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LiSRARY 
 
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 UNtV«»ITT OP 
 aMJTORNiA 
 
 ANTHROPOLXX5Y 
 
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^iititia Uritettwto 
 
 <* 
 
 OR 
 
 AN ENaUIRY 
 
 CONCERNING THE 
 
 LOCALITIES, HABITS, CONDITION, 
 
 AND 
 
 PROGRESSIVE CIVILIZATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ABORIGINES OF BRITAIN; 
 
 TO WHICH IS APPENDED, 
 
 A BRIEF RETROSPECT OF THE RESULT OF THEIR 
 INTERCOURSE WITH THE ROMANS. 
 
 BY 
 
 Wm. D. SAULL, F.S.A. F.G.S., F.R.A.S., &c. 
 
 The Land which warlike Britons now possess, 
 And therein have tlieir mighty empire raised, 
 In Antiqne limes was savage wilderness, 
 Unpeopled, unmanurcd, unjjroved, unpraised. 
 
 Spekser. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY JOHN RUSSELL SMITH, 4, OLD COMPTON 
 STREET, SOnO SQUARE. 
 
 MDCCCXLV. 
 
ANTHROPOLOGY 
 
DA 140 
 
 INTRODUCTION. ANTHROP. 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 When a few years ago, I heard Dr. Buckland in his usual animated manner, 
 describe the perforations in the sides of the hills in Sicily, stating them to have 
 been the resting places, or abodes of the Troglodytes, or nide inhabitants of that 
 Island, I then had no conception that our own land contained somewhat similar 
 memorials of its original occupants ; since that period I have clearly ascertained 
 that there yet exists in Britain the remains of very many equally rude and simple 
 forms of habitations. During my frequent visits Lo that part of Yorkshire where 
 many undoubted British remains exist, I naturally felt a strong inducement to in- 
 quire into the habits and condition of a people who once inhabited dwelling places 
 of so primitive a character. The results of my enquiries generally, with my con- 
 clusions thereon, are now submitted to the reader in the following pages: having 
 adopted this course from a conviction that the subject has not met with that 
 ample investigation it merits. Although this Essay has extended beyond the 
 limits originally contemplated, I have been compelled to curtail many interest- 
 ing points, and defer their consideration to another opportunity ; cufficient how- 
 ever of the more prominent subjects of the enquiry are here noticed. 
 
 On submitting some of the earlier sheets of this work to th-2 opinion of a lite- 
 rary friend, one of the antique school, he rsmarked, "we like your descriptive 
 portion of it very well, but we do not require your philosophy," — in reply, I ob- 
 served, "I shall not abridge my work of that portion of it, wliicli I deem the most 
 valuable. Surely all our enquiries should have for their object, the elevation of 
 our race ; this will be best accomplished by placing before the reader a series of 
 facts, and deducing conclusions in accordance therewith, (without reference to 
 any pre-conceived notions or opinions whatsoever) therefore I cannot consent to 
 have the result of my labours despoiled of that part, which I take the liberty of 
 consideriug as its spirit and essence." 
 
 Such have been the sentiments which have actuated me during the progress of 
 this Essay, it will not therefore I hope, be supposed, that my purpose is to 
 address myself exclusively to those who have been accustomed to habits of inves- 
 tigation, and who persevere therein without partiality or prejudice ; such has not 
 been my intention ; on the contrary, I trust that the perusal of these pages may 
 prove an incentive of inducing habits of strict inquiry, v/here they have not 
 hitherto existed, — such a result will amply reward the exertions of 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 Aldersgate Street, 
 Jan. 1845. 
 
 G18 
 
.^ 
 
NOTITIA BRITANNIA, 
 
 OR, 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE EARLY HISTORY 
 
 ABORIGINES OF BRITAIN. 
 
 By Wm. Devonshire Saull, F. S. A., F. G.S,,&c. 
 
 The knowledge of the habits and customs of the * Aborigines', or 
 first inhabitants of this or indeed of any other country, must ever be in 
 a great degree involved in obscurity, owing to the subsequent changes 
 that have occurred on the surface of the soil, during so many ages 
 before and since the historic period, and also from the simplicity of 
 their modes of living, their habits being locomotive, like some of the 
 inland tribes of Asia and America at the present time, consequently 
 very few indications of a permanent character with regard to their 
 dwelling places, utensils, &c., can now be recognized, to reward the 
 enquirer in this very interesting subject. Yet even in this appa- 
 rently obscure field, much may be gleaned by close observation, and 
 diligent research, amply to reward the observer, shedding a light as 
 it were over a subject hitherto considered, (and justly so,) as one of 
 the most abstruse of archaeological enquiry. 
 
 In these researches the philosopher and the philanthropist must 
 always feel the most lively interest, since they exhibit MAN in his 
 various phases, in the hunter, (or rudest) state, the nomadic, shep- 
 herd, or pastoral state, and the partial or more generally located state, 
 the precursor of modern locations in Cities, Towns, Villages, &c., 
 
 B 
 
proving, most clearly, that man always has been — is now — and, by 
 direct inference, ever will be, an advancing or progressive being. 
 
 A modern writer has observed : — 
 " As we ascend the stream of history, the monuments of our fore- 
 fathers are continually becoming more rare, until we find no other 
 memorial of their existence than the earth on which they lived. The 
 historical monuments, indeed, vary not only in quantity, but in their 
 character, and their variations to a certain degree may be defined by 
 limits. From the beginning of the thirteenth century to the present 
 time, historical events may be verified by the official records which 
 are still preserved in our public offices."* 
 
 Notwithstanding all the difficulties which this subject presents, I 
 determined to enter upon the investigation, with all the energy and 
 perseverance I could devote to its elucidation, and in this spirit I 
 have in the course of the last three years visited and closely investi- 
 gated many British, Roman and Saxon stations in Britain, the result 
 of these surveys, and my conclusions thereon, I now submit to anti- 
 quaries generally. 
 
 And firstly, in reference to British or Celtic remains. 
 
 My observations were principally in the Counties of York, North- 
 ampton, Salop, Wilts, Kent and Hampshire ; consequently they are 
 somewhat limited, but the evidences of their camps, or stations, and 
 burial places, are spread over the face of the country, whilst many 
 have been obliterated by cultivation and enclosures, rendering their 
 recognition a task of considerable difficulty. I own myself much 
 indebted to the publications of many antiquaries, who have preceded 
 me in their enquiries into these subjects, particularly the late Sir R. C. 
 Hoare, who has so clearly described them in Wiltshire, Capt. Shortt 
 of Exeter, C. T. Smythe, Esq. of Maidstone, Douglas's Nenia Bri • 
 tannica, Borlase's Cornwall, &c. I found the most numerous of 
 British settlements interspersed amongst the moorlands and wolds of 
 Yorkshire, in spots where the Spade and the Plough have not yet 
 been brought into operation ; the late Mr. Walker of New Malton, 
 
 * Wright on Ludlow and the Marshes. 
 
and Dr. Young, of Whitby, have described many in their immediate 
 locality, the latter gentleman having personally inspected the remains 
 of upwards of forty British villages ; their scites are generally found 
 near running water, that most indispensable article for supplying tlie 
 wants of man in all stages of society. From Dr. Young's " History 
 of Whitby and its vicinity," I shall transcribe a short extract on these 
 *' reliquiae" of remote antiquity, discovered previous to my visits to 
 some of these remains ; which I subsequently had the gratification 
 of exploring " in situ" during my visits into Yorkshire. 
 The Britons of that age, especially the more northern tribes, such 
 as the Brigantes, appear to have been in the same savage state as 
 the CafTres, Bootshuanas, and other tribes in the interior of South 
 Africa are found at this day. Their clothing, when they wore any, 
 consisted of skins ; they stained their bodies with paint or ochre, 
 and often marked them with figures, something in the way of the 
 South Sea tattooing. They lived in circular huts, nearly in the 
 shape of beehives, like those of the native Africans ; as we may 
 yet see in the remains of their dwellings at Eyton Grange, Hare- 
 wood Dale, &c. To construct a hut they dug a round hole in the 
 ground, and with the earth and stones cast out in the digging, made 
 a kind of wall, which was surmounted with boughs of trees meet- 
 ing together at the top, to form a sort of roof; over which there 
 might be a covering of sods, to protect them from the weather, a 
 hole being left on one side, to serve the triple purpose of a door, a 
 window, and a chimney. The fire was placed in the centre of the 
 floor, and the inhabitants sat or lay on the ground around it, — 
 remains of the charcoal of their fires are found in digging in the 
 middle of the hollows, that mark the scites of these ancient dwell- 
 ings ; in such wretched huts, large families of men, women, and 
 children would be promiscuously huddled together, as is the case 
 with the South African Savages ; and this mode of life might give rise 
 to the statements of Caesar and Dion Cassius, that among the Bri- 
 tons, it was customary for every ten or twelve men, and those the 
 nearest relations, to have their wives in common." 
 This description of the dwellings of the Britons naturally induced 
 
me to visit and inspect some of their remains in Yorkshire. In these 
 examinations I was occasionally accompanied by the author of the 
 foregoing extract. My first essay was to visit Harewood Dale, which 
 lies on the moors to the left of the road leading from Scarborough to 
 Whitby, about ten miles from the former place ; being alone I crossed 
 the moors with some difficulty, but ultimately reached the objects of 
 which I was in search, namely the remains of the rude huts or dwell- 
 ing places of the ancient occupants of the soil, the spot being called 
 by the country people ' the roases' (roses),* probably from the cusp- 
 like appearance of these singular remains ; here I discovered on the 
 summit of a small eminence, rising from a wooded valley, fifty or sixty 
 small circvdar, and oblong depressions in the earth, the edges of which 
 were somewhat raised above the level of the ground, indicating that 
 the exterior materials of which the huts were originally composed had 
 crumbled away in the lapse of ages. These depressions were about 
 eight or ten feet in diameter, but I regret that want of time would not 
 allow me to examine the bottoms or floors minutely, as Dr. Young 
 states he had frequently found in the centre of many of the huts, 
 ashes, and charred or burnt wood, the remains of their fixes ; he also 
 mentions that the stones and earth in the centre bore the impress of 
 their domestic fires, and clearly indicated the uses to which these huts 
 or wigwams had been applied by their occupants ; namely, for the 
 purpose of sleeping and repose, for it is not reasonable to suppose 
 that cooking in any manner would be practised in that rude state. 
 
 I noticed that some of these aboriginal dwellings were larger than 
 others, some again appeared to have had a communication vnth ano- 
 ther contiguous to it, probably for the purpose of occasionally living 
 distinct from those having a fire-place in the centre. 
 
 This group of the earlier locations of the inhabitants of Britain, 
 lies in a direction N. N. W. extending lengthwise on the summit of a 
 bank which on the west is fianked by a deeply wooded valley, within 
 which meanders one of the upper streams of the River Derwent. 
 These cavities seem to have been formed without any idea of regula- 
 
 * By others the Dry- Heads. 
 
rity. The scite is well chosen for a supply of the necessaries of life 
 for such a primitive race of men, being near an abundant stream of 
 water, and encompassed on three of its sides by the moorlands, 
 abounding in reptiles, &c., which then must have been of the first 
 importance to the people. The annexed ground plan. No, 1, repre- 
 sents the commencement of the group taken from the southern point, 
 which is carried some distance along the elevated ground, in a direc- 
 tion from South to North. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 The contemplation of this scene, so novel and interesting, induced 
 in my mind peculiar feelings and sensations ; here I traced, retrospec- 
 tively, through countless ages, tlic earlier condition of our species in 
 this land, clearly exemplified in tlicse remains of their earliest dwell- 
 
6 
 
 ings, nor could I avoid contrasting the condition of the inhabitants at 
 that period, with the state of the population in later times, with refe- 
 rence to general comforts and enjoyments, and although feeling 
 acutely, that even at the present time, with all our advantages, there 
 is a vast mass of suffering amongst the poorer classes, yet, in the 
 onward course of civilization, these prominent evils must be effec- 
 tually removed, and that ultimately, the destiny of the great human 
 family, will be universal happiness. 
 
 The physical structure of man, his enlarged capacity for enjoy- 
 ment, his great mental powers when fully developed, and which may 
 be considered illimitable, all tend to substantiate this opinion. 
 
 In recurring even to this early period, I could trace a considerable 
 advance from the hunter state, as here at least were shown proofs of 
 a partial location, a rude idea of association, and by regular grada- 
 tion the next forward movement would be more improved dwell- 
 ings, and a partial adoption of the use of stone in some of their habi- 
 tations. This I shall refer to subsequently, under the head of 
 Claughton, a few miles nearer Scarborough. The next great advance 
 would be the adoption of fortified positions or* camps, as a protection 
 for themselves and their cattle, when they had succeeded in domes- 
 ticating the wild animals, they would then be retained within earth- 
 work enclosures, as a precaution against hostile tribes ; hence we 
 generally find them constructed on elevated positions, but invariably 
 in the vicinity of water ; these stations are very numerous in Bri- 
 tain, particularly in the Western Counties, but these with propriety 
 belong to the next period of advance. 
 
 The interest I felt in these enquiries induced me to visit this part 
 of Yorkshire in the following year, with an intention of making a 
 more extensive survey — and in company with Dr. Young I proceeded 
 from Whitby by the road towards Egton, and our first observation 
 was directed to two ' tumuli' on the moor to the right of this road : 
 we observed at the foot of these tumuli the same indications of resi- 
 dences which have been noticed before ; namely, several circular 
 excavations, with a row of stones placed upright marking distinctly 
 a line between the two ' tumuli,' some of which yet remain erect. 
 
Egton Grange was next observed : this is situate in a singularly 
 romantic and wooded valley within which meanders one of the prin- 
 cipal streams of the river Esk, and part of the way up the hill are 
 the remains of the largest British village in these parts, Dr. Young 
 estimates the number of the excavations to be about two hundred, 
 the scite is marked by rows of stones, some erect, but most of them are 
 now prostrate ; it is somewhat irregular in form, and much overgrown 
 with trees, and bushes, most of the excavations are yet clearly to be 
 traced, although several are partly filled up with decomposed vege- 
 table matter and the protruding roots of the trees. We descended 
 into several of the cavities and found by digging in the centre, some 
 of the partially burnt stones, and occasionally small pieces of charred 
 wood as before described by Dr. Young, clearly indicating the use to 
 which they had been applied. Some of these cavities or excavations 
 appeared larger than those I had observed in Harewood Dale, and it 
 seems evident that there were varieties even in these humble dwell- 
 ings, for in the remains of a similar kind between Danby and Sealing 
 they are found more regular, being arranged in lines or streets. 
 
 The number of such remains spread over this part of the country, 
 is very considerable. Dr. Young has enumerated more than forty, and 
 he remarks that near the base, or lower part of a hill called Rosebury, 
 these lines of hollows marking the foundation of these antique huts 
 encircle the front, not only of Rosebury, but of the other large hills, 
 which skirt the plains of Cleveland. These chains of military posts 
 (for so we may with propriety term them), are always found at some 
 distance from the bottom of the hills, and are in some places single, 
 in others double. These remains are called by the country people 
 '' houes," and which with many lines or communications of upright 
 stones formerly abounding on these moors, have been broken down 
 and destroyed by ruthless ignorant people. Most of the ancient 
 British villages already referred to, are usually associated with up- 
 right pillars of stone, these being undoubtedly the most ancient 
 monuments to commemorate any important event : and it is proper 
 to remark, that as we perceive at different stations or villages a con- 
 siderable diversity in the structure and arrangement of these ancient 
 
8 
 
 iiuts, and find a still greater diversity in the form of the hones, we may 
 reasonably conclude that they have not all been the work of one gene- 
 ration or tribe, but of several ; by whom this district has been suc- 
 cessively occupied, and probably during those ages of barbarism the 
 possession of these hills intersected by numerous deep valleys, thickly 
 overgrown with trees and underwood, yielding shelter to a rich supply 
 of animals as food, must have been an object of no small importance ; 
 as affording great facilities both for support and defence ; hence a 
 weak tribe might maintain its ground against a powerful force, a van- 
 quished army would betake itself for refuge to the natural fastnesses 
 which the country presents, and the vast number of camps, trenches, 
 and fortified lines, probably formed in subsequent periods, but to be 
 observed on every side, in the most tenable positions, may prove how 
 often and how keenly the possession of this territory has been con- 
 tested. 
 
 It may appear somewhat singular that this part of the country 
 should have had its cultivation neglected for so many centuries past, 
 s eeing that in the oWewii'me it appears to have been particularly selected 
 on account of some favourable circumstances rendering it valuable 
 to the aboriginal inhabitants ; the reason for their preference I conceive 
 to be found in the abundant supply of reptiles and such like animals, 
 consisting of snakes, frogs, mice, and a variety of other small game, 
 and probably there were some larger animals which were occasionally 
 hunted down, at all events the smaller reptiles, &c. abound on these 
 vnld moors at present, and however fastidious human beings may now 
 feel on the nature and quality of their food, yet these re^j tiles 
 must of necessity have constituted the greater part of the food of the 
 aboriginal inhabitants, before cultivation of the soil was adopted, or 
 even could be imagined, that by such a process the physical wants 
 of man would be principally supplied in after time ; it therefore 
 necessarily follows, that the spots now considered as the poorest of 
 soils, would by them be most valued, and justly so, as being more 
 abundant in natural riches. 
 
 The variety observed in the construction of the rude abodes of 
 these people, some being in lines or rows like streets evidently proves, 
 
their gradual advancement from those habitations which exhibit the 
 rudest and most irregular arrangement and construction ; and accord- 
 ingly we should expect that better materials would be subsequently 
 used in tlie construction of their habitations, marking out the loca- 
 tion of their villages, and as stone abounds on these moors, so 
 accordingly we find it used in the construction of their improved 
 residences ; this gradual advance is particularly exemjilified in the 
 remains of an undoubted British location near the village of Claughton, 
 about six miles north of Scarborough, the spot in question is above 
 the village on the road to Whitby, and is formed of squares, oblong 
 squares, and semi-circles of various dimensions in stone, which extend 
 over a large plot of ground ; this spot is well adapted for defence, 
 being flanked on two sides by narrow, but rather deep vallies, all the 
 stones are unhewn, some of them are very large, but no cement has 
 been used : the whole has been formed of stones piled one upon 
 another, and the village, or settlement, has also been surrounded by 
 a wall or rampart of stone, which appears to have been approached 
 by two parallel Valiums forming a fosse or covered way ; when all 
 these defences are considered it clearly indicates a place of some con- 
 sequence. 
 
 Amongst these ruins Mr, Atkinson has discovered fragments of 
 coarse unbaked pottery ; Mr. Pickering has found a portion of an 
 
 earthenware vessel or urn, a figure of 
 which is annexed. No. 2, and he has 
 observed several thin strata of ashes 
 and charred wood, at a few inches 
 below the surface, he has also traced 
 communications between this spot and 
 many tumuli, circles, and other re- 
 mains of the localities of man on these 
 wild moors. 
 
 Tlic remains of an Urn found at 
 Claughton, near Scarboro. 
 
 It appears quite reasonable to conclude that this spot was inha- 
 
 c 
 
10 
 
 bited by a race much advanced from those before described, as tlie 
 remains of pottery, &c. fully prove, for in the more ancient settle- 
 ments no remains of any kind are found, accompanying the scites 
 of their rude huts, although flint arrow heads and heavy stone hatch- 
 ets are sometimes discovered on the moors and wolds. 
 
 There can be no doubt that evidences of a similar kind once ex- 
 isted in the Midland, Southern and Western Counties, but by inclo- 
 sures and cultivation, most of them have been obliterated, although 
 I have I think clearly proved, that if such remains were diligently 
 sought for, many might even now be found in wooded and secluded 
 places , the late Sir Richard Colt Hoare found several in Wiltshire 
 with their accompanying track-ways, although I am somewhat doubt- 
 ful if those do not belong to the subsequent period in advance, of 
 which I shall next have to treat ; but a well recognized group of 
 these rude dwellings is yet to be seen in the South of England, 
 namely, in the Duke of Richmond's Park at Goodwood, which has 
 been well described by Mr. King of Chichester, (see plate.) 
 
 The annexed engraving, copied from Mason's Goodwood, with 
 an explanation furnished by j\Ir. T. King, of Chichester, represents 
 four large Tumuli on the Downs near Goodwood, they are on the 
 summit of the hill wliicli adjoins a beautiful valley called Kingly 
 Bottom, and may be seen for a distance of many miles. They are 
 circular in theirform, constructed with great regularity, and composed 
 of alternate strata of flint and earth. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 present slight 
 appearances of having been injudiciously, and therefore as to results, 
 unsuccessfully opened ; these three have also a vallum at their base. 
 The exterior of these curious and interesting monuments presents 
 no appearance by which we may be enabled to draw any inference 
 by whom, or even for what purpose they were erected, A careful 
 examination of their contents, however, will at once remove the 
 doubt, and with this view numbers of them have been opened, many 
 in Sussex, but by far the greater part in Wiltshire ; in all, the result 
 has been the same, and establishes the fact of their origin and object, 
 most fully, viz. that they were monuments raised over the dead by 
 the inhabitants of this Island, before the invasion of the Romans. 
 
^/:|i^' 
 
 11 
 
 •^-.- - «^ 
 
 imr 
 
 rr 
 
 
 SECTION orA£Aia?.OW 
 
 /lNCIENT BRITISH llABlIATIONS ON BOW HILL, SUSSEX 
 
11 
 
 No. ') shows the section of an open Tiinuilus,* the body was placed 
 entire, witli the legs gathered xip, in an excavation, or as it is termed 
 cist, covered with chalk or flints, and the mound raised over it ; this 
 was the primary internu'iit. Wlion the body was first burnt, the 
 ashes were collected together, put into an urn and buried, the mouth 
 being covered, a tile being placed downwards, either in the cist, or as 
 is the case in the present instance on one side of it. These urns are 
 composed of very coarse materials, rudely formed, before the use of 
 the lathe was known, and in many instances very imperfectly baked; 
 the patterns with which they are ornamented display a great variety 
 of design, and are evidently worked by hand, not by a mould. They 
 seem to be indented in the clay when in a moist state, by some 
 pointed instrument, and to have been baked either in the sim, or the 
 fire of the funeral ])ile. Such, without exception, have been the 
 urns found in our barrows, all claiming a rude and remote British 
 origin. After the Roman conquest a new species of pottery was in- 
 troduced among the Britons, beautifully moulded, tinely glazed, and 
 richly ornamented, numerous fragments of which arc to be found in 
 all the villages of the Romanized Britons, but not the smallest mor- 
 sel, neither a coin, nor a letter, nor in fact the slightest indication of 
 a Roman population are found in these Tumuli. -j- 
 
 Having thus hastily noticed the resting places of the dead, we will 
 bestow a few words on the habitations of the living. " Wc have," says 
 Sir R. C. Hoare, " undoubted proofs from history, and from existing 
 remains, that the earliest habitations were pits, or slight excavations 
 in the ground, covered and protected from the inclemency of the 
 weather, by boughs of trees, or sods of turf. The high grounds 
 were pointed out by nature, as the fittest for these early settlements, 
 being less encumbered by wood, and allbrding a better pasture for the 
 
 • Tliis section fjivus an excellent idea of tlie ancient mode of l)uii:il ; it points 
 out the cist for tlic urns, sometimes placed at the end of the Tumuli, and not un- 
 frequcntly, if an after deposit, a little way below the surlace. 
 
 f Tiie extreme rudeness of our sepulchral urns, as \m11 as the articles depo- 
 sited within our Barrows, evidently prove their very high .inliriuily.and mark them 
 of an a-ra prior to the Roman invasion. — Sik K. C IIdaki/s Ant. Wilts. 
 
12 
 
 numerous flocks and herds, from which the erratic tribes of the first 
 colonists drew their means of subsistence ; but after the conquest 
 of our island by the Romans, when, by means of their enlightened 
 knowledge, society became more civilized, the Britons began to quit 
 the elevated ridge of chalk hills, and seek more sheltered and desirable 
 situations. At first, we find them removed into the sandy vales 
 immediately bordering on the chalk hills ; and at a later period, when 
 the improved state of society under the Romans ensured them 
 security, the vailies were cleared of wood, and towns and villages 
 were erected in the plains near rivers, which after the departure of 
 the Romans, became the residence of the Saxons. But a consider- 
 able period must have elapsed before these important changes took 
 place, for on our bleakest hills we find the luxuries of the Romans 
 introduced into the British settlements, flues, hypocausts, stuccoed 
 and painted walls, &c. &c. Yet not a single inscription has ever been 
 discovered in any one of these British Villages, that can throw any 
 positive light on the aera in which they flourished, or were deserted 
 for a more temperate and less exposed position." 
 
 On the declivity of the hill which forms the eastern side of Kingly 
 Vale, are a number of these excavations in the chalk. They vary in 
 depth from two to four and five feet ; a bank towards the valley 
 seems to have been raised by the chalk and flints thrown out, the 
 mounds between them are also formed by the same cause, and there 
 are evidently paths or causeways leading into two of them. The 
 annexed sketch of them has been taken by Mr. King. {No, 6 in 
 the plate.) No attempts have ever been made to examine them, 
 nor have there ever been, so far as we can ascertain, any relics found 
 among them, which afford proof of their origin. The supposition, 
 therefore, that they must have been a British village, is founded on 
 the following facts — that these Downs were a station of the ancient 
 Britons — that in other parts of the range similar spots exist which 
 have been carefully examined, and have afforded undeniable evi- 
 dence of the use to which they were applied — and that setting aside 
 this application of them, it is impossible to assign any other reason 
 whatever for their original formation. 
 
13 
 
 Another British station I have lately traced (;n St. Callurine's 
 Hill, near Winchester ; this Hill is strongly fortified with a Rampart 
 and Fosse, inclosing the whole of the upper part, of an oblong shape, 
 the entrances are made diagonally, at different points, the principal 
 of which is toward the South East, and the approach is protected by 
 a covered way extending a considerable distance towards the valley 
 the remains of the excavated residences are distinctly seen near 
 the trees on the summit, which appears to have been a tumulus or 
 barrow of a considerable size, there are also lines of elevations 
 intersecting each other at right angles, several spots are marked 
 by a more luxuriant vegetation than others, altogether it appears 
 this eminence was the scite of a very early settlement, long anterior 
 to its being fortified with a rampart, and fosse — no remains of 
 antiquity have been discovered there that I have heard of, indeed 
 it exhibits nearly the same evidences of a very early location, similar 
 to those described in Yorkshire, &c., and these excavations in the 
 Chalk resemble those at Goodwood, and many other places ; such 
 being the case it is not be doubted, the face of the covmtry was once 
 studded over with them, as we shall subsequently find it was by for- 
 tified stations or camps, when the people had effected a further step 
 in advance. Dr. Young informs me that he has discovered several 
 groups in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The Rev. Mr. Jongs has 
 described them in the Isle of Anglesea,* and they are likewise to 
 be seen in Carnarvonshire. It will appear singular to persons who 
 have not investigated this subject, that the nowgreat City of London 
 was commenced in a similar manner, by an assemblage of people who 
 raised and inhabited such rude dwellings as I have before described 
 as extant in Yorkshire, and several other places ; yet such is the 
 fact, fully proved by observations made within the last few years ; — . 
 during this period many deep cuttings have been made for sewerage 
 in the principal streets of the City, and a subterraneous passage was 
 fonned at the western end of Cheapside for that purpose, whilst this 
 was in progress I occasionally descended the shaft to examine the 
 
 • In the first number of the Archaeological Journal. 
 
14 
 
 cuttings and determine the strata, and I discovered above the undis- 
 turbed gravel thin seams of ashes, with small pieces of burnt wood, 
 sometimes these debris were lying in a concave form, such as we 
 might suppose occupied the lower part of the huts or excavations, 
 these were at the depth of from eighteen to twenty-two feet below 
 the present surface. 
 
 This spot, and the scite on which St. Paul's Cathedral now stands, 
 would naturally be selected by the early inhabitants for a residence, 
 by reason of its being the highest grovmd in the locality, and proba- 
 bly on account of its natural defences, being bounded on the South 
 and West by the Thames, and the Fleet, and the morass on the 
 North, and East, for such we may conclude Moorfields were at that 
 period ; it is not too great a stretch of the imagination to infer, 
 also, that this station was then in the centre of a dense forest, 
 abounding in game, similar to those described on the Yorkshire 
 moorlands. 
 
 My Geological experience was of essential service to me in this 
 exploration, as here on a small scale I recognised the rule of the 
 dcj)osition of strata, the workmen having penetrated into the natural 
 gravel and sand, wliich had remained till then undisturbed, since the 
 last retreat of the oceanic waters, intermixed and lying above this 
 ancient bed of flint, shingles, and sand, were the remains of fires, 
 ascertained by the small deposits of ashes, and charred wood, before 
 alluded to, these were overlaid by the debris of the Roman period, 
 wliich exhibited its distinctive character, consisting of fragments of 
 coarse and fine pottery in abundance, with occasionally amphorae, 
 and paterae nearly entire, also animal bones, horns, &c., associated 
 with human bones, and many copper coins intermixed, with a large 
 quantity of concrete often in variegated colours, which had been used 
 for the interior lining of their dwellings. (The same material is found 
 covering the inner surface of the walls of the houses, in the excava- 
 tions carried on in the submerged city of Pompeii at the present time.) 
 Intermixed with these we also found abundance of tesserag, and por- 
 tions of pavements more or less entire, but as these remains belong to 
 a race of people much more advanced than those of whom I am at 
 
15 
 
 present treating, I shall defer any further observations on them until 
 the sununary at the end of this work. 
 
 In examining the evidences of the early eondition of the aborigines 
 of any country, the burial places for their dead must not be over- 
 looked, but in reference to this subject, we shall meet with great ob- 
 scurity, in the attempt to discover their modes of sepulture, if indeed 
 they adopted any ; for there is so little evidence that I am somewhat 
 inclined to the opinion, that in those rudest periods to which 1 have 
 referred, the people did not inter their dead, but left them exposed 
 to be the prey of carnivorous animals, but in later times, this prac- 
 tice would be discontinued, and simj^le interment in the earth would 
 be the next step in advance ; on this practice then would be engrafted 
 another, namely, the erection of a mound of earth over their graves, 
 as a preservation from the predatory animals of the forest. Whilst 
 we are compelled to leave the practice of the earliest period in doubt, 
 we are yet enabled to trace with a tolerable degree of accuracy, the 
 succeeding periods, and they will generally be found in accordance 
 with the following scale, blending or graduating as it were into each 
 other. 
 
 First. — Those of the simple interment in the earth, the position 
 of the body being generally North and South, nothing being found 
 buried with the skeleton : — a simple conical mound of earth erected 
 over the remairis. It may here be remarked that interments of this 
 character are found near some of the earliest settlements to which I 
 have before referred,* but they are not invariably found in contiguity 
 with them. 
 
 Secondly. — Those of the succeeding period, when rudely formed 
 pottery made of slightly burnt or unbaked clay of the most simple 
 conical form, either with or without an ornamented riui, arc found 
 with the skeleton ; possibly some kind of mystic rites were in use 
 at this period, seeing they arc generally found in contact with the 
 remains. -j- 
 
 Thirdly. — These interments were occasionally in a cist or inclo- 
 
 • Tumulus on the Yorkshire moors near Whitby, itfLnxd to in page (i. 
 t Interments at the settlements near the village of Claughton. 
 
16 
 
 sure of chalk or other stones in which the body had been hiid, 
 accompanied with pottery in the form of urns, better made and 
 more highly ornamented than in the former period, the ornaments 
 are usually in waved lines, and indentations, altogether more care 
 being exemplified in their sepulchral deposits, than in the previous 
 periods ; these are also covered with a mound or conical mass of 
 earth, or stones, sometimes of a large size.« I conjecture that 
 arrow heads of flint were now much in use with the rude bow, and 
 that they were occasionally interred with the body of the person who 
 had used them during his life ; but the bow and the shaft being 
 totally decomposed, the arrow heads of flint only remain. 
 
 Fourthly. — I consider this was the epoch when the natives had 
 reached the more perfect pastoral state, having herds of cattle, which 
 they protected by inclosures on the elevated grounds or positions, 
 for in this period we trace many evidences of a considerable ad- 
 vance, the pottery and urns interred with their dead are better manu- 
 factured and more regular in shape as well as being much higher 
 ornamented, in addition to which, stone celts are now found, besides 
 numerous flint arrow heads, and in the progress of opening some 
 barrows of this period,-]- the singular fact was manifested in the dis- 
 covery of a large quantity of the bones of rats, deposited thickly 
 upon the skeletons ; this circumstance I must confess myself unable 
 to explain ; can it be that the individuals so distinguished, after life 
 had departed, had been successful hunters during their lives, and 
 that these bones and skeletons of rats were deposited with the bodies 
 as a memorial of their prowess ? Animal bones and horns of the lar- 
 ger ruminants are also frequently found deposited with the dead at 
 this period, an evidence perhaps of the great value placed upon the 
 animals whom they had succeeded hi domesticating, and retaining in 
 inclosures, and since in these early ages no metal of any kind is found 
 deposited with their dead, we may justly infer that the tribes inha- 
 biting the interior and northern portions of the country, had not 
 then acquired the knowledge of metals, although it is most probable 
 
 * Evidenced by several tumuli recently opened near Dorchester, Dorset. 
 
 f Tumuli in Brassingham Moor, and near Bakewell, on the Peak, Derbyshire. 
 
17 
 
 that their contemporaries in the western parts of Britain had been 
 instructed in the art of extracting metal from the ore by the Phoeni- 
 cians, and other traders from the Mediterranean, and who in conse- 
 quence of that intercourse were considerably in advance of the tribes 
 of the interior, but with whom, from the state of the country, being 
 covered with morasses and forests, they had not any communication. 
 
 The consecutive advances observed in the additional care taken in 
 the mode of depositing the dead, also the no less improvement 
 observable in the manufacture of their pottery, with the stone 
 celts, &c. indicate the gradual progression of the people, and in this 
 state were the inhabitants of the interior of the country, at the 
 period of the Roman invasion of Britain. — I say the interior, because 
 I conclude, that the ancient inhabitants had resided there, and in the 
 northern districts, for many centuries undisturbed ; whilst the mari- 
 time or southern division was much changed by the intercourse 
 with Gaul, in fact, it appears from the testimony of Caesar, that they 
 were well supplied with weapons of metal, &c., these tribes he deno- 
 minates the Belgse, they too had their rude coins in imitation of the 
 more advanced nations, and wretched imitations most of them were ; 
 although the inhabitants of the districts first conquered by the Roman 
 arms had advanced to a much higher degree of intelligence than the 
 midland, who could not have partaken of the advantages an inter- 
 course with the continent might be supposed to afford : it is there- 
 fore manifestly unjust to blend them all in one common description. 
 It is much to be regretted that when persons open these barrows or 
 tumuli, the earliest repositories of the dead, many are not sufficiently 
 exact in their observations, for oftentimes no discrimination is 
 evinced, no attention paid to the manner in which the bodies had 
 been deposited, no exact scrutiny with reference to the quality of the 
 pottery, (when pottery had been placed in the graves by the side of 
 the bodies), although these facts are of so much importance in ascer- 
 taining the period of the interments, as must appear obvious from 
 my preceding remarks. 
 
 After this digression on the Britisli modes of sepulture, I resume 
 my subject on tlir changes in tlioir social condition. The period 
 
 D 
 
18 
 
 next in succession, from the former state, will be that in which the 
 native inhabitants had raised themselves to the shepherd state, and 
 possessed properties in their animals : the evidences remaining of 
 this mode of living are more decidedly exemplified by what remains 
 of them than the earlier data of which I have already treated. 
 
 This improved or advanced state, naturally succeeded the ruder 
 periods, the taking of cattle alive and retaining them to minister to 
 their wants, must indeed have been a great advantage gained, beyond 
 the time when they depended on the chances of the chace of the wild 
 animals, they had now separate inclosures for these purposes, which 
 as next in consecutive order, I shall proceed to describe. 
 
 Tlie numerous circular earth works about the summits of the hills 
 observed in traversing this country, generally denominated by the 
 country people ' Caesar's camps,' are mostly to be attributed to the la- 
 bours of our British ancestors, they were in fact their fortified residen- 
 ces, and although in after ages, in times of invasion some were seized 
 upon and in many cases were additionally strengthened, and althoiigh 
 many have been levelled or cut through by inclosures, roads, &c., 
 yet their primitive characteristics are still retained, and are proofs 
 that before the invasion of Britain by the Romans, the people of 
 this country had advanced from the previous rude state to one in 
 which they had a property of considerable value to them in flocks 
 and herds, hence their care in selecting strong elevated positions, and 
 fortifying them as a protection against foreign and domestic foes. 
 
 To enumerate these stations would far exceed the limits I intended 
 in this enquiry, suffice it to notice they are numerous in Kent and 
 Sussex, also in Berks, Wilts, Hants, and the Western Counties, 
 many of those in Wiltshire have been fully described by the late Sir 
 Richard Colt Hoare, the Chiltern Hills in Buckinghamshire have a 
 great number, also in Northampton and Warwickshire, the wolds of 
 Yorkshire, and many places farther North. 
 
 In the autumn of the year 1842, I had an excellent opportunity 
 of inspecting one of these ancient locations, and which had not been 
 described by any of the antiquaries of the County of Northampton, 
 this I shall particularly describe, as it will tend to elucidate and 
 
19 
 
 explain the general mode of arrangement of very many of a similar 
 kind. Chipping Warden, in that county, although a small village, 
 is very interesting, as exhibiting three distinct periods of location, 
 namely, the British, Roman, and Saxon : this place (which is situate 
 at the North West angle of the County adjoining Oxford and War- 
 wickshire) I visited in company with the Rev. Edward G. Walford, 
 the worthy Rector of the parish, whose correct taste in ecclesiastical 
 and other antiquities is well known. We first proceeded to the 
 North-west boundary of his parish, where are numerous earth- 
 works, situated on a range of high ground, presenting a view of the 
 Warwickshire hills, with some spots more elevated, which appear to 
 have been constructed for posts of observation along the crest of the 
 hill, whilst below in the valley, the upper branches of the river 
 Charwell unite, so that these Valiums would form the apex of a tri- 
 angle, with a long extension of one arm to the right, in advance of 
 the village of Aston-le-Walls, the survey was completed by Mr. 
 Walford in the same year, who traced the exterior line in that direc- 
 tion for more than half a mile, verifying the conjecture I made at 
 the time. 
 
 The prolonged extension of the exterior vallum is common to 
 many of these locations, and mark a distinct variety in the British 
 stations, particularly as compared with the circular, or oblong form, 
 these differences in form were perhaps suggested by the natiiral fea- 
 tures of the ground to be inclosed, but the original intention was the 
 same ; I have annexed a plan of this locality, No. 3, for which I am 
 indebted to Mr. Walford, who is the first antiquarian that has des- 
 cribed the exterior line. By this sketch it will be seen, that the inte- 
 rior is divided into separate inclosurcs or small compartments, but it 
 is absolutely impossible at this distance of time to determine pre- 
 cisely the intention or object of these divisions, still there is abundant 
 reason for the conjecture, that they were the inclosurcs for their cat- 
 tle, and this circumstance would bring the period of the location to 
 the shepherd or pastoral state of society, and consequently must be 
 far in advance of the earlier periods I have before adverted to. This 
 I conclude was occupied for a very long time subsequent to the Ro- 
 
BRITISH AND ROMAN STATIONS 
 
 AT 
 
 CHIPPING WARDEN AND ASTON-LE-WALLS. 
 
 A. Rivulet joining the Charwell. 
 
 B. Earth-work, or vallum extending beyond Aston. 
 
 C. Specula, or Beacon. 
 
 D. Ditto, which has been levelled this year, (1844.) 
 
 E. The village of Aston-le-Walls. 
 
 F. Quadrangular mound in advance of the lines. 
 
 G. Arbery banks, an agger. 
 H. The Charwell river. 
 
 I. A large circular Tumulus. 
 
 K. Village of Chipping Warden. 
 
 L. Tumulus at the entrance of that Village. 
 
 M. Turnpike road from Banbury to Daventry. 
 
 N. Brinavis, the Roman station. 
 
 O. Ancient road, faint traces of which remain. 
 
•21 
 
 man conquest. Many vestigia ol" sucli locations are yet extant in 
 that county. One singularly remarkable is at Long Buckby, to the 
 North-east of Daventry ; to the eastward on the crest of the hill on 
 ■which the present village stands, there has been a vallum extending 
 all along its summit, and at the terminus to the westward is a large 
 artificial mount (or agger), from which in a direct line proceeds the 
 vallum crossing the present road, and at the opposite end, the ground 
 is marked by a number of small indentations and elevations, which 
 I consider are evidences of a British occupation, although now nearly 
 obliterated, whilst the mound remains entire. 
 
 Recurring again to the village of Chipping Warden, I conclude 
 that the different reliquiae in that village, are an exemplification of 
 the position I have endeavoured to establish in this memoir, with 
 regard to the changes of the customs and habits of our rude ances- 
 tors, at successive periods, and therefore I have descanted upon it 
 at some length. In the first location near the crest of the hill at the 
 North-west angle of the village, the British inclosures are distinctly 
 traced, the boundary line of which is continued to the next parish, 
 now called Aston-le-Walls ; but so far as I know, no pottery, coins, 
 or any memorial of former occupancy have ever been found, yet at 
 the opposite angle of the parish, namely, the South-west, are the 
 remains of the Roman camp or station, called Brinavis, situated near 
 the line of the Roman road passing from Durocina, Dorchester, 
 (Oxfordshire), to Isanavatia, Borough Hill, near Daventry ; there, 
 indeed, Roman coins have been found in abundance, extending over 
 a period of four centuries, and independent of them, since my visit 
 the Rector has procured from the same spot, an urn entire, besides 
 numerous fragments of amphorae, &c. These evidences prove 
 clearly this was a Roman station, besides which ; the spot comprising 
 about forty acres is called the Black-grounds, from the unusual dark 
 colour of the soil, arising unquestionably from decomposed animal 
 and vegetable remains, and the decayed wooden erections of the 
 occupiers of this spot, as well as the intermixture of ashes from their 
 domestic fires. Again, this station was deserted, as well as the former, 
 and when new roads were cut through the forests, and the swamps par- 
 
22 
 
 tially drained in the succeeding Saxon period, the scite of the present 
 village was chosen, and habitations erected, which were probably 
 huts of sod. The present Church was not built until the fourteenth 
 century, before which the parish had risen to the dignity of a market 
 town, and a market cross was erected, the greater part of which yet 
 remains. But its market must have been of very small importance, 
 since we find that in the 3rd of Edward III. (1329), the tolls 
 amounted to only 3s. 6d. yearly.* Its present state is a village 
 with a handsome church, which the present Rector has admirably 
 restored, the parish in extent contains about 1840 acres, and 488 
 inhabitants, the turnpike road from Banbury to Daventry passes 
 through the centre of it, which as before stated, dates its rise from 
 the Saxon period, the British and Roman remains being to the 
 right and left of the present scite. In a garden on the right of the 
 entrance of the village from Daventry is a tumulus of considerable 
 size. Mr. Baker cut through it with a view to ascertain its contents, 
 which he states is a simple rampart of adventitious earth. 
 
 The largest fortified camp or station in this county, if not the most 
 extensive in Britain, is at Borough Hill, near Daventry, which 
 incloses an area of 150 acres. Mr. Baker, the eminent historian 
 of this county, states that he has repeatedly visited this spot, and his 
 observations, combined with the statements of the Roman historians, 
 lead him to determine that it was originally a small but very strong 
 British camp,-j- he deduces its name also from the word Ben or Pen, 
 a British term for the summit of a hill ; and Went or Gwent, a city 
 or chief town; Latinized by the Romans into Venta, as Venta Bel- 
 garum (Winchester), Venta Icenorum, (Castor near Norwich, &c.) 
 
 The most ancient or the British station was on the brow of the 
 hill nearly at its northern boundary, which was fortified by a double 
 rampart, and fosse of great depth. About thirty years since this part 
 was nearly entire, and I recollect being then much astonished at the 
 magnitude of these remains, but since that time an enclosure has 
 
 * Quo. Warr. 3 Edward III. 
 f Baker's Northamptonshire. 
 
23 
 
 taken place, and every succeeding year, the plougli, and the efforts 
 of niau to render the soil more valuable, tend to its annihilation, 
 which I conclude will be accomplished in a few years, ^^hen this 
 interesting spot will be completely levelled. 
 
 Subsequent to the first location, it was occupied by the Romans, 
 who appear to have extended its scite over a very large area, after 
 their conquest of the Iceni by Publius Ostorius Scapula, and made it a 
 principal station, also changing its name to Isannavatia, as in point 
 of distance this agrees with the number of miles, from Lactodonum 
 (Towcester), in the VI. iter of Antoninus. 
 
 The importance of this camp may be estimated by its magnitude, 
 which is as follows, the outer circumference of the ramparts is 
 rather more than two miles and a quarter, the diameter from North 
 to South one mile ; from East to West at the w idest point three 
 furlongs, and the contents of the whole area about one-hundred and 
 fifty, acres. 
 
 Mr. Baker discovered on the West side of this inclosure the scite 
 of the Praetorium or residence of the Roman General, the ground 
 plan of which is given in his work, the baths are also described, 
 which were on a scale of great magnificence, with tessellated pave- 
 ment, and the same kind of fresco painted wall which is so abundant 
 in Roman London, and referred to in page 14 ; all these circumstances 
 prove the great importance attached to this station. 
 
 Many tumuli with urns and bones are distributed about, several 
 of which were opened by Mr. Baker, quantities of tesscrre, and 
 occasionally fragments of the green glass, recognised to be Roman, 
 are frequently discovered near the Ilill, and towards the village of 
 Norton. In allusion to the sepulchral deposits, Mr. Baker states, 
 " Should the description of thtse tumuli be considered tediously 
 minute, it may be urged in extenuation that they are not only the 
 first in this county whose contents have been recorded, and interest- 
 ing in themselves, as tending to illustrate the customs of our rude 
 progenitors ; but a comparison of similar discoveries in the different 
 districts of the kingdom, furnishes the most useful data for arriving 
 by analogy at the probable period when, and (lu- ])eople by whom 
 
24 
 
 they were raised, I presume not to fix the aera of these sepulchral 
 deposits ; where certainty is unattainable, every hj'pothesis is liable 
 to opposition ; but if I were to hazard a conjecture, I should be 
 inclined to attribute the earliest of them to the Britons prior to the 
 Roman invasion, and the later ones to the Romanized Britons." The 
 onward course of social progression, is also fully marked in this 
 interesting locality, as we have the ancient British castramentation, 
 then the Roman very much extended, and lastly the foundation of 
 the present town of Daventry, when the higher grounds were aban- 
 doned, and the people adopted settlements in localities skirting the 
 rallies. 
 
 In his reference to this important post, Morton the historian of 
 Northamptonshire states, " that in the year 1006 this encampment 
 was very much enlarged, in that year he relates a Danish Navy arrived 
 at Sandwich and under Suoegen or Swane their King, they harassed 
 and spoil'd the country, burning all before them. Whereupon King 
 Ethelred sends out orders to the whole Country of the West Saxons, 
 and of the Mercians to rise ; And upon this alarm they gathered 
 together, and stood upon their Guard against the Danes the whole 
 Autumn in great companies. One of these great Multitudes, per- 
 haps the whole Posse of Mercia, I am perswaded posted themselves 
 upon Burroio Hill. The lesser camp before mentioned (at the 
 northern extremity) was sufficient for the Roman force, which had 
 formerly encamped there. But this Army of Saxons consisting of 
 far greater Numbers, enlarg'd the old Encampment to that Extent 
 we now see. And this Hill which is in the middle of Mercia, 
 having by its height the Advantage of a large view over the country, 
 with a spacious Plain on its Top, seems to have been as proper a 
 Situation for the Encampment of a great Army in Time of War, as 
 we can any where find in the whole Kingdom of Mercia. 'Tis the 
 most spacious Encampment I have ever seen or heard of. And the 
 Agreement of the History with the place is such, that, in my opinion, 
 they mutually give Light to the clearer understanding each other."* 
 
 * Morton Hist. Northamptonshire, p. 546-7. 
 
THE 
 
 ROMANO-BRITISH PERIOD. 
 
 The next section of our subject, relates to that period in history, 
 when the Roman armies made the first descent on the British 
 shores ; which ultimately was followed by the entire conquest of the 
 Island, — and may well be considered as a momentous aera in the 
 annals of this kingdom, seeing that in the successful progress of the 
 Roman armies, great and important changes were effected in the 
 social condition of the inhabitants. According to their historians, 
 the first attempt was made under Julius Caesar in the year 55 or 56, 
 B. C, which appears not to have been attended with much success, 
 as Caesar shortly after returned to the Continent. Another in- 
 vasion was effected under Claudius Caesar, in the year 45, A. C, 
 who seems to have been more successful than his predecessor, as 
 their historians state that by the year 78, the greater part of the 
 country was under the dominion of the Romans, after many struggles 
 with the hardy and obstinate natives, which statement I very much 
 doubt, for reasons which will be adduced hereafter. 
 
 From the present remains of their fortified camps and positions, I 
 am decidedly of opinion, that the invaders proceeded with great 
 caution, securing the coast and the maritime county of Kent as a 
 first step, for on this coast nearly opposite Gaul, they established 
 the Portus Rutupiae, (now Richborough), near Sandwich, which 
 must have been a very strong fortress, Portus Dubris (now Dover), 
 and Portus Lemansc, (now Lymnc, near Ilythc.) Farther west is 
 
20 
 
 Portus Novus (Rye), Portus Anderida, (Pevensey), and to the 
 north-east on the Thames, Regulbium, (Reculver). 
 
 The first station of hnportance from the coast is Durovernum 
 (Canterbury). This station must have been of great consequence 
 during the early part of the Roman occupation, from the numerous 
 roads that branched from it both towards the coast and the interior. 
 The next station, Durolevum, (near Feversham)* Durobrivis, (Ro- 
 chester), Vagnacae, near Gravesend, and thence to Londinium, 
 London. Another road also is supposed to have existed from 
 Durovernum to Londinium, by Madus, (Maidstone) ; this opinion 
 is supported by the remains of Roman buildings recently discovered 
 at Maidstone, and also of Cemeteries of the Romano British period, 
 in which numerous Amphorae and glass vessels were found by Mr. 
 Clement T. Smythe, which are in the possession of Mr. Charles of 
 that place. During this interval their conquests were pushed to 
 the right and left as opportunity served, the river Thames was 
 crossed into Essex, incursions were made as far as Colchester 
 eastward, the chief of that part of the country submitted to the 
 Roman power, and that city obtained the name of Camulodunum. 
 There can be no doubt, as I observed before, that the inhabitants 
 in this maritime district were very much advanced in intelligence 
 above those in the interior parts of the country, probably in con- 
 sequence of their communication with the opposite shores of Gaul, 
 for it. appears they were well provided with arms, they had also 
 money in circulation amongst them, but of an exceedingly rude kind ; 
 in this department great improvement subsequently took place, an 
 opinion which is fully borne out by a very talented Numismatist, f 
 in the first number of the Archaeological Journal, which I here 
 quote. 
 
 " Under the Roman rule the British coins exhibit great improve- 
 ment ; both consular and imperial Roman coins are obviously the 
 models of many, and the names of British princes or chiefs, with 
 
 * See Arcliasologia, vol. 29. p. 222. 
 I Mr. Charles Roach Smith, under the head of Numismatics. 
 
27 
 
 towns and localities are introduced. It is true that at present some 
 of them are disputed, but there is every reason to infer from what 
 has already been done, that well-directed research, aided by future 
 discoveries, will decide their correct appropriation. The coins of 
 Cunobelinus are very numerous and well executed. They often 
 bear on the reverse the letters CAAIV, for Camulodunum, the chief 
 city of the territory under his rule. These pieces may be adduced 
 as an instance of the importance of recording the places where coins 
 are discovered. They are found in the greatest abundance in the 
 neighbourhood of Colchester, which occupies the scite of the ancient 
 Camulodunum, where there is every reason to believe they were 
 struck. By carefully noting the places that yield in greatest 
 abundance the uninscribed British coins, the best foundation will be 
 laid for their explanation, and classification. The same mode may 
 be adopted to classify the imitations of Greek coins, particular types 
 of which may with safety be assigned to the people of the territories 
 that were within the limits- of the localities, where they are found in 
 the greatest number. The coins of Cunobelinus, and others pro- 
 bably contemporaneous, are the last as well as the finest of the 
 British series, which appears to have been shortly after entirely 
 superseded by the Roman money." 
 
 The description of the Britons by Caesar would appear to be more 
 applicable to the people of the interior than to those inhabiting the 
 coast, it runs thus, 
 
 " Oppidum autcm Britanni vocant, quum silvas impeditas vallo 
 atque fossa munierunt, quo, incursiones hostium vitandae causa, 
 convenire consueverunt."* 
 
 The people are described as using Iron ; this statement must apply 
 to the inhabitants of the Coast only, and not to those inhabiting the 
 interior of the country, seeing that no iron arms or implements are 
 found in the tumuli before the conquest by the Romans, but sub- 
 
 • The Britons gave the name of Town to the thick woods which they fortify 
 by an embankment and ditch, and within which they are accustomed to assemble 
 to avoid the incursions of the enemy. 
 
28 
 
 sequently in the Romano-British period they are found in abun- 
 dance. The Rev. Mr. Douglas in reference to the use of Brass 
 instruments, or celts as they are commonly called, which are 
 very numerous, and have been found in all parts of Britain, and 
 in Ireland, traces them to a Northern origin.* " The proof that the 
 ancient Scythians used entirely brass arms is obvious from Herodo- 
 tus, and admitting the Belgae to be of the same paternal stock, the 
 brass arms will then be found among the Belgic Gauls of Britain. 
 The facility for casting these weapons, for they all appear to be so 
 fabricated, would in the most expeditious manner arm an immense 
 body of men, and, unless the necessary conveniences of forges, and 
 the operose arts to complete missile weapons of iron were at hand, 
 it is very natural to suppose, notwithstanding the preference for iron, 
 that brass arms would become of general use, till such conveniences 
 had taken place." 
 
 " When the Romans entered Britain there can be no doubt they 
 were armed with Iron. — " 
 
 " The Scythians peopled Germany, Scandinavia, and a great part 
 of Gaul about five hundred years before Christ ; and the Belgae of 
 the same stock entered Britain and Ireland about three hundred B. C. 
 This coincidence with history and the suggestions of the classic 
 poets, will date our large sepulchral structures of earth in which the 
 brass arms are usually found, at least to two centuries before the 
 Christian sera. — " 
 
 The Roman historians state that the greater part of Britain was 
 conquered by the year 78. This statement I am inclined to doubt, 
 taking into consideration the physical features of the country, with 
 its almost impenetrable forests, and impassable swamps, and also the 
 opposition which we may occasionally suppose to have been exhibited 
 by the native inhabitants, jealous of their liberties. Indeed, all the 
 circumstances denote a cautious and systematic progress. But as 
 my object in this essay is not to give an historical narrative but the 
 progress and gradual advancement of the people, I shall leave that 
 
 * Nenia Britannica. 
 
29 
 
 somewhat conjectural part of the subject, and proceed to note or 
 mark the progress of the Romans, North and North-west from Lon- 
 don, which api^ears to have been more in the nature of a friendly 
 and amicable visit to the inhabitants rather than an hostile one. In 
 support of this opinion I will here quote the sentiments of the late 
 Sir Richard C. Hoare, whose accurate observations, and clear 
 elucidations of these subjects is admitted by every lover of anti- 
 quarian research. 
 
 He thus states — " Great were the advantages which the Britons 
 derived from their conquerors, they were drawn from their bleak 
 and barren heights into the more sheltered vales, and to the banks of 
 rivers, the conqueror associated with the conquered introducing 
 among them the arts of civilization, and the hitherto unknown 
 luxuries of life. It became the wise policy of the Romans to con- 
 ciliate rather than irritate their new subjects, and as their final 
 departure was so deeply lamented, we have good reason to suppose, 
 that, as masters their government was both mild and generous." 
 
 It is obvious that the country must be in a state of comparative 
 quiescence or repose when those advances were made from London 
 towards the interior, because as the formation of roads of communi- 
 cation was the object, the surveyors (viarum publicum curatores,) 
 and workmen, could not have carried on their operations in the 
 midst of constant hostility. Whether London was fortified with its 
 gates and walls before these operations took place I have no means 
 of judging, but my opinion is that this took place subsequently, 
 and probably as late as the time of Severus, about the year ITo or 
 180 — for the particulars of which castramentation, its mode of erec- 
 tion, and the character of the materials composing it, I refer my 
 readers to the Appendix. It is evident that these materials were 
 brought from Kent by the jVIcdway and Thames, thus evincing that 
 at that period the Romans had quiet possession of that part of tlic 
 country, and drew their supplies of stone by water for the purpose 
 of fortifying London, the necessity of which is very apparent, l)ocause 
 there were no quarries of stone in the valley of London, and that 
 material could not then be ol)lainc(l from the interior of the country. 
 
30 
 
 In the short sketch I shall here give of the progress of the Romans 
 and the formation of their roads and stations North and North-west 
 from London, I shall merely notice a few places, which substantiates 
 the position assumed, namely, that they secured the ground as they 
 advanced, whilst thus communicating incalculable benefits to the 
 people, by the formation of new and dii-ect communications by roads 
 to which they had heretofore been strangers : — but even these great 
 advantages probably were not at first duly appreciated by them. 
 
 Proceeding from London in the direction above mentioned, we 
 first notice a strong fortified station, Verulamium, near St. Albans : 
 ascending from thence to the crest of the Chiltern Hills, the next 
 station is Durocobrivee, near Dunstable, from this point a road 
 branches to the West along the hills, and terminates with the Thames 
 at Wallingford, proving that an accurate survey had been taken with 
 reference to the river Thames, as the North-west boundary, but in 
 the North-east direction it was continued to Venta Icenorum, Caistor, 
 by Roysten on to Camboritum (near Cambridge), thence to Venta 
 Icenorum (Caistor) in Norfolk, and terminating on the coast at Cro- 
 mer in that County ; this road is known by the term Icknield-street, 
 
 Continuing in the North-west line from Durocobrivae, we arrive at 
 Magiovinium, (Old, or Fenny Stratford) whence is a radiation to the 
 left towards Buckingham near which place tesselated pavements and 
 tumuli containing Roman pottery, &c. have recently been opened on 
 the Duke of Buckingham's estate ; this road terminates at^lia Castra. 
 Proceeding from Magiovinium, the next station is Lactodorum, 
 (Towcester), thence we reach an important position, namely, Ben- 
 navenna, of the Britons, Isanavatia, of the Romans (Borough Hill, 
 near Daventry) ; this spot, which is nearly in the centre of Britain, 
 was in these times unquestionably a most important military post ; 
 it is rejiresented to have been greatly enlarged and strengthened by 
 Ostorius, see ante page 23 — indeed we cannot doubt but it was then 
 considered the key of the Northern, the Western, and Eastern dis- 
 tricts beyond it, since a communication was formed South-east to 
 the Thames, by a road which will be referred to subsequently, to 
 the East, along the course of the river Nen, by a line of forts, many 
 
:3i 
 
 of which still remain ; they are Chester, near Wellingborough, at 
 Cotterstock, at Wadenhoe, at Woodford, at Cotton, near Ringstead, 
 at Irchester, and at Clifford Hill in the County of Northampton, and 
 at Stanground, and Water Newton, in the County of Huntingdon. 
 — from this spot also, Mr. Pretty of Northampton has traced a line 
 of supposed military outposts, connecting it with the Avon and 
 Severn rivers. The great road is continued from Borough Hill 
 nearly Northwards to Venonae (High Cross near Coventry), to Ratse, 
 (Leicester), Danum, (Doncaster), Eburacum, (York), and in tlie 
 North-west to Manduessedum, (Mancestcr, Warwickshire), and to 
 Uriconium, (Wroxeter, in Shropshire), Deva, (Chester), Wales, &c. 
 Having described the courses of some of tlic principal Roman 
 roads, and lines of communication, which will give a general idea of 
 the subject, I deem it unnecessary to pursue it any farther, as my 
 ))()int is fully established, namely, the great skill evinced by those 
 who planned and successfully executed these important lines of com- 
 munication, and the consequent amalgamation and advancement of 
 the native population, with those whom they must now have dis- 
 covered to be their benefactors. 
 
 Recurring again to the station on Borough Hill, Davcntry, where 
 the road from Durocina (Dorchester, on the Thames), forms a 
 junction with the Watling-street Road, having had also several 
 opportunities of inspecting portions of this line, I shall be somewhat 
 particular in the description of it, since it exhibits the method or plan 
 generally adopted by the Romans, when undertaking works of this 
 nature, and in the execution of which we may infer that they were 
 assisted by the natives of the country. 
 
 This road commences at the point Durocina, from which it is con- 
 tinued in a direction nearly North, and as before observed, joins the 
 Watling-street road at Isanavatia (near Daventry). The camps or 
 fortified stations along this line I conclude are these — the first is 
 iElia Castra (near Bicester in Oxfordshire), where very extensive 
 earth-works can now be traced, and many Roman coins have been 
 found tliere. The next is observed nearly on this line called 
 Rainsbury Camp, in Northamptonsliire. This has been described as 
 
32 
 
 a British Camp, and niight have heen formed anterior to the period 
 to which I am now referring. The road is continued along the 
 elevated ground skirting the valley of the river Charwell (then most 
 probably a swamp and impassable). The next camp, or station, is 
 Brinavis (near Chipping Warden), which is referred to in page 21. 
 The line then proceeds by several villages, until it joins the Watling- 
 street road near Daventry. The formation of these roads show 
 that every advantage is taken of the peculiar features of the country, 
 thus we perceive that the roads branching off to the right and left of 
 the principal roads, are frequently carried along the crests of the 
 hills, as on the Chilterns from Dunstable, and also with that from 
 Dorchester to Daventry, through Northamptonshire, arising no doubt 
 from necessity, as most of the valleys through which the streams 
 flow at present, we may conclude, were then little better than impas- 
 sable swamps, until they were partially drained, an improvement 
 which W'Ould be soon adopted by the skilled Roman surveyors. 
 
 Sir Richard C. Hoare, in describing the British track-ways in 
 Wilts and Berks, remarks that they were mere paths upon the ver- 
 dant turf, bearing no resemblance to a raised road, such as I am now 
 describing, no pavement of any kind is observed, but they generally 
 followed the highest ridges, as before stated, most probably from 
 necessity. 
 
 In Kent, Hampshire, and other districts, where amongst the 
 Chalk Hills, flint stones abound, we find that material generally 
 used for the forming of roads. A part of the road which leads 
 from Venta Belgarum (Winchester), to Sorbiodunum (Old Sarum), 
 having been laid open, I noticed that a thin layer of lime had been 
 laid at the bottom, and the shingle or flints over it, to the depth of 
 eighteen inches or two feet, many of which appeared to have been 
 broken of a moderate size. In some parts the common surface 
 stone of the country was used, generally broken up when necessary, 
 in others grouting or cement, used with small stones, perhaps when 
 the soft natJLire of the soil required it. Such was the method adop- 
 ted in a portion of the road I have particularly described in North- 
 amptonshire, indeed, there would necessarily be a great variety in 
 
33 
 
 the construction, according to the quality of the materials at hand, 
 and the nature of the country traversed. In general the plan is 
 uniform, exhibiting a gradual rise from the sides to the centre, the 
 former being a little lower than the neighbouring soil, so that the 
 superfluous water might run off; and where they have been left undis- 
 turbed they much resemble the gentle elevations of the centre 
 observed in the macadamized roads at the present day. The average 
 breadth I have found about twenty feet — some are much less. I 
 have heard that there are places where larger stones have been used, 
 forming a solid pavement, but none of this kind have come under 
 my observation. 
 
 The planning and executing of so important a matter as these 
 roads of communication, previously unknown, must have affected 
 the natives with the most intense wonder and surprise, and it is not 
 too much to assume the surprise to have been as great as that 
 occasioned in modern times by the introduction of travelling by 
 rail-roads, and the power of steam. 
 
 Amongst other great advantages, it appears also that to the Ro- 
 mans must be attributed the introduction of the method of cultiva- 
 ting and grinding corn in this country ; of which a proof is afforded 
 by the number of portable millstones found about the Roman camps 
 or stations, some of which have been ascertained to have been 
 formed of a peculiar stone found in Germany, 
 
 The introduction of pottery at this period of history, must also 
 claim our particular attention ; this subject has been well elucidated 
 lately in a communication to the Society of Antiquaries, by Mr. 
 C. Roach Smith, by a correspondent in the Gentleman's Magazine, 
 under the signature of W. C. — and also in the same periodical by 
 Mr. E. B. Price. The former gentleman states in explanation of 
 the different sorts : — 
 
 " 'Wliilc the commoner kinds of fictile vessels may have been 
 made by the colonists, the Samian was in all probability imported; 
 though, it is very likely, that after a time it might ha\;e been manu- 
 factured, as well as other varieties of earthenware, in Britain. The 
 names of some of the potters stamped mi cups and dishes of Samian 
 
34 
 
 pottery, are of a very barbarous sound, and remind us of those 
 occurring in Caesar's Commentaries, as the names of Gauls and 
 Britons, for instance Dagodubnus, Bonoxus, Divicatus, and others. 
 
 Saguntum, in Spain, is mentioned by Pliny as being famed for 
 its potteries, and might have exported its wares directly to Britain, 
 for which country it would have been a nearer and more convenient 
 depot. This historian states, if I correctly understand him, that 
 both Sainos and Eretum (in Italy) supplied in his time the dishes or 
 plates for meats, but for drinhing-cups he names several places, and 
 among them Saguntum. Now the potters' names that I have ob- 
 served on the broad red dishes (such as most nearly correspond with 
 our dinner plates), bear certainly more classical names than are 
 usually found on the majority of smaller vessels, as of. modesti. 
 OF CELSI.* &c. 
 
 It will not, perhaps, be erroneous to consider some of the larger 
 and better executed dishes, paterae, &c. to have been imported from 
 Rome, some from Saguntum, while others may have been made iij 
 potteries established at a more recent period in Gaul and Britain. 
 
 Martial, -j- in one of his epigrams, mentions a Batavian potter 
 named Rufus : 
 
 " Sum figuli lusus Rufi persona Batavi;" 
 perhaps the same whose name we meet with on the red paterae.;]; 
 
 In addition to Pliny's testimony of the esteem in which the 
 Samian pottery was held among the Romans, may be adduced the 
 fact of its being frequently found riveted with lead and brass, de- 
 monstrating that when broken it had been considered too valuable 
 to be thrown away. 
 
 It is rendered precious to us of the present day, not merely from 
 its rich colour, compact texture, and variety of form, but as embo- 
 dying a series of mythological and historical representations alike 
 valuable to the antiquary and the classical scholar. 
 
 * Ex officina Modesti. OflBcina Celsi. 
 ■f- Born in Spain. Martial, xiv. 176. 
 |. Bagshot, 1783. London, 1835. 
 
3') 
 
 Deities, their emblematical accompaniments, their priests and 
 sacrificial processions, are frequent subjects on the Samian bowls 
 and vases, the archetypes of which will often be recognised in sta- 
 tues and other works of Grecian or Roman art, so familiar to the 
 connoiseur. 
 
 Apollo and Daphne are depicted on a fine fragment in my pos- 
 session, obtained from Gutter Lane ; while on another is a priest 
 (probably of EJsculapius) invoking a serpent on an altar. Some, pro- 
 bably drinking-cups, have Bacchantes dancing, and Bacchanalian 
 processions. 
 
 The story of the Pigmies and the Cranes often occurs, and can- 
 not be misunderstood : 
 
 " Pygmaeus parvis currit bcllator in arniis.* 
 
 The vine, on one fragment, with pendant clusters of grapes, forms 
 the sole and graceful ornament, and on others the leaf of this tree is 
 blended with that of the ivy, recalling to mind the applicable lines in 
 Virgil : 
 
 " Lenta quibus torno facili superaddita vitis, 
 Diffuses edera vestit pallente corymbos."f 
 
 Musicians are often introduced playing on the several kinds of 
 flutes and on the harp ; of the latter, the plectrum is often discern- 
 ible in the hand of the performer : 
 
 . — crispo numerantur pectine chorda?.":}; 
 
 Gladiatorial combats constitute a favourite subject on the Samian 
 vases. The dresses and actions of the combatants illustrate and cor- 
 roborate the copious historical accounts that have descended to us 
 respecting this degraded class. Some present us with masks and 
 grotesque objects, nor are there wanting delineations of an indelicate 
 character. 
 
 Combats between men and ])easts, and field sports, add to the 
 variety of the figured Samian ware. 
 
 • Juv. Sat. xlii. 
 
 X Juv. Sal. vi. 1. :!S1. 
 
36 
 
 Some of the dogs represented as hunting the stag, the wild boar, 
 and hare, bear a striking resemblance to the hounds and greyhounds 
 now employed throughout England, and particularly to the cross- 
 breed we occasionally meet with, between the greyhound and the 
 sheep-dog, a species better adapted in close countries for destructive 
 coursing, being stronger, and if not so fleet, yet capable of enduring 
 more work than the purer breed. The Romans were accustomed to 
 import hunting dogs from Gaul and Britain,* and our superiority in 
 the breed of certain species to this day will not be disputed. 
 
 To the naturalist a field for elucidation is open in the numerous 
 and often very spirited representations of animals, leaves, plants, 
 flowers, and trees, which may be pronounced to be executed faith- 
 fully, and with great attention to character. 
 
 Running across the centre of the Samian cups, and more rarely 
 on the exterior sides, are found the names of the potters, usually 
 stamped with great regularity, and with the letters and monograms 
 extremely well formed, and in styles peculiar to different aeras of the 
 Roman empire. So fresh indeed, and untouched by time, do these 
 inscriptions come down to us, that we cannot refrain, while behold- 
 ing them, from regretting that the Romans did not avail themselves 
 of this imperishable composition for transmitting to posterity those 
 valuable records which stone and marble have failed in preserving. 
 The same names are often found at great distances apart, which 
 alone would establish the general demand for this kind of pottery. 
 Thus the name of luppa from Prince's Street, corresponds with one 
 from near Sheffbrd in Bedfordshire, found in 1826. 
 
 A fragment from East Cheap, in addition to being ornamented 
 with dogs and leaves, has inscribed on the outside crvcvro, which 
 may either stand for the maker's name in the nominative case, or 
 abbreviated at the final r, and the o for officina. Another, closely 
 resembling the foregoing in execution, found near Lothbury, bears 
 
 * See Strabo. Nemesian also (in Eclogis, p. 220.), 
 
 catulos divisa Britannia mittit 
 
 Yeloces, nostrique nrhis vrnatibiis aptos. 
 
M cRKsT.o, (Murci Cresti officinu) in double impress, having been 
 first l)lundered and then con-ected. In one instance the name, 
 SABiNvs FK.* runs in a circle , and I possess examples of stamps 
 incuse, and have seen one in your possession, f 
 
 Adjectives, although uncommon, do occasionally appear, as 
 AVGVSTALis, either as referring to the quality of the ware, or to its 
 appertaining to the Praetorium. I may also allude to the word 
 FORTis on a terra-cotta lamp in your collection. '^ 
 
 On the handles of amphorae found in these excavations, merely 
 initials often appear as c . iv . r, while on the rims of the broad 
 shallow earthen pans the names are given more or quite at length, 
 for instance, albinvs . . moricam, fecit ; sollvs f. &c. 
 
 With regard to the circular vessels, mortaria, they seem to me to 
 be in every respect unsuited to the purposes of trituration, both 
 from the softness of the material and also from the shape ; but appear 
 to be well adapted for a variety of culinary uses, and from being 
 usually found on the scites of dwelling-houses may have been 
 intended for general service in the kitchen department. They are 
 met with in various sizes, and sometimes in pale red clay." 
 
 j\Ir. Smith gives a list of upwards of ninety potters' names or 
 marks discovered by himself in Roman London, and his cabinet now 
 possesses upwards of two hundred from the same scite. jNIr. E. B. 
 Price and Mr. Wm. Chaffers also possess a very numerous collection ; 
 my Museum contains upwards of fifty varieties of potters' names on 
 the Samian ware, besides many more on the coarser kind of pottery. 
 
 Mr. E. B. Price, in a coinniuiiieation to the Gentleman's Maga- 
 zine, in July, 1844, which exhibits great industry and research, into 
 this subject, also states his opinion, that the passage from Pliny, 
 '* major (|iu)runi pars lioininuin terrenis utitur vasis," does not solely 
 refer to the productions of Samos, but is, he thinks, merely a general 
 
 • Sabinus fecit 
 
 f 1 observe also in my list Comitialis and Ccrealis, both of wbich may desig- 
 nate the peculiar purposes for which tlu' vessels thus inscribed were used, though 
 I lie latter is also a proper name. 
 
 I In a licttci- ti> Ai.rKLi) .Ioiin Ki.mi'i;, Emi V. S. A. Archaeologia vol. 
 xxvii. p. ll'J. 
 
38 
 
 remark, and equally applicable to earthern ware of all kinds. He 
 informs us that the earthern ware of Samos, and of Aretium, in Italy 
 (Tuscany), is famed for " eating out of," (in esculentis), but that 
 for drinking cups (calicum), the following cities ^re distinguished 
 (nobilitantur) — Surretinum (Sorento in Campania), Asta and Po- 
 lentia (part of ancient Liguria, now Asti and Polenzo) ; also Sa- 
 guntum in Spain ; Mutina (Italy, now Modena) ; Pergamos in 
 Asia-Minor ; and the Greek cities, Trallis and Evythrse ; and to- 
 wards the end of the chapter he adds Rhegium and Cumas." Mr. P. 
 adduces several quotations from the Roman Poets, in support 
 of his opinion, that this beautiful red ware was the product of 
 Campania, but adds " whichever locality may be decided upon as 
 the source of this pottery, it seems pretty evident, from the remark- 
 able similarity in the specimens, that England and France were 
 supplied from the same market." 
 
 The opinion of these writers, which may be considered conclusive, 
 then is, that the finer or Samian pottery was brought from the con- 
 tinent, but that the coarser sorts were fabricated in Britain ; a regular 
 kiln for baking pottery was some years since discovered by Mr. Artis, 
 at Caistor, in Northamptonshire, the Roman station of Durobrivae. 
 
 Glass we may conclude was introduced into Britain about the 
 same time, and this is considered by Mr. Smith to be of foreign 
 manufacture, most probably in Gaul, because it is there found in 
 greater abundance than with us, the articles in glass found here are 
 exactly the same as those found in France, which are so numerou s 
 in their local museums, — particularly that at Boulogne. * 
 
 Another considerable advance appears in the introduction of the art 
 of stamping or coining money, coeval with the introduction of the 
 coins of the Greeks and Romans from the continent, such improve- 
 ments were applied by their new friends to the money of the native 
 chiefs, as has been proved by Mr. C. R. Smith, and referred to in p. 26. 
 
 Considerable improvement and change was effected in the manner 
 of constructing habitations ; these were first merely excavations in 
 the earth, with the sides of the same, covered with sods or the 
 
 * Collfcldiiea Aiitiqua, plates 1 and 11. 
 
39 
 
 branches of trees (before referred to in this essay), or in a later 
 period they were constructed of rough stones without cement, but 
 iu)w these primitive residences were superseded in locations distinct 
 from the fortified stations by the log or board houses, although com- 
 prising but one floor, yet these in many instances were tastefully 
 coated in their interior with a cement or grouting formed of lime, 
 with pounded brick or other solid material ; this was tinted of 
 various colours, and occasionally ornamented with lines and various 
 objects ; large quantities of this material is continiudly being taken 
 up in the deep cuttings within the City of London, referred to at 
 page 14 — the same material is also found in most of the provincial 
 cities or towns, where the Romans had a location. 
 
 The erection of temples to the honour of their deities followed 
 the general conquest, but of these we have only a few mutilated 
 fragments remaining ; these are mostly discerned where stone was 
 abundant, for example at Aqua Soils (Bath), where has been found 
 several portions of the facade of a temple, supposed to be dedicated 
 to Minerva, with numerous altars and inscribed monumental stones, 
 which are preserved in the Bath Museum, some of the sculptured 
 capitals of pillars, and other representations are extremely inter- 
 esting to the antiquarian, and must also be so to the general 
 observer. 
 
 At Uriconium, (Wroxcter in Shropshire,) one angle of a temple 
 still remains, the ground plan of which I have traced, also the re- 
 mains of another at Rutse (Leicester,) which is stated was dedicated 
 to Janus, many more remains of such buildings are found where 
 stone was plentiful ; probably it was in consequence of the paucity 
 of that material that we have no well authenticated instance of the 
 remains of a temple being discovered in the City of London. 
 
 We cannot doubt that with these changes a very considerable one 
 was effected in the religious feelings of the natives, their more rude 
 and primitive religious rites were superseded by the milder iloman 
 philosophy. The remains of their temples and amphitheatres yet 
 extant in Gaul and Britain are evidences of the correctness of this 
 opinion ; and I am compelled to ])e sceptical witli regard to those 
 
40 
 
 statements which charge a class of men called Druids, with 
 practising cruel human sacrilices, amongst other dark and 
 mysterious ceremonies, I consider these relations to be nearly all 
 imaginary, arising from the feeling which induces many persons 
 in all ages to regard the exhibition or relation of the practices of 
 other parties much below themselves in the scale of intelligence, 
 with a feeling of gratulation or self-satisfaction, that they are so 
 much more elevated above other less fortunate sons and daughters 
 of humanity; and even now, with all our boasted refinement, this 
 degrading idea, which every right minded man must deeply lament, 
 is very prevalent in society. That this feeling was strongly in- 
 dulged by the Roman people in the zenith of their prosperity, 
 evidence is clear — witness the exhibition of the unfortunate cap- 
 tives in processions through the streets, in a manner most humili- 
 ating and degrading — slaves trained to fight as gladiators, &c. tend- 
 ing to infiate the pride of the proud, thoughtless citizens of Rome. 
 In alluding to this subject, I am disposed to regard the short state- 
 ments in Caesars Commentaries in reference to the practices of the 
 British Druids, as an interpolation, because their passages are so 
 foreign to the substance of the general history, which treats prin- 
 cipally of wars and conquests, in which he was constantly engaged, 
 so much so, that it appears impossible that he could have become 
 acquainted with the peculiar social policy of the people ; the two 
 short extracts I shall take from them, will, I think, clearly show 
 that they were added at a much later period than Caesar's time, in 
 alluding to Britain and Gaul, it states, " The two orders of men 
 with whom we have said, all authority and distinctions are lodged, 
 are the Druids and Nobles — the Druids preside in matters of re- 
 ligion, have the care of public and private sacrifices, and interpret 
 the will of the Gods — they have the direction and education of the 
 youth, by whom they are held in great esteem." 
 
 "They teach the doctrine of the transmutation of souls — they 
 teach also many things relating to the stars, and their motions, the 
 magnitude of the world, and our earth — the nature of things, and 
 the power and prerogatives of the immortal Gods."* 
 * Duncan's Trans, Caesar's Com, 
 
41 
 
 The credibility of these statements I am compelled to doubt ; the 
 term nobles could not then be appropriate ; it must be admitted 
 there were chiefs in a military point of view ; but the Druids being 
 learned men, astronomers, or men acquainted with physical science, 
 or the nature of things at that time, I cannot for a moment admit. 
 
 It appears to me astonishing that these statements should so long 
 have been promulgated as facts, even about a century ago the Rev. 
 Dr. Borlasc in his "History of the Antiquities of Cornwall," de- 
 votes nearly 150 folio pages of that work to the manners, customs, 
 and superstitions of these imaginary beings, and all this matter spun 
 out, as it were, from the concise notice given of them by the classic 
 historians ; yet the admission he makes at the conclusion of the 
 history, is fatal to the credibility of the whole, for he states, " that 
 this peculiar class wa,s only known in Britain, and partially so, in 
 a small portion of Gaul;" but says not one word of similar prac- 
 tices amongst the Scandinavians, Germans, &c. although their 
 identification in manners and customs with the Britons is clearly 
 traced. \Miat then is the evidence to rely upon ? nothing — abso- 
 lutely nothing ; for there are no evidences extant of the influence 
 they are said to have exerted over the people ; neither is there 
 any proof that they practised the most revolting ceremonies 
 attended with human sacrifices. Another fact also disproves these 
 strange relations, namely that they were a learned body ; where in 
 the name of common sense, we demand, could they have obtained 
 learning from ? — for it does not appear that there were any alpha- 
 betical characters in use amongst the people at that period ; and 
 the statement is rendered still more ridiculous by pictorial repre- 
 sentations, in which they are depicted as holding a very large book 
 open, (books indeed in those times! amongst a people totally un- 
 educated, what a climax of absurdity ! ) A modern author, whose 
 work is now going through the press, in his description of a 
 district in Yorkshire, where British remains abound, has adopted 
 this absurdity for one of his illustrations, and exhibits one of these 
 imaginary beings, a Druid, as an elderly man, clothed in a long 
 flowing dress, a])parently of cloth, with sandals on his feet, and 
 
 G 
 
42 
 
 holding a large volume open in his right hand. Now with regard 
 to these and many similar absurdities, we may indeed observe the 
 verification of the sentence, 
 
 " Uno absurdo dato, mille sequentur." * 
 
 Subsequently to the Roman invasion we find Letters introduced 
 upon the coins ; but the earlier ones generally speaking, are so rude 
 that they clearly indicate the infancy of the art ; and the knowledge 
 of them could not therefore be generally disseminated amongst the 
 people. British coins anterior to that epoch are frequently found 
 without any characters whatever, being merely convex and concave 
 pieces of metal ; others succeed, having a rude figure of a horse, 
 or some such animal, or with a wheel, &c. some are rude imitations, 
 of Greek and Roman coins ; susbequently the more perfect speci- 
 mens such as are referred to at page 26, indicate that letters were 
 introduced upon them by Roman artists. 
 
 Recurring again to the social policy of the Britons about the 
 time of the Roman invasion, I am compelled to admit, and con- 
 current circumstances tend to establish the opinion, that there 
 might be amongst them, some who had a great ascendancy over 
 the minds of others, as we find such to be the case in all uncivilized 
 nations at present; yet it is more reasonable to conclude, that 
 their influence was exercised in advancing the people rather than 
 depressing them ; they probably were the elders, who gave advice 
 and assistance in temporal affairs to those who solicited them, and 
 I must therefore come to the conclusion, that they exercised their 
 influence with the people in a kind spirit, rather than in a malig- 
 nant or demoniacal one. 
 
 The introduction of Tessellated Pavements for the floors of their 
 residences by the Romans is of so remarkable a character as to 
 demand ovir particular attention in this essay ; for no vestiges of 
 a similar kind are ever found antecedent to the Roman occupation, 
 yet the great number discovered of late years must convince us of 
 their general adoption in all the superior Roman locations, when the 
 colonization of Britain was completed.. On this subject the late 
 * One absurdity granted, a thousand others follow. 
 
43 
 
 Mr. Samuel Lysons states, " The Pavements used l)y the ancients 
 formed of small bits of stone, marble, or composition have been 
 called by various names, as pavimenta tesselata, sectilia, and 
 vermiculata. The first seems to have been used when the work 
 was composed entirely of tesselce, or cubes — the second, when 
 the materials were cut into various forms, to suit the figures which 
 were introduced ; and the last, when they consisted of very minute 
 particles, which enabled the artist to produce the effect of a paint- 
 ing ; but the general denomination by which this kind of work has 
 been known, is that of opus musivum, mosaic work. These pave- 
 ments are said by Pliny to have been introduced among the Romans 
 from Greece in the time of Sylla ; they were at first only employed 
 in their temples, but from the discoveries at Pompeii, it appears 
 that before the time of the emperor Titus, they were frequently 
 used in private houses. In the reign of Hadrian, they appear to 
 have been in very general use, not only in Italy, but in the pro- 
 vinces of the Roman empire. Many have been discovered in 
 France, Spain and Switzerland, but perhaps no country has afford- 
 ed a greater number or variety than England, or of larger dimen- 
 sions. The pavements formerly found at Littlecote in Wiltshire, 
 and Stonesfield in Oxfordshire, and those discovered of late years 
 at Horkstow in Lincolnshire, and near Framptou in Dorsetshire, 
 may vie in point of size with those of the greatest celebrity on the 
 Continent ; whilst that of the Cavcedium tetrastylon, in the remains 
 of the Roman Villa at Woodchester, is perhaps the largest ever 
 discovered, except the pavement from Otricoli near Rome, now 
 laid down in an apartment of the Vatican. Many of those found 
 in England have been very rich in ornaments, but tlie figures have 
 generally been rudely executed, the materials of which they were 
 formed, not having been small enough to produce the effect of 
 painting, so much admired in the opiis vermieulatum." 
 
 Not only arc these pavements discovered in the principal Roman 
 stations, but in detached spots contiguous, or even .it a distance 
 from them, which no doubt was the private residence, or Pra^torinm 
 of the general, or chief, wlio luld the supreme command of the 
 
44 
 
 military stations, such was the one to which Mr, Lysons alludes 
 at Bignor in Sussex, the residence of the governor of the station at 
 Regnum (Chichester) and that discovered by Mr. Baker contiguous 
 to the important station at Isannavatia near Daventry ; also the one 
 I discovered a few years since within a mile of the large station of 
 Derventio, (near Malton in Yorkshire, and many others might be 
 adduced in support of this opinion. The various ornamental 
 designs both of the borders and compartments display a high 
 degree of artistic skill and taste, the former sometimes are of an 
 interwoven pattern, in some they are of the twisted or rope-like 
 form. The elegance and taste displayed in the designs, together 
 with the hamtionious blending of the various colours of the tesserce 
 have given rise to frequent imitations by the floor cloth painters 
 of the present time. In the compartments are occasionally intro- 
 duced figures of Deities, Bacchantes, Cornucopiae, Quadrupeds, 
 Birds, Combats, Flowers, Fishes, &c. &c. 
 
 Many of their villas were evidently designed for luxurious enjoy- 
 ment, since they were warmed by means of flues from fire places 
 constructed a short distance from the apartments, and communica- 
 ting therewith by means of pipes, these are called hypocausts, and 
 such appear to have been "the most usual mode of warming the 
 rooms in the Roman houses, particularly the baths and sudatories, 
 by means of subterraneous fires with funnels carried up through the 
 walls ; the fire was made in a place called the prccfurinum, con- 
 structed for the purpose on the outside of the building, which 
 communicated with the hypocaust within, by means of an opening 
 usually arched.*" 
 
 Very many tessellated pavements have been discovered in the 
 excavations for various purposes which have been undertaken 
 within the Roman portion of the City of London : — one of the 
 earliest discovered, is stated to have been in Bush Lane, Cannon 
 Street, in 1666 — another near St. Andrew's Church, Holborn in 
 1681, of these no description has been given, or even any part of 
 them preserved; a fine specimen was found in 1803, in Leadenhall 
 Street, nine feet and a half below the street, in the centre was 
 
 * Lysons. 
 
represented the figure of Bacchus reclininp; on the back of a tiger, 
 with his usual symbols ; the apartment, of which this pavement had 
 been the centre of the floor, occupied a square of at least twenty 
 feet, this fine relic of the Roman time was broken to pieces in the 
 attempt to raise it, but some portions of it are deposited in the East 
 India Company's Library. In 1805, another was found in Loth- 
 bury, this was much smaller than the one alluded to above, it was 
 raised entire and presented to the Ikitish Museum, where it may 
 now be seen. In 1824 one was discovered near the church of Saint 
 Dunstan's in the East; and in Eastcheap in 1831 ; at Saint Clement's 
 Church, and at Lothbury, opposite to Founders HallCourt in 1834 ; 
 in Crosby Square in 1836 ; a large one was found by the workmen 
 in excavating for the sewer in Q,ueen Street, Cheapside in 1838; 
 and another at the North Eastern end of St. Paul's Churchyard, 
 the border of this is described as being af a beautiful rosette pattern, 
 but the whole was destroyed. Very recently three have been traced 
 at the east end of Maiden Lane, Wood Street, portions of these are 
 preserved in my Museum, some are composed of large tessellas laid 
 at right angles to each other ; others of small square ones of a 
 white and a grey colour, one of these was ascertained to extend 
 under the present church at the corner of Huggin Lane ; specimens 
 of these pavements have been also discovered in the Borough, and 
 particularly on both sides of the High Street from 1818 to 1831. 
 
 In 1841 a nearly perfect and rather elegant specimen was found on 
 the scite of the French Protestant Church in Threadneedle Street 
 about nine or ten feet below the present street, the proprietor of 
 the ground, Mr. Moxhay, most liberally allowed the public to in- 
 spect it in situ, he afterwards had it raised entire, and presented it 
 to the British Museum, tluis exhibiting a strong contrast to tlie 
 conduct of some of the members of the corporation of the City of 
 London, who not being able to appreciate the value of these remains 
 of antiquity, have allowed so many to be destroyed, and by their 
 orders, even prevented private individuals from inspecting or taking 
 drawings of them. 
 
 With other changes a great improvement took [)lacc in the articles 
 used, and consequent arrangement of tlio dress of both sexes, 
 
46 
 
 and the general use of the fibuhi, copied from the Romans, to 
 fasten the upper part of the dress upon the breast, also of the belt 
 worn round the body; and the gradual introduction of wearing 
 armour to which so much partiality was shown, that the practice 
 became very general of having their armour interred with the dead. 
 Introduction of ornaments for the person became now in use, parti- 
 cularly of those worn by females, such as armillse, bracelets, rings, 
 beads, &c. which appear to have been so much prized by the wearers 
 when living, that they also were interred with them when they died, 
 and are frequently found in the tumuli of that period, even now 
 round the neck, arms, and fingers of the skeletons, as they wore 
 them when in a living state. 
 
 These ornaments worn by the women at that time, and which 
 no doubt were introduced by the conquerors, tend to confirm 
 the opinion of that excellent antiquary, the late Mr. Walker, of 
 Malton, Yorkshire, that the intimacy of the native women with 
 the Roman officers and soldiers, was carried on without any reserve 
 or controul ; in proof of which he cites ancient historians, and also 
 an engraved stone found close to the strong fortified camp at that 
 place ; the inscription upon which indicates the practices carried 
 on in that inclosure, it being considered by him, as placed over the 
 entrance of the Balnaeum or Bagnio of the camp, opposite the 
 residence of the chief officer, such a practice would be quite in 
 accordance with natural feelings, and being carried out, is a master 
 piece of policy, for it is obvious, that if the women were gained 
 over, the men of course would soon follow. 
 
 The evidence is conclusive with reference to the intimacy of the 
 native population, both male and female with the military adven- 
 turers comprising the Roman Legions, taken from all parts of 
 Europe ; in support of such conclusions, we may also adduce the 
 fact of the amalgamation of the British youth with the Roman 
 Legions, who always proved themselves equal in courage and 
 discipline to the troops of any of their foreign auxiliaries, and 
 maintained the high character for bravery which has been the 
 characteristic of the Britons, through all ages, and which our native 
 soldiers maintain at the present day. 
 
4Y 
 
 Another fact may be adduced in proof of the complete identifica- 
 tion of the people with their allies, this was the discovery of a stone 
 supposed to bear one of the oldest inscriptions in Britain, this was 
 found in 1731, in digging the foundations of the council chamber, 
 in the city of Chichester, (Regnum of the Romans) the translation 
 of the inscription implies, " that a temple was dedicated to Neptune 
 and Minerva, by the authority of King Cogidubnus, the Lieu- 
 tenant of Tiberius Claudius Augustus in Britain," if this be correct, 
 and Tacitus alludes to the same personage, by the style of Tib. 
 CI. Cogidubnus, as adopting the name of his patron ; it most 
 decidedly proves the good understanding and harmony between the 
 conquered and their conquerors, since one of their native chiefs 
 was raised to the sovereignty of a part of the empire. 
 
 The Burial Places of the people during the period of the Roman 
 occupation, next claim our attention. The tumvdi or barrows, 
 characteristic of those times, have been ably elucidated by the 
 Rev. James Douglas, in his wock entitled " Nenia Britannica," he 
 describes many at Ash, and at Chartham Downs, near Canterbury, 
 and the heights above Chatham and Rochester in Kent, when the 
 lines of fortification were made there in the years 1780 to 1784. 
 Also Sir R. C. Hoare, has explored and described a great nimiber 
 in Wilts, and Berkshire. From these authors and many others, 
 we learn that the custom of cremation, or burning the bodies of 
 the dead, was introduced by the conquerors, but both practices, 
 viz. the burial by simple interment, and by cremation were in 
 use at the same period : many urns are found containing fragments 
 of the bones which have evidently been calcined by fire. The 
 custom became general of depositing their armour with the male 
 subjects, and occasionally ornaments for the person, but this was 
 much more common in the interments of females ; but the ancient 
 practice was continued of interment in elevated positions, aiul in 
 many instances a larger tumulus or barrow was erected over the 
 remains, formed in a more regular and careful manner. These 
 elevated spots for the interment of the dead would appear to be 
 regarded as the regular and established cemeteries, since on in- 
 
48 
 
 specting them, we very frequently find evidences of two, and 
 sometimes three distinct periods of interment — they are still found 
 in great abundance on the chalk and other downs, some yet re- 
 maining undisturbed ; but very many have been opened and 
 explored of late years, the contents of which fully substantiate 
 the peculiar uses to which they were applied, and according to 
 Mr. Douglas, the same practice was continued by the Saxons 
 before Christianity was established amongst them, and among 
 other instances he gives the small barrows at Wimbledon Common, 
 and in Greenwich Park. The greater part of the latter have, in 
 the course of the present year been recklessly destroyed by 
 order of the commissioners of woods and forests ; very recently a 
 number of these smaller Saxon barrows have been opened near 
 Canterbury on the estate of Lord A. Conyngham, who liberally 
 invited the members of the Archaeological Society to be present. 
 And since these subjects are now attracting a considerable degree 
 of public attention, we may hope that the description of them will 
 be published for the benefit of future generations, since so many 
 of them are fast disappearing in consequence of the extension 
 of agriculture, roads of communication, enclosures, &c. 
 
 In conclusion, we shall briefly refer to the departure of the 
 Roman Legions from Britain, which circumstance was productive 
 of most disastrous results to the unfortunate inhabitants, since 
 having advanced so much during the mild sway of the Romans, 
 they were now doomed to experience a melancholy retrogradation. 
 
 It appears that a usurper named Constantine, contemporary with 
 Honorius, after being defeated at Aries, in Gaul, transplanted all 
 the Legions from Britain previous to the year 449. The Roman 
 interference with the Island was then finally closed, and in con- 
 sequence of the absence of its defenders, anarchy and disorganiza- 
 tion ensued, which led to the introduction of the Saxon races here 
 under Hengist and Horsa ; but as it is not my intention to pur- 
 sue this subject any further than the period of the departure of the 
 Romans from the British shores, I shall leave that epoch to be 
 elucidated by those Antiquaries who have studied the history of 
 the Saxons and their successors. 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
 By some readers of the foregoing pages it may be considered I have taken a 
 too narrow and too contracted view of the mental progress of human society, 
 because it is limited principally to Britain, and occasionally to the inhabi- 
 tants of the opposite coast, namely Gaul ; — supposing it to be so, and that I 
 admit my sphere is very limited ; I am at the same time impelled to conclude, 
 that all the Aboriginal races of mankind must necessarily be in a similar con- 
 dition as the Britons were, namely, that of the deepest ignorance ; the universal 
 law of nature substantiates this conclusion, whether we contemplate it individu- 
 ally or generally. 
 
 The researches of Geologists relative to the nature and formation of the crust 
 or surface of the earth have proved there was a very prolonged period when no 
 animated creatures existed on its surface ; but that after the developement of 
 organic life, beings of a more complicated structure, at every successive change, 
 followed each race as well on the land, as in the water, until we discriminate the 
 advent of the human race. Again, nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdom 
 shoots up at once to perfection, all being subject to the same general or universal 
 law, that of progression, I therefore deem it most absurd, to imagine that at the 
 earlier period of the existence of man, he at once arrived at any degree of per- 
 fection in understanding ; and although I am disposed to admit, that at the 
 time the continental tribes of FJurope were much, very much lower in the scale 
 of mental faculties than the people of Asia, and some part of Africa, (Egypt for 
 instance) yet such facts do not invalidate my conclusions, because their pro- 
 genitors must of necessity originally have been in an equally low mental state, 
 but most probably the influence of more favourable climates, and other con- 
 curring circumstances operated more rapidly in these countries to produce an 
 earlier development of intellectual powers, than in our more inclement northern 
 clime; the immediate contact also, and possible association with tribes more ad- 
 vanced ; — for the facility of contact would be much more likely to occur over a 
 large continent, that of Asia for instance, than in a detached Island like Britain: 
 and by referring to writers on the condition of the Continent of Europe, at 
 those very early periods no proofs are advanced by them, that the people were 
 in any way more civilized than those of Britain ; and Justin asserts, " tlic Gauls 
 were a nomadic, or wandering race even after the foundation of the city of 
 
 o 
 
50 
 
 Marseilles about 600 years before the Christian era."* Pellastrin in the same 
 view writes, " In the time of the first Roman Emperors, the greater part of the 
 Germans were nomadic ; and the inhabitants of Gaul and Britain had the same 
 arms, spoke the same language, and had the same names for towns and persons." 
 Language in these early stages of the tribes inhabiting Europe must have 
 been undefined, and it appears most probable, no regular alphabetical cha- 
 racters were in use, until introduced by the Romans. I consider this opinion 
 proved by the absence of any represented forms approaching to alphabetical 
 characters on their monuments, which, from what are now extant, appear to have 
 been 2>rincipally heaps of unwrought stones. Such being the case, we ought to re- 
 gard with great suspicion, all the accounts descriptive of the earlier races of man, 
 seeing they had no coeval medium of recording events, or of transmitting a know- 
 ledge of facts to succeeding generations. On this important subject I shall 
 adduce a few quotations from writers who have busied themselves on the same 
 investigations, and am much gratified to find their conclusions are generally 
 in accordance with the opinions I have already expressed. Mr. W. D. Cooley, 
 in the preface to a new edition of Larcher's Notes on Herodotus, thus writes, 
 " Who is there, having the least acquaintance with the historical enquiries of the 
 present age, that will implicitly rely on ancient writers, servilely copying one ano- 
 ther, and repeating tales, of which the source was never critically examined ? 
 History, after all, is partially included within the circle of inductive philosophy. 
 Facts and events may, indeed, be best known to contemporaries, though not neces- 
 sarily so ; for falsehood attends the first step of rumour, and the truth soon becomes 
 obscure to the eyes of all but actual witnesses ; yet the principles, according to 
 which evidence is to be sifted, verisimilitude discerned, or institutions retraced ; 
 insight into human nature, and an acquaintance with the essential conditions of 
 society, are the fruits of experience, as well as of literary cultivation; so that we 
 continually grow more deeply versed in the art of investigating historic truth. 
 To such critical investigation all the records of antiquity require to be subjected. 
 Ancient writers laboured under the same difficulties as modern, in respect to the 
 discovery of truth, with the additional disadvantage of being less incredulous, 
 and of wanting the guidance of those principles which belong to the philosophy 
 of History." The Rev. James Douglas also asserts the necessity of farther 
 inquiry into the statements extant, with reference to the earlier races of mankind, 
 and combats the objections made to such investigations, in the following words — 
 " the plausible objection to all inquiry into the distant races of men, is, that 
 mankind in the various stages from rudeness to civility, will be found to have 
 the same religious sentiments, the same occupations, and the same customs and 
 manners ; this will be readily granted ; but the variation of climate, the difl^erent 
 conceptions of art, inflexion of language, and indeed, the physical difference of 
 
 I 
 • Sir Richard Colt Hoare's Ancient Wiltshire. 
 
51 
 
 the various races of human beings, corporeal as well as mental, will give a dis- 
 criminating peculiarity to their customs and manners, especially after their 
 establishment in a coimtry for a length of ages ; and when monuments are 
 found in distant regions of the globe of a striking similarity exceeding the 
 reminiscence of the establishments in their oldest records, they may perhaps be 
 assigned with great colouring of truth to a similar people.* 
 
 Colonel Vallancey states, " the method of describing human thoughts by the 
 representation of the several objects of nature, seems to have been the first effort 
 of the mind towards transmitting the knowledge of past transactions to posterity. 
 At what period therefore this invention took its rise, it is impossible to de- 
 termine ; it was probably during the infant state of society, as the practice of 
 writing by means of pictures and symbols was universal, not only among all the 
 nations of antiquity, but even among the modems, who are in the first stages of 
 civilization, for not only the ancient Egyptians, Ethiopians, Libyans, Indostans, 
 Chinese, Persians, Medes, Phoenicians, Syrians, lonians, Scythians, Sarmatae 
 and Celtes f used hieroglyphics ; but the ancient Mexicans, before their com- 
 merce with the Europeans, and even the wandering tribes of North America, to 
 this day draw on the bark of trees in symbolic and hieroglyphic characters, 
 their observations on places and things. J 
 
 Hieroglyphical characters unquestionably preceded the alphabetical among 
 the aboriginal nations or tribes ; because the growth of ideas in those early 
 times must necessarily be very slow, and the medium of communication by 
 oral language, as may easily be conceived, must have been of the most simple, 
 and consequently of an imperfect description; it is therefore but consonant with 
 common sense to infer, that all original words were mere monosyllables ; and 
 that compound words were contemporaneous with established or recognized 
 alphabetical characters, and these advances were but slowly developed, particu- 
 larly in an Island like Britain, from its inhabitants having so little communica- 
 tion with the continent of Europe, and that little confined to the southern and 
 south-eastern parts of the island. We may possibly except a portion of the western 
 parts, where the inhat)itants had the advantage of eommuiiication with maritime 
 traders from tlie Mediterranean for Tin and other metals, of which I purpose to 
 treat subsequently. Impelled by a love of research, I began some years since, 
 an investigation of the Alphabets of the ancient nations, which enquiry may be 
 considered the precursor of the present essay ; the results led to the conclusion 
 that those Alphabets which possessed characteristics of the greatest simplicity 
 might be considered the most ancient, or primitive, hence I supposed tlic anow- 
 headcd, or wedge-like characters, such as Ihe Persepolitan, or those traced on 
 the Babylonian Bricks, might be deenud llu' most jirimilivc, because the most 
 
 * Note Ncnia Britannica. 
 
 t Herodotus, Clem. Alex. Strom, lil). .'>. p.lfiT. Olaus Magnus, lib. 1. Cap. 2. 
 
 I Collictnnen Hibernica. 
 
52 
 
 simple in construction ; 
 but this opinion, it would 
 seem was erroneous, if 
 simplicity were to be gene- 
 rally adopted as a criteri- 
 on, as during a visit to 
 Ireland in the past year, I 
 was much surprised to find 
 Alphabetical characters 
 more simple in form than 
 anywhich had passed under 
 my examination — several 
 inscribed stones possessed 
 by the Cork Literary and 
 Scientific Institution, hav- 
 ing distinctive marks cut 
 on one of their edges, 
 which are supposed by 
 Col. Vallancey and others, 
 to be letters of an Alphabet 
 of a very ancient period, 
 no where discoverable but 
 in the south-eastern coun- 
 ties of Ireland, and in 
 
 of the last deposited in 
 that Museum, and re- 
 presented in the Cut an- 
 nexed which 1 copied, and 
 have also added the Al- 
 phabet, as a key to the 
 reading of these singular 
 characters, which I doubt 
 not will interest others 
 as much as it has inter- 
 ested me, principally on 
 account of its simplicity, 
 which in that respect can- 
 not be exceeded. The 
 Colonel states "the Poems 
 in these Characters are 
 lost, and in the course of 
 3000 years many Alpha- 
 bets have been invented, 
 and used as monuments, 
 very dissimilar to the ori- 
 ginal. Every priest seems 
 to have had his own Al- 
 phabet, and no less than 
 twenty are given as an 
 If such be the fact with refer- 
 
 the Isle of Anglesea ; one 
 
 Ogham Alphabet all differing from each other ! " 
 
 ence to the interpretation of these characters, it shows clearly that we ought not 
 
 to rely implicitly upon any documents purporting to be of a very ancient date. 
 
 b t f 
 
 tl 
 
 .11 .111.1111.1111 
 
 \hdte 
 
 m jn aiff p r 
 
 ft c u 
 
 A-s /^a Q) X/ 
 
 These characters are called by our Irish brethren, the " Ogham," or learned 
 
 CO ^,; 
 
53 
 
 language, there being an opinion very prevalent among them, that their country 
 was once the focus of all the learning in Europe ; such ideas are very often 
 entertained, no evidence substantiating the current belief as a fact ; and to 
 shew that is the case in this instance, I shall cite the opinion of one of their 
 writers, the Rev. Mr. Beauford, in tlie "Collectanea Hibernica," which he gives 
 from the testimony of Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Caesar, Pliny and others ; — 
 "These writers so far from considering the Irisli of their times a civilized and 
 learned people, in general esteem them as a savage and ignorant race : though 
 Ireland in those periods must have been well known to them, both by reason of 
 the trade which the Romans carried on with it, and their remaining so many 
 years in Britain. Strabo is the first writer of antiquity who treats with any 
 degree of precision, of the manners of the old Irish ; his account differs in no 
 respect from those we have at present, relative to the savage tribes of Indians 
 who perambulate the wilds of America. Now in some of his relations, a he not 
 only asserts, that they were in a barbarous state, but much more so than the 
 Britons ; and mentions several of their customs, which would be suffi- 
 cient to degrade them to a class of manners, similar to the most ferocious 
 savages. Nor is the testimony of Diodorus Siculus, b more favourable, than 
 that of Strabo. The account given by Pomponius Mela is extremely unfavour- 
 able to a civilization arising from a long possession of letters ; he calls the Irish 
 "a race of men unpolished, barbarous, and ignorant of every virtue ;" c Nor 
 were they much improved, if we can credit Julius Solinus, about the third 
 century, d These authorities appear sufficient to overthrow wholly the preten- 
 sions of the Irish Historians, as favourable to the learned state of their Pagan 
 ancestors ; and in the days of Tacitus, the ports of Ireland were well known, e 
 consequently that celebrated liistorian could not be ignorant of the real character 
 of the inhabitants. But Solinus had a better opportunity than either Strabo, 
 Pomponius Mela, or Tacitus, of obtaining information on the subject, as in his 
 time Britain had been, for at least two centuries, a province of the empire; 
 communications had passed, and therefore they could not be ignorant of the 
 manners and customs of the inhabitants of Ireland." 
 
 The disquisitorial observations I have made in Ireland, and on the Irish, 
 tend to convince me, the Aborigines of Britain and Ireland were descendants from 
 one and the same source ; but that their advance was much modified by circum- 
 stances, which ultimately produced a marked distinction between the two races; 
 here a conjecture may be surmised, which subsequent events seem to confimi, 
 viz. that the Iberno-Cclts being licyond the range of communication with Gaul, 
 and other foreign nations, could not possibly make such progress in their social 
 condition, as others differently situated; hence it follows, that whilst the Britons 
 became amalgamated in feeling and interests with tlicir conquerors the Romans, 
 
 a Strabo, lib. 2. 6 Diod. Sicu. lib. .5. c Pomp. Meln. lil). I. rf Solinus, .W. 
 
 (! Tacitus Vitn Agrirohx 24. 
 
Ireland had not sueh facility for improvement, in consequence of having so slight 
 an intercourse with the people of the continental nations, in proof of which, no 
 early Irish coins, of similar character with the ancient British are extant ; * the 
 earliest being the time of the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelred the second ; these 
 Mr. Lindsay terms Iberno-Danish coins : yet in Ireland Saxon Coins of Silver 
 are often found of an earlier mintage, doubtless owing to the marauding Danes, 
 who made the ports of Ireland their places of retirement, after they had plun- 
 dered the Saxon inhabitants of Britain. From all this body of evidence, there 
 appears to be no foundation for the opinions which have been so industriously 
 circulated by some authors, that Ireland was in remote times the locality of an 
 highly intelligent, and even rich community. 
 
 From numerous observations, I am fully convinced, the adoption of a regular 
 series of Alphabetical Characters was a very slow process, and that in the 
 earliest ages, the knowledge of them could only be acquired by the learned few ; 
 to the masses they would seem to have been a hidden mystery. In examining 
 Dr. Wm. Owen's Dictionary of the Celtic Language, in which Taliesen and 
 other Bards wrote about the 9th or 10th Century; I find the form of many 
 of the letters indicate that their roots are derived from some more ancient 
 characters, probably the Greek, since the form of many of those letters closely 
 resemble those characters, for instance the Alpha, Delta, Kappa, Epsilon 
 Omicron, and several others, which I consider fully decisive as to the source 
 from whence they were originally derived, and the adoption of them may be 
 dated from the period when the people of Britain had a free communication with 
 the continent of Europe, which was subsequent possibly to the departure of the 
 Romans from Britain 
 
 The opinion I had long entertained, that if British Locations of the olden 
 time were diligently sought for, many, doubtless might be discovered similar to 
 those which are so abundant in the North-east of Yorkshire, has been realized 
 to my fullest hope, as during the past summer I have met with them in North- 
 amptonshire ; and on Dunstable Downs, in Bedfordshire, where both a primitive 
 and a pastoral camp or station may be distinctly traced, the former, or earlier po- 
 sition of defence having been extended by the Romans, who appear to have here 
 adopted the early Hill Camp of the Britons, as an exploratory or observatory, 
 for which it was admirably adapted. These discoveries were described in a 
 paper, which was read at the meeting of the members of the ArchEeological Society 
 during their recent meeting at Canterbury. In Derbyshire I also have seen the 
 same evidences: — Mr. Sydenham further informs me he has seen numerous ex- 
 amples in Dorsetshire ; and I trust these discoveries will induce all local Anti- 
 quaries to explore their immediate neighbourhood, and report thereon, whenever 
 any of these most ancient remains are discovered, as there are numerous professed 
 
 * Lindsay. 
 
Antiquaries now anxious to distinguish themselves, and who are most zeahms 
 and active in exploring the Tumuli, or burial places of the Aborigines; but few 
 indeed have investigated their modes of life and locations, although the state of 
 living necessarily preceded the erection of any funereal monuments ; I hope 
 therefore that I may be instrumental in stimulating others to investigate this 
 hitherto untrodden path of Antiquarian research. 
 
 My esteemed friend Captain Shortt of Exeter, in his interesting work entitled 
 "Collectanea Curiosa Antiqua Dunmonia," substantiates the views I have 
 advanced at page 17 — that the inliabitants of the Western coasts of Britain had 
 communications with the traders from the Mediterranean for Tin, at a very early 
 period, he states, " It is an indisputable fact, that among many numismatic 
 curiosities dug up in this ancient city, a number of coins have of late years 
 come to light from the autonomous Greek Colonial cities in Syria and Asia 
 Minor, as also a very great many from Alexandria. 
 
 " I was at first extremely sceptical on this point, but my doubts became at last 
 entirely removed by the repeated appearance, and undoubted authenticity of 
 these coins. I will not venture to assert positively with some old writers 
 (Isaacke, &c.) that Exeter was in existence 1451 years before Christ, and in the 
 2855th year of the Mundane JEva, or with others, some centuries later; but I 
 firmly believe that it was considerably older as a city, hamlet, or habitation than 
 London, and the primary Emporium of the Tin trade in early ages. I set aside 
 the bold assertions of the Saxon Clironicle with reference to its amazing an- 
 tiquity ; but I believe there is however sufficient proof that the Dunmonians, 
 who were a mercantile people, traded for ages, perhaps one thousand years before 
 the Christian sera, with the Phoenician. Carthaginian and Greek Merchants. 
 A colony of Belgae came from Gaul into South Britain, three centuries and a 
 half before the Roman Conquest. The Phaniicians and Gauls had traded with 
 the Cornish previously to that period ; the early coins of the Ptolemies were 
 probably introduced either hy the Phoenician sea captains, or those of the Gauls. 
 We know that Ptolemy the first, or Soter, reigned in Egypt 323 B. C, and 
 Philometcr 180 B. C. The Phoenicians, who seem to have been the general car- 
 riers of nations, may certainly have introduced some of these into Britain instead 
 of their own, bearing horses, fishes, &c. : the coasting trade to Alexandria would 
 tend to put such coins in circulation among the mariners of their fleets, and by 
 them they were probably introduced into this part of Britain." 
 
 Not altogether adopting the opinions of my talented and zealous friend, 
 Captain Shortt, with regard to the very great antiquity of Exeter; I yet freely 
 admit there are proofs to substantiate its importance as a mercantile position in 
 very ancient times. I have inspected many of the coins discovered during 
 excavations in tliat city, particularly that of Ptolemy Soter, and others miiuiloly 
 described in the Captain's work on tlic Antiquities of Exeter. I also instituted 
 an inquiry under what circumstances these coins were found, because some 
 
56 
 
 eminent Numismatists were somewhat sceptical on this point, and the result of 
 this inquiry fully substantiates the discovery of them at this spot. But one of 
 the most interesting relics bearing upon this question, was dug up in South 
 Street, in August 1833, being a bifrontal head of Isis, with Egyptian hierogly- 
 phics on the plinth, once connected with the bust, but of which a portion was 
 unfortunately lost. These reliquiae of a period antecedent to that of the Roman 
 occupation, confirm the opinion of its great antiquity, as well as the mercantile 
 association -with trading vessels from the Mediterranean ; and tend to prove their 
 early communication with the western parts of Britain, which produced such 
 important changes in the manners and customs of the Aborigines. 
 
 I had purposed in this essay to have treated on those singular monuments of 
 remote times, designated Cairns, or Cromlechs, discovered chiefly in the western 
 districts ; but I find that I have already much exceeded the limits originally 
 intended, I must therefore for the present defer it; suffice it to say, this subject 
 has recently been most ably elucidated by Mr. F. C. Lukiss of Guernsey, in his 
 Paper on the Primaaval Antiquities of the Channel Islands, in the second num- 
 ber of the Archaeological Journal, in which he has fully proved that all those he 
 has inspected in those Islands are sepulchral deposits, of as early a period as 
 the Romano-British; an assertion confirmed by numerous urns of unbaked 
 pottery peculiar to that epoch, and also, that these erections of large stones were 
 used by successive tribes for the same purpose. 
 
 An explanation with minute details of the circles of stones yet remaining in 
 many parts of Britain generally known by the name of Druidical Temples, was 
 also purposed by the writer, but which must be postponed for the same reason; I 
 consider however, that term as exceedingly inappropriate, the reasons for that 
 opinion are given at some length at page 40, I shall therefore very briefly state 
 my opinion that this peculiar arrangement of stones dates its origin from an early 
 British period, and was continued unto the early Saxon JEra, and I shall now 
 merely call the attention of the reader to the fact, that these circles show they were 
 copied from the form of that most resplendent object in nature, the Sun ; hence 
 that figure became so universally adopted in those remote times, and is observed 
 in the shape of their dwellings, which were a circular excavation in the earth 
 finished by a top or covering of a semicircular form : their tumuli, or barrows, 
 the receptacles of their dead were also constructed in a similar form ; their 
 camps, also generally exhibit the circular, semicircular, or elliptical shape. 
 
 Since the former part of this essay has been in the press, I have visited one of 
 the most remarkable monuments of the midland counties, known there as a 
 Druidical Temple; this is called Arbourlowe, situate eight miles south west 
 from Bakewell in Derbyshire, it consists of a circle of large stones within a 
 vallum of considerable height and an interior fosse ; the stones are all lying on 
 the surface, in a direction from the circumference to the centre, near which are 
 three or four large stones, similar to the others; imagination has assumed this to 
 
have been a Temple, but to which term it has not the least pretension, for on a 
 minute inspection its peculiar arrangement clearly indicates it was a spot selected 
 for the residence of a British chief, and the stones so arranged were the distinctive 
 marks of such occupation. Several barrows are near, one of which is very large, 
 and has a communication witli the southern entrance of this spot by a vallum of 
 a somewhat serpentine form, which can yet be traced, although it is nearly obli- 
 terated. The circle of stones tluis arranged are the Mountain Limestone of that 
 district, but none of that kind are found witliin a mile of this place, and the effect 
 of the weather on some of their surfaces is very remarkable, for commencing with 
 a small depression or cavity from which the moisture from the atmosphere has run 
 off in one direction, the effect of which has nearly divided some of the large stones, 
 others appear to have been completely separated by the same long continued ac- 
 tion ; thus proving the vast lapse of time these stones must have been in their pre- 
 sent horizontal position, and negatives theopinion that they were placed vertically 
 like those at Stonehenge, as is generally supposed. Arrow-heads and knives of 
 flint are found in the adjacent fields, but no metal of any kind, therefore it is 
 reasonable to conclude that this earth- work belongs to the Medio-British epoch, 
 antecedent to the pastoral period. 
 
 In conclusion I shall briefly state, that the observations I have made tend to 
 convince me of the universal ignorance of all the aboriginal nations or tribes of 
 man ; that intelligence therefore must necessarily have made slow pr. gress 
 amongst them, and their advances subsequently were the result of experience, 
 from this general charge the most favoured tribes could not be exempt, it bt ing 
 the universal law of nature and necessity. But were further proofs required we 
 may adduce the generally accredited fact, that at present on the surface of our 
 Planet, human beings in every gradation of mind, from the rudest and most igno- 
 rant, to the most civilized are to be found. One instance may suffice, (although 
 many might be cited,) which I quote from a very recent work, Ur. Pallme's 
 Kordofan; — after describing the people as being very ignorant and not far 
 removed from a state of nature, he states — " Their houses are built like those of 
 the negro tribes in general, with stakes driven in the form nf a circle, the tops 
 bent inward, and fastened in the centre, so as to resemble a bee-hive in form, one 
 small aperture sufBces for door, window, aid chimney ; the worldly goods con- 
 sist of a few mats to sleep upon, a few earthenware utensils, and the common 
 arms of savages ; the agriculture is with them in the lowest state, the other useful 
 arts only extend to the commonest weaving, and making in iron some simple 
 weapons or implements, many tribes go nearly naked." 
 
 This description proves a similarity between thcin nnd the Britons at the 
 earliest periods of their location, but tlie gradual advance of the latter, are 
 best exemplified in the construction of their earthen vessels, many of which in 
 a great variety of forms liave been exhumed of late years from the depositories of 
 
 H 
 
^ 58 
 
 their dead, and I am gratified to find these views of progression substantiated by 
 many writers whose attention has been directed to tliis subject. I need no apo- 
 logy for naming amongst them my friend Mr. Sydenham, of Grooms Hill Grove, 
 . Greenwich, who has opened many bari'ows in Dorsetshire ; and the results are 
 most ably described in a paper read before the Society of Antiquaries in 1844, 
 he is of opinion those found in the South of that County are more ancient than 
 those described by Sir Richard Colt Hoare in his work " Ancient Wiltshire." 
 Mr. W. A. Miles has also in his work on the Deverel Barrow, situated between 
 Dorchester and Blandford, expressed the same opinion which is further strength- 
 ened by the opinion of Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Mr. Miles states* — " The 
 various forms, ornaments, and materials of the urns indicate advancement from 
 a rude to a more civilized state, and the various modes of interment in this bar- 
 row, mark a series of years to have elapsed, which will even allow for the improve- 
 ment of their potteries. Here everymethodof interment had been followed, after 
 cremation had been used, and although each corpse had been consumed by fire, 
 the ashes were variously deposited. I found seventeen urns in cists under large 
 stones, four were in the natural soil, inclosed in a rude kind of arch, composed of 
 flints, making twenty-one burials in urns. In the interior of the semicircle were 
 five cists, some with burnt human bones, without any iirn or protecting stone ; and 
 in four instances, were discovered the bones collected in a heap with charcoal, and 
 laid on the floor of the barrow, without even a stone to protect them, making a 
 total of thirty interments. All the urns, except one, were placed v.'ith their mouths 
 upwards, which appears a custom more prevalent in Dorset than in Wiltshire 
 barrows ; since sir R. C. Hoare in his introduction to "Ancient Wilts" observes, 
 that the bones when burnt were collected and placed within the urn, which was 
 very frequently deposited with its mouth, downward, within a cist cut in the chalk. 
 
 " So many different modes of interment in one barrow may incline us to sup- 
 pose that the tumulus had been used at various times, and that as customs altered, 
 so we can observe their various modes. Barrows have been explored containing 
 various interments, but the singularity of this barrow consists in the curious as- 
 semblage of the stones." Mr. Aliles states his opinion that a portion of the stones 
 comprising this barrow were appropriated to some religious rites, such as altars, 
 where in all probability, victims were offered to the manes of the deceased, an 
 opinion in which I do not coincide, they seem generally to have been arranged 
 for the purpose of protecting the funeral urns. 
 
 These urns originally formed of clay, moulded by the hand, and dried by the 
 sun's heat, or by fire placed within them, were some of those placed lowest in the 
 barrow, and in consequence, they had become so soft from the eflfects of moisture 
 percolating through the surface, that Mr, Miles, was unable to remove them, 
 until they had become hardened by the effect of a fire made round them. 
 
 * Description of the Deverel Barrow by W. A. Miles, Esq. 1825. 
 
59 
 
 Several urns from tliis remarkable barrow are deposited in the Museum of the 
 Literary Institution at Bristol; and as they are considered some of the earliest 
 of our native pottery, figures of three of them are here represented. 
 
 Mr. Sydenham's observations were made some years later than those of Mr. 
 Miles; the urns discovered by each were of a similar character, these barrows were 
 near Dorchester, and Mr. Sydenham opened and has described the contents of 
 upwards of thirty of them, concerning which he states. " The circumstances in 
 which the contents of the Dorsetshire barrows differ from those of Kent are chiefly 
 negative. They ofll-r few evidences of elaborate ceremonial depositure ; the 
 explorer is rewarded by no domestic vessels, or other fictile vases of graceful 
 form and indicating an advance in the art of pottery — no paterae of bright Samian 
 ware — no elegant balsamaria — no glittering trinkets of gold — no ornaments of 
 jet or amber — no glass beads — no lamps — no metal vessels — no instruments of 
 brass or iron — rare exceptional instances of articles in bronze, and, above all, 
 no illustrative coins. These barrows however, are not destitute of a considerable 
 degree of interest, heightened indeed by these very peculiarities, which indicate 
 that lierc are the ancient sepulchres of the earliest fathers of the land, and that 
 the history of tumular interment in Britain cannot be carried higher than the 
 period of their construction, 
 
 " Few counties are so rich in relics of our Celtic forefathers as Dorsetshire; the 
 numerous hill cities that crown its heights, the ancient settlements that are trace- 
 able on its hill sides, the stone circles and other lithite monuments that yet rear 
 their grey and venerable forms, the innumerable barrows that bestud its elevated 
 and unploughed downs, still remain the monumental indications of the customs, 
 modes nf life, the religious rites, and the funeral ceremonies of the Celtic inhabi- 
 tants of our land." 
 
 " In size the Dorsetshire barrows vary considerably, ranging from a height of 
 twenty or twenty-five feet to a scarcely perceptible elevation above the surround- 
 ing soil. In tumular research, however, as in many other jjursuits, appearances 
 
60 
 
 are not to be trusted. Fronti nulla fides. It is not in the largest barrow, nor in 
 ^hat of the most graceful outline, that the explorer must look for the richest re- 
 ward for his toil. Many a large and elegant barrow has produced but a simple 
 interment by inhumation or cremation, without any urn or accompanying relic of 
 any kind ; whilst some contiguous humble-looking barrow of five or six feet ele- 
 vation has been rich in interments of varied character, itself containing the ele- 
 ments for a whole chapter on the varieties of tumular interment." 
 
 "I incline therefore to the opinion, that these barrows are the remains of the 
 very earliest of the tribes who peopled Britain ; that these tribes driven from their 
 original settlements on our coasts by subsequent tribes cast upon the British 
 shores by the tides of migration, propelled from the great centre of population, 
 carried into the interior their religious rites and sepulchral customs, distinguished 
 however by traces of their progress in refinement and in art ; and that tumular 
 interment on the southern coast ceased on the arrival of those subsequent tribes, 
 who, differing not in language or in origin from those whom they displaced — a 
 proximate branch of the same mighty family of nations — descending by the same 
 blood from the same original ancestry, differed nevertheless, in the adoption of 
 another religious faith and the practice of other sepulchral customs. We here deal 
 with times and events on which recorded liistory is silent ; but the spade, with 
 them the only operative though mute historian, points to these barrows as the 
 only existing sepulchral monuments of the primitive Celtic tribes — the earliest 
 fathers of the land."* 
 
 In this Essay, I have taken a retrospective view of the ideas and social con- 
 dition of some of the earlier races of mankind from evidences still extant, and 
 have drawn somewhat copious deductions from such remains, and as it was stated 
 at the commencement that I should be enabled by irrefragable proofs to establish 
 as a principle, the progressive advance of the human species in intelligence, 
 in which opinion I am in unison with very many philosophic and benevolent men 
 in ancient and modern times, that in the developement of mind and intellect, 
 man is capable of advancing to a much higher degree of excellence, than he has 
 hitherto been considered capable of attaining ; and it is obvious that those are 
 not the friends of tlie species who from selfish or individual motives attempt 
 to impede the efforts made for this advancement. Let then mental culture be 
 promoted by us all in our respective spheres ; it should be the principal object of 
 our lives, as it is the foundation on which national and individual welfare rests — 
 and if we cannot insure comparative happiness to all within the compass of our 
 influence, we may at least succeed in alleviating that state of hapless ignorance 
 and melancholy destitution so alarmingly prevalent in our otherwise highly favor- 
 ed land. Britain at present has an influence unbounded, let then its people take 
 the initiative in this noble object, setting an example to other nations, which will 
 
 * Vide Archaeplogia, Vol. xxx. p. 32 T. 32S. 
 
61 
 
 meet with a ready response by thousands of congenial minds in other countries. 
 To effect this glorious object, it is o!" t'm first importance that we promulgate 
 facts, and facts simply, so that all assertions not founded upon the ennobling 
 principle of truth, may be gradually relinquished and ultimately abandoned. 
 Should then only a partial success be the result of what is set forth in these 
 pages, my object will be attained, and I shall experience the highest satis- 
 faction in reflecting, that I have exercised my humble talents in forwarding 
 that glorious cause, the elevation of the mind, by the unbiassed advocacy 
 of truth, for which 1 have diligently, and I trust not unsuccessfully sought ; 
 
 A contemporary has well observed : — 
 
 " The history of men's thoughts, conjectures, anddi coveiics, is pre-eminently 
 calculated to invigorate the mind, and improve the character. We can conceive 
 nothing more interesting than to observe the gradual, fluctuating, and sometimes 
 almost imperceptible, advance of the human mind; nor is any thing more adap- 
 ed to call into exercise all the better feelings of our nature, than to witness that 
 devoted attachment to truth for its own sake, that energetic perseverance in its 
 pursuit, and that self-denying activity in its communication, which the great and 
 good in every age have evince 1." — Alhenceam, Nor. 9, 1844. 
 
 I now conclude my Work on the state and condition of the earlier inhabitants 
 of this, and by inference those of other cimntries, in which I have adduced a 
 syno; tic series of phases of me tal progress, tendir.g to establish the principle of 
 the gradual but slow advances of mankind in intellect, and substantially proving 
 thereby the position I assumed at the commencement, that man has ever been — 
 is now — and ever will be an advancing or progressive being, notwithstanding the 
 interventioa of partial checks, and impediments, which sometimes require even 
 ages to overcome. 
 
 The friends of mental progress may therefore be encouraged in their generous 
 and disinterested efforts, by observing what is now passing around them ; these 
 indications of advance are too prominent to be misunderstood — too powerful to 
 be much longer resisted — in the words of a deceased poet — 
 
 "A brighter morn awaits the human day, 
 When every transfer of earth's natural gifts, 
 Shall be a commerce of good words and works." 
 
 Those only who are imbued with the love of science and philosophy, and who 
 are consequently the disinterested advocates of free inquiry, have now, more than 
 at any former period in the history of the human race, momentous duties de- 
 volving on them : for to such minds appertain the execution of the task of 
 supplanting the various antagonistic and conflicting opinions, which so materially 
 tend to distract and mystify our common lunnanity ; those alone who adhere to 
 such principles can meet on common and neutral ground ; for science recognizes 
 none of the petty distinctions of sect, parly, or persuasion ; its effects on the 
 
62 
 
 mind being to establish universal pliilanthrophy in our communications with 
 our fellow men, knowing, that the higher they advance in intelligence, the more 
 perfect and enduring will be that congeniality of sentiment so much to be de- 
 sired, and so worthy of their strenuous efforts for its accomplishment — therefore 
 
 " If we cannot reconcile all opinions, let us endeavour to unite all hearts." 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 From the ARCH^OLOGIA, Vol. XXX. p. 522—524.* 
 With a plate. 
 
 10th Feb. 1842. William Devonshire Saull, Esq., F.S.A., F.G.S.. com- 
 municated a descrijjtion of the Roman foundations discovered in the course of 
 excavations for building the French Protestant Church, at the east end of Bull 
 and Mouth Street, Aldersgate Street, in December, 1841, 
 
 The portion of wall exposed to view ran west and east, and its continuation 
 under the present pavement indicates the exact spot where stood the entrance into 
 the city in this direction, this being the northern gate, until about a century ago, 
 when Aldersgate, which had sustained material damage in the great fire of 1666, 
 was taken down. 
 
 At the depth of eleven and a half feet from the present surface, immediately rest- 
 ing on a loamy clay, which has evidently been deposited by water, was found alayer 
 of angularflint stones as a basement ; these, no doubt, were closely rammed down. 
 This mass is now infiltrated by an unctuous brown clay, probably the effects of 
 percolation from the circumjacent earth ; these flints are continued to the height 
 of one foot six inches; above which are placed layers of angular uncut stones, 
 imbedded in grouting or mortar, used by the Romans in the construction of build- 
 ings intended to be permanent. The stone is the Kentish ragstone, or green 
 sand stone of geologists, abundant in the neighbourhood of Maidstone, inter- 
 spersed with dark brown ferruginous sand stone, an upper division of the same 
 geological series. These materials are well identified by their lithologic charac- 
 ter, as also by their fossils, particularly the Trigonia alseformis, Gryphee sinuata, 
 &c. several specimens of which are in my Museum. 
 
 * Some portions of this communication to the Society which were omitted by the Transcriber, 
 
 are now added. 
 
3t 
 
 
 I ^ 
 
 Tniri.svrrs^ Sei'iu/n oi Utt Wait 
 
 f. reft 
 
 Lort*. Ifirvtn SundsUnr 
 
 ? I ^ i ' I— '^ — t ^ TWc cmirse." vf TUf^. 18'" iZ and I'/.'" tfiirk 
 
 £; 
 
 
 
 , RovaTi Kentish Raqslvne-. with 
 
 j^ .-^^yi^'' te-rruqin^tjLS sa/idet-onc mtersperstd 
 
 rc^Unxj mi a 
 
 SECTION OFTHE BASE OF THE WALL ROUND ROMAN LONDON 
 
 Vfnl-tAwbUu I'l 
 
63 
 
 This first division of tlio wall extends in height 4 feet 6 inches, and is covered 
 by two courses of tiles, laid horizontally. These tiles are IJ inch in thickness, 
 and about 18 inches by 12 in. square ; they are embedded in the same kind of 
 mortar or grouting which has been mentioned. Above these tiles is another por- 
 tion of wall constructed of the ragstone only, extending in height 2 feet G inches; 
 over this are two courses of tiles, surmounted by another course of Kentish 
 ragstone, the pieces of which it is composed being smaller in size than those 
 below, but constructed in a similar manner, and terminating 18 inches under 
 the present pavement. 
 
 This foundation wall is about 10 feet in height, and gradually becomes narrow- 
 er in the different ascending stages, the flint basement being Ui feet in width, the 
 first division of the wall above the flints 9 feet, the next part above the tiles 7 
 feet, the next stage decreasing, until at the present level it is only 6 feet in width. 
 This construction was admirably adapted to support a considerable weight above 
 the surface, forming altogether a solid basement; and even now, being excluded 
 from the atmosphere, not the least appearance of decay can be traced. The ma- 
 erials of which this wall was composed, were unquestionably brought from Kent, 
 and from the neighbourhood of Maidstone, no such stone being found nearer 
 London ; the same remark applies to the ferruginous sandstone. These 
 Quarries partially worked out, are yet to be seen on the banks of the Medway ; 
 and which appears to have been effected by instruments or tools not in use at 
 present.* The flints also appear to be from the same county, being of the kind 
 known to geologists as the angular or unrolled flints of the chalk series ; these 
 are found in abundance about Northfleet and Purf.eet, from which district pro- 
 bably the chalk was brought for the mortar or grouting, used in large quantities 
 in these walh-. The probable mode of transport was by small vessels down the 
 Medway, and u]} the river Thames, which appears to have been the line of an 
 active transit at that period. This opinion is corroborated by the discoveries of 
 a station near Maidstone, another at Strood, close to Rochester bridge, and 
 Roman remains along the right bank of the Medway, before the junction of its 
 upper branch with the Thames. The tiles might be formed from the argillaceous 
 loam excavated for the foundations, and well adapted for the purpose. 
 
 The mural defences here described seem to liave been bounded by a ditch of 
 considerable depth, as the workmen, when prosecuting the works to the north- 
 ward, had to excavate upwards of 20 feet for a foundation, through an unctuous 
 black earth or sediment, which, no doubt, had been accumulating in the water of 
 the ditch for centuries. Fragments of Samian pottery, with many bones and 
 horns of ruminant animals were al.KO found; and between the ditch and the wall 
 were dug up several handle-; of amphora', tlircc glass lachrymatories, and an urn 
 of a peculiar shape; near the bottom of the ditch was discovcrcil a mass of wicker 
 
 • Opinion corroborated by Mr. Wni. Benstcd, Quarry rroprietur, Maidstone. 
 
64 
 
 work, so much decomposed that on being touched it fell to a hrown powder. Tliis 
 had perhaps been placed to prevent the earth from falling into and choking up 
 the water-way, covered up by subsequent depositions. 
 
 On the opposite side of Aldersgate- street, exactly in a line with this founda- 
 tion, the same structure is continued, forming the present boundary in the base- 
 ment story of two houses ; from thence it is continued in a northerly direction to 
 Cripplegate churchyard, where there is still a perfect bastion, placed precisely at 
 the spot where the wall turns oil at a right angle to the eastward, along the street 
 called London Wall to Tower Hill ; from such evid nces I arrive at the conclu- 
 sion, that the whole of the foundations of the Roman wall surrounding the 
 City, were constructed of the same materials, and arranged in a similar 
 manner, but that in process of time from atmospheric agency, and other causes, 
 the superstructure decomposed and decayed, which probably was repaired from 
 time to time, as necessity required ; and accordingly we find that what is now 
 standing above the surface is composed of a limestone, some of which has 
 been cut into regular forms, occasionally interspersed with fragments of Roman 
 tiles, and it is clear that such is no part of the original wall, because it differs so 
 materially from the construction of the basement, which portion has been 
 protected from decomposition for so many centuries, c wing to the circumstance 
 of its being buried, as it were, beneath the siu-face. 
 
 Many opportunities having occurred of inspecting these foundations from 
 Aldersgate-street to Tower-hill, the conclusion may be drawn that the whole of 
 the erection was formed in accordance with an imiform plan, consistent with the 
 practice of the Roman architects; that the materials were brought to the spot, 
 the tiles prepared, and the excavations dug, previous to their commencing the 
 work ; hence the regularity of the plan, uniformity of execution, and the mas- 
 siveness of structure. 
 
 I'INIS. 
 
 London: — 1'rtnted by J. Mc. Lachlan, 42, Chiswell Street. 
 
7 DAY USE 
 
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