31 bSD
ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION
FROM THE STANDPOINT OF
MODERN-ENGLISH VERSIFICATION.
BY
EDWIN B. SETZLER, M. A., PH. D.,
Professor of Teutonic Languages in Newberry College,
Newberry, S. C.
CD
BALTIMORE:
FURST COMPANY,
19O4.
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Clots
ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION
FROM THE STANDPOINT OF
MODERN-ENGLISH VERSIFICATION
BY
EDWIN B. SETZLER, M. A., PH. D.,
Professor of Teutonic Languages in Newberry College,
Newberry, S. C.
BALTI MORE :
FURST COMPANY.
1 9O4.
COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY E. B. SETZLER.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BOOK II. PAKT I.
ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION, ETC.
PAGE.
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER I. IN GENERAL 4
1. The poems. 2. The dialect. 3. The accents. 4. The orders of
rhythm. 5. Arsis and thesis.
CHAPTER II. THE TYPES 10
1. The number of types. 2. Type A. 3. Type B. 4. Type C. 5.
Type D. 6. Type E. 7. Other possible types. 8. Kelative
frequency of each type. 9. Union of types in the line. Kepe-
tition of the same type. 10. The anacrusis ( or prelude) .
CHAPTER III. ALLITERATION 24
1. In general. 2. Functions of alliteration. 3. Rules of alliteration.
4. Place of alliteration. 5. Transverse alliteration.
CHAPTER IV. METRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE NORMAL LINE 35
1. Sievers' fundamental rules. 2. Structure of the normal line.
3. Suggestions to the student in analysing the normal line.
CHAPTER V. THE ANGLO-SAXON LONG LINE OR HEXAMETER 42
1. Occurrence. 2. Difference between the long line and the normal
line. 3. Structure of the long line. 4. Alliteration in the long
line. 5. The types. 6. Lines longer than six feet.
BOOK II. PAKT II.
METRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE WANDERER, SEAFARER, ETC.
PREFACE 49
CHAPTER I. ANALYSIS OF THE NORMAL LINES 51
1. Type A. 2. Type B. 3. Type C. 4. Type D. 5. Type E.
6. Suggested textual emendations.
CHAPTER II. ALLITERATION IN THE WANDERER, SEAFARER, ETC 84
CHAPTER III. ANALYSIS OF THE LONG LINES IN THE WANDERER, SEA-
FARER, ETC..." 85
1. Number of long lines. 2. Type A- A. 3. Type B-A. 4. Type A-B.
BOOK II. PART I.
ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION
FROM THE STANDPOINT OF MODERN ENGLISH VERSIFICATION.
INTRODUCTION.
English prosodists, with some few honorable exceptions, have in
their treatises uniformly neglected the versification of the Anglo-
Saxon period. This neglect is surprising when we remember that,
in the main, the fundamental principles of English versification
are the same throughout all of, at least the historic period of the
language that in Modern English poetry we have no new basic
principle introduced, but merely the development and perfection of
germs that existed in the earliest Anglo-Saxon poetry. We surely
can study profitably Anglo-Saxon versification for the light it
throws upon Modern English (to say nothing of Middle English)
prosody ; and we can most profitably and efficiently study it in the
light which is in turn thrown upon it by Modern English versifica-
tion.
Since so great a diversity of opinion exists among scholars with
regard to the fundamental principles of Modern English prosody,
although Modern English poetry is a subject with which every
school-boy is familiar, we need not be surprised to find similar
conflicting opinions and contradictory theories among Anglo-Saxon
nietrists, inasmuch as the study of the earliest historic period of
our language has been, and is still in many places, so deplorably
neglected in even our high-schools and colleges. It would be
interesting, did the scope of this discussion permit, to notice the
various theories that have been advanced by different scholars.
Some, like Tyrwhitt, 1 have been unable to perceive even any
1 Conybeare (in his "On Anglo-Saxon Poetry" 1828) quotes Tyrwhitt as
saying in the preface to his " Chaucer" that he " can discover in the production
of our Anglo-Saxon bards no traces whatever of a regular metrical system, or even
of alliteration."
1
2 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
rhythm at all in Anglo-Saxon poetry. Dr. Guest, in his great
work on " English Rhythms/ 7 takes the position that there is not
to be found " the slightest trace of temporal rhythm " in the
Anglo-Saxon poems. Prof. Hickes believed that Anglo-Saxon
verse was governed entirely by the classic laws of quantity. Prof.
Sweet (following Sievers) expresses the opinion in his "Anglo-
Saxon Reader" that "the number of syllables is indifferent as
long as the verse is not made too light on the one hand, or over-
loaded on the other hand." This theory, however, is opposed by
Lawrence in his " Chapters on Alliterative Verse," and by Heath
in his " The Old English Alliterative line." Lanier, in his brilliant
and scholarly work, " The Science of English Verse," makes the
same laws govern in Anglo-Saxon versification that operate in
Modern English prosody, and declares emphatically that Anglo-
Saxon rhythm, as well as all rhythm, is based upon musical
principles. Among the Germans (and they of all scholars have
most thoroughly investigated this subject in English prosody) we
have " confusion worse confounded." What with the " four-arsis"
theory of Lachmann, Miillenhoff, and others ; with the " two-
arsis " theory of Moller, Franck, and their followers ; and with the
multiplied variations and modifications of each of these theories by
their numerous disciples of varying reputation and scholarship, it
would be indeed an almost impossible task to unravel the thread
of truth from such a tangled skein of conflicting theories.
Happily we are not entirely at the mercy of the theorist in
determining the principles of Anglo-Saxon versification. Extensive
remains of the Early English poetry have been preserved to us,
and we have the impartial test of the actual facts of the prosody to
which we can subject all the various conjectures and theories.
And that theory which, of all those advanced up to the present
time, most nearly meets this test when viewed from the standpoint
of Modern English versification the theory which best accords
with the facts and most nearly explains all the phenomena is
that promulgated by Prof. Eduard Sievers in an article entitled
" Zur Rhythmik des Germanischen Alliterationsverses," which ap-
peared in volume x. (1885) and xu. (1887) of Paul and Braune's
" Beitrage der Deutschen Sprache und Literatur ; " and also a few
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 3
years later in his " Altgermanische Metrik " (1893). This theory,
with modifications in some particulars, is that which has been
adopted in this discussion.
The few deviations from Sievers' theory which have been per-
mitted here are such, in the main, as were suggested by a study of
the subject from the Modern English view-point by studying it
in its historical connection. It is extremely important, we believe,
that this connection between the Anglo-Saxon poetry and the later
English poetry be kept in mind in this study, for the connection is
vital and direct. We have to deal here, not with two different
languages, but with different periods of the same language. In
the Anglo-Saxon period we merely have the English in its infancy ;
there may be much in its poetry that is crude and imperfect
when measured by the standards of the Modern period, and yet
the fundamental principles of its versification are largely the same.
In both we have the rhythmic units marked-off by accent, and in
both we have the requirement that the logical-accent and the pro-
nunciation-accent shall coincide with the rhythmical accent. That
minor differences exist, does not affect the truth of the statement.
The Anglo-Saxon poetry, indeed, emphasizes the rhythm even at
the expense of the meaning more than does the Modern English
-just as our nursery songs do to-day -just as, in fact, all poetry
has done in the childhood of its development. Its recitation was
probably more musical than ours ; indeed, the reciter frequently
accompanied his poem with some musical instrument. And yet
we are not to conclude from this that the poetry was sung ; it was
probably only a musical recitation. As Prof. Sweet says, the fact
that the word-stress as well as the sentence-stress is rigorously
observed " proves that Old English poetry must have been recited,
not sung." In essential principles, the difference between Anglo-
Saxon versification and Modern English versification is not so
much in kind as in degree and Lanier was not far wrong in his
theory, however he may have erred in its application. It will be
profitable to keep this fact in mind in the study of the subject.
4 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
CHAPTER I.
IN GENERAL.
1. THE POEMS. Of the entire body of Anglo-Saxon Poetry,
only about thirty thousand lines, in round numbers, have been
preserved to us. 1 What proportion of the original amount was
entirely lost is a matter of conjecture. While it must have been
considerable, yet very probably the remains we have are fairly
representative of the whole.
The most important and the longest of the Anglo-Saxon poems
is the Beowulf. It contains 3183 lines. The other poems most
considerable in length are: Genesis 2935 lines; Andreas 1720;
Crist 1694; GuSlac 1353; Elene 1320; Daniel 765; Juliana
731 ; Phoenix 677 ; Exodus 589 ; and Solomon and Saturn 504.
In addition to these, there are a number of shorter poems, varying
in length from a few lines to three or four hundred ; some of these
shorter poems, however, have more poetic excellence than the
longer ones. Anglo-Saxon poetry covers a period of some three
or four centuries perhaps from the middle of the 7th century to
the middle of the llth. However, the dates of many of the earlier
poems are conjectural, and can not be fixed with certainty. It is
probable, indeed inasmuch as the poems were handed down for a
long time in the memory of men that some of them, such as
WidsrS, the Charms, the lays in Beowulf, etc., were composed at
a much earlier date than the 7th century ; perhaps before the
Teutons came over from the continent.
2. THE DIALECT. Although composed at widely different
periods, nearly all the poems have been transmitted in manuscripts
of the 10th and llth centuries; and that too by West-Saxon
scribes, and to a great extent in the West-Saxon dialect, although
all except the latest and a few earlier minor poems were composed,
in all probability, in the Anglian dialect. The most important of
1 At the present the best edition a complete one of the Anglo-Saxon poetry is
Grein-Wiilker's "Bibliothek der Angelsachsischen Poesie," Kassell, 1888.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 5
those transmitted in other than the West-Saxon dialect are : in the
Northumbrian dialect, Caedmon's Hymn, the Ruthwell Cross,
Bede's Death Speech, and the Ley den Riddle; in the Kentish,
Psalm 50, and Hymn II.
Metrically considered, however, this transmission of the poems
in a dialect different from that in which they were composed, and
at a later date, is of no very great importance. The main
rhythmical types are the same in all three dialects, as they are,
indeed, in all the Teutonic languages of that period. The chief
difference is, that the West-Saxon dialect frequently shows shortened
and contracted inflection endings, where the Anglian, in all prob-
ability, had only the longer, uncontracted forms. Inasmuch as
these inflection endings are always short and unaccented, they have
little effect on the rhythm, and it is perhaps better to disregard
them altogether, except in those cases where a substitution of the
Anglian form (if that can be determined with certainty) will give
a more common verse-type. For metrical purposes, the West-
Saxon dialect is as complete as any other, and it presents equally
clearly the fundamental principles of Anglo-Saxon versification.
Besides, it gives us the poems at a time when both the language
and the metre had attained a more advanced stage of culture and
a higher degree of polish ; and it seems that there is little to be
gained, from the metrical standpoint at least, in attempting to
reduce the poems to their original Anglian form.
3. THE ACCENTS. Anglo-Saxon, just as Modern English
versification, is based on accent and not on " quantity " that is,
accent is the means used to mark-off the units of primary rhythm.
Of course, it is true here, as also in Modern English, that all the
sounds necessarily have some " quantity," but this quantity is not
fixed for each sound, as it is in Latin and Greek, but it is variable,
even in the same line, and depends on the ease with which the
syllable can be uttered and the number of syllables by which it is
accompanied in the same measure, rather than on the nature of
the vowel as " long " or " short," or on the number of consonants
by which it is followed.
Anglo-Saxon differs from the Latin and the Greek again in the
character of its accents. There are here, as in Modern English,
6 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
three kinds of accents : the word-accent, the sentence-accent, and
the rhythmical-accent, and the function of each is the same as
in Modern English. The word-accent is the stress of voice laid
on some syllable of a word of more than one syllable to indicate
its pre-eminence compared with the other syllables of the word.
For metrical purposes, monosyllables may be regarded either as
accented or unaccented, as the rhythm in any special case may
require. Compound words which have regularly a secondary
accent in prose, may retain that accent in poetry, where it does not
interfere with the rhythm. In case rhythmical accents fall on
both primary and secondary word-accents which sometimes
occurs the syllable of the secondary accent also receives the full
stress of the rhythmical accent, and in this respect is not distin-
guished from the primary-accent syllable.
The secondary accent of compounds varies in intensity with the
relative importance of each component part, and on the nature of
the relation of the parts to each other. As to whether or not a
secondary accent is to be recognized in the versification, will depend
upon the requirement of the rhythm in each particular case. This
view is supported by the fact that even in prose it is undecided in
many cases whether or not the compound should be pronounced
with a secondary accent. Again, there are some compound words
such as brimlffi&ndra, deftercweftdndra, etc. which some would
consider as having three word-accents, on the first, second and
third syllables respectively. In this case, the first and second
accents would coincide with the rhythmical accents, and be primary
accents in effect ; while the third would have only the force of a
secondary accent, and perform the function explained under " type
D," page 14. For metrical purposes, the word-accent even of
words of more than one syllable is obscured, unless it coincides
with a metrical accent.
The sentence-accent is the stress (greater than that of the word-
accent) given to a word in a clause, or " thought unit," to indicate
its pre-eminence among the words of the clause. Accompanying
this increased stress, there is usually a change of pitch as well.
The stress is not always the same, but it varies in degree according
to the logical and relative importance of the word on which it
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 7
falls. The sentence-accent regularly coincides with the word-
accent, except in such cases as where, for the purpose of contrast,
it falls on the usually unaccented prefix of two antithetical words.
Likewise, as has been said, the sentence accent regularly falls on
the most important words of the sentence ; that is, upon any word
that is logically the subject. Usually this is a substantive, although
it may be an adverb, a preposition, or some similar part of speech.
The rhythmical-accent is a stress of voice given to syllables (or
sounds) which are to be separated from each other in utterance by
at least approximately equal intervals of time. The rhythmical-
accent divides the line into rhythmical units, or measures, or feet.
Here, just as in Modern English, a foot may be defined as the
number of syllables marked-off by a rhythmical-accent ; and each
line contains as many feet as it has primary rhythmical-accents.
The rhythmical-accent is one of stress entirely, and is not accom-
panied by any variation in pitch. It must coincide with the word-
accent and the sentence-accent. In Modern English, with its
greater number of feet to the line, the rhythmical accent sometimes
falls on a word that has very little or no sentence-accent or word-
accent, but this is not the case in Anglo-Saxon.
4. THE ORDERS OF EHYTHM. (1) Primary Rhythm.
Anglo-Saxon rhythm differs very little from Modern English
rhythm. Poetic rhythm (as has been shown in Book I) depends upon
the occurrence of sounds in such a way that they can be co-ordinated
into equal time-groups, or units. In Modern English, the units
of primary rhythm are usually occupied by the same number of
sounds or syllables " substituted feet " of a different number of
syllables being frequently permitted. In Anglo-Saxon, however,
the number of syllables in each time-unit constantly varies ; and
even the order of the accent frequently changes but always within
certain definite limits. Where there is a greater number of
syllables in the foot or time-unit than the normal, the enunciation
is accelerated; where there are fewer, it is retarded. The very
nature of rhythm requires, as we have seen, that the ear be able to
perceive a regular succession of sounds, and to co-ordinate them into
groups covering at least approximately equal intervals of time.
The co-ordination of the sounds into equal time-groups is
effected by the regular recurrence of the rhythmical-accent; and
8 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
the unit of primary rhythm is the interval between any two suc-
cessive rhythmical accents. If the measure contains only a single
sound, either this sound is prolonged, or the measure is filled out
with a pause ; and the same is true in those types of rhythm
where the two successive rhythmical accents come upon adjoining
syllables.
(2) Secondary Rhythm. The Caesura. In Modern English
the unit of the secondary rhythm is the line ; in Anglo-Saxon it is
the " type," or half-line : every normal half-line constitutes a unit
of secondary rhythm. The half-line consists of two feet, or units
of primary rhythm, which are more closely connected with each
other than with the remaining feet in the line.
The secondary rhythmic units are marked-off to the ear by a
pause between two successive half-lines. This pause is called the
caesura. The caesura performs a somewhat different function in
Anglo-Saxon from what it does in Modern English. In the latter
it is used to interrupt the rhythm and prevent rhythmic monotony ;
its position is variable in the line. Jn the Anglo-Saxon it is used
to mark the secondary rhythm, and its position is fixed. It comes
always between two successive half-lines. Although the caesura
here is regularly a rhythmical pause, it usually coincides with a
logical pause of more or less distinctness. That is, it can not
separate the parts of a word, nor can it separate words that are in
very close syntactical relation. For instance, it can not separate
a preposition from the word it governs, nor a limiting genitive
from its noun. There must be something of a logical pause a
pause in the sense however slight, as a condition for placing the
caesura.
The caesura is effective, in connection with alliteration, in
enabling one to determine the metrical type of each half-line.
The first alliterating word after the caesura (with very rare
exceptions) takes the first rhythmical-accent in the second half-
line, and is thus the key-note to the metrical structure of the
whole line.
The secondary rhythm in Anglo-Saxon is more marked than
the primary rhythm ; and in this respect it differs .from Modern
English. There especially in "run on" lines the secondary
rhythm is frequently very faint. In Anglo-Saxon this is the
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 9
case rather with the primary rhythm emphatically so where the
rhythmical-accents fall on the adjoining syllables of two different
feet. But the secondary rhythmic unit the, " type " or half-line
is always strongly marked.
(3) Tertiary Rhythm. The Phrase. The unit of tertiary-
rhythm in Anglo-Saxon is the line. It is marked to the ear,
first of all, by a pause. This pause does not differ in kind from
that which marks the half-line. It is, perhaps as a rule, of a
little longer duration, and the logical pause with which it coin-
cides is regularly more strongly marked.
But the tertiary rhythmic unit is further marked to the ear by
the very nature of the rhythm itself. In the Anglo-Saxon line
the rhythm is not one continuous forward movement as in the
Modern English, but the third and fourth feet, instead of making
a progressive continuation of the first and second, merely constitute
a complementary response to them. At the close of the first half-
line, the rhythm is, as it were, suspended, awaiting an answering
response in the second half-line. " Phrasing " in music is a
similar phenomenon though of much less frequent occurrence,
and rarely of so simple structure. The initial strain in the
opening measures finds its complement in the closing measures of
the phrase. It must be distinctly remembered in this connection,
however, that phrasing as represented in the Anglo-Saxon line
differs from the phrase in Modern English poetry ; in the latter
it is a thought-grouping which frequently interrupts the flow of
the rhythm; in the former, just as in music, it is a positive
rhythmic factor.
This phrasing effectively re-inforced by alliteration, as we shall
see later binds the constituents of the tertiary rhythm into such a
definite and compact whole l that the line is recognized by the ear
as pre-eminent among the rhythmic units. It is the tertiary
rhythm that is the most strongly marked rhythm in Anglo-
Saxon poetry.
5. ARSIS AND THESIS. A foot in Anglo-Saxon poetry con-
tains regularly (as in Modern English) two parts : an accented or
1 ' l Nicht der halbvers, sondern die beiden zusammengehorigen Halbverse, bilden
ein geschlossenes Ganze." Cremer, "Metrische und Sprachliche Untersuchung
Andreas, Guftlac, Phoenix," etc.
10 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
stressed part, called the arsis ; and an unaccceuted part, called the
thesis. There are, however, feet that contain only an arsis, and
others that contain what is sometimes called a " secondary arsis," *
in addition to the regular arsis and thesis. Such feet are usually
found in connection with heavy compound words containing a
strong secondary accent, and they regularly either precede or fol-
low feet containing no thesis.
CHAPTER II.
THE TYPES.
1. NUMBER OF TYPES. According to Prof. Sievers, there
are five fundamental " types," or kinds, of secondary rhythmic
units, depending upon the kinds of feet of which they are composed,
and the order of arrangement of the accented syllable of the foot
with regard to the unaccented. If the initial syllable be accented,
it is called, as in Modern English, a descending rhythm ; if the
final syllable take the accent, it is carlled an ascending rhythm.
2. TYPE A. The first of Sievers' types, and the one of by far
the most frequent occurrence, is what he calls type A. In this
type the initial syllable in each foot takes the accent, and this
accented syllable is followed by one or more unaccented syllables.
The accented syllable is regularly " long " in quantity. The term
quantity is used in this discussion in the classic sense that is, a
vowel is considered " long " when " long by nature," or when
followed by two consonants. The writer is not prepared to main-
tain, however, that the Anglo-Saxons really followed the classic
rule with regard to the length of syllables. It is probable, on the
contrary, that they did not, but that they determined quantity very
much as is done in Modern English : by the importance of the
syllable, by the ease or difficulty of its enunciation, and by the
requirements of the metre. The adoption of this view would
simplify many of the variations of the fundamental types, which
are given in the following pages. However, as the question has
not yet been absolutely determined, we have followed Prof. Sievers
in marking long and short syllables according to the Latin and
1 For the objection to this term, see foot-note at the bottom of page 16.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 11
Greek rules for quantity, when the syllables occur in the arsis of
the foot.
Representing accented syllables (or arses) by a dash, and unac-
cented syllables (or theses) by a cross, the following would repre-
sent the fundamental and most common form of type A :
I*.H.
There are a great many variations of this fundamental form of
the type. The arsis instead of being long, is sometimes short (in
which case it is represented by a curve, instead of a dash), and the
thesis, instead of having only a single syllable, may contain any
number up to five. But this statement with regard to the thesis
applies only to the first thesis. In this type, the closing thesis of
a half-line is limited to two syllables. 1 The occurrence of two or
three syllables in the first thesis, especially if they are short and
easily enunciated, is very common. The occurrence of more than
three syllables is rare.
Another common variation of type A is the substitution of two
short syllables instead of one long syllable, as the arsis of the foot.
Metrically these two syllables are to be rendered in the time of a
single long syllable, and the first of them takes the principal stress
of the accent. This substitution is what is known as " resolution,"
and it may occur in either foot of a type.
The following half-lines are examples of some of the most
common forms of type A, the metrical scheme in every case being
written under each.
Wl9nc bi wealle. W. 80-a 2 longe sce*olde. W. 3-b 3
L X | X || X I , 4X (I
hicgan to hdndum. Br. 4-a are* gebideS. W. 1-b
x x | >: x || : x x I x ||
6ft him anhaga. W. 1-a leode ongetan. Ex. 90-b
x x x ^ x . x x
6ft ic sceolde ana. W. 8-a se waes haten Wulfstan. Br. 75-b
xxx ^ x
1 According to Prof. Sievers, it can contain only one. See the discussion under
" rules for Anglo-Saxon versification," page 35, et seq.
2 a indicates first half -line ; b, second half-line.
12 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
If these examples be scanned as Modern English poetry is
scanned, we shall find that we have here a rhythm very similar to
our trochaic and dactylic rhythms in lines of the same number of
feet. And, of more importance, if we examine carefully, we shall
find that in those feet in the same half-line containing theses of a
dissimilar number of syllables, the ear demands that we give an
equal interval of time either by the slower enunciation of the
fewer-syllabled thesis, or by filling up that measure with a
pause otherwise there is no perception of musical rhythm.
3. TYPE B. The second of Sievers' types is type B. In it
the thesis of the foot comes first, and we have the accented syllable
last in each case. Here, as in case of type A, the accented syllable
is usually long. The rhythmic effect is somewhat similar to that
of the anapaestic and the iambic dimeter in Modern English.
Using the same marking as in the case of type A, the following
represents the most common form of type B : x x L \ x L ||.
Here again there are numerous variations of the normal form,
produced as before, by substituting a short syllable for the long
accented syllable, by increasing the number of syllables in the
thesis, or by the resolution of either arsis, or both. In the first
thesis we have examples of as many as five syllables ; in the second
thesis as many as three syllables may occur. It is to be noted that
the fundamental form of type B is not one syllable in each thesis
(x L | x L ||) the iambic rhythm as it is in type A, but that the
normal form of the type is two syllables in the first thesis thus
beginning the line with an anapaestic rhythm, as it were.
The following are examples of the most common forms of type
B, with the metrical scheme written under each :
it it
ne t5 wife wynn. Sea. 45-a Ic to soSe wat. W. 11-b
xx|x^|| X X I X jl
on urne eard. Br. 58-a and ealde swurd. Br. 47-b
XX' X ' X '
X_JX_|| X_|X_||
swa nu monna gehwylc. Sea. 90-a swa him Moyses behead. Ex. 101-b
xx I x x ^ || x x I X X jj
/ j_ i j_
8aet him aet fotum feoll. Br. 119-a se 'Se him lange aer. Ex. 138-b
xxx . x .
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 13
Other variations of the normal type are comparatively rare.
4. TYPE C. Type C, the third fundamental type as given
by Prof. Sievers, has no parallel among the regular rhythmic units
in Modern English poetry. Type A, in its simpler forms, is
similar to the trochaic and dactylic rhythms ; type B is likewise
similar to the iambic and anapaestic ; but type C is peculiar, in
that it commences and closes with a thesis, while the arses stand
in juxtaposition in the middle.
Though this type has no analogue among Modern English
rhythms, that it was genuinely rhythmical when recited as the
Anglo-Saxon gleeman gave it, can hardly be doubted ; only those
who deny the musical basis of Anglo-Saxon verse, will refuse to
admit this. But the rhythm is not a combination of the iambic
and trochaic rhythms ; such a combination would be impossible in
the Anglo-Saxon half-line. Instead, it is more nearly what we
call in Modern English an iambic rhythm with a feminine, or
double, ending. In reciting the rhythm of this type, the time
given to each foot, just as in the other types, must be approxi-
mately the same. But its distribution is here somewhat different.
The first arsis is followed by a pause which is equivalent to the
first thesis in time ; then the entire second arsis and second thesis
are rendered in the time of a single arsis, with the addition possibly
of as much time as is given to the second syllable of a double
ending in an iambic rhythm in Modern English. We have here
certainly the effect of the ordinary double ending. This rapid
rendering of the arsis and thesis of the second foot is facilitated by
the fact that the syllables of this foot are usually light and easily
enunciated ; especially is this the case with the arsis, which in
other types is regularly long.
The following are the two most common forms of type C :
x x ^ | ^ x || ; orxx^|6x||.
There are then the usual variations of these forms, by the resolu-
tion of the arses, and by increasing the number of syllables in each
thesis or both. The number of syllables in the first thesis may
be as many as five, while in the second thesis it is rare to find as
many as two, and even then such examples can possibly be classed
under other types.
14 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
The following are examples of the most common forms of type
C, with the accompanying metrical scheme :
fcaet se eorl nolde. Br. 6-a and on cneo lecge. W. 42-b
X X L | L X || XX
Het tSa bord beran. Br. 62-a wft 3am teonhe"te. Ex. 224-b
x x . J u x || xx . I u x ||
in brimlade. Sea. 30-a gedon wiUe. Sea. 43-b
x ^ | x || x . I . x ||
/ /
in uprodor. Ex. 4-a and sincftege. W. 34-b
x L | 6x || x L I J x ||
There are fewer variations of this type than of types A and B.
5. TYPE D. The fourth fundamental type, according to
Sievers' classification, introduces us to another rhythmic unit
which has no parallel in Modern English. It is a type which
consists normally of a foot of a single syllable followed by a foot
of three syllables. This type would seem to contradict on its face
the fundamental principle of all rhythm that is, that rhythm de-
pends on the co-ordination by the ear of equal time-groups of sounds
and pauses, recurring at regular intervals. But this contradiction
is only apparent. We have here only further illustration of the
fact which has been already emphasized in Book I. We saw there
how, after the type of rhythm has been definitely established after
the time of each foot or measure has become thoroughly appre-
hended by the ear the number of sounds that comprise any
individual foot may be varied at pleasure within certain- limits, and
that rests and pauses may be used to complete the normal time of
the measure. We have a similar phenomenon here. The first foot,
although consisting of a single syllable, has approximately the same
time as the second ; but not all of this time is consumed in the
enunciation of the single syllable ; part of it is covered by a pause,
or rest. This pause gives opportunity to fix the organs of articu-
lation so that the following foot which usually consists of a heavy
compound may be more easily articulated. We do not deny, of
course, that it is possible to read such measures without the pauses
or rests. They can undoubtedly be read as prose as Tyrwhitt
doubtless read all Anglo-Saxon poetry, and as many readers read
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 15
similar passages in Modern English poetry to-day. We can read
a great deal of the very best poetry as prose, if we will. But no
one who is familiar with Anglo-Saxon verse, and who is acquainted
with the fundamental principles of rhythm, will believe that the
Saxon gleeman recited such types of rhythm in any other way than
with the pauses for there is no other way in which he could recite
them rhythmically.
In the form in which Prof. Sievers gives this type, there is, in
addition to the primary accent on each arsis, what is called a
" secondary accent " in the second foot. This secondary accent
must be carefully distinguished from the primary accents. The
latter are rhythmical accents, whose principal function is to mark-
off the rhythmical divisions that is, the feet. The former is
only a pronunciation accent, the chief effect of which is to empha-
size the relative importance of its syllable to others in the foot, and
to increase its " quantity " relative to them. Its chief rhythmical
effect perhaps is to emphasize the pause in the first foot by making
clear the three-syllabled time of the second foot which time the
ear requires to be equal in both feet, if a rhythmical effect shall be
perceived. If the Anglo-Saxon poet observed this accent at all in
his recitation, it is very likely it was only to the extent mentioned ;
and that, too, only in heavy compound words, containing in pro-
nunciation a heavy secondary accent. It is in connection with such
compound words that this type most frequently occurs.
The question is unsettled as to whether words having no
secondary pronunciation accent should be written with a secondary
accent in the metrical type. As was seen under the subject of word-
accent, there are some compounds which would, under this practice,
be entitled to three accents ; for example, brimlift&ndra would
require the scheme : ^ | ^ i x || ; A&ftercw&ft&ndra : t. x | L x || ,
thus giving three pronunciation accents to such words. But it is
questionable, to say the least, whether the third syllable in such
words takes any preceptible accent in pronunciation, even in prose.
Those who hold that these secondary parts of compounds must
take both the word-accent and the rhythmical accent in the rhyth-
mical scheme (although it is doubtful in many instances whether
they take any accent at all in prose) have as yet by no means
established their contention. The only metrical reason for indi-
16 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
eating the word-accent here, is that previously mentioned : it
emphasizes the demand for a pause in the previous foot to fill out
that measure by making clear the full length of the succeeding
measure, to which the first must be equal. This much can be
affirmed : a secondary accent should never be given so much force
as to obscure the rhythmical-accent, or to cause the secondary
word-accent to be mistaken for the rhythmical-accent. In such
case it would be almost impossible to give equal time to each foot,
and thus the rhythm would be destroyed.
There are two positions which the accented syllable of the thesis *
may occupy ; it may stand before, or it may stand after the other
syllable of the thesis. Its function is the same in either case, and
it is that which has already been explained. The two forms of
the type which this difference in the position of the accented thesis
gives are known as D' and D". The normal form of each is : D',
With both of these forms, we have most of the variations already
described for the preceding types ; the arsis may be short, or it
may be resolved, and the thesis may have an additional unaccented
syllable in it. A common variation is the insertion of a syllable
after the arsis in the first foot, thus providing that foot with a
thesis, and making it differ very little rhythmically from type
A. Especially is the difference slight if the inserted syllable be a
"heavy" one.
Sometimes there occur, in the case of heavy compound words
that usually take type D as their metrical form, two syllables in
the first foot. Such examples we have entered (contrary to Sievers)
under type A, inasmuch as the secondary accent merely a pro-
nunciation accent is not here needed to show the full time of the
measure, and from the rhythmical standpoint at least, is better
omitted. Also there rarely occurs a syllable inserted before the
accented syllable of the thesis in D'.
The following are examples, with their metrical scheme, of the
most common forms of both D' and D" :
1 This expression is used instead of the term "secondary arsis" given by some.
The latter term is unfortunate in that it may lead to the impression that the
syllable in question is entitled to a rhythmical accent which is emphatically not
the case, for such an accent would confuse the feet and destroy the rhythm.
I
V
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 17
hre5sende. W. 102-a bri'mliSendra. Br. 27-b
L | - >. X || L | L X ||
6ft earmc&irig. W. 20-a hand wisode. Br. 141 -b
faegum fromweardum. Sea. 71 -a aefter cwe^endra. Sea. 71 -b
x f- * i x|| ^x|-ix||
weall wundrum heah. W. 98-a bord ord onfeng. Br. 110-b
i ri I ii
hreoftan hrim and snaw. W. 48-a hungor innan slat. Sea. 11-b
L X | L X i || x \ x \\
The variations of the normal forms of type D are numerous,
although the type itself does not occur so frequently as the other
types already discussed.
6. TYPE E. The fifth and last type given by Prof. Sievers
is type E, which in form is the converse of D. The first foot of
this type contains three syllables, the second normally only one.
Here again the rhythm is preserved in the two feet of an unequal
number of syllables by supplementing the monosyllabic foot with
a pause, the equivalent of the difference between the time con-
sumed in enunciating the sound of that foot and those of the other
foot. The pause, coming at the end of the line, is easily and
accurately measured by the ear.
We have here the abrupt effect witli which we are familiar in
music, where the measure is completed by a " rest." The signifi-
cance of this abrupt effect noted by the ear, is better appreciated
if we remember that the single syllable of the monosyllabic foot
is not enunciated abruptly, but is really prolonged beyond the time
of the arsis of the other foot. This prolonging of the syllable is
itself the result of an effort of the " rhythmic sense " to complete
the measure. The abrupt effect is felt only because the single
monosyllable cannot be held the length of time required to give
the two heavy syllables plus the light syllable of the thesis, of the
other foot. The pause has to be inserted to complete the mono-
syllabic measure. This type is itself strong evidence of the musical
basis of Anglo-Saxon verse.
18 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
Type E, as in the case of type D, is restricted almost exclusively
to heavy compounds occurring in connection with a single mono-
syllabic word. If the compound is followed by more than a single
syllable, the half-line is classed under type A (following Sievers),
in spite of the heavy compound word in the first foot. These
compounds which give type E have, of course, a secondary word-
accent on the second component part. The function which this
accent plays is similar to that of the secondary accent in type D.
It is merely a word-accent, and must not be given the function of
a rhythmical-accent. Whether it should appear at all in the
metrical scheme, is the same question that was discussed there,
and the reasons pro and con are the same. We shall generally
follow Sievers' precedent in using it, though he uses it also in
instances where there is apparently little justification for it from
the rhythmical standpoint.
In this type, as in the preceding, there are two positions which
the accented syllable of the thesis may occupy. It may precede
the unaccented part of the thesis, or it may follow it. The latter
position is rare.
The names given to the two forms of the type arising from this
difference in position of the accented part of the thesis, are
and E. Their normal forms are : E, L x | L || ; E, L x i | L \\ .
We have in addition to these, the ordinary variations of the
fundamental forms : that is, by the resolution of the arses, by the
substitution of short syllables for the long accented syllables, or
by the insertion of an additional syllable in the thesis, either before
or after the accented syllable of the thesis.
The following are some of the most common variations of both
E and E, with the accompanying metrical scheme :
freomaegum feorr. W. 21-a. hnmcealde sae. W. 4-b.
m6rewrges mod. Sea. 12-a. f&dohilte swurd. Br. 166-b.
ix
hordwearda hryre. Ex. 35-a. Cneomaga fela. Ex. 21-b.
L IX 1 6x ||
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 19
sealtySa gelac. Sea. 3 5 -a. eadigra gehwam. Ex. 4-b.
7. OTHER POSSIBLE TYPES. Prof. Sievers includes all the
metrical forms of the Anglo-Saxon half-line under these five fun-
damental types, with their variations. In this he has been followed
by all who accept his theory of Anglo-Saxon prosody. However,
there are some examples which are usually classed under type E
that seem to suggest a different division into feet, and one that is
more in accord with the logical relation of the words themselves.
Such are the following, which have been selected from Exodus ;
the suggested metrical scheme is written under each :
Witrod gefeol. Ex. 491-b. deop lean gescgod. Ex. 506-b.
*x x * L x x L
meredeaS geswealh. Ex. 512-b. ham eft ne com. Ex. 507-b.
& x I x - II - x I x - II
Maegen call gedreas. Ex. 499-b. Josepes gestreon. Ex. 587-b.
$2 x | x || x x | x . ||
faerspell becwom. Ex. 135-b. Wraecmpn gebad. Ex. 137-b.
L x | x L || t. x' | x L ||
ohtnied gescraf. Ex. 137-b. grimhelm gespeon. Ex. 174-b.
X I X ^ X I X j
Also lines 191, 313, 303, 354, 371, 407, 459, 461, and others.
It is to be noted in nearly all of these examples that the weak
syllable " ge," which is logically closely connected with the word
to which it is prefixed, is the third syllable in the half-line. In a
rhythmical scheme it would go much better, from the logical
standpoint, with the word to which it belongs, rather than the
preceding word ; and it is doubtful, to say the least, whether it
should be placed under a type that will separate it from the word
of which it is a part. We have no instance where an inflection
ending which is somewhat similar to the " ge " in the intimacy
of its connection with the word to which it belongs is thus
separated from the stem of its word. In fact, it is against the
rule for a rhythmical unit to separate the parts of a word (com-
20 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
pounds of course, being an exception), inasmuch as each foot
should always have at least some degree of logical unity in itself.
In addition to this, nothing can be said from the rhythmical
standpoint against the division of the half-line as we have marked
it above ; the rhythm itself suggests that division. However,
since the examples are so rare, (they occur almost exclusively in
the second half-line) we have followed Sievers and classed such
examples under E, rather than make a separate fundamental type
under which to classify them.
8. KELATIVE FREQUENCY OF EACH TYPE. Of the five
accepted types of the Anglo-Saxon half-line, those expressing a
descending rhythm are the most abundant. A itself is the type
of nearly half of all the lines. This, it will be observed, is just
the opposite of what is true in Modern English. There the des-
cending rhythm the trochaic and dactylic are rare compared
with the ascending iambic and anapaestic rhythms. The ratio of
the descending to the ascending rhythms in Modern English poetry
has been estimated to be about 1 to 1,000 ; in Anglo-Saxon it is
about 5 to 3. Type C is classed, of course, as an ascending
rhythm ; types D and E, as descending rhythms.
We give here the number of times the respective types occur in
the Beowulf, Elene, Juliana, Crist, Andreas, GuSlac, Phoenix,
Exodus, Battle of Maldon, Wanderer, and Seafarer. The figures
for the Beowulf are those given by Prof. Sievers ; for the next
six, by Dr. Cremer.
First half-line. Second half-line.
A
B
C
D
E
A
B
C
D
E
Beowulf
1701
293
501
454
138
1118
721
564
403
329
Elene
562
202
255
211
71
471
403
259
101
61
Juliana
346
106
141
113
22
277
218
154
40
35
Crist
703
303
278
284
90
727
468
275
99
88
Andreas
748
225
348
306
74
736
373
340
166
92
GuSlac
673
161
238
169
67
491
389
301
78
52
Phoenix
322
106
96
116
31
296
197
131
28
22
Exodus
296
43
67
107
49
297
78
51
52
85
Battle of Maldon
187
62
28
22
19
171
73
50
17
11
Wanderer
50
23
23
12
3
60
14
21
7
9
Seafarer
50
11
19
15
5
40
21
25
9
5
Sum 5638 1535 1994 1809 569 4684 2855 2171 1000 789
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 21
Total number of half-lines, 23,144 ; whole lines, 11,572.
Total of each type : A, 10,322; B, 4,490; C, 4,165 ; D, 2809 ;
E, 1,358.
Total of descending rhythm, 14,489 ; of ascending rhythm, 8,655.
9. UNION OF TYPES IN THE LINE. REPETITION OF
THE SAME TYPE. With regard to the union of the types in the
whole line, investigation so far has not been able to derive any
very definite laws. Dr. Cremer, after a careful study of some
7,500 lines, concludes that, in a general way, a descending rhythm
in the first half-line is likely to be followed by an ascending
rhythm in the second the ratio 'being about 3 to 1, and that the
character of the alliteration in the first type is influential in deter-
mining the type that will follow. He shows that type A with
alliteration in the first foot only, is followed approximately twice
as often by an ascending rhythm as is the case when there is
alliteration in both feet of the first type ; and four and a half
times as often as when there is alliteration in the second foot only.
A careful study of the Wanderer, Seafarer, Exodus, and Battle
of Maldon, shows that there is a tendency to repeat the same type,
not so often in the same line perhaps, but in the same half-line of
two consecutive lines sometimes of three or four. This repetition
is most frequent in the case of type A, because of the preponder-
ance of that type. Of the entire 2200 half-lines in these four
poems, we find the same type repeated in the same line, or appear-
ing in two consecutive lines, 253 times ; in three consecutive lines,
22 times ; and in four consecutive lines, 3 times ; thus making
a total of 278 lines, or about one-eighth of the whole. These
repetitions are distributed among the various types as follows :
A 208 examples of the occurrence in two consecutive lines, 20 of
the triple occurrence, and 3 of the quadruple occurrence; B 17
examples of the double occurrence, and 1 of the triple occurrence ;
C 1 1 examples of the double occurrence, and one of the triple ;
D 10 examples of the double occurrence ; and E 7 examples of
the double occurrence.
The most common position taken by the repeated types, is the
second half-line for each. Of this we have 68 examples of the
double occurrence, 16 of the triple, and 3 of the quadruple. Of
22 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
each occurring in the first half, we have 47 examples in the case
of the double occurrence, and 6 of the triple. Of the occurrence
of the first in the second half of the first line, and the second in
the first half of the second, we have 59 examples. Of the occur-
rence of the first in the first half of the first line, and the second
in the second half of the second, we have 46 examples. And of
the repetition of the same type in the same line, we have 33
examples. From this it would seem that the poet sought to avoid
the monotony that might arise from the repetition of the same type
in the same line.
The following are examples of the double, triple, and quadruple
occurrence, with the repeated type in the most common position :
it it
in brimlade bldan sceolde.
i i
Nap nihtscua n6r&an snlwde. Sea. 30-31.
ofer leodwSrum tige scman,
byrnSnde beam. Mace stodon
ofer sceotendum sclre leoman. Ex. 110-111-112.
in eorSscrdefe edrl gehydde :
yiSde swa ftisne eardgeard aelda Scyppend,
6"$ ftaet btirgwara breaJitma lease,
eald 6nta gewe6rc idlu stodon. W. 84-85-86-87.
The conclusion seems to be that the poet allowed himself great
latitude in combining his types into the line, and that he was
governed only by the general principles of rhythm.
10. THE ANACRUSIS (or Prelude). In types beginning
with an accented syllable, we sometimes find one or two very
rarely more unimportant unaccented syllables preceding the type
proper. These constitute what is called an anacrusis, or prelude.
They are not to be considered as an essential part of the type, and
are to be recited very faintly and hurriedly perhaps slurred.
The anacrusis is not peculiar to Anglo-Saxon poetry, but is
found in Latin and Greek, and even in Modern English. It does
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 23
Dot seem to answer any special rhythmic purpose, or to perform
any designed function. It can contain no important or accented
word. It seems to be a kind of license of which the poet avails
himself when it would be inconvenient to put the words which
constitute the anacrusis in any other place.
The anacrusis occurs most frequently as we should expect,
since it is extra-metrical in the first half-line ; though we also
have a number of examples in the second-half. Types B and C
begin with a thesis, so they can not take an anacrusis. The extra
short syllables there, being prefixed to the thesis, merely make the
expanded thesis very common in both of these types.
The following are a few examples of anacrusis, which occurs
most frequently in type A, only rarely in type D, and more rarely
still in E :
ftaet he gewyrce. Sea. 74-a in blacum reafum. Ex. 212-b
^:^x|^x|| x : . x | ^ x ||
Saette he Saet daegweorc. Ex. 151 -a mid gafole forgyldon. Br. 32-b
x x : . x | L x|| x : ux x x | . x ||
ne ymbe owiht elles. Sea. 46-a gehyre se Se wille. Ex. 7-b
xxx|.x|.x|| x:^xxx|^x||
ofercom mid 8y campe. Ex. 21-a Saet he ealdordom. Ex. 317-a
xx:xx|^x|| x : ^ | ^ x i ||
/ / / v
Sa hwile se he mid hdndura. Br. 14-a t5aet fiaer modiglice. Br. 200-a
xr^xxx x| ^lx|| x :^|^xix||
Net5urfonmeembeSturmere.Br.249-a ageat gylp wera. Ex. 514-a
aet hie lifigende. Ex. 264-a
X IL X
24 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
CHAPTER III.
ALLITERATION.
1. IN GENERAL. Alliteration consists, as in Modern Eng-
lish, in the use of a succession of words with the same initial
sound. There is this difference, however : each vowel or diph-
thong may alliterate with any other vowel or diphthong ; as,
ddl oftfte 2/ldo o&Se cgh6te. Sea. 70.
Each consonant alliterates only with itself, except that g alliter-
ates also with etymological j (i) ; as
ne ^old^i^fan, swylce iu wearon. Sea. 83.
(/pmelfeax ^nornath, wat his mwine. Sea. 92.
ofer <7re"nne ^rtind : Judisc feSa. Ex. 312.
Until the later Anglo-Saxon period, the consonant groups sc,
sp, and st, were treated as single letters, each group alliterating
only with itself, and not with the single initial consonants ; as,
StormsiS ftaer stfanclifu beotan, $aer him s6arn oncwaeiS. Sea. 23.
Se ges^elade stlfte grtindas. Sea. 104.
Towards the close of the period, however, this practice was not
observed. Also then an initial h before a vowel was frequently
disregarded, the vowel itself alliterating ; as,
H<5lof<rnus ^nlyfige'ndes. Judith, 180.
Syllables after prefixes such as be-, ge-, prepositions, etc., may
be considered as initial, and take alliteration ; as,
Mtre 6reostceare ge&iden haebbe. Sea. 4.
/ V
be/iongen /trimgcielum Aaegl scurum fleag. Sea. 17.
ne swete forswelgan ne sar gefelan. Sea. 95.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 25
Likewise in compounds, the second part of the compound, as
well as the first, may be considered as initial, and alliterate ; as,
/ j_
ne ^6ld^i6fan, swylce iu waeron. Sea. 83. Also W. 3.
In the texts which give both c and &, they are the same letter
from the standpoint of alliteration, as well as in sound, and so
alliterate with each other ; as,
cwen to gebe"ddan. Hafde Ayninga wtildor. Beo. 666.
(Harrison & Sharp.)
2. FUNCTIONS OF ALLITERATION. (1) Key to Primary
Rhythm. Alliteration, which in Modern English poetry occurs
chiefly as an element of tone-color conducing to melody, performs
in Anglo-Saxon verse a function much more essential from the
rhythmic standpoint. It is the key to the Anglo-Saxon versifi-
cation, and divides the line into feet, just as the bar marks off the
notes of music into measures. Because of the varying number of
syllables in the thesis, and because of the different positions of the
rhythmical-accent in the various types, it would be almost impos-
sible in many cases, for the ear to make that co-ordination of the
recurrent groups of sounds which results in the perception of
rhythm. In Modern English poetry this co-ordination is effected
by the regular coincidence of the word-accent, or of the sentence-
accent, or of both, with the rhythmical accent ; but in Anglo-
Saxon the force of these accents is immensely intensified by alliter-
ation, and the co-ordination rendered correspondingly easier.
Alliteration or "head rhyme" as it is sometimes called, is almost
as effective in marking off the lines into feet, as end-rhyme is in
Modern English in dividing poetry into lines ; and the function
performed in each case is similar. The alliteration comes either
at the beginning of the foot (as in types A, D, E, and sometimes
C), or at the end (as in type B, and sometimes C) ; and as the
caesura divides the line into halves of two feet each, we are able
to determine these feet with as absolute certainty as in Modern
English versification, although the thesis may contain as many as
four or five syllables.
The longer the line and the more difficult the co-ordination, the
26 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
more copious is the alliteration. In the " long lines," consisting
of six feet, double alliteration is the rule in the first half-line, and
sometimes it is threefold ; as,
#uman to 'Sam </yldnan <7ylde fte he him to #6de geteod. Dan. 204.
^w^orfon fta Aa&$enan Meftas fram "Sam Aalgan cnihton. Dan. 267.
In those types composed of feet of an unequal number of
syllables that is, D and E double alliteration is much more
common than in the simpler types, A, B, and C. Dr. Frucht in
his " Metr. und Sprach. zu Elene, Juliana und Crist," finds that
for 10,000 half-lines of each type, there is double alliteration in
5,347 of type A, 3,236 of type B, 1,090 of C, 7,736 of D, and
6,462 of E. This increase of alliteration in the types composed
of feet containing an unequal number of syllables, helps the ear
to co-ordinate more readily these groups composed of such unequal
number of syllables.
(2). Means of Binding together ike half-lines. Another
function of alliteration is to bind together the two half-lines
into the normal line. Although the half-lines are separated by
the caesural pause, and in one sense each is complete in itself,
yet the recurring alliteration cements them into a more compre-
hensive and artistic whole, making, as already said, the line, and
not the half-line, the pre-eminent rhythmic unit in Anglo-Saxon
poetry.
Sometimes we have what might be considered as an approach to
a modified form of strophic structure. The alliterating letter is
repeated in two, or even three consecutive lines, thus binding them
more closely together, rhythmically at least, than are the others ; as,
j_^
w^nede to wiste : wyrm call gedreas.
for -Son wat se sceal his winedryhtnes. "W. 36-37.
Mae"g ic be me sylfum so^giedd wr6can
srSas scgan, hu ic geswincdagurn. Sea. 1-2.
hwa iSaere waelstowe wealdan mote.
TFodon fta waelwulfas, for waStere ne mtiron,
wicinga werod wst ofer Pantan. Br. 95-96-97.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
27
Additional examples are : W. 48-49, 64-65 ; Sea. 63-64, 85-86 ;
Br. 29-30, 21-22, 71-72, 81-82, 110-111, 136-137, and others.
A yet more common phenomenon is the recurrence of the same
alliterating letter in every other line, and even in four alternate
lines in succession. The question naturally suggests itself here
as to whether this produces an effect at all similar to that of
Modern English rhyme. The following are examples :
iSonne he be clifum cnossa<5 calde ge^rungen.
forste gebunden,
Waeron fet mine
caldum clommum
fta he forS eode,
iSaet he mid orde
/lotan on ftam/olce
forwegen mid his waepne.
_/_ /
/rynd and ge/eran,
"Sonne eall iSisse worulde
/
swa nil missenlice
winde bewaune
hrime bihrorene,
/ /
TForiaiS 'Sa wlnsalo,
dreame bidrorene ;
wlouc bi
"Saer ^a ceare seofedun. Sea. 8-10.
gemunde,
anne geraehte
ftaet se on/6ldan laeg
Ongann iSa winas manian,
Saethi/orSeoden. Br. 225-229.
weste stondeft,
geond $isne middangeard
weallas stonda'S,
hryiSge ^a ^deras.
wal'dend licga'S
duguS 4all gecrong
/ /
sume wig fornom. W. 74-80.
Other examples are : W. 5-7, 6-8, 14-16, 26-28, 65-67, 85-87,
98-100 ; Sea. 28-30, 32-34, 54-56, 89-93 ; Br. 2-4, 15-17, 18-20,
etc.
(3). Element of Tone-color. Alliteration has incidentally
the additional function of ornamentation, as in Modern English.
The repetition of the sound is pleasing to the ear, and adds melody
to the line. Alliteration is an element of that " tone-color " in
which the ear takes such delight.
28 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
3. RULES OF ALLITEKATION. The alliteration must fall
upon the most important word, or words, in the half-line. It
usually coincides with the word-accent, and it must coincide with
the sentence-accent, and with the rhythmical-accent; frequently
there is a conjunction of alliteration with all three accents.
As a rule, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and such parts
of speech, do not take alliteration. This falls most frequently
upon nouns, and substantives in general ; and of two substantives
occurring together, the more important always takes the allitera-
tion. Prepositions and similar words may alliterate, however,
when they are especially emphatic, and thus become of leading
importance in the sentence ; as,
Hwaet ! ge nu eagum to on loeiaiS
edldum edrue and aefter 6n. Phoen. 237-238.
GeAyrst -Su, saelida Awaet this folc s^cgeiS ? Br. 45.
h6t iSa up b6ran a$elinga gestreon, Beo. 1920.
Nouns (including the substantive forms of the verb) and adjec-
tives are, in general, the most important words in a sentence, and
consequently most often take the alliteration. Of two or more
nouns of equal importance in the same half-line, the one which
occupies the emphatic position that is, which comes first regu-
larly takes the alliteration. If any other word should be especially
emphatic, however, the alliteration falls upon that, no matter what
part of speech it is. The principle is, that alliteration marks the
important idea, by whatever word it is expressed.
4. PLACE OF ALLITEEATION. Alliteration falls always
upon the arsis, never upon the thesis of a foot.
In every complete line there must be at least one alliterating
word in each half. There is no principle in Anglo-Saxon versi-
fication more inflexible than this. The very few lines which show
an entire lack of alliteration are due, almost without question, to
a corruption of the text. In the four poems analysed in Book II,
Part II, there are only three such ; they are : Sea. 25, Ex. 339,
and Ex. 413. The first of these is marked as corrupt in the text;
there is a break in the manuscript in the line following the second ;
and it is highly probable that the third is likewise defective.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 29
A foot is allowed only one alliterative word ; where examples
occur apparently outside of this rule, they are to be considered as
merely accidental, and not as an intentional effort for triple allitera-
tion in the line. Such examples are the following :
up ateah on slaep ; gesan stddon. Ex. 490.
d"ngan ofer eorSan ^rrfelafe. Ex. 403.
Oft ic scolde ana whtna gehwylce. W. 8.
adl o$$e yldo tfSe fcghete. Sea. 70.
iis sceal ord and ecg aer geseman. Br. 60.
TFind wearS JFulfmaer waelraeste geceas. W. 113.
There is usually only one alliterative word in the second half-
line ; and as a rule, that is in the arsis of the first foot. This is
the principal alliterating word in the line, and it is sometimes
called the " head stave." In the four poems referred to above,
only two certain examples of lack of alliteration in this place were
met with ; these are :
sigora gesynto, -Saer ge srSien. Ex. 272.
saes act 6nde. Wigbord scmon. Ex. 466.
We have also :
ra$e aet Mde Offa for&eawen, Br. 288,
but the line is marked in the text as being corrupt.
Alliteration in both feet in the second half-line is rare. The
following are examples :
</rete$ ^liwstafum 6re6rne ^eondsceawaiS. W. 52. Also 15.
adl o$$e 2/ldo 63$e ecghete. Sea. 70.
Me sfndon to ^ seamenn snelle. Br. 29. Also 165, 198,
230, 32, 44.
Seodenholde $a waes -Sridda wic. Ex. 87. Also 187,
190, 295, 451, 38, 113, 298.
30 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
More unusual still in normal lines, is double alliteration in both
half-lines. It occurs in the following places in these poems :
ftaet ge $isne ^arraes mid ^afole for^yldon. Br. 32.
2/rre and dndraed dgeaf him dndsware. Br. 44.
/r6cne ge/ylled /rumbearna /ela. Ex. 38. Also 113, 398.
Also Sea. 70 and W. 52 and 111 (long lines).
By far the most common type of alliteration is double alliter-
ation in the first half-line, with alliteration in the first foot only
of the second half-line ; as,
Oft him anhaga are geblde^S. W. 1.
Mtre 6reostcare ge&iden haebbe. Sea. 4.
/eorr a/ysan and/orS gangan. Br. 3.
/
wraeclico wordriht wera cneorissum. Ex. 3.
Of the total 1114 complete lines in the Wanderer, Seafarer,
Battle of Maldon, and Exodus, 570 more than half are of this
type. The number in each poem is : W. 70 ; Sea. 58 ; Br. 147 ;
and Ex. 295. In proportion to the number of lines in each poem,
the occurrence of each type is fairly uniform ; it comprises about
61% of W., 55% of Sea., 45% of Br., and 51% of Ex.
The next most common type is alliteration in the first foot only
in each half-line; as,
e6rlas fornomon c^sca $r$e. W. 99.
edrfoShw'ile 6ft Srowade. Sea. 3.
$aet se eorl nolde i/rhfto geftolian. Br. 66.
V /
Mgendra gehwam Zangsumne raed. Ex. 6.
There are 294 examples of this type a little more than one-
fourth of the entire number. 17 lines of this number might pos-
sibly be classed under other types. The type is distributed as
follows among the individual poems : W. 25, Sea. 29, Br. 69,
and Ex. 171. The occurrence is not quite as uniform proportion-
ally as in the preceding type. The following is the per cent, of
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 31
each poem of this type : W. 22 %, Sea. 27 %, Br. 21 %, and Ex.
30%.
The third type in frequency of occurrence is alliteration in the
second foot of the first half-line and in the first foot of the second
half-line; as,
J.
ftaet br3 in eorle ^dryhten fteaw. W. 12.
Maeg ic be me sylfum so^giedd wre"can. Sea. 1.
be 'Sam man mihte oncnawan ftaet se cwlht nolde. Br. 96.
ftaer him geseald sigora waldend. Ex. 16.
This type numbers 218 examples, 30 of which could possibly
be included elsewhere. They are distributed as follows : W. 14,
Sea. 12, Br. 97, Ex. 95. The per cent, of each poem under this
type is: W. 12%, Sea. 11%, Br. 30%, Ex. 16J%. We note
here that the occurrence of this type is by no means uniform in
these poems, and that the frequency of its use corresponds in a
general way with the supposed date of the poem. The earlier
poems, the Wanderer, the Seafarer, and Exodus use it very spar-
ingly ; while the Battle of Maldon, which comes nearly three
centuries later, has nearly one-third of the entire number of its
lines of this type. The explanation of the cause of this increase,
and its rhythmical significance, is a question beyond the scope of
this discussion.
The remaining types of alliteration are insignificant in their
occurrence. We find seven examples of the first foot in the first
half-line alliterating with both feet in the second half-line ; as,
ne maeg we"rigmod wyrde wrSstondan. W. 15.
Me s&idon to the' sa^menn snelle. Br. 29. Also 165, 198, 230.
/ / _%_
swa $aer e6rp w6rod ec anlaeddon. Ex. 194. Also 97.
Four of these examples are in the late poem, the Battle of Maldon.
There is one example in these poems of the first foot in the first
half-line alliterating with the second foot in the second half-line :
saes aet ende. Wigbord scmon. Ex. 466.
32 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
Also a single example of the second foot only in each half, allit-
erating :
rafte wearS aet Mlde Oifa forAeawen. Br. 288.
This line is marked in the text as probably corrupt.
Again we have both feet in the first-half alliterating with the
second foot in the second-half; three examples :
/ / /
wigan wigheardne, se waes, haten JFulfstan. Br. 75.
/ / /
<7od on greote a maeg gnornian. Br. 315.
j_ i
sigora gesynto ftaer ge srSien. Ex. 272.
The first of these is marked in the text as probably corrupt.
Likewise the second foot in the first-half alliterating with both
feet in the second-half ; four examples :
I I / ' _*_
nu se agend ^p araede. Ex. 295.
__,_ j_
Waeron ^gypte ft oncyrde. Ex. 451. Also 190, 187.
Two of these examples, all of which occur in Exodus, might be
included elsewhere.
5. TRANSVERSE ALLITERATION. Very rarely we find the
first foot in the first half-line alliterating with the first foot in the
second half-line, while at the same time the second foot in the first
half-line alliterates with the second foot in the second half-line ; as,
Ge/iyrst $u saelida Awaet 'Sis folc s6ge$? Br. 45.
on/6r$we"gas folc aefter wolcnum. Ex. 350.
There occurs also very rarely the first foot of the first half-line
alliterating with the second foot of the second half-line, and the
second foot of the first half-line alliterating with the first foot of
the second half; as,
.AeTter $am w6rdum we"rod call aras. Ex. 299.
Twaet we/e"or and neah ge/rigen Mbaft. Ex. 1.
Dr. Frucht, in his dissertation before referred to, takes the
position, in opposition to Eieger, that this "transverse alliteration"
is not to be considered as an artistic form, striven for by the poet
himself. In support of his view, he shows that in 1,406 normal
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 33
lines, without double alliteration in the first foot, in the three
poems which he analysed, there were only 64 examples of trans-
verse alliteration ; as there are just 1 9 different alliterating letters,
or groups of letters, he argues that we must expect 74 examples
(1,406 -r- 19), even if this transverse alliteration be purely acci-
dental. This calculation, it seems to the writer, is worth little in
showing how frequently transverse alliteration may be expected
to occur. All that it shows is that in 1,406 alliterating lines,
each alliterative letter may be expected to appear 74 times, pro-
vided all the alliterating letters are used with the same degree of
frequency. But as there are in both half-lines a number of orders
in which a letter may stand and yet alliterate (he excludes only
one of these double alliteration in the first half-line) his calcula-
tion by no means shows that in 74 cases out of 1,406 the alliterating
letter will take in each half-line either of the two orders which
give transverse alliteration.
While Dr. Frucht's argument is by no means final on the
subject, yet the rarety of the occurrence of the phenomenon seems
to be sufficient to indicate that the Anglo-Saxon poet did not
specially strive after it. Perhaps it is going too far to say that
he did not consciously perceive it as alliteration. It is more
probable that he felt that to introduce a secondary alliterating
letter into the line would weaken the force of the primary allitera-
tion, and that the unity of the half-line would be impaired by
connecting the separate feet of the half-lines, rather than the half-
lines themselves, by alliteration.
Summary of the types of alliteration in the Wanderer, Seafarer,
Exodus, and Battle of Maldon. (The feet are numbered a, b, c,
d, in the order of their occurrence in the normal line.)
fa-cl fa-d) No
Wanderer :
.a-b-c
70.
a-c
25.
b-c a-c-d a-b-c-d
14. 1 2
b-c-d a-b-d
a-d
b-d jb-aj
Ib-c/
allit.
* of whole type,
, 61*
22*
12*
Seafarer :
58.
29.
12.
1
2.
1
1
1.
* of type.
55*
27*
11*
Exodus :
295.
171.
95.
2.
3.
5. 1.
1.
0.
1
2
2.
* of type.
51*
30*
16J*
Battle of Maldon :
147.
69.
97.
4.
2.
1.
* of type.
45*
21*
30*
Total,
570.
294.
218.
7.
8.
5. 3.
1.
1.
2.
2.
4.
34 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
No. lines in each poem : Wanderer 115; Seafarer 106 ; Exodus
570 ; Battle of Maldon 323. Total, 1,114.
The above classification has been made according to the prin-
ciples which the writer conceives to govern in alliteration, and
which have already been stated. He has classed as double
alliteration all cases where there are two words in the same half-
line with the same initial sound, provided both are of sufficient
importance to receive either a word-accent or a sentence-accent
without doing violence to the meaning. This has led him to class
as alliterating, 48 words in type a-b-c, 3 in type a-c-d, and 2 in
a-b-c-d, in the Wanderer, Seafarer, and Battle of Maldon, which
are not so marked in Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader the text that
has been largely used for these three poems. The following are
some examples (the additional alliterating word being printed
entirely in italics) :
wod wintercearig ofer waftema geband. W. 24.
wdriaft fta winsalo, waldend licgaft. W. 78.
Also W. 3, 32, 56, 64, 81, and 105.
gQcunnod in ceole ce"arselde fela. Sea. 5.
Nap nihtscua worSan sniwde. Sea. 31.
Also Sea. 27, 28, 36, 63, 81, 87, and 88.
Megan to Mndum and /iige godum. Br. 4.
fta stod on staefte, strSlice clypode. Br. 25.
Also Br. 11, 14, 23, 43, 59, 66, 89, 90, etc.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 35
CHAPTER IV.
METRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE NOEMAL LINE.
1. SIEVERS' FUNDAMENTAL RULES. Prof. Sievers, in his
article on the "Rhythm of the Anglo-Saxon Alliterative Line" in
Paul and Braune's Reiirage, lays down, on pages 220-222, Vol.
X, the following "fundamental rules for the structure of the
second half-line" :
" 1. The half-line consists of two parts, each containing an arsis.
For lack of a better name, we shall designate these parts as ' feet.'
" 2. Both of these feet are either two-syllable, or the one is
one-syllable, the other three-syllable. A one-syllable foot consists
merely of an arsis ; a two-syllable foot consists of an arsis and a
thesis ; and a three-syllable foot of an arsis and a two-syllable
thesis, one syllable of which has a secondary accent ; or, otherwise
expressed, of a primary arsis, a ' secondary arsis/ * and a thesis.
" 3. From this it follows that both feet are not to be considered,
as a matter of course, as measures of equal time in the sense of
the rhyme-verse. Equal duration of the feet can be admitted in
general only of those verses which consist of two-syllable feet.
In the case of those formed after the scheme 1 + 3 syllables, or
3 + 1, the greater expansion of the one foot is made compensation
for the shortening of the other.
" 4. The two-syllable feet are either falling in rhythm (trochaic),
or rising (iambic) ; the three-syllable feet are only falling, with a
secondary accent on the second or third syllable. Rising and fall-
ing types can be united with one another in interchange at pleasure,
it being presumed that the whole half- verse will not become longer
than four syllables. (Compare No. 2). Only in the first do we
find the half-line expanded into greater length (2 + 3 and 3 + 2).
"5. The arsis consists, as a rule, of a syllable having a primary
accent ; more rarely of heavy suffixes or ending syllables.
" The bearer of the accent can be, in general, only a long sylla-
1 The objection to this term has been given on a previous page.
36 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
ble, or the resolution of this into x. Only in the case of two
accented syllables coming together (also in the case of a primary
and a secondary accent) can the second accented syllable be short-
ened to u.
" 7. The theses are completed mostly through suffixes and end-
ing syllables ; also through enclitic and proclitic words ; but only
exceptionally by the members of compound words. (These, how-
ever, must not take a principal accent.) Moreover, such compounds
in the thesis, as a rule, in turn exercise a marked influence on the
following arsis.
" 8. The closing thesis of every half-line which ends with a
thesis, must be monosyllabic. The middle thesis, in whatever
type, is mostly monosyllabic ; very often it has two syllables,
rarely more. The initial thesis of a rising initial verse usually
has from one to three syllables, rarely more.
" 9. Real anacruses before otherwise completed rhythmic lines
(of four or five syllables) appear only as exceptions. "
As has already been noted, we do not follow Sievers altogether
in the above rules, especially number 3 and number 8. Our reasons
for differing with him in the former case have already been given, 1
and it is unnecessary to repeat them. They are based on our
conceptions of the requirements of all poetic rhythm Anglo-Saxon
included.
Prof. Sievers has gone to great lengths in his endeavor to restrict
the closing thesis of each half-line within the limits he has set.
He has been compelled to change grammatical forms, to substitute
in many places a conjectural Anglian dialect for the West-Saxon,
to give the same syllable a different " quantity " in different con-
nections, and sometimes to disregard ordinary rhythmical require-
ments. It is doubtful if the results have been worth the effort ;
it makes little difference in the historical development of English
metre whether Sievers' contention "that only one syllable is
admitted in the closing thesis of a half-line " be true or not. He
himself admits that it is not true of the West-Saxon dialect
the dialect in which the principal poems are transmitted and it
1 See p. 14, ante.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 37
certainly is not true of Modern English. If his contention be
admitted, the chief result is only to show that the Anglian dialect
followed the old Norse in limiting the closing thesis of the half-
line to a single syllable. But the old Norse limited the other
thesis as well/ and why the Anglian dialect should follow it in
one thesis and not in the other, if the restriction is one of so great
importance, has not as yet been made very clear. On the other
hand the Saxon, and the Old High German generally, as Prof.
Sievers himself has shown in the same article, observed no such
limitation, but used two-syllable closing theses with perfect free-
dom.
Above all, it seems to us that there are many cases in which the
requirements of the rhythm demand that we admit a type with
two syllables in the closing thesis. We give some examples from
the early poems, the Wanderer, Seafarer, Exodus, and Beowulf
(the whole line is quoted in each case) :
wmtra dael in woruld-rice TFita sceal geSyldig. W. 65.
x x x I 6x xx || x x x | x ||
TForiaS $a winsalo waldend licgaS. W. 78.
and graedig (/ielleS anfloga. Sea. 62.
'Or
^ x x | . x || . x I ^ x x ||
edlle onmedlan eorSan rices. Sea. 81.
^ x | x x || ^ x . x ||
/
ftaet ge gewurSien wuldres aldor. Ex. 270.
wraetlicu waegfara o"S i^olcna hrof. Ex. 298.
Mlige Aeahtreowe swa h&eleft gefrunon. Ex. 388.
XX I XXI X L/X X wX
nu us ioceras Veteran secga^. Ex. 530.
- x l- xx ll ^ x l^ x ll
J See Supplement II of Part II, (pp. 520, et seq.) of Sievers' article already
referred to, in Paul and Braune's JBeitrdge, Vol. X.
38 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
word waeron wynsume. Eode TPealhSeow forS. Beo. 613.
L x x | x x || xx 4 I x . |]
/yrd-searu /uslicu hine /yrwyt braec. Beo. 232.
L x x | . x x || x x ^ I x u ||
Beowulf maftelode on him iyrne scan. Beo. 405.
x \ 6x x x \\ x x I x ||
/Sorh is me to s^cganne on sefan mmum. Beo. 473.
L x x x | . x x || x 6x ^ x ||
Jtfynte se wanscaSa manna cynnes. Beo. 713.
x x | x x || X I X jj
Sean hie hira ieag-gyfan 6anan folgedon. Beo. 1103.
L xxx|^l xx || u
A great many similar examples might be quoted, but the above
are sufficient. In the Wanderer, Seafarer, and Exodus alone
there are at least 101 half-lines in which the rhythm seems to
demand that they be classed under type A, with two syllables in
the closing thesis. Of these, 88 are in the first half-line, and only
13 in the second. This proportion indicates what is true gener-
ally : the two-syllable closing thesis is very rare in the second
half-line.
We have cited no examples from the Battle of Maldon, inas-
much as Prof. Sievers admits the occurrence of two-syllable closing
theses in the later poems. It is interesting to note in this con-
nection, however, that of the 646 half-lines in the Battle of Maldon,
we have classed only 35 under this type, making about 5J ^ ;
while of the 1582 half-lines of the other three poems, there are
101 under this type, making 7 ^ showing thus a greater pro-
portion under the earlier poems.
Whether we have examples of two-syllables in the closing thesis
under C, is a doubtful question. If they really occur, they must
be, from the very nature of the rhythm of C, light and easily
enunciated. They must be such that they can be given in con-
nection with the preceding arsis in the time of a normal arsis ;
otherwise they will change the character of the rhythm from the
ascending to the descending, and so change- entirely the nature of
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 39
the type. The following are examples that might possibly be
classed under type C :
Ic S6 Sancige. Br. 173. to on IdciaS. Ex. 278.
x . | x x || x u I . x x ||
for Son wat se Se sceall. W. 37. ne syn godes Seodscipes. Ex. 528.
xx - | - xx ll xx & I - x x II
Sonne hi maest mid him. Sea. 84. a maeg gnornian. Br. 315.
xx^j^ xx || x u I ^xx||
ac hi faestlice, Br. 82.
X L | L X X ||
Se Saer baldlicost. Br. 78.
x L | L x x ||
By using anacrusis, these and similar examples would fall under
type D ; and perhaps the argument as a whole is in favor of plac-
ing them there, although anacrusis is to be avoided, unless distinctly
demanded by the rhythm.
2. STRUCTURE OF THE NORMAL LINE. (1) Every com-
plete normal line is composed of two half-lines. These are, in
general, of equal length or time though this period of time
may be occupied by a different number of sounds (or pauses) in
each half-line. The division between the two half-lines is marked
by a caesural pause, which falls uniformly in the metrical center
of the line. It must not separate the syllables of a word, nor, as
a rule, words joined in very close syntactical relation ; and it
regularly coincides with a logical pause.
(2). Each half-line of every normal line contains two, and only
two, feet or measures. Each foot must contain one, and only one,
primary rhythmical-accent. The part of the foot which takes the
rhythmical-accent is called the arsis. Feet usually consist of an
arsis and an unaccented syllable, or syllables, called the thesis.
The thesis can not take a rhythmical-accent. There are feet which
consist of an arsis only.
(3). The feet in the same half-line are approximately equal in
length in recitation, although they may (and usually do) consist of
an unequal number of sounds. The possible number of sounds in
40 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
a single foot may range (under definite limitations) from one to six.
In the case of the greater number of syllables, it is essential that
they be light, unemphatic, and easily enunciated ; otherwise the
verse will have a heavy dragging effect. If a foot consists of an
arsis alone, the lack of a thesis is supplied by a pause. The other
foot then in the half-line will regularly contain a thesis of two sylla-
bles, one of which usually has a secondary pronunciation-accent.
(4). A foot is classed as an ascending rhythm, or as a descend-
ing rhythm, accordingly as the unaccented or the accented part
comes first. The ascending rhythms correspond to the iambic and
anapaestic rhythms in Modern English, while the descending cor-
respond to the trochaic and dactylic. Feet of the descending rhythm
are much the more numerous in Anglo-Saxon poetry.
(5). The arsis, or accented part of a foot, usually consists of the
most important syllable of an important word in the sentence. It
always has a rhythmical-accent, and regularly takes besides, either
a word-accent, or a sentence-accent, or both. The syllable which
constitutes the arsis is usually the important syllable of a noun, or
adjective, or verb ; but it may be an adverb, a preposition, or a
conjunction, if this have a sentence-accent.
(6). The arsis is usually long in quantity. Even where not
long in the classic sense, the sentence-accent or pronunciation-
accent falling on it may cause it to be held longer in enunciation
than the so-called " long " syllable (according to classic rules) in
an adjoining thesis. When the syllable immediately preceding
has an accent either a rhythmical-accent (as in type C), or a
secondary word-accent (as in heavy compounds), the syllable con-
stituting the arsis in the second foot is frequently a light or
" short " syllable, even in the classic sense. This is doubtless to
compensate for the previous heavy syllable, the short syllable
being more easily enunciated in that connection than another long
one would be. Sometimes instead of a single long syllable con-
stituting the arsis, it consists of two short or light syllables. This
is called the " resolution of the arsis." The first of these syllables
takes the stress of the accent, and the second is joined to it as an
enclitic. Both together are pronounced in the time of a normal arsis.
(7). The thesis normally consists entirely of unaccented sylla-
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 41
bles one or more. The usual number is from one to three ;
theses of a greater number of syllables than three are rare. The
number of syllables which the thesis of a foot may have is
restricted to some extent by the verse-type to which the foot
belongs. In type A, the closing thesis of the half-line is not per-
mitted more than two syllables ; the closing thesis of C rarely, if
ever, has more than one. Theses beginning a verse type have a
greater fondness than any others for many syllables. The sylla-
bles of the thesis are not necessarily " short " in the classical
sense ; they may be " long " as well. The chief requirement is
that they do not take a sentence accent, or a metrical accent. In
types D and E, one of the syllables of the thesis regularly takes a
secondary word-accent the accent belonging to the second part
of a compound word ; but this must be carefully distinguished
from a rhythmical-accent.
(8). The first arsis in the second half-line, is always the first
word that alliterates in that half-line, and every alliterating word
in either half-line represents an arsis. Only words that are
important in the line words that take a sentence-accent, or a
word-accent, or both can be considered as alliterating.
(9). Anacrusis may occur with any half-line that commences
with a descending measure. It performs no rhythmical function,
however, and it is to be avoided wherever possible in analysing
the metrical structure.
3. SUGGESTIONS TO THE STUDENT IN ANALYSING THE
NORMAL, LINE.
1. Fix the arses by means of the alliterating words (beginning
with the second half-line), the sentence-accents, and the word-
accents.
2. Be guided by the ordinary principles of rhythm in classify-
ing the types.
3. Prefer simple and regular types ; repeat when possible types
that have occurred in neighboring lines.
4. Emphasize the thought by means of the verse type ; do not
sacrifice sense to sound ; let the thought determine the sentence
accent.
5. Avoid anacruses, unless actually necessary.
42 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
6. Represent as syllables in the verse type the consonants, /, n,
and r, in all words in which they are pronounced as separate syllables.
7. Remember that Anglo-Saxon versification is "accentual,"
and that quantity here has the same definition as in Modern Eng-
lish, rather than that of Latin or Greek.
CHAPTER V.
THE ANGLO-SAXON LONG LINE, OR HEXAMETER.
1. OCCURRENCE. In addition to the Anglo-Saxon normal
line of four feet, there are met with in Anglo-Saxon poetry between
four and five hundred long lines, or " expanded lines," containing
six feet each. These long lines are very generally distributed
throughout the poetry ; the principal poems which do not contain
any, are the Juliana, the Battle of Maldon, and the West-Saxon
translation of the Psalms. They occur most commonly in groups,
but are also found now and then occurring singly in the midst of
normal lines. Likewise single normal lines are sometimes found
in a group of long lines. Whether a normal half-line and a long
half-line can be united into a whole line, is still an unsettled ques-
tion. 1 The requirements of the rhythm would argue against it.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a long line and
a normal line with anacrusis, or with an expanded thesis. Espe-
cially is this the case where the long line occurs isolated in the
midst of short lines. Perhaps the best way to treat such lines is
to make them conform to the metrical types of the surrounding
lines, if it can be done without violence to rhythmical principles.
It is not probable that the Anglo-Saxon poet, more than the
Modern English poet, would change the character of the rhythm
for a single line only, without a good reason. The " rhythmic
impulse," as well as the nature of the thought, should be care-
^chipper in his "Englische Metrik" (page 48), takes the position that they
can, but the examples he cites are hardly conclusive.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 43
fully considered in classifying such lines. As a rule the long lines
are used where a stately, majestic movement seems to be demanded.
2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LONG LINE AND NORMAL LINE.
The chief formal difference between the long line and the normal
line is the difference in the number of feet ; the normal line con-
tains four, the long line six feet. But the rhythmical difference
is much more considerable than would be indicated by this. In
the rhythm of most of the long lines, we have something altogether
different from that of the normal line. We have a rhythm which,
in some cases at least, approaches very nearly our Modern Eng-
lish dactylic hexameter especially where the caesura falls in the
middle of the line. This will be perceived from a comparison of
the following lines :
$m ofer fteoda gehwylce Eal Su hit getSyldum healdest.
xx|.xx|^x|| x xx|^x| ^ x ||
Travelingthe vale with mine eyes green meadows and lake with green island
^ x x | . x x . x L x **. L x x I . x ||
mae*gen mid modes snyttrum. Ic Se sceal mine gelaestan.
X
Dark in its basin of rock and the bare stream flowing in brightness
L x x | . x x | . xx|^ x \ L * x \ L x||
j_ I I
freode swawit fiirSum spraecen $u scealt to frofre weorSan.
xxx|-x (Sx||^xx^x|^x|| Beo. 1706-08
Thrilled with beauty and love in the wooded slope of the mountain.
L x|^xx|^ xx|.x'|^ xx|. x ||
Campbell.
We think it will be evident to anyone who reads these lines
rhythmically, that there is a similarity in the largeness and sweep
of the rhythm in each case that is very striking. But while these
rhythms are very like each other, they are both very different
from the Latin and Greek dactylic hexameter.
3. STRUCTURE OF THE LONG LINE. There are two
theories of the structure of the long line. Prof. Sievers suggests
that it consists of an ordinary type with L x . . . . l or . . . . x L ,
prefixed. On the other hand, K. Luick (in Paul and Braune's
1 The dots indicate the number of additional short syllables that may occur.
44 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
Beitrage, Vol. XIII) proposes the theory that it is the result of
the moulding together of two ordinary types that before the
first type is regularly completed, there is added to it one of the
five regular types. The latter view is rather the more probable,
and as it explains very well all the phenomena, and gives an
intelligible basis for naming the types of the long lines, we have
adopted it here.
4. ALLJTEKATION IN THE LONG LINE. Alliteration is
more abundant in the long line than in the normal line. Two
alliterating words in the first half-line are the rule, and sometimes
we find even three ; as,
#uman to iSam </yldnan #ylde ~$e he him to #6de geteod. Dan. 204.
/iwe"orfon $a Aae*$enan Meftas fram "Sam Mlgan cnihton. Dan. 267.
With double alliteration in the first half-line, it usually falls on
the first and second arses ; as,
/rofre to JPaeder on he*ofonum ftaer us call seo/aestnung stondaft.
W. 115.
Earely the second and third arses have the alliteration ; as,
waeron hyra raedas rice simian hie r6dera waldend. Dan. 457.
There are possibly examples of alliteration on the first and
third arses, if we include as long lines such as the following from
the '" Rhyme Poem " :
Dreamas swa her gedreosaiS dryhtscype gehreosaft. Reiml. 55.
Hf her me"n forftjosaft feahtras 6ft geceosaft. Reiml. 56.
Such lines, however, can perhaps be better analysed as normal
lines with expanded theses ; the connection and the thought do
not suggest the majestic movement of the long line.
There are rare examples of single alliteration in the first half-
line ; in this case the alliteration usually falls on the second arsis ; as,
i i ^ i_ i
%e me swa leoht oftywde and mine leode genrede. El. 163.
In the second half-line single alliteration is the rule, and that
falls regularly upon the second arsis ; as,
br<5 se $e eaftmod Ie"ofai5 cy me$ him seo dr of h^ofonum.
Sea. 107.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 45
There are two exceptions, with alliteration on the first arsis,
in the second half-line in Gn. Exodus ; as,
sty ran sceal mon sfrongum mode storm, of holm gebringe'S.
Gn. Ex. 51.
Rarely we have double alliteration in the second half-line, which
falls then either on the first and second arses ; as,
$wa cwaeft snottor on mode gesaet him sundor aet rune. W. 111.
wuldorcyninges word geweotan iSa iSa witigan iSry. And. 801,
or on the second and third arses ; as,
naes him sweg to sorge $on ma fte sunnan scima. Dan. 264.
5. THE TYPES. As already remarked, the types of the
long lines can best be explained as resulting from the merging
together of two normal types the second type (minus an initial
thesis in B and C) following immediately after the first foot of the
first type. In the long lines transmitted to us, the following types
are represented :
l_Type A-A. 1 -x.... | ^ x . |-x||
feorh of feonda dome. Ex. 570-a.
L x | L x | L x ||
$aer $u ftolades si&San. Cr. 1410-b.
L x | ujj x I L x ||
2_Type A-B. L x . . . | L \ x L \\
waesce^ his warig hr%l. Gn. Ex. 99.
L x x | L | x dx ||
3_Type A-C. * ( . . . x L \ L x ||
wlitige to woruldnytte. Gen. 1016.
^ xxx
4_Type A-D. - x . . | - | ^
bSalde byrnwigg^nde. Jud. 338.
.Xl.\.X
1 The dots in the metrical scheme represent the highest number of additional
syllables that occur in the thesis.
46 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
5 Type A-E.
sweord and swatigne helm. Jud. 338.
x L x L
6 Type B-A. x-x...|-x.|-x||
alaetan liges ganga. Dan. 263.
x : x | ^ x I i x ||
This type is thus given by Sievers. The requirements of the
rhythm would rather class such examples under type A-A. with
anacrusis.
7_Type B-B. .x-|...x-|.x-||
~3a gewat se 6ngel up. Dan. 441.
x x ^ I x ^ I x i ||
8_Type B-C. ..x-|...x-|-x||
and nahte ^aldfeondum. Dan. 454.
x L L X
9Type B-D. . x L
on eorSan tinswaeslicne. Jud. 65.
x L\ x . I L i x ||
This is according to Sievers 7 classification. But the rhythmic
requirements would be met better, by treating these examples
with anacrusis, and classing them under A-D.
10 Type B-E. x-...|-ix|.-||
ne fte'arf he $y Sdleane gefeon. Gen. 1523.
Here again we have followed Sievers ; but the rhythm rather
demands that we treat the half-line with anacrusis (the first syl-
lable is always short and unimportant anyway) and class the
examples under A-E.
H_Type C-A. x L | L x . | - x ||
geseo^ sorga maeste. Cr. 1209.
X L \ L x
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 47
12 Type C-C ..... x L \ L 6 x ||
ne se bryne beotmaecgum. Dan. 265.
L L x
x x L L L
13 Type C-D.
$a he Syder folc samnode. Dan. 228-b.
X x dx I L I L x ||
14 Type C-E.
L - x L
forSon waerlogona sint. Gen. 2409-b.
X 6 | L ux X | L ||
In the above types we have given only the normal or at least
the simplest form. In each case occur the various modifications
that were met with in the discussion of the types of the normal
line : anacrusis, the resolution of the arses, increased number of
syllables in the thesis, etc. The last-mentioned variation attains
its maximum in the type A- A, where occur as many as five syl-
lables in the thesis ; as,
d6l br3 se i$e him his dryhten ne ondraedeft. Sea. 106-a.
uxxxx x|^xxx|^x||
Of the types given above, A- A is by far the most common.
Prof. Sievers, in his " Altgermanische Metrik," gives the follow-
ing figures for a total of 848 half-lines analysed : A-A (all forms)
565. 1 A-B, 31. A-C, 26. A-D, 12. A-E, 20. B-A, 121. B-B, 9.
B-C, 8. B-D, 16. B-E, 3. C-A, 15. C-C, 9. C-D, 2. (?), C-E, 1. (?).
The fact that so nearly all of the examples belong to type A-A,
may have suggested to Prof. Sievers the theory that the long line
is formed by prefixing L x . . . . , to the normal types.
6. LINES LONGER THAN six FEET. Prof. Sievers thinks
that we have perhaps a few lines of eight feet or at least, half-
lines of four feet ; as,
6alle him brim blodige -Suhton. Ex. 572.
^x x| C| xx|^x||
e"ngel in $one ofn innan becwom. Dan. 238.
1 Were B-A classed here ( with anacrusis) as the rhythm seems to require, this
number would be increased to 686, leaving only 162 examples of all other types.
48 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
beheoldon $aet 6nglas dryhtnes ealle. Cr. 9.
x : . x x | . x 4 x -j -. x ||
He also suggests that some of the longer half-lines classed by
him among the half-lines containing but three feet, should possibly
be included here instead. However, since these examples are so
rare, and inasmuch as they can all (by means of anacrusis or
expanded thesis) be scanned as ordinary long lines, it seems to us
unnecessary to make another class. Besides, in every case cited,
the other half-line with which each example is connected has only
three feet; and the rhythmic requirements would argue against
making here a half-line of four feet complete one of three. We
certainly have no more reason (if as much) for supposing that the
poet would thus destroy the balance of the rhythm of his long
line, sooner than he would in the case of the normal line, by
uniting a three foot half-line with a two foot half-line. Both are
rhythmic improbabilities, and can be admitted only on unmis-
takable proof.
BOOK II. PART II.
METRICAL ANALYSIS
OF THE WANDERER, SEAFARER, EXODUS, AND BATTLE OF
MALDON (DEATH OF BYRHTNO^).
PREFACE.
We have selected these four poems for analysis for several
reasons. In the first place, chronologically they cover nearly the
whole Anglo-Saxon poetic period. The Exodus is attributed by
Stopford Brooke l to the latter part of the seventh century or the
first part of the eighth ; Wiilker thinks that the Wanderer and
the Seafarer were written in the ninth (Brooke puts them in the
first quarter of the eighth) ; while the date of the Battle of Mai-
don is fixed by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle itself in the last decade
of the tenth. The Parker manuscript gives the date of the battle
as 993 ; the Laud manuscript, and the Canterbury manuscript,
(in the Cottonian collection), give it as 991. The poem was
written by an eye-witness, and in all probability immediately after
the battle, inasmuch as the poet does not seem to have yet learned
the names of any of the enemy, even the names of their leaders.
Another reason for selecting these poems for analysis is that the
three shorter ones the Wanderer, the Seafarer, and the Battle of
Maldon are found in most of the Anglo-Saxon readers, and the
student who wishes can verify the results for himself from his own
text. It will at least acquaint him with the scientific method in
the study of Anglo-Saxon prosody.
A third reason for this selection is that the more important
poems have already been analyzed by Sievers, Frucht, Cremer,
and others ; and as the principles upon which the present analysis
is made differ very little in essential particulars from the theories
1 In his " English Literature from the beginning to the Norman Conquest."
49
50 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
maintained by them, a repetition of their work would be super-
fluous. Sievers has analyzed the Beowulf, Frucht the Elene,
Juliana and Christ, and Cremer the Andreas, GuSlac, and Phoe-
nix, and also those analyzed by Frucht. The summary of their
results is given in brief in the table on page 20, of Book II,
Part I.
The texts used in this discussion are Grein-Wiilker's " Biblio-
thek der Angelsachsischen Poesie" and Sweet's "Anglo-Saxon
Reader " ; the latter has been chiefly used in the study of the
Wanderer, the Seafarer, and the Battle of Maldon. Prof. Sweet's
emendations have, as a rule, been accepted ; very few additional
ones have been attempted. It is a practice so easily carried too
far (witness the efforts of the German metrists along this line) that
it seemed preferable to fit the metrical scheme to the poetry as it
has been transmitted, rather than to attempt to mould the poetry
to fit some pre-conceived metrical theory. By giving the vowel
of a word a different quantity when that same word appears in
different connections, or by expanding or contracting inflection
endings at will, it might be possible to derive a very pretty theo-
retical scheme, but wherein such a scheme would be of much prac-
tical utility in studying Anglo-Saxon poetry as we have it, does
not appear.
The few emendations suggested have all been noted at the close
of the analysis ; they are only such as were obviously demanded,
and where the substitution of the emended form would avoid an
unusual variation of the rhythmical type.
The abbreviations used here are the same as those used in Part
I ; that is, W. for the Wanderer, Sea. for the Seafarer, Ex. for
Exodus, and Br. for the Battle of Maldon.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 51
CHAPTER I.
METKICAL ANALYSIS OF THE NORMAL LINES.
1. TYPE A. Fundamental type : L x | L x || . This type
occurs much the most frequently of all of the five. Of the nearly
2200 half-lines contained in these four poems, no fewer than
1150 more than half are of this type. The type is very evenly
distributed between the two half-lines; the first half has 586
examples, the second 566.
I. The normal type : one syllable in each thesis : L x | ^ x || .
a. 1 b.
wlonc bi wealle. W. 80. fae"grost limped. Sea. 13.
6nwist e^les. Ex. 18. leofne fleogan. Br. 7.
Also W. 90, 103, 104; sum 4. W. 3, 10, 13, 18, 19, etc. ; sum
28.
Sea 3, 10, 11, 25, etc. ; sum 13. Sea. 15, 26, 30, 31, etc. ; sum 20.
Ex. 22, 26, 41, 42, etc. ; sum 75. Ex. 2, 5, 12, 13, 23, etc. ; sum
157.
Br. 3, 13, 15, 18, 54, etc.; sum 22. Br. 7, 14, 16, 18, etc. ; sum 86.
(a) with one-syllable anacrusis : x : L x | L x || .
a. b.
ftaet he gewyrce. Sea. 74. ne sar gefelan. Sea. 95.
alyfed IjlSsrS. Ex. 44. $aes folces ealdor. Br. 202.
Also Sea. 96. Ex. 421, 434, Ex. 212, 238, 547.
442, 528, 560, 294, 207,
363. Br. 37, 226, 234.
(6) with two-syllable anacrusis :xx:^x|^x||.
a. b.
swa nu missenlice. W. 75. sr&San grame wtirdon. Ex.
144.
Also Ex. 151, 239, 325. Ex. 259, 383.
1 "a" indicates the first half-line, "b" the second.
52 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
(c) with three-syllable anacrusis : xxx:^x|^x||.
a. b.
/ ^ i
ne ymbe owiht e~lles. Sea. 46. ^a hie oiSlaeded haefdon. Ex.
569.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x | 4 x || ,
a. , b.
M&udes miltse. W. 2. ganetes hleo^or. Sea. 20.
haeleftum s6cgan. Ex. 7. daroi$ of handa. Br. 149.
Also W. 12. Sea. 13, 51, 63, W. 21, 39. Sea. 63. Ex. 8, 16,
75, 92. Ex. 92, 204, 258, 46, 31, 97, 102, etc. ; sum 24.
etc.;sumll. Br. 94, 120, 126, Br. 79, 85, 100, 106, 219,
201, 214, etc. ; sum 9. etc. ; sum 12.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x: <& x | L x || .
a. b.
ftaet ic waes on Myrcon. Br. 217.
(b) two syllable anacrusis : x x : 39 x j x || .
a. b.
Nalles hige gehyrdon. Ex. 307.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x | 6$ x.
a. b.
winter wtinade. Sea. 15. lebfre duguiSe. W. 97.
horse and hr^er-gleaw. Ex. 13. be\3rmas trymian. Br. 17.
Also Sea. 24, 80. Ex. 78, 158, Ex. 61, 146, 183, 209, 228,
etc. ; sum 15. etc. ; sum 12. Br. 70, 205,
305.
(a) one syllable anacrusis : x: L x | u^ x || .
j
"Saet waeron cyningas. Ex. 185.
(3). Resolution of both arses : & x | & x || .
yfeles h6gode. Br. 133. Also Ex. 416.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 53
(4). The first arsis is short : x | L x ||
ftaet from Noe. Ex. 378. daeg waes maere. Ex. 47. Also
166, 82, 286, 555.
(5). The second arsis is short : L x | 6 x ||
softfaest cyning. Ex. 9. fe*alwe we"gas. W. 46. maegburh
Also Ex. 149, 282, 445. heora. Ex. 55. Also W. 58.
Sea. 1. Ex. 236, 263, 358, etc. ;
sum 9.
SUMMARY.
a. b.
Wanderer, 7. 33.
Seafarer, 24. 24.
Exodus, 120. 215.
B. of M., 35. 104.
Total: 186. Total: 376.
Total in whole line, 562.
As the above summary shows, this is the most common form of
type A, and it occurs much more frequently in " b " than in " a" ;
in Exodus nearly twice as often ; in the Battle of Maldon three
times, and in the Wanderer nearly five times, as often. About
25 of the above examples might possibly be included elsewhere ;
this would, of course, depend upon a difference in interpretation,
necessitating a change in the sentence-accent.
II. Two syllables in first thesis : ^ x x | L x ||
calde geSrungen. Sea. 8.
hreran mid hondum. W . 4.
wraeclico w6rdriht. Ex. 3. beot he gelaeste. Br. 15.
Also W. 33, 42, 43, 53, etc.; W. 1, 5, 8, 15, 16, 20, etc.; sum
sum 9. Sea. 34, 55, 56, 79, 16. Sea. 9, 36, 39, 69, etc.;
88, 70. Ex. 16, 19, 34, 38, sum 10. Ex. 35, 45, 62, 76,
etc.; sum 51. Br. 5, 12, 21, 89, etc.; sum 54. Br. 65, 14,
30, 44, etc. ; sum 37. 80, 90, etc. ; sum 33.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : L x x | L x ||
genap under nihtSelm. W. 96.
54 O* Amglo-Saam
in eeole- Sea. 5.
Br. 182. his ealdre gelaestan. Br. 11.
Also SOL 28, 95. Ex. 259, Br. 55, 66, 68, 84, 146, 189,
269, 487. Br. 32, 36, 176, 242.
202, efe.; 8am 10.
(b) two-syllable anacrusis : xx:xx|\x|
~ $f campe. Ex. 21.
1. Reflation of the first arsis: g x x | x ||
wfnian mid wynnum. W. 29. haegl feoll on eorSan. Sea. 32.
hafoc wi aes hohes. Br. 8. Sider waeron fuse, Ex.196.
Abo W. 11, 8, 32, 36. Sea, 1, W. 55, 65, 105. Ex. 196,
39, 87, 100. Ex. 127, 191, 221, 226, etc,; sum 12. Br.
172, 557, 465. Br. 50, 87, 22, 64, 128, 260, 280.
194,227, etc.; sum 14.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : ^ x x | L x |
gegrfmod wearS ae gu^Srinc, mid gafole forgyldon. Br. 32.
Br. 138. Also Br. 20, 59, 212, Br. 96.
221.
2. Resolution of the second arsis :- x x j ^ x ||
hrime bihrorene. W. 77. since berofene. Ex. 36.
widgijie weroda. Ex. 137. maerfci gefreinedon. Sea.
Also W. 79. Ex. 235, 27, W. 31, 38, 77. Ex. 43, 444.
336, etc.; sum 9. Br. 151, Br. 6, 25, 51, 38, 2
280,296.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:^xx|^x|
-
fin* liaVlf 1fr m> Ex. 252.
e he him to dtignSe, Br. 197. Abo 243.
3. Resolotion of both arses : & * * \ & x\\
bogxn waeron bysige. fe. 110. weoruld under heofonum. W. 107.
Also 111.
On Anglo-Saxxm Versification.
mae^en o$$e merestream. Ex. Dagas sind gewitene. Sea. 80.
110.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : 3 x x J $$ * \]
gedroren is iSeos dtiguS eall. $a flotan stodon gearowe, Br
Sea. 86.
Hi bugon $a fram headuwe, Br. 185.
4. First arsis is short :
x x L x
Hwaet ! ge nu eagtim. Ex. 278. fi^m se i5e laedde, Kx. 54.
x . 1ftrt wael feol on eorSan. Br. 126.
on iSam geraedum. Br. 190.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : w x x | ^ x |
to hwon hine Dryhten. Sea. 43.
he braec ^Sonne bordweall. Br. 277.
SCMHAKT.
a. b.
Wanderer, 17. '23.
Seafarer, 15. 13.
Eiodos, 72. 7a
Battle of M., 76L
Total in a : 180 Total in b : 163
Total in whole line, 343.
This is the most common variation of the normal type ; and as
the above figures indicate, it occurs with very nearly equal fre-
quency in each half-line. In the individual poems, its propor-
tional frequency is greatest in the Battle of Maldon, and least in
the Seafarer and Exodus. About 20 of the half-lines included
above could be analysed as other types by changing the sentence
accent and giving a slightly different interpretation.
III. Two syllables in the second thesis : ^ x j L x x .
6ft him anhaga. W 1. gielleS anfloga. Sea. 62.
tinbefohtene. Br. 57. leode 6ngeton. Ex. 90.
Also W. 6, 7, 38, 40, etc. ; W. 53, 104. Sea, 25. Ex. 153,
56 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
sum 11. Sea. 14, 81, 89, 99. 180, 188, 219, etc.; sum 9.
Ex. 37, 58, 60, 254, 289, Br. 5, 318.
etc. ; sum 33. Br. 38, 215,
303, 311, etc.; sum 9.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x: x | ix x || ,
ftaet ge gewurftien. Ex. 270.
Gehyrst ftu saelida. Br. 45. Also
Ex. 126, 123, 409. Br. 51.
(b) two-syllable anacrusis : xx:^x|^xx||.
oft ftaet hie on Guftmyrce. Ex. 59.
oft ftaet he his sincgyfan. Br. 278.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : 6$ x | L x x || .
baftian brimfuglas. W. 47. wifterlean agyfen. Br. 116.
Also Ex. 8, 283, 380. Br. 220.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis :x:^xxf.xx||.
fte wile gealgian. Br. 52.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x | j x x || .
cuftra cwidegiedda. W. 55.
haefde foregenga. Ex. 120.
Also W. 62, Ex. 17, 177, 241,
301, 565. Br. 127, 309, 294.
(a) one syllable anacrusis : x:^x | xxx||.
gesStte sigerice. Ex. 27. Also
562.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 14. 2.
Seafarer, 4. 2.
Exodus, 49. 9.
B. of M., 17. 4.
Total in a: 84. Total in b : 17.
Total in whole line, 101.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 57
This modification of type A is not admitted by Prof. Sievers, as
has already been explained in Book II, Part I, page 35, et seq. y
where likewise our reasons for not following his classification have
been given in full. Prof. Sievers would class these examples under
D, with a thesis in the first foot, but we are convinced that the
Anglo-Saxon poet, in the recitation of these verses, did not mar
the smoothness of rhythm by putting upon the thesis of the
second foot the secondary stress that D requires.
Of the above examples, 38 of the half-lines might be classed
under a different type by a slight change of the sentence accent.
As is shown by the summary, the type is rare in the second half-
line ; it occurs five times more frequently in the first. The pro-
portional occurrence of the type is greatest in the Wanderer and
Exodus.
IV. Two syllables in both theses : ^ x x | . x x || .
he"alde his hord cofan. W. 14.
eorSan and uprodor. Ex. 76.
Wodon iSa waelwulfas. Br. 96.
Also W. 78. Ex. 130, 182, 183,
273, etc.; sum 11. Br. 24,
95, 266.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis :x:^xx|^xx||.
ac a hafaiS longunge. Sea. 47.
Also Br. 63, 79, 142, 196.
1. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x x | & x x || .
modige me'teiSegnas. Ex. 131. Also 297.
ongunnon lytegian. Br. 86.
2. Resolution of both arses : 6$ x x | 6$ x x || .
Micel is $eos menigeo. Ex. 553. Also 555. (?)
3. Second arsis is short : ^ x x | d x x ||
yldo him on fare<5. Sea. 91.
58 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 2.
Seafarer, 2.
Exodus, 15.
Battle of M., 9.
Total in a : 28.
This type, like the preceding, is not admitted by Prof. Sievers ;
but, as seen from the examples, there are several half-lines that
can hardly be classed elsewhere, if the rhythm be preserved. The
type seems to be entirely lacking in the second half-line.
Five of the above examples might be classed under other types.
V. Three syllables in the first thesis, one in the second:
L x x x | L x ||
6ft ic sceolde ana. W. 8. earfefta gem/ndig. W. 6.
$aer ic ne gehyrde. Sea. 18. se waes haten Wulfstan. Br. 75.
Also W. 41, 50, 97, 65. Ex.24, W. 14. Ex. 249, 81. Br.
69, 73, 86, 109, etc.; sum 31. 297.
Br. 11, 19, 31, 55, 76, etc.;
sum 23.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis :x:ixxx|^x||
he le't him $a of handon. gehyre se $e wille. Ex. 7. Also
Br. 7. Also Br. 23, 56, 70, 81, Br. 282.
117, 136, 193, 228. Ex. 266.
(b) two-syllable anacrusis : xx:^xxx|x||
Oferfor he mid y f6lce. Ex. 56.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : & x x x | L x ||
bodigean aefter btirgurn. Ex. for 'San wearS her on felda. Br.
510. 241-a (?).
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:uxxxx|^x||
to raiSe hine gelStte. Br. 164.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x x x | u^ x ||
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 59
hu hine on ge*ogu$e. W. 35. dreamas sind gewitene. Sea. 86.
Hwilum of 'Sam w6rode. Ex.
170. Also Sea. 50, 98. W. 49. Br. 67, 216.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : x x x | x x ||
ne mihte -Saer for waetere. Br. 64.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 7. Wanderer, 2.
Seafarer, 4. Seafarer, 1.
Exodus, 35. Exodus, 3.
B. ofM., 37. B. ofM., 4.
Total m a : 83. Total in b : 10.
Total in whole line, 93.
This variation of the normal type is found most frequently in
the first half-line ; and in the individual poems, in the Battle of
Maldon. There are 14 half-lines among the above examples that
might be classed elsewhere with a slight change in the interpre-
tation of the thought.
VI. Three syllables in the first thesis and two in the second :
L X X X \ L X X
Ongietan sceal gleaw haele. W. 73-a.
/
w^rcan iSone wihagan. Br.
102. Also Br. 261, 286.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x x x | L x x ||
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:xxxx|xx||
Ne maeg him iSonne se flaesc-
homa. Sea. 94.
i
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Seafarer, 1. B. of M., 3.
Total (all in a), 5.
This type is of very rare occurrence ; it does not appear in the
second half-line.
VII. Four syllables in the first thesis, one in the second :
X X X X I X
60 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
yftde swa $isne eardgeard. W. 85-a.
aerende to iSam 6orle Br. 28.
Also W. 88. Ex. 30, 228. Br.
10, 28, 35, etc.; sum 10.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:^xxxx|^x||
be iSam man mihte oncnawan.
Br. 9. Also Br. 14.
1. With resolution of the second arsis : L x x x x | x x ||
hi willaS eow to gafole. Br. 46. Also Ex. 117, 376, 463.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 2. Battle of Maldon, 1.
Exodus, 5.
B. of M., 13.
Total in a : 20. Total in b : 1.
Total in whole line, 21.
VIII. Four syllables in the first thesis and two in the second :
x x x x I . x x || .
se $e nu fram this wigplegan. Br. 316.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:^xxxx | ^xx||.
ne fttirfon me embe Sturmere, Br. 249.
SUMMARY.
Battle of Maldon, 2. Total in whole line, 2.
2. TYPE B. Fundamental type : x L \ x L || .
This type numbers 325 examples not quite one-third as many
as type A. It occurs most frequently in the second half-line in
all the poems except the Wanderer. Its occurrence is propor-
tionally rarest in Exodus. There are 139 examples in the first
half-line, and 186 in the second.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 61
I. Normal type : x x L \ x L || .
a. b.
Ne maeg werigmod. W. 15. mid his sylfes miht. Ex. 9.
ne to wife wynn. Sea. 45. fte her ricost eart. Br. 36.
Also W. 22, 39, 60, etc. ; sum 7. W. 9, 11, 32, 33, 43, etc.;
Sea. 77. Ex. 12, 28, 48, 49, sum 8. Sea. 12, 18, 29, 33, etc.;
etc. ; sum 11. Br. 5, 27, 60, sum 7. Ex. 48, 22, 91, etc. ;
77, etc. ; sum 19. sum 27. Br. 38, 50, 78, etc.;
sum 18.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x ^ | x L || .
Het iSa haeleiSa hleo. Br. 74. ne to worulde hyht. Sea. 45.
fte him maenigne oft. Br. 188. ic on b6teran raed. Ex. 269.
Also Ex. 339, 471, Br. 147, 250.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : x x L \ x x || .
<Saet waes wlglic werod. Ex. 223. hwaer cwom ma^^um gyfa.
Also Ex. 43, 425, 439, 452. W. 92. Ex. 27. Br. 222,
Br. 2, 218. 267, 299, 76. Sea. 21.
3. Second arsis is short : x x L \ x c || .
Simle ^reora stim. Sea. 68. swa him mihtig god. Ex. 314.
Also Ex. 85, 310, 377, 426. aer him leoTost waes. Br. 23.
Sea. 6. Ex. 152, 380, 399.
Br. 190, 211.
4. Resolution of the first arsis ; the second arsis is short :
x x c | x (. || .
sumne fugel oftbaer. W. 81.
he to mae*niguni spraec. Ex. 552.
Also Br. 31, 276.
5. Both arses are short : x x 6 | x (, \\ .
seo $e fre*o$e sceal. Ex. 422.
62 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 8. Wanderer, 11.
Seafarer, 3. Seafarer, 11.
Exodus, 20. Exodus, 38.
B. of M., 23. B. of M., 29.
Total in a: 54. Total in b : 89.
Total in whole line, 143.
We have called this the normal form of type B because it
occurs much more frequently than the form x L \ x L ||. This is
true, not only of the four poems treated in this discussion, but
likewise of those analysed by Sievers, Frucht, and Cremer com-
prising all together over 10,000 lines and it is probably equally
true of the whole body of Anglo-Saxon poetry.
The type is found most frequently in the second half-line, occur-
ring there almost twice as often as in the first. Among the above
examples, there are nine that might be classed under other types
by slightly changing the interpretation.
II. One syllable in each thesis : x L \ x L ||
and hwilpan sweg. Sea. 21. wrSfeonda nr3. Sea. 75.
on liSra last. Ex. 167. and ealde swurd. Br. 47.
Also Ex. 237, 337, etc.; sum Sea. 90. Ex. 17, 71, etc.; sum
7. Br. 58, 125, 162, etc.; 10. Ex. 11. Br. 215, 237.
sum 6.
1. Kesolution of the first arsis : x x | x L ||
and w6reda god. Ex. 432.
2. Resolution of the second arsis: x L \ x 6$ \\
his swaesne sunu. Ex. 402. wiS wra^ra gryre. Ex. 20.
$a stdd on sta^e. Br. 25. him eallum wile. Ex. 261.
Also Br. 115.
3. Resolution of both arses : x 6$ \ x 6$ \\ .
on geofones sta$e. Ex. 580. swa haleS geMnon. Ex. 388.
4. Second arsis is short : x L \ x w II .
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 63
on folc getael. Ex. 299. hu gae*stlic bi$. W. 73.
SUMMARY.
Seafarer,
1.
Wanderer,
1.
Exodus,
10.
Seafarer,
2.
B. of M.,
8.
Exodus,
14.
B. of M.,
3.
Total in a : 19.
Total in b : 20.
Total in whole line, 39.
This type is pretty evenly distributed between the two half-lines.
There is one example among the above that could possibly be
classed elsewhere.
III. Two syllables in the second thesis : x L \ x x L || .
mid halige hand. Ex. 485. aet hilde ne deah. Br. 48.
Also Br. 29, 72. Ex. 37, 215. Br. 49.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x 6$ \ x x L || .
gaft ricene to us. Br. 93.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : x L \ x x x || .
gesilrS him biforan. W. 46.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Exodus, 2.
Exodus, 1. B. of M., 3.
B. of M., 2.
Total in b : 5.
Total in a : 4.
Total in both half-lines, 9.
Two of these examples might be included under other types.
IV. Two syllables in each thesis : x x L \ x x L || .
hwaer ic fe"orr o&Se neah. W. 26. hwilum ylfete song. Sea. 19.
/ / i_
forSon anra gehwilc. Ex. 187. and ne forhtedon na. Br. 21.
Also W. 51,63,72. Sea. 90. Sea. 46. Ex. 101, 204, 304,
Ex. 227, 230, 476. Br. 22, etc.; sum 10. Br. 34, 77, etc.;
91, 128, etc. ; sum 12. sum 6.
64 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x ux | x x L || .
ofer waftema gebind. W. 57. ofer waftema gebiiid. W. 24.
ne his gifena ftaes god. S. 40. se fta menigeo beheold. Ex. 205.
Also Br. 112, 320. Ex. 488.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : x x L \ x x 6$ \\ .
ne to forht ne to fae"gen. W. 68. fta ic aer ne gefraegen. Ex. 285.
ofer holma gelagu. Sea. 64. oiSfte Iel5fne gewrecan. Br. 208.
nu ic ah milde me" tod. Br. 175.
Also W. 92, 93. Br.263. Ex. 255, 561.
3. Second arsis is short : x x L \ x x o || .
he gehleop Sone eoh. Br. 189. $e him Drihten forgeaf. Br. 148.
Also Br. 198, 295, 191. Br. 245.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 8. Wanderer, 1.
Seafarer, 3. Seafarer, 2.
Exodus, 6. Exodus, 13.
B. of M., 20. B. of M., 9.
Total in a : 37. Total in b : 25.
Total in both half-lines, 62.
Of the above examples, nine may be classed under other types by
a slight change of the sentence accent.
V. Three syllables in the first thesis : x x x L \ x L || .
Sonne on wae"cne$ 6ft. W. 45. full oft iSaet earn bigSall. Sea.
/ / 24
Saet him aet fotum feoll. Br. 119. _
AI i5 -IQ* 0^70 se ^e him lange aer. Ex.138.
Also Br. 186, 273. W. 75, 82 Sea. 27, 64, 65.
Ex. 199, 275, etc.; sum 6.
Br. 10, 13, 28, etc.; sum 15.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x x 6x \ x L || .
Saet hine weroda g6d. Ex. 23. Also Br. 16.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : x x x L \ x 6x \\ .
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 65
ftaet ftaer gelaSe mid him. Ex. $y laes him we*sten gryre. Ex.
206. Also Ex. 428. 117. Br. 30, 140, 252.
3. First arsis is short : x x x 6 | x L || .
/
and niman friiS aet us. Br. 39.
4. Second arsis is short : x x x L \ x u || .
Saet se on eorSan laeg. Br. 157.
Also Br. 168, 204, 227.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Wanderer, 2.
Exodus, 3. Seafarer, 4.
B. of M., 4. Exodus, 7.
B. of M., 23.
Total in a : 8. Total in b : 36.
Total in both half-lines, 44.
VI. First arsis resolved ; three syllables in the second thesis :
x x. I x x x L || .
u iSe eow. Br. 48.
VII. The first arsis resolved; the second short; the first
thesis has two syllables, the second three : xx^ | xxxu||.
ne in geogirSe to iSaes hwaet. Sea. 40.
VIII. Three syllables in the first thesis ; two in the second :
^ xx.i
ne naefre gielpes to georn. W. 69. and iSonne godan forlet. Br. 187.
gesealde waepna ge weald. Ex. 20. Also W. 107.
1. First arsis resolved : x x x g$ | x x jj .
ftaet he swa miceles ge'Sah. Ex. 143.
$a ic on w6rulde gebad. Br. 174.
2. Second arsis resolved : x x x L \ x x 6$ \\
%Q ic on morgen gefraegn. Ex. 98. Also Br. 90.
3. Second arsis is short : xxx^:|xxu||
$e him $a wtinde forg^af. Br. 139.
66 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 2. Exodus, 1.
Exodus, 2. B. of M., 3.
B. ofM., 1.
Total in a : 5. Total in b : 4.
Total in both half-lines, 9.
IX. Four syllables in the first thesis : x x x x ^ | x ^ || .
for $on ne maeg weorSan. wis. and to iSaere hilde stop. Br. 8.
W. 64.
forSon him gelyfe$ lyt. Sea. 27. $a he ftone cniht genam. Ex. 406.
Also Br. 71, 239 (?).
1. Resolution of the second arsis :xxxx|xgf|j.
Ne br3 him to hearpan hyge. Sea. 44.
2. Resolution of both arses : x x x x g; | x gx. )| .
$onne eall iSisse worulde wela. W. 74.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 2. Exodus, 1.
Seafarer, 2. B. of M., 1.
B..of M., 2.
Total: 6. Total: 2.
Total in both half-lines, 8.
X. Three syllables in each thesis : xxx^|xxx^||.
ne in his daedum to iSaes deor. ne him his Dryhten to ^aes hold.
Sea. 41. Sea. 41.
Total in both halves, 2.
XI. Four syllables in the first thesis, two in the second :
xxxx. I x x ^ || .
ForSon $aet (is) eorla gehwam. -Sara 3e him drihten bebead. Ex.
Sea. 72. 520.
'Seah $e him on healfa gehwam. i5e 'Saet he on hilde gecranc. Br.
Ex. 209, 324..
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 67
1. Second thesis is short : x x x x | x x u || .
ForSon ic ge$6ncan ne maeg. W. 58.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Exodus, 1.
Seafarer, 1. B. of M., 1.
Exodus, 1.
Total : 3. Total : 2.
Total in both halves, 5.
XII. Five syllables in the first thesis, one in the second :
xxxxx^ I x ^ || .
ne mihte $a on fotum Ifng. Br. 171.
1. Resolution of the second arsis : xxxxx^ | x gx ||
Sa hwile "5e he waepen maege. Br. 235.
SUMMARY.
Battle of Maldon, 1. Battle of Maldon, 1.
Total in both half -lines, 2.
3. TYPE C. Fundamental type : x L \ L x || .
This type occurs a little less frequently than type B. It is
very evenly distributed between the two half-lines, there being
136 examples in the first, and 147 in the second.
I. Normal type : x x L \ L x || .
/ __/_ _/_
for 'Son domgeorne. W. 17. ftaet ic hean streamas. Sea. 34.
and gewurSodne. Ex. 31. ftaet se cniht nolde. Br. 9.
Also W. 94, 109. Sea. 9, 57, W. 42, 66, 67, etc. ; sum 8.
69, 78. Ex. 82, 153, 124, Sea. 51, 83. Ex. 127, 163,
etc.; sum 12. Br. 6, 89, 236, 291, etc.; sum 8. Br.
225,260,317. 136, 153, 182, etc. ; sum 10.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x 6$ \ L x || .
i
mine ce&re cwrSan. W. 9. fore medodrince. Sea. 22.
/
aefter bealusrSe. Ex. 5. us to scype gangan. Br. 40.
Also Sea. 60, 96. Ex. 25, W. 54, 69. Sea. 56, 87. Ex.
75, etc. ; sum 12. Br. 129, 29, 52, 131, etc. ; sum 8. Br.
137, 306. 41, 61, etc. ; sum 13.
68
On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : x x 4 1 f x || .
wrS a fynd wfredon. Br. 82. Also 256.
3. Resolution of both arses : x x ^ 6$ x || .
$aer $a cSare seofedun. Sea. 10.
4. First arsis is short : x x u | L x || .
her bi feoh lake. W. 108. Sieh he graef wille. Sea. 97-a.
Also Br. 276.
5. Second arsis is short : x x L \ 6 x || .
ne se hreo hyge. W. 16. $aet ic fe"orr heonan. Sea. 37.
he waes leof gode. Ex. 12. and se a&sche're. Br. 69.
Also W. 19, 59, 67,86, 101. W. 23, 70, 94, 103. Sea.
Sea. 53, 67. Ex. 33, 110, 44, 70, 92. Ex. 268, 274,
157, etc.; sum 15. Br. 62, 337, 224, etc.; sum 7. Br.
98, 100, 145. 91, 104, 268, 290.
6. Resolution of the first arsis, the second arsis being short :
x x & I J x || .
se gesta^elade. Sea. 104. ofer hre'fterlocan. Sea. 58.
Also Ex. 172, 397, 542. Br. 199.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer,
Seafarer,
Exodus,
B. of M.,
11.
10.
42.
14.
Wanderer,
Seafarer,
Exodus,
B. of M.,
14.
12.
23.
30.
Total in a : 77.
Total in b : 79.
Total in both half-lines, 156.
We have called this the normal form of type C, inasmuch as
more than half of all the examples are included under it. There
are more than twice as many examples here as there are under the
form x L | L x || . It is to be noted that nearly half of these
examples are of the form x x L \ 6 x || , illustrating the principle
discussed in Book II, Part I, that where two rhythmical-accents
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 69
fall on adjoining syllables, the second of these syllables is fre-
quently, if not regularly, a light or " short " syllable.
Fourteen of the above examples could possibly be included
under other types, if a slight change be made in the interpretation,
necessitating a corresponding change in the sentence-accent.
II. One syllable in each thesis : x L \ L x || .
, /
in brfmlade. Sea. 30. gedon wille. Sea. 43.
ftaes daSgweorces. Br. 148. geseon mlhton. Ex. 83. Sea. 69.
Also Ex. 271, 315, 393, 401, Ex. 185, 434, 442, 562. Br.
etc.; sum 7. Br. 293. 3, 197, 224, 291.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x | L x || .
geond lagulade. W. 3. his wine"dryhtnes. W. 37.
to da6ge iSissum. Ex. 263. geblden hae"bbe. Sea. 4. Sea. 7,
Also Ex. 516. 59, 101. Ex. 1, 64, 365, etc.;
sum 7. Br. 4, 56.
2. Resolution of both arses : x rfx | rfx x || .
mid friSe %ian. Br. 179.
3. First arsis is short : x (, \ L x || .
on not feran. Br. 41.
4. Second arsis is short : x L \ (, x || .
in geardagum. W. 41. and sinc^ege. W. 34.
on flodwegas. Sea. 52. Also and uprodor. Sea. 105. Ex. 26.
Br. 109. W. 83. Sea. 83. W. 35, 58. Ex. 32, 68, 86,
Ex. 4, 10, 66, 68, etc. ; sum etc. ; sum 10.
13.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 3. Wanderer, 4.
Seafarer, 3. Seafarer, 7.
Exodus, 21. Exodus, 22.
B. of M., 5. B. of M., 7.
Total in a: 32. Total in b : 40.
Total in both half-lines, 72.
70 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
Here we find again that nearly half of the examples are of the
type x L | J x || in accordance with the principle mentioned under
I above.
III. 1 Two syllables in the second thesis : x L \ L x x || .
$e $aer baldlicost. Br. 78. ac hi faestlice. Br. 82.
Also Br. 116, 173.
1. The first arsis is short : x u | L x x || .
to on I6cia3. Ex. 278. Also Br. 315.
SUMMARY.
B. of M., 4. Exodus, 1. B. of M., 1.
Total in both half-lines, 6.
One of the above examples might be classed elsewhere.
IV. Two syllables in each thesis : x x L \ L x x || .
for $on wat se fte sceal. W. 37. $aet hi iSaer bricgweardas. Br. 85.
Also Sea. 84, 85. Br. 106,
258. Ex. 51.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x 6x \ L x x || .
ne syn godes ^codscipes. Ex. 528.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Seafarer, 2. Exodus, 1. B. of M., 3. Exodus, 1.
Total in both half-lines, 8.
Two of these examples might be classed elsewhere.
V. Three syllables in the first thesis : x x x L \ L x || .
ofrSe mec freondleasne. W. 28. ftaet he his monn dryhten. W. 41.
Also 66. $a he gemo't haefde. Br. 199.
Also Ex. 319.
ftonne we swa hearde. Br. 33.
1 III and IV can be classed under D with anacrusis.
On Anglo-feaxon Versification. 71
1. Resolution of the first arsis : x x x j | L x || .
gemon he sflesecgas. W. 34. se $e on lagu fundaft. Sea. 47.
and $oiie stde he"alden. Br. 19.
Also Br. 193, 194, etc. ; sum
6. W. 93. Ex. 172.
2. Resolution of both arses : x x x 6* \ 6* x || .
ongann fta winas manian. Br. 228.
3. First arsis is short : x x x | L x || .
gif hine god lete. Ex. 413. Also Sea. 99.
4. The second arsis is short : x x x L \ C x || .
ftaet he his feYSlocan. W. 13. hu ic geswmcdagum. Sea. 2.
.*_ 1_. -L , -^ ongann $a for$ b6ran. Br. 12.
''
n w Sea. 102. Br. 57, 44. W. 2.
Also W. 10, 18, 31.
5. Both arses are short : x x x u | u x
aer he onwe*g scyle. Sea. 74.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer,
8.
Wanderer,
3.
Exodus,
1.
Seafarer,
5.
B. of M.,
1.
Exodus,
4.
B. of M.,
11.
Total in a : 10. Total in b : 23.
Total in both halves, 33.
There are two doubtful examples among the above. By change
of the sentence-accent they may be classed elsewhere.
VI. Four syllables in the first thesis : x x x x ^ | ^ x || .
Saet he a his saefore. Sea. 42. Also Sea. 102. Br. 34.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : xxxx^x | ^ x || .
i
ftonne he be clifum cnossaft. Sea. 8. fte we oft aet meodo spraecon.
Also Sea. 58. W. 27. Br. 212.
72 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
2. Second arsis is short : xxxx^ | o x || .
ofer $one ford faran. Br. 88. Also Ex. 414.
SUMMARY.
Seafarer, 4. Seafarer, 1.
Exodus, 1. B. of M., 1.
B. of M., 2.
Total in both half-lines, 9.
VII. Five syllables in the first thesis : xxxxxi|^x||.
iSonne hit aenig mae$ waere. Br. 195.
SUMMARY. 1.
4. TYPE D. Fundamental types: D/ , ^ ' "* J '
A little more than one-tenth of the 2,200 half-lines in the four
poems belong here. This type is most frequent in the first half-
line, occurring there nearly twice as often as in the second. In
the individual poems, it is found most frequently in the Seafarer
and Exodus.
I. Normal type of D' : L \ L x || .
hrrS hrelisende. W. 102. feorh 6rtngeS. Sea. 71.
f61c ferende. Ex. 45. Also brfmllSSndra. Br. 27.
Sea. 22, 38, 56, 73. Ex. 84, W. 51, 60. Ex. 156, 178,
96, 119, etc. ; sum 14. Br. 184, 187, etc. ; sum 11. Br.
121, 122, 219, 254, 308. 122, 165, etc. ; sum 8.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : $$ | i x || .
w&dan wraeclastas. W. 5. w6ruld 6nntte$. Sea. 49.
wigan wigheardne. Br. 75. we*rod forbaernde. Ex. 123.
Also Ex. 112, 133, 175, 223, Ex. 3, 217, 420, 500. Br.
503. Br. 262. 255.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ | & x || .
unswiciendo. Ex. 424. Also Ex. 561.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 73
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : L \ 6$ x || .
iSaet hie lifigende. Ex. 264.
3. Resolution of both arses : ^ | 6$ x \\ .
swaefon s6ledreamas. Ex. 36.
Mcon lagustreamas. Br. 66.
Also Ex. 257, 341, 527.
4. Resolution of the accented part of the thesis : ^ | L 5 x || .
ymbwicigean. Ex. 65 (?).
folc somnigean. Ex. 217 (?).
By writing the forms ymbwician and somnian, these lines would
be brought under the more common type : L \ L i x || .
5. Resolution of the first arsis and of the accented part of the
thesis : 6$ \ L 0^ x || .
s6mod ae'tgae'dere. Ex. 214.
Also Ex. 247.
6. First arsis is short : u | L x || .
brim be"rstende. Ex. 477. Also Ex. 443.
7. Second arsis is short : L \ 6 x || .
mismicelra. Ex. 373. eor^cyninga. Ex. 392.
Also Ex. 412.
8. The first arsis is resolved, the second short : ^ | u i x || .
fe"la meoringa. Ex. 62. heofon cyninge. Ex. 410.
9. Accented syllable of the thesis is short : ^ | L o x || .
6ft earmcearig. W. 20. 6ft 3r6wade. Sea. 3.
la-5 leodhata. Ex. 40. hand wlsode. Br. 141.
Also Sea. 31, 59. Br. 61. Sea. 35. Ex. 40, 158, etc.;
Ex. 50, etc. ; sum 11. sum 6. B. 251.
(a) One-syllable anacrusis : x : L \ L u x || .
ageat gylp w^ra. Ex. 514. (?)
74 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
10. First arsis is resolved ; accented syllable of the thesis is
short : & | ^ x || .
nearo nrSwaco. Sea. 6. byrig faegriaiS. Sea. 48.
godes andsacan. Ex. 15. hyse unweaxen. Br. 152.
Also Ex. 219, 458, 474, 526. Ex. 48, 78, 113, 242, etc.;
sum 9.
(a) One-syllable anacrusis : x : 6$ \ L d x || .
Ne sleh $u, Abraham. Ex. 418.
11. Resolution of the second arsis: accented syllable of the
thesis is short : ^ | j a x || .
hreo haeglfare> W. 105. ecg grymetode. Ex. 408.
Also Br. 42, 309.
12. First arsis is short ; accented syllable of the thesis is short :
|^x||.
fre6m folct6ga. Ex. 14. grrS faestnian. Br. 35.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 4. Wanderer, 2.
Seafarer, 7. Seafarer, 5.
Exodus, 50. Exodus, 38.
B. of M., 9. B. of M., 15.
Total in a : 70. Total in b : 60.
Total in both half-lines, 130.
This type is remarkable for the number of the variations of the
normal form that occur ; most of these are in Exodus.
Sixteen of the above examples may, with a change of the
sentence-accent, be classed under other types.
II. One-syllable first thesis : ^ x | ^ i x || .
faegum fromweardum. Sea. 71. deope geond$5nce$. W. 89.
, Also 52.
blicon bordhreoiSan. Ex. 159.
%i he 6$erne. Br. 143. aeTtercw<33ndra. Sea. 71.
Also Ex. 168,437,519, 531.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 75
1. Resolution of the first arsis : 3 x | L x || .
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : Q x |. ^.ix J| .
abrocene burhwardas. Ex. 39.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x | 6x x \\ .
v
sohte seledreorig. W. 25.
Also Ex. 55, 102, 181, 284,
453, etc. ; sum 10.
3. Resolution of the accented part of the thesis : ^ x | L ux x || .
Wolde reordigean. Ex. 256. e6rSan forgiefenne. Sea. 93.
folmum werigean. Ex. 237.
Also Ex. 190.
By writing reordigan and werigan the examples 256-a and 237 -b
would be brought under a more common type.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : x | gj x || .
bihongen hrimgicelum. Sea. 17.
4. The accented part of the thesis is short : L x | L 5 x || .
bitre breostceare. Sea. 4. wop up ahafen. Ex. 200.
faegerf6rhlocan. Ex. 267.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : ^ x | i a x || .
forbaerned burhhleo^u. Ex. 70.
5. Resolution of the second arsis ; accented syllable of the thesis
is short : ^ x | gx d x || .
hatum heofoncolum. Ex. 71.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Wanderer, 2.
Seafarer, 3. Seafarer, 2.
Exodus, 20. Exodus, 3.
B. ofM., 1.
Total in a: 25. Total in b : 7.
Total in whole line, 32.
76 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
Sixteen of the above examples might possibly be classed elsewhere.
III. Two unaccented syllables in the thesis : ^ x | L i x x || .
wonn waelceasega. Ex. 164. Also Ex. 44.
SUMMARY : Exodus, 2.
I. Normal type D" : L \ L x i ||
we*all wundrum heah. W. 98. flod blod gewod. Ex. 462. Also
Hlud hedges cyrm. Ex. 107.
Also Sea. 32. Ex. 140, 169, b6rd ord on feng. Br. 110.
220, 291, etc.; sum 8. Br.
42, 107, 157, 169, 238, 247.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:^x|^xi||.
Saet he" ealdord6m. Ex. 317.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : & | L x ^ || .
m6naiS modes lust. Sea. 36. dtigu$ call gecr6ng. W. 79.
Also Ex. 47, 105, 203, 450, Ex. 41, 300, 346, 550, 447,
576. Br. 210, 283. 499.
2. Both arses are resolved : * i .
hSofon iSider becom. Ex. 46.
3. Accented syllable of the thesis is short : L \ L x 5 || .
fa&t fyrd getrum. Ex. 178. feorr 6ft gemdn. W. 90.
Also W. 30.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : L \ L x i || .
$aet eow mihtig god. Ex. 292.
4. First arsis is resolved ; the accented syllable of the thesis
is short : ^ | L x c> || .
aifenleoS. Ex. 165 and 201.
Also Ex. 537, 203, 234.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 77
5. Second arsis is resolved; accented part of the thesis is
short : L \ & x o || .
frod faedera cyn. Ex. 29.
SUMMARY.
Seafarer,
2.
Wanderer,
3.
Wanderer,
2.
Exodus,
10.
Exodus,
22.
B. of M.,
1.
B. of M.,
8.
Total in a: 34. Total in b : 14.
Total in both halves, 48.
Two of these examples might possibly be classed elsewhere.
II. One syllable in the first thesis : L x | L x i || .
hrebsan hrim and snaw. W. 48. htingor innan slat. Sea. 11.
Wod $a wlges heard. Br. 130. haefde wltig g6d. Ex. 80.
Also Br. 60. Ex. 214, 346, Sea. 79. Br. 130.
567.
1. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x | t$ x i || .
singed sumeres weard. Sea. 54.
2. Resolution of the accented part of the thesis : ^ x | ^ x ^ || .
Bedrwas blostmum nimaft. Sea. 48.
3. Resolution of the first arsis, and also of the accented part
of the thesis : x x | L x ux || .
we*roda wuldor cyning. Ex. 547.
4. The accented part of the thesis is short : L x | L L s || .
_/_
waeron inge m5n. Ex. 190.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x:^x | xC||.
Forl^t a dr^nga sum. Br. 149.
78 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer,
1.
Seafarer,
2.
Seafarer,
2.
Exodus,
1.
Exodus,
5.
B. of M.,
1.
B. of M.,
3.
Total in a : 11. Total in b : 4.
Total in both half-lines, 15.
Six of these half-lines might possibly be included elsewhere.
III. Two syllables before the accented part of the second
thesis : ^ | _ x x i || .
eald fnta geweorc. W. 87. Also Ex. 490.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : ^ | ^ x x i || .
atol fSa gewealc. Sea. 6. Also Ex. 381, 455, 588.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Seafarer, 1. Exodus, 4.
Total, 6.
Two of the above examples might be classed elsewhere, with a
change in the interpretation.
IV. A syllable after the accented part of the thesis : ^ | ^ x i x || .
bae~rst bordes laerig. Br. 284.
(a) One-syllable anacrusis : x:^|^xix||.
_L ' . v
ftaet iSaer modiglice. Br. 200.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : j | L x i x || .
flugon forhtigende. Ex. 452.
Also Ex. 91, 379, 515.
2. The accented syllable of the thesis is short : L \ L x w x || .
wod wintercearig. W. 24.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Exodus, 4. B. of M., 2. Total, 7.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 79
Several of these examples might possibly be included under
other types.
V. One syllable first thesis, and two syllables before the accented
syllable in the second thesis : ^ x | L x x i || .
hrusan heolstor biwrah. W. 23.
Also W. 110.
SUMMARY.
Total Wanderer, 2.
The second of the above examples might be classed under
another type.
5. TYPE E. Fundamental types : j , * ^ * j ^ jj
This is the rarest of the five types, numbering in all only 187
half-lines. It occurs most often in the second half-line ; and of
the individual poems, it is most abundant in Exodus, which con-
tains nearly three-fourths of all the examples collated here.
I. Normal type E' : ^ i x | ^ || .
freomaegum feorr. W. 21. Iscealdne sae. Sea. 14.
wicinga ar. Br. 26. langsumne raed. Ex. 6.
Also W. 54, 91. Sea. 19, 26. W. 4, 12, 17, 44, 98. Sea.
Ex. 32, 53, 90, 97, 111, etc.; 73. Ex. 15, 34, 50, 58, etc.;
sum 18. Br. 92, 114, 146, sum 41. Br. 134, 143, 154,
155,267. 164.
1. Resolution of the first arsis : <& x | L || .
m^rewerges mod. Sea. 12. woruld dreama lyt. Ex. 42.
Also Sea. 93. Ex. 277, 349, Sea. 17, 28. Br. 166. Ex.
364, 482, 488, 540. 115, 306, 316, 329, etc. ;
sum 10.
2. Resolution of the accented part of the thesis : ^ 5 x | L || .
/ j_
Eastsaxena ord. Br. 69. blodegesan hweop. Ex. 477.
Also Ex. 134. Also Ex. 198, 587, 265.
80 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
3. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ * \ <& \\.
hordwarda hryre. Ex. 35. werigne sefan. W. 57.
Also Ex. 101, 232, 300, 390, cearsflda fela. Sea. 5.
489, 511. Br. 49, 73, 97, Ex. 21, 24, 38, 63, 66, etc.;
298. sum 8. Br. 108.
4. Resolution of both arsis : & - x | ^ || .
wlnemaega hryre. W. 7.
Also Br. 249.
5. First arsis is short : u i x | L || .
tinearge menu. Br. 206. God ana wat. Br. 94.
Also Br! 256.
(a) one-syllable anacrusis : x : d x | L || .
on fdegerne sweg. Ex. 566.
6. Accented part of the thesis is short : L u x | L || .
aettr&ne ord. Br. 47. Also fa6st6na worm. Ex. 56. Also
Ex. 290. Ex. 491.
7. Resolution of the first arsis ; accented part of the thesis is
short : & C x \ L || .
Ae^elr&des eard. Br. 53. Also Sigelwara land. Ex.517.
Br. 203.
8. Resolution of the second arsis ; accented part of the thesis
is short: L x | ^ || .
Rub&ies sunu. Ex. 332. halige spraece. Ex. 517.
9. Resolution of both arses ; accented part of the thesis is
short : & & x | & || .
Ae"3elrdes ftegen. Br. 151.
10. Second arsis is short : L x | u || .
Israela cyn. Ex. 358. Also gylpwordum spra^c. Br. 274.
Ex. 371, 430, 494, 517, Ex. 14, 67, 88, 258, 279, 417,
524. Br. 279. 487.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 81
11. Resolution of the first arsis; the second arsis is short:
& IX I 6||.
gryrelwSa sum. Br. 285. maegenwlsa trtim. Ex. 553.
12. Resolution of accented part of the thesis; the second arsis
is short with one syllable preceding the thesis : L x $$ x | d || .
healifaedera sum. Ex. 357.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer,
3.
Wanderer,
7.
Seafarer,
4.
Seafarer,
5.
Exodus,
42.
Exodus,
75.
B. of M.,
18.
B. of M.,
10.
Total in a: 67. Total in b : 97.
Total in both half-lines, 164.
Six of these examples could possibly be entered under other
types, with a change in the sentence-accent.
II. One syllable in the second thesis : L x | x L || .
\ I i
s&ilty^a gelac. Sea. 35. waelradste geceas. Br. 113.
wSrSeida gewedld. Ex. 383. Als Ex ' 4 > 6 > 109 ' 128 >
Also Ex 330. 338 ' 344 ' 446 "
1. Resolution of the first arsis : 6$ ^ x | x L || .
lifigdndra gehwam. Ex. 6. h^ofonbeacen astah. Ex. 107.
2. Resolution of the second arsis : x \ * $$ \\ .
V.
aSflastum gewtina. Ex. 473.
The accented part of the thesis is short : ^ c> x | x L || .
Aefdna gehwam. Ex. 108.
4. The first arsis is resolved ; the second arsis is short, and the
accented part of the thesis is resolved : j ^ x | x d || .
faeder a&3elo gehwaes. Ex. 361.
82
On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
SUMMARY.
Seafarer,
Exodus,
Exodus,
B. of M.,
9.
1.
10.
Total in a : 6. Total in b
Total in both half-lines, 16.
Three of these examples might possibly be classed elsewhere.
I. Normal type of E" : L x i | L || .
No examples in these poems.
1. The first arsis is short, the second resolved : ^ x i | ^ || .
/
winelaes gtima. W. 45. Also Br. 45.
2. The second arsis is short, the accented part of the thesis is
resolved : L x 3 | d || .
lyftedoras braec. Ex. 251. Also Ex. 273.
SUMMARY.
Wanderer, 1. Exodus, 2. B. of M., 1. Total, 4.
One of these examples might be included elsewhere, with a
change in the sentence-accent.
II. A syllable after the accented part of the thesis : ^ x i x | L || .
/ _\^ /
modewaega maest. Ex. 499.
(a) two-syllable anacrusis :xx:^xix|^||.
/ \
aer him Wigellnes be"arn. Br. 300.
1. Resolution of the second arsis : ^ x i x | 6$ \\ .
_L ^
Abrahames sunum. Ex. 18.
SUMMARY.
Exodus, 1. B. of M., 1. Exodus, 1.
Total, 3.
GENERAL SUMMARY OF TYPES.
W.
Sea.
Ex.
Br.
W.
Sea.
Ex.
Br.
Total.
A
50
50
296
190
60
40
297
170
1153
B
23
11
43
62
15
21
77
73
325
C
23
19
67
29
21
25
51
51
286
D
12
15
107
23
7
9
52
17
242
E
3
5
49
19
8
5
85
12
186
Total.
111
100
562
323
111
100
562
323
2192
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 83
6. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN THE TEXT TO PREVENT THE
OCCURRENCE OF ISOLATED, OR EXTREMELY RARE VARIA-
TIONS OF A NORMAL TYPE.
feoh. Br. 39-a, should probably have the diphthong long, thus
giving the metrical scheme L x | L x || , instead of C x | L x || ,
which is found nowhere else in these poems.
haeleft. Ex. 78-a, should be changed, for the same reason, to the
more common form, haelefias.
gefraege. Ex. 368-b, and gefraegost, Ex. 394-b, if written with
the diphthong long, gefraege and gefraegost, would avoid a
variation of the normal type which is found nowhere else.
feor. Ex. 1-a, should be changed to feorr the regular form
for a similar reason.
flot. Br. 4 1-a, should be flote, the regular form of the dative.
habaft. Ex. 1-b, gives a much more common type if changed to
to the regular form, habbaft.
men. Ex. 373-a, should be written menn, to avoid an unusual
variation of the normal type.
sivipode. Ex. 463-b, for a similar reason, should probably be
swippode.
bodigean. Ex. 510-a, should be changed to either bodian, or
bodigan y the regular forms, to avoid an unusual variation.
cyn. Ex. 265-b, should likewise be changed to the full form, cynn.
God. Ex. 432-b, and 94-b, and Br. 262-b, would avoid a varia-
tion of the normal type that perhaps occurs only in these
places, if changed to God. The word occurs a number of
times in these four poems, and in almost every case, to
make the syllable long would class it under a much more
common type. This seems to suggest that rhythmically
the Anglo-Saxon poet made no distinction between God
and god.
84 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
CHAPTER II.
ALLITERATION IN THE WANDERER, SEAFARER, EXODUS,
AND BATTLE OF MALDON.
In these four poems there are, including transverse alliteration,
eleven types of alliteration in all. Numbering the feet a, b, c, d,
in the order in which they occur in the line, these types may be
represented as follows :
a-b-c, a-c, b-c, a-c-d, a-b-c-d, b-c-d, j j^ j | j c j , a-d, a-d-d, b-d.
Only three of these types of alliteration are very common :
a-b-c, a-c, and b-c. The first occurs more frequently than all the
other types put together ; there are 570 examples of it in these
four poems. The type a-c occurs next in frequency in the earlier
poems, but b-c in the Battle of Maldon. The per cent, of the
Wanderer, Seafarer, and Exodus under a-c, is about 28 ; of the
Battle of Maldon, about 30. The per cent, of the first three
poems under b-c, is about 15 ; of the Battle of Maldon, about 30.
From these figures, it seems that the latter type of alliteration
grew in favor in the later period.
TABULAR SUMMARY.
Type. Wanderer. Seafarer. Exodus. Battle of Maldon. Total.
a-b-c. 70 58 295 147 570
69 294
97 218
4 7
2 8
5
1 2
1 1
2 3
1 1
a-c.
25 29
171
b-c.
14 12
95
a-c-d.
1
2
a-b-c-d.
2 1
3
b-c-d.
5
fare. \
\b-d.i
1
1 a-d. \
\b-c.}
2
a-d.
a-d-d.
1
b-d.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification. 85
CHAPTER III.
ANALYSIS OF THE LONG LINES IN THE WANDERER, SEA-
FARER, EXODUS AND BATTLE OF MALDON.
1. NUMBER OF LONG LINES. There are in these four
poems altogether but fourteen certain long lines. Of these, five are
in the Wanderer (111-115); five are in the Seafarer (23, 103, and
106-108) ; and four are in Exodus (411 and 570-572). No long
lines are found in the Battle of Maldon.
These fourteen Hues arrange themselves under the following
types :
2. TYPE A-A. Normal form : L x | <L x | L x || .
/ /
swa cwaeS snottor on mode. W. 111-a
L x | L X x | L X || .
Wei biS Sam Se him are seceS. W. 114-b
u X X X X I X f X {{ .
Til biS se Se his treowe gehealdeS. W. 112-a
C x xxx|^lx x ^ x || .
beorn of his breostum acySan. W. 113-a
L x x| L x x|^x||.
eorl mid elne gefremman. W. 114-a
L x | L x X | L X || .
frofre to Faeder in heofonum. W. 115-a
__ _
Saer us call seo fa^stnung st^ndeS. W. 115-b
^ x || .
stormas Saer stanclifu beotan. Sea. 23 -a
- x x|-xx|-x||.
/
Saer him stearn oncwaeS. Sea. 23-b
L x | L\ L X || .
dol biS se Se him his Dryhten ne ondraedeS. Sea. 106 -a
^xxxxx| ^ x x x I i x || .
cymeS him se deaS unSinged. Sea. 106-b
x x L x L x .
86 On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
Micel biS se Meotudes egsa. Sea. 103 -a
& X X | ^ X I ^ X || .
Eadig biS se Se eaSmod leofaS. Sea. 107-a
^ x x x x I ^ x I ^ x || .
cymeS him seb ar of heofonum. Sea. 107-b
& x x I L x I & x || .
Me*otod him Saet mod gest&SeleS. Sea. 108-a
& x x | L x | 6$ x || .
feorh of feonda dome. Ex. 570-a
^ X I L X | L X || .
Seah t5e hie hit fr4cne gen6Sdon. Ex. 570-b
L x x
weras under waetera hrofas. Ex. 571 -a
u^ x x | ux x | . x || .
ealle him brimu blodige Siihton. Ex. 572-a 1
L X X X X | ^ X X | i X || .
Surh Sa heora beadosearo waegon. Ex. 572-b
L x xx| ux x x I ^ x || .
3. TYPE B-A. (According to Sievers). Normal form:
X L X I L X | L X || .
gesaet him sundor aet rune. W. 111-b
x . x I <. x x I L x || .
ne sceal naefre his torn to rycene. W. 112-b
x x ^x x|.i x|u^x||.
nemSe he aer Sa bote cunne. W. 113.
x x ^x x|^x|^x||.
for Son hi seo molde oncyrreS. Sea. 103-b
x x - x | _xx|_x||.
for Son he in his medhte gelyfeS. Sea. 108-b
x x ^xx| ^Ixx
gesawon hie Saer wealles standan. Ex. 571-b
X X X XI X I * X
1 Or : ealle him brimu blodige iStihton, with a change of sentence-accent, making
it C-A.
On Anglo-Saxon Versification.
87
This type occurs only in the second half-line. As noted in the
discussion in Book II, Part I, these examples can be classed under
A- A, with anacrusis ; as,
gesaet him sundor aet rune.
x:^ x| L x x | . x ||
nemSe he aer t$a bote cunne,
x x : . x x| x | x || ,
etc.
4. TYPE A-B. Normal form : L \ x - | x L \\ .
Up araemde se eorl. Ex. 411 -a
*. | X <. I X X L || .
5. TYPE C-A. Normal form : x ^ | L x | L x || .
a. b.
wolde slean eaferan smne. Ex. 411-b
XX L x x L x .
SUMMARY.
Type
Wanderer,
Seafarer,
Exodus,
Total,
a.
A-A.
5
5
3
13
A-B.
b.
A-A.
B-A.
C-A.
2
3
3
2
2
1
1
7
6
1
We find from the above summary that the most common type
of the long line is A-A. The second most common type is B-A,
which rhythmically is the same as A-A with an anacrusis.
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