, not very much difference between any of the leading branches. If there were a decided advantage in favor of any one kind of stock, the difficulty would soon correct itself by reason of the neglect of some other branch, until the price of its products brought it again within the practicable range of profit. All that it is proper for me to do, therefore, is to state briefly the advantages of the different kinds of stock, and some of the rules which should govern their management. » LIVE STOCK. 387 According to the census of i860, there were 6,249,174 horses in the United States, equal in value to at least one-fourth of the present national debt ; and, in addition to these, there were prob- ably over one million mules (1,151,148 asses and mules). Of course, so far as the more settled parts of the country are con- cerned, a very large proportion of the horses are in use upon farms ; and their chief value to most farmers consists in their ability to do his work. At the same time, in addition to this and incidental to it, the very large demand for horses for work, and for pleasure-driving in cities and towns, creates such a market for them, among those who are not engaged in their production, that the sale of the increase of farm stock is a great source of agricultural profit ; and wherever a farmer is so circumstanced that he can raise a few colts without inconvenience, he will generally find it advisable to have a large proportion of mares among his working teams. The breeding of horses in this country has generally been car- ried on in a most careless and haphazard way. Any broken- down, spavined, heavy old mare, that ought to be knocked on the head, — that certainly would not, for general use, be worth keeping, — is usually considered good enough to get colts from. And this accounts for the fact that all persons who are familiar with the horses raised in this country consider it advantageous to buy rather old animals, with the idea that if they have passed their seventh or eighth year without developing a congenital disease, they may be depended on for a fair amount of service ; — and the immense number of five and six year old horses that go blind or lame, or get broken-winded, is a very severe comment on the ordinary policy of farmers in raising horses. The rule that " like begets like " holds in no case with greater force than in the breeding of horses ; and we may, with the same reason, expect healthy children from scrofulous and consumptive parents, as sound colts from unsound mothers. There are many imperfections, to which horse-flesh is subject, 388 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. that do not interfere with the production of sound progeny ; as the accidental loss of an eye, for instance, which is a blemish, but which is not real unsoundness, and is not likely, after inflam- mation has subsided and after the animal's attention has ceased to be drawn to that part, to produce any unsoundness in the eyes of the colt. And the same is true of several kinds of lameness which result from purely accidental causes, from bad shoeing, etc. In no case would it be prudent to breed from a mare while she is actually suffering from the effects of any accident or ill-treatment ; but after the wound has healed and she has settled down to the even tenor of her way, there is no reason why such accidental imperfections should be perpetuated. As a general rule, it may be stated that the mare that is best suited to the farmer's purposes as a team animal, is precisely the one from which he may most reasonably expect to get good colts ; and the same rule that should guide him in the purchase of a mare for work should also guide him in the matter of breeding. In Stonehenge's " British Rural Sports," the following direc- tions are given concerning the choice of a brood mare, the por- tion which relates chiefly to the breeding of race-horses being excluded from the quotation : — " In choosing the brood mare, four things must be considered : *' first, her blood ; secondly, her frame ; thirdly, her state of ''health; and fourthly, her temper. ******* *' In frame, the mare should be so formed as to be capable of " carrying and well nursing her offspring ; that is, she should be " what is called ' roomy.' There is a formation of the hips which '' is particularly unfit for breeding purposes, and yet which is some- " times carefully selected, because it is considered elegant ; this is ''the level and straight hip, in which- the tail is set on very high, " and the end of the haunch-bone is nearly on a level with the pro- "jection of the hip-bone. * * * By examining her [a well- " formed mare's] pelvis, it will be seen that the haunch-bone forms " a considerable angle with the sacrum, and that, as a consequence, " there is plenty of room, not only for carrying the foal, but for LIVE STOCK. 389 '* allowing it to pass into the world. Both of these points are " important, the former evidently so, and the latter no less so on " consideration, because if the foal is injured in the birth, either of " necessity or from ignorance or carelessness, it will often fail to " recover its powers, and will remain permanently injured. The "pelvis, then, should be wide and deep, that is to say, it should be " large and roomy ; and there should also be a little more than the " average length from the hip to the shoulder, so as to give plenty " of bed for the foal ; as well as a good depth of back-ribs, which " are necessary in order to support this increased length. * * " Beyond this roomy frame, necessary as the eggshell of the foal, " the mare only requires such a shape and make as are well adapted *■*■ for the particular purpose she is intended for. * * * "In health, the brood mare should be as near perfection as the " artificial state of this animal will allow ; at all events, it is the " most important point of all, and in every case the mare should " be very carefully examined, with a view to discover what devia- " tions from a natural state have been entailed upon her by her own " labors, and what she has inherited from her ancestors. Indepen- " dently of the consequences of accidents, all deviations from a " state of health in the mare may be considered as more or less "transmitted to her, because, in a thoroughly sound constitution, " no ordinary treatment such as training consists of will produce " disease, and it is only hereditary predisposition which, under this " process, entails its appearance. Still there are positive, compara- " tive, and superlative degrees of objectionable diseases incidental " to the brood mare, which should be accepted or refused accord- " ingly. All accidental defects, such as broken knees, dislocated " hips, or even breaks down, may be passed over ; the latter, how- " ever, only when the stock from which the mare is descended are " famous for standing their work without this frailty of sinew and "ligament. Spavins, ring-bones, large splints, side-bones, and, in " fact, all bony enlargements, are constitutional defects, and will " be almost sure to be perpetuated, more or less, according to the " degree in which they exist in the particular case. Curby hocks " are also hereditary, and should be avoided ; though many a one 390 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " much bent at the junction of the os calcis with the astragalus is "not at all liable to curbs. It is the defective condition of the " ligaments there, not the angular junction, which leads to curbs ; "and the breeder should carefully investigate the individual case " before accepting or rejecting a mare with suspicious hocks. Bad *' feet, whether from contraction or from too flat and thin a sole, ** should also be avoided ; but when they have obviously arisen " from bad shoeing, the defect may be passed over. Such are the ** chief varieties of unsoundness in the leg which require circum- " spection ; the good points, which, on the other hand, are to be *' looked for are those considered desirable in all horses that are "subjected to the shocks of the gallop. * * * * Such are *' the general considerations bearing upon soundness of limb. That *' of the wind is no less important. Broken-winded mares seldom "breed, and they are therefore out of the question, if for no other " reason ; but no one would risk the recurrence of this disease, " even if he could get such a mare stinted. Roaring is a much *' vexed question, which is by no means theoretically settled among ** our chief veterinary authorities, nor practically by our breeders. " Every year, however, it becomes more and more frequent and *' important, and the risk of reproduction is too great for any person " willfully to run by breeding from a roarer. As far as I can learn, " it appears to be much more hereditary on the side of the mare ** than on that of the horse ; and not even the offer of a virago " should tempt me to use her as a brood mare. There are so many *' different conditions which produce what is called roaring, that it ** is difficult to form any opinion which shall apply to all cases. In '* some instances, where it has arisen from neglected strangles, or " from a simple inflammation of the larynx, the result of cold, it will *' probably never reappear ; but when the genuine ideopathic roaring " has made its appearance, apparently depending upon a disease of ** the nerves of the larynx, it is ten to one that the produce will *' suffer in the same way. Blindness, again, may or may not be ** hereditary, but in all cases it should be viewed with suspicion as "great as that due to roaring. Simple cataract without inflam- ** mation undoubtedly runs in families ; and when a horse or LITE STOCK. 391 " mare has both eyes suffering from this disease, without any "other derangement of the eye, I should eschew them care- " fully. When blindness is the result of violent inflammation " brought on by bad management, or by influenza, or any other "similar cause, the eye itself is more or less disorganized; and " though this itself is objectionable, as showing a weakness of the " organ, it is not so bad as the regular cataract. Such are the chief " absolute defects, or deviations, from health in the mare ; to which " may be added a general delicacy of constitution, which can only " be guessed from the amount of flesh which she carries while suck- " ling or on poor ' keep,' or from her appearance on examination " by an experienced hand, using his eyes as well. The firm, full " muscle, the bright and lively eye, the healthy-looking coat at all " seasons, rough though it may be in the winter, proclaim the "hardiness of constitution which is wanted, but which often coex- " ists with infirm legs and feet. Indeed, sometimes the very "best topped animals have the worst legs and feet, chiefly owing " to the extra weight they and their ancestors also have had to " carry. Crib-biting is sometimes a habit acquired from idleness, " as also is wind-sucking ; but if not caused by indigestion, it often " leads to it, and is very commonly caught by the offspring. It is *' true that it may be prevented by a strap ; but it is not a desirable *' accomplishment in the mare, though of less importance than " those to which I have already alluded, if not accompanied by *' absolute loss of health, as indicated by emaciation, or the state of "the skin. " Lastly, the temper is of the utmost importance, by which " must be understood not that gentleness at grass which may lead " the breeder's family to pet the mare, but such a temper as will " serve for the purposes of her rider, and will answer to the "stimulus of the voice, whip, or spur. A craven or a rogue is "not to be thought of as the 'mother of a family ;' and if a mare "belongs to a breed which is remarkable for refusing to answer "the call of the rider, she should be consigned to any task rather "than the stud-farm. Neither should a mare be used for this " purpose which had been too irritable to train, unless she hap- 392 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " pened to be an exceptional case ; but if of an irritable family, "she would be worse even than a roarer, or a blind one. These "are defects which are apparent in the colt or filly, but the "irritability which interferes with training often leads to the "expenditure of large sums on the faith of private trials, which " are lost from the failure in public, owing to this defect of " nervous system." The mare described in the foregoing quotation is a thorough- bred race-horse, intended only, or chiefly, for fast running ; but any farmer who has an eye for horse-flesh, and who will take the pains to examine the form and constitution of the best mares working in his neighbors' teams, will find that, in its general par- ticulars, it applies very well to them. Of course, it is not to be recommended that farmers, who intend that their team mares shall be used for breeding, should purchase only such mares as come up to this description ; but merely that in purchasing, with an in- cidental view to breeding, or, indeed, in purchasing for work alone, there will be a decided advantage in following, as closely as circumstances and prices will allow, the standard herein laid down. Very careful attention in breeding should also be paid to the different forms of unsoundness and bad conformation de- scribed. ■ It being assumed that the mares from which we are to breed are sound and of good temper and form, — or, at least, that they are not decidedly ill-formed, and that they have no hereditary disease or imperfection, — the great remaining question for the farmer relates to the selection of a stallion. And herein I am decided- ly of the opinion that the common practice of our agricultural neighborhoods is a faulty one. Horse-breeding has so long been almost a science, that several things connected with it have been determined with a good deal of accuracy ; and one of these is, that the preponderance of "blood"* should be on the side of the sire. * By "blood" is meant that strain which has descended in direct line from the ani- mals imported, more than a century ago, into England, from Barbary, Arabia, and Tur- key ; an>l which has there been developed, through a long course of training, into a race of greater speed and endurance than even the Arabian horse himself possesse LITE STOCK. 393 The passion for raising fast trotters, — a passion which has been stimulated by very high prices, and which is likely to continue and. to increase, — has led to a quite general adoption of the practice of breeding to fast-trotting .stallions. And there is no doubt that this practice frequently results in the production of fast trotters ; often enough, perhaps, to make it a tempt- ing lottery, — but a lottery it certainly is, for while the few fast trotters produced are of exceptional value, a large majority of the " get " have decided defects, which reduce them below the average of good horses. Even in raising horses for the trotting turf, I should adhere in my own practice very strictly to the rule which has been established by the origin of the trotting-horse himself, — that is, to get the largest amount of blood on the side of the sire. Almost without exception, every really distinguished trotting horse in the country traces back, largely on the side of the sire, to the thoroughbred English race-horse, which is the only source of what is now known among English and American breeders as " blood ;" and while the high, free action which fast trotting re- quires has been introduced very considerably through cold-blooded mares, and occasionally through cold-blooded horses, it is only by a combination of this action with the best qualities of " blood " that the best results may be confidently sought. Therefore, the opinion is a very well-established one, that, in all systematic breeding, whether for the turf or for any other purposes, whatever the mare may be, the sire should be a thoroughbred horse ; and in making this statement I by no means confine it to the production of horses for fast work or for pleasure-driving, for I believe that for every use, except, possibly, the slow draft of very heavy loads or city trucks, it is more economical for the teamster and for the farmer himself to have a large admixture of thorough-blood in the stock. As a case in point, I would state that I recently employed a neighbor to do some plowing for me ; his team consisted of a pair of oxen and a horse on the lead. The horse was of only average size, but I observed from a distance that there was a 394 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. spring and an agility in his movements that are uncommon in the region, and on examination, I found that he was obviously doing quite one-half of the work. At the end of a long day he had the same vigor and activity with which he commenced in the morn- ing, and there was an intelligent, quick movement of the ears, and a spring in his step, that one rarely sees in a farm-horse. On inquiry, I found that he was twenty-eight years of age, had been owned by the same man and employed in the same work twenty-four years, had never missed a day, and had never let pass an opportunity to do as much work as lay in his power. ' He was fat and sleek, and I should have judged him, from his general ap- pearance, to be not more than seven or eight years old. It turned out that he was the progeny of a common farm mare, of good form, by a thoroughbred race-horse, that had been brought into the country for a single season, and so few mares were sent to him, that it was not found profitable to keep him here. On the Madison Avenue Une of omnibuses in New York City, it has always been the rule to buy horses with the largest possible proportion of thorough-blood. I should say that, at the time when I noticed the teams of this line, the horses of the whole stable would average more than half-bred, many of them probably seven-eighths ; and during the heavy snows of winter, this line always makes better time than any other, and the proportion of loss among their teams is much less, while the average num- ber of years of service of each horse is much greater than on any other line in the city, the others paying no regard to blood, but purchasing any animals that are sound, and, apparently, of strong frame. Several years ago I rode almost daily — sometimes from fifty to sixty miles in a day — a thoroughbred English mare, weighing less than eight hundred pounds, and, although rather a heavy-weight myself, I have never found another horse, even of much greater size, that would carry me so far in a day, so many days in suc- cession, and with so little apparent distress, as this mare would. In the army, in. the spring and summer of 1864, I rode a horse captured from a rebel officer, and learned that he was probably LIVE STOCK. 395 thoroughbred, and that he had been used for racing. He was a rather leggy animal, very tall, but as thin as a shingle, and by no means such a horse as most farmers would have selected to carry a man through a long day's ride. Yet, on the occasion of the battle of Tishamingo Creek, I rode him from four o'clock on Monday ' morning until half-past ten on Wednesday morn- ing, and during the whole time, was certainly not more than two hours out of the saddle ; and much of the time I was riding furiously, and necessarily without the slightest regard to what became of my horse. The command comprised about 4,000 cavalry, and I am satisfied, from an examination of the troops as they returned, that there were not five horses in the whole army that had suffered so little from their work as mine had. He had the same springy gait, as he came neighing into his stable, that he had when he first started out from Monday's camp. These instances, and many others that have come under my own observation, fully confirm me in the opinion that what is lost in size and apparent strength is more than made up by the endurance and activity which have given rise to the proverb — "blood will tell." In his directions for the choice of a stallion for breeding, Frank Forrester says : — * " Now, as to what constitutes value or excellence in all horses. " It is indisputably quickness of working ; power to move or carry "weight, and ability to endure for a length of time 5 to travel for a " distance with the least decrease of pace ; to come again to work " day after day, week after week, and year after year, with undi- " minished vigor. And it is scarcely needful to say, that, under all " ordinary circumstances, these conditions are only compatible with *'the highest form and highest physical health of the animal. " Malformation must necessarily detract from speed and power ; "hereditary disease or constitutional derangement must necessarily " detract from all powers whatsoever. Under usual circumstances, " it would hardly be necessary to undertake to show that quickness ^' of working, or, in other words, speed, is necessary to a high de- * Herbert's Hints to Horsekeepers. O. Judd & Co., N. Y. 396 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDEY. "gree of excellence in a horse of any stamp or style, and not one " iota less for the animal which draws the load, or breaks the glebe, " than for the riding-horse or the pleasure-traveler before light " vehicles. But it has of late become the fashion with some parties " to undervalue the advantages of speed, and to deny its utility for ''other purposes than for those of mere amusement ;' and as a " corollary from this assumption, to disparage the effect and deny '■'• the advantage of blood, by which is meant descent, through the '' American or English race-horse, from the Oriental blood of the " desert, whether Arabian, Barb, Turk, Persian, or Syrian, or a '' combination of two or more, or all of the five. " The horse which can plow an acre while another is plowing '' half an acre, or that which can carry a load of passengers ten miles " while another is going five, independent of all considerations of " amusement, taste, or what is generally called fancy, is absolutely "worth twice as much to his owner as the other. " Now the question for the breeder is simply this : By what " means is this result to be obtained ? The reply is, by getting the "greatest possible amount of pure blood compatible with size, " weight, and power, according to the purpose for which he intends *' to raise stock, into the animal bred. For not only is it not true "that speed alone is the only good thing derivable from blood, but " something very nearly the reverse is true. It is very nearly the " least good thing. That which the blood-horse does possess is a " degree of strength in his bones, sinews, and frame at large, utterly " out of proportion to the size or apparent strength of that frame. " The texture, the form, and the symmetry of the bones, — all, in " the same bulk and volume, — possess double, or nearer fourfold, " the elements of resistance and endurance in the blood-horse that " they do in the cold-blooded cart-horse. The difference in the " form and texture of the sinews and muscles, and in the inferior *' tendency to form flabby, useless flesh, is still more in favor of the " blood-horse. Beyond this, the internal anatomical construction " of his respiratory organs, of his arterial and venous system, of his " nervous system, — in a word, of his constitution generally, — is cal- " culated to give him what he possesses, greater vital power, greater LIVE STOCK. 397 " recuperatory power, greater physical power, in proportion to his " bulk and weight, than any other known animal, added to greater " quickness of movement, and to greater courage, greater endurance " of labor, hardship, suffering, — in a word, greater (what is called " vulgarly) game or pluck than will be found in any other of the " horse family. " But it is not to be said, or supposed, that all blood-horses " will give these qualities in an equal degree, for there is as much " or more choice in the blood-horse than in any other of the family. " Since, as in the blood of the thoroughbred horse, all faults, all " vices, all diseases are directly hereditary, as well as all virtues, all " soundness, all good qualities, it is more necessary to look, in the " blood-horse, to his antecedents, his history, his performances, and, " above all, to his shape, temper, soundness, and constitution, than " it is in any other of the horse family. " To breed from a small horse with the hope of getting a large " colt ; from a long-backed, leggy horse, with the hope of getting a " short, compact, powerful one ; from a broken-winded, or blind, " or flat-footed, or spavined, or ring-boned, or navicular-joint-dis- " eased horse, with the hope of getting a sound one ; from a vicious " horse, a cowardly horse, — what is technically called a dunghill, — " with the hope of getting a kind-tempered and brave one ; all or "any of these would be the height of folly. The blood sire (and " the blood should always be on the sire's side) should be, for the " farmer-breeder's purposes, of medium height, say fifteen and a half "hands high, short-backed, well ribbed up, short in the saddle-place, " long below. He should have high withers, broad loins, broad " chest, a straight rump, — the converse of what is often seen in " trotters, and known as the goose rump ; a high and muscular, but " not beefy crest ; a lean, bony, well-set-on head ; a clear, bright, " smallish, well-placed eye ; broad nostrils and small ears. His "fore-legs should be as long and as muscular as possible above the " knee, and his hind-legs above the hock, and as lean, short, and " bony as possible below those joints. The bones cannot by any " means be too flat, too clear of excrescences, or too large. The " sinews should be clear, straight, firm, and hard to the touch. 398 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " From such a horse, where the breeder can find one, and from a " well-chosen mare (she may be a little larger, more bony, more " roomy, and in every way coarser than the horse, to the advantage " of the stock), sound, healthy, and well-limbed, he may be certain, *' accidents and contingencies set aside, of raising an animal that " will be creditable to him as a scientific stock-breeder, and profit- "able to him in a pecuniary sense. " The great point then to be aimed at is, the combining in the " same animal the maximum of speed compatible with sufficient size, " bone, strength, and solid power to carry heavy weights or draw " large loads, and at the same time to secure the stock from the "probability, if not certainty, of inheriting structural deformity or " constitutional disease from either of the parents. The first point " is only to be attained, first, by breeding as much as possible to " pure blood of the right kind ; and, second, by breeding what is " technically called among sportsmen and breeders, «/>, not down : " that is to say, by breeding the mare to a male of superior (not " inferior) blood to herself, — except where it is desired to breed " like to like, as Canadian to Canadian, or Norman to Norman, " for the purpose of perpetuating a pure strain of any particular " variety, which may be useful for the production of brood " mares." It is frequently objected by farmers that they cannot afford to pay forty or fifty dollars for the service of a thoroughbred stallion, when they can get that of a good common horse for ten or fifteen. To this objection the only proper reply is, that they cannot afford to take the service of the common horse as a gift. The cost of the service of the stallion is a very small part of the cost of raising a horse. The care and attention that the mare should receive during pregnancy, the risks of foaling, and the feed of the mother and colt during lactation, as well as the growth and train- ing of the colt for four or five years, are the same in every case ; and it may be safely assumed, as an average rule, that while the thoroughbred colt may cost from twenty-five to fifty dollars more than the common-bred one, the vigor of his constitution during his growth, and the extra value of his appearance and his ability LIVE STOCK. 399 to perform when ready for marlcqt, will be worth from one to several hundred dollars more. If it will pay to raise horses at all, and this is a question which must be decided by each man for him- self, it will certainly pay, in every case, to raise the best horses that it is possible to produce. If blood-horses were only valuable for pleasure-driving and for racing, the case would be quite different ; but they are more valu- able for road-work, for farm-work, for horse-cars and omnibuses, and for all of the uses to which horses are ordinarily put, than are any others ; so that there is no risk in making the experiment, while there is always a chance of securing an animal of extraor- dinary value. The mare and the stallion having been coupled, the work of horse-raising is onlv fairly commenced. The success with which it is carried on will depend upon the skill and attention with which every detail is attended to, from this time until the weaning, and, indeed, until the training of the colt is accomplished. It should be remembered that the mare has now, not only to make up the wastes of her own frame, but to carry on the growth of a foetus, weighing at birth probably two hundred pounds ; and she should be allowed such a quantity of nutritious food as will secure the best development of the foal, and as shall keep her in the best condition for delivery, and for the supply of milk to her offspring. She should never be overworked, and she should never be allowed to remain entirely idle ; for exercise and good grooming are as important to the mother as they are to the colt himself. Dur- ing the latter months of pregnancy, when the mare may be too heavy for use on the road, she should be allowed a free range in the fields, or at least a roomy loose box in which she may take the necessary amount of exercise ; and she should never be harassed or teazed, or in any way annoyed. After the birth, if it is necessary to work her, as it generally is on farms, the foal should not be allowed to run by her side, nor to draw her milk while she is overheated. Nor should she be so excessively worked that she cannot furnish him always, after having had time to cool off, with an abundant supply of 26 400 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDET. healthy milk. It is not usually the custom among farmers to feed grain to breeding-mares, nor to young colts ; but there is no period in the life of a horse when a little grain judiciously given will produce so good an effect on his form, his spirit, and his constitution, as during the six months before and the six months after his foaling ; and, very early during his colthood, he should re- ceive, first an occasional handful, and then a regular daily feeding of the best oats. As it has been well-demonstrated, in the care of all live stock, that a clean and open condition of the skin is conducive to health and to economical feeding, so it will be found that no labor on the farm is more profitably expended than that which is devoted to a a daily thorough grooming of even the very young colt. Both before weaning, and after, the young animal should be treated in such a manner as his future usefulness and his future need for strength make necessary. He should be well fed, well groomed, constantly handled, and petted and talked to, and should have sufficient exercise, and, during the first five years, no excessive work ; and should be, even in his infancy, accustomed to harness and wheels and saddles, and all the other accompaniments of his future service. By following these rules we may hope, without any perceptible additional expense, to raise an animal that will be, other things being equal, many times more valuable than the poor, half-starved, and neglected " shag " that farmers generally bring to market. Any fair horse is worth one hundred and fifty dollars in the New York market, although he may have been neglected from the day of his conception until the day of his sale to the drover, but very often the same animal, if he had received the care herein recom- mended, would have been eagerly bought for from five hundred to one thousand dollars on the farm ; and the whole extra amount of the price will have been gained by the inexpensive means of a little extra care, and by the proper selection rather than by the increased quantity or value of the food. If, in addition to all this care and attention, we have taken pains at the outset to put the right blood into the brute's veins, we may feel confident, not only LIYE STOCK. 401 that he will be purchased at a high price, but that the purchaser will always feel satisfied with his bargain. Much has been said and written in this country about the Percheron horses, and surely any one who will visit the animals imported by the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, and now standing at Mr. Motley's farm at Jamaica Plain, will realize the fact that only one-half of the story has been told. They are large, magnificent animals, of immense weight and power, and yet with an activity that it is surprising to see in such a mass of flesh. Of course, being large, they are large feeders, and " Orleans," who weighs fifteen hundred pounds, would undoubtedly consume as much as an average pair of farm-horses ; but, on the other hand, he would probably draw a heavier load than the pair would, and would draw it the same distance in less time. It is supposed that these horses originated in a cross of the old horse of Normandy with the blood of the desert, originally intro- duced into Spain by the Moors, and in the conflicts between Spain and France, brought into connection with the blood of Normandy. Certainly these horses, in their heads and in their action, show many of the characteristics of the Arabian horse, and for heavy teams, especially for city truck-work, it would be difficult to conceive of better animals. Frank Forrester recommends, and the recommen- dation seems to be a good one, that mares of this breed be crossed with the thoroughbred English race-horse ; — certainly, for farm teams or for carriage use, a combination of the size and lofty action of the one, with the quickness, determination, and endurance of the other, must produce the most satisfactory results. I cannot better conclude these remarks on horse-breeding than by giving Frank Forrester's summary : — " First. Size, symmetry, and soundness are mostly to be " regarded in the mare ; — blood from the sire, beauty from the dam, " is the golden rule. Second. She should have a roomy frame, hips "somewhat sloping, a little more than the average length, wide- " chested, deep in the girth, quarters strong and well let down, " hocks wide apart, wide and deep in the pelvis. Third. In tem- "per she should be gentle, courageous, free from all irritability 402 HANDT-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " and viciousness. Fourth. Previous to putting her to the horse, " she should be brought into the most perfect state of health, not " overfed, or loaded vi^ith fat, or in a pampered state, but by judi- " cious exercise and an abundance of nutritious food and proper "grooming, she should be in the very best condition. Fifth. "During gestation she should have generous and nourishing, " but not heating diet. For the first three or four months she " may be worked moderately, and even to within a few weeks " of her foaling she may do light work with advantage to her " system." The treatment of farm teams is a matter of great consequence to the farmer; for the same principle which requires that the driver of the steam-engine should keep every part of his machine well oiled and in good adjustment, and that he should keep his boiler well supplied with fuel and with water, should actuate the farmer in keeping this most valuable and really expensive assistant to his labors in efficient condition by careful grooming, judicious feeding, and attentive oversight. Very much of the value and availability of the horse depends on the quality and quantity of his food, and on the manner in which it is given to him. Too much food at one time, too little at another, food of improper kinds or in a bad state of preparation, is the foundation of one-half the ills that horse-flesh is heir to. There is no worse economy than the stinting of food, or the administer- ing of bad food because it is cheap. Also, there is no more wasteful practice than the giving of too rich and expensive food. Neither is there any greater source of loss in connection with the keeping of farm-horses, than the neglect to which they are system- atically subjected. The horse, even in the rudest state, is of a somewhat delicate organization. His powers are very great, — greater than is generally supposed ; — but in order to their develop- ment and to their long endurance, it is necessary that he be fed with the greatest care and with an ever-watchful judgment. Probably the capital invested in farm-horses in the United States would go twice as far ; that is, the animals would last in a useful I LIVE STOCK. 403 condition twice as long, if they were thoroughly well fed* and cared for. • At the National Horse Show at Springfield, several years ago, Mr. Lewis B. Brown, of New York, exhibited a four-in-hand team, which trotted around the course in about three minutes. The united ages of the four horses amounted to more than one hundred years, and even the oldest of them remained useful for a long time after that. Indeed, Mr. Brown told me that he did not consider it of much importance that a horse should be less than twenty years old. Yet, as we look over the farms of even our best farming districts, how few useful teams do we find that are more than fourteen or fifteen years old. Deducting the years of their colthood, we see that the period of their possible usefulness is reduced fully one-half by careless and injudicious treatment, and especially by stingy or indiscreet feeding. To go over the whole range of directions for feeding, from the time when the mare is first got with foal, until the foal is worn out by years of service, would require more space than can here be spared. Con- cerning farm-horses, the following directions from Herbert's " Hints " will be found useful : — " With regard to mere farm-horses, it is, usually, the habit to " feed them entirely on hay, or cut straw, with now and then a " mash, giving them little or no oats or corn. It is certain, how- *' ever, that this is a mistake. That the value of the work which "the horse can do, and of the horse himself, arising from his im- " proved condition and increased endurance, will be materially " raised, while the actual cost of his keep will not be very materially " increased by the diminution of the quantity of the cheaper " and less nutritious food given to him, and the addition of a " smaller or larger portion of the more nutritive grain, which fur- *' nishcs stamina and strength in a degree greatly in excess of its " own increased value, may be assumed as facts. " Slow-working horses do not, of course, require so much nutri- " ment of a high quality, as those which are called on to do quick "■ work, and perform long distance; ; but, as a rule, all animals "which have to do hard work, and much of it, must necessarily 401- HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " be so kept as to have hard flesh ; and they cannot be so kept " unless they are fed on hard grain," To show the manner in which horses are kept by the New York omnibus proprietors, the following is extracted from a report offered to the Farmers' Club of the American Institute, and pub- lished in the transactions of the Institute for 1855 : — Stage Line. Red Bird Stage Line Spring Street Stage Line , Seventh Avenue do Sixth Avenue, f Horses Railroad. t Mules •New York Consolidated Stage Company. Washington Stables, 6 livery horses i6 " It is the object of the stage proprietors to get all the work " out of their teams possible, without injury to the animals. " Where the routes are shorter, the horses consequently make '' more trips, so that the different amounts and proportions of " food consumed are not so apparent when the comparison is " made between the different lines, as when it is made also with the " railroad and livery horses. The stage-horses consume most, " and the livery horses least. " The stage-horses are fed on cut hay and corn-meal wet, and " mixed in the proportion of about one pound of hay to two " pounds. of meal, a ratio adopted rather for mechanical than " physiological reasons, as this is all the meal that can be made to "adhere to the hay. The animals eat this mixture from a deep " mano-er. The New York Consolidated Stage Company use a * And six quarts of oats at noon. LIVE STOCK. 405 " very small" quantity of salt. They think it causes horses to " urinate too freely. They find horses do not eat so much when " worked too hard. The large horses eat more than the small "ones. Prefer a horse of one thousand to one thousand one hun- " dred pounds weight. If too small, they get poor, and cannot " draw a stage ; if too large, they ruin their feet, and their shoul- "ders grow stiff and shrink. The principal objection to large " horses, is not so much the increased amount of food required, " as the fact that they are soon used up by wear. They would pre- " fer for feed, a mixture of half corn and half oats, if it were not " more expensive. Horses do not keep fat so well on oats alone, " if at hard labor, as on corn-meal, or a mixture of the two. " Straw is the best for bedding. If salt hay is used, horses eat " it, as not more than a bag of two hundred pounds of salt is used " in three months. Glaubers-salt is allowed occasionally as a laxa- "tive in the spring of the year, and the animals eat it voraciously. " If corn is too new, it is mixed with an equal weight of rye-bran, " which prevents scouring. Jersey yellow corn is best, and horses " like it best. The hay is all cut, mixed with meal, and fed moist. " No difference is made between day and night work. The travel "is continuous, except in warm weather, when it is sometimes " divided, and an interval of rest allowed. In cold weather the " horses are watered four times a day in the stable, and not at all " on the road. In warm weather, four times a day in the stables, "and are allowed a sip on the middle of the route. " The amount that the company exact from each horse is all that " he can do. In the worst of traveling they fed four hundred and " fifty bags per week of meal, of one hundred pounds each. They " now feed four hundred. The horses are not allowed to drink "when warm'; if allowed to do so, it founders them. In warm " weather a bed of sawdust is prepared for them to roll in. " Number of horses, three hundred and thirty-five. Speed varies, " but is about four miles an hour. Horses eat more in cold " weather than in warm, but the difference cannot be exactly " determined." Proper stabling and grooming are hardly less important to the 406 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. economical keeping and to the long-sustained usefulness of the horse than proper feeding. The horse is always kept in a more or less artificial condition. His food is generally much richer than that which he would obtain in a state of nature, and the amount of steady exercise which is required of him is very much greater. It has been found by long experience that his artificial condition requires equally artificial treatment ; but, so far as farm-horses are concerned, the accompaniments of warm clothing, bandaging the legs, and habitual sweating, may be dispensed with. The regular, thorough, daily grooming, however, and such housing as is neces- sary to prevent undue exposure to cold or to drafts, are as import- ant with farm teams as with those kept for fast work. The amount of food consumed will be less, and the ability to perform work will be greater, if the animals are every day thoroughly well curried and brushed. The horse's legs and pasterns in particular, and the setting on of the mane, should be efficiently cleansed and rubbed ; and he should be kept in all respects in a cleanly, tidy, cheerful, and healthy condition. Horses, properly kept and regularly worked, are but little liable to disease, and where the team force of the farm is neither too small nor too great, their work is performed at an economical rate; but where they are either overworked or allowed to stand long idle, they are exceedingly expensive and hazardous property. Properly kept, properly managed, and properly used, horses are, in the main, much cheaper than oxen, because they perform their work with so much greater celerity ; but, in the ramshackle stable system that prevails on a majority of farms, oxen, which are too slow and too stupid to be easily abused, and which will keep in condition on less nutritious food, are generally most esteemed. One important effect of their selection, however, in place of horses, is a great waste of the labor of the farm-hands. The difference between plowing an acre a day or an acre and a half, between traveling ten miles or fifteen in the same number of hours, is one of those differences which are constantly under- mining our calculations for profit. Good and profitable farming necessarily implies brisk and active work on the part of every man LIVE STOCK. 407 connected with it ; and it is only with the aid of two horses, kept in the best condition, performing their work with alacrity, and stimulating their attendants to activity, that we may hope to accomplish the best results. But all this involves much more care in feeding and grooming than farmers are disposed to give to their teams. If I were writing a book of directions for hand-to- mouth farmers, I should advise them to have no horses upon their farms, but to poke along through life in a slow and slipshod way, with comfortable and lazy cattle and comfortable and lazy farm hands. As, however, my object is to introduce an improvement in every branch of agriculture, and to increase the activity and economy with which every operation is performed, I do not hesi- tate to recommend, that, for all regular farm-work, horses, or, still better, large mules, be employed. For the extra work of a large farm, especially where the fattening of beef cattle is one of the objects, a few pairs of oxen, to be worked moderately from time to time will be found economical. Under all other circumstances I should be disposed to discard them. NEAT CATTLE. In i860 there were in the United States 23,419,378 neat cat- tle, — old and young, working oxen, and milch cows, — and these were all, or almost all, owned by farmers and graziers. Their immense number indicates the magnitude of their importance to the farmer ; and, indeed, it is rare to find any farm, large or small, upon which the feeding of the bovine race is not a very large element of the business. So far as their treatment in this book is concerned, however, it has been thought better to devote to its discussion several distinct chapters, namely, " Soiling and Pas- turing," "The Dairy," and "Winter Management and Feed- ing." We will pass, therefore, to the consideration of SHEEP AND WOOL GROWING. Sheep husbandry seems to be, just now, under a cloud. Prob- ably there are not nearly so many sheep now in the country as there were ten years ago. 403 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Common mutton is and has been for some time very low, and the low price to which wool has fallen, owing to the extra pro- duction that high war prices induced, has made the prospect very gloomy. As a consequence, hundreds and thousands of sheep have been slaughtered for their pelts, and sheep-farmers are, in many parts of the country, turning their attention to other branches of industry. At the same time, the markets are very poorly supplied with good mutton, and really fine carcasses are in demand at paying prices. Whether wool-growing will become profitable is largely a ques- tion of tariff, and of the extension of woolen manufacture, and this is too much a matter of speculation for a sound opinion to be given. All that it is safe to say is, that well-fattened mutton of the larger breeds is sure to remain, as it now is, sufficiently in demand at high prices to leave a good margin of profit for the farmer ; — as much, probably, as in the feeding of beef cattle. Early lambs, also, — wherever the cost of transportation to the larger markets does not interfere, — may be produced at a good profit, under careful management. There is no branch of husbandry in which more depends on dose attention to details than in the raising of sheep, and no one who is not experienced in their management should undertake the business without first making a special study of the subject, which it would be impossible to treat fairly in a limited space. Any attempt to condense the necessary instructions, so as to bring them within the limits of the plan of this work, would surely be unsatisfactory. The reader is referred to Randall's excellent treatise on Sheep Husbandry. Swine hold an exceedingly important place in agriculture, — the stock of swine in the United States in i860 havmg numbered 30^354,213. So far as the agriculture of the more improved parts of the country is concerned, swine have three important uses : First^ LIYE STOCK. 409 the consumption of grain, roots, etc., which would otherwise be unsalable at remunerative rates ; second^ the consumption of refuse, which, but for them, would be wasted ; third^ the production and preparation of manure. In all cases, where manure is used at all, the last of these is one of the most important of their advan- tages. In those almost mythically large grain-fields of the West, where the crop is said to be harvested mainly by droves of cattle whose gleaners are herds of swine, it is not to be expected, — perhaps it is hardly possible, — that much system should be intro- duced. It is one of those cases where unavoidable waste can only be mitigated, and where the amount lost is considerably less than would be the cost of more systematic harvesting. On the small farms of the poorer regions of New England, where nearly every crop requires its yearly application of manure, the services of swine become important, chiefly in the manipulation and increase of this article. In the wide range of districts lying between these two extremes, they are more or less important according to the sys- tem of cultivation pursued. The extent to which it is profitable to feed swine solely for the production of pork, and the value to be attached to their influence on the dung-heap, must be regulated according to the circumstances of each district, and almost of each farmer. All that can be done in this connection is to state a few well-known facts concerning their care, treatment, and varieties. On butter-farms, where there is a large quantity of skimmed milk that it is not considered worth while to make into cheese, almost the only means for disposing of this valuable material is to feed it to swine. And it should be the care of the farmer to regulate the number kept as closely as possible by the quantity of milk that can be supplied to them, unless his circumstances would justify his feeding them largely with grain, or purchased food, which is not always the case. Where the supply of skimmed milk is depended upon as the chief food of these animals, it will be better to keep breeding sows, coming in at different times, so that, for as large a part of the year as possible, there may be young pigs to be fed, as these 410 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. convert the milk more rapidly into flesh than do older animals. Generally, in well-settled neighborhoods, and in the vicinity of towns, the price paid for weaning-pigs is much greater in propor- tion to their weight than that paid for fat hogs. If it is considered profitable, owing to the low price of grain, or the probable high price of pork, to feed grain, it will be found better in all cases to steam this, or otherwise to cook it. If it is previously ground the profit will be still greater. Especially if it is not to be steamed or cooked, all except nubbins and waste grain should be finely ground, and soaked in water before feeding. The question of steaming, which is a very important one, is dis- cussed at length under its proper head. It may be stated, in general terms, that there will be an economy of fully one-third of the food, if it is properly cooked before being given to the animals. If there are no facilities for cooking or steaming, it will be a good plan to mix the meal with hot water, and to leave it a few hours in a covered barrel, or other closed vessel, before feeding it. POULTRY. There is a good deal more to be said about poultry, which it would be of advantage for every farmer to hear, than I can properly take room for in this connection. Ideas as to the best manner of keeping poultry vary so much that it is only on a care- ful consideration of the farmer's local circumstances that it will be safe to make a decision as to the kinds to be raised, the size of the flocks, and the manner in which they are to be kept. It has \ono- been believed, and perhaps it is true, that it is impossible to keep a thousand hens with the same proportional profit that one may obtain from a flock of a dozen or twenty. But there is a large class of poultry-fanciers who discard this idea, and think that if the same amount of freedom were given to the larger flock, the deo-ree of profit would be the same. This is, to a certain ex- tent, demonstrated by the experience of Mr. Warren Leland, of the Metropolitan Hotel in New York, who, at his farm near Rye, on the New York and New Haven Railroad, keeps several thou- LIVE STOCK. ■ 411 sand fowls and large flocks of ducks and turkeys witk very great success. His profits, and the quite uniform results of several years, indicate that with his circumstances one may raise an almost unlimited amount of poultry. But many farmers would find it inconvenient to carry on the business on Mr. Leland's system. He gives to it a large area of woodland and meadow, with various exposure, and a good stream of running water, and exercises but little restraint over his birds. They go where and when they please, roost in trees or in a warm stone houseas they please, and hatch their broods in prepared boxes or in natural nooks as they please. His proportional loss is very small J the number of eggs he obtains is probably pretty nearly as large in degree as it would be with a small flock, and his success with early and late chickens is enough to satisfy any breeder. Of course, even in this very natural system, the fowls are by no means left in an unguided state of nature ; for a skillful person de- votes his whole time to their feeding and supervision, and to great care with reference to sitting hens. The feeding is liberal but not wasteful, and the poultry-raising is an important branch of the business of the farm rather than a mere incident. Many years ago, in Western New York, an aged couple sup- ported themselves by the production of eggs on a place of about four acres. They kept a thousand laying hens and no cocks. The whole place was surrounded by a high fence, and was divided into two plots, the fowls being kept in one of the plots of two acres during the whole of one season, while corn was being raised on the other ; and the land was kept for several years in . this uniform rotation of poultry and Indian corn. The eggs were sold by contract throughout the season for eleven cents a dozen, and the annual income varied but little from a thousand dollars. In the autumn the fowls were slaughtered and sent to market, and a fresh lot of early pullets was bought early in the next sea- son. This man believed, on comparing the production of corn on his own land with that of the neighborhood, that the manure of the poultry increased the crop to such an extent that the extra product was sufficient for the entire season's feeding. Probably 413 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. this is the rose-colored side of the story, and there may have been drawbacks with which I am not acquainted, but my information as above given was received from a perfectly reliable source. In a little book recently published,* a very elaborate descrip- tion is given of a system which is now being adopted in England for raising poultry, mainly under glass and in large establish- ments, and on thoroughly well-organized business principles. The detail is curious, and it will be agreeable to know that the results are satisfactory ; but it is yet too uncertain to be adopted here except as an experiment. In Mr. Flint's preface, however, there is given a plan for keeping poultry in confinement, which v/ill probably answer very well, and which is at least worthy of careful trial with some of the large Asiatic breeds which are less inclined to roam, and need, probably, less active exercise than our old-fashioned fowls. " Build coops," says Mr. Flint, " of lath or thin boards, about " ten feet long, four feet wide, and two feet high, — four feet in " length at one end to be a tight house, or coop of boards, with " floor and feeding conveniences, water, etc., — the latticed portion " to be bottomless. Arrange handles at each end, so that two men " could lift and move the whole ; set these coops upon grass ground, " and move them their length or width daily, thus affording a fresh "grass run. Twelve chickens should do well in each. As soon " as they can be distinguished, separate the cocks from the pullets, " and w^-y^r allow them together, except for breeding purposes, after- " ward. As soon as the cocks are marketable, sell them, reserving " only the best individuals as breeders, with little, if any, regard to " consanguinity. Keep an unlimited supply of cracked corn before " them until they are large enough to eat it whole, when it may be " given them uncracked. This, with grass, is their main diet. " Give also some variety with a little animal food. The pullets " should begin to lay early in October, when they should have " a plenty of fish-waste, and lime in some form, in addition to " the grain. In twelve months from the time they begin to lay * Geyelin's Poultry Breeding, with a preface by Charles L. Flint. Bos:on : 1867. LIVE STOCK. 413 " they should produce one hundred and fifty eggs each, and, if " properly cared for, they might do more. As soon as the hens " stop laying and begin to moult, kill and sell them. The white " Leghorns are always ready for the table. " I do not know that this movable coop has been tried on a " large scale ; but there seems to be no reason why it should not " prove successful. Grass will grow wonderfully under it ; and "this could be used ■ either for soiling or for hay. Some other " conveniences would, of course, be necessary in winter. " A coop of the above-mentioned size would accommodate twelve " laying hens ; and four of them with forty-eight hens, would " probably do better than the same number in the inclosure plan, " and avoid the necessary investment for fences and repairs. " Some say poultry in such confinement, when all their wants are " supplied, will pay better than when running at liberty, either in " growth, fat, or eggs ; and it is probably true. " Now, if one coop will succeed, or if one inclosure like that " described will succeed, what conceivable reason is there why " any number should not ? We all know that success in any " thing depends as much upon details as upon plan ; without " attention to either, failure is certain ; with only one, success "can be but partial." As with every thing else on the farm, the profit of poultry- raising must be sought largely in some extra production, — either extra size, extra early maturity, early laying, fine varieties, or extra preparation for market, — in short, whatever may enable one to get " fancy prices." Very early in the spring, or late in the winter, before our neighbors' fowls have commenced to lay, if we can stimulate ours to the plentiful production of eggs, we can sell them for twice or three times the later price, while the cost of the stimulant is inconsiderable. For early laying two things are necessary : first^ very early pullets of the spring before ; second^ warm and sunny quarters. If to these we add stimulating food, — a little pepper, a little chopped roots or cabbage, — and especially if we cook the grain, we may hope to get in February eggs for which we should otherwise be obliged to wait until April 414 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY.'' or May. Probably it would be most profitable to sell out all but the breeding stock of old fowls every fall, and to retain from our own early broods, or to purchase from our neighbors, well-grown pullets that were hatched not later than the middle of April. Under the proper treatment, these birds will commence to lay plentifully about Christmas, and will give many eggs before com- mon flocks commence laying at all. As the best means for explaining my idea of what a poultry- house should be, I add the following description of the house that I have recently built at Ogden Farm. Its north wall is a well-laid stone fence, five feet high, well- pointed with cement on both sides. The rear plate of the roof is laid in cement on the top of this wall, and the openings between the sides and the wall are closed with cement. The height of the plate in front is eight feet ; the batter, or slope of the front, two feet. The length of the house is twenty-five feet. The. door is in one end. The sashes are made like those used in greenhouses, with only longitudinal bars, the glass being lapped one pane over another, with no putty at the lap. The width between the bars is ten inches. The sashes are let in at the outside of the upright joists supporting the roof; the joists pro- ject about four inches inside of the inner face of the sashes ; and, stretched along these at a distance of about five inches from the glass, is a netting, (made of very light galvanized wire,) which cost less than $io, — the entire cost of the house being about $75. The nests are placed (in a row running the whole length of the house) immediately under the windows. The perches (four in number) are raised only two feet from the ground, and run the entire length of the building, occupying the rear half of the house. Both ends and the roof of the house are lined with lathing, the space between which and the outer wall is filled with straw for cold weather. The ventilator at the top of the house can be opened or closed as the temperature may require. The nests are " secret," but so arranged that they may be entirely opened and swept out at pleasure. The perches are placed near the LIVE STOCK. 415 ground, in order that heavy birds may not injure themselves in flying down ; and they are all movable so that they may be taken out and exposed if necessary to the sun and rain for freshening, and so that the ground beneath the perches may be easily re- moved, the principle of the earth closet being adopted for the preservation of the manure, — it being the rule to mix the drop- pings about twice a week with loose dry earth, either by spading or raking. In summer time the sashes can be removed, and the house will have the effect simply of a well-built shed open only to the south. As I have only just constructed this house, I cannot speak with the authority of experience concerning it, but I see no reason why it may not be as effective as it is simple and economical. Concerning the breed of fowls which it is most profitable to keep, opinions vary so much that it would be well for each man to experiment for himself. After a careful consideration of all that has been said on the subject during the past few years by writers for agricultural papers, and after a considerable observa- tion of different flocks, I have decided upon a cross between the Brahma Pootra and the Gray Dorking, breeding only from Brahma hens and Dorking cocks. The progeny of these birds are quite good layers, and arrive early at maturity, growing to a good size ; while the quiet disposition that they inherit from their mothers, and the domestic habits that these teach them, especially adapt them for confined localities. When fattened for market, they are of good size and particularly good appearance. Among the pure breeds, all things considered, especially when they must be confined within narrow limits, I think that the Brahmas are the best of those with which we are familiar ; although the French breeds of Houdan and Crevecoeur, which are being actively brought into notice, have, it is claimed, some advan- tages over even these. I have no personal experience with them beyond an admiration of their fine proportions and beautiful plu- mage, which form attractive features of all modern poultry shows. Among turkeys, the Bronze variety probably holds the highest place ; and among ducks, I prefer the Rouen. 27 416 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. In feeding poultry, quite as much advantage will be derived from the cooking or steaming of grain, as follow^s from the adoption of the practice u^ith any other stock of the farm. Poultry yards, except for temporary use at planting time, are decidedly objectionable ; and, in a rather extensive experience in market-gardening, I have concluded that at no time during the year do fowls do so much harm as good in the garden. In large fields the good that they do in consuming insects, much more than compensates for their slight injury to the crops ; but, of course, in small house-gardens, where a few square yards of freshly set plants cannot be spared, the injury that they do is proportionately much greater, and for a little while they had better be kept out of the garden. CHAPTER XIV. SOILING AND PASTURING. There is one improvement in agricultural operations which, although it originated many years ago, and although, in certain parts of Europe, and in a very few instances in this country, it is in constant and successful use, has made far less progress in win- ning public favor among farmers than it was at first supposed that it would. The practice referred to is that of feeding cattle during the summer season entirely in the stall or in the yard, sowing spe- cial crops for forage, and regularly cutting this and hauling it to the feeding-place. The reason for the limited adoption of the system of soiling is to be sought in the scarcity and consequent high price of farm labor, and also in the large size of average American farms, as compared with the average working force employed upon them. Not only is it found expensive and annoying to a farmer, who is short of help, to attend daily, and several times a day, to the feed- ing of cattle ; but there are so many fields on our farms, as generally arranged, which are either too large or too remote from the homestead for proper cultivation, that the only resource is to make use of their crops by pasturing. As a general rule, too, these fields are too poor and in too low a state of cultivation to produce enough fodder to make soiling advisable. A great deal has been said in deprecation of these circumstances, and it is commonly recommended that farmers employ more labor, that they bring their fields to a higher state of cultivation, and that they do many other things which the best agriculture renders desir- able. But I am not disposed to join the popular cry. We must take 418 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. facts in this world as we find them, and we can hope to improve our circumstances only very gradually. If a farmer has 200 acres of land, and only two or three hired hands, it would be folly for him to attempt to make any better use of the crops of his grass- fields than by grazing his animals upon them. And if a man so circum- stanced were to adopt the system of soiling, he would necessarily neglect other very important parts of his business, and would find that the system results in loss rather than in profit. If he could judiciously sell one-half of his domain, probably he would find it to his advantage in many ways to do so. But there is a feeling about the ownership of broad acres which will generally undo any argu- ment in favor of their reduction. If a farmer finds it practicable to add largely to his working force, and if he has the skill and executive power to manage the increased force successfully, there is no doubt that he might derive great advantage from the adoption of soiling. But unfortunately, a very large proportion of American farmers would find it impossible either to employ or to house a largely increased force of farm-hands ; and a great many of them would never succeed in controlling a larger number of men than could follow themselves in any given piece of work. To all such, then, the only wise recommendation is, that they adhere to their old practices, merely watching carefully for every opportunity for adopting the new ones when circumstances shall allow them to do so. For those who own small farms, and who, from their proximity to thickly settled neighborhoods, or by reason of any special cir- cumstances, may be able to employ profitably an increased num- ber of men, it has been amply proven, by experience in this country and in Europe, that their surest road to the most successful agricul- ture lies in the practice of soiling all of their live stock which cannot be fed upon the waste corners of the farm. It may be stated, as a general principle, that any land which will properly pasture throughout the season one cow to two acres, will, at least after a year or two of preparation, produce enough^ if its crops are mowed and. carried to the barn, to support two cows to one acre. And this has reference only to the growing of ordinary forage crops. SOILING AND PASTURING. i^y such as clover, rye, oats, and sowed corn. Where labor is still cheaper and the land is worked to a still higher degree, it is pos- sible to do even much more than this. But it should be a sufficient argument to say that the ability of a given area of land to support animal life may be, by soiling, increased fourfold. This increased ability to supply food is, after all, only one of the many important advantages that soiling offers. The better con- dition of the animals, and the far larger quantity of disposable manure, together with the yearly improving condition of the land itself, both in texture and in richness, are hardly less important. In an essay read before the Massachusetts Agricultural Society in 1 819, by Josiah Quincy, several points with reference to the soiling of cattle were very clearly set forth. This essay, and another on the same subject, have recently been republished. * Mr. Qijincy enumerates the following as the chief advantages of soiling : — " ist. The saving of land. " 2d, The saving of fencing. *' 3d, The economizing of food. " 4th, The better condition and greater comfort of the cattle. " 5th, The greater product of milk. " 6th, The attainment of manure," and, I might add — 7th, The improvement of the condition of the soil. Concerning the saving of land^ the fact alluded to above, that four times as many cattle, or even more, may be kept by soiling as by pasturing, is sufficiently conclusive. Strictly speaking, there is hardly a limit to the production that is possible under the high- est cultivation, but probably under the circumstances of ordinary farming the quadrupled production is all that could be hoped for. And surely this is sufficient to induce any one who can con- veniently do so to keep his stock in this manner. The saving of fencing^ which was discussed at length in the chap- * Essays on the Soiling of Cattle, etc. By Josiah Quincy. Boston : 1866. 420 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. ter on " Fences," is a matter of great consequence ; for the large amount of money, or what is equal to money — time and labor, expended in building and repairing the interior fences of the farm, is often appalling ; while the loss by reasoning of the shortening of the plow furrow, and the ground occupied by the fence and headland, and the excessive growth of noxious weeds on both sides of the fence, are serious arguments in favor of any practice by which fences may be entirely done away with or their extent reduced. The econo7ni%ing of food is an economizing of the very elements of all agricultural success, for the first object of all farming is the production of food for men and animals; and it seems worse than waste to have any valuable thing that the farm produces destroyed without return. Quincy says, " There are six ways by which beasts destroy the "article destined for their food, — ist. By eating ; id, By walk- 'Mng; 3d, By dunging; 4th, By staling; 5th, By lying down; " 6th, By breathing on it. Of these six, the first only is useful. " All the rest are wasteful. " By pasturing, the five last modes are exercised without any " check or compensation. By keeping in the house, they may be " all prevented totally by great care, and almost totally by very " general and common attention." Of course, it is not to be inferred from this that animals avail themselves of only one-fifth of the food produced by the field on which they are pastured. But any farmer will at once admit that the amount destroyed in the various ways referred to is very great ; and it is probably even greater in rich pastures than in poor ones, for the reason that after an animal has once filled itself it seems to devote a large part of the remaining hours of the day to the destruction of luxuriant food for which it has no immediate use. Whether the amount wasted is small or great, the waste may be almost entirely prevented by cutting and hauling to some other place than the surface of the field on which the crop grows. In soiling, especially in stalls, the amount of food administered may be exactly adjusted to the needs of the animals. They may SOILING AND PASTURING. 421 receive at each feeding exactly the quantity that they will entirely consume, and all beyond this may be reserved for future use ; while the small amount of rejected herbage will be ordinarily only so much as will be consumed with advantage by swine. With regard to the better condition and greater comfort of the cattle^ there is a sentimental idea that the advantage lies on the side of the pasturing ; and the most prevalent argument advanced in this connection is, that it is the natural way for animals to obtain their food. That it is natural is undoubtedly true j and, for animals in a state of nature, grazing, being the only means of subsistence possible, is, of course, the best means. But when we withdraw animals entirely from a state of nature, and reduce them, or elevate them, to such an artificial condition as shall cause them best to subserve our ends, there is no reason why unnatural means may not be with advantage adopted, provided they result in no detriment to the animals' health, comfort, or condition The amount of exercise required to maintain the health of any domes- tic animal is not great, and if we observe the conduct of cows at pasture we shall see that under the most favorable circumstances they take only so much exercise as is necessary to enable them to fill their stomachs with the choicest grasses within their reach, and that, being filled, they invariably remain quiet until, after rumination is completed, they need food again. On poor pastures, where a half-starved cow is obliged to walk nearly the whole day to pick up a scanty subsistence, there is no doubt that one of the principal causes of her poor condition is to be sought in the fact that she has been obliged to take more than the proper amount of exercise. Ample experience, the world over, has clearly demonstrated the fact, that, with proper facilities for exercising in the yard, cattle, fed regularly with nutritious food only in their stalls, are in better condition, and live longer in good health, than do those who are exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, and to the more precarious subsistence that natural herbage usually affords. Mr. Quincy refers to the assertion of a writer on soiling, to the effect that, during his experience with a large herd, kept for 422 HAXDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. several years in this way, " he never had an animal essentially sick, had never one die, and had never one miscarry." The product of milk^ as is very ably stated by Mr. Quincy, is greater throughout the whole season than under the system of pasturing, although there is no doubt that during the few weeks that follow the first turning out of hay-fed animals on to luxuriant and tempting pastures, the production of the field-fed cows is larger than that of the stall-fed ones ; but this excess very soon dwindles to an equality, and then falls below the soiling point. The early ripening of meadow-grasses, renders them soon less nutritious and less tempting ; and especially the pinching effect of long-continued drought reduces the average yield of pastures dur- ing the whole season considerably below what it would be, if, from the first opening of spring until the closing in of winter, there were never a day when the food was not ample and regularly ad- ministered. In pasturing we must either have so small a stock as not to be able to make full use of the growth of the early summer, or, if we are able to consume that entirely, must see our larger herds suffer for the want of abundant food during the season of less luxuriant growth. The attainment of manure^ which is so greatly facilitated by the soiling system, may be regarded as second in importance only to the saving of land. Indeed, it is to this effect of soiling that what is technically known as "high farming" looks for its greatest support. Of course, with a given amount of food, animals make a given amount of dung, and whether they eat that food in the fields or in the house makes no difference in this re- gard. But in the field the dung is dropped with great irregularity, and principally on those parts which, from shelter, shade, dryness during wet weather, or other causes, are chiefly selected by the animals for their resting-places. So far as the dropping of manure during the feeding-time of the animals is concerned, more will fall upon the rich land than upon the poor ; and it is impossible, in any ordinary system of pasturing, to secure any thing like an even distribution of the voidings of the stock. In addition to this, a very large proportion of the value of the manure, especially SOILING AND PASTURING. 4-23 of COWS, is wasted by evaporation, and by becoming the food of myriads of insects. The urine at each voiding falls only upon a limited surface, and there is nothing like a proper distribution of its fertilizing elements over the whole soil. It is doubtful, also, whether this deposit of manure upon the surface of the land, during the hottest season of the year, is the most economical. And even if there were no waste, and no concentration of the manure on certain parts of the field to the deprivation of other parts, the fact that the application is not under the control of the farmer, and that, as a rule, the land pastured this year is not most in need of this year's manure, would be sufficient to re-enforce whatever argument may be advanced against the custom. To have a large quantity of manure made under cover, and kept under such circumstances as to suffer very little, if any, waste, is of an importance which all farmers will readily acknowledge ; and the ability to control the application of this manure at will is of great consequence. I know, from my own experience in the stall-feeding of animals, that the amount of manure made in this way is enough to amaze any farmer who is not familiar with the practice. And not only is the quantity of the manure itself increased, but, by adding to it muck, dry earth, or other similar refuse, its valuable parts may be distributed throughout a still greater mass of material, enabling us to spread it more evenly over the ground. In all well-arranged soiling-barns the manure is received in a cellar under the animals, or in well-covered sheds behind them, both of which are protected against the draining away or waste of the manure. Therefore in this respect there is absolutely no waste, and it is a source of great satisfaction to the farmer to feel that he has the fertilizing capital of the whole farm completely under his control, and that he is able to apply it in such quantities as he deems best to the fields on which it will do the most good. The following quotation from Mr. Quincy's first essay will illustrate the truth of the foregoing statements :— " The twenty head consumed the product of 424 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. 2 1-2 acres, road-sides and orchard 3 " mowing-land. 3 1-4 " Indian corn cut as fodder. 2 " late and light barley. 3 " oats. 2 " late-sown Indian corn after a pea-crop. 1-4 " buckwheat. I " millet, buckwheat, and oats. 17 acres. " This is the whole land which was cut over for soiling, with " the exception of the after-feed on the mowing land, and the tops " of carrots and turnips. In comparing this result with the for- " mer practice of my farm, I apprehend the following statement to "be just : — " I offset the keeping from the nth of September to the 20th " of November against the old manner of letting the cattle run at " large during the autumn months on the mowing-land to its great " injury, by poaching and close feeding. If this should not be " deemed sufficient, I then make no estimate of the difference " between keeping fifteen head of cattle, the old stock, and twenty " head of cattle, my present stock. After these allowances and off- "• sets (which no man can doubt are sufficiently liberal), then I state " that my experiment has resulted in relation to land, in this, that I "have kept the same amount of stocky by soilings on seventeen acres of " land^ which had always previously required fifty acres. The result " is, in my opinion, even in this respect, greater than what is here " stated. This, however, is sufficient to exhibit the greatness of " the economy of this mode, so far as relates to land. " With respect to saving of fencing, the previous condition of " my farm was this. I had, at the lowest estimate, five miles of " interior fence, (equal to sixteen hundred rods,) which, at one dol- " lar the rod, was equal, in original cost, to sixteen hundred dol- " jars, and annually, for repairs and refitting, cost sixty dollars. " I have now not one rod of interior fence. Of course, this saving is " great, distinct, and undeniable. " In relation to manures, the effect of soiling is not less apparent "and unquestionable. The exact amount of summer product I SOILING AND PASTURING. 425 " have not- attempted to ascertain ; but I am satisfied, that, every *' thing considered, it is not less than one buck-load per month per " head j or, on twenty head of cattle, one hundred and twenty " loads for the six soiling months. In this estimate, I take into " consideration the advantage resulting from the urine saved by " means of loam, sand, or some imbibing recipient, prepared to " absorb it. " It remains to show that the cost of raising the food, cutting " it, and distributing it to the cattle, is compensated by these " savings. Upon this point, my own experience has satisfied me '' that the value of the manure alone is an ample compensation for " all this expense ; leaving the saving of land, of food, and of " fencing-stuff, as well as the better condition of the cattle, as a " clear gain from the system. As an evidence of this I state my " expenses for labor in conducting the soiling process. " During the month of June, I hired a man to do every thing '' appertaining to the soiling process — that is, cutting the food, " delivering it, taking care of the cattle in the day-time — for " fifteen dollars the month, he finding himself. In this arrange- " ment, it was estimated that I availed myself of half his labor. " At the end of the month I had the manure measured ; and I " found that the manure collected in my receptacle, (which was a " cellar under the barn,) and not including that which had been " made during the four hours each day in the yard, amounted to " fifteen loads, — a quantity of manure which I could not have " placed on my farm for thirty dollars ; and which I could have " sold there for twenty dollars, upon the condition it should be " carried away. It cost me, as above stated, fifteen dollars in the " labor of the attendant. " During the remaining five months, I added another man, be- " cause I found that a great economy in vegetable food would *' result from cutting it into pieces by a cutting-knife, and mixing '■'■ with it about one-third of cut salt hay or straw. This was *' done ; and I kept an accurate account of all the labor of cutting " the food in the field, bringing it into the barn, cutting it up there, "cutting salt hay or straw to mix with it, mixing this food, and 426 riANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " delivering it to the cattle; and found that it amounted to one " hundred and forty-eight days' labor. This, estimated at a dollar " the day, is one hundred and forty-eight dollars ; to which adding " fifteen dollars paid for labor in the month of June, the whole " expense was one hundred and sixty-three dollars. " The manure, at the end of the soiling season, certainly " equaled one hundred and twenty loads ; and could not have " been bought and brought there for three hundred dollars. Let " it be estimated at only two hundred dollars in value. No man " can question, I think, the correctness of my assertion, that the " value of the manure obtained is a clear compensation for this '•'• amount of labor ; and this including all the expense of labor con- '' nected with soiling. " It remains to be shown in what manner the whole process '' ought to be conducted by any one who may originally attempt " it, and also how far it is applicable to the farming condition of '' New England, and what species of farmers would find their " account in attempting it. " As to the manner in which the soiling process ought to be " conducted, besides that general care and personal superintendence " (at least occasionally, and by way of oversight) which is essential " to success in this as in every other business in life, three general " objects ought to claim the attention of every farmer or other " person who undertakes this process. "i. Provision against seasons of extraordinary drought, or " deficiency of general crop from any other natural accident. " 2. Succession of succulent food during the whole soiling sea- " son, and facility of its attainment. " 3. Preparation relative to care of the stock, and increase of " manure, — the particular objects of the soiling process." Concerning the crops to be raised for soiling, it is not possible to give such specific directions as will be applicable to all parts of the country, nor even to the circumstances of different farms in the same district. In many instances, the luxurious growth of meadows and clover-fields, together with the cuttings at the sides of lanes and on the ground about the house, etc., will be a very SOILING AND PASTURING. 427 important item of the supply of food. In others, it will be found best to depend almost entirely upon crops raised exclusively for this purpose. The principle, under all circumstances, is the same, and it is a very simple one, namely, — to get the largest possible quantity of nutritious, succulent food from the smallest possible area of land, and to constantly re-invigorate the land with the ex- cessive quantity of manure resulting from the feeding of its crops ; so that, year by year, its productiveness may be increased^ and that it may yearly carry a larger number of animals. As an illustration, rather than as a series of directions, I give herewith the system which was adopted in 1869 for the soiling of about thirty animals, old and young, at Ogden Farm. As the land had but recently come into my possession, after years of leasing and skinning, and as it is now very far from being in proper condition for the best results of soiling, I make no reference to the quantity of land sowed to each crop, as prudence required me to make this very much larger than on any average farm would have been de- sirable. I simply took care to provide for the production of more than could possibly be required, adopting the practice of cutting and curing for winter use whatever might be left standing on one field when its successor was ready for the scythe. I have already seen enough to convince me that within a very few years I shall be able to feed a full-grown animal abundantly from the produce of a single half-acre during the whole season from May 15 to November 15 ; and it seems evident that the increased production from one year to the next will be in constantly growing propor- tion, the fertility of the land being improved, not only in the ratio of the amount of manure applied, but also according to the number of cultivations and the absence of the injurious effect of the feet of animals pasturing upon it. The preparation consists in the sowing of winter rye early in September. In exceptional seasons this rye may, with advantage, be mowed over late in November, but ordinarily it had better be left untouched. Early in the winter, when the ground is so frozen that it will bear the treading of teams, it should be top- dressed with rather coarse stable manure, which serves not only as 428 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. a direct fertilizer, but as a mulch to protect the crop from the injurious effect of too frequent freezing and thawing, and of violent winds. In the autumn, before the ground becomes too wet, a consider- able area is plowed up and made ready for spring planting. As early in the spring as it is possible to go on to this land with teams, without injuring its texture, it is once lightly harrowed, then sowed with oats, and these thoroughly harrowed in, — the land, however, not being rolled, as the clods will afford a certain pro- tection against late frosts and high, cold winds. This sowing should always be made early in April, or, if the weather will admit, even in March. The commencement of its growth, however, may always be dated, in the latitude of New York, from about the loth or 15th of April. The only object in getting the seed in before this time is to get the work out of the way, and to insure its being planted in ample season for the earliest growing weather. About the first of May another tract, which had been plowed in the fall, is prepared in precisely the same manner and sown with oats. About the middle of May, or as soon as the plants are strong enough to bear the treatment, these two fields, if the land is dry and in good condition, should be neatly rolled down. It will be well, also, to make another sowing of oats or barley as late as the middle of May, but from the tenth of May until the first of August sowed corn should be put in, on a separate piece about every two weeks. That first planted will be large enough to cut late in July or early in August, and throughout the whole of August and September, and often far into October, corn may be relied upon as the chief soiling-crop, and both the quantity per acre and the value of the material as food, make it almost the best of all soiling-crops. In addition to the foregoing, a considerable area of grass or clover should be well manured and kept in all respects in the best condition ; and the hay crop being early taken ofF, the aftermath should be stimulated to the greatest possible extent. For, in exceptional seasons, or as the result of circumstances which can- not be foreseen, it might become necessary to depend very largely SOILING AND PASTURING. 429 upon our best grass to help out deficient crops upon the soiling ground. Of course, the better the conditio i of the land, and the longer it has been used for soiling, the less will be the liability of such' requirement. In favorable seasons, the soiling commences about the 15th of May, at which time rye, sown upon good land, will be high enough for cutting to be advantageously commenced, and it should be commenced some time before the crop heads out. Feeding from this crop may be continued until the grain is pretty well formed, but it should not be continued after the straw begins to grow hard and yellow. That portion of the rye which was cut off, after heading out, will produce nothing more, but that which was first cut will have shot up again, and will generally be ready for a second cutting by the time the whole field has been gone over. Matters should be so arranged that the rye will last until the early part of June, when, unless the area of rye is very large, the reli- ance for two or three weeks must be upon clover and grass which have been top-dressed for a heavy crop. Late in June, the earliest sown oats will begin to be fit for the scythe, and cutting upon them, and again upon the second and third sowings, may be continued until the straw commences to grow hard. They should form the chief reliance until about the first of August, when the sowed corn will be large enough for cutting. With this, as with the rye, that cut in an early stage of its growth will shoot up again and give a good second crop. By the aid of these second and third cuttings, the corn should be able to furnish all that will be required, until the danger of frost makes it necessary to cut it up for curing. After this, for a short time, the second growth, or aftermath, of the mowing lands, may be resorted to ; and when the grass begins to lose condition, and even far into December, the leaves of carrots, mangel-wurzels, and rutabagas, will form a valuable addition to the food ; and they and imperfectly developed cabbages may be used to usher in the slowly commencing feeding of hay and dried soiling crops. If the leaves, cabbages, etc., are properly protected at this cool season of the year, they may be kept fresh and succulent pretty nearly until 430 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Christmas time, and if roots and cabbages have been raised in sufficient quantity to furnish an important supply of food in this way, the roots and cabbages themselves will after that furnish an ample supply of fresh vegetable food. The prevailing argument against the soiling system, and one which naturally has great weight with nearly all farmers, is founded upon the scarcity and high price of labor. Scarcity, if the scarcity exist to such an extent as to v/ithdraw the article from the market, is an argument to which there is no reply ; but if it is only suffi- cient to create a high price, there is very much to be said on the other side of the question. If a farmer is so circumstanced that he can, even for high wages, always be sure of hiring additional help, and if his domestic arrangements are such that he can increase his force without abusing his family, there are few good farms, with properly arranged buildings, upon which soiling will not pay a handsome profit. Probably in feeding twenty cows the extra labor of planting, cutting, and feeding, and hauling out and spreading manure, would require, during six months of the year, the services of one man and one yoke of oxen. This may be set down as a permanent increase of the expenses of the farm, and in average regions it would probably amount to $400 each year. The abundant pasturage of twenty cows would require forty acres of good land, worth say $150 per acre, or $6,000. In soiling they would require but ten acres of land, worth $1,500, leaving to be charged to the pasturage system a capital sum of $4,500, upon which the interest, at seven per cent., would be $315. The pro- duct of manure would probably be at the rate of one two-horse load per month for each cow, or 120 loads. It is not easy to fix the value of this manure, as it must, of course, vary in different localities. In Rhode Island it would be worth three dollars a load, and in all of the older settled portions of New England, especially in the neighborhood of good markets, it would probably be worth pretty nearly that amount. As we proceed farther west, the value of the manure will decrease until it finally reaches the zero point. However, as it is quite certain that soiling will not be adopted except where manure has a high value, it will be SOILING AND PASTURING. 43]^ fair to assume that the quantity of manure specified above will be worth $250 ; — and if we allow $65 as the value of the manure dropped upon the pasture under the pasturing system, we shall have, In the two items of interest and manure, $500 return for $400 expended in labor, leaving a profit of twenty-five per cent. This Is not, in itself, a particularly brilliant showing ; for, under many circumstances, the simple item of contingencies would not unfrequently consume the entire profit ; — but the following facts are to be considered : first^ the man and team employed for the soiling work will render valuable assistance at harvest time, and whenever the work of the farm is hurried, and will regularly do a considerable amount of outside work j second^ the condition of the animals will be much better than when they are pastured in the field ; th'ird^ the product of milk will be larger ; fourth^ the chances that butter, cheese, or milk will have their taste affected by wild onion and other high-flavored weeds will be reduced \ fifth ^ the time wasted, and the derangement of farm-work encountered in driving cattle to and from the pasture will be entirely obviated j sixth^ the fertility of the farm will be immensely Increased. The first five of the advantages enumerated may be set down as incidental benefits, which will be sufficient to off^set the con- tingencies which, in their turn, may offset the 25 per cent, profit on the expense. But the last, the question of increased fertility, while it is an element to which it Is Impossible to attach a money value, is of far greater Importance than all of the others combined. Indeed, I have not the least hesitation in saying, that the fertility of any average land devoted exclusively to the soiling of cattle, and receiving all of the manure produced by them during the soiling season, will be doubled in five years, and the value of the land will be doubled as well. Whether it would double again in the next five years is by no means certain, but that It would, at the end of twenty years, be permanently worth for cultivation four times its original price is unquestionable. The frequent cultivation, usually twice In the season and sometimes three times, the im- mense amount of the very best of all farm manures applied yearly to the soil, and the almost entire absence of the treading of ani- 432 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. mals, this being confined entirely to the seasons of working, will obviously add almost incalculably to the fertility of any soil no^ already in the condition of a garden. Land which this year will soil twenty head of cattle, should, five years hence, soil at least thirty under the same general treatment ; while it will have been raised to such a condition of fertility that it may be repeatedly cropped with grain with the certainty of the very best results. Without greatly increasing and greatly modifying the labor of cultivation, it will be difficult to make use of the entire accumu- lated fertility of land that has been used for soiling for a number of years. It would be better, therefore, to use the. practice as a means of increasing the fertility of diff'erent parts of the farm con- secutively, and thereby putting them in a condition for the pro- duction of larger and more profitable crops of grain or of grass. The arrangements necessary for soiling may be very simple. They should, however, in all cases comprise easy facilities for distributing the food, perfect shelter for the manure, shade and good ventilation for the animals themselves, convenient appliances for watering, and, above all, ample exercising grounds. It is im- possible to keep animals in a state of the highest health if they are constantly tied in their stalls ; and there should be in connec- tion with the barn or shed, a good, dry, partly shaded, and large yard, into which the animals may be turned whenever the weather is favorable, and where it will generally be found advantageous to allow them to remain three or four hours every day; the custom being, usually, to turn them out at eight in the morning, bringing them in at ten for their second feed, turning them out again at three after their third feed, and bringing them in again for the fourth feed at five, another liberal feed following during or after the evening milking. Opinions vary somewhat as to the condition in which it is best to administer the food. Some give it to the animals when it is freshly cut and full of juice, while others prefer to let it wilt for a few hours before being taken into the barn. My own opinion is that the fresh feeding is the most natural, and productive of the best results, although the excessive succulence of the food may at first SOILING AND PASTURING. 433 have a loosening effect upon the bowels of the animals, which will render it necessary to give them one feed each day of dry hay or dried soiling fodder. In practice, there will always be more cut than can be fed at once, and in this way the stock will receive enough wilted food to modify the laxative tendency of that which has been given to them fresh. By reference to the plan and description of the barn and yards at Ogden Farm, it will be seen that all of these requirements have there been provided for ; and in any case in which it is deemed advisable to construct a large and rather expensive barn the soiling facilities may probably be attained as cheaply in the regular stalls as in any other way ; but if a special shed is to be erected, as an addition to already existing farm buildings, it will be sufficient to make a drive-way in front of the stalls, through which the carts can be directly led, the grass being thrown on the ground at the sides of the alley. The chief objection to sheds built directly upon the ground, even where the site is very well drained, lies in the fact that it is difficult to re- move the large amount of manure without either exposing it to the weather or rendering the shed untidy and inconvenient. To end this chapter in the spirit in which it was commenced, it may be well to restate the opinion, that while soiling offers im- mense advantages to the owners of small farms, near to good markets, and in localities where extra labor can be obtained with- out difficulty, it must work its way slowly to the favor of those who are not so circumstanced ; and, taking a larger view of its influence on the general agriculture of the country, it is not so likely that it will be widely adopted upon large farms as it is that it will make farmers content with small ones, and that it will hasten the happy day when American farmers generally shall realize the fact that the road to their best prosperity lies, not through broad fields covered by their parchments, but through deep furrows in their well-enriched land ; and when their accu- mulated capital will be invested neither in bank-stocks nor on bond and mortgage, nor yet in more land, but in such improve- ments on that already owned as shall double its valife and quad- ruple its profits. CHAPTER XV. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. I SHALL offer no apology for taking the material of this chapter almost exclusively from the writings of others. The question of the diseases of domestic animals is one of such great importance that it has received a good share of the attention of able men for many years. Old and barbarous practices, which entailed more suffering than benefit upon the poor brutes, are being rapidly given up, and, under the light afforded by considerate and thoughtful men, the treatment of even the most severe cases is at least much more humane than it formerly was, and, in proportion to its humanity, is undoubtedly more successful. Unfortunately, as in the case of the treatment of the diseases of the human race, nearly all recipes and instructions are more or less empirical, the administering of medicines belonging, as yet, by no means to the list of " exact sciences." The most that can be said in favor of the directions of veterinary surgeons is, that they have, especially during the last twenty years, devoted an untiring energy and sound judgment to an investigation of the causes of disease and of the effects of remedies ; and that they have, as a consequence, rejected many things that were formerly considered of absolute necessity, and have substituted simple remedies for severe ones. It has now come to be a recognized fact with veterinary sur- geons, livery-stable keepers, and intelligent farmers, that the sovereign remedy for external injuries, and for all strains, bruises, irritations, and cutaneous affections, is water. Applied hot or cold, as the occasion may require, and accompanied by the neces- MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 435 sary bandaging, blanketing, and fomentations, it is fast driving the firing-iron and the bfister, with the inexpressible suffering that they have caused, out of the stable and the shed. With regard to internal remedies and medicines, the scientific and practical worlds are yet apparently far from having reached a point entirely satisfactory even to themselves. But the tendency is undoubtedly in favor of a greater dependence on the natural restorative agencies of diet, fresh air, and suitable temperature. Old-fashioned grooms still have their mysterious secrets concerning the com- position of " balls," and their peculiar ways of crowding them down the throats of patient and long-suffering horses ; and the empire of balls and drenches, though happily weakened in its foundations, has by no means given up its sway over the un- educated minds of those to whom the care of our domestic animals is chiefly intrusted. Specifics for loosening the bowels, produ- cing silkiness of coat, brightness of the eye, and briskness of tem- per, — all more or less injurious, — are still much in use. Happily, however, the number is yearly increasing of those who are dis- posed to send all of these remedies after the vanishing firing-iron and blister, believing that the same effect on the bowels, the skin, the eye, and the temperament may be produced almost as readily, and certainly with less danger, by a judicious change in the character of the food. A soft, moist, warm diet, such as steamed hay or a hot bran-mash, will, except in such obstinate cases as ought not to be allowed under ordinary circumstances to arise, produce all the relaxation of the bowels that it is desirable to effect ; and in obstinate cases of constipation a copious injection of tepid water, repeated as often as may be necessary, cannot fail to produce the desired result, if any thing will do it. Especially in the case of horses, the constant winter diet, almost the whole year's diet indeed, consisting, as it usually does, simply of hay and oats in their raw state, is very liable to produce derangements of the digestive organs ; and it has been the custom to remedy the evil by the use of violent cathartic medicines. A particular attention to the changing of the food at times, — the occasional or even regular feeding of carrots, at least the oc- 436 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. casional cutting and moistening of food, and its more or less perfect steaming, — the occasional introduction of bran mashes into the weekly regimen, — will give that variety that the per- manent health of the animal requires ; and the necessity for administering medicines will be very largely avoided. Without by any means wishing to enter the lists in the con- test between allopathy and homeopathy, I cannot refrain from saying that my own experience, which has been but slight, and my observation, which has been considerable, both lead me to believe that, so far as it is necessary to administer medicines at all to domestic animals, the seemingly insignificant doses of the homeopathic practitioner are more rapidly effective, and far less injurious in their permanent results, than are the old prescriptions. And if there is any real foundation at all for the rapid and general establishment of homeopathy throughout the world, it is only reasonable that in the treatment of domestic animals its effect should be more certain and more active than in the treatment of our own diseases, for the reason that the diet of the brute world is so simple and inoffensive that there is little danger, either of a counteracting of the effect of the medicine, or of the creation of such a condition of the system as will require the vigorous action of large doses. Several works on veterinary homeopathy have been published, which contain sufficiently full and sufficiently simple instruc- tions for the administering of the remedies in those cases in which the character of the disease can be determined. In preparing for the press, several years ago, the book known as Herbert's " Hints to Horsekeepers," I compiled a chapter on veterinary homeopathy, which is as applicable at the present day as at the time when it was written. This chapter was made up chiefly from material found in Schaefer's " New Manual of Veterinary Homeopathic Medicine," and the " Hand-Book of Veterinary Homeopathy " by John Rush, The instructions of this chapter MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 437 were intended only for the use of horsemen, but the same prin- ciple applies throughout the whole list of domestic animals, and specific directions for the medication of all are included in the principal works upon the system, several of which may be obtained through any bookseller. The following extracts are made from the chapter above referred to : — * *' The remedies being in a liquid form, the best means of ad- " ministering them to the horse is to put six drops on a small " piece of bread, or on a wafer of flour paste, and to raise the " horse's head a little, ' press down the tongue to one side, and " pull it out as far as may be, and .then place the wafer as far back *' as possible ; after which the mouth is held closed with the hand, *' in order to compel the animal to swallow the wafer.' Schaefer " says : In some cases the dose has to be repeated ; but all use- *' less and improper repetition should be avoided. If no change " of any kind should take place after the first dose, this is a sure " sign that the medicine has been improperly selected, and that " a second dose of the same remedy would not do any more good " than the former has done. In this case we have to review the " symptoms a second time, and to select a different remedy. " If the first dose should produce a favorable change in the " symptoms of the disease, and this change should again be fol- " lowed by an aggravation, it is proper to give a second dose of " the same remedy. If the symptoms should become aggravated '' after the first dose, we should not all at once resort to a difFer- " ent remedy ; for this aggravation might be what we have termed " homeopathic aggravation, which would soon be followed by a " favorable reaction. In all very acute diseases that run a rapid " course, and, after one, two, or four weeks, terminate in death "or recovery, such as glanders, pleura pneumonia, etc., the dose " should be repeated every five, ten, or fifteen minutes. " In such dangerous maladies, the first dose is often followed *' by a visible improvement, which soon ceases, however ; this is " the time to repeat the dose, and a second dose may then be emi- * Herbert's Hints to Horsekeepers. Orange Judd & Co., New York. 438 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " nently useful. In chronic diseases that run a long course, the '' medicine may be repeated every day, or every two, three, or " four days. In such cases the rule is, likewise, not to interfere " with an incipient improvement by giving another dose of the same ** or some other remedy. *■'■ If the improvement stops, the medicine may be repeated, and " if no improvement at all should set in after a reasonable lapse " of time, another medicine may be chosen. Among the class of *' chronic diseases we number all nervous and mental diseases, ** lingering fevers, etc. An improper remedy does not produce *' any very injurious effects ; .for a homeopathic remedy only *' acts upon a disease to which the medicine is really homeo- " pathic : otherwise, the smallness of the dose is such that the '* medicine cannot possibly affect the organism. All that we have ** to do is, to give another remedy, and endeavor to avoid mistakes " for the future. Homeopathic remedies may be applied exter- *' nally in the case of burns and other injuries. We use princi- " pally arnica, Symphytum, and urtica-ureus, from twenty to " thirty drops in a half-pint of water, and this mixture to be " applied to the part according to directions. *' J proper diet in the case of sick domestic animals is of great " importance. All applications, quack medicines, etc., that might '* interfere with the regular treatment, have to be avoided. In- *'jections of water mixed with a little salt or soap are allowable. " The usual feed may be continued. * * * Half an hour, *' at least, should elapse between the feeding and the taking of ** the medicine. ^' On the treatment of the sick animal. Rush says: — *' Treatment of a sick animal. — As soon as an animal is discov- " ered to be unwell, let it be immediately placed in a house by *' itself; this is necessary both for the welfare of the sick animal " and for the safety of the others. The house that the animal is " placed in ought to be warm, well lighted and ventilated, and, "above all, kept scrupulously clean. Let the person who attends " to the wants of the animal be very cautious to approach in a " quiet manner, never make any unnecessary noise, or do any MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 439 " thing that would tend to irritate the animal when in a state of " health. " With regard to diet. — In acute diseases no food whatever *' ought to be given until improvement has taken place, and even *' then only in a sparing manner ; the articles of diet most suitable " are bran, oats, hay, carrots, Swede turnips, and green food, "either grass or clover. *' The bran may be given either dry or wetted, whichever way " the animal prefers it. " Oats may be given mixed with the bran, either raw and " crushed, or whole and boiled. " It is necessary to keep the animal without food or water half "an hour before and after administering the medicine. " Repetition of the dose. — In acute diseases it is necessary to *' repeat the dose every Jive^ ten., fifteen., or twenty minutes. "In less acute diseases every two., four., six., or eight hours. *' In chronic diseases once in twenty-four hours is sufficient." The following are the directions given for the treatment of a few of the more simple diseases of horses, and they are included here rather by way of illustration than as a part of a complete system, which, of course, it would be impossible within such narrow limits to give : — " GREASE. " Remedies. — Thuja occidentalis., Secale cornutum., Arsenicum., ^^ Mercurius vivus., and Sulphur. " Thuja occidenta/is^ both internally and externally, if there are " bluish or brownish excrescences, which bleed on the least touch, *' and there is a discharge of fetid ichor. " Dose. — Six drops three times a day ; at the same time the " parts may be bathed with the strong tincture night and morning. " Secale cornutum and Arsenicum mav be used in alternation, if " there is a watery swelling or dark-looking ulcers, with fetid dis- " charge. " Dose. — The same as directed for Thuja occidentalis., inter- nally. 440 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " Mercurius vivus when there are numerous small ulcers that '' discharge a thick matter, and bleed when touched. " Dose. — Six or eight drops twice a day. " It is necessary to give a dose of Sulphur once a week during " the treatment, and keep the legs clean by washing them with " warm water. " FOUNDER. " Remedies. — Aconite^ Bryonia^ Veratrum, Arsenicum^ and Khm '* toxicodendron. " Aconite.^ if there is inflammation, the animal stands as if rooted " to one spot, the breathing is hurried and interrupted, the breath " is hot and the pulse accelerated. " Dose. — Six drops every one, two, or three hours. " Bryonia., complete stiffness of the limbs, with swelling of the "joints. " Dose. — Six drops every two hours. " Veratrum., if it is brought on by violent exercise. " Dose. — The same as directed for Bryonia. " Arsenicum., if it is caused by bad or heating food, or after a '* cold drink when overheated. " Dose. — The same as directed for Aconite. " Rhus toxicodendron., if there is much pain in the feet, and the animal is very stifF in his movements. " Dose.— Six drops or eight globules three times a day ; at the " same time the Hmbs may be bathed with a solution of Rhus.^ " externally, twice a day. * * * * " inflammation of the brain. " Remedies. — Aconite., Belladonna., Veratram., and Opium. " Aconite., in the very commencement of this disease, if the " pulse is accelerated, fever, congestion toward the brain, rapid " breathing, and trembling of the whole body. " Dose. — Six drops every twenty minutes until several doses " have been taken, or the more violent symptoms subdued, after " which the next remedy should be taken into consideration. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 441 " Belladonna^ if the animal has a wild, staring, fixed look, dashes " furiously and unconsciously about, which is indicative of violent "congestion of the brain. " Dose. — Six drops put upon the tongue every fifteen or thirty " minutes, until the violence of the attack is subdued. " Veratrum^ if the legs and ears are icy cold, with convulsive " trembling of the whole body, or where there is a reeling, stag- " gering motion, and the animal plunges violently and falls down " head foremost. " Dose. — The same as directed for Belladonna. " Opium^ if after the paroxysm the animal remains motionless, " with fixed, staring eyes, the tongue of a black or leaden color. " Dose. — Six drops every half, one, or two hours, according to " circumstances. " CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD. " Remedies. — Jconite^ Nux vomica^ Dulcamara.^ Rhus toxico- *' dendron^ Bryonia., Arsenicum., Mercurius vivus^ and Pulsatilla. " Aconite will be useful in the beginning of the disease, if there " is fever and heat of the body, restlessness, short, hurried breath- " ing, violent thirst, urine fiery red, and the discharge from the " nose impeded. " Dose. — Six drops or six globules every three hours until " better " Nux vomica., if during the prevalence of northeasterly winds, " and if the mouth is dry, tongue coated white, an ofix;nsive earthy " odor emitted from the mouth, and a thin watery or thick bloody " discharge from the nose. " Dose. — Six drops or six globules twice a day. " Dulcamara., if the attack was brought on from exposure to " wet, and the animal is dull and drowsy, the tongue coated with "a thick sticking phlegm. " Dose. — The same as directed for Nux vomica. " Rhus toxicodendron., if short dry cough, great accumulation of " mucus in the nose, without being able to discharge it, obstructed " respiration, frequent sneezing and restlessness. 4i2 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " Dose. — Four drops or six globules three times a day. " Bryonia^ if there is difficulty in breathing, dry spasmodic *■*■ cough, swelling of the nose, profuse coryza, or crusts of hardened *' mucus in the nose. " Dose. — The same as directed for Rhus toxicodendron. " Arsenicum^ if the discharge from the nose continues too long, *■*■ is acrid and corroding to the nostrils, dry cough, sneezing, with *' discharge of watery mucus from the nose. " Dose. — Six drops twice a day. " Mercurius vivus^ in the first stage of the disease, if there is " swelling of the nose, profuse coryza with much sneezing. " Dose. — Six drops or six globules three times a day. " Pulsatilla^ if the cough is loose, discharge of greenish fetid " matter from the nose. " Dose. — The same as directed for Mercurius vivus. '' Remedies. — Dulcamara^ Nux vomica^ Squilla^ Bryonia^ Amo- " nium muriaticum.^ Drosera., Pulsatilla., and Lycopodium. " Dulcamara.^ if it follows cold, especially if the cold comes on " from wet, and there is a discharge from the nose. " Dose. — Four or six drops three or four times a day until " better. '* Nux vomica., if the cough is dry, and the cough comes on ** when first leaving the stable. *■'■ Dose. — The same as directed for Dulcamara. " Squilla., if the animal makes a groaning noise before coughing, *' and the whole body shakes from coughing. " Dose. — Four drops or six globules two or three times a day. " Bryonia., if the cough is of several weeks' standing, and worse " from motion. "Dose. — Six drops night and morning. *' Ammonium muriaticum., if the horse appears to be choked or " about to vomit, loss of flesh, the skin sticks to the ribs. " Dose. — Four drops every three hours until improvement is '' manifest. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 443 " Drosera^ if the cough is of long standing, worse at night when " the animal lies down. "Dose. — Six drops night and morning. " Pulsatilla^ if the animal is timid and easily frightened, or if "with the cough there is a bad smelling discharge from the " nostrils. " Dose. — Four drops or six globules every three hours. " Lycopodium^ if the cough is excited or worse after drinking, "and comes on in fits, coughing a great many times in rapid " succession. " Dose. — Six drops three times a day. " Attention ought to be paid to diet in this disease ; no inferior " food should be given, such as the animal must eat a large "quantity of to keep itself alive; but whatever is given should " be good, and that moistened with cold water ; carrots are very " good, either raw or boiled. ***** " COLIC, or gripes. '* Remedies. — Aconite^ Arsenicum^ Nux vomica^ Opium^ Cham- " omilla^ Colch'icum^ Cantharis^ Hyoscyamus^ and Colocynth. " Aconite^ in the commencement, if there is dryness of the mouth, " the ears are either hot or cold, breath hot, pulse accelerated. " Dose. — Four drops or six globules every fifteen or thirty " minutes, according to the urgency of the case ; if no relief is ob- "tained after the third dose, proceed then with the next remedy. " Arsenicum^ if the disease depends on indigestion, food of bad " quality, drinking cold water when heated, or if it is caused by " a constipated state of the bowels, in which case it is considered " to be specific. " Dose. — Six drops every half, one, or two hours. " I have succeeded in curing a great number of cases with these "two medicines; I generally, after giving two or three doses of " Aconite^ give Arsenicum and Aconite alternately. " Nux vomica is useful for colic from constipation, when the " animal walks slowly round, and then lies or falls down suddemy, " bloated appearance of one or both flanks. 444 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. '' Dose. — The same as directed for Arsenicum. *' Opium.^ if Nux vomica fails to remove the constipation, or if " the excrements are very dry, hard; and dark colored, nearly " black, and the animal lies stretched out as if dead. "Dose. — Four drops or six globules every one, two, or three " hours, according to the urgency of the case. " Chamomllla^ if the bovi^els are relaxed, the animal is very rest- " less, frequently lying down and getting up ; an attack of pain " soon followed by an evacuation, swelling of the abdomen, ex- " tremities cold, especially the ears. " Dose. — Six drops every one or two hours, according to the " severity of the case, until better. " Colchicu7n^ if the disease is caused by green food, and there is " flatulent distention of the abdomen, protrusion of the rectum, the " animal strikes at his belly with his hinder feet. " Dose. — The same as directed for Chamomilla. " Cantharis^ if there is a troublesome retention of urine, and the " animal often places himself in position to pass urine, but only " succeeds in passing a few drops ; if this remedy does not relieve, " give Hyoscyamus. " Dose. — The same as directed for Chamomilla. * . * * * * * * " INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. "Remedies. — Aconite., Arsenicum., Rhus toxicodendron., Colocyn- " this., Nux vomica., Cantharis., and Arnica. " Aconite is the chief remedy to be depended upon in this dis- "ease, and should be frequently administered till a calm is estab- " lished, which generally takes place in about an hour. " Dose. — Six drops, or eight globules every ten or fifteen " minutes, until relieved. • " Arsenicum., if after the use of Aconite some symptoms still " remain, especially if the disease has been produced by green " fbod, or by drinking cold water when heated. "Dose. — Six drops every half, one, or two hours, or at longer *' intervals if the disease is not very violent. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 445 " Rhus toxicodendron^ if the extremities are alternately hot and " cold, with sweating of the belly, and a frequent discharge of " urine. "Dose. — The same as directed for Arsenicum. " Colocynthis., if Arsenicum does not remove all the symptoms, "especially if it is accompanied with colic, and there are bloody " evacuations. " Dose. — Six drops, or eight globules every half or one hour. " Nux vomica.^ or Opium^ if after the disease is cured there " remains a constipated state of the bowels. " Dose. — Six drops night and morning. " Cantharisy or Hyoscyamus^ if there is retention of urine. " Jrnica will be useful in very obstinate cases ; if the discharges "are very fetid,. frequently small stools consisting only of slime, " Dose. — Six drops every one or two hours until better." Similar treatment is equally applicable in the case of sick cows, sheep, and swine. In the treatment of the diseases of domestic animals by what is known as the allopathic system, or by the old system of farriery, and, indeed, in all cases, if theailment is serious, it is best, whenever possible, to obtain the services of a really competent veterinary surgeon. Unfortunately, there are few such in the country, and the local horse and cattle doctors to be found in almost every farming neighborhood are a sorry substitute for them. Oftentimes, it is true, long experience and good natural judgment has enabled them to understand pretty well the common complaints to which stock is subject, and they are frequently quite successful in their treat- ment ; but in the majority of cases it is doubtful whether they do not really do more harm than good. In Herbert's " Hints to Horsekeepers," there is a chapter concerning " Simple Remedies for Simple Ailments," which, so far as it has been possible to condense, within the limits of a few- pages, practical directions in this matter, is probably the best com- pendium now within reach. ^ The writer says, — " It is not too much to say, that more than onehalf the ail ments 446 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " of horses arise, in the first instance, from bad management, — or, " to speak more correctly, from absence of all management, from " an improper system of feeding, from ill-constructed, unventilated, " filthy stabling, from injudicious driving, and neglect of cleaning. *' When disease has arisen, it is immediately aggravated, and, per- *' haps, rendered ultimately fatal, either by vi^ant of medical aid, or, " what is far more frequent as well as far more prejudicial, igno- " rant, improper, and often violent treatment, either on a wrong " diagnosis of the affection, or on a still more wrong system of "relieving it. Over-medicining and vulgarly quacking slightly " ailing horses is the bane of half the private stables in cities, and " of nearly all the farm stables in the country ; and one or the " other, or both combined, cause the ruin of half the horses which " ' go to the bad ' every year. " There is no quack on earth equal to an ignorant, opinionated " groom J and every one, nowadays, holds himself a groom, who is " trusted with the care of a horse, even if he do not know how to " clean him properly, or to feed him so as not to interfere with his " working hours. Every one of these wretched fellows, who has "no more idea of a horse's structure or of his constitution than he "has of the model of a ship or the economy of an empire, is sure " to have a thousand infallible remedies for every possible disease, "the names of which he does not know, nor their causes, origin, "or operation; and which, if he did know their names, he is " entirely incapable of distinguishing one from the other. These " remedies he applies at haphazard, wholly in the dark as to their " effect on the system in general, or on the particular disease, and, " of course, nine times out of ten he applies them wrongfully, and " aggravates fiftyfold the injury he affects to be able to relieve. "These are the fellows who are constantly administering purga- "tive balls, diuretic balls, cordial balls on their own hook, without "advice, orders, or possible reason — and such balls, tool some of " them scarcely less fatal than a cannon-ball — who are continually "drugging their horses with niter in their food, under an idea that " it is cooling to the system, and that it makes the coat sleek and " silky, never suspecting that it is a violent diuretic ; that its ope- MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 447 " ration on the kidneys is irritating and exhausting in the extreme, " and that the only way in which it cools the animal's system is ''that it reduces his strength, and acts as a serious drain on his " constitution. These, lastly, are the fellows who are constantly *' applying hot o'tls^ fiery irritants and stimulants to wounds, strains, " bruises, or contusions, which, in themselves, produce violent " inflammation ; and to which, requiring, as they do, the exhibition " of mild and soothing remedies, cold lotions, or warm fomenta- " tions, the application of these stimulating volatile essences is " much what it would be to administer brandy and cayenne to a " man with a brain fever. " It should, therefore, be a positive rule in every stable, whether " for pleasure or farm purposes, that not a dram of medicine is " ever to be administered without the express orders of the '' master. Even if a horsekeeper be so fortunate as to possess a '' really intelligent, superior servant, who has served his apprentice- *' ship in a good stable, and has learned a good deal about horses, " he should still insist on being invariably consulted before medi- " cine is administered." In all serious cases, of course, the best medical aid that it is possible to procure should be at once called in ; but in all cases the owner should, as far as possible, exercise his own judgment as to the extent to which the directions given are to be followed, unless the practitioner is a regularly educated veterinary surgeon. Concerning purgatives, Herbert writes as follows : — " We are very decided opponents of purgatives in general, and " have been gratified by observing that the recent cause of veteri- " nary practice, both in France and England, is tending to the " entire abandonment of the old system ; according to which, " every horse, whether any thing ailed him or not, was put through " tjvo annual courses of purgation, each of three doses, in the " spring and fall, besides having to bolt a diuretic ball fortnightly " or oftener, according to the whim of the groom, when his kidneys " no more required stimulation than his hocks did blistering. " A horse of ordinary size contains, on an average, from twenty " to twenty-four quarts of blood, and the loss to him of four quarts 44-8 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " is not so much as a pound or pint to a human being. In cases ** of acute inflammation, a horse may be bled eight or ten quarts *'at a time, or until he lies down, with advantage; and if the " symptoms do not abate, may be bled again at intervals of an *' hour or two, to an extent which a person, ignorant how rapidly "blood is made, would suppose must drain the animal of his life. " Purgatives, in our opinion, on the other hand, should be very " cautiously administered ; never when there is any inflammation " of the lungs or bowels ; very rarely when there is any internal " inflammation ; and when given, should never, or hardly ever, in " our judgment, exceed five drams of new Barbadoes aloes. Injec- " tions, diet, and mashes are vastly superior, for general practice, " to acute purgatives, horses being extremely liable to super-pur- " gation, and many valuable animals being lost in consequence of it "yearly. " The first branch of the subject on which we propose to treat, " is the early application of remedies to horses suddenly seized " with violent and acute diseases, anticipatory to the calling in of " regular medical assistance. It is highly necessary that this should " be done as soon as the horse is known to be seized, and the " nature of his seizure is fully ascertained, since, in several of the " diseases to which the horse is most liable, the increase of the " malady is so rapid that, if early steps bq not taken to relieve the " sufferer, the evil becomes so firmly seated that the remedy, if " long delayed, comes too late, and an animal is lost, which, by " timely assistance, might have easily been preserved. These " ailments, especially, are of common occurrence with the horse, " of highly dangerous character, and so rapid in their development " and increase, that if steps be not taken for their relief almost " immediately after their commencement, all treatment will be *' useless ; — these are spasmodic colic, inflammation of the bowels, "and inflammation of the lungs." Mr. Youatt, in his excellent work on the horse, says of colic, — " There is often not the slightest warning. The horse begins " to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, strike " his belly with his feet, lie down, roll, and that frequently on his MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 449 *' back. In a few minutes the pain seems to cease, the horse " shakes himself and begins to feed ; but on a sudden the spasm " returns more violently, every indication of pain is increased, he " heaves at the flanks, breaks out in a profuse perspiration, and " throws himself more violently about. In the space of an hour " or two either the spasms begin to relax and the remissions are " longer in duration, or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm, " the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and inflam- *' mation and death supervene." Youatt also gives the following tabular statement of the symp- toms by which colic and inflammation of the bowels may be dis- tineuished from each other: — "Sudden in its attack, and without any warning. " Pulse rarely much quickened in the early period of the disease, and during the in- tervals of ease, but evidently fuller. "Legs and ears of natural temperature. " Relief obtaine4 from rubbing the belly. " Relief obtained from motion. "Intervals of rest and ease. " Strength scarcely affected. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. Gradual in its approach, with previous indi- cations of fever. Pulse very much quickened, but small, and often scarcely to be felt. Legs and ears cold. Belly exceedingly painful and tender to the touch. Pain evidently increased by motion. Constant pain. Great and evident weakness." With reference to colic, inflammation of the bowels, and in- flammation of the lungs, Herbert says, — " Colic is usually produced by sudden cold, often the result "of drinking cold water when heated ; sometimes by exposure to "cold wind in a draft, when heated; sometimes by overfeeding "on green meat or new corn. The causes of inflammation of "the bowels are somewhat similar, though not identical. Horses "used to high feeding and warm stabling, which, after sharp exer- " cise and being for some hours without food, are exposed to cold " wind, or are allowed to drink freely of cold water, or are " drenched with rain, or have their legs and belly washed with cold " water, are almost sure to be attacked with inflammation of the 450 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBAKDRY. ' bowels. An overfed or overfat horse, which is subjected to ' severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs be weak, will 'be attacked, probably the same night, by inflammation of the 'lungs ; if the lungs be sound, the attack will be on his bowels ' the following day. " The diagnosis being made, and the disease being fully estab- ' lished to be spasmodic colic, and not inflammation, the treat- ' ment should be as follows : Give at once, in a drench, by a ' horn or bottle, three ounces of spirits of turpentine, and an ' ounce of laudanum in a pint of warm ale, the effect of which ' will often be instantaneous. If these ingredients cannot be ' quickly obtained, a drench of hot ale with ginger, a wine-glass- ' ful of gin, and a teaspoonful of black pepper, with, if possible, ' the laudanum added, will succeed as a substitute. If the par- ' oxysm returns, or if relief of a decided kind do not take place ' within half an hour, from four to six quarts of blood may he ' taken, with advantage, in order to prevent inflammation. The ' dose of turpentine should be repeated, and clysters of warm ' water, with an ounce of finely-powdered Barbadoes aloes dis- ' solved in them, should be injected, at intervals, until the counter- ' irritation puts a stop to the spasms. For the injections, a com- ' mon wooden pipe with an ox-bladder will answer, although the ' patent syringe is far better. The pipe should be greased and ' introduced gently and tenderly, great care being had not to alarm 'or startle the animal. The operation and effect of the medicines ' will be promoted by gentle friction of the belly with a brush ' or hot flannel cloth, and by walking the horse or trotting him ' very gently about ; but all violence, or violent motions, must 'be avoided, as tending to produce inflammation. These reme- ' dies, which can be procured with ease in any village, almost in ' any house, will almost to a certainty remove the disease. ' When relief is obtained, the horse's clothes should be changed, ' which will be found to be saturated with sweat ; he should be ' slightly cleaned ; warmly and dryly littered down, if possible, ' in a loose box, and should be fed for two or three days on warm ' bran mashes, and suffered to drink warm water only. It is MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 451 " evident that the above treatment, which is stimulating, would be " probably fatal, as it would aggravate all the worst features, in a " case of inflammation, which must be treated, as near as possi- " ble, on the opposite plan — that is, antiphlogistically. " Inflammation of the Bowels. — The first step, in decided " cases where the extremities are cold and the pulse very quick and " very feeble — observe here that fifty-five is very quick, indicating *' considerable fever, and seventy-five perilously quick — is to take " eight or ten quarts of blood as soon as the malady appears, for " there is no other malady that so quickly runs its course. If this " do not relieve the pain and render the pulse more moderate, and "fuller, and rounder, four or five quarts more may be taken with- " out any regard to the weakness of the animal. That weakness " is a part of the disease, and when the inflammation is subdued by *'the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear. We have said " that most of the acute diseases of the horse and the man are "closely similar, and their treatment analogous. In acute inflam- " mation of the bowels there is an exception. The human prac- "titioner properly uses strong purgatives in cases of acute inflam- " mation of the bowels. The irritability of the horse's bowels will " not allow their exhibition. The most that can be done is to throw " up copious injections — they can hardly be too copious — of thin " gruel, in which half a pound of Epsom salts, or half an ounce of " Barbadoes aloes, has been dissolved. The horse should be en- " couraged to drink freely of warm, thin gruel, and he should have "a draught every six hours of warm water, with from one to two " drams — never more — of aloes dissolved in it. Above all, the " whole belly should be blistered as quickly as possible after the ** nature of the disease is fully ascertained, with tincture of can- *'tharides well rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged, to "restore the circulation ; and the horse should be warmly clothed, *' but the stable kept cool ; no hay or oats must be allowed during " the attack, but merely bran-mashes and green meat ; of the latter, "especially, as much as he will eat. As the horse recovers, a little " oats may be given, a handful or two at a time, twice or thrice a " day, but not more ; and they should be increased sparingly and 452 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. "gradually. Clysters of gruel should be continued for two or three *' days, and hand-rubbing and bandaging, to restore the circulation. '' There is another kind of inflammation of the bowels, which " attacks the inner or mucous membrane, and is produced by super- " purgation, and the exhibition of improper medicine in improper "quantities. Its characteristics are incessant purging, laborious " breathing, pulse quick and small, but less so than in the other " form of disease ; and above all, the mouth is hot, and the legs " and ears warm. In this disease no food must be allowed, least of "all laxative food, such as mashes or green meat ; but draughts "and clysters of gruel, thin starch and arrow-root may be given " frequently. If the pain and purging do not pass away within "twelve hours, astringents must be given. The best form is " powdered chalk, i ounce ; catechu, ^ of an ounce ; opium, 2 " scruples, in gruel, repeated every six hours till the purging be- *'gins to subside, when the doses should be gradually decreased "and discontinued. Bleeding is not generally necessary, unless " the inflammation and fever are excessive. The horse should " be kept warm, and his legs rubbed and bandaged as directed "in the former type of the disease. " Inflammation of the Lungs. — This disease, which, in a " state of nature, is almost unknown to the horse, is one to which " in his domesticated state he is most liable, and which is most "fatal to him. It requires immediate and most active treatment. " It is sometimes sudden in its attack, but is generally preceded *' by fever. The pulse is not always much quickened in the first " instance, but is indistinct and depressed. The extremities are " painfully cold ; the lining membrane of the nostrils becomes " intensely red j the breathing is quick, hurried, and seems to be " interrupted by pain, or mechanical obstruction. The horse " stands stiffly, with his legs far apart, so as to distend his chest " to the utmost, and is singularly unwilling to move, or to lie " down, persisting in standing up, day after day, and night after " night ; and if at last compelled by fatigue to lie down, rises again " after a moment's repose. The pulse soon becomes irregular, " indistinct, and at last almost imperceptible. The legs and ears MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 453 " assume a clay-like, clammy coldness, — the coldness of death. " The lining of the nostril turns purple 5 the teeth are violently " ground ; the horse persists in standing until he can stand no " longer, when he staggers, drops, and soon dies. " For this disease the only remedy thaFcan be depended upon '* is the lancet. The horse must be bled, not according to quan- " tity, not only till the pulse begins to rise, but until it begins to " flutter or stop, and the animal begins to faint. The operator " should watch this effect, with his finger on the pulse, while the " bleeding is in process. At the end of six hours, if the horse " still persist in standing and the laborious breathing still continue, " the bleeding should be repeated to the same extent. This will " generally succeed in conquering the strength of the disease. " If a third bleeding be necessary, as is sometimes the case, it " must not be carried beyond four or five quarts, lest not only '' the disease, but the recuperative power be subdued. After *' this, if the symptoms return, successive bleedings to the extent " of two or three quarts should be used, to prevent the re-estab- " lishment of the disease. The instrument for bleeding should " be a broad-shouldered thumb-lancet, and the stream of blood " should be full and strong. Some of the blood from each bleed- " ing should be set aside in a glass tumbler, and suffered to grow '' cold, in order to note the thickness of the buff-colored, adhesive " coat which will appear on the top of it, and which indicates the " degree of inflammation at the time the blood was drawn. We " have seen it occupy above one-half the depth of the tumbler. " As the condition of the blood improves, and the symptoms of " the animal decrease, the bleeding may be gradually discon- *' tinued. " The whole of the horse's chest and sides, up as far as to the " elbows, should now be thoroughly blistered, the hair having " been previously closely shaved, with an ointment of one part of " Spanish flies, four of lard, and one of rosin, well rubbed in. In " making the ointment, the rosin and lard should be melted " together, and the flies then added. *' A horse with inflammation of the lungs must never be 454 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. ** actively purged ; the bowels and lungs act so strongly in sym- " pathy, that inflammation of the former would surely supervene, *' and prove fatal. The horse must be back-raked, and clystered " with warm gruel, containing eight ounces of Epsom salts. ** Castor oil must never be given; it is a most dangerous medi- *■*■ cine to the horse. Doses of niter, digitalis, and tartar emetic, " in the proportion of three ounces of the first, one of the second, ** and one and a half of the third, may be given, morning and *' evening, until the animal begins to amend, when the dose may '■*■ be reduced to one-half. The horse must be warmlv clothed, ** but kept in a cool box. As he recovers, his skin should be " gently rubbed with a brush, if it do not irritate him ; but his *' legs must be constantly and thoroughly hand-rubbed and ban- *' daged. He should not be coaxed to eat, but may have a little '' hay to amuse him, cold mashes and green meat, but on no "account a particle of oats. Eight-and-forty hours generally ** decides the question of death or life. But in case of recovery, " it is necessary long to watch for a relapse, which is of frequent, " one might say of general, occurrence. It is to be met at once '* by the same energetic treatment. And now, one word to the *' owner of a horse which has had one bad attack of inflammation, *' either of the lungs or of the bowels. Get rid of him as soon " as possible ! It is ten to one that he will have another, and " another, and, as in the former instance, end by becoming *' broken-winded, — in the latter by being useless, from a nearly *' chronic state of the disease." ******* "Common Cough is generally subdued without much diffi- ** cuky, though it often becomes of most serious consequence *' if neglected. It is accompanied by a heightened pulse ; a slight ** discharge from the nose and eyes, a rough coat, and a dimin- *' ished appetite, being its symptoms. The horse should be kept *' warm, fed on mashes, and should have a dose or two of medi- " cine. If the cough be very obstinate, bleeding may be necessary." The following further directions by the same author contain valuable information for all owners of horses : — MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 455 " In giving medicine, if balls be used, they should never " weigh above an ounce and a half, or be above an inch in " diameter, and three in length. The horse should be lashed in " the stall, the tongue should be drawn gently out with the left *' hand on the ofF side of the mouth, and fixed there, not by con- " tinuing to pull at it, but by pressing the fingers against the side " of the lower jaw. The ball is then taken between the tips of " the fingers of the right hand, the arm being bared and passed " rapidly up the mouth, as near the palate as possible, until it " reaches the root of the tongue, when it is delivered with a " slight jerk, the hand is withdrawn, and the tongue being re- *' leased, the ball is forced down into the oesophagus. Its passage " should be watched down the left side of the throat, and if it do *' not pass immediately, a slight tap under the chin will easily " cause the horse to swallow it. The only safe purgative for a " horse is Barbadoes aloes ; or the flour of the Croton bean, for " some peculiar purposes, but its drastic nature renders it unde- " sirable as a general aperient. When aloes are used, care should '' be taken to have them new, as they speedily lose their power, " and they should be freshly mixed. Very mild doses only should '' be used ; four or five drams are amply sufficient, if the horse " has been prepared, as he should be, by being fed, for two days at " least, entirely on mashes, which will cause a small dose to have *'a beneficial effect, equal to double the quantity administered to a " horse not duly prepared for it. The immense doses of eight, " nine, ten, and even twelve drams, which were formerly in vogue, "and which are still favored by grooms, hostlers, and carters, are " utterly exploded ; and it is well known that eight or nine good " fluid evacuations are all that can be desired, and far safer than "twice the number. " Four and a half drams of Barbadoes aloes, with olive or lin- " seed oil and molasses, sufficient to form a mass in the proportion " of eight of the aloes to one of the oil and three of the molasses, " is the best general ball, though often four drams ^iven after a " sufficiency of mashes or green food, will accomplish all that is " needed or desirable. Castor oil is a most dangerous and uncer- 456 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " tain medicine. Linseed oil is not much better. Olive oil is " safe, but weak. Epsom salt is inefficient, except in enormous " doses, and is then dangerous. It is, however, excellent, given " in clysters of weak gruel, which, by the way, except where " very searching and thorough purging is required, as in cases of " mange or grease, is by far the safest, most agreeable, and mild- " est way of purging the horse, and evacuating his bowels. " Where, however, his intestines are overloaded with fat, where " he shows signs of surfeit, or where it is necessary to prepare "him to undergo some great change of system, as from a long " run at grass to a hot stable, or vice versa^ a mild course of two " or three doses of physic, with a clear interval of a week between " the setting of one dose and the giving of another, is necessary, " and cannot be properly dispensed with. " CosTiVENESS. — Ordinary cases can generally be conquered " without medicine, by diet, such as hop or bran mashes, green " meat, and carrots ; but where it is obstinate, the rectum should " be cleared of dry faeces by passing the naked arm, well greased, " up the anus ; and the bowels should be then thoroughly evacu- " ated by clysters of thin gruel, with half an ounce of Barbadoes " aloes, or half a pound of Epsom salts dissolved in it. If the " patent syringe be used, the injection will reach the colon and " coecum, and dispose them also to evacuate their contents." " Strangles, or colt-distemper, is a disease which shows itself ' in all young horses, and from which, when they have once ' passed through its ordeal, they have no more to fear. It is pre- ' ceded by some derangement of circulation, quickening of the ' pulse, some fever, cough, and sore throat. The parts around ' the throat swell, the maxillary glands are swollen and tender, ' and sometimes the parotids also. The animal refuses to drink, ' and often declines his food. There is a flow of saliva from the ' mouth, and a semi-purulent discharge from the nose. The 'jaws, throat, and glands of the neck should be poulticed with ' steaming mashes, the skin stimulated by means of a liquid blis- ' ter, and the head steamed in order to promote suppuration. As MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 457 " soon as fluctuation can be perceived, the swelling should be " lanced, and a rowel introduced, to keep the abscess open and " the discharge flowing for a few days. The animal should have " walking exercise, and be treated with green food until the " symptoms abate, when he will require liberal and generous food " to recruit his strength. " Worms are sometimes troublesome to a horse, but in a far *' less degree than is generally supposed. Botts have long since " been proved to be perfectly harmless while they are within the *' stomach, — all the stories of their eating through its coats being " pure wy/Zij,' although they are very often troublesome after they " have passed out of the oesophagus and rectum, and begin to " adhere to the orifice of the anus. Common purgatives will " often bring away vast numbers of the long, white worm, teres " lumhricus^ which occasionally, when existing in great numbers, *' consume too large a proportion of the animal's food, and pro- " duce a tight skin, a tucked-up belly, and a rough coat. Calo- " mel should never be given, as it too frequently is, for the " removal of these worms, which will readily yield to balls of two " drams of tartar emetic, one scruple of ginger, with molasses and " linseed oil quantum suff.^ given alternate mornings, half an " hour before feeding time. The smaller worm, ascaris^ which *' often causes serious irritation about the fundament, is best re- " moved by injecting a quart of linseed oil, or an ounce of aloes " dissolved in warm water, which is a most effectual remedy. " Diseases of the Bladder are many, serious, and often " mistreated. They require, however, so much skill and so ac- " curate a diagnosis, that none but a regular practitioner should " pretend to treat them. Simple difliculty of staling can generally "be relieved by cleansing the sheath with the Rand, and giving "gentle doses of niter. These are most of the simpler diseases " which may be simply and successfully treated at home, and with "which every horsekeeper ought to be at least superficially and "generally acquainted. We shall touch upon the subjects of ac- " cidents, strains, simple lameness, contusions, and the like, which " can often be perfectly cured by cold lotions, or simple warm 458 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " fomentations, without any further or more difficult process, "though ignorant persons make much of them, as if their cure ''proved marvelous skill and required magnificent appliances. " Before proceeding to the consideration of simple accidents and " their treatment, we shall devote a few words to an affection of "the feet, or, to speak more correctly, heels, which, although not " exactly an accident, is not a natural disease, but arises from filth, " neglect, cold, wet, and the omission to clean and dry the feet " and legs of the horse, after work and exposure to weather. It " has been rightly called the disgrace, as it is the bane, of inferior " stables both in the city and the country, but more commonly in "the latter, where, to pay any attention to the legs and feet of a " farm-horse, is an almost unheard-of act of chivalric Quixotism. "This is the ailment known in England as the 'grease,' in the " United States, generally, as the ' scratches.' It is perfectly easy "to be prevented, and easy to be cured if taken in the first " instance ; but if neglected and allowed to become virulent, is " nearly incurable. " Grease. — The first appearance of ' grease,' which is caused "by the feet and heels being left wet after work in muddy soil, "and exposed to a draft of cold air, is a dry and scurfy state of "the skin, with redness, heat, and itching. If neglected, the hair "drops off, the heels swell, the skin assumes a glazed appearance, " is covered with pustules, cracks open and emits a thin, glairy " discharge, which soon becomes very offensive. In the last, " worst, and incurable stage, the leg, half-way to the hock, is "covered with thick, horny scabs, divided into lozenge-shaped " lumps by deep cracks, whence issues an extremely offensive "matter. In this stage the disease is called ' grapy heels,' and is " scarcely curable. In the first stage all that is necessary is " frequent washing with tepid water and Castile soap, and the ap- " plication of a flannel bandage, evenly applied over the whole "limb, moistened with warm water and allowed to dry on the " part. An ointment of one dram of sugar of lead in an ounce "of lard, will supple, soften, and relieve the parts. The cracks "may be washed with a solution of four ounces of alum in a pint MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 459 " of water, which will in most cases suffice. A dose of medicine " is now desirable, for which the horse should be well prepared by *' the administration of bran-mashes, as before advised, for a couple "of days; after which, a ball of four or five drams of Barbadoes "aloes will suffice. An injection will not answer in this case, as " the object is not to empty the bowels, but to cool the system. " The horse should be fed on mashes, carrots, and green meat ; "oats, Indian corn, and high food of all kinds are to be avoided " as too heating. " When the disease has reached the second stage, the physick- " ing must be persevered in for three doses, with the regular " intervals ; carrot poultices must be applied to the heels. This " is best done by drawing an old stocking minus the foot, over "■ the horse's hoof, confining it around the fetlock joint with a " loose bandage, and filling it from above with carrots, boiled and " mashed into a soft pulp. This mass should be applied tolerably " hot, and repeated daily for three days. When removed, the "heels should be anointed with an ointment of one part of rosin, "three parts of lard, melted together, and one part of calamine " powder added when the first mixture is cooling. The cracks "should be persistently washed with the alum lotion, and the " bandage applied whenever the poultices are not on the part. " The benefit of carrot poultices for all affections where there is " fever, swelling, and a pustular condition of the skin, cannot be " over-rated. Stocked legs and capped hocks we have seen com- " pletely cured by them ; and, on one occasion, at least, we have " known incipient farcy to give way before their emollient and "healing influence. Where the * grease ' has degenerated into " the ' grapes,' the aid of a veterinary surgeon must be invoked ; " but he will rarely succeed, as the ailment is now all but incurable. " It is, however, only the height of neglect which ever allows the " ailment to degenerate into this filthy and malignant stage of *' disease." In the treatment of thrush, or any injury to the sole of the hoof, perfect cleansing twice a day and a stuffing of the sole inside of the hoof with a mixture of tar, cow-dung, and soft clay, will 4G0 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. usually effect a cure. Strains and bruises are best treated by sim- ple fomentations of hot water, to which a little vinegar may with advantage be added ; and if the strain is in the pastern joint the foot should be placed in a pall full of water, which should be kept by repeated additions as hot as the animal will bear. After the removal of the foot from the pail, the part should be covered with thick bandages of cloth, or wound with straw ropes ; and very warm water should be frequently poured upon it. Farriery includes various operations, such as castration, nicking, bleeding, clipping and singeing, trimming the hair, etc.; and ample directions concerning its processes are given by Herbert, Youatt, Stewart, Spooner, and others. The following are Mr. Youatt's directions for castration : — " The period at which this operation may be best performed " depends much on the breed and form of the colt, and the pur- " pose for which he is destined. For the common agricultural " horse, the age of four or five months will be the most proper " time, or, at least, before he is weaned. Few horses are lost " when cut at that age. Care, however, should be taken that the "weather is not too hot nor the flies too numerous. " If the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy " draught, the farmer should not think of castrating him until he " is at least a twelvemonth old ; and even then the colt should be " carefully examined. If he is thin and spare about the neck and " shoulders, and low in the withers, he will materially improve by " remaining uncut another six months ; but if his fore-quarters " are fairly developed at the age of a twelvemonth, the operation " should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross before, " and perhaps has begun too decidedly to have a will of his own. " No specific age, then, can be fixed j but the castration should " be performed rather late in the spring or early in the autumn, " when the air is temperate, and particularly when the weather " is dry. " No preparation is necessary for the sucking colt, but it may " be prudent to bleed and to physic one of more advanced age. " In the majority of cases, no after-treatment will be necessary, MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 401 " except that the animal should be sheltered from intense heat, " and more particularly from wet." Concerning the practices of docking and nicking, which, until recently, were almost universal, Herbert says : — " These barbarous methods of depriving the horse of his natural " form and appearance, in order to make him conform to the " fashion of the time, are, fortunately, very fast going into disuse. " If the tail of the horse were given to him for no good purpose, " and if it were not a design of nature that he should have the " power of moving it forcibly to his sides, there might be some " excuse for cutting it off, within a few inches of his body, or for " separating the muscles at its sides to lessen this power ; but that " this is not the case, must be acknowledged by all who have seen " how a horse, whose tail has been abridged by ' docking,' or " weakened by nicking, is annoyed by flies. " If a horse has a trick of throwing dirt on his rider's clothing, "this may be prevented by cutting off the hair of the tail, below " the end of the bones, as is the custom with hunters in England, " where the hair is cut squarely ofF about eight or ten inches " above the hocks. " No apology is offered for not giving in this work a description " of these two operations ; they are so barbarous and so senseless, " that they are going very rapidly out of fashion, and it is to be " hoped that they will ere long have become obsolete, as has the " cropping of the ears, formerly so common in England. " A more humane way of setting up the horse's tail, to " give him a more stylish appearance, is by simply weighting it, " for a {q-w hours each day, in the stall, until it attains the desired " elevation. This is done by having two pulleys at the top of the " stall, one at each side, through which are passed two ropes, " which come together and are fastened to the tail, the ropes hav- " ing at their other ends weights, (bags of sand or of shot are very "good for the purpose,) which must be light at first, and may be " increased from day to day. The weighting should be continued "until the tail has taken a permanent position as desired. It is " true that this method requires a somewhat longer time than that 462 II ANDY- BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " of cutting the muscles, but while it is being done the horse is " never off his work, and he suffers infinitely less pain. " The method of nicking or pricking, as usually performed in " this country, is not quite so cruel or so hazardous as the cutting '* of the muscles ; it Is thus described in Stewart's ' Stable Book': — *' 'The tail has four cords, two upper and two lower. The *' upper ones raise the tail, the lower ones depress it, and these "last alone are to be cut. Take a sharp penknife with a long " slender blade ; insert the blade between the bone and un- " der cord, two inches from the body ; place the thumb of the " hand holding the knife against the under part of the tail, and " opposite the blade. Then press the blade toward the thumb " against the cord, and cut the cord off, but do not let the knife " cut through the skin. The cord is firm, and it will easily be " known when it is cut off. The thumb will tell when to desist " that the skin may not be cut. Sever the cord twice on each "side in the same manner. Let the cuts be two inches apart. " The cord is nearly destitute of sensation ; yet, when the tail is " pricked in the old manner, the wound to the skin and flesh is " severe, and much fever is induced, and it takes a long time to " heal. But with this method the horse's tail will not bleed, nor " will it be sore, under ordinary circumstances, more than three " days ; and he will be pulleyed and his tail made in one-half of " the time required by the old method.'" In this connection it is important to give some attention to the question of shoeing horses ; a department of farriery in which the world has received much assistance from the little work of Mr. Miles.* He illustrates the construction of the foot by the follow- ing cuts, (Figs. 107 to 109,) which, with their accompanying description and the following extracts from his work, will be readily understood : — " The hoof is divided into horny crust or wall, sole, and frog. " The horny crust is secreted by the numerous blood-vessels, " that soft, protruding band which encircles the upper edge of the * Miles on the Horse's Foot. O. Judd & Co., New York. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 4G3 hoof, immediately beneath the termination of the hair ; and is divided into toe, quarters, heels, and bars. Its texture is in- sensible, but elastic throughout its whole extent ; and, yielding to the weight of the horse, allows the horny sole to descend. Fig. 107. " whereby much inconvenient concussion of the internal parts of "the foot is avoided. But if a large portion of the circumference " of the foot be fettered by iron and nails, it is obvious that that " portion, at least, cannot expand as before ; and the beautiful and Fig. 108. efficient apparatus for effecting this necessary elasticity, being no longer allowed to act by reason of these restraints, becomes altered in structure: and the continued operation of the same causes, in the end, circumscribes the elasticity to those parts 30 464 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *''■ alone where no nails have been driven, — giving rise to a train ** of consequences destructive to the soundness of the foot, and " fatal to the usefulness of the horse. " The toe of the forefoot is the thickest and strongest portion '' of the hoof, and is in consequence less expansive than any other " part, and therefore better calculated to resist the effect of the " nails and shoe. The thickness of the horn gradually diminishes " toward the quarters and heels, particularly on the inner side of " the foot, whereby the power of yielding and expanding to the " weight of the horse is proportionably increased, clearly indicat- *' ing that those parts cannot be nailed to an unyielding bar of iron, Fig. 109. *' without a most mischievous interference with the natural func- " tions of the foot. In the hind-foot, the greatest thickness of " horn will be found at thp quarters and heels, and not, as in the " forefoot, at the toe. This difference in the thickness of horn " is beautifully adapted to the inequality of the weight which each " has to sustain, the force with which it is applied, and the por- " tions of the hoof upon which it falls. The toe of the forefoot " encounters the combined force and weight of the forehand and " body, and consequently, in a state of nature, is exposed to con- " siderable wear and tear, and calls for greater strength and sub- " stance of horn than is needed by any portion of the hind- MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 465 " foot, where the duty of supporting the hinder parts alone is " distributed over the quarters and heels of both sides of the foot. " The bars are continuations of the wall, reflected at the heels " toward the center of the foot, where they meet in a point, leav- " ing a triangular space between them for the frog. " The whole inner surface of the horny crust, from the center *' of the toe to the point where the bars meet, is everywhere lined " with innumerable narrow, thin, and projecting horny plates, " which extend in a slanting direction from the upper edge of the " wall to the line of junction between it and the sole, and possess " great elasticity. These projecting plates are the means of greatly *' extending the surface of attachment of the hoof to the coffin- " bone, which is likewise covered by a similar arrangement of pro- ejecting plates, but of a highly vascular and sensitive character; " and these, dovetailing with the horny projections above named, *' constitute a union combining strength and elasticity in a won- " derful degree. " The horny sole covers the whole inferior surface of the foot, " excepting the frog. In a well-formed foot it presents an arched " appearance and possesses considerable elasticity, by virtue of " which it ascends and descends, as the weight above is either sud- " denly removed from it or forcibly applied to it. This descending " property of the sole calls for our special consideration in direct- " ing the form of the shoe ; for, if the shoe be so formed that the " horny sole rests upon it, it cannot descend lower; and the sen- " sible sole above, becoming squeezed between the edges of the " coffin-bone and the horn, produces inflammation, and perhaps " abscess. The effect of this squeezing of the sensible sole is " most commonly witnessed at the angle of the inner heel, where " the descending heel of the coffin-bone, forcibly pressing the vas- " cular sole upon the horny sole, ruptures a small blood-vessel, " and produces what is called a corn, but which is, in fact, a bruise. " The horny frog occupies the greater part of the triangular " space between the bars, and extends from the hindermost part " of the foot to the center of the sole, just over the point where " the bars meet ; but is united to them only at their upper edge : 466 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " the sides remain unattached and separate, and form the channels " called the ' Commissures.' " The principles on which Miles bases his directions for shoeing are, that, as at every step of the horse the crust or wall of the hoof expands and contracts, this alternate movement being neces- sary to the natural performance of the act, the shoeing should be so done as in nowise to prevent it ; that, as the bars of the hoof are naturally intended to receive a very large proportion of the burden in the stepping of the horse, the shoe should be broad at the heel and should rest well upon them, they not having been cut away, as is the too frequent custom, so as not to touch it ; that, as the sole of the hoof inside of the wall is much subject to injury if constantly pressed, the inner* surface of the shoe should be so beveled off as to allow it to be easily cleaned out and to render it little likely that pebble-stones or other matters will lodge inside of it ; and that the shoeing should be so done that there will be little danger of the hoof working forward off of the shoe. Mr. Miles' system of shoeing, which is only a modification of the commonest practices, requires that the hoof be exactly fitted by the shoe, and that no effort be made to fit it to an improperly shaped shoe, the assumption being that nature understands, better than the blacksmith does, what is necessary in this respect. The manner in which the shoe supports the wall and bars of the hoof is shown in Fig. no. The shoe itself, with its beveled upper surface, the projecting point in front to prevent the hoof from slip- ping forward, and the broad heel, are shown in Fig. in. It will be seen that this shoe has but six nail-holes, only two of which are upon the inside, and none of which reach farther back than the center of the hoof. This is the chief improvement that Mr. Miles introduced, and it has come into quite general use among all good horsemen. So far fro'm the security of the shoe being lessened by this apparent insufficiency of nailing, it is found in practice that it is actually increased. I have had my own horses (some of them saddle-horses, doing hard work over rough, moun- tainous roads) shod in strict accordance with this principle, for more than ten years past ; and the shoes have almost invariably I MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS. 457 remained in their places until the growth of the hoof, or the wearing out of the iron, required them to be renewed or removed. When the nailing is continued around on the inside as far as Fig. no. the center of the hoof, and on the outside still farther to the rear, the shoe acts as an iron clamp to prevent the expansion of the hoof, and the effort toward expansion being constantly exercised Fig. Ill at every step that the horse takes, the nails become loosened in the wall, and the shoe is much more likely to be cast. With the smaller number of nails, all of them being placed in that part of 468 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. the hoof where the movement in expansion and contraction is very slight, that part of the hoof which is required to make the greatest movement is left free to move over the shoe ; and the natural action of the parts is preserved, so far as, in the artificial condition, it is possible that it should be. Concerning the paring of the hoof in shoeing, Youatt says : — *' The act of paring is a work of much more labor than the " proprietor of the horse often imagines. The smith, except he "is overlooked, will frequently give himself as little trouble about "it as he can; and that portion of horn which, in the unshod foot, " would be worn away by contact with the ground, is suffered to " accumulate month after month, until the elasticity of the sole is " destroyed, and it can no longer descend, and its other functions " are impeded, and foundation is laid for corn, and contraction, and " navicular disease, and inflammation. That portion of horn " should be left on the foot which will defend the internal parts " from being bruised, and yet suffer the external sole to descend. " How is this to be ascertained ? The strong pressure of the " thumb of the smith will be the best guide. The buttress, that " most destructive of all instruments, being, except on very par- "ticular occasions, banished from every respectable forge, the " smith sets to work with his drawing-knife and removes the " growth of horn, until the sole will yield, although in the slightest " possible degree, to the strong pressure of his thumb. The " proper thickness of horn will then remain. " The quantity of horn to be removed, in order to leave the " proper degree of thickness, will vary with different feet. From " the strong foot, a great deal must be taken. From the concave " foot the horn may be removed, until the sole will yield to a " moderate pressure. From the flat foot, little need be pared ; " while the pumiced foot should be deprived of nothing but the " ragged parts. " The crust should be reduced to a perfect level all round, but " left a little higher than the sole, or the sole will be bruised by " its pressure on the edge of the seating. " The heels will require considerable attention. From the stress MEDICAL TRKATMHXT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 469 " which is thrown on the inner heel, and from the weakness of the " quarter there, the horn usually wears away considerably faster " than it would on the outer one ; and if an equal portion of horn " were pared from it, it would be left lower than the outer heel. " The smith should therefore accommodate his paring to the com- " parative wear of the heel, and be exceedingly careful to leave *' them precisely level." Miles recommends that the frog of the hoof be left entirely to itself, and never touched with the knife at all, for the reason that, as fast as the superfluous horn is formed, it will be removed by a natural shelling, and its raggedness can do no harm. Within a {ew months after the paring of the frog has ceased, it will have the character of the frog of a horse at pasture, which is always, when in a state of health, sound and smooth. The necessity for applying to a veterinary surgeon, or for adopt- ing any of the remedies which writers on the horse have given to the world, will depend, accidents aside, almost exclusively upon the extent to which the requirements of health have been neglected in the management of the horse upon the road and in the stable. With a clean skin and abundance of pure air, protection against cold drafts, and suitable food administered regularly and in proper quantity, it will be but rare that horses of good constitution will require any further remedy than the curry-comb, the bran-bin, and warm water afford. HORNED CATTLE. In the treatment of dairy stock and other horned cattle, the extent to which it becomes necessary to resort to medical or surgi- cal treatment, except for very simple ailments, will be, in a great degree, in proportion to the observance or neglect of the funda- mental principles of breeding and management. Long-continued in-and-in breeding, or the breeding from sires and dams tainted with hereditary diseases, or weakened by neglect or ill-treatment, will inevitably result in the deterioration of the stock ; and medi- cal treatment will become more and more necessary, while such injurious breeding is continued. Deprivation of pure air, pure 470 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. water, comfortable quarters, good and varied food, will also almost inevitably introduce troublesome and expensive diseases. The same may be said in this case as has just been said of the treatment of horses, that is, that simple remedies sensibly applied, the calling in of skillful medical assistants whenever medical assist- ance is required, and the keeping of the animal under all circum- stances in the healthiest possible condition, will generally effect the desired cure, so that blistering and bleeding and purging need almost never be resorted to, and should never be adopted without sound advice. Flint gives the following directions for the treatment of several of the more prevalent complaints : — " Garget is an inflammation of the internal substance of the '* udder. One or more of the teats, or whole sections of the udder " become enlarged and thickened, hot, tender, and painful. The " milk coagulates and thickens in the bag and causes inflammation " where it is deposited, which is accompanied by fever. It most " commonly occurs in young cows after calving, especially when '' in too high condition. The secretion of milk is very much " lessened, and in very bad cases, stopped altogether. Sometimes " the milk is thick, and mixed with blood. Often, also, in severe " cases, the hind extremities, as the hip-joint, hock, or fetlock, are " swollen and inflamed to such an extent that the animal cannot " rise. The simplest remedy, in mild cases, is to put the calf to " its mother several times a day. This will remove the flow of " milk, and often dispel the congestion. " Sometimes the udder is so much swollen that the cow will not " permit the calf to suck. If the fever increases, the appetite " declines, and rumination ceases. In this stage of the complaint "the advice of a scientific veterinary practitioner is required. A " dose of purging medicine, and frequent washing of the udder in " mild cases, are usually successful. The physic should consist " of Epsom salts one pound, ginger half an ounce, nitrate of po- " tassa half an ounce, dissolved in a quart of boiling water ; then " add a gill of molasses, and give to the cow lukewarm. Diet mod- '* erate : that is, on bran ; or, if in summer, green food. There MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 471 "■ vre various medicines for the different forms and stages of garget, "which, if the above medicine fails, can be properly prescribed "only by a skillful veterinary practitioner. " It is important that the udder should be frequently examined, " as matter may be forming which should be immediately released. " Various causes are assigned for this disease, such as exposure to *' cold and wet, or the want of proper care and attention in partu- "rition." [In addition to the foregoing, or, indeed, before any medicine is used, it is strongly to be recommended that copious and frequent spongings with cool water be thoroughly tried, as many cases of apparently obdurate character have yielded completely to this simple treatment.] " Puerperal or Milk. Fever. — Calving is often attended with " feverish excitement. The change of powerful action from the " womb to the udder causes much constitutional disturbance and '' local inflammation. A cow is subject to nervousness in such '' circumstances, which sometimes extends to the whole system, '*• and causes puerperal fever. This complaint is called dropping " after calving, because it succeeds that process. The prominent *' symptom is a loss of power over the motion of the hind exlremi- " ties, and inability to stand ; sometimes loss of sensibility in "these parts, so that a deep puncture with a pin or other sharp t' instrument is unfelt. " This disease is much to be dreaded by the farmer, on account *' of the high state of excitement and the local inflammation. *' Either from neglect or ignorance, the malady is not discovered *' until the manageable symptoms have passed, and extreme " debility has appeared. The animal is often first seen lying *'down, unable to rise; prostration of the strength and violent " fever are brought on by inflammation of the womb. But soon *'a general inflammatory action succeeds, rapid and violent, with *' complete prostration of all the vital forces, bidding defiance to " the best-selected remedies. 472 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. "'Cows in very high condition, and cattle removed from low keeping to high feeding, are the most liable to puerperal fever. It occurs most frequently during the hot weather of summer, and then it is most dangerous. When it occurs in winter, cows sometimes recover. In hot weather they usually die. " Milk fever may be induced by the hot drinks often given after calving. A young cow at her first calving is rarely attacked with it. Great milkers are most commonly subject to it ; but all cows have generally more or less fever at calving. A little addition to it, by improper treatment or neglect, will prevent the secretion of milk ; and thus the milk, being thrown back into the system, will increase the inflammation. " This disease sometimes shows itself in the short space of two or three hours after calving, but often not under two or three days. If four or five days have passed, the cow may generally be considered safe. The earliest symptoms of this disease are aS' follows : — "The animal is restless, frequently shifting her position ; occa- sionally pawing and heaving at the flanks. Muzzle hot and dry, the mouth open, and tongue out at one side ; countenance wild ; eyes staring. She moans often, and soon becomes very irritable. Delirium follows ; she grates her teeth, foams at the mouth, tosses her head about, and frequently injures herself. From the first the udder is hot, enlarged, and tender ; and if this swelling is attended by a suspension of milk, the cause is clear. As the case is inflammatory, its treatment must be in accordance ; and if is usually subdued without much difficulty. Mr. Youatt says : ' The animal should be bled, and the quantity regulated by the impression made upon the circulation, — from six to ten quarts often before the desired effect is produced.' He wrote at a time when bleeding was adopted as the universal cure, and before the general reasoning and treatment of diseases of the human system was applied to similar diseases of animals. The cases arc very rare, indeed, where the physician of the pres- ent day finds it necessary to bleed in diseases of the human subject ; and they are equally rare, I apprehend, where it is MEDICAL TREATMENT OP DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 473 really necessary or judicious to bleed for the diseases of animals. ' A more humane and equally effectual course will be the fol- ' lowing : — " A pound to one and a half pounds of Epsom or Glauber's ' salts, according to the size and condition of the animal, should 'be given, dissolved in a quart of boiling water ; and when dis- ' solved, add pulverized red pepper, a quarter of an ounce, car- ' away, do., do., ginger, do., do. ; mix, and add a gill of molasses, ' and give lukewarm. If this medicine does not act on the 'bowels, the quantity of ginger, capsicum, and caraway, must be ' doubled. The insensible stomach must be roused. When ' purging in an early stage is begun, the fever will more readily ' subside. After the operation of the medicine, sedatives may be ' given, if necessary. " The digestive function first fails, when the secondary or low ' state of fever comes on. The food undischarged ferments ; the ' stomach and intestines are inflated with gas, and swell rapidly. ' The nervous system is also attacked, and the poor beast stag- ' gers. The hind extremities show the weakness ; the cow falls, ' and cannot rise ; her head is turned on one side, where it rests ; ' her limbs are palsied. The treatment in this stage must depend ' on the existence and degree of fever. The pulse will be the ' only true guide. If it is weak, wavering, and irregular, we must 'avoid depleting, purgative agents. The blood flows through the ' arteries, impelled by the action of the heart, and its pulsations 'can be very distinctly felt by pressing the finger upon almost ' any of these arteries that is not too thickly covered by fat ' or the cellular tissues of the skin, especially where it can ' be pressed upon some hard or bony substance beneath it. The ' most convenient place is directly at the back part of the lower 'jaw, where a large artery passes over the edge of the jaw-bone ' to ramify on the face. The natural pulse of a full-grown ox, ' will vary from about forty-eight to fifty-five beats a minute ; 'that of a cow is rather quicker, especially near the timp of calv- ' ing ; and that of a calf is quicker than that of a cow. But a ' very much quicker rate than that indicated will show a feverish 474 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " State, or inflammation ; and a much slower pulsation indicates *' debility of some kind." ******* '' No powerful medicines should be used without discretion ; for "in the milder forms of the disease, as the simple palsy of the " hinder extremities, the treatment, though of a similar character, " should be less powerful, and every effort should be made for the " comfort of the cow, by providing a thick bed of straw, and rais- " ing the fore-quarters to assist the efforts of nature, while all filth " should be promptly and carefully removed. She may be covered " with a warm cloth, and warm gruel should be frequently offered " to her, and light mashes. An attempt should be made several " times a day to bring milk from the teats. The return of milk " is an indication of speedy recovery. " Milch cows in too high condition appear to have a constitu- " tional tendency to this complaint, and one attack of it predisposes " them to another. " Simple Fever. — This may be considered as increased arterial " action, with or without any local affection ; or it may be the " consequence of the sympathy of the system with the morbid " condition of some particular part. The first is pure or idiopathic " fever ; the other, symptomatic fever. Pure fever is of frequent " occurrence in cattle. Symptoms as follows : muzzle dry ; ru- " mination slow or entirely suspended ; respiration slightly accel- " erated ; the horn at the root hot, and its other extremity " frequently cold ; pulse quick ; bowels constipated ; coat staring, " and the cow is usually seen separated from the rest of the herd. " In slight attacks a cathartic of salts, sulphur, and ginger is " sufficient. But if the common fever is neglected, or improperly " treated, it may assume, after a time, a local determination, as " pleurisy, or inflammation of the lungs or bowels. In such cases " the above remedy would be insufficient, and a veterinary surgeon, " to manage the case, would be necessary. Symptomatic fever is " more dangerous, and is commonly the result of injury, the " neighboring parts sympathizing with the injured part. Cattle " become unwell, are stinted in their feed, have a dose of physic. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 475 " and in a few days are well ; still, a fever may terminate in some " local affection. But in both cases pure fever is the primary " disease. " A more dangerous form of fever is that known as Symptom- " ATic. As we have said, cattle are not only subject to fever of *' common intensity, but to symptomatic fever, and thousands die "annually from its effects. But the young and the most thriving *' are its victims. There are few premonitory symptoms of " symptomatic fever. It often appears without any previous indi- " cations of illness. The animal stands with her neck extended, " her eyes protruding and red, muzzle dry, nostrils expanded, *■'■ breath hot, base of the horn hot, mouth open, pulse full, " breathing quick. She is often moaning ; rumination and appe- *' tite are suspended ; she soon becomes more uneasy ; changes her *' position often. Unless these symptoms are speedily removed, " she dies in a few hours. The name of the ailment, inflam-. " matory or symptomatic fever, shows the treatment necessary, " which must commence with purging. Salts here, as in most " inflammatory diseases, are the most reliable. From a pound to " a pound and a half, with ginger and sulphur, is a dose, dissolved " in warm water or thin gruel. If this does not operate in twelve " hours, give half the dose, and repeat once in twelve hours, until " the bowels are freed. After the operation of the medicine the " animal is relieved. Then sedative medicines may be given. " Sal ammoniac, one dram ; powdered niter, two drams, should " be administered in thin gruel, two or three times a day, if " required. " Typhus Fever, common in some countries, is little known *' here among cattle. " Typhoid Fever sometimes follows intense inflammatory " action, and is considered the second stage of it. This form of " fever is usually attended with diarrhea. It is a debilitating com- " plaint, and is sometimes followed by diseases known as black " tongue, black leg, or quarter-evil. The cause of typhoid fever " is involved in obscurity. It may be proper to say that copious " drinks of oatmeal gruel, with tincture of red pepper, a diet 47G HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. " of bran, warmth to the body, and pure air, are great essentials in "the treatment of this disease. " The barbarous practices of boring the horns, cutting the tail, "and others equally absurd, should at once and forever be dis- *' carded by every farmer and dairyman. Alternate heat or cold- " ness of the horn is only a symptom of this and other fevers, and *'has nothing to do with their cause. The horns are not diseased "any further than a determination of blood to the head causes " a sympathetic heat, while an unnatural distribution of blood, *' from exposure or other cause, may make them cold. " In all cases of this kind, if any thing is done, it should be an " effort to assist nature to regulate the animal system, by rousing " the digestive organs to their natural action, by a light food, or, " if necessary, a mild purgative medicine, followed by light stimu- " lants. " The principal purgative medicines in use for neat cattle are " Epsom salts, linseed oil, and sulphur. A pound of salts will " ordinarily be sufficient to purge a full-grown cow. "A slight purgative drink is often very useful for cows soon '^' after calving, particularly if feverish, and in cases of over-feed- " ing, when the animal will often appear dull and feverish ; but *' when the surfeiting is attended by loss of appetite, it can gen- " erally be cured by withholding food at first, and then feeding " but slightly till the system is renovated by dieting." ******* " The Hoove, or Hove, is brought on by a derangement of *' the digestive organs, occasioned by over-feeding on green and " luxuriant clover, or other luxuriant food. It is simply the dis- " tention of the first stomach by carbonic acid gas. In later stages, " after fermentation of the contents of the stomach has com- " menced, hydrogen gas is also found. The green food being " gathered very greedily after the animal has been kept on dry and " perhaps unpalatable hay, is not sent forward so rapidly as it is " received, and remains to overload and clog the stomach, till this " organ ceases or loses the power to act upon it. Here it becomes " moist and heated, begins to ferment, and produces a gas which MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 477 ' distends the paunch of the animal, which often swells up enor- ' mously. The cow is in great pain, breathing with difficulty, as ' if nearly suffocating. Then the body grows cold, and, unless ' relief is at hand, the cow dies. " Prevention is both cheaper and safer than cure ; but if by ' neglect, or want of proper precaution, the animal is found in ' this suffering condition, relief must be afforded as soon as possi- ' ble, or the result will be fatal. " A hollow flexible tube, introduced into the gullet, will some- ' times afford a temporary relief till other means can be had, by - allowing a part of the gas to escape ; but the cause is not ' removed either by this means or by puncturing the paunch, 'which is often dangerous." ****** t- " If the case has assumed an alarming character, the flexible ' tube, or probang, may be introduced, and afterward take three ' drams either of the chloride of lime or the chloride of soda, ' dissolve in a pint of water, and pour it down the throat. Lime- ' water, potash, and sulphuric ether, are often used with effect. " In desperate cases it may be found necessary to make an in- ' cision through the paunch ; but the chloride of lime will, in most ' cases, give relief at once, by neutralizing the gas. " Choking is often produced by feeding on roots, particularly 'round and uncut roots, like the potato. The animal slavers at ' the mouth, tries to raise the obstruction from the throat, often ' groans, and appears to be in great pain. Then the belly begins 'to swell, from the amount of gases in the paunch. " The obstruction, if not too large, can sometimes be thrust ' forward by introducing a flexible rod, or tube, into the throat. ' This method, if adopted, should be attended w'xih great care ' and patience, or the tender parts will be injured. If the ob- ' struction is low down, and a tube is to be inserted, a pint of ' olive or linseed oil first turned down the throat will so lubricate ' the parts as to aid the operation, and the power applied must be ' steady. If the gullet is torn by the carelessness of the operator, ' or the roughness of the instrument, a rupture generally results 478 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDET. " in serious consequences. A hollow tube is best, and if the ob- *' ject is passed on into the paunch, the tube should remain a short '' time, to permit the gas to escape. In case the animal is very " badly swelled, the dose of chloride of lime, or ammonia, should " be given, as for the hoove, after the obstruction is removed. *' Care should be taken, after the obstruction is removed, to " allow no solid food for some days." Foul in the Foot^ Red-Water^ Hoose^ Inflammation of the Glands^ Inflammation of the Lungs^ Diarrhea^ Dysentery^ Mange^ Lice^ Warbles, Loss of Cud, Constipation, and Diseases of Calves, are treated at length in Mr. Flint's work. .Abortion, which seems to assume almost the character of a con- tagious disease in many dairy districts, has thus far baffled every attempt, either to detect its cause, or prevent its recurrence ; but it is to be hoped that Dr. Dalton's Commission of the New York State Agricultural Society will be able, as the result of their labors, to throw some light on the question. Happily it is not necessary in an American work to discuss the dreaded question of the Rinderpest, which has, within the past few years, decimated the herds of Europe. It seems to have been finally removed from all of those countries into which its appear- ance introduced so much suffering ; and it is to be hoped that it will be many years before even so slight danger of the infection of American cattle as we have just passed will recur. The Texas cattle disease, which has recently shown itself in American herds, does not promise, under the vigorous treat- ment that it has received, to become a nationally serious question. But it behooves all farmers to attend carefully to the facts with which its development is attended, and to join unflinchingly in any attempt to prevent its extension, wherever it gets a foothold. SHEEP. On the subject of the diseases of sheep, Dr. Henry S. Ran- dall,* the most voluminous and the most practical American writer upon sheep-raising, wool-growing, etc., says, — * The Practical Shepherd. D. D. T. Moore. Rochester, N. Y., 1864. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 479 " Many of the diseases of sheep which are described as com- ' paratively common in Europe, are unknown in the United ' States ; and this remark applies particularly to those which have * proved most destructive in the former. " I have owned sheep the entire period of my life, — a little over ' half a century, — my flock numbering at alternating periods from ' hundreds to thousands. I have for considerably more than half ' of this period been constantly concerned in their practical man- 'agement, and a deeply interested observer of them. For more ' than twenty years I have been engaged in a constant and exten- ' sive correspondence in respect to sheep and their diseases, with ' flock-masters in various portions of the United States, and have ' been in the frequent habit of inspecting flocks of every size and 'description, and I never yet have witnessed or had satisfactory ' proof brought home to me of the existence of a single case of ' hydatid, water on the brain, palsy, rot, small-pox, malignant in- ' flammatory fever, {La Maladie de Sologne^ blain or inflammation ' of the cellular tissue about the tongue, enteritis or inflammation 'of the coats of the intestines, acute dropsy or red-water, acute ' inflammation of the lungs, or of a whole host of other formidable ' maladies described by every European writer on the diseases of ' sheep. I do not aver that they never occur in the United States, ' but the above facts would seem to show their occurrence must ' at least be very rare, or confined to localities where they are not ' recognized. " To correct or confirm my own impressions on this subject, ' I addressed letters a few months since, to a large number of ' highly intelligent and experienced flock-masters residing ii» ' various States, and in situations differing widely in respect to 'climate, soil, elevation, etc.; asking them what diseases sheep 'were subject to in their respective regions, and what remedies 'were most successfully employed for their cure. The spirit 'and substance of nearly all the replies are contained in the fol- ' lowing extract from a letter of my ofF-hand friend, Mr. Theodore ' C. Peters, of Darien, New York : — " ' You ask me for our sheep diseases and for the remedies. 31 4:80 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. * " After years of experience I discarded all medicines, except those " to cure hoof-rot and scab ; and I finally cured those diseases " cheaper by selling the sheep. An ounce of prevention is worth "a pound of cure. If sheep are well kept, summer and winter, ** not over-crowded in pastures, and kept under dry and well-ven- *' tilated covers in winter, and housed when the cold fall rains *' come on, there will be no necessity for remedies of any kind. " If not so handled, all the remedies in the world won't help them, *' and the sooner a careless, shiftless man loses his sheep, the *' better. They are out of their misery and are not spreading *' contagious diseases among the neighboring flocks.' *' When to the two maladies above named, (hoof-rot and scab,) *' are added a very fatal but infrequent one in the spring, ordinarily " termed grub-in-the-head, catarrh or cold, colic, parturient fever, *' (the last quite rare and mostly confined to English sheep,) and *' the few minor diseases of sheep or lambs — we have almost the *' entire list with which the American sheep-farmer is familiar. " All the diseases named do not, in my opinion, cut off annually *' two per cent, of well-fed and really well-managed grown sheep ! *' Nothing is more common than for years to pass by in the small " flocks of our careful breeders, with scarcely a solitary instance *' of disease in them. I have not space to offer any conjectures " as to the causes of an immunity from disease so remarkable in '* comparison with the condition of England, France, and Ger- " many, in the same particular. " Low Type of American Sheep Diseases. — A discrim- *' inating English veterinary writer, Mr. ^pooner, has remarked '' that owing to its greatly weaker muscular and vascular structure, ''the diseases of the sheep are much less likely to take an inflam- " matory type than those of the horse, (and, he might have added, " the ox,) and that the character of its maladies is generally that of " debility. Mr. Spooner wrote with his eye on the mutton sheep *' of England — constantly forced forward by the most nutritious *' food, in order to attain early maturity and excessive fatness. '' Still more strongly then do his remarks apply to the ordinarily '' fed wool-producing sheep of the United States. I long ago I MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 481 '■'■ remarked that the depletory treatment by bleeding and cathartics, "resorted to in so many of the diseases of sheep in England, is " inapplicable and dangerous here. The American sheep, which " has been kept in the common way, sinks from the outset, or *' after a mere transient flash of inflammatory action ; and in any " stage of its maladies active depletion is likely to lead to fatal " prostration. " It is not purposed here to enter upon any explanation of the " anatomy of the sheep, further than is necessary to give a general " view of the principal internal structures which determine the " form, discharge some of the principal animal functions, and "become the seats or subjects of disease. And in treating of " maladies, I shall aim to adapt both the language and the " prescriptions to the degree of knowledge already possessed " on the subject by ordinary practical men, instead of learned " veterinarians." Dr. Randall's list of troublesome diseases is, therefore, as follows : — Hoof-rot, Scab, Grub-in-the-head, Catarrh, and Colic, Parturient Fever. Hoof-rot is thus described : — " The horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradually "thinning out, some way between the toes or division of the *' hoof — and above these horny walls thex:left is lined with skin. " Where the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown *' in front covered with soft, short hair. The heels can be sep- " arated only to a little distance, and the skin that is in the cleft *' above them is naked. In a healthy foot it is as firm, sound, " smooth, and dry, as the skin between a man's fingers, which, " indeed, it not a little resembles, on a mere superficial inspection. " It is equally destitute of any appearance of redness, or of fever- " ish heat. " The first symptom of hoof-rot, uniformly, in my experience, " is a disappearance of this smooth, dry, colorless condition of the " naked skin at the top of the cleft over the heels, and of its cool- 482 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. *' ness. It is a little moist, a little red, and the skin has a slightly " chafed or eroded appearance — sometimes being a very little " corrugated, as if the parts had been subjected to the action of " moisture. And, on placing the fingers over the heels, it will be " found that the natural coolness of the parts has given place to a *' degree of heat. The inflammation thenceforth increases pretty "rapidly. The part first attacked becomes sore. The moisture " — the ichorous discharge — is increased. A raw ulcer of some " extent is soon established. It is extended down to the upper " portion of the inner walls of the hoof, giving them a whitened "and ulcerous appearance. Those thin walls become disorgan- " ized, and the ulceration penetrates between the fleshy sole and " the bottom of the hoof. On applying some force, or on " shaving away the horn, it will be found that the connection " between the horny and fleshy sole is severed, perhaps half-way " from the heel to the toe, and half-way from the inner to the " outer wall of the hoof. The hoof is thickened with great *' rapidity at the heel by an unnatural deposition of horn. The "crack or cavity between it and' the fleshy sole very soon exudes " a highly fetid matter, which begins to have a purulent appear- " ance. The extent of the separation increases by the disorgani- " zation of the surrounding structures ; the ulceration penetrates " throughout the entire extent of the sole ; it begins to form "sinuses in the body of the fleshy sole; the purulent discharge " becomes more profuse ; the horny sole is gradually disorganized, " and finally the outer walls and points of the toes alone remain. *' The fleshy sole is now a black, swollen mass of corruption, of " the texture of a sponge saturated with bloody pus, and every " cavity is filled with crawling, squirming maggots. The horny *' toe disappears ; the thin, shortened side-walls merely adhere at " the coronet ; they yield to the disorganization ; and nothing is " left but a shapeless mass of spongy ulcer and maggots. At- " tempts to cure this disease, the state of the weather, and other " incidental circumstances, cause some variations from the above " line of symptoms. When the first attack occurs in hot weather, " the progress of the malady is much more rapid and violent. MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 483 " The fly sometimes deposits its eggs in the ulcer, and maggots " appear almost before — sometimes actually before — there are any " cavities formed, into which they can penetrate. The early ap- " pearance of maggots greatly accelerates the process of disorgani- " zation in the structures. " The forefeet are usually first attacked, sometimes both of " them simultaneously, but more generally only one of them. " The animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturb- " ance. It eats as is its wont. When the disease has partly run " its course in one foot, the other forefoot is likely to be attacked, " and presently the hind ones. When a foot becomes considera- ^' bly disorganized, it is held up by the animal. When another " one reaches the same state, the miserable sufi'erer seeks its food *' on its knees ; and if forced to rise and walk, its strange, hob- " bling gait betrays the intense agony it endures on bringing its " ulcerated feet in contact with the ground. There is a bare spot " on the under side of the brisket, of the size of the palm of a " man's hand, but perhaps a little longer, which looks red and " inflamed. There is a degree of general fever, and the appetite " is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition, but retains consid- " erable strength. Nowhere else do sheep seem to me to exhibit *' such tenacity of life. After the disappearance of the bottom " of the hoof, the maggot speedily closes the scene. Where the " rotten foot is brought in contact with the side in lying down, " the filthy, ulcerous matter adheres to and saturates the short " wool of the shorn sheep ; and maggots also are either carried " there by the foot, or they are speedily generated by the fly. A " black crust soon forms and raises a little higher round the spot. *' It is the decomposition of the surrounding structures, — wool, " skin, and muscle, — and innumerable maggots are at work below, " burrowing into the living tissues, and eating up the miserable "animal alive. The black, festering mass rapidly extends, and " the cavities of the body will soon be penetrated, if the poor " sufferer is not sooner relieved of its tortures by death. " The offensive odor of the ulcerated feet, almost from the " beginning of the disease, is so peculiar that it is strictly pathog- 484 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. " nomonic. I have always believed that I could, by the sense of '' smell alone, in the most absolute darkness, decide on the pres- " ence of hoof-rot with unerring certainty. And I had about as " lief trust my fingers as my eyes to establish the same point, " from the hour of the first attack, if no other disease of the foot *' is present. But the heat which invariably marks the earliest *' presence of hoof-rot, might arise from any other cause which " produced a local inflammation of the same parts. " When the malady has been well kept under during the first "summer of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost " or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and not mani- *' fest itself again until the warm weather of the succeeding sum- " mer. It then assumes a mitigated form ; the sheep are not " rapidly and simultaneously attacked ; there seems to be less *' inflammatory action in the diseased parts, and less constitutional " disturbance ; and the course of the disease is less malignant, " more tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If well " kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third. A " sheep will occasionally be seen to limp, but its condition will "scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely super- " vene. One or two applications of remedies made during the "summer will now suffice to keep the disease under, and a little *' vigor in the treatment will entirely extinguish it. " With all its fearful array of symptoms, can the hoof-rot be " cured in its first attack on a flock ? The worst case can be " promptly cured, as I know by repeated experiments. Take a " single sheep, put it by itself, and administer the remedies daily, *' after the English fashion, or as I shall presently prescribe, and "there is not an ovine disease which more surely yields to treat- " ment. But, as already remarked, in this country where sheep " are so cheap and labor in the summer months so dear, it would " be out of the question for an extensive flock-master to attempt *' to keep each sheep by itself, or to make a daily application of " remedies. There is not a flock-master within my knowledge " who has ever pretended to apply his remedies oftener than once " a week, or regularly as often as that, and not one in ten makes MEDICAL TREATMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 485 " any separation between the diseased and healthy sheep of a flock " into which the malady has been once introduced. The conse- " quence necessarily is, that though a cure is effected of the sheep " then diseased, it has infected or inoculated others, and these in " turn scatter the contagion before they arc cured. There is not '' a particle of doubt, nay, I know, by repeated observation, that "a sheep once entirely cured may again contract the disease, and " thus the malady perform a perpetual circuit in the flock. For- "tunately, however, the susceptibility to contract the disease "diminishes, according to my observation, with every succeeding "attack; and fortunately also, as already stated, succeeding "attacks, other things being equal, become less and less virulent." In order to reach the seat of the disease, it is necessary that the horn of the hoof be entirely removed over those parts where the difiiculty is located. This work is done by the aid of sharp, thin knives and strong toe-nippers, which, with the manner of using them, are described in Dr. Randall's work, and he con- tinues: — " And on the effectual performance of this ^ all else depends. If the "disease is in the first stage — /. ^., if there is merely an erosion "and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft above the " walls of the hoof, no paring is necessary. But if ulceration has "established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, the ul- " cerated parts, be they more or less extensive, must be entirely de- " nuded of their horny covering.^ cost what it may of time and care. It " is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as "the running blood will wash off the subsequent application ; but " no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance "with the rule above laid down. At worst, the blood can soon "be stanched, however freely it flows, by a few touches of a " caustic — say butter of antimony. " If the foot is in the third stage, — a mass of rottenness and " filled with maggots, — the maggots should first be killed by spirits "of turpentine, or a solution of corrosive sublimate, or other " equally efiicient application. It can be most conveniently used " from a bottle having a quill through the cork. By continuing Lib h i:nivki;>i ) ^ B > -8 8 o o • o • • O - ■ O Q O O 88.8^||8«:8>S|88 : ~S : :-RS^^ :=,-§.: a 8- : 8 S> '3' 5 ?- S : S -EAinba aAiiijjnM 77: ;r- 7:77:7:77-? •saauEjsqns p3ZIU33oj)lU -uou 01 psziuaS -OJIIU JO uoii -jodojd 3AI1EPX : : "§ 5- a : : -8 ^^ 8 OO^-^O-H^i^- . >o 3- 2 : t- c> : : ° 2 2 ; : 2 £ 2 22222222 ~% >^ Ml O f-^ >« <0 CO t^ >. r- 00 r^ r^ •aouElsqns paijpun )o siJEd 001 ui usSoJii] S^ ^ 2, 00^- r^S-S 8"° ■33UE]sqns psijp JO SlJBd ooi UI usSojii^] 2; S ?. : ° •£, 3; ? §■ ° ° S c O C C M rt M ♦ O H •siJied 001 UI J31EM l-~ l« .0 ^"?5o-^".2^^^^ S ^ u X a. m J b: oi Bi o (J ^ pa ea o e« ^ 5 582 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. STEAMING FOOD. I have now (1870) steamed all of the hay and most of the grain that has been fed out at Ogden Farm, and I do not hesitate to recommend the practice to all who are so circumstanced that they can do the work systematically. For want of space I will simply detail our modus operandi^ and others will be able, readily, to make such modifications as may be necessary to meet the requirements of their own cases. We have about fifty head of stock, and I find that — averaging them all, old and young — it costs not more than fifteen cents per day to feed them, including the cost of grain, labor, fuel, wear and tear of machinery, etc. Kept in good condition, as they are, this is low enough. By referring to the plans of the Ogden Farm barn, the reader will be able to understand the following description of the arrange- ment of the machinery and fixtures. The engine (six-horse power) and the boiler (ten-horse) stand in a lean-to shed on the north side of the barn, (back of the ox-stalls.) The " counter- shaft," by which the power is communicated, is at the west end of the feed-room, about seven feet from the floor. One end of this shaft runs out through the north side of the building and is connected with the driving-wheel of the engine by a belt. The cutting-machine stands on the hay floor, with its knife-end toward the feed-room and about four feet distant from it. Power is carried to it by a belt from a pulley on the counter-shaft. The steaming-chamber occupies what was formerly a pair of ox- stalls on the cattle floor. It reaches to the ceiling, and is entered by a hatchway through the floor of the feed-room. It also has a side- door opening on the gangway, through which the feed-car passes. The steam is supplied, under a loosely-laid false bottom, by a pipe leading from the boiler. We run the engine three or four hours one day in the v/eek — cutting about three tons of long fodder, which usually consists of hay, straw, and corn-stalks in about equal parts. One half of this is put into the chamber on the day of cutting, and the other half is WINTER FKEDING OF LIVE STOCK. 583 laid away until the next steaming day. We cut and steam on Satur- days, and fire up again, t\H- steaming only, on Wednesdays. The cut fodder is thoroughly wetted, and has the allowance of bran or meal well mixed through it. It is then put through the hatchway into the chamber and trampled down. Three or four times during the filling of the box, the steam is turned on and allowed to flow until it appears at the hatchway. This serves to soften the mass and allow it to pack more closely. When the chamber is quite full, the hatch is closed and keyed down, and a full head of steam is allowed to flow until it blows out hot from the slight openings about the hatch and the lower door. This usually takes from an hour and a half to two hours, — generally in the evening. The steam is then turned off and the mass is allowed to cook itself, by the accumulated heat, until morning, when any musti- ness or mouldiness of the long fodder is destroyed, and the whole is permeated with the flavor and odor of the bran or meal mixed with it. The above-described operation is very simple, and only requires precaution on two points : — 1. The steaming-box or chamber must have a weak point at which the steam may find its way out without straining the permanent parts. This will usually supply itself in a little im- perfection of fitting about the doors. 2. The fodder must be well moistened before it is put into the chamber, for ilry hay will not cook. My chamber, which has a capacity of about 425 cubic feet, holds, if packed full, enough food to supply my whole stock for rather more than four days. It is made with matched spruce flooring nailed on both sides of 6-inch joists, and to the under side of the floor-joists above. The spaces above and on the four sides are packed full with sawdust. The floor is covered with galvanized iron, with soldered joints, turned up a little at the sides. On the bottom 3x4 joists are laid, and on these there are loose strips of board about six inches wide, laid with half-inch spaces between them. The steam is admitted below this loose bottom and rises through its spaces. 584 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. As to the profit of steaming, I am not prepared by definite figures to assert that the usual estimate is correct, that one-third of the food is saved, though, after two seasons' careful observa- tion, I fully believe it. This I am sure of: that corn-stalks that have moulded in the stack, musty oats which have been cut green and badly cured, and smoky hay, — nearly the whole of which would be rejected if fed uncooked, — are eaten with avidity and with evident benefit to the stock. On the score of health and condition, this system is all that could be desired. In only two or three instances have cases of " scouring " occurred, and these were immediately remedied by the substitution of long hay for a few days. I question whether there is any advantage in cooking roots. There is a freshness about these in their raw state that is perhaps beneficial, — and is surely very acceptable to stock. It would be an easy (and a pleasant) task to write a book as large as this one on the single subject of this chapter. To enter with any thing like fullness into details in this limited space, would be impossible, and I have preferred to devote the i^v^ pages that could be spared for the purpose rather to general principles than to minute instructions. What I have chiefly tried to accom- plish has been to so state a few of the leading points, that my read- ers should be induced to seek fuller information in works devoted especially to physiological questions, and to the economy of the stable. CHAPTER XVIII. USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. The following tables, collected from various sources, contain information to which it will be especially " handy " for every farmer and gardener to have easy access. Of course, much of their contents it would be impossible for me to verify by actual experience, but they are all taken from standard authorities, and are universally accepted as correct. Table, showing the square feet arid the jeet square of the fractions of an acre. Fractions of an acre. Square feet. Feet square. Fractions of an acre. Square feet. Feet square. ■h 2722i S2i \ XI780 «47i i 5445 75* I 43560 io8i i .0890 I04i X 87110 X95i \ .45.0 not Table, showing the number of hills or plants on an acre oj land, for any distance apart, from 10 inches to 6 feet — the lateral and longitudinal distances being unequal. 10 in. 12 in. 15 in. 18 in. 20 in. ift. ijft. 5 ft. 3i ft. 4 ft. 4* ft. 5 ft. 5f ft.' 6 ft. 10 in. 61716 II •• 51171 45560 15 " 418 1 7 34848 1787s 18 " U84« 29040 l?l?i 19560 10 " J'J<^5 26156 IC908 17414 1 5681 I feet 261 j6 21780 17414 14520 H068 10890 li " 10708 17414 'J9?9 11616 10454 8711 696.; } '■ '7414 14520 11616 96S0 8712 7160 580^ 4840 J* " >49JS 12446 995? 8297 7467 6115 4976 4148 3565 4 " IJ068 10890 8712 716c 65H 5445 4ii' 5650 5111 1711 4i " 11616 9680 7744 645? 5808 4840 3!i7: 5216 1767 1420 1151 5 '• J0454 87.1 Upq 5808 5127 4356 34S4 1904 24SV 2178 1956 1741 5i " 9504 7910 6^6 5280 4751 3960 5168 1640 2265 1980 1760 1584 1440 8712 71^ 5808 4840 4356 J630 1904 2420 2074 I86j ■-■ 1451 IJIC IlIO 586 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Table, showing the number of plants, hills, or trees contained in an acre at equal distances apart, from 3 inches up to 66 feet. Distance apart. No. of plants. 3 inches by } inches 696,960 4 " by 4 " 392,040 6 " by 6 " 174,240 9 " by 9 " 77,440 I foot by I foot 43, 560 li feet by i j feet l9,j6o 1 feet by i foot 21,780 2 " by 2 feet 10,890 2i " by 2i " 6.960 } " by I foot 14,520 } " by 2 feet 7,260 3 " by 3 " 4,840 3i" by 3i " 3,555 4 " by I foot 10,890 4" by 2 feet 5,445 4 " by J '■ 3,630 4 " by 4 " 2,722 4i" by 4i^ " 2,151 5 " by 1 foot 8,712 5 " by 2 feet 4,356 S " by 3 " 2,904 5 " by 4 " 2,178 5 " by 5 " 1,742 5J" by 5i " 1,417 Distance apart. No. of plants. 6 feet by 6 feet 1,210 6i •' by 61" 1,031 7 " by 7 " 881 8 " by 8 " 680 9 " by 9 " 537 10 " by 10 " 435 11 " by II " 360 12 " by 12 " 302 IJ " by 15 " 257 14 " by 14 " 222 15 " by 15 " 193 16 " by 16 " 170 i6i " by i6i " 160 »7 '■ by 17 " 150 18 " by 18 " 134 '9 " by 19 " 120 20 " by 20 " 108 25 " by 25 " 69 30 " by 30 " 48 3J " by 33 " 40 40 " by 40 " 27 50 " by 50 " 17 60 " by 60 " 12 66 " bv 66 " 10 Table, showing the quantity oj garden seeds required to plant a given space. Designation. Asparagus Eng. Dwarf Beans.. French Beans, pole, large. . " " small. Beets Broccoli and Kale.. Cabbage Cauliflower Carrot Celery Cucumber Cress Egg Plant Endive Leek Lettuce Melon . Nasturtium Onion Okra Parsley Parsnip Peppers Peas Pumpkin Radish Salsify Spinage Space and quantity of seeds, oz. produces looo plants, and requires a bed 12 feet square. 000 plant a bed 4 feet wide 225 feet long, quart plants from 100 to 150 feet of row. " " 250 or 350 feet of row. " " 100 hills. ■' " 300 " or 250 feet of row. o lbs. to the acre ; i oz. plants 1 ;o feet of row. oz. plants 2500 plants, and requires 40 square feet of ground. Early sorts same as broccoli, and require 60 square feet of ground. The same as cabbage, to I 50 of row. gives 7000 plants, and requires S square feet of ground, for 150 hills. sows a bed 16 feet square, gives 2000 plants. " 3000 " and requires So feet of ground. " 2000 " and '• 60 " '• " 7000 " and " seed bed of 120 feet, for 120 hills, sows 25 feet of row. " 250 " gives 25cx> plants, quart sows 120 feet of row. to 50 hills, to 100 feet, to 150 " of row. to 200 " to 75 hills. gives 2500 plants, requiring seed bed of 80 feet, to 2000 feet, to 50 hills. USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 587 Table, showing the quantity oj seed required to the acre. Desi Wheat jnation. Quan tity of to 2i to 4 to li to li to 1 to 5} to l\ to Z to 2i seed. u ,, Buckw heat i " „ ., Peas . z\ a Hemp Flax I >. 1 ., Rice.. z .. Designation. Uuantit; Broom Corn i to Potatoes 5 to Timothy iz to Mustard 8 to H erd G rass 1 1 to Flat Turnip i to Red Clover lo to White Clover j to Blue Grass lo to Orchard Grass lo to Carrots 4 to Parsnips 6 to of seed. 1} bush. Table, showing the quantity per acre when planted in rozvs or drills. Broom Corn i to i\ Beans \\ to z Peas li to z Onions 4 to 5 lbs. Carrots z to 2^ ■' Parsnips 4 'o 5 " Beets 4 to 6 " Table, showing the number of seeds in one pound, and weight per bushel. No. of I No. lbs. Seeds per lb. per bush. Wheat Barley Oats Rye Vetches Lentils Beans Peas Flax seed Turnip seed , Rape seed Mustard (white) Cabbage seed Mangel-wurzel Parsnip seed Carrot seed Lucern seed Clover (red) " (white) Rye-grass (perennial). " (Italian) ... Sweet vernal grass . . . . 10,500 S8 to 64 .S.400 48 to 56 20,000 j8 to 41 ij.ooo 56 lo 60 8,}oo 60 to 6} 8,100 58 lo 60 I.JOO 60 to 65 z,oco (ki lo 65 108,000 50 to 60 155.000 50 to 56 118,000 50 to 56 75.COO 57 128,000 51 14,600 20 lo 14 97,000 '4 157,000 9 105,000 58 to 60 149,600 60 to 6} 686, 4<» 59 to 61 JJ4,ooo 10 to 18 171,000 I] to t8 9*}>ooo ' 588 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY Table, skotving the number of rails, stakes, and riders required for each lo rods offence. Length of rail. Deflection from right line. Length of panel. Number of panels. Number of rails for each jo rods. IS z lel Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. S rails high. 6 rails high. 7 rails high. z l6i 6 7 8 8 lO loj 8j 69 IZJ 99 84 144 116 95 42 34 28 17 14 Table, showing the number of rails and posts required for each 10 rods of post and rail fence. Length of rail. Length of panel. Is is. z Number of rails for each lo rods. Feet. Feet. 5 rails high. 6 rails high. 7 rails high. 8 rails high. 10 8 20| 21 10} 123 144 165 12 10 i6i >7 8j 99 116 in 14 12 >5i 14 69 84 95 109 i6t Hi 12 57 69 81 9J Table, showing the number of loads of manure and the number of heaps to each load required to each acre, the heaps at given distances apart. Distance of heaps apart, NUMBER DF HEAPS IN A LOAD. in yards. ' * 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ^ 5J8 269 179 134 108 89* 77 67 60 54 3i 395 168 132 99 79 66 56, 49* 44 39* 4 20J 151 101 75* 6oi 50* 43: 37* 33+ 30* 4i 239 120 79* 60 47i 39J 34: 30 26* 24 5 \n 97 64* 48* 38j 32i 27 24i 21* i9i 5i 80 . 53* 40 32 26i 12i I7f 16 6 iji 67 44J 33* 47 «♦ ;§ i6f 15 13* 6i "5 57i 38i zU »3 19 14* I2i II* 7 II 49* 33 24} 19 l6i 14 12* II 10 7i 43 28J 2.* 17^ Mi 12* loj 9* 8 8 75* 37t 25i 19 15 ■ 12* 10} 9* 8* 7- 8i 67 33i z%i i6t 13* "i 9* 8* 7* 6 9 60 30 20 15 12 10 8* 7J 6f 6 9* 53* 26f 18 13* loj 9 1\ 6t 6 51 10 48i 24i ,6i 12 9f 8 7 6 5* 4i USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 589 T ABhE, showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as manures, from the inorganic matter they contain. Inorganic Matter. ton Wheat Straw made into manure returns to the soil 70 Oat " " " " " 100 lbs. to j6o Hay Barley " " Pea Bean " " Rye " " Dry Potato-tops " Dry I'urnip-tops " Rape Cake " Malt Dust " Dried Seaweed " .ICO to 200 to no to 130 7.hn showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as manures, from the nitrogen they contain. 100 lbs. of farm-yard manure is equal • I JO lbs. Wheat Straw Manure. ISO •• Oat 180 '• Barley '• 8? " B'kwheat " 45 " Pea 50 " Wheat Chaff 80 " Green Grass 75 '• Potato Tops 80 lbs. Fresh Seaweed A Manure. 10 • Dried •' 16 13 ' BranofWheatorCor ' Malt Dust " u 8 ijo ' Rape Cake ' Pine Sawdust ;; 180 ' Oak ' Coal Soot .. Bousslngault. Table, showing the labor one horse is able 'to perform at different rates of speed on canals, railroads, and turnpikes. Drawing force, 83^ lbs. Duration of day's work— hours. Useful elTect for l day in tons, drawn i mile. Speed per hour. Miles. On canal— tons. On a railroad— tons. On a turnpike, torn. ii Hi 520 115 '4 3 8 Hi 9* 12 3i 6 »54 82 10 4 4i 102 71 9 S ^^^ 5» 57 7. J 6 i JO 48 6 7 .* 19 4> 5 S U 12.8 36 4.5 9 A 9- 31 4- 10 1 6.5 28.8 3.6 690 HANDY-BOOK OP HUSBANDRY. 1 1 ^^ ^ ^ H •UISUODSIM •" ^ ;^ : : :^ ^ :>a .8 % : •JSX uojSu.qsEM 1 !?? ^a :a : . i-S^ . : -8 ■■^ : •JUOUJJ3A 1 ■'% ■^ : :-a : : : >8 •puEisi apoq-a 1 : : :& : : :a : •EiusAiXsuuaj 1 : 5: ^ :~a : : : ^ •uo3,io j ^^ 'I- :-a : : ;^^ : : v8 •°No| :% a ¥^R5 rs^;; :>a ^aa * : ? 3; •EIJODS BAON : g, :^ : : : £ •>1J0A*3NJ :% ^ :"£,::: . ir^ ^8 ? : •x,s..fM.N| :% a :a ; : : : !^ ^ •ajiqsduiEH ^^N | : : ;a, :a : •jjoiMSunja *3N 1 : S, a-a :,8 : : : ^: •EPEA3N j : O ^ :a ; : : •E5|SBjqoM j :'!§.° a ^cg^Ra :3-;: ■.•s.t2S£ ^-tss. 1 ■Hnossjwj :^8 a .-^g-e. : ; :a-;: :a2-^ : : ^ • Tt- •EJ0S31IU.W 1 :% ^ : :a, : : :^^ : : :«8 : : •uB3>qD.w 1 :«§. " ^cg-a^ai-a^^-as-^aar?? :? - •sjjasnqoBSSBW | : «§. % :^ :a : •puBiXjrw 1 : : •.u,.K| :% ^a :-a : : : •.u.,s,noTJ - :a : : : •X^iDniuaji 1 I-^S a .a. :a : :a?^ ^ :? •siisuEM j :^8 a ■^cg-aR : .?;:; :-a -.2 !? :4: •B«oi| :=§.§°5, -^cg-aR : :?S; :-a2->8^:? ^ :?5 •EUBipui 1 :•§.::& ^I^sa :s^;: : :?«8 5 :? : •s.ouniil .°§.S .S> ^^-aR^ :?;:; :^?^ 5"?^^ 1 ...MB„a 1 : : :-a : : : : •sio^BQ 1 : '^ :* -a?. : : : s I- • •jnoijDsuuoo 1 :«§. :s§.s; :-a :a : . •«p«us3 ] :'!§. i-iS-^g^ :^ : : : 3 ;; :2,2-.8 % -.t - i ■EiujojiiED j : a :^ :a : : : : is Q. r 1 J i c Coal, Mineral Corn, Shelled Corn, in Ear Corn Meal Cranberries i1 a. 1 1 "ii 5 s .2 b C i c E c .t PB3 li USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 501 •utsuojsiM : 2, : : : :: :.8 ::•&::::: :.g : 1 .J3X uo»3u!^stA\ 1 : ISS, : : :?^^ :&■£,::: :aa«85 •juouiJiA 1 ; S, : : : : :.2 :::■&:::: : :«8^ •pueisi apoqy | & : 8, : : S.: :>8 :a: : : : :aa: : •tiuuAiXsuujd 1 : ° : : : .::«.: :«.^5R: : :^ : •U033JO j :•£,::: :?:,8 : :^: : : : : :5 : •o.qo| ::::: .\g : :3 &:-&::::: :5-8 •riioas «AON : 2; : : : : : : : : :>g, : : : : • :3 : •1J°A *»N 1 : S> : : : : :55 ::-&::::: :55 ■Xjsjjf «3N j : o : : : :: :,8 ::-&::::: :3 : •aitqsduiEH MSN 1 :&:: :^ : :«8 ::■&::::: :55 | •iJiDiMsunja *3N 1 i-S.'g, : : : : :^ :«,^ : : : :-e.^S : •EPEA3M 1 : 2« : : : : : : : : :S: : : : : :5 ; ■EJlSEjqaM j : * K S" Ji : :55 a :•&::: : ::S55 •unoss,M| -^K: : : : :5 : :^: : : : : :^5 •EiosauuipM I : li : : : : . : : : :>g, : : : : : :5 : •ueaiqDiw 1 ::i3; : ;:; : :55-& .^ : : : : :^55 •sjjjsnqjEssiw | : S, S, : : : : :^ : :^: : : : : :5 : •puBiX.Ew 1 : : : : : :::•&:::::::::;: •'"■m |-8 2,:J. : ; : :^ : :3-S. : : : :,8a>2^ ■EUEismoi 1 : s, : : : : : : : : :a: : : : : :^ : •X:|Dnju3jj 1 : ^D; ; : :: :^ ::-&::::. :5>8 •sEsuEji 1 : JiC; ; . :: :^ ::>&::::. :i5 •EMoi 1 : ~D; : 2, : : :5-^:'& : : :2. : :«g5 •EUEtpui 1 ::§;:: :: :5 ;:•&::::. :55 •sio"!iii 1 : ;i!P; : . : : .^S; :^ :S; : : :K;55 •3JE«Epa 1 : : : : : :::::::::::: :5 : -tio^MQ 1 ; 2, : : : :: :5 ::•&::::: :«85 •jnaijDJuuoo j^S.& : :? :^>8 :5'8> : •" : ■■SS.SS ■EpEUEoj -5 ::2 :SS : -^ : : : --SSSS •EIUJ0JIIE3 1 : S, ; : : ::::::^::::::,: | 1 So ill iiilif. S S S o?3 > u a, a. a. B. as Bi Salt, Coarse Salt, Fine Salt, Ground Sand Sugar Beet Turnips Wheat 1 ■^ 5 ^: .2 ^ T > PI I 592 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Average composition, per cent, and per ton, of various kinds of agricultural produce, etc. Linseed cake Cotton-seed cake. . Rape cake Linseed Beans Peas Tares Lentils Malt dust Locust beans Indian meal Wheat Barley Malt Oats Fine pollard* Coarse poUardf. . . Wheat bran ..... Clover hay Meadow hay Bean straw Pel straw Wheat straw Barley straw Oat straw Mangel-wurzel . . , Swedish turnips. . , Common turnips. . Potatoes Carrots Parsnips PER CENT. 1.87 1-35 1.60 1. 17 6.44 7.52 7-95 1.2; 0.90 0.85 0-S5 O.J7 o 48 0.09 LBS. PER (LONG) TON. 6'; 4-' 12 6. 76 S.C J7 3.i 27 4^c q6 ^■A 66 4^2 96 4^ 12 V • ?5 l.i %o ll 6^ I .- ^o 2.C 46 2.t 49 2. •45 ■?o 2. • lo 1 o.c .89 .6S 0. M 0. •93 .^', 0. 0. .29 0. •4? 0. • i? 0. • J6 °- i,97« '.994 i»994 2,016 1,882 1,893 1,892 1.971 2,106 1,904 »,97 1,904 1, 882 2,118 1,926 1.926 1,926 1,926 1,882 1, 1.848 1,857 1,882 1.904 1,859 280 246 179 537 •^ e 106.4 145.6 112.0 85.1 89.6 76.2 94.1 96.3 94.1 28.0 40.} 40-3 37.0 38 I 44.8 58.2 57^8 * Middlings, Canielle. t Shipstuff. Table, showing the proportion of solid matter and water in 1 00 parts each ofthefollozving articles of diet. Wheat Peas Rice Beans Rye Corn Oatmeal Wheat bread Mutton , Chicken 87 I? 87 13 86 14 86 14 86 14 86 '4 74 26 51 49 29 71 27 73 Designation. Lean beef 26 Eggs ! 26 Veal j 25 [ Potatoes 25 ; Pork I 24 I Codfish I 21 Blood ' 20 j Trout 19 i Apples 18 Pears I 16 Designation. Carrots Beets Milk Oysters Cabbage Turnips Water melon Cucumber .. , USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 593 Table, showing at one view zvhen forty weeks {tfu period oj gestation in a cow) will expire, from any day throughout the year. Jan. Oct. Feb. Nov. March. Dec. April. Jan. May. Feb. June. March. I 8 I 8 I 6 6 I $ I 8 % 9 z 9 z 7 7 z 6 X 9 % lO J 10 J 8 8 J 7 J 10 4 11 4 II 4 9 9 4 8 4 II J IZ 5 IX S 10 10 S 9 5 IZ 6 IJ 6 «J 6 II II 6 10 6 I] 7 14 7 ■4 7 IZ IX 7 II 7 14 8 »5 8 IS 8 IJ IJ 8 IX 8 •S 9 i6 9 16 9 14 14 9 IJ 9 16 10 17 10 17 10 1$ IS 10 14 10 17 II l8 II 18 11 16 16 II IS II 18 li 19 IZ 19 IZ 17 17 IX 16 IZ ■9 «5 zo 'J xo IJ 18 18 IJ 17 «J zo M ZI 14 z, 14 19 19 14 18 14 ZI IS zz «5 XX 1$ zo xo IS 19 IS Zl i6 1} 16 xj 16 ZI XI 16 zo 16 XJ »7 14 17 X4 17 zz XX 17 ZI 17 14 18 IS 18 xs 18 XJ XJ 18 zz 18 X? 19 z6 «9 z6 19 X4 X4 19 IJ 19 16 zo 1? zo X7 zo xs XS zo X4 zo 17 XI z8 ZI z8 ZI x6 x6 ZI xs ZI z8 Zl V) zz X9 zz X7 X7 zz z6 zz V) »} JO IJ JO XJ x8 x8 XJ X7 XJ JO H Ji Dec. X4 X9 X9 X4 x8 X4 JI Nov. M xs JO JO March. April. iS iS z6 JI JI x$ I x$ ' z6 z6 Jan. Feb. z6 z z6 X »7 17 X7 I X7 J X7 J z8 z8 x8 z z8 x8 4 x8 4 Z9 Z9 6 Z9 J Z9 X9 S X9 S JO JO 4 JO JO 6 JO 6 Ji JI s " 7 594 HANDT-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Table, continued. July. April. Aug. May. Sept. June. Oct. July. Nov. Aug. Dec. Sept. I 7 8 I 8 I 8 8 7 2 8 9 2 9 2 9 9 8 3 9 10 3 10 3 10 10 9 4 10 II 4 11 4 II II 10 5 II 12 5 12 5 12 12 II 6 12 ,j 6 «3 6 ij 13 12 7 IJ »4 7 14 7 14 14 13 S >4 IS 8 >5 8 15 15 14 9 15 16 9 16 9 16 16 15 10 16 17 10 17 10 17 17 16 II '7 .8 II 18 II 18 18 17 12 18 »9 12 19 12 19 19 18 I? X9 20 13 20 1} 20 20 19 14 20 21 .4 21 14 21 21 20 J5 21 22 >5 22 15 22 22 21 i6 22 2J 16 23 16 23 23 22 >7 2J 24 17 24 '7 24 24 2} i8 24 25 18 25 18 25 25 24 19 25 26 19 26 19 26 26 19 25 20 26 27 20 27 20 27 27 20 26 21 27 28 21 28 21 28 28 21 27 22 28 29 22 29 22 29 29 22 28 2J 29 2J 30 2J 30 2J 30 30 23 29 24 30 31 July. 24 31 24 Ji 24 30 May. June. 24 Aug. Sept. Oct. 25 » I 25 25 I 25 25 26 2 2 26 26 2 26 26 27 3 3 27 27 3 27 27 28 4 28 4 28 28 4 28 28 29 5 29 S 29 6 29 5 29 29 30 6 30 6 30 7 30 6 30 30 6 J' 7 31 7 31 7 31 7 USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 595 Table, showing tlte period of reproduction and gestation of domestic animals. Proper age for repro- duction. Period of the power of re- production Number of females for one male. Period of gestation and incubation. Designation. Shortest pe- riod, days. Mean period, days. Longest period, days. Mare 4 years. 5 " I ;; 1 " I " 1 " 4 " 5 " z z " 1 " 6 months. 6 •' 6 " 10 to 11 11 to I{ lo to 14 8 to 10 6 7 6 6 6 J 10 to 11 11 to 15 ti 8 to 9 8 to 9 5 to 6 9 to 10 S to 6 5 to 6 S to 6 } to 5 10 to }o JO to 40 40 to so 6 to 10 10 to 40 ■5'io"6 11 to \$ Jll 240 ■^6 109 ■365 "181 55 ■48 10 '9 14 28 27 16 i5 20 40 J47 iS} «54 "5 'iso 'ioS 60 5° "28 21 26 }o JO 18 18 ij 41 419 jii Stallion Cow Bull Ram 14 J Vb\ J9' H5 6} Boar She Goat He Goat She Ass Me Ass She Buffalo Bitch Dog She Cat He Cat Doe Rabbit .... Buck Rabbit... Cock Hen 56 is JO Turkey Goose 15 45 Pigeon Pea Hen Guinea Hen.... Swan Table, showing the price oj pork per pound at different prices per bushel for corn. Corn per hushrl. Cents. Pork per pound. Corn per bushel Cents. Pork per pound. Cents. 1.78 1 40 4.76 2.18 ;.j5 2.6l 1 60 7 '4 " ** 8 57 696 HANDY-BOOK OF HUSBANDRY. Table, showing the contents of circular cisterns in barrels for each foot in depth. 5 feet 4.66 6 " 6.74 7 " 9>J 8 " "-93 9 " «S>o 10 " 18.65 Table, shozving the contents of circular cisterns from \foot to 2^ feet in diameter y for each 10 inches in depth. Diameter. Gallons. Diameter. Gallons. 4.896 7j 8 . 8J 3IJHO 10 583 9i aX 122.400 »} 827.450 148.546 6 >5 20 6J 206.855 loj8 421 ESTIMATING THE WEIGHT OF HAY BY THE MOW OR STACK. By a careless oversight in the revision of " Courtney's Farmers' and Mechanics' Manual," an error appeared in the first edition, which brought me so many letters from all parts of the co ntry, informing me that five cubic yards of mow hay do not weigh one ton, that it may be well to say here that the weight depends very much on coarseness, fineness, dryness, dampness, compactness, quality, time of making, weather during harvest, etc., etc., etc. In view of these changing conditions it is impossible to give any rule that is of much value USEFUL TABLES FOR FARMERS. 597 Hay in a mow ten feet drop, put in in good order, and not too ripe when cut, ought to average one ton to each 525 cubic feet. The compression increases rapidly as the height increases, and a mow of the same hay, fifteen feet drop, would probably turn out a ton to 475 cubic feet if not even to 425 feet. All such guess- ing, however, is very hazardous, and it is always safer to buy or sell only by actual weight. Perhaps it would be a safe formula to say, sell at 400 cubic feet and buy at 600 cubic feet. Table, shorving the price per cwt. of hay, at given prices per ton. i ^ •a ■s j j> J "S ^ "3 . 1. ■a ■0 c c = c c c c •J 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 .c Si •c a J= ji J3 X j: a. •*■ " ■" 1- •" |-~ 00 - T cts. Cts. $ Cts. $ cts. $cts. Sets. Sets. $cts. $cts. Sets. Sets. $ct,. 4 10 20 40 60 80 I.OO 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 5 I2 25 50 75 I.OO 1.25 1.50 1-75 200 2.2$ 2. so 2-7S 6 «S JO 60 90 1.20 I so 1.80 2.10 2.40 2.70 J.OO J.JO 7 «7 35 70 I OS 1.40 »-75 2.10 'i^ 2.80 315 3-50 J.8J 8 20 40 80 1 20 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.80 J. 20 j6o 4.00 4.40 9 22 45 90 I 35 1.80 2.2s 2.70 J>S J.60 4-05 4 50 4-95 10 25 SO I.OO I SO 2.00 2.50 J.OO 3.50 4.00 4.50 S.oo $SO II 27 55 1. 10 I 65 2.20 2-75 3- 30 3.85 4.40 4-95 5.50 6.00 12 io 60 1.20 I 80 2.40 3.00 }6o 4.20 4.80 S.40 6.00 6.60 n 52 65 I.JO I 95 2.60 3-25 J.90 4-55 S.20 5-85 6. so 7>S 14 J5 70 ..40 2 10 2.80 3- 50 4.20 4.90 S.60 6. JO 7.00 7.70 15 37 75 I.SO 2 25 J.OO 3-75 4. SO S-2S 6.00 6.7$ 7. SO 8.2$ t INDEX. Page Absorbent Manures 262 Abortion in Uows 478 Air, composition of 27 Alderneys 515 Ammonia, supply of 31 Ammonia, formation of 31 Ammonia in the Soil 33 Ashes 251 Ashes, ingredients found in 28, 24D Ashes of Plants, whence derived. . 28 Barley 200, 314 Barn at Ogden Farm 52 Barn, small 67 Barn, ventilator for 68 Barn, Reisig and Hexamer's 71 Barn-Yards 79 Bladder, diseases of, in horses 457 Bleeding (swine) 501 Blind Staggers (swine) 500 Breeding Horses 387 Buckwheat 314 Butter 532 Butter, Philadelphia 533 Butter, washing 547 Butter, salting 548 Butter, manner of packing 551 Buying a Farm 9 Caked Bag (cows) 470 Capons, making 506 Carrots 328 Catarrh (sheep) 491 Cattle lioove or Hove 476 Cattle, Typhus Fever 47 1 Cattle, Typhoid Fever 471 Cheese . .*. 552 Cheese Factory 553 Cheese Manufacture in Domestic Dairies 561 Chemistry, agricultural 23 Choking (cattle) 477 Cleanliness in Stables 570 Pagb Clover 342 Clover Hay, composition of 27 Clover Seed Crop 289 Clover as a Preparatory Crop for "Wheat 308, 344 Clover Roots 364, 367 Clover Soil, composition of 366 Colds (horses) 441 Colic or Gripes (horses) 443 Colic and Intiammationof the Bowels compared (horses) 449 Colic or Stretches (sheep) 492 Corn Crib 305 Corn Fodder, curing 341 Corn, sowed 339 Costiveness (horses) 456 Costiveness (swine) 500 Cough (horses) 442, 454 Cough (swine) 500 Cows, Caked Bag 470 Cows, etc., medical treatment of. . . 469 Cows, Milk Fever 471 Cows, Puerperal Fever 471 Cultivator 185 Curing Corn Fodder 341 Dairy 511 Dairy Cattle, breeds of 514 Dairy Cows, feeding and manage- ment of 525 Dairy Women, advice to, by Chas. L. Fhnt 565 Devons 515 Diseases of Animals 434 Distemper in Colts 456 Ditches, digging of 105 Domestic Animals, medical and sur- gical treatment of 434 Drainage 84 Drainage, effect of 95 Draining, laying out the work 99 Draining Outlets 99 Draining, maps for 100 602 INDEX. Draining Grades 102 Draining Levels 102 Draining, computations for 104 Draining, digging the ditches 105 Draining Tiles 106, 124 Draining Silt Basins 110 Draining, filling the ditches 113 Drainage of Ogden Farm 114 Draining, English system of 125 Draining with Stones 130 Draining with Plank, Brush, and ^ Poles 132 Drains, lateral 100 Drains, main 100 j Dutch Cattle 514 Earth Closets 215 Earth Closets, management of.. . . . 226 Earth Closets, kind of earth to be used 228 , Earth Closets, coal ashes for 229 , Exercise for Stock 572 I Exhausting Manures 248 j Farm, how to buy 9 j Farm Buildings 50 Farm Roads 81 Farm Drainage 87 Farm-yard Manure 193 Farm Teams, treatment of 402 Farm Horses 403 Farm Stock, classitications of 573 j Farriery 460 | Fattening Stock, management of. . . 574 Feeding Stock, general principles. . 575 Fences 39 Fertilizers, special 256 Fever in Cattle 471 Fish Guano 258 Fish, A. L., on Domestic Cheese Making 562 Flint, Chas. L., Letter to a Dairy Woman 565 Flint, Chas. L., quotations from Nu- tritive Equivalents. 580, 581 Food of Plants 28, 29 Food, economy of 420 Foot Rot in Sheep 481 Forage Crops 339 Founder 440 Fresh Water for Stock 572 Gapes in Chickens 503 Garget (cows) 470 Gates 47 George Geddes, quotation from 287 Pagb Grades of Drains 102 Grain Crops 298 Grease or Scratches (horses) . . 439, 458 Green Sand Marl 252 Green Crops as Manure 268 Growing Animals, management of. 573 Grub in the Head (sheep) 489 Guano 257 Harrow 181 Hay Clover, composition of 27 Herefords 515 Hinges for Gates 48 Homeopathic Veterinary 436 Hoof Rot in Sheep 481 Hoove or Hove (cattle) 476 Horned Cattle, medical treatment of 469 Horse Breeding 387 Horse Hoe 186 Horseshoeing 462 Horses 387 Horses, management by omnibus companies in New York 404 Horses, medical and surgical treat- ment of 436 Horses' Hoofs 462 Horses, colds 441 Horses, colic or gripes 443 Horses, colic and inflammation of the bowels compared 449 Horses, costiveness 456 Horses, grease or scratches, . . .439, 458 Horses, inflammation of the bowels 444, 451 Horses, inflammation of the brain.. 440 Horses, inflammation of the lungs. . 452 Horses, strangles 456 Horses, worms 457 Indian Corn 289, 298 Indian Corn, cultivation of 299 Indian Corn, harvesting 304 Inflammation of the Brain (horses). 440 Inflammation of the Bowels (horses) 444, 451 Inflammation of the Bowels and Colic compared (horses) 449 Inflammation of the Lungs (horses). 452 Inflammation of the Lungs (swine). 500 Itch (swine) 500 Jerseys 515 Johnson, Prof. S. W., on Milk and Butter 543 Kidney Worm (swine) 500 INDEX. G03 Pack Latches for Gates 49 Lateral Drains 100 Laying out Drains 99 Leasino; a Farm 17 Levels for Draining 102 Lice on Poultry 504 Lime 256, 263 Lime in Plants 240 Lime, Prof Johnson on 2G3 Lime Plants 27G Live Stock 384 Live Stock, winter feeding and man- agement of 569 London, sewers of 212 Main Drains 100 Mangel Wurzel 331 Manure, Dr. Boelcker on 193 Manure Heaps, Dr. Boelcker on drainage of 199 Manure, poultry 209 Manure, night-soil 210 Manures 190 Manures, classification of 192 Manures, farm-yard 193 Manures, mineral 239 Manures, lasting 247 Manures, exhausting 248 Manures, special 25G Manures, solvent 258 Manures, absorbent 262 Manures, mechanical 262 Manures, green 268 Manures, general conclusions 270 Marl 252 Mechanical Manures 262 Medical and Surgical Treatment of Domestic Animals 434 Milch Cows, selection of 520 Milk Fever (cows) 471 Milk, selling 511 Milk, analysis of 513 Milk and its Products 531 Milk House at Ogden Farm 533 Milk Rooms 538 Milk and Butter, Prof S. AV. John- son on 543 Milking Cows, management of ... . 574 Millet for forage 382 Mineral Manures 239 Muller 188 Neat Cattle 407 Night-soil 210 Nitric Acid 31 Nitrogen 30 Nitrogen, proportion of in various cultivated plants 30 Nitrogen in Plants, sources of 31 Nitrogen in Animal Substances 33 Oats 290, 313 Oats for Forage 380 Ogden Farm, barn 52 Ogden Farm, drainage of 114 Ogden Farm, milk-house at 538 Out-of-door Operations, how to com- mence 19 Outlets for Drains 99 Oxen, etc., medical treatment of. . . 4G9 Parsnips 338 Pliiladclphia Butter 533 PhospiiMte of Lime, how made .... 244 Phospliatc of Lime, how applied. . . 246 Phosplioric Acid .'M, 242 Phosphoric Acid, proportion of, in various cultivated plants 36 Plank, Brusli, and Pole Drains 132 Plant Feeding Materials, proportions of, in soils 26 Plants, decay of 23 Plants, composition of 23 Plants, constituent parts of 27 Plants, food of 29 Plowing 133 Plowing, fall 20 Plowing, time for 141 Plowing, how to be done 142 Plowing from center of the field. . . 146 Plowing, sub-soil 149 Plowing, trench 153 Plowing by steam . 157 Plowing with three horses abreast. 176 Flows 135 Potash 37, 250 Potash, proportion of, in various cul- tivated planU 37, 251 Potash Plants 276 Poultry 410, 501 Poultrj-, manure of 209 Poultrv, prevention of diseases. . . . 505 PueriK-ral Fever (cows) 471 Puerperal Fever (sheep) 492 Puerperal Fever (sheep), Samuel Thome on 495 Pulverizing the Soil 179 Pure Air, in stables 573 Quincy, Josiah, on Soiling . Regularity of Feeding, etc. 604 INDEX. Pagb Restoring FertiUty 26 Roads 81 Roller 179 Root Crops 316 Roots for Use on the Farm 319 Roots, transplanting 334 Rotation of Crops 272 Roup 502 Rutabaga Turnips 321 Rye 313 Rye for Forage 381 Salt, best kind for the dairy 549 Salting Butter 548 Scab (sheep) 488 Scratches or Grease (horses) 439 Scrofula (swine) 498 Sea- Weed as Manure 255 Sewers of London 212 Sheep 407 Sheep, catarrh 491 Sheep, colic or stretches 492 Sheep, diseases of 48 1 Sheep, grub in the head 489 Sheep, medical treatment of 478 Sheep, puerperal fever 492 Sheep, puerperal fever, Samuel Thorne on 495 Sheep, scab 488 Silica Plants 276 Silt Basins 110 Soil 24 Soil, composition of 23 Soil, practical view of 26 Soil, restoration of 26 Soils, cause of unproductiveness. . . 26 Soils, mechanical ingredients of. ... 25 Soiling and Pasturing 417 Soiling, Josiah Quincy on 423 Soiling, product; of milk under 422 Solvent Manures 258 Sorghum 342 Sowed Corn 339 Spring Wheat 311 Steam Plowing 157 Steaming Food 582 Stone Drains 130 Stone Walls 44 Strangles (horses) 456 Stretches or Colic (sheep) 492 Sub-soil Plowing 149 Superphosphate of Lime, how made 244 Page Superphosphate of Lime, how ap- plied 246 Swedes 321 Swine 406 Swine, medical treatment of 496 Swine, blind staggers in 500 Swine, bleeding 501 Swine, costi veness 500 Swine, cough. 500 Swine, inflammation of the lungs.. 500 Swine, itch 500 Swine, kidney worm 500 Swine, scrofula 498 Temperature of Stables 571 Theory 22 Thorne, Samuel, on puerperal fever (sheep) 495 Transplanting Roots ' 334 Trench Plowing 153 Turnips, rutabaga 321 Typhoid Fever (cattle) 471 Typhus Fever (cattle) 471 Unproductive Soils 26 Useful Tables for Farmers 585-597 Ventilator for Barn 68 Voelcker, Dr. Augustus, on farm yard manure 195 Voelcker, Dr. Augustus, on the drainage of manure heaps 199 Voelcker, Dr. Augustus, on clover as a preparatory crop for wheat. . 344 Washing Butter 547 Water-Table 25 Weeks, Gardner B., on cheese fac- tories 552 Wheat, 307, 291 Wheat, average yield of, in U. S. . . 36 Wheat, average yield of, in England 36 Wheat, winter 310 Wheat, spring 311 Wheat, ingredients of 348 Windmill 59 Winter Feeding and Management of Live Stock 569 Winter Wheat 310 Wool Growing 407 Working Animals, management of. 574 Worms (horses) 457 The NEAV YORK DAILY TRIBVNE says :— Another or WAnma's Boors FOR FAKMEiis. The liirjje class who have read Col. W armg's work^ on AgricHltuie and kindred topicv^, published at the office of the Tribune will be glad to know that he has just completed a much larger and more comprehensive treiitife called "Tuk IIandv Book of Husbandry, and Guide to Farmcrc, Young and Old." We do not hc-oitatc to predict for ii a wide popularity. Written by a practical farmer and gardener, who has had much expericDce In writing, it is precisely such a book as every Farmer should hare and should read. The Handy-Book of Husbandry: A Guide for Farmers, Young and Old. By GEORGE E. WARING, Jr., of Ogden Farm, Formerly Agricultural Engineer of Central Park, N. Y. ; Author of " Elements of Agricul- ture ;" "Draining for Profit and for Health ;'' ''Earth Closets and Earth Sewage.'^ NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. This is a thoroughly practical book for practical Farmers. It should become the Handy-Book of every Farmer in America. It is written by a Practical Farmer and Market Gardener of recognised ability, who has under his own personal control a farm of sixty acres, and is to-day one of the most successful stock-breeders, fruit-growers and practical farmers to be found in this country. It puts a young Farmer many years ahead in experience and knowledge, and by a careful study of it he can save a vast amount of tiresome and EXPENSIVE labor. It condenses within a small space so much of the Science of Agriculture as is important for every Farmer to understand, and only so much ; and is devoted to questions that arise in every-day practice, under the following heads: — When, How and AVhere to Buy or Lease a Farm; Key-IVotes of Success In Good Farming; Commencement of Far mini;; Operations; Farming Implements and ITIaclilnery; Farm Buildings and Fences; PlowlngandSubsoillng; Gardening for JTIarket; Draining and Sewage; MANURES; Forage Crops; Rotation of Crops; Grain and Root Crops; Butter and CIicesc-iTlakIng ; "Winter Feeding and Care of Stock; liive Stork in Various Departments; Diseases — tlielr Treatment and Remedies; Useful Tables— Facts and Figures for Farmers. Complete in one large octavo volume of over 600 pages, with 112 practical Illustrations and Maps ; and furnished to subscribers — In Fine Englisli Clotli, Substantial Binding, - - - $3 50 In Embossed Morocco, Marbled Edge, ----- 4 00 In Extra Half Calf, Antique, ------- 6 50 PAYABLE ON" DELIVERTT. Note. — I. there is no Agent in your place, send your subscription to the Pub- lishers, and sample copy will be forwarded, post-paid, on receipt of price. AGENTS WANTED E. B. TEEAT & CO., Publishers, 654 Broadway, N. Y. ThL9 NEW YORK TRIBUNE says:— "Owr Home Physician" \a a well-prepared remme of the chief facte and methods of treatment that are known to modern medicine. Dr. Beard has Drought to his task intelligent zeal, an unusual candor, and a knowledge of what is known in his profession. Whether for the rules of health or for the emergencies of illness, this book is a comprehensive, comprehensible and trustworthy vade mecum. As a compend of the Theory and Practice of Medicine, it is the best that we know. A NEW AND POPULAR GUIDE TO TSCJS JLJCT OF PJtESERriNG HEA-LTB A^ND TBEATINO DISEASE!, With Plain Advice for all Medical and Snrgical Emergencies of the Pamily, The whole is baaed on the most Jtecent and the Highest Authorities, and brought down to the Latest Dates. By QEO. M. BEARD, A.M., M.D. [GkapCATB of YiL« CoitKO* AND OF TH« NlW YoRK CoLLaOB OF TwYtXClkV* AND ScBOBOKl] J Lecturer on Nervous Diseases in the University of the City of New York ; Fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine : Member of the New York County Medical Society. ASSISTED IK THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS BT THE TOLLOWING EMINENT MEDICAL AUTHORITIES IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK :— BENJAMIN nOWARD, A.M., M.D., Prof, of Surgery. D. B. ST. JOHN BOOSA, A.M., M.D., Prof, of Diseases of Eye and Ear. J. B. HUNTER, M.D., on Diseases of Women ana Children. A. D. ROCKWELL, M.D., and otbers. The Publishers present "Our Home Physician" with the assurance that it is the most important and valuable Medical Guide ever offered to the American public. To this admirable work our author has given careful study, investigation and experience, and now presents it to the public as the result of a large and extended practice in New York City. From the author's preface " This book has been prepared to meet a want that has been long and widely felt— of a single work which should give a comprehensive and accurate knowledge of Medical science of the present day, in as much detail as can be useful to those not medically educated. I have left no stone un- turned to make the work fully represent the best and most recent opinions and experiences of the leading authorities of our day in the various departments, all of which are brought down to the most recent dates. Diseases, their symptoms and treatment, and in fact nearly every department of Medical science, has changed wonderfully during the past twenty years, and Medical works and authors that were once considered authorities are now worse than useless, tending only to mis- lead with dangerous results. ., . , , "This work not only includes all that has ever been attempted in similar works, but also several hundred new remedies, new systems of treatment, new diseases and new subjects in the department of health that have never yet appeared in any work designed for the people. There are yet among the people those who have a blind faith in some school or exclusive system of treatment ; to all such let me say that the wise physician of our time belongs to no " school," no " ism," no " pathy," but uses for his patients all things which have proved to be beneficial. On this principle this work is based. The best physicians of our day are not narrow or bigoted, as some suppose, but are the most liberal and progressive of men. I have written in the work just what I say every day to mv patients, in my popular essays, and in my lectures before lyceums and colleges. I have here said just what your family physician would tell you if he had the time and occasion to explain the different diseases, their symptoms and treatments. My aim has also been to make the work so clear that the wayfaring man might not err therein, and yet so thorough and exhaustive that the educated physician should find in it much to perfect his knowledge and refireeh Ms memory." WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS Extra English Cloth, Gilt DaeJc, Beveled Hoards, - - _ $5.00 Fine leather, library Style, Sprinhled Edges, - - - - 6.00 Half Turkey Morocco, Cloth Sides, Marbled Edges, - - - 8.00 Z'aky cable ozx X>eli-v-ex-y. This work Is dold only by subscription, and can be obtained only through our authorized Agents. Subscribers will not be obliged to take the work unless it corresponds with the descrip" tion in every particular. The New York Tribune says:— "Our Home Pliysician" is a well-prepared resume of tlie chief facts and methods of treatment that are known to modern medicine. Dr. Beard lias brought to his task intelligent zeal, an unusual candor, and a knowledge of what is known in his profession. Whether for the rules of health or the emergencies of illness, this book is a comprehensive, comprehensible and trustworthy vade mecum. As a compend of the theory and practice of medicine, it is the best that we know. The Scientific American (Ne^v York) says:— The volume is a very large one, with numerous illustrations. We have carefully examined it, and do not hesitate to pronounce it one of great value to every family in the land. The New York Evening Post says;— Dr. Beard has been assisted in this work by a number of eminent men, and has succeeded in making a popular treatise on the science of medicine very far superior to any other in existence. "Our Home Physician" may be confidently recommended to those who are seeking such information, as containing all that any unprofessional man can need or care to learn of medical science. The Rural New Yorker says :— It is a live work, treating of the various functions of the body, the different forms of disease, and the varied methods of treatment in the light of all the latest medical knowledge. It is comprehensive, clear, simple, practical. The Rochester Express says:— This is decidedly the best and most sensible work on health and disease that has ever been published in this country. It is the most complete and reliable medical guide ever oS'ered to the American public, and we have no hesitation in saying one should be in every family. The Rochester Democrat says :— The labor of the author has been immense. The result is a work which, in usefulness, cannot be equaled in medical literature. A thoroughly reliable medical guide in a family is, beyond all things, next to the Bible, desirable. The Rochester Chronicle says:— After a careful examination of this book, we are saiistied tliat it is one of the most valuable of its class ever published. It should be in the possession of every family, and carefully studied by all. The Christian Advocate says:— After examining the book with some care, we give it our heartiest commendation. It supplies a real want among the people, and, as soon as known, will find its way into thousands of households in all parts of the country. By all odds, it is the best book of its class before the public. The Methodist says:— It is a volume that should be found in every home in the country. The book treats comprehensively the various questions that come within its range. It is a work which we take great pleasure in commending. The N. Y. Evening ITIail says:— It is perhaps the most comprehensive and complete jiopular medical work ever published. Its author is a writer and a physician of the most liberal medical views. The Cincinnati Commercial says :— We know of no popular work that has received such hearty endorsements by j)hysicians of eminence. It is undoubtedly one of the best for popular use ever brought to the notice of the public. The Cincinnati Gazette says:— It has the endorsement of the physicians of Cincinnati, and is certainly one of the most comprehensive, minute and trustworthy guides fur the preservation of health and cure of diseases that any family could possess. The Hearth and Home says :— A careful examination has satisfied us that this is a work of real worth. It is clear, straightforward and comprehensive, and is the product of a scientific and experienced author. The Chicago Evening Journal says;— This is a compendious and useful work, judging from the many testimonials of eminent physicians. The New Haven Journal and Courier says ;— It contains amass of information upon topics with which all, and especially heads of families, should be familiar. It points out tlio nature of diseases, their sj-mptoms of approach, and the proper method of treatment. We advise all to whom it is shown to give it a careful examination. The Ne-*v Haven Register says :— There is no pretence that this book will make every reader his or her own physician; but there are many occasions when a little medical knowledge, such as can be obtained in this volume, would be the means of saving life. 16,000— 16th THOUSAND NOW READ7.— 16,000 A Book of Groat Value to Farmers, Mechanics and Workingman of all Trades and Occupations. THE Farmers' & Mechanics' Manual roR Machinists, iVIanufacturers, Merchants, Engineers, Masons, Painters, Plumbers, Gardeners, Accountants, &.C. Br W. S. COURTNEY, and GEO. E. WARING, Jb. ▲UTHOB OP "elements OP AGRICDXTURE," "DRAINING FOR PROPIT AND FOR HEALTH," CLOSETa — HOW TO MAKE AND HOW TO USE THEM ;" AND FORMERLY AGRICULTCBAI< ENGINEER OF CENTRAL PARK, NEW TORE. WITH 200 PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND OUTLINES. \_Extract8 from the Author^ s Preface.'] Those who consult this book must remember that it is not a book of recipes or prescriptions, but for the most part a work of facts and figures— assured analysis and demonstrations, about which there can be no dispute. The design was to produce a work of substantial and enduring value, and of universal application and use. * * ♦ To sum up, then, this book is offered as containing more that has been proven by long use to be of value, more that is most necessary for every fanner and mechanic to know, and more of promising novelty, than any other that has ever been presented to the farmers and mechanics of America. It is complete in every particular in which it is possible for such a book to be complete ; and, in addition to this, it is sufficiently suggestive in many other respects to induce its readers to read more, to think more, to experiment more, and to become more intelligent and more successful in the management of their business, as well as really happier and wiser men. A Book of Solid Worth and Practical Utility, "Worth its Weight m Gold." EVEEY ARTISAN NEEDS IT. BDILDER " " CARPENTER " DAIRYMAN « " ENGINEER " FARMER '« «' GARDENER « " HOUSEHOLD " " IRON WORKER " " JOURNEYMAN " KEEPER OF ACCOUNTS " " liAWYER " MECHANIC EVERY NAVIGATOR NEEDS IT. " OWNER OP STOCK " " PAINTER " QUARRYMAN " KEAL ESTATE OWNER " " STOCK RAISER " TANNER « " UNDERWRITER " VINE G ROSTER « WORKMAN " " YOUNG MAN " " ZEALOUS, INDUSTRIOUS AND Labor-Saving Man cannot afford to be without it. It will be comprised in one large Octavo Volume, of over five hundred pages ana two hunc^'ed illustrations, and furnished in : Extra English Cloth, Gilt JBach, ----- $3,00 Embossed Morocco, Marbled Edges, ----- 3. SO Half Calf, Antique, ---___- S.OO TVanled Farmers, Mechanics, Teachers and irorking Men and "Women Everywhere, to Sell this Work, I443J