yC-NRLF 
 
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 1907 
 
 A. E. Barlow 
 
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LIBRARY 
 
 <>. > 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 DAVIS 
 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 A. P. LOW, DEPUTY HEAD AND DIRECTOR 
 
 REPRINT OF A REPORT 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ORIGIN, GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS AND COMPOSITION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 NICKEL AND COPPER DEPOSITS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 SUDBURY MIKLN"G DISTRICT 
 
 ALFRED ERNEST BARLOW, M.A., D.Sc. 
 
 OTTAWA 
 PRINTED BY S. E. DAWSON, PRINTER TO THE KING'S MOST 
 
 EXCELLENT MAJESTY 
 1907 
 
 No. 961 
 
 LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
To A. P. Low, Esq., 
 
 Director, Geological Survey of Canada. 
 
 SIR, I beg to transmit, herewith, my revised report on the Origin, 
 Geological Relations and Composition of the Nickel and Copper 
 Deposits of Sudbury, Ontario, my original report of 1904 having run 
 out of print. This report includes brief references to the character 
 ancl extent of all the more important nickel deposits of the world, 
 with a general statement of their production and methods of smelting 
 and refining. Details of the mining, smelting and refining opera- 
 tions of the Sudbury ores are furnished, as well as complete statis- 
 tical tables of production, prices, uses and composition of the nickel 
 of commerce. It is believed that the report will serve to bring 
 together in one volume all of the more valuable and critical original 
 investigations in regard to these immense and apparently inexhaust- 
 ible deposits. 
 
 Canada has realized the true importance and value of these mines 
 and has, at last, taken her position, from which she will not recede, 
 of being the largest producer of nickel in the world. 
 
 I have the honour to be, Sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 ALFRED ERNEST BARLOW. 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OFFICE, 
 
 OTTAWA, January, 1907. 
 
 4187 
 
THE NICKEL AND COPPER DEPOSITS OF 
 SUDBURY, ONTARIO. 
 
 BY 
 
 ALFRED ERNEST BARLOW, M.A.,D.Sc. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Fifteen years having elapsed since the appearance of the first 
 official and detailed account of these famous ore bodies, (*) coupled 
 with the fact of a renewed and even increased interest and activity 
 in the mining of nickel, marked the time as most opportune when 
 another attempt should be made to arrive at a more accurate and 
 complete understanding of the true nature and extent of these deposits 
 which have proved such a valuable asset to Canada. Besides, the first 
 edition of the map of the Sudbury Mining district, published in 
 1891, to accompany a report by Dr. Kobert Bell on the geology of this 
 area ( 2 ), had nearly all been distributed, and this in spite of the fact 
 that the Bureau of Mines of Ontario had on several occasions issued 
 special editions of practically the same geological map to accompany 
 the Annual Reports of their department, as, for instance, in the years 
 1892 and 1900. In addition it was felt that although the general 
 accuracy and usefulness of this map had never btun questioned it 
 was lacking in certain details which are now known to be of the first 
 importance, and which are most essential for a proper interpretation 
 and judgment of these deposits. Thus, on the first map, the intrusivo 
 mass with which the Chicago and Victoria mines occur is entirely 
 separated from a band of similar rock, along the southern borders of 
 which the Gertrude, Creighton and North Star deposits are situated, 
 whereas it has now been ascertained that all of these properties are 
 developed along the southern boundary of one large and continuous 
 band, constituting the southern or principal belt of the nickel bearing 
 eruptive. Again, on this first map, no distinction is drawn between 
 the masses or belts of nickel bearing norite, and certain older horn- 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., Vol. V., part S, 1890-91, pp. 122-138. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can, Vol. V., part F. 1890-91, pp. 1-95. 
 
6 GEOLOGIC Ait SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 blende porphyrites, diorites and green schists, which, although closely 
 related to, and often ressembling the norite, are altogether barren of 
 deposits of the valuable sulphide material. This resemblance is par- 
 ticularly striking when, as is frequently the case, both have under- 
 gone more or less pronounced metamorphism. It is, therefore, not 
 surprising that in the first instance they were confounded and 
 mapped together. Moreover, the presence of the norite as a distinct 
 geological unit was not suspected until long after this first work was 
 completed, the associated greenstones being considered as portions of 
 the norite which had been metamorphosed by the intrusion of the 
 younger granite masses. Even the Bureau of Mines' map of 1902, 
 which should have furnished the latest information in regard to this 
 urea, made no attempt whatever either to correct the more glaring 
 inaccuracies in the geological boundaries, or to trace out the import- 
 ant line of separation between the nickel bearing eruptive proper and 
 the closely related, though barren greenstones. 
 
 In undertaking this new work it was felt that by confining oper- 
 ations as closely as possible to the area characterized by the presence 
 of the sulphide bearing norite and other kindred eruptives a more 
 accurate knowledge would be obtained of the mineralogical com- 
 position, structure and age relations of the various rock masses, 
 while at the same time the boundaries between the several formations 
 could be drawn with a much greater degree of precision. 
 
 Two map sheets have been prepared to accompany this report, 
 called respectively the ' Victoria Mines ' and ' Sudbury ' maps, each 
 on a scale of one mile to an inch. The former covers an area of 220 
 and the latter 210 square miles, making a total of 430 square miles. 
 The principal new work on the Victoria mines map has been the out- 
 lining of the two smaller bands of norite south of the Canadian 
 Pacific railway. One of these, crossing the southeast corner of 
 Drury, extends completely across the southern part of the township 
 of Denison. This band, which comes to an end east of the Vermilion 
 river, contains the Worthington, Mitchener and Totten mines. The 
 first mentioned of these mines is famous as having produced the 
 richest nickel ore in the district. On the other band, which forms 
 the prominent ridge to the south of McCharles and Simon lakes on the 
 Whitefish Indian reserve, no deposit of any economic importance 
 has been found. The boundaries of the intrusive mass of younger 
 granite which extends across the northern and central parts of 
 Graham township, and thence into Snider and Waters townships, 
 have also been outlined with considerable care. It is to be regretted 
 that time did not permit the separation of the norite and the older 
 greenstones and schists, but the geological work done in 1901 was 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 intended to cover the whole of the southern belt in one season, and 
 at the time it was considered more important to ascertain definitely 
 the continuity or otherwise of the southern or main nickel range. 
 The main mass of the norite, therefore, which runs northeast from 
 the Victoria mines, was followed through the northern part of the 
 township of Denison, and thence across the Vermilion river into the 
 southern part of the township of Creighton, thus making connexion 
 with the other mass of similar basic intrusive rocks which had been 
 shown on geological maps previously issued. With the exception of 
 a somewhat critical examination of some of the outcrops of the 
 peculiar differentiation product, or l micropegmatite ' phase of the 
 norite, exposed on the shores of Skill and Fairbank lakes, no new 
 work has been done in the northwestern and western parts of this 
 area, and the outlines of the formations are reproduced from the old 
 geological map. 
 
 The geology of the region comprised in the Sudbury map sheet 
 has all been revised, with special attention to tracing out the bound- 
 aries of the various masses of norite and separating this nickel 
 bearing eruptive from the older greenstones. This map will serve to 
 show in a very emphatic manner the intimate association of this 
 peculiar eruptive, and the various nickel deposits, and the invariable 
 development of the latter along the line of junction between this and 
 the neighbouring rocks. In addition to these two map sheets, which 
 exhibit on an adequate scale not only the general geological features, 
 but also the relative position of all the more important mines, there 
 are three other maps, each on a scale of 400 feet to an inch, which 
 may be referred to as mining geological plans. These have been pre- 
 pared with more care, and all details of topography, buildings, open- 
 ings, &c., have been laid down as accurately as possible from surveys 
 made by means of the transit and chain. They are expected to be of 
 especial value to the individual companies whose properties they 
 represent, but at the same time they will illustrate in detail many 
 of the characteristic features of association, which most of these 
 deposits possess in common with one another. The two sheets show- 
 ing the district in the vicinity of the International Nickel Company's 
 mines at Copper Cliff, and extending from Kelley lake on the south to 
 the Lady Violet mine on the north, cover an area of about nine square 
 miles. The third map sheet, which shows the geology in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the Murray and Elsie mines, as well as the position of 
 the various mining buildings, covers an area of nearly two square 
 miles. The following bulletin is based mainly on the field work 
 carried on during the seasons of 1901 and 1902. A short account of 
 what was accomplished each year has already appeared in the Sum- 
 
g GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 mary Reports of the Geological Survey Department^ 1 ) In addition to 
 this and other information which has appeared from time to time in 
 the official publications of the Geological Survey Department and the 
 Bureau of Mines of Ontario, certain details of original investigation, 
 which throw much additional light on the origin and association of 
 these deposits, have appeared in various scientific periodicals, many 
 of which are not very easy of access to the ordinary reader. It has 
 been the purpose of the writer, in the preparation of the following 
 report, to bring together and make use of much of this widely scat- 
 tered information, and by thus supplementing his own, render the 
 present publication of wider application and greater service to the 
 public. 
 
 in carrying out the field work the author was materially aided 
 by Dr. Ludwig Mond, of London, England, under an agreement by 
 which he was partially relieved from his duties on the Survey, during 
 the six months from July 1 to December 31, 1901. 
 
 Much of the accuracy which the accompanying maps are believed 
 to possess is due to the efforts of Mr. James White, Dominion Geo- 
 grapher, who kindly undertook the direction of the surveys necessary 
 for a detailed mapping on a large scale of the area examined. This 
 included in 1901 a traverse, by means of transit and steel band chain, 
 of the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, from Wanapitei 
 station to the northern boundary of the township of Dowling, a short 
 distance northwest of Onaping station. The ' Sault ' branch was 
 similarly surveyed from Sudbury Junction as far west as Worthing- 
 ton station. Connexion was made with the observatory at Rayside, 
 occupied by Astronomer O. J. Klotz. The position of this temporary 
 observatory, in the township of Rayside, is stated by Mr. Klotz to be 
 606 feet west of the line between lots 2 and 3, in con. 1, and 441 feet 
 north of the centre line of the Canadian Pacific railway. Its astro- 
 nomical position, as determined by Mr. Klotz, is Long. 81, 05', 38" 
 W. and Lat. 46, 32/ 47" N. This position was accepted and the 
 projection of the map framed in accordance therewith. In 1902, Mr. 
 White carried on similar detailed surveying necessary for the pre- 
 paration of the two large scale map sheets of the area in the vicinity 
 of the International Nickel Company's mines at Copper Cliff. 
 
 In the whole of this work the author had the advantage of the 
 zealous and able assistance of Mr. O. E. Leroy, M. A. Sc., formerly 
 Demonstrator in Geology at McGill University, Montreal, and this 
 opportunity is taken to express his keen appreciation of Mr. Leroy's 
 untiring efforts to promote, in every way, the objects of the work. 
 
 (1) Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can. (1901) pp. 141-145, (1902) pp. 252-267. 
 
PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS 9 
 
 By kind permission of Dr. J. B. Porter, and with the approval of 
 the University authorities, the magnetic separation of these ores was 
 carried on in the mining laboratories of McGill University by Mr. 
 W. M. Ogilvie, B.A. Sc. 
 
 Most of the assays and analyses are the work of Mr. Donald Locke, 
 a graduate of the School of Mines, Freiberg, Germany, who for a 
 short time was attached to this department as metallurgist and 
 assayer. 
 
 The author desires to express thanks for information and assist- 
 ance to Dr. Ludwig Mond, Dr. Bernhard Mohr and other officials of 
 the Mond Nickel Company; to President A. P. Turner, Captain 
 Lawson and other officers of the International Nickel Company, resi- 
 dent at Copper Cliff, Ont. ; to the representatives of the Lake Superior 
 Power Company, Great Lakes Copper Company and H. H. Vivian 
 and Company, who were stationed in the district. It would be diffi- 
 cult to mention by name all those who, either with information or 
 otherwise, have assisted in the object of these investigations, but the 
 author would like in this connexion to express his deep gratitude to 
 the residents of Sudbury, Copper Cliff and Victoria Mines, who 
 showed him the greatest kindness and consideration during his 
 sojourn in their midst. 
 
 PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS. 
 
 The literature in regard to the nickel and copper deposits of the 
 Sudbury mining district has already reached such large proportions 
 that it seems advisable in passing to make brief mention of some of 
 the principal publications which show evidence of original research, 
 the results of which have added materially to our knowledge of the 
 nature of the occurrences of these immense ore bodies. These deposits 
 of pyrrhotite, with their unusually high content of nickel, and inti- 
 mately associated chalcopyrite. are of importance, not only from the 
 economic standpoint, but also from the point of view of science, as 
 having furnished such strong presumptive evidence for regarding 
 these, and similarly related deposits, as of igneous origin, and due to 
 processes of differentiation in the original magma, from which they 
 and the associated eruptive rocks have solidified. 
 
 The discovery of nickel at the Wallace mine in 1846, ( x ) although 
 creating some excitement at the time, was soon forgotten, as well as 
 the prediction which has since been amply verified, that deposits of 
 both nickel and cobalt of economic importance would yet be located 
 
 (1) Rep. of Progress, Geol. Sur. Can., 1848-49, pp. 61-63; Geol. of Can, p. 
 506. 
 
10 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 in this region. Attention was again drawn to the subject by the find- 
 ing in 1856 C 1 ) of nickel and copper on Baiter's meridian line, a little 
 over six miles north of Whitefish lake, and less than half a mile 
 southwest of the main pit of the present celebrated Creighton mine, 
 probably the largest deposit of nickeliferous pyrrhotite in the world. 
 This \ves c r gain lest sight of, or the discovery considered of no im- 
 portance, perhaps because of the meagre information in regard to its 
 occurrence, but more likely on account of the wild and inaccessible 
 nature of the district in v/hich the deposit had been found. The 
 building of the Canadian Pacific railway quickly changed these con- 
 ditions, and in less than ten years from the first opening of this 
 means of access to the district all the mines which are at present 
 working had been located. 
 
 The first statistics which were published concerning these deposits 
 related to the export of copper ore in 1886, amounting to 3,307 tons, 
 with a declared customs value of $16,404. ( 2 ) In 1887, this quantity 
 had decreased to 567 tons, valued at $3,416. ( 3 ) The discovery of 
 nickel in the ore about this time decided the Canadian Copper Com- 
 pany to install the necessary plant for the production of nickel and 
 copper matte, and in the preparation for this and other mining 
 development work no exports are recorded from this district in 1888. 
 
 In October; 1887, Mr. J. H. Collins visited the Sudbury region to 
 examine into the extent and economic possibilities of the so-called 
 copper mines. On June 6th, 1888, he read a paper before the Geolo- 
 gical Society of London, ' On the Sudbury Copper Deposits,' in which 
 he embodied the results of these examinations, which, however, seem 
 to have been restricted mainly to the area in the immediate vicinity 
 of the Copper Cliff and Stobie mines. An abstract of this paper was 
 afterwards published, ( 4 ) accompanied by two cross sections of the 
 mines above mentioned, showing the geological association and posi- 
 tion of these deposits. The author considers the main ore bodies to 
 have been the result of secondary action, the sulphides occupying 
 fissures along certain lines of weakness, produced by the intrusion of 
 igneous material. In the discussion that followed Mr. Attwood stated 
 his conviction that the diorites had brought up the metals. At the 
 end of the paper a note is added bearing the date of October 22nd, 
 1888, that the ore of the Evans mine contains Copper, 3 per cent; 
 Nickel, 3 -5 per cent; Iron, 40 per cent; Sulphur, 24 per cent; Hock, 
 29 '.5 per cent. 
 
 (1) Rep. of Progress, Geol. Sur. Can. 18>53-56, pip. 180-181. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geo. Sur. Can., 1886, Part S, p. 25. 
 
 (3) Ann. Rep. Geo. Sur. Can., 1887-88, Part S, p. 21 
 
 (4) Quart. Jour. Geol. So-c. Lon., Vol. XLIV., 1888 pp. 84-838. 
 
PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS H 
 
 In October, 1888, Mr. Francis L. Sperry, then chemist to the 
 Canadian Copper Company, sent a small quantity of what seemed a 
 remarkable mineral to Professor H. L. Wells, of the Sheffield Scien- 
 tific School at New Haven, Conn. A few tests sufficed to show that 
 the substance was essentially an arsenide of platinum. Several 
 ounces of this mineral had been obtained in milling certain loose 
 material (gossan), associated with the sulphides at the Vermilion 
 mine in the township of Denison. A complete statement of facts 
 relative to its composition, physical characters and crystallographic 
 behaviour, was prepared by Profs. Wells and Penfield, who proposed 
 the name ' sperrylite ' for this new mineral in honour of its discov- 
 erer. (*) 
 
 About the same time Profs. Clarke and Catlett ( 2 ) of Washing- 
 ton obtained through two different channels certain samples of 
 nickel ores taken from the Vermilion mine, belonging to the Canadian 
 Copper Company. From one source they obtained two masses of 
 sulphides to be examined for nickel and copper, from the other came 
 similar sulphides, together with a series of soil and gravel-like mate- 
 rial (gossan), seven samples in all. In the latter case an examina- 
 tion for platinum was requested, and in five of ' the samples above 
 mentioned it was found the gravel yielded 74-85 ozs. of metals of the 
 platinum group to the ton of 2,000 pounds. The sulphide ores were 
 all of a similar character. They consisted of mixed masses, in which 
 a grey, readily tarnishing substance was predominant, with some 
 chalcopyrite, possibly some pyrite, and a very little quartz. An anal- 
 ysis of carefully selected material of the nickel mineral showed its 
 formula to conform in general with that of polydymite, which had 
 previously been described by Laspeyres from Griinau, Westphalia, of 
 which it is evidently a ferriferous variety. 
 
 At the Buffalo meeting of the American Institute of Mining 
 Engineers, vV . H. Merritt, Toronto, contributed a paper on l The 
 Minerals of Ontario and their Development/ in which he includes a 
 brief description of the Sudbury deposits. ( 3 ) 
 
 In the Summary Eeport of the Geological Survey for 1888 Dr. 
 Bell ( 4 ) mentions that 'the modes of occurrence and the geological 
 relations of the economic minerals of the districts examined (between 
 Lake Huron and Montreal river) were carefully studied. The metals 
 which give most promise are the copper and nickel deposits which 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XXXVII., 18S9, pp. 67-73; also Zelt. fur Kryst. 
 Vol. XV., pp. 285 and 290-281. 
 
 (2) Amer. Jour. Sc. Vol. XXXVII., 1889, pp. 372-374. 
 
 (3) Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Vol., XVII., 1888-89, pp. 293-300. 
 
 (4) Ann. R.ep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1887-8, p. 79 A. 
 
-12 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 have been worked for the last three years near Sudbury.' Again, in 
 the report for 1889, Dr. Bell, C 1 ) after a brief sketch of the geology 
 of the area included in the Sudbury map sheet, gives a few notes on 
 the character and mode of occurrence of these deposits, as also the 
 progress of the mining and metallurgy which were then in vigorous 
 operation. He viewed the pyrrhotite as a true nickeliferous variety, 
 in which some of the iron is replaced by nickel. The deposits are 
 described as ' stock-works ' in which the vein structure is very obscure. 
 The ore bodies are regarded as usually occurring in some form of 
 diorite, the concentration of the ore being perhaps connected in some 
 way with certain diabase dikes which were in some cases seen near 
 the deposits. 
 
 At the Ottawa meeting of the American Institute of Mining En- 
 gineers, held in October, 1889, Dr. E. D. Peters, who had charge of 
 the operations at the Canadian Copper Company's mines near Sud- 
 bury, read a paper ' On the Sudbury Ore Deposits.' ( 2 ) He opens 
 with a short and very general statement of the geological conditions, 
 makes a passing mention of the two principal sulphides which con- 
 stitute these deposits, and devotes the rest of his paper to a descrip- 
 tion of the equipment and methods of mining and metallurgy pur- 
 sued by the company of which he was the manager. 
 
 In 1890, as one of the Royal Commissioners to inquire into the 
 mineral resources of Ontario, Dr. Robert Bell, of the Geological 
 Survey of Canada, in treating of the ; Geology of Ontario with 
 Special Reference to Economic Minerals/ devotes some attention to 
 the nickel and copper deposits of the area in the vicinity of 
 Sudbury. ( 3 ) 
 
 In 1891 ( 4 ) Dr. Bell described in greater detail the nature and 
 extent of these deposits and also their geological relations, giving the 
 results of the field work of the Geological Survey in this area during 
 the three years 1888-900. Accompanying the same volume the first 
 geological map of the district appeared, showing in this graphic way 
 the limits of the different formations or subdivisions of these old 
 rocks, over an area of 3,456 square miles. This map, although faulty 
 and inaccurate in places, has been the basis of all subsequent geolo- 
 gical work undertaken in this district, although it is now superseded 
 in certain areas by the maps lately published by the Bureau of Mines 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1888-89, pp. 29-32 A. 
 
 (2) Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XVIII. (1889), pp. 278-289. 
 
 (3) Min. Res. of Ont. 1890, p. 24; also pp. 434-435; also Ann. Rep. Bur. of 
 Mines, Ont. 1891, pp. 88-90. 
 
 (4) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., Vol. V., Part F., pp. 1-95; also Bull. Geo. 
 Soc. Am., Vol. II., 1891, pp. 125-137. 
 
PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AN DESCRIPTIONS 13 
 
 of Ontario, and those issued to accompany the present bulletin. TJie 
 imperfections of these latest maps will also in turn become apparent 
 as the region is cleared and opened up and more detailed information 
 in regard to the distribution of the various rock masses is thus 
 possible. 
 
 On March 6th, 1891, ( x ) the author of the present bulletin read a 
 paper before the Logan Club of Ottawa ' On the Nickel and Copper 
 Deposits of Sudbury/ which was published in June of the same year, 
 in which appears a very definite statement affirming an igneous 
 origin ( 2 ) for these masses of sulphide material, in the following 
 words : 
 
 ' The ores and the associated diabase were, therefore, in all proba- 
 bility simultaneously introduced in a molten condition, the particles 
 of pyritous matter aggregating themselves together in obedience to 
 the law of mutual attraction.' In the same paper the author makes 
 the following significant statement, which has since been proved by 
 means of the magnetic separation of the ore : ( The nickel is usually 
 spoken of as replacing an equal quantity of iron in the pyrrhotite, 
 but the discovery of undoubted crystals of millerite or sulphide of 
 nickel, 150 feet below the surface at Copper Cliff mine, as well as the 
 more recent recognition of polydymite, a ferriferous sulphide of 
 nickel, at the Vermilion mine, in the township of Denison, seem to 
 justify the assumption, that in the more highly nickeliferous deposits 
 of the region at least, the nickel is also present as a sulphide, dis- 
 seminated through the ore masses like the iron and copper.' In 1891 
 Mr. T. L. Walker, then chemist at the Murray mine, obtained 30 per 
 cent of nickel in some bright cleavable fragments of a mineral which 
 occurred in the form of more or less rounded patches in the ordinary 
 nickeliferous pyrrhotite at the Worthington mine. The writer, who 
 had provided Mr. Walker with these samples, suggested the advisa- 
 bility of a complete analysis of as pure material as could be selected. 
 It is to be regretted for Walker's sake, so far as priority in the first 
 recognition of pentlandite in this district is concerned, that the pre- 
 sent writer, in publishing the results of this first analysis, ( 3 ) merely 
 stated his own belief that these peculiar nodular masses probably 
 represented a mixture in which millerite was the most prominent con- 
 stituent, omitting to make mention of the fact that the chemist had 
 stated his belief that the material was almost pure ' Eisennickelkies/ 
 
 (1) Ottawa Naturalist, June, 191,, pp. 1-20; also Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 
 Vol. V., Part S., 1890-91, pp. 122-138. 
 
 (2) S'ee also a paper by Dr. Robert Bell on ' The Nickel and Copper De- 
 posits of Sudbury district, Canada.' Bull. Geol. Socy. of Am., Vol. II., 1891, 
 pages 135-36. 
 
 (3) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1890-91, Part SS., pp. 116-117. 
 
14 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 the German synomym for pentlandite. At this time it was consid- 
 ered of more importance to emphasize the fact, which had grown 
 beyond a conviction, that the nickel was undoubtedly present in these 
 ore bodies as a distinct sulphide, mechanically intermixed and pro- 
 bably separable, and not as replacing a portion of the iron in th^i 
 pyrrhotite. It was even considered probable that several nickel sul- 
 phides, and not one alone, contributed to the unusual enrichment oi 
 these ores. 
 
 The report of the Division of Mineral Statistics and Mines of the 
 Geological Survey for 1890, although not published until the follow- 
 ing year, contained the first statistics showing the production and 
 export of nickel and copper matte from the Sudbury district. This 
 was likewise accompanied by a somewhat detailed description of the 
 deposits, to which attention has already been drawn. ( J ) Previous to 
 this, however, in the report ( 2 ) of the same department for 1889, men- 
 tion is made of the production of nickel in Canada, but the figures 
 of production then supplied were only used in the summary of pro- 
 duction. This course was necessary at the time, as the figures then 
 available represented the production of only one company, who gave 
 the figures on the understanding that they were only to be used in 
 the compilation of totals. 
 
 In the first report of the Ontario Bureau of Mines for 1891, then 
 just organized, considerable space is devoted not only to the statistics 
 of production of nickel and copper matte, but also to various details 
 regarding the geological relationship of the ores, the methods of 
 mining and metallurgy, as well as the use and value of nickel. It 
 also contains the first of the annual reports of the inspector of mines, 
 which each year since has contained an epitomized statement of the 
 progress of mining and smelting in this area. 
 
 In 1891, Mons. J. Gamier, ( 3 ) who had become famous as the 
 discoverer of the New Caledonia nickel deposits, visited Canada, and 
 on his return to Paris furnished an account of his examination in a 
 paper entitled, ' Mines de Nickel, Cuivre et Platine du District de 
 Sudbury, Canada/ 
 
 In 1892, Dr. S. ^i. Emmons, of Youngwood, Penn., and President 
 of the Emmons Metal Company, announced the discovery of three 
 new nickel minerals from the Sudbury district, for which he proposed 
 the names Folgerite, Blueite and Whartonite. ( 4 ) The substances 
 
 (1) Ann, Rep. Geol. Suirv. Can., 1890-91, Part S., pp. 121-143. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can,, 1888-89, Part S., 1889, pp. 5 and 123. 
 
 (3) Mem. Soc. des Ing. Civils, Paris, 1891. 
 
 (4) Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol. XIV., No. 7: also Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, 
 Ont. 1892, pp. 167-170 
 
PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS 15 
 
 thus named were stated to be sulphides of iron and nickel, the pro- 
 portion of the latter metal varying from 3 -76 per cent in blueite to 
 35-20 per cent in folgerite. All authorities, however, agreed that 
 none of these are definite mineral species, being mixtures of different 
 sulphides. Thus folgerite is regarded as impure pentlandite, blueite 
 is a nickeliferous pyrite, and whartonite a mixture. A perusal of Dr. 
 Emmons' methods of analysis, and the variability of his results are 
 sufficient proofs that none of these names which he proposes should 
 receive a place in mineralogical literature. About the same time 
 Dr. Emmons conducted some rather crude and evidently hurried 
 experiments in regard to the separation of the components of the 
 pyrrhotite by means of magnetism, but the results are far from satis- 
 factory. ( J ) The material on which the trials were made came from 
 both the Gap mine, Pa., and Sudbury, Ont. 
 
 In 1892, Mons. David Levat, formerly Director-General of the 
 Societe de Nickel, prepared a memoir on the production and uses of 
 nickel and its alloys, entitled ' Progres de la Metallurgie du 
 Nickel/ ( 2 ) an abstract from which is translated and printed in the 
 report of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario. ( 3 ) Besides a description 
 of the metallurgical treatment of the Sudbury ores he institutes a 
 comparison between these and the New Caledonia ores, giving all 
 necessary details in regard to these latter, their composition, metal- 
 lurgy, transportation, mining operations, and concludes with certain 
 particulars relating to the composition of the nickel of commerce, its 
 alloys, and statistics of production. 
 
 During the summer of 1890 the late Baron von Foullon, of the 
 Geological Survey of Austria, spent a few weeks in the district, direct- 
 ing his attention chiefly to the determination of the relative ages of 
 the different rocks. His collection of rocks for future study con- 
 tained a specimen obtained from one of the detached blocks of mate- 
 rial which had been blasted out to make room for the foundations of 
 the smelter at the Murray mines. Examination of thin sections of 
 this specimen under the microscope revealed for the first time the 
 identity of what was evidently a typical and unaltered representative 
 of the nickel bearing eruptive, showing it to contain, besides the pla- 
 gioclase, strongly pleochroic hypidimorphic individuals of hypers- 
 thene, together with a smaller amount of diallage, both of these last 
 mentioned minerals being often bordered with hornblende. The rock 
 thus evidently belonged to the general type of gabbros, which by the 
 
 (1) Joiur. Am. .Chem. Soc., Vol. XIV., No. 10; also Amn. Rep. Bur. of Mines. 
 Ont., 1892, pp. 163-166. 
 
 (2) Ann. des Mines, Paris, 1892. pp. 141-224. 
 
 (3) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1892, pp. 149-162. 
 
16 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 abundance of the hypersthene is related to the norites. ( x ) This was 
 the first recognition of the true character of the eruptive with which 
 the nickel deposits are so intimately associated, although the late 
 Professor G. H. Williams had in 1901 described ( 2 ) a very similar 
 rock from the vicinity of the Blezard mine, but which in the descrip- 
 tion of the field relations furnished him, had been reported as occur- 
 ring in a later dike. In 1893, Dr. A. P. Coleman ( 3 ) showed that the 
 country rock of the nickel deposits south of Clear lake, on the 
 Northern Nickel range, was a gabbro containing both diallage and 
 enstatite. In the same publication he gives a description of the 
 petrographical characters of the peculiar type of rock to which Wil- 
 liams first gave the name e micropegmatite/ and which occurs here as 
 elsewhere, throughout the district, in intimate association with the 
 sulphite bearing eruptive. 
 
 In 1893, Prof. S. L. Penfield recognized and described for the first 
 time the mineral pentlandite, from the Sudbury district, found in 
 some sulphide material sent to him some years previously by Mr. F. 
 L. Sperry. ( 4 ) Immediately following this article, in the same publi- 
 action, he criticises rather severely the methods of analysis adopted 
 by Dr. Emmons in his attempt to establish the claims of folgerite, 
 blueite and whartonite to be recognized as new mineral species. ( 5 ) 
 
 In the same year, David H. Browne, ( 6 ) chemist of the Canadian 
 Copper Company, challenged the accuracy of Dr. Emmon's magnetic 
 work, as also the conclusions based thereon, so far at least as the 
 material from Sudbury is concerned. At the same time he published 
 the details of certain personal experiments in connexion with the 
 magnetic separation of the ores from the Copper Cliff, Evans and 
 Stobie mines. The ore was first handpicked and then crushed to vari- 
 ous degrees of fineness. By means of these trials he succeeded in 
 dividing the material thus prepared into a magnetic and non-mag- 
 netic product, the analysis of the latter showing a close resemblance 
 to the pentlandite described by Penfield. 
 
 In June, 1893, T. L. Walker ( 7 ) visited the Vermilion mine and 
 procured some additional material similar to that in which Wells and 
 
 (1) " Ueber einige Nickelrzvorkomimen," Jahr. d. k-k. geol. Reichsanstadt, 
 Vol. XLIL, pp. 223-310, Vienne, 1892. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., 1890-91, Part F, p. 77. 
 
 (3) ' The Rooks of Clear lake near Sudbury/ Can. Rec. Sc., Vol. V., 
 1892-93, pp. 343-346. 
 
 (4) Am. Jour. Sc.. Vol. XLV., 1893, pp. 493-494. 
 
 (5) Am. J;our. Sc., Vol. XLV., 1893, pp. 494-497. 
 
 (<6) Eng. and Min. Jour. Dec. 2nd, 1893, Vol. LVL, pp. 565-566. 
 (7) Am. Jour. Sc., Vol. I., 1896. pp. 1TO-112. 
 
PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS 17 
 
 Penfield had first discovered sperrylite. The evidence of these new 
 specimens of this comparatively rare mineral enabled him to publish 
 further details in regard to its crystallographic behaviour. After 
 critical examination of the associated sulphides he concludes that 
 this sperrylite is associated with the chalcopyrite, and not with the 
 pyrrhotite, and that accordingly nickel mattes from mines low in 
 copper contain very little platinum, while those richer in copper 
 afford a matte proportionately richer in platinum. He mentions the 
 fact, however, that the polydymite of Clarke and Catlett contains 
 from 0-006 per cent to 0-024 per cent of platinum. (*) 
 
 In April, 1893, Prof. W. L. Goodwin ( 2 ) announced the discovery 
 of a highly nickeliferous pyrite, occurring at the Murray mine, and 
 published an analysis of this somewhat unusual association. The 
 material, however, on which the examination was conducted, was mas- 
 sive and somewhat decomposed. A little later, however, T. L. 
 Walker secured several specimens showing druses of small bright 
 cubic crystals. These were found associated with marcasite, (con- 
 taining no nickel or cobalt) magnetite, galena, chalcopyrite and 
 nickeliferous pyrrhotite. An analysis of this new and fresh material 
 was made, and the conclusion reached that the specimens represented 
 true nickeliferous pyrite, in which the isomorphous elements, iron 
 and nickel, replaced each other in varying proportions. ( 3 ) 
 
 During the summer and fall of 1893, E. Renshaw Bush, while 
 pursuing professional work, visited some of the more important 
 deposits, afterwards publishing his observations in a paper called 
 1 The Sudbury Nickel region.' ( 4 ) 
 
 On December 4th, 1893, Philip Argall, of Denver, Col., presented 
 a paper to the Colorado Scientific Society on ' Nickel, the Occur- 
 rence, Geological Distribution and Genesis of its Ore Deposits/ This 
 author gives a short but rather complete statement of the character, 
 composition and distribution of the three groups of the ores of nickel 
 arsenides, sulphides and silicates and makes special mention of 
 the main features and importance of the Sudbury ore deposits. ( 5 ) 
 
 On January 12th, 1894, Dr. Frank D. Adams, of Montreal, sub- 
 mitted a paper to the General Mining Association of the Province of 
 Quebec, l On the Igneous Origin of certain Ore Deposits/ In this 
 
 (1) Bull. U. S. G. S., No. 64, p. 21. 
 
 (2) Oan. Rec. Sc., Vol. Y-, 1892-93, pp. 346-347. 
 
 (3) Am. Jour. Sc., XLVI1., April, 1904, pp. 312-314. 
 
 (4) Eng. and Min. Jour., March 17, 1894, Vol. LVIL, pp. 245-246t 
 
 (5) Proc. Col. Sc. Soc., Vol. IV., 1891-93, pp. 395-421. 
 41872 
 
13 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 paper he gives a syiiposis of the main conclusions reached by Prof. 
 J. H. L. Vogt, of Christiania, from his examinations and study of 
 the nickeliferous- sulphides of Norway, and agreeably with these Dr. 
 Adams claims an igneous origin for the various Sudbury occurrences, 
 the concentration of the ore being the direct result of magmatic dif- 
 ferentiation of the peculiar type of eruptive with which the deposits 
 of both countries are always associated. (*) 
 
 In 1895, Prof. J. F. Kemp, of Columbia University, New York, 
 gives ' An Outline of the Views held To-day on the Origin of Ores,' 
 offering an explanation based on the laws of thermo-chemistry, to 
 explain the concentration of these sulphides of iron, copper and 
 nickel. ( 2 ) 
 
 In 1897, Dr. T. L. Walker presented his inaugural dissertation, to 
 obtain the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, to the University of Leip- 
 zig, taking as his subject ' Geological arid Petrographical Studies of 
 the Sudbury Nickel district, Canada.' This thesis was afterwards 
 communicated to the Geological Society of London by Prof. J. J. H. 
 Teall, and subsequently published in an abridged form. ( 3 ) This 
 publication contains an epitome of Dr. Walker's studies of the rocks 
 which aje most intimately associated with the nickel deposits. The 
 author is in full agreement with Yogt, Adams and others, regarding 
 these ore bodies as of igneous origin, owing their present position 
 and dimensions to magmatic differentiation. He furnishes very com- 
 plete details of the petrographical character, not only of the nickel 
 bearing eruptive, but also of the associated greenstones and the clas- 
 tic rocks of the Huronian, making brief mention of the mineralogical 
 composition of the Laurentian gneisses exposed near Wanapitei sta- 
 tion. Dr. Walker was the first to recognize that the l micropegma- 
 tite,' classed on previous geological maps as belonging to the Lauren- 
 tian, which it resembles, is really a differentiation phase of the pre- 
 vailing norite. The later dikes of olivine diabase are also described 
 in considerable detail. The whole publication may be characterized, 
 in brief, as the most complete statement in regard to the geology and 
 petrography of the district, which had yet appeared. 
 
 In 1900, J. Watson Bain prepared ' A Sketch of the Nickel Indus- 
 try,' which treats of the source and production of nickel ores, the 
 metallurgy of both the New Caledonia and Sudbury products, con- 
 
 (1) Can. Min. Review, February, 1894. 
 
 (2) Min. Industry, Vol. IV., 1895, pp. 755-766. 
 
 (3) Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lon., Vol. LVIIL, (1897), pp. 40-66. 
 
PREVIOUS EXAMINATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS 19 
 
 eluding with a brief statement of the composition and uses of 
 nickel. C 1 ) 
 
 In 1901, Dr. A. P. Coleman gives certain petrographical details of 
 the nickel bearing eruptive and the associated greenstones, with 
 special reference to occurrences of these rocks between the Stobie and 
 Nickel Mountain mines. He also furnishes an account of the minera- 
 logical composition and character, as revealed by the microscope, of 
 some of the sedimentary rocks classified as Huronian in this dis- 
 trict. ( 2 ) 
 
 In 1901, ( 3 ) and again in 1902, ( 4 ) the writer gives certain pre- 
 liminary information in regard to the geology and petrography of 
 the Sudbury district. 
 
 In the summer of 1902, Profs. Victor Goldschmidt and William 
 Nicol prepared a very complete statement of the crystallography of 
 sperrylite, the material being obtained from the original locality at 
 the Vermilion mine.( 5 ) 
 
 In 1902, C. W. Dickson, (1851 Exhibition Scholar from Queen' ^ 
 University, Kingston, and doing post-graduate work at the School of 
 Mines, Columbia University, New York) succeeded in separating 
 sperrylite from the unaltered chalcopyrite obtained at the Victoria 
 mines, and thus proved definitely that the platinum was associated 
 with the copper sulphide. ( 6 ) This is in agreement with the results 
 obtained by Walker, some years previously, to which reference has 
 already been made, and also accords with the views of Prof. Vogt, 
 from analyses of the various ores from the Norwegian nickeliferous 
 pyrrhotite deposits. ( 7 ) 
 
 At the meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
 held in Albany in February, 1903, Mr. Chas. W. Dickson, to whom 
 reference has already been made, submitted a paper entitled l The 
 Ore Deposits of Sudbury, Ontario. 7 The information thus published 
 was also presented in the form of a thesis, to obtain the degree of Ph. 
 D. at Columbia. University, New York city, (s) 
 
 This publication marks a decidedly new departure, not only in the 
 methods of research adopted, but also in the results sought to be 
 obtained, and if the conclusions reached seem new and startling, and 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1900, pp. 213-224. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1901, pp. 206-208. 
 
 (3) Sum. R'ep. Geol. Surv. Can., 1901, pp. 141-145. 
 
 (4) Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., 1902, pp. 252-267. 
 
 (5) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XV., 1903, pp. 450-458. 
 
 (6) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XV., 1903, pp. 137-139. 
 
 (7) Zeit fur Prak. Geol., Aug., 1903, pp. 268-260. 
 
 (8) Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. (Albany Meeting) February, 1903, 65 pp. 
 418721 
 
2() GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 at variance with many of the preconceived notions entertained in 
 regard to the composition and origin of these ore bodies, the author 
 must be given the credit for having weighed all the evidence and 
 exhausted every means to prove the validity of his conclusions. 
 
 Mr. Dickson mentions that one of the purposes of his investigation 
 has been to ascertain whether the nickel and cobalt replace the iron 
 isomorphously in the Sudbury pyrrhotite. Another purpose has been 
 to try to find a definite formula for the sulphide of this district, with 
 the idea of comparing it with similar minerals from other localities. 
 The thesis is divided into two main portions, as follows: I. The 
 relation of nickel to pyrrhotite, and II. Genesis of the Sudbury ores. 
 
 The former of these two parts of Mr. Dickson's paper deals, in the 
 first place, with a general statement of the Sudbury nickel region. 
 This is followed by a summary of the composition and origin of 
 pyrrhotite, to which is added a table, showing the percentage of 
 nickel and cobalt in this mineral. Then succeeds a brief description 
 of the Sudbury pyrrhotites, with tables indicating the percentage of 
 nickel, cobalt and copper, not only in the ore of the principal mines, 
 but also the average composition of some of the resulting mattes. 
 
 Mr. Dickson then discusses the methods pursued, and the results 
 of his investigation into the magnetic separation of the pyrrhotite, 
 and as a result of these experiments he concludes that all of the 
 nickel, in the Sudbury ores at least, occurs as a separate mineral, and 
 that in this district there does not exist a true nickeliferous pyrrho- 
 tite, in the sense that the nickel isomorphously replaces part of the 
 iron in that mineral. In the second part of the paper he adduces 
 strong evidence in support of his opinion that all of the Sudbury ore 
 deposits are of essentially and predominantly secondary origin. The 
 evidence adduced is derived not only from a study of the larger field 
 occurrences of the deposits and associated rocks, but also finds abun- 
 dant support in the relations between the ores and rock minerals, as 
 seen under the microscope. 
 
 A comparison is made of these Sudbury deposits with those of 
 Rossland, B.C., and Ducktown, Tenn., which are stated to show many 
 remarkable and essential points of similarity, and concerning whose 
 secondary origin there can be no doubt. 
 
 In 1903, Dr. A. P. Coleman published his account of ' The Sud- 
 bury Nickel Deposits/ (*) giving the results of the field operations 
 undertaken at the instance of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario, in the 
 summer of 1902. This is, doubtless, the most comprehensive and 
 satisfactory description of these deposits which has yet appeared. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, pp. 235-290. 
 
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT 21 
 
 The work is copiously illustrated with photographs of the different 
 mines and buildings, together with several small maps showing the 
 progress of the surface work, and the disposition of the various open- 
 ings and mining buildings. It is also accompanied by two coloured 
 geological maps, representative of the area in the vicinity of Copper 
 Cliff and Stobie mines. It is not considered necessary in this con>- 
 nexion to summarize the results of this work, as the publication is 
 of such recent date, and readily available to any one who desires to take 
 advantage of this information; and no one interested in the geolo- 
 gical and petrographical problems involved should be without it. In 
 1903, Dr. Coleman continued this work, directing his attention to the 
 mapping out in detail of the outline of the Northern nickel range, in 
 order to determine its connexion or otherwise with the Southern or 
 Main range. 
 
 It is proposed, that, during the coming season, Dr. Coleman will 
 again continue this work, with the intention of ultimately publish- 
 ing a monograph, which will contain, in succinct form, all essential 
 information in regard to these deposits which have figured so largely 
 in the mining industrial development of Canada. 
 
 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 The presence of large deposits of nickel and copper in the vicin- 
 ity of the town of Sudbury, and close to the boundary between the 
 Districts of Algoma and Nipissing, in Northern Ontario, has, for 
 many years, attracted world-wide attention, in the first place on 
 account of their immense and apparently inexhaustible character, but 
 latterly because of the much more extended use of nickel, especially 
 as an alloy with steel, to improve the qualities of the latter. The 
 recent agitation for the imposition of an export duty on nickel ore 
 and matte has, at least, resulted in drawing public attention to the 
 fact that Canada has, for some time past, been one of the two great 
 sources of nickel in the world, and at the present day produces more 
 than half of the world's consumption of this metal. The history of 
 the development of nickel mining in this region is inseparably bound 
 up with that of copper, for the two minerals are always present in 
 such intimate association with one another, that, in abstracting their 
 metallic contents, they are subjected to the same metallurgical pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 The existence of workable deposits of copper in this reigon was a 
 fact that had long been known, and as far back as 1770 a company 
 
22 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 had been formed and attempts made to mine this metal, but the diffi- 
 culty of procuring and maintaining miners, at so great a distance 
 from any centre of civilization, the remoteness of any market for the 
 ore, as well as the absence of facilities for transportation, were in 
 themselves amply sufficient causes, if none other existed, to render 
 these first attempts abortive. However, in 1846, owing to the activity 
 in prospecting and locating mineral lands on the southern shore of 
 Lake Superior, and a favourable report by Mr. W. E. Logan, then 
 newly appointed Provincial Geologist, some enterprising Canadians 
 banded themselves together into two associations called ' The Mont- 
 real Mining Company/ and ' The Upper Canada Mining Company/ 
 The former company purchased, amongst others, what was then 
 known as ' The Bruce Mines location,' and, on account of the appa- 
 rent richness of the deposit, decided to commence active work at this 
 locality, while the Upper Canada Company proceeded to develop and 
 work what was known as the ' Wallace mine,' near the mouth of the 
 Whitefish river, on Lake Huron. The Wallace mine was the choice 
 of a number of locations, owned by the same company, on the north 
 shore of Lake Huron, and was selected on account of its promising 
 character and proximity to civilization. It is chiefly remarkable as 
 having been the first place in Canada in which the presence of nickel 
 was detected. After sinking a shaft to the depth of between 60 and 
 90 feet, , and the opening up of a few pits to test the size of the 
 deposit, all work was abandoned and has not been resumed since, as 
 the quantity of ore encountered in these operations did not seem to 
 warrant any further expenditure. 
 
 In his report for 1856, Mr. Alex Murray (*) thus refers to certain 
 outcrops of sulphide bearing rocks which were long afterwards shown 
 to be the southwestern extension of the now famous Creighton Nickel 
 mine. ' At the fifth mile a dingy green magnetic trap, with a large 
 amount of iron pyrites, forms a ridge, and that rock with syenite con- 
 tinues in a succession of ridges to the seventh mile, beyond which the 
 country becomes low and marshy. Previous to my visit to Whitefish 
 lake I had been informed by Mr. S alter that local attraction of the 
 magnet had been observed by himself, while he was engaged in run- 
 ning the meridian line, and he expressed it to be his opinion that the 
 presence of a large body of iron ore was the immediate cause. When, 
 therefore, I came to the part indicated by Mr. S alter I made a very 
 careful examination, not only in the direction of the meridian line, 
 but for a considerable distance on each side of it, and the result of 
 iny examination was that the local attraction, which I found exactly 
 
 (1) Rep. Gaol. Surv. Can., 1853-56, pp. 180-181. 
 
HISTORY OP DEVELOPMENT 23 
 
 as described by Mr. Salter, was owing to the presence of an immense 
 mass of magnetic trap. 
 
 ' The compass was found, while traversing these trap ridges, to be 
 deflected from its true bearing upwards of ten degrees at several 
 parts, and in one place it showed a variation of fifteen degrees west 
 of the true meridian, or about twelve degrees from the true magnetic 
 north. Specimens of this trap have been given to Mr. Hunt for ana- 
 lysis, and the result of his investigations shows that it contains mag- 
 netic iron ore and magnetic iron pyrites, generally disseminated 
 through the rock, the former in very small grains; titaniferous iron 
 was found in association with the magnetic ore, and a small quantity 
 of nickel and copper with the pyrites. It was remarked that, notwith- 
 standing the powerful influence of this magnetic mass in causing a 
 general local attraction, the contact of fragments of it with the com- 
 pass, although producing a slight effect, rarely occasioned any re- 
 markable agitation of the needle.' 
 
 The line referred to in the above description was what was once 
 known as ' Salter's Meridian line/ and the exact position of these 
 outcrops of mineralized { trap/ on the line, is in the first concession, 
 on the boundary between Snider and Creighton townships. It can 
 thus be seen, that even at this early period of its history the officers 
 of the Geological Survey were aware of the existence of nickel in this 
 region, and had pointed out the probability that workable deposits 
 would be found. C 1 ) 
 
 Years passed by, and the inaccessible nature of the country de- 
 terred prospectors from making any very detailed exploration or 
 examination, so that it was not until 1883, when the Canadian Pacific 
 railway was in course of construction, that the first discoveries of 
 any consequence were made, since which time the whole belt charac- 
 terized by the presence of the Huronian rocks in the Sudbury district 
 has been overrun with eager prospectors and miners. 
 
 A not infrequent accident in newly settled districts led to the first 
 important discovery. Judge McNaughton, late Stipendiary Magis- 
 trate at Sudbury, had been lost in the woods to the west of the town, 
 and a diligent search was at once instituted for him. A party con- 
 sisting of Dr. Howey and two others found the judge seated on the 
 small eminence which then marked the site of what is now known as 
 the Murray mine. Dr. Howey's natural curiosity and geological turn 
 of mind are well known to all his friends, and it is not surprising, 
 therefore, that having overcome his anxiety on the Judge's account, 
 he should turn his attention to the neighbouring rocks. Looking 
 
 (1) Rep. Geo. Sur. Can., 1848-49, p. 63. 
 
24 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 down at the knoll which had served as a resting place for the tired 
 wanderer, he noticed that the rock composing it contained abundant 
 impregnations of what appeared to be a valuable ore of copper. More 
 critical examination still convinced him that he had discovered a 
 mine, and hastily securing some representative samples he exhibited 
 them to Drs. Girdwood and Selwyn, who happened to be in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and either of whom he considered fully competent to pro- 
 nounce with authority as to the economic value or possibilities of his 
 find. Dr. Girdwood, it may be remarked, was, at the time, one of the 
 chief medical advisers of the Canadian Pacific railway, and a well 
 known authority on chemistry and mineralogy. Dr. Selwyn, then 
 Director of the Geological Survey, accompanied Dr. Girdwood, in 
 order to obtain the necessary transportation facilities, enabling him 
 to make a geological reconnaissance of the area in the vicinity of the 
 railway. To Dr. Howey's surprise they informed him that the pyr- 
 rhotite which formed such a large proportion of his samples was 
 practically valueless, that the only metal of importance which might 
 be present in such a mineral was nickel, and that past experience 
 with similar ores in Canada and elsewhere had taught them that this 
 was always present in such small amount as not to permit of its pro- 
 fitable extraction. Turning their attention to the chalcopyrite, which 
 was also represented in his samples, both these gentlemen agreed 
 that although it was a valuable ore of copper the mineral was not 
 present in sufficient quantity to pay for working. Thoroughly con- 
 vinced of the soundness of their advice, but disappointed at the unex- 
 pected result, Dr. Howey took no further action in the matter, ridi- 
 culing in a quiet way the earnest and persistent efforts of others to 
 interest capital in the immense economic possibilities of this and 
 similar deposits afterwards found. One can imagine his chagrin, 
 therefore, and sympathize with his mortification, when subsequent 
 development demonstrated that both these gentlemen, whose scientific 
 attainments could not be called in question, had been rather hasty in 
 their judgment, although from a wide experience with the composi- 
 tion of pyrrhotites in general they had been right in thus expressing 
 their opinion. 
 
 Early in 1884, the Canadian Pacific railway made a cutting for 
 their main line through this small hill (Murray mine), about 3J 
 miles northwest of Sudbury, and on July 12th of the same year Dr. 
 Selwyn made a careful examination of the location, and stated to the 
 writer, some years afterwards, that he had pronounced the lode to be 
 one of the most promising he had yet seen in Canada. No such opin- 
 ion; however, was ever published, although it is quite possible that 
 
HISTORY OP DEVELOPMENT 25 
 
 the greater facility of examination caused by the cutting for the rail- 
 way, and the massiveness of the deposit thus exposed, reversed his 
 previous judgment of the ore body in question. ( 1 ) 
 
 Other discoveries soon followed, and the McConnell, Lady Mac- 
 donald, Stobie, Blezard, Copper Cliff and Evans mines were all 
 located. At first the wildest notions were entertained as to the 
 extent of these deposits, and the most exaggerated reports circulated 
 as to their value. It was even confidently asserted that these were 
 immensely important discoveries, and would revolutionize the whole 
 copper trade and render other mines then in operation quite unre- 
 munerative. Rounded hills of gossan, indicating the presence of the 
 more solid and unaltered ore beneath, occur at intervals for miles in 
 a southwesterly direction, conforming rudely to the strike of the 
 stratified or foliated rocks in the vicinity. This circumstance is all 
 that seems to have justified the early discoverers in describing the 
 deposits as veritable mountains of solid ore, many miles in extent 
 and hundreds of feet thick. During the interval which has elapsed 
 since the first discovery was made prospectors have not been idle, and 
 their efforts have been rewarded by the location of three large belts or 
 masses of the sulphide bearing norite. Until lately these have been 
 considered as entirely separate and distinct from one another, but 
 the later, geological work is tending to prove their connexion as one 
 continuous ellipsoidal band, the central portion of which is now occu- 
 pied by tufaceous slates and sandstones, coloured provisionally as of 
 Cambrian age. 
 
 The history of the development of mining in the Sudbury district 
 is, in the main, that of the Canadian Copper Company, for it was the 
 first combination of capital which seriously undertook the business of 
 mining in this area, while, at the same time, having the distinction 
 of being the only corporation which has continued its operations 
 without serious interruption, from, the commencement until the pre- 
 sent time. 
 
 1. A specimen collected at the time by Dr. Selwym from the cutting on the 
 railway at the Murray mine was examined by Dr. Hoffmann who says ' It 
 consisted of magnetic-pyrites and copper-pyrites, in association with a dark 
 grey fine-grained diorite and a greyish green chloritic schist; a few of the 
 fragments were, in parts, coated with hydrated peroxide of iron. Some spe- 
 cimens of the magnetic-pyrites from this deposit contained numerous flakes 
 of molybdenite. It was found to contain after drying at 100 C,, (Hygros- 
 copic water=0' 85 per c'ent.) 
 
 Iron 27-35 
 
 Conner 9*^8 
 
 (Sulphur 18-69 
 
 Insoluble matter (gangue) 36-63 
 
 Gold mere traces. 
 
 Silver 2-187 oz. to the ton of 2,000 Ibs. 
 
 (Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can.,, Vol. I., 1885, Part M. pp. 19-21.) 
 
26 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 The McAllister mine, later called the Lady Macdonald mine, (now 
 No. 4 mine of the Canadian Copper Company group), situated on 
 the north side of the lake of the same name, on lot I, con. Ill, of the 
 township of Snider, was the first property on which any work was 
 done in the summer of 1885, although later in the fall the Evans 
 mine, about two and a half miles farther south in the same township, 
 was opened and some preliminary tests made. On January 5, 1886, 
 the Canadian Copper Company was formed, with a subscribed and 
 paid-up capital of $2,000,000, which was afterwards increased to 
 $2,500,000, to operate the Copper Cliff, Stobie and Evans mines. 
 
 On May 1st, 1886, work was started in earnest at the Copper Cliff 
 mine, near the north end of lot 12, con. II, of McKim township, and 
 the first shipments of ore made from the district were obtained from 
 the surface openings of the original Copper "Cliff mine. Later on in 
 the same year both the Stobie and Evans mines were opened up, and 
 these three mines together produced all the ore treated in the smelters 
 at Copper Cliff, until the year 1898. The first blast furnace installed 
 at the old or East Smelter was blown in on December 24, 1888, this 
 being augmented under the same roof by a second blast furnace, 
 which was started on September 4, 1889. During 1896 and 1897 
 diamond drill exploratory work was undertaken in connexion with 
 the deposits afterwards known as the No. 1 and No. 2 mines with 
 their extensions, and in 1898 many of these openings produced a con- 
 siderable quantity of high grade ore, but, with the exception of the 
 deposit at No. 2, there was apparently no very large or continuous 
 body encountered, for they were soon abandoned and are now 
 completely dismantled. About the same time what is now the largest 
 open pit of the whole group of the Copper Cliff mines (No. 2) was 
 started in earnest, soon supplying a very large quantity of ore, which, 
 however, contains a considerable admixture of rocky matter. The 
 Evans mine, although with some rather serious interruptions, con- 
 tinued to furnish ore until late in the fall of 1899, when it closed 
 down, and to all appearances has been permanently abandoned. The 
 engines, boilers and other machinery have been removed, and the 
 rails of the spur connecting the mines with the main line of railway 
 have all been torn up and carried off to be used elsewhere. In the 
 fall of 1899 preparations were made for opening up the Frood mine 
 (No. 3), situated a little over a mile southwest of the Stobie mine, on 
 lot 6, con. VI, of the township of McKim, and early in 1900 this 
 was added to the list of producing mines. During 1899, and succeed- 
 ing seasons, many of the openings northwest of No. 2 mine, as well 
 as some of the pits and shafts known as the Clarabelle group of 
 
HISTORY OP DEVELOPMENT 27 
 
 mines, were being operated at one time or another, and added mate- 
 rially to the reserves of ore, but all of these were shut down in the 
 spring of 1902, when the business of the company was being curtailed, 
 pending reorganization and consolidation of the various interests. In 
 July, 1900, the work of stripping at the Creighton mine was begun, 
 and in August of the following ' year ore was shipped for the first 
 time to the roast yards at Copper Cliff. The Creighton mine is un- 
 doubtedly the largest mine in the district of which we at present 
 have knowledge, and from the very beginning of operations has pro- 
 duced very large quantities of the almost pure sulphides, with little 
 or no rocky admixture. It is especially valuable as carrying a high 
 percentage of nickel, with a very much smaller proportion of copper. 
 The mine is situated on the north half of lot 10, concession I, of the 
 township of Snider, about six miles in a straight line west of Copper 
 Cliff station. The ore, when mined, is carried on cars over the Mani- 
 touliii and North Shore railway, on the north side of which the 
 mine is located, to Clarabelle junction, where connexion is made with 
 the railway owned by the Canadian Copper Company. Before the 
 opening of the Creighton mine the Stobie had the distinction of 
 having supplied the largest quantity of ore of all the Canadian Cop- 
 per Company's mines, and, with the exception of some minor stop- 
 pages, this mine was in continuous operation from the date of its 
 opening, in 1886, until November, 1901, when it closed down and has 
 remained so ever since. The reason for this cessation of operations 
 does not appear to be that the end of the deposit has been reached, 
 but because the quality of ore which it supplies is not needed in the 
 present smelting operations. The Creighton mine is at present the 
 main source of supply, and this mine with its equipment allows for a 
 production of between 500 and 600 tons of ore per day, and Dr. Cole- 
 man is authority for the statement that for some time in 1902 the 
 output from this mine alone reached 17,000 tons per month. The 
 old or original Copper Cliff still continues to supply about 1,000 tons 
 of ore per month, obtained mainly from the 13th and 14th levels, the 
 latter workings being 1,052 feet below the surface; but even at this 
 depth the ore body shows no serious diminution, either in size or 
 richness. No. 2 mine and the Frood (No. 3) complete the list of 
 mines from which at present the supply of ore is drawn. The mines 
 of this company not in use at present must not all be considered as 
 having been permanently abandoned, but the openings now utilized 
 produce an ample supply of the sulphide material of the various 
 grades suitable for smelting. 
 
 This activity in mining at Copper Cliff, and the steady increase 
 in the production of ore, necessitated constant additions to the smelt- 
 
28 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 ing equipment, as well as the erection of new and suitable buildings 
 for the accommodation of the new blast furnaces. We thus find, that 
 besides the enlargement of the old or East Smelter,, where three new 
 furnaces were installed in addition 'to the two already mentioned, an 
 entirely new structure, known as the West Smelter, was built in 1899. 
 At first this building had room for only four furnaces, but this was 
 quickly enlarged, and the furnace capacity doubled. The site chosen 
 for this new building was on the slope of the hill about 300 feet 
 southeast of the No. 2 mine rock house, the deep valley to the south 
 providing a convenient and ample dumping ground for the slag. 
 
 After the inauguration of this smelter the one at the east end of 
 the works was gradually abandoned, and the whole plant has been 
 removed to the site of the new building. The work done at this 
 place, since the suspension of operations in the beginning of 1902, 
 has been rather spasmodic, and has consisted mainly in the produc- 
 tion of a low grade matte known as ' split matte/ 
 
 Thus, several of the furnaces at this smelter were being employed 
 in producing this matte from June, 1902, until the end of the year. 
 In addition two of the furnaces have been engaged from time to 
 time making experiments in the way of smelting the ore pyritically. 
 It is hoped, by this method, to reduce the coke to 3 or 4 per cent of 
 the charge, by using a hot blast and an oxidizing atmosphere in the 
 blast furnace, and utilizing the heat developed by the burning of the 
 sulphur and iron of the ore, for the smelting. In the fall of 1900 
 the plant of the Ontario Smelting Works was installed by the Orford 
 Copper Company, an organization closely related to the Canadian 
 Copper Company. The works, as completed, are designed to further 
 refine the first or lower grade matte, produced by the blast furnaces 
 of the Canadian Copper Company, using as a flux the siliceous ore 
 from the Massey Copper mine. 
 
 Perhaps, the most important event in the development of the 
 nickel industry, either in this district or elsewhere, occurred in April, 
 1902, when, after negotiation covering a period of several months, 
 the International Nickel Company was organized under the laws of 
 the State of New Jersey, to consolidate and control the nickel pro- 
 duction of the world. The following properties were included in the 
 new organization: The Canadian Copper Company; the Orford 
 Copper Company, with reduction works at Bayonne, N. J. ; the Anglo- 
 American Iron Company, and the Vermilion Mining Company, in 
 Canada; the American Nickel Works, in Camden, N.J.; the Nickel 
 Corporation, Limited, and the Societe Miniere Caledonienne, in New 
 Caledonia. During 1902 and 1903 mining operations were consider- 
 ably curtailed, except in the case of the Creighton mine, where the 
 
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT 29 
 
 production has been brisk ever since it was first opened. This has 
 permitted certain very necessary explorations of many of the ore 
 deposits, by diamond drilling and testing shafts. The results of these 
 experiments have added very largely to the detailed knowledge, not 
 only in regard to the size and shape of the deposits already known, 
 but has succeeded in revealing the presence of considerable bodies of 
 ore whose presence had not been suspected. 
 
 Such, in brief, is the record of the principal events in the develop- 
 ment of the mining and metallurgical operations of this pioneer com- 
 pany, in the nickel industry in Canada. From the start their work 
 has always been characterized by energetic and business-like methods, 
 and if at the present time they seem to have gained control of more 
 than their fair share of the available nickel bearing area, which like- 
 wise includes many of the mines producing the largest supplies of 
 high grade nickel ore, the result must not be attributed to chance or 
 a series of fortunate circumstances, but is rather the strongest evi- 
 dence of the keen business foresight of the originators of the enter- 
 prise, and an abiding faith in the permanence of the nickel mining 
 in this district. 
 
 It must not, however, be assumed that all of the available or even 
 important deposits of nickel-copper sulphides have passed under the 
 control of the International Nickel Company, for besides the Victoria 
 mines of the ivlond Nickel Company, which still contain a very large 
 reserve of high grade ore, there are many others throughout the dis- 
 trict which are capable of economic development as more or less per- 
 manent mines. Suspension of operations, so often recorded in the 
 history of the mining development of the district, does not in all or 
 even a majority of cases imply a failure in the ore supply, but is 
 oftener to be attributed to a waste of capital, owing to lack of busi- 
 ness judgment, and the need of a technical knowledge of the difficul- 
 ties to be encountered in both the mining and smelting departments. 
 Moreover, many of the deposits have been condemned because they 
 failed to give a proper return for the capital invested, when all that 
 was available of the latter was utilized in costly experiments to dis- 
 cover new methods of smelting or refining. Past experience in this 
 district has shown that success and permanency in the mining and 
 smelting operations of any company can only be secured by the pos- 
 session of large reserves of ore, preferably obtained from different 
 mines or deposits. In this way not only is a constant supply of ore 
 assured, but diversity in composition is possible, thus enabling a 
 judicious selection of the different grades, whose mixture in the pro- 
 per proportions promotes successful and economic smelting. 
 
 In addition to the deposits which are still available along the 
 
30 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Southern range, most of which are in various stages of development, 
 there are other apparently very large and important ore bodies situ- 
 ated along the Middle range (in Levack township) ; and others again 
 on the Northern Nickel range which are certainly worthy of close 
 attention and which seem destined, in the near future, to be worked 
 as mines. The lack of transportation facilities has, up to the present, 
 prevented any deep mining work being done, but the surface indica- 
 tions and geological conditions are entirely favourable to the exist- 
 ence of large ore bodies, which, although perhaps not attaining the 
 phenomenal dimensions of the Creighton property, will nevertheless 
 prove of sufficient magnitude to form valuable mines. 
 
 Henry H. Vivian & Co. 
 
 The incidents attending the discovery of the deposit which was 
 afterwards known as the Murray mine have already been related, as 
 also the fact that it was located over a year previous to either the 
 Copper Cliff or Stobie mines. In spite of this circumstance, how- 
 ever, and its advantageous situation on the main line of the Cana- 
 dian Pacific railway ,no mining of any importance was done in con- 
 nexion with this property until early in the year 1889. During the 
 whole of this season, however, it was prospected under bond by II. 
 H. Vivian & Co., of Swansea, Wales, and in October of the same 
 year it was sold outright to this company by the original owners. 
 The mine is situated on the north half of lot 11, con. V, of McKim 
 township. All the necessary machinery, buildings and other adjuncts 
 wore installed, and preparations made for carrying on the business 
 of mining on an extensive scale. 
 
 The first blast furnace at the Murray mine was blown in about 
 the end of September, 1890, and put to work on some ore which had 
 been previously roasted. The general practice followed by this com- 
 pany in their smelting operations consisted in the production of a 
 comparatively low grade blast furnace matte (averaging 94 per cent 
 nickel and 4-7 per cent copper), thus preventing an undue loss of 
 the metals in the slag, and subsequently bessermerizing this into a 
 second or higher grade matte (averaging nearly 75 per cent of the 
 combined metals, or about 49 per cent nickel and 26 per cent copper). 
 For this second concentration of the metallic contents the Vivians 
 were the first to make use of the Manches furnace or converter, in 
 1891. Mining and smelting operations were continued, although with 
 some minor interruptions, from 1889 until 1894, when the works were 
 finally closed down. Between August, 1896, and January, 1897, how- 
 
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT 31 
 
 ever, the smelter was engaged in producing matte from about 6,000 
 tons of ore which had been roasted by the Vivians. This product was 
 shipped to Mr. Joseph Wharton, of Camden, N.J., to whom it had 
 been sold. 
 
 The purchase of the Murray mine by this old established and well 
 known firm of Welsh smelters was regarded by all as marking a dis- 
 tinct epoch in the history of nickel mining in Canada. Their wide 
 experience in all branches of metallurgical industry seemed to augur 
 well for the success, not only of their own individual enterprise, but 
 to others similarly engaged in the mining and smelting of these nickel 
 and copper sulphides. The difficulties which always attend the initia- 
 tion of a new. undertaking were in evidence from the very beginning 
 of the business of nickel mining, and were of that nature which re- 
 quired the exercise of just such ripe technical knowledge as the 
 Vivians were sure to possess. Moreover, such a significant acknow- 
 ledgment of the success and permanence of nickel mining in Canada, 
 on the part of a firm whose sphere of activity in mining and smelt- 
 ing had extended to all parts of the known world, could not fail to 
 have a most marked influence on all subsequent mining operations in 
 the district. It was, therefore, to say the least, bitterly disappointing, 
 that from the very outset a seeming lack of energy, and often even 
 of ordinary business ability, on the part of those who had control of 
 the work, was a subject of common remark, being in marked contrast 
 to the alert methods characterizing the operations of the rival cor- 
 poration, the Canadian Copper Company. This was evident in almost 
 every department of the work, and the apparent lack of technical 
 knowledge and business capacity on the part of this firm, from whom 
 so much had been expected, could not be very well understood by the 
 ordinary observer. On the other hand, the management entrusted 
 with the conduct of affairs at the mine complained of want of inter- 
 est and attention on the part of the authorities in England, but, 
 whatever the real cause, or combination of causes ,the enterprise was 
 not attended with the success anticipated, and which should have 
 been reasonably expected. The final decision of the company to close 
 down and withdraw from the business of mining in Canada, came as 
 a distinct shock to all those who were interested in seeing the per- 
 manency of the nickel mining established. The failure of these oper- 
 ations must not, therefore, be attributed, as some have supposed, to 
 the diminution in depth of the ore body or to abundant rocky admix- 
 ture, although these, no doubt, contributed to a certain extent to bring 
 about the undesirable result. It seems altogether reasonable to sup- 
 pose that a considerable quantity of ore is still present, both in the 
 lower levels of the mine, as well as below these workings at depths 
 
32 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 which have not yet been reached by the mining explorations so far % 
 undertaken, which could be profitably mined in conjunction with 
 other deposits. In this respect the Vivians were at a manifest dis- 
 advantage as compared with the Canadian Copper Company, the 
 varied composition and character of the ores from whose different 
 mines permitted, and even favoured, the mixtures which are seem- 
 ingly so essential for the successful and economical smelting of these 
 sulphide ores. In addition to the Murray mine the Vivians owned 
 the nickel and copper deposit known as the Lady Violet mine, situ- 
 ated on the north half of lot 1, con. IV, of the Township of Snider, 
 about 1J miles southwest of the Murray mine. The mining, how- 
 ever, undertaken at this locality consisted chiefly of stripping, the 
 sinking of trial shafts, and other preliminary development work. A 
 blacksmith's shop and some temporary residences were the only build- 
 ings erected. 
 
 Some rather extensive diamond drill exploration work was subse- 
 quently undertaken by order of the Board of Directors in England, 
 at both the Murray and Lady Violet mines, but, unfortunately, the 
 different sites for the drill, as well as the angles of inclination and 
 direction of the bore holes, were determined by some of these same 
 directors in England, whose only means of guidance in this section 
 seems to have been maps of the two properties in question, but with- 
 out any very extended personal knowledge of the actual geological 
 conditions prevailing at these places. As might have been expected, 
 from operations carried on under such adverse conditions, no impor- 
 tant ore bodies were encountered, nor was any information of mate- 
 rial value obtained, which might be of assistance either to the owners 
 or to any prospective buyer. The diamond drill used belonged to the 
 Ontario government, and was leased to the Vivians under the usual 
 conditions of working in 1898. Boring was begun on the 2nd of 
 December, 1898, and the work continued until the 16th of June, 1899, 
 the number of days of actual boring being 212, of 10 hours each. In 
 all, eight holes were put down, having an aggregate depth of 1,146 
 feet, which cost on an average $2.65 per foot. ( x ) 
 
 Since the abandonment of actual mining the property has been 
 under the charge of Mr. G. H. Behema, who has been continuously 
 employed looking after the various buildings and machinery, while a 
 pump has kept most of the levels comparatively free from water. 
 
 Dominion Mineral Company. 
 
 The Dominion Mineral Company commenced mining operations 
 in the summer of 1899, on a deposit of nickel and copper ore known 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1901, pp. 53 and 55. 
 
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT 33 
 
 as the Blezard mine, occurring on lot 4, con. II., of Blezard town- 
 ship, about 1 miles north of the Stobie mine, at the southern edge 
 of the Main or Southern range of norite, which here comes in con- 
 tact with the older diorites and hornblende schists. A smelter was 
 soon built, with a furnace capacity of 120 to 150 tons daily. Four 
 shafts were sunk at this mine, the deepest of which seems to have 
 reached a point 172 feet below the surface. Most of the ore secured, 
 however, was by means of a series of large open pits which are at 
 present filled with water. The ' kies ' or metallic portion of the ore 
 thus obtained is said to have averaged about 4 per cent nickel and 2 
 per cent copper. For reasons which have been differently stated min- 
 ing operations were discontinued in the summer of 1893, and have 
 not been resumed since. The smelter, however, at this mine, was kept 
 running until July, 1895, on ore brought chiefly from the Worthing- 
 ton mine. The total production of ore cannot be accurately given, 
 but the figure of 100,000 tons is certainly somewhat below the actual 
 output. The Worthington mine, also worked by the same company, 
 is situated at a station of the same name, on the Sault branch of the 
 Canadian Pacific railway, twenty-five miles west of Sudbury. The 
 mine itself, consisting of two shafts, lies close to the line between 
 lots 1 and 2, con. II, of the township of Drury. It was discovered 
 at the time of the construction of this branch . by Mr. James Worth- 
 ington, one of the railway contractors. Actual mining was started 
 on this property in the summer of 1890, and continued without much 
 interruption until the middle of September, 1894, when operations 
 ceased, and with the exception of a short time in 1902, when the 
 mine was pumped out for purposes of inspection, no work of any 
 consequence has since been done. From the two shafts, one of which 
 reached a depth of 100 feet, and the other 175 feet below the surface, 
 as well as from two adjoining stopes and connecting levels, a consid- 
 erable amount of unusually high grade ore was obtained, which has 
 been estimated by Dr. Coleman at 25,000 tons. The pyrrhotite occur- 
 ring at this mine is often phenomenally high in nickel, chiefly owing 
 to abundantly disseminated pentlandite, and the first recognition of 
 this mineral in the district was by Dr. T. L. Walker, in the ore pro- 
 cured from this mine by the writer in 1891, and to which reference 
 has already been made. The analysis of this pentlandite by Walker 
 showed 30 per cent nickel, but an examination of some large masses 
 of ore obtained at a depth of 85 feet below the surface, and consisting 
 of pyrrhotite with a considerable proportion of pentlandite, which 
 could be readily discerned, showed 17 *48 per cent nickel. In 1891 . a 
 shipment of raw ore was made from this mine of 123 tons, which con- 
 tained 10 per cent nickel and 3 per cent copper. Large masses of 
 41873 
 
34: GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 practically pure chalcopyrite were also obtained, and a considerable 
 quantity of such ore is stated by Manager Attwood to have been 
 shipped, assaying 18 per cent copper and 2 '5 per cent nickel. 
 
 In the fall of 1895 some development work was done by this same 
 company, at the Cameron mine, on lot 7, con. 1, of Blezard township, 
 nearly two miles southwest of the Blezard mine. A shaft was sunk 
 a distance of 65 feet with a drift 66 feet in length. The real reason 
 for the cessation of work at both the Worthington and Blezard mines 
 is very difficult to ascertain, but bad business management was ren 
 sponsible in large part for many of their difficulties during these min- 
 ing operations. Individual members of the company state that the 
 present idleness of these properties is because no decision satisfac- 
 tory to all parties can be reached by the board of directors, so Jfchat 
 working under these conditions is impossible, and they would be in- 
 clined to sell. 
 
 Some of the other companies who carried on mining, and in some 
 cases smelting, operations for a time, shortly after the recognition of 
 this area as a mining district, deserve a passing mention in this con- 
 nexion. 
 
 One of these, the Algoma Nickel Company, in 1891, under an 
 option secured from the owners of the property, sank four shafts 
 varying in depths from 12 to 35 feet and aggregating 84 feet in all, 
 besides some smaller openings or test pits on lot 11, con. V, of the 
 township of Lome. No large body of ore was, however, met with as 
 a result of this development work, the sulphides apparently occurring 
 as unusually rich impregnations, which, if continuous, might prove 
 an economic possibility. These sulphides occur in connexion with 
 what is seemingly the southwestern extension of the same mass or 
 band of norite on which the Worthington and Mitchener mines are 
 situated. Work was abandoned, leaving ore piles aggregating about 
 500 tons in weight. Assays of an average sample in the laboratory 
 of the Survey showed 1*95 per cent nickel, with traces of cobalt. 
 
 The Drury Nickel Company purchased the deposit known as the 
 Chicago or Travers mine in 1890, and began active mining in Febru- 
 ary, 1891. This mine is situated on lot 3, con. V, of the township of 
 Drury, about 5 miles north of Worthington station, on the Sault 
 branch of the Canadian Pacific railway. Most of the ore was mined 
 by means of open cuts, one of which had a depth of 30 feet, length 60 
 feet and width 30 feet, from the bottom of which a shaft 8 by 12 feet 
 was sunk to a depth of 60 feet. Another open pit measured 40 feet 
 in length, 80 feet in width and 30 feet in depth. From these open- 
 ings 3,500 tons of ore were obtained, and reduced to matte in a water- 
 Jacketed furnace capable of treating 60 tons in 24 hours. A roast- 
 
HISTORY OP DEVELOPMENT 35 
 
 yard was prepared, suitable buildings erected, and the plant installed 
 necessary for permanent mining, but in spite of all this the mine 
 closed down in 1892. In 1893, after lying idle for nearly a year, some 
 additional mining and smelting was undertaken, but this was also 
 soon abandoned. On May 20, 1896, work was again resumed, the 
 company being organized under the name of the Trill Nickel Mining 
 and Manufacturing Company, and the deposit itself was rechristenecf 
 the Inez mine. An elevated tramway, 4 miles long, was built from 
 Worthington station, for conveying supplies to the mine, and the pro- 
 duct of the mine, in turn, to the station. It was possible, by means 
 of this tramway, for a single horse to haul two cars, each containing 
 two tons, and to make two round trips . each way daily. Mining and 
 smelting continued briskly again, for a while, but before August, 
 1897, work was again stopped, and has not since been resumed. 
 
 From time to time mention is made of the 'Big Levack proper- 
 ties,' thus referring to certain deposits of nickeliferous pyrrhotite 
 which were discovered early in the history of the district in the town- 
 ship of Levack, but none of which have been sufficiently developed to 
 be dignified by the name of 'mine.' From time to time, however, 
 considerable work has been done and examinations made with a view 
 to possible purchase, but for various reasons the properties are now 
 (1901) lying idle and without any present prospect of being opened 
 up in the near future. The deposits in question are situated along the 
 northern junction of what has sometimes been called the Windy Lake 
 eruptive or Middle Belt of the nickel bearing norite, although it is 
 possible that this is a portion of the huge ellipsoidal band, and the 
 southwestern continuation of the Northern Nickel range. The sur- 
 face indications are undoubtedly among the best in the district, and 
 the development wprk so far undertaken has exposed a very large 
 amount of almost pure nickeliferous pyrrhotite, with little or no 
 rocky admixture. The ore-body has the additional advantage that 
 chalcopyrite forms only a comparatively small proportion of the whole. 
 The first, and probably the most extensive mining exploration work 
 in connexion with these properties, was undertaken in 1891, and a 
 report made by Mr. A. Merry, of H. H. Vivian and Company, for the 
 owners of the property. This work consisted of extensive stripping, 
 and the removal of portions of the overlying drift material, the open- 
 ing up of numerous cross cuts, trenches and test pits. The average 
 assay of a number of typical samples, made by Mr. Merry, showed 
 the presence of 3*86 per cent of nickel in the pyrrhotite, with 0'81 
 per cent of copper. Assays made in the laboratory of the Survey 
 show the nickel to vary from 1-96 to 4-13 per cent, the lower figure 
 containing considerable gangue, while the higher results were 
 
 4187 3J 
 
36 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 obtained from the solid, coarse-grained pyrrhotite. Early in 1901 
 some of these locations were examined by means of diamond drill 
 exploration, under option by the Mond Nickel Company, but to the 
 disappointment of all who were concerned in the welfare of the dis- 
 trict this company decided to abandon their option, and the property 
 was again thrown on the market. It is manifestly unwise, as a rule, 
 to condemn as worthless the testimony afforded by diamond drill ex- 
 ploration, especially when such work is under the superintendence of 
 men thoroughly experienced in the mode of occurrence of the class of 
 deposit to be tested, but an inspection of the work performed at this 
 time seems thoroughly convincing that much of what was done 
 added very little, if any, information to what we already possessed in 
 regard to these deposits, or than can be secured without such costly 
 assistance. We are, therefore, still in the dark as to whether or not 
 there are any large or continuous bodies of ore at these places, and if 
 the former, as to their most likely disposition. All geologists who 
 have visited these deposits, and especially those who have had wide 
 experience in the district, are agreed that large and valuable ore- 
 bodies are likely to occur at this place. The rock is the usual norite, 
 with which all the other mines of the district are associated, while 
 the contact is well and sharply denned, and the differentiation pro- 
 nounced. The area covered by the nickel bearing norite is very 
 large, and no other deposits have been found in connexion with this 
 eruptive. The angle of dip to the southeast is unusually low for the 
 district, and this fact has to a large extent prevented its successful 
 exploration. The development work, as well as the borings under- 
 taken by the diamond drill, seem to incline the casual observer to the 
 conclusion that the deposit is a ' pancake ' and has no great depth or 
 permanence. A careful study of the attitude of the outcrops of rock, 
 as well as their surface outline in the immediate vicinity of the sites 
 chosen for drilling purposes, is convincing that no deep deposit need 
 be expected in their vicinity, while, on the other hand, it seems reason- 
 able that the main body of the sulphides is concealed beneath the 
 drift, at the base of the hill, where no trials whatever have been made. 
 A shaft sunk here and continued with the granite-gneiss as a foot- 
 wall, with drifts outward towards the main mass of the norite, would 
 show definitely and finally not only if any large and continuous ore- 
 body is present along this line of junction, but at the same time 
 would secure a considerable amount of ore, which could afterwards 
 be used. 
 
 In 1891, a shaft was started on the Davis property, known as the 
 Sheppard or Beatrice mine. This deposit is situated along the north- 
 eastern extension of the same line of junction as the Blezard mine, 
 
HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT 37 
 
 between the norite and greenstone. It is on lot 1, con. Ill, of Blezard 
 township, nearly two miles northeast of the Blezard mine, with which 
 it is connected by wagon road. The shaft, 10 by 12 feet, was sunk to 
 the depth of 100 feet, with three small drifts, aggregating 34 feet. 
 Work, however, was not continued after April, 1893. 
 
 In the same year, (1891), a shaft was sunk and considerable de- 
 velopment work done by the Emmons Metal Company, on the pro- 
 perty afterwards known as the Macdonell or Gersdorffite mine, situ- 
 ated in the southeast corner of lot 12, con. Ill, of the township of 
 Denison, and about one mile and a half northeast of Worthington 
 station. This locality is remarkable as having furnished the first 
 specimens of the rich nickel minerals, niccolite and gersdorffite, in 
 the district, but as no large body of ore was discovered mining oper- 
 ations soon came to an end. 
 
 In 1894, the deposit known as the Trillabelle mine was opened, 
 and a shaft 60 feet in depth sunk on the deposit. This mine is situ- 
 ated on lots 10 and 11, con. Ill, of the township of Trill, and is con- 
 nected by wagon road, by way of the Inez or Travers mine, with 
 Worthington station, which is about 13 miles distant. 
 
 In 1898, the deposit which was named the Kirkwood mine, situated 
 on lot 8, con. Ill, of the township of Garson, at the southern edge of 
 the main or southern belt of norite, along the same line of junction 
 as the Blezard and Beatrice mines, was opened. Three shafts were 
 sunk, the deepest of which was rather less than 50 feet. A substantial 
 rock house and other suitable mining buildings were erected, but for 
 lack of sufficient capital the work has not proceeded further. 
 
 On October 5, 1899, the Great Lakes Copper Company was organ- 
 ized, and purchased the property known as the Mount Nickel mine, 
 comprising lots 5 and 6, con. II, of the township of Blezard. They 
 also purchased what was known as the ' Trill Property/ consisting of 
 lots 9 and 10 in cons. Ill and IV, of the township of Trill, in the 
 district of Algoma. The Mount Nickel mine was chosen as the scene 
 of the first mining operations, and this deposit was developed by 
 means of two open cuts and a shaft, which eventually reached a 
 depth of about 165 feet, with certain levels and drifts, from all of 
 which considerable ore was obtained. It is also stated that diamond 
 drill explorations subsequently undertaken revealed the presence of a 
 good supply of ore. The mine was equipped with all the machinery 
 and other appliances for carrying oil extensive mining operations. 
 The smelting works were built from original designs by Anton Graf 
 of Vienna, and it was proposed to produce high grade matte at one 
 operation from ores which had received no previous roasting. This 
 
#8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 method of smelting failed, and in May, 1901, all operations ceased, 
 .and have not been resumed since. 
 
 In the latter part of 1899 it was announced that a strong com- 
 pany, under the title of the Hoepf ner Refining Company, with a 
 capital of $10,000,000, had been formed in Hamilton, to refine nickel- 
 copper mattes and zinc ores. These metals were to be recovered by 
 electrolytic methods discovered by Dr. Carl Hoepfner. The Nickel 
 Copper Company, of Hamilton, also organized about the same time, 
 were to furnish the necessary supply of nickel-copper matte. Unfor- 
 tunately, however, Dr. Hoepfner was unable to so perfect his methods 
 .as to permit of its economic application on a large scale and the Nickel 
 Copper Company took the matter of ' experimenting into their own 
 hands. The services of Mr. Hans A. Frasch were obtained, who 
 devised what is known as the ' Frasch Process.' This method like- 
 wise, although possible under ordinary conditions of laboratory prac- 
 tice, as was demonstrated at a public exhibition held on September 3, 
 1900, was not capable of commercial application. The operations of 
 the Nickel Copper Company came to an end in 1901, owing to the 
 complete failure of the new self -roasting plant erected near Worth- 
 ington station. 
 
 LAKE SUPERIOR POWER COMPANY. 
 
 For some time after the opening of the pulp mills at Sault Ste. 
 Marie the Lake Superior Power Company were content to manu- 
 facture mechanical pulp, but discovering that there was a large and 
 growing demand for sulphide pulp it was decided to at once enter 
 upon its manufacture. The proximity of the sulphide deposits at 
 Sudbury suggested that the sulphur which was necessary for the pro- 
 duction of this pulp might be most profitably extracted from these 
 ores, and at the same time yield a by-product of very great value. 
 The preliminary experiments with the nickeliferous pyrrhotite were 
 convincing that sufficient sulphur dioxide could be procured from 
 this mineral by roasting, while at the same time the roasted ore or 
 residue, consisting essentially of a mixture of iron and nickel with 
 only a comparatively small percentage of sulphur, could be mixed 
 with lime and charcoal and smelted in electric furnaces to ferro- 
 nickel. It was intended at the time to employ this alloy in large 
 quantities. An inspection of all the available deposits of nickelifer- 
 ous pyrrhotite seemed to indicate that the property afterwards known 
 as the Gertrude mine was peculiarly adapted to meet the necessities 
 of the case in hand. In 1899, therefore, the Lake Superior Power 
 
LAKE SUPERIOR POWER COMPANY 39 
 
 Company purchased this mine, and immediately proceeded to develop 
 the deposits which were situated on the S. of lots 3, 4 and 5, of con. 
 I, of the township of Creighton, a little over twelve miles west of 
 Sudbury. The preliminary examinations and first development work 
 showed an unusual predominance of a high grade nickeliferous pyr- 
 rhotite, with comparatively little of the objectionable copper in the 
 form of intermixed chalcopyrite. As mining operations proceeded, 
 however, more chalcopyrite was encountered, and the deposit gradu- 
 ally assumed the usual characteristics of those elsewhere in the dis- 
 trict, and the copper contents assumed too large a proportion to per- 
 mit of the successful carrying on of the first proposal. Repeated 
 experiments were made with many carloads of raw material shipped 
 to the works at the Sault for this purpose, but it was finally decided 
 to adopt the ordinary process of smelting in use elsewhere throughout 
 the district, producing a blast furnace matte averaging about 29 per 
 cent of the combined metals, the proportion of nickel being about 
 double that of the copper. 
 
 In 1900, the development of the Gertrude mine was continued, 
 but the want of transportation facilities greatly hampered these 
 operations. Two shafts were sunk, one attaining a depth of 120 feet, 
 and the other of 80 feet, with several levels and drifts. In the spring 
 of 1901 the Manitoulin and North Shore railway reached this mine, 
 and work was conducted much more energetically. Roast yards were 
 prepared, and the erection of a smelter commenced. In July of that 
 year the Elsie mine, on the S. half of lot 12, con. V, of McKim, and 
 about half a mile southwest of the Murray mine, was opened up. 
 The ore was shipped in 50-ton steel cars to the roast yards at the 
 Gertrude mine, and the first shipment of ore was made to this place 
 011 the 26th of October, 1901, on the completion of the switch . which 
 connects the deposit with the main line of the Manitoulin and North 
 Shore railway. The smelter at the Gertrude mine was finished in 
 June, 1902, and afterwards ran steadily throughout the year, convert- 
 ing 100 to 160 tons daily into standard matte. In November, 1902, 
 all work was suspended at the Elsie mine, to permit of the needed 
 removal of some of the mining buildings, whose safety was threat- 
 ened by a continuance of the mining work. Later, in 1903, the whole 
 of the mining operations in the Sudbury district shared the same fate 
 in common with the other industries operated by the same company 
 at the time of their failure. 
 
 MONO NICKEL COMPANY. 
 
 In 1889, Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., in collaboration with Dr. 
 Carl Langer, while carrying on certain experiments for determining 
 
40 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 a suitable method for eliminating the carbon monoxide gases contain- 
 ing hydrogen, made certain observations which eventually resulted 
 in the discovery of what has since been known as the Mond or car- 
 bon-monoxide process, for separating metallic nickel from copper, 
 &c. In this process there were many technical difficulties to be over- 
 come, so that, although a patent was applied for on the 12th of 
 August, 1890, it was some years before it had reached such a stage 
 as demonstrated its possibilities of commercial success. In 1892, an 
 experimental plant, on a large scale, was erected at Smethwick, near 
 Birmingham, England, and after several years of patient work, dur- 
 ing which time the plant had to be several times remodelled in order 
 to meet all the requirements of this somewhat delicate process, it 
 gradually assumed its present shape. In 1898, it had reached such a 
 state of perfection as to afford the most convincing proof that the 
 process was able, not only to compete successfully in regard to cost of 
 operation, but at the same time the metallic nickel produced showed, 
 on analysis, a higher degree of purity than had yet been possible by 
 any other known process. 
 
 The success of the method being thus assured, Dr. Mond began at 
 once to make inquiries, with a view to obtaining an unfailing supply 
 of nickel ore. Experiments conducted on the nickel and copper sul- 
 phide ores seemed convincing that such were peculiarly suited to 
 treatment by the Mond process, so that it was decided to buy one or 
 more of the best locations which were then available in the Sudbury 
 mining district. At this time, and for some years previously, it was 
 a matter of common gossip throughout this area that the McConnell 
 mine or property, in the township of Denison, was one of the largest 
 deposits of high grade ore which had yet been found, and attention 
 was, therefore, directed to it with a view to possible purchase. After 
 some negotiations, and a thorough investigation of the merits of these 
 deposits, Dr. Mond decided to acquire these properties, and accord- 
 ingly, in the summer of 1899, the necessary transfer was made. These 
 mining locations had been under development for some time by their 
 former owner, Mr. Einaldo McConnell, and at the time they were 
 sold to Dr. Mond explorations were being carried on by means of 
 the Ontario government diamond drill, with a view to determining 
 more definitely the position and extent of the various ore-bodies. The 
 change in ownership, however, did not affect the progress of the work, 
 which began on July 10, and finished on November 21, 1899. In this 
 time seven holes were bored, the aggregate number of feet being 994, 
 at an average cost of $1.75 per foot. In addition, two other drills 
 owned by Dr. Mond were engaged more or less continuously during 
 this and the two succeeding years, investigating these and other min- 
 
MOND NICKEL COMPANY 41 
 
 ing locations, in which Dr. Mond was interested. The main shaft 
 and mining buildings of what were henceforth to be known as the 
 Victoria mines are situated on the north half of lot 8, con. IV, of 
 the township of Denison, while the smelter, offices and official resi- 
 dences were built on the north half of lot 8, con. II, of the same 
 township, close to the ' Sault ' branch of the Canadian Pacific rail- 
 way, and a little over two miles south of the main openings. 
 
 Beginning in 1899 the work of opening up these deposits pro- 
 ceeded as rapidly as circumstances permitted. Extensive stripping of 
 the deposits and other preliminary development work was undertaken ; 
 roads were opened up; a roast yard was levelled and otherwise pre- 
 pared, and the necessary timbers secured for the numerous extensive 
 structures contemplated. 
 
 During 1900 this work was continued, special attention being 
 given to equipping the mines and smelter, the site of the latter being 
 chosen close to Fairbank creek, on the Sault branch, 22 miles west of 
 Sudbury. An aerial tramway, 11,000 feet in length, was installed by 
 the Trenton Iron Co., of Trenton, N.J., to convey the ore from the 
 rock house at the mines to the roast yard, which was first located 
 close to the smelter. 
 
 On the 16th of October, 1900, the Mond Nickel Company, Limited, 
 of London, Eng., was authorized, by license of the Lieutenant-Gov- 
 ernor, to carry on business in Ontario. The incorporation of this 
 company, with a capital of 600,000, was for the purpose of acquiring 
 all the above property, plants, patents, and smelters belonging to Dr. 
 Ludwig Mond in the Sudbury district. 
 
 Plant of the most modern type, for roasting, smelting, and besse- 
 merizing the ore, was erected at Victoria Mines, under the direction 
 of Mr. Hiram W. Hixon, formerly of the Anaconda Company, this 
 equipment being the most complete and conveniently arranged which 
 had up to that time been installed in the district. In addition sub- 
 stantial offices and tasteful dwellings, with all modern conveniences, 
 such as water and electric light, have been erected for the accommo- 
 dation of the staff and their families, and the site of pre-existing 
 swamps and rocky hummocks was quickly filled in, levelled and trans- 
 formed into an important village and business centre. 
 
 Early in 1901 the mine was in complete working order, and begin- 
 ing with February ore was regularly raised and transported by means 
 of the aerial tramway to the roast yard. The smelter shortly after- 
 wards commenced to turn out matte, by the Bessemer process, this 
 product averaging about 80 per cent of combined nickel and copper, 
 the former metal being usually present a little in excess. On 1st 
 July, 1901, the head house or landing station at the roast yard was 
 
42 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 struck by lightning, and before adequate assistance could arrive . was 
 burned to the ground. This temporary breakdown of the cable sys- 
 tem, although greatly retarding mining operations at the time, was 
 really a blessing in disguise, as it resulted in a decision to abandon 
 this roast yard, the position of which on the immediate outskirts of 
 the village .had been a source of annoyance and inconvenience to the 
 residents, who, during certain conditions of wind and weather, suf- 
 fered greatly from the sulphurous fumes given off by the burning 
 piles. The new site chosen consisted of a flat about half way between 
 the smelter and the mine, which could be easily levelled, drained and 
 otherwise prepared, this location being much more spacious and suit- 
 able in every way than the roast yard it was proposed to abandon. 
 
 During the winter of 1901 and 1902 the operations of this com- 
 pany, at the Victoria mines, were greatly curtailed, but the comple- 
 tion of the refining works in England, and the beginning oi opera- 
 tions on a large scale at these works in April, 1902, gave a frosh 
 impetus to all departments of mining activity. During the summer 
 of 1902 the North Star mine, situated on lot 9, cons. II and III, of 
 the township of Snider, and the Little Stobie mine, on the north half 
 of lot 6, con. I, of the township of Blezard, were worked by this com- 
 pany. The ore, amounting to 4,724 tons obtained from the North 
 Star, and 1,584 tons from the Little Stobie, was shipped to the Vic- 
 toria mines for treatment. The bessemerized matte, as quickly as 
 produced by the smelting works at Victoria mines, was shipped to 
 Clydach, near Swansea, in Wales, where extensive works had been 
 built for its treatment, calculated for an annual production of from 
 1,000 to 1,500 tons of metallic nickel, and 4,000 to 6,000 tons of cop- 
 per sulphate. These works have been so designed as to render future 
 extension easy and economical. The property at Clydach, including 
 about 33 acres, on which the works are erected, has a frontage on the 
 Swansea Valley canal, giving easy access to the port of Swansea, and 
 is connected by a siding to the Midland railway. After a year's 
 steady production from both mines and smelter all activity ceased 
 in December, 1902, and although most of the higher officials were 
 retained in office, no mining work of any consequence was undertaken 
 until early in the spring of 1903, when work was again resumed and 
 continued until November of the same year, when operations were 
 again discontinued. It is currently reported that the real reason for 
 these frequent interruptions in the mining operations was due to cer- 
 tain defects in the plant at the Clydach refining works, and it is also 
 rumoured that after a recent breakdown in the plant there were over 
 twenty cases of poisoning from the escaping gas, which resulted in 
 several fatalities. It is confidently expected that a remedy will soon 
 
MOND NICKEL COMPANY 43 
 
 be found for this serious condition of affairs, and that the necessary 
 alterations in the plant will again permit of its operation on an exten- 
 sive scale, thus insuring a resumption of work at the Victoria mines. 
 
 The history of the development of mining in the Sudbury district 
 has not, therefore, been an unbroken record of brilliant successes, but 
 often quite the reverse has been the rule, and as may be noticed in 
 the preceding pages the number of companies who for different lengths 
 of time have operated in this area already constitute a formidable 
 list. These failures, and the causes which have operated to bring 
 about this untoward result, serve, however, to bring into strong relief 
 the gallant and successful struggles of the only company which has 
 been able to surmount the various difficulties to which the other 
 organizations have successively succumbed; at the same time 
 strengthening the belief that the crisis has been passed, and the in- 
 dustry has at last been established on a firm and permanent basis. 
 It is true that certain details in regard to the extraction of the nickel 
 are still in the experimental stage in order to determine, if possible, 
 a more economical method, but there is no doubt whatever that the 
 business of the mining and smelting of nickel is not only in a satis- 
 factory condition but has reached such phenomenal dimensions that 
 operations in other countries have, in consequence, been either greatly 
 curtailed, or have ceased altogether, so that at the present time the 
 supremacy of the Sudbury mining district as the world's greatest 
 producer of nickel is unquestioned. 
 
 It may be well, in passing, to state some of the reasons which have 
 contributed to the failures which have been so frequently recorded in 
 connexion with the establishment of the Sudbury nickel industry. 
 For some time after the beginning of mining work in this region the 
 world's annual consumption of nickel did not exceed 700 or 800 tons 
 of the pure metal, which amount could readily be produced by any 
 one of the three companies then operating in the district. The de- 
 mand for nickel was, therefore, so small and uncertain, that before 
 the discovery was made of its advantageous employment as an alloy 
 with steel, especially in the manufacture of armour plate, no great 
 future seemed assured for the nickel industry, and even with this 
 distinction in its favour no very marked increase in the demand for 
 nickel could be noticed, and it took a number of years more before 
 the consumption had increased to 1,500 tons per annum. By the 
 time, however, this latter figure had been reached, it was certain that 
 a constant and ever increasing demand for nickel was assured, on 
 account of its general use in all kinds of steel where strength com- 
 bined with lightness were the important factors. At the present time 
 the consumption of nickel exceeds 10,000 tons per annum, and ex- 
 
44 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 haustive experiments now being undertaken, under the auspices of 
 the International Nickel Company, are stated, on the best authority, 
 to give strong evidence of the superiority of nickel steel in bridge 
 building, so that a much larger demand for nickel can be looked for 
 in the immediate future. In addition, the recent decision of the 
 Pennsylvauia railway to use nickel steel rails, and the award of a con- 
 tract for 9,000 tons of the same to carry 3 '50 per cent nickel by this 
 vast and progressive corporation, will no doubt give a fresh stimulus 
 to the demand. The only anxiety which now exists, and which has 
 often been urged against any large employment of nickel steel, relates 
 to the sources of supply, and to the possible exhaustion of the nickel 
 deposits now known to exist. All authorities are, however, in sub- 
 stantial agreement that the supply of high grade nickel ore contained 
 in the Camadian deposits is practically unlimited, and at least amply 
 sufficient for many years to come to supply the requirements of even 
 much more extensive smelting operations than are now carried on in 
 the Sudbury district. Besides, a demand for larger quantities of 
 nickel will stimulate prospecting, not only in this region, but also in 
 areas of similar crystalline rocks to be opened up in a very short 
 time by the Grand Trunk Pacific and its branches, as well as by the 
 Timiskaming and Northern Ontario railway, with the probable result 
 that many more new deposits will be discovered. 
 
 Another fact which has contributed to a considerable extent to 
 bring about the failure of some of the Sudbury mining concerns was 
 the assumption by interested parties that each individual deposit of 
 which they had the good fortune to obtain possession was a mine 
 capable of producing a permanent and unlimited supply of nickel ore 
 of the desired grade, the ore-body extending to unknown depths, and 
 increasing both in quality and quantity with its downward extension. 
 With such confidence in the size, permanency and suitability for 
 smelting operations of the ore-bodies, it is not surprising that very 
 often no special effort was made to obtain control of other available 
 sources of supply, which were sure to be needed when extensive and 
 long continued refining operations were in progress. 
 
 A third cause, which perhaps assisted more than any other to 
 bring about the frequent suspension in mining and smelting opera- 
 tions already recorded, was the lack of the necessary technical know- 
 ledge and experience on the part of those who had the management 
 of many of the organizations. The strong necessity of such informa- 
 tion, in every department of mining and smelting, needs no special 
 explanation or emphasis, but it was more than ever required for the 
 successful treatment of these particular sulphide ores. Thus, some 
 of the companies engaged in mining in the vicinity of Sudbury sue- 
 
GENERAL PHYSICAL FEATURES 45 
 
 ceeded in reaching the stage of producing matte, but even these were 
 obliged to sell this unfinished product to the various refiners, at prices 
 which usually came far from realizing their expectations in this 
 respect. The refiners were accused of reaping all the profits, which 
 should have been shared with the producers, so that, very early in 
 the history of the region, it was patent to every one that to share in 
 the full benefits of the industry the same individuals or company 
 must control tne whole of the operations necessary to manufacture 
 the finished product. Acting on this knowledge, therefore, many of 
 the corporations engaged what was considered the most expert metal- 
 lurgical advice, and numerous experiments were undertaken to deter- 
 mine an effective and economic process by which the nickel and cop- 
 per could be extracted from these ores, and afterwards separated from 
 one another. In this manner . the too often very limited resources of 
 these companies were taxed to the utmost, and any failure, even in 
 the preliminary trials, to yield the decisive and satisfactory results 
 looked for often resulted in the closing down and practical abandon- 
 ment of the mines and works concerned. Finally, in more than one 
 instance, the absence of sound business methods assisted very mate- 
 rially to bring about some of the disastrous failures which have been 
 recorded in the foregoing pages. 
 
 GENERAL PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 The expression e Sudbury Mining district ' was applied as a term 
 of convenient reference, soon after the discovery of these valuable 
 mineral deposits, to designate that particular tract of country imme- 
 diately surrounding and tributary to the town of Sudbury. It must 
 not, therefore, be confounded with other areas of Northern Ontario 
 to which the term ' district ' has been applied, and which have been 
 thus set apart, with definite boundaries, for electoral and other pur- 
 poses. Roughly speaking it may be described as extending from 
 Wanapitei lake and river, on the east, to Onaping and Worthington 
 stations on the west. On the north it may be considered as em- 
 bracing the recently discovered iron deposits in Hutton township, 
 while southward the commencement of the Laurentian gneiss is be- 
 lieved to limit important mineral discoveries in that direction. 
 
 The town of Sudbury is a creation of the Canadian Pacific railway, 
 coming into existence at the time of its construction in 1882, and 
 increasing in importance by reason of its being chosen as the junc- 
 tion point for the branch line to Sault Ste. Marie. It is distant on 
 the main or transcontinental line of this railway 442 ? miles from 
 
46 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 Montreal, and 322 -4 miles from Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion 
 of Canada. 
 
 The area in which workable deposits of nickel and copper are now 
 known to occur extends from the southeast corner of Snider town- 
 ship (Evans mine), northwest to the central part of the township of 
 Levack, a distance of about 20 miles; in a northeasterly direction it 
 reaches from the township of Drury to Wanapitei lake, a distance of 
 about 40 miles. The mines which have actually produced ore for 
 smelting or shipping purposes are, with the exception of the Worth- 
 ington mine, all connected with that portion of the main mass or belt 
 of norite which stretches from the old Inez or Chicago mine, in the 
 township of Drury, to the Blezard mine, a distance of about 26 miles. 
 
 The area contained in the two accompanying map^sheets (Victoria 
 Mines and Sudbury), and comprising portions of the district of 
 Algoma and Nipissing, has all been subdivided into townships and 
 lots of the more recent form adopted by the Crown Lands Depart- 
 ment of Ontario. With few exceptions each of these townships 
 measures six mi?es square, the area thus embraced being thirty-six 
 square miles. Each township is divided into six concessions by east 
 and west lines run astronomically, which are designated by the 
 Roman numerals, the order of numbering being from south to north; 
 while the concessions themselves are divided into twelve lots, by true 
 north and south lines, which carry the ordinary Arabic figures, num- 
 bered from east to west. Each lot, therefore, measures one mile from 
 north to south, and half a mile from east to west, thus containing an 
 area of 320 acres. Only every alternate lot line is cut out through 
 the woods, the intervening boundary being marked by posts on the 
 concession lines. The lines are all supposed to be run astronomically, 
 although in some cases, no allowance having been made for the con- 
 vergence of meridians, considerable error and confusion have resulted. 
 Sometimes the surveys of these townships have not been done as care- 
 fully or accurately as might be desired, and in more than one in- 
 stance, two or even more approximately parallel lines were found, 
 within short distances of one another, evidently intended for a single 
 boundary, each connecting with separate posts designed to mark the 
 same point. Over the larger part of the district repeated forest fires 
 have destroyed all traces of many of these lines, and the limiting 
 posts, except where an occasional one happened to be located in a 
 swamp, have been burnt, so that it is usually exceedingly difficult, 
 and sometimes impossible, to locate these original boundaries. 
 
 The general character oi the country may, perhaps, be best de- 
 scribed as that of an uneven or undulating rocky plain, with a gentle 
 slope towards the south and southwest. In detail the surface of the 
 
GENERAL PHYSICAL FEATURES 47 
 
 plain is far from uniform, consisting of a rapid succession of more 
 or less parallel and disconnected rocky ridges, with a prevailing north- 
 east and southwest trend, the intervening valleys being usually occu- 
 pied by swamps, lakes or river courses. The average general eleva- 
 tion of the district, as a whole, varies from 800 to 1,100 feet above the 
 sea. The present topography has been the result of prolonged denu- 
 dation and erosion, assisted to a considerable extent by subsequent 
 glacial action, which removed the softer decomposed material from 
 the higher levels to be deposited elsewhere in the neighbouring 
 valleys or in areas considerably removed to the southwest. The 
 scouring action of the vast glacier is everywhere apparent in the 
 smooth well-rounded hills, while in most cases the exposed rock sur- 
 faces still preserve the glacial grooves and striae. Although the 
 country is exceedingly rocky and uneven there are no very promi- 
 nent hill features, the highest seldom attaining a greater altitude 
 than 150 feet above the neighbouring valleys, while elevations of 25 
 to 100 feet are far more common. The highest land in the district 
 comprises a strip varying in width from 3 to 5 miles, and extending 
 in a northeasterly direction from Denison to Garson townships, a 
 distance of over 30 miles. This is underlaid for the most part by 
 the nickel-bearing and associated eruptives, although some areas of 
 highly altered quartzites contribute to this unusual elevation. One 
 of the highest hills in this rocky belt is situated immediately south 
 of the Elsie mine. Barometrical observation correlated with the 
 known elevation at the intersection of the Elsie Mine branch with the 
 M. & N. S. railway show this to have an altitude of 1,120 feet above 
 the sea. Starting from Sudbury, which has an elevation of 850 feet, 
 the Canadian Pacific railway ascends a series of steep grades for a 
 distance of 3 miles before the summit is reached at an altitude of 
 992 feet; while an equal distance farther, at Azilda station, this ele- 
 vation is decreased to 881 feet above the sea. The Manitoulin and 
 North Shore Railway Company, on the other hand, have built a por- 
 tion of this road a little over twelve miles in length, and have located 
 it to Victoria Mines and beyond, the line running through this hilly 
 district for the whole distance. Starting from Sudbury, which, as 
 stated, has an elevation of 850 feet, the grade rises to 919 feet at 
 Clarabelle junction, and farther to 959 feet at Elsie junction. The 
 summit is reached about 8 miles west' of Sudbury, where the level of 
 the rail is 986 feet, falling again to 965 feet above the sea, at the 
 end of the profile 12-7 miles from Sudbury, close to the Gertrude 
 mine. To the northwest of this hilly tract the land becomes toler- 
 ably level, forming a plain with an average elevation of nearly 880 
 feet above the sea. This flat belt of country has a general width of 
 
48 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 about six miles, and stretches from the vicinity of Vermilion lake, in 
 Fairbank township, almost to Wanapitei lake, a distance of over 30 
 miles. The whole of this area is evidently underlaid by the slates 
 and feldspathic sandstones coloured provisionally as of possible Cam- 
 brian age, but this rocky floor is largely concealed by a thick mantle 
 of drift, through which protrude occasional low, rounded hummocks, 
 which alone give evidence of the underlying material. 
 
 This drift is composed of a well stratified grey clay, unencum- 
 bered for the most part by boulders, and is seemingly well adapted 
 for all purposes of agriculture. Roads have been opened . and large 
 clearances made over most of this level district, the various barns 
 and buildings erected giving strong evidence of the prosperity of this 
 farming community. 
 
 To the south, and southeast of the hilly stretch already men- 
 tioned, a somewhat irregular shaped and comparatively narrow val- 
 ley extends from the vicinity of the Worthington mine almost to 
 Wanapitei lake, wnere it connects to the north and west with the 
 extensive plain just described. The continuity of this comparatively 
 level tract of country is broken at certain intervals, as for instance 
 near the crossing of the Whitefish river, but the whole flat may be 
 considered as belonging to one valley, with a gentle though percep- 
 tible slope towards the southwest. In the township of McKim this 
 flat has an average general elevation of about 845 feet above the sea. 
 From Sudbury, in a southwesterly direction, this comparatively level 
 belt has been utilized in the location of the ' Sault Branch ' of the 
 Canadian Pacific railway, while, in addition, advantage has been 
 taken of the even surface in erecting most of the buildings included 
 in the towns of Sudbury and Copper Cliff. In the township of 
 McKim the surface of this flat is sometimes broken by small rocky 
 hills, and the considerable areas that are available have been cleared 
 and are now under cultivation . with gratifying results, especially 
 during those years when the roasting of the ores at the mines is not 
 proceeding too briskly. 
 
 Throughout McKim, and the area to the southwest of this town- 
 ship, the soil is a fine silty clay, well stratified; but to the northwest, 
 in the township of Garson and beyond the limits of the Sudbury 
 sheet, in the township of Falcpnbridge, this is replaced by a coarse 
 yellow sand, with gravel in certain places, the whole forming a light 
 and rather poor soil, although some portions of it are now being used 
 for farming purposes. 
 
 To the east and southeast of Sudbury the district is, for the most 
 part, exceedingly rough and hilly, this area being characterized by the 
 
GENERAL PHYSICAL FEATURES 49 
 
 presence of quartzite, with large and irregular intrusive masses of 
 norite and diorite, and only occasional limited flats are available for 
 agriculture. 
 
 Perhaps one of the most interesting physical features presented 
 by this district is the narrow valley formed by the weathering of the 
 large diabase dike, near the Murray mine. This dike, which is about 
 150 feet wide at this point, and intruded through a mass of granite, 
 has been decomposed and considerably eroded, leaving a valley the 
 whole width of the dike, with perpendicular walls of granite. This 
 very conspicuous feature in the landscape has been used in locating 
 the wagon road between Sudbury and Azilda (formerly Eayside). 
 
 The influence exerted by the underlying rock on the general con- 
 tour of the ground is everywhere well exemplified throughout this 
 district. The harder igneous and quartzite rocks, owing to their 
 greater resistance to processes of weathering and erosion, form the. 
 higher ridges, while the more fragile slates, sandstones and schists 
 make up most of the intervening lower ground, occupied chiefly by 
 the river valleys, swamps and lake basins. The area covered by the 
 main mass or belt of norite is likewise one of low relief, in contrast 
 with the other igneous rocks, with very small gently rounded hills, 
 this variety of rock evidently offering no very effectual resistance to 
 decomposition. The district, as a whole, is not as abundantly sup- 
 plied with lakes as many other areas of similar Archaean rocks, but 
 several fairly large and beautiful lakes occur, and nearly all are sup- 
 plied with good clear water. The shores and islands of Ramsay or 
 Lost lake are occupied by the summer residences of many of the in- 
 habitants of Sudbury, while its pure clear water is used to supply 
 the large water tank, erected for the water works on one of the rocky 
 hills east of the town. The highest lake in the area is Garson lake, 
 which is 923 feet above the sea; while the lowest is McCharles lake, 
 an expansion of the Vermilion river, which has an altitude above the 
 sea of 760 feet. 
 
 The drainage of this district is effected through three important 
 and well known streams, the Wanapitei, Spanish and Vermilion 
 rivers, the whole of the water eventually reaching Georgian bay and 
 Lake Huron through these channels. The Vermilion river with its 
 tributaries, the Whitefish branch, Levey river, and Whitson and Fair- 
 bank creeks, empties the water of nearly the whole of the area in- 
 cluded in the two map-sheets. The Vermilion river is itself a branch 
 of the Spanish river, joining this stream near the boundary between 
 Merritt and Foster townships, about ten miles southeast of the corner 
 of the Victoria mines map. A portion of the Spanish river, known 
 
 41874 
 
50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 as the ' Great Bend/ crosses the corner of this map-sheet, receiving 
 in this distance the whole of the drainage of the township of Drury, 
 and the western part of Denison township. The branches of the 
 Wanapitei river are limited to the eastern parts of Garson and Neelon 
 townships. 
 
 The whole area was once covered with a dense forest, but repeated 
 fires have destroyed nearly the whole of this original growth, and 
 even the tall rampikes, which often alone remain as the silent wit- 
 nesses of the havoc wrought by the fire fiend, have themselves been 
 gradually cut down to aid in kindling the heaps of roasted ore. 
 Occasional small areas, as for instance in the northern part of Gar- 
 son and the western part of Snider and Creighton townships, are still 
 covered by green bush, but the lumberman's axe is quickly clearing 
 out all the valuable timber that remains, while the constant demand 
 .for cordwood, as fuel for the roast heaps, will still further limit the 
 forest area. Hardwood is scarce, and can only be found in valleys, 
 chiefly in the vicinity of certain streams. Occasional dwarf oaks 
 were noticed in some of the hollows between the higher ridges. The 
 second growth usually consists of poplar and birch, these small trees 
 being so closely packed together in some of the valleys as to form 
 almost impenetrable thickets. 
 
 The district, as a whole, cannot be said to be suitable for agri- 
 culture, and must rely for its ultimate importance on the develop- 
 ment of its mineral resources. The proximity of the mines furnishes 
 a good market, so that every flat is being utilized for purposes of 
 farming. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 The rocks of the Sudbury mining district, arranged in the pro- 
 bable order of their geological age, may be stated as follows, in 
 ascending order. 
 
 1. Lower Huronian. No rocks of this age are at present known in 
 the nickel bearing area, but this period is represented, in part, by the 
 banded siliceous magnetites and associated rocks of the townships of 
 Hutton and Wissner. 
 
 2. Upper Huronian. (A) Diorites, hornblende-porphyrites and 
 green schists. (B) Conglomerates, greywackes and quartzites ((7) 
 norite and diorite (Worthington mine belt, and areas southeast of 
 Evans mine and east of Sudbury). 
 
 3. Laurentian. Granite and'diorite-gneiss near Wanapitei station. 
 
 4. Upper Huronian? Tuffs, feldspathic sandstones and slates 
 classified provisionally on previous geological maps as of Cambrian 
 age. 
 
GENERAL GEOLOGY 51 
 
 5. Post Huronian. A. Granites. B. Nickel bearing eruptive of 
 the main belt (quartz-hypersthene-gabbro or norite, diorite, with their 
 peculiar differentiation product, micropegmatite). C. Dikes of oli- 
 vine diabase. 
 
 6. Pleistocene. Clays and sands. 
 
 The geological history of the nickel mining area proper, or that 
 portion of the Sudbury district which is included in the accompany- 
 ing map-sheets, began in very ancient times, and most of the rocks 
 now exposed are regarded as representative of what is known as the 
 Huronian period, being thus the oldest with which geologists are at 
 present familiar. The detailed examination and study of these rocks 
 have furnishe'd abundant evidence of the almost unexampled vol- 
 canic activity then prevailing, caused largely, no doubt, by the in- 
 stability of the earth's crust at this early period of its history. These 
 rocks are essentially of pyroclastic origin, consisting mainly of tuffs 
 of both acid and basic types, intimately associated with more or less 
 altered basic eruptives, some of which still retain much of their ori- 
 ginal massive character, although by far the larger proportion have 
 undergone such profound deformation and metamorphism that it is 
 exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, even with the assistance of tho 
 microscope, to make any very definite or accurate statement in regard 
 to their original composition and structure. Some of these eruptiveg 
 are, however, probably of laccolithic origin and intruded along the 
 planes of bedding of the enclosing clastic rocks, while many of the 
 porphyrites and obscurely amygdaloidal forms doubtless represent 
 surface flows of lava which have been very much altered and decom- 
 posed. 
 
 With the establishment of conditions of more stable equilibrium 
 came a time when the higher elevations were being subjected to the 
 usual processes of degradation and erosion, with the transportation 
 of the material thus detached to be deposited at the lower levels, 
 forming the conglomerates, feldspathic sandstones and quartzites in- 
 cluded in the above table as Upper Huronian. Even this period of 
 comparative quiet was probably interrupted at intervals by a return 
 of the volcanic activity, and some of the breccia-like material and 
 certain of the interbedded greywackes may be the direct results of 
 explosive action. Subsequent to the formation of these rocks the 
 huge batholiths of granite and diorite-gneiss classified as Lauren- 
 tion, and occurring in the vicinity of Wanapitei station, were in- 
 truded into the highest or quartzite member of the Upper Huronian. 
 Later than these quartzites, and possibly also later than the Lauren- 
 tian gneiss, certain masses of notrite and diorite, among which may 
 
 4187 4J 
 
52 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 be mentioned the belt on which the Worthington mine is located, were 
 intruded. This Worthington mine band of norite, as may be seen by 
 a reference to the map, extends across the southern part of the town- 
 ship of Denison, forming a conspicuous range of hills a short dis- 
 tance south of the Canadian Pacific railway. The band of similar 
 igneous material which forms the high lands to the south of Mc- 
 Charles lake is of the same age, as also its probable continuation in 
 the large belt of norite and diorite, which crosses the country to the 
 southeast of the Evans mine. This same band of intrusive rock con- 
 tinues with unbroken continuity northeast, forming a considerable 
 area of exceedingly rough country east of Sudbury, arid north of the 
 Canadian Pacific railway, besides covering a considerable portion of 
 the northern and central parts of Neelon township. 
 
 The age of the tuffs, feldspathic sandstones and slates hitherto 
 classified provisionally as of Cambrian age, and so coloured on all 
 previous geological maps, is still a matter of considerable doubt, and 
 much more detailed work and critical examination of the area charac- 
 terized by the presence of these rocks will be necessary before this can 
 be satisfactorily settled. They apparently form a synclinal basin, 
 resting against the micropegmatite phase of the nickel bearing erup- 
 tive, and a study of several of the localities where the junction be- 
 tween these rocks is exposed lends some support to the belief that 
 the micropegmatite is intrusive through the tuff or breccia. On the 
 other hand, it seems reasonable to suppose that all of these rocks are 
 very intimately associated in regard to their time and manner of 
 genesis. 
 
 The granites, usually referred to as ' younger/ are decidedly so, in 
 reference to the older diorites, porphyrites and green schists, and a 
 rock which may be called a breccia, formed by an exceedingly intri- 
 cate intrusion of dikes and masses of granite material through these 
 basic rocks, covers considerable areas throughout this district; while 
 even the main mass of the granite batholith frequently contains em- 
 bedded fragments and masses of all sizes and shapes of these older 
 greenstones. 
 
 The nickel bearing eruptive, which in its fresh condition is now 
 referred to as a quartz-hypersthene-gabbro or norite, is decidely later 
 than, and intrusive through, the green schists and associated diorites. 
 The relations between the so-called ' younger' granite is much more 
 complex and anomalous. For the most part, the nickel bearing erup- 
 tive has cooled against the granite, as may be seen at the junction 
 between these two rocks, 011 the west side of the large pit known as 
 the No. 2 mine at Copper Cliff. Here the norite is distinctly finer 
 in grain at the immediate point of contact, this rock growing visibly 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 53 
 
 coarser farther away from the line of junction. This cooling of the 
 norite against the granite, and the production of a finer-grained or 
 chilled selvage, is especially well seen in the vicinity of the openings 
 made by the Vivians on lot 9, concession VI, of McKim township. 
 On the other hand, in some localities, certain dikes or apophyses of 
 the granite seem to penetrate the norite, as may be noticed along the 
 line of junction to the northwest of No. 2 mine, at Copper Cliff; 
 while the intrusive nature of the granite, and its apparently later age 
 in relation to the norite, is quite marked to the north of Clarabelle 
 lake, where the line of junction between the two rocks is well exposed 
 for a considerable distance. Besides, near the Creighton mine, the 
 granite becomes decidedly more basic in the vicinity of the norite, 
 and a certain zone or belt is formed by the commingling of the 
 material of both rocks, as a result of actual fusion. It has been sug- 
 gested that the granite and norite may have been differentiates of the 
 same magma, but a more reasonable explanation would seem to be 
 that their periods of intrusion were so closely synchronous that they 
 overlapped in their time of crystallization, and that the later secre- 
 tions from the slower cooling granite magma forced or ate their way 
 into the norite in certain places. 
 
 The olivine-diabase dikes cut through, and are, therefore, later 
 than all the rocks with which they have been noticed in contact. 
 Their mineralogical composition is essentially the same as t:he dikes 
 of diabase-porphyrite in the Lake Superior district, which latter have 
 been regarded as the channels by which the Keweenawan lavas 
 reached the surface. 
 
 (2.) UPPER HURONIAN. 
 
 (A.) GREENSTONE SCHISTS. 
 
 It has been the general practice in previous reports of this and 
 other Archaean areas to employ the somewhat vague and indefinite 
 term ' greenstone/ the common field name for certain basic eruptive 
 rocks, often more or less altered and deformed. In the present report 
 this term has been retained as the most appropriate and convenient 
 designation for certain very ancient basic intrusives, presenting every 
 possible phase of metamorphism and deformation. Under the general 
 heading, ' greenstone schists,' are included several varieties of diorite, 
 porphyrite, hornblende and chlorite schists. They are undoubtedly 
 the oldest rocks with which we have at present any acquaintance in 
 the district. Their usual occurrence in intimate association with the 
 more massive and uniform norite, in addition to their general litho- 
 logical appearance and behaviour, especially the more massive types, 
 
54: GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 were the main reasons for grouping these rocks together, under the 
 same colour designation, on all the earlier geological maps. In these 
 first examinations such rocks were regarded as the sheared and 
 altered representatives of the more massive norites, the latter, by 
 some fortunate circumstance or series of circumstances, having 
 escaped this extreme of deformation and metamorphism. Later exa- 
 minations have, however, revealed the fact, that in most cases at 
 least, these more or less foliated and schistose basic eruptive rocks 
 are distinctly older in age, and were upturned, faulted, folded and 
 considerably metamorphosed at some time prior to the intrusion of 
 the nickel bearing eruptive proper. Careful and detailed work never 
 fails to reveal the presence of a distinct line of separation between 
 these two classes of igneous rocks, and the importance of accurately 
 tracing out and mapping such a boundary, from an economic point 
 of view, is especially emphasized, when it is remembered that all the 
 deposits of nickel and copper ores, which are commercially valuable, 
 are located either in the immediate neighbourhood, or at various 
 points directly on the line of junction between the norite and the 
 associated rocks. 
 
 The least altered representatives of these older diorites, or more 
 massive varieties of the older greenstones, can with difficulty be dis- 
 tinguished from the prevailing type of diorite (altered norite), with 
 which the nickel and copper deposits occur, and it is impossible to 
 resist the conclusion that both rocks have originated from precisely 
 similar types. The difference in age, however, is quite evident from 
 their field relations, and although both pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite 
 occur in these earlier basic* rocks, no deposits of economic importance 
 have been found in association with them at any great distance from 
 the line of junction with the younger norite or diorite. 
 
 Most of the hand specimens examined of the more massive types 
 of these older rocks are considerably finer-grained than the neigh- 
 bouring norite, and, in contrast to this rock, are decidedly greenish 
 rather than greyish or blackish in colour. Most of the outcrops may 
 be referred to as ' gabbro-diorite/ a name proposed by the late Prof. 
 G. H. Williams for a diorite which gives unmistakeable evidence in 
 the hornblende of its derivation from pyroxene, originally present. 
 Some exposures exhibit the ophitic or interlacing structure charac- 
 teristic of diabase, which is often discernible either to the unaided 
 eye, or with the assistance of an ordinary pocket lens, and the rock 
 in which the structure is developed would be referred to as uralitic 
 diabase. 
 
 Mineralogically, as represented by the thin sections examined 
 under the microscope, the rock is now composed essentially of plagio- 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 55 
 
 clase and hornblende, and no portion of the original pyroxene has 
 yet been detected. The plagioclase, in all cases where the rock is 
 sufficiently fresh for identification, is labradorite, and in those speci- 
 mens which have suffered least from metamorphism this mineral 
 occasionally has a pale brownish tint, the colouring matter (presum- 
 ably very finely disseminated ilmenite), being rather unevenly dis- 
 tributed through the various individuals, with cloud-like effect. Pres- 
 sure and advancing decomposition, however, seem to quickly destroy 
 or remove all traces of this colouring matter, so that, with few excep- 
 tions, the feldspar is nearly, if not quite colourless. As a rule, the 
 plagioclase has undergone more or less advanced saussuritization, but 
 some individuals are still sufficiently fresh to permit of their recogni- 
 tion by means of the extinction angles. All stages in this characteris- 
 tic alteration of the basic plagioclase are represented in the specimens 
 collected and examined, but this has been so fully described in pre- 
 vious publications that only a brief mention is necessary in this con- 
 nexion. The first step in the decomposition of the original feldspar 
 consists in the development of minute scales of sericite, and fine 
 needle-like forms of epidote and zoisite in the midst of the plagio- 
 clase substance. Another, and very frequent form of development of 
 these secondary minerals, consists of grape-like bunches of finely 
 granular saussuritic material, chiefly zoisite or epidote, whose coales- 
 cence ultimately produces a single larger individual, or aggregate of 
 several individuals of these minerals. One of the more advanced 
 stages in this process of decomposition of the feldspar consists in the 
 complete obliteration of the twinning lamellae, and the replacement, 
 either wholly or in part, of the plagioclase substance, by a brilliantly 
 polarizing aggregate, made up chiefly of sericite, epidote and zoisite. 
 In occasional instances the place of the feldspar is taken by a colour- 
 less or pale yellowish saussurite, which polarizes in dull bluish tints. 
 This substance is usually so fine-grained that it cannot with certainty 
 be resolved into its component minerals, even with the assistance of 
 the higher powers of the microscope. Some of the coarser portions 
 of this substance were examined rather critically, with the result that 
 zoisite, sericite, a little calcite and a secondary plagioclase, possibly 
 albite, were recognized as contributing to the aggregate. Still another 
 form of alteration of the original feldspar, and one often accompany- 
 ing the more usual saussuritization, consists in the replacement of 
 part of the original feldspar by a fine interlocking mosaic of a clear, 
 sharply extinguishing, secondary feldspar (albite) and quartz. 
 
 The hornblende is, as a rule, the usual deep green, strongly pleo- 
 chroic, compact variety, occurring in long, imperfectly developed 
 prismatic forms. Occasionally the fibrous or actinolitic variety is 
 
56 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 represented, much paler in colour, and with less pronounced pleo-" 
 chroism. Many of the individuals of this mineral show the pale col- 
 oured, more or less non-pleochroic interiors, with deep coloured, much 
 more compact, and strongly absorptive borders characteristic of ural- 
 ite. Portions of occasional crystals show a brownish colour, but even 
 these have a decided greenish tinge. Biotite is almost invariably 
 present, and usually in large amount. It is of the usual deep brown 
 colour, showing strong differences in the absorption of light when 
 rotated between crossed nicols. It occurs in plates and scales, fre- 
 quently embedded in, and sometimes forming intricate parallel inter- 
 growths with the hornblende. It has often undergone considerable 
 ' bleaching/ and is then somewhat paler in colour than usual, besides 
 showing brilliant chromatic polarization between crossed nicols. In 
 spite of the elimination of a considerable portion of the iron the 
 pleochroism, as stated, is still very pronounced. It often contains 
 irregular grains of magnetite. Both the hornblende and biotite show 
 frequent decomposition to chlorite. ' Pleochroic halos/ surrounding 
 embedded small grains or crystals, chiefly of sphene, are frequent in 
 both the hornblende and biotite, as well as in the chlorite derived 
 from them. Comparatively large and sharply denned crystals of epi- 
 dote and zoisite occur, soine of which may be of primary origin, 
 although by far the larger proportion are undoubtedly the secondary 
 products of decomposition. Quartz is almost invariably present, occa- 
 sionally forming the characteristic granophyric intergrowth with the 
 feldspar. In most cases it is not of secondary origin, but an integral 
 part of the same magma out of which the other minerals have been 
 formed. It was as usual the last mineral to form, filling up the irre- 
 gular interspaces left by the crystallization of the other constituents. 
 Ilmenite and highly titaniferous magnetite are the prevailing iron 
 ores, and these are present often in comparatively large amount. 
 Most of the individuals are surrounded by opaque greyish leucoxene, 
 or the more normal sphene, resulting from the alteration of the titan- 
 iferous iron ore. Apatite is usually present in small amount, occur- 
 ring in the characteristic long, acicular, prismatic forms, which pierce 
 all the other constituents of the rock. Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and 
 pyrite frequently occur disseminated through the rock, and under 
 the microscope are seen to form curious irregular skeleton or sponge- 
 like masses, intimately associated with, and frequently embedded in 
 the coloured constituents. 
 
 These diorites occur in all stages of decomposition, while still 
 retaining much of their original massive character. A type illustra- 
 tive of perhaps the extreme of this alteration is well represented by a 
 hand specimen obtained from the tunnel in ' Lake Hill/ lot 8, con. 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 57 
 
 IV, of Denison. This rock is a fine-grained, comparatively light 
 greenish-grey, diabasic rock, with occasional fine disseminations of 
 pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The thin section shows that all of the 
 hornblende and part of the biotite have been altered into green chlo- 
 rite, which retains much of the strong pleochroism characteristic of 
 the original minerals from which it has been derived. The ilmenite 
 has been almost wholly converted to sphene, which occurs in irregular 
 grains and crystals. Calcite is very abundant, and portions of the 
 slide are made up of a rather coarse mosaic of quartz and calcite, 
 with a smaller proportion of chlorite. As a rule, these old diorites 
 are comparatively uniform in grain, but porphyritic varieties occur, 
 and a good example of this phase was collected from certain small 
 rounded hummocks, on the west side of the upper or new roast yard 
 of the Victoria mines, (N. 1 lot 8, con. Ill, Denison). The hand 
 specimen shows a comparatively coarse-grained rock, made up of in- 
 definite or irregular phenocrysts of dark green, almost black horn- 
 blende, embedded in a proportionately smaller amount of a compara- 
 tively fine-grained matrix, which is rather paler in colour. The micro- 
 scope shows the rock to be a porphyritic diorite, made up very largely 
 of a green, feebly pleochroic hornblende. Much of the hornblende is 
 compact, but in the finer-grained portions of the rock, as well as in 
 the terminations of the larger crystals, the mineral shows a marked 
 tendency to assume the actinolite habit. The interspaces between the 
 larger porphyritic individuals are made up of saussuritized plagio^ 
 clase, actinolite and ilmenite, the latter mineral in various stages of 
 alteration to leucoxene. Occasional small scales of biotite may be 
 noticed embedded in the hornblende. 
 
 Another closely related rock is that which is usually referred to 
 as ' hornblende-porphyrite.' This type of rock is perhaps best illus- 
 trated by outcrops occurring to the southeast of the Elsie mine, while 
 the steep and prominent hill southeast of the office at the Murray 
 mine, is almost wholly made up of this material. The groundmass 
 is much finer in grain than in the porphyritic diorite just described, 
 but the phenocrysts are usually considerably larger and more con- 
 spicuous, their deep green, almost black colour, with glistening 
 cleavage planes, contrasting well with the fine-grained and lighter 
 coloured matrix made up largely of hypersthene with some feldspar. 
 Still another closely related form, and one which may be included 
 in the general class of the older and more massive greenstones, may 
 perhaps be best described as a ' diorite-porphyrite.' The best ex- 
 amples of this type of rock were obtained from exposures outcropping 
 a little north of the boundary between Graham and Creighton town- 
 ships, on lot 2, con. I, of Creighton township. The hand specimen 
 
58 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 shows a dark-green, rather schistose, dioritic rock, with ill-defined 
 phenocrysts of plagioclase, some portions of which are of a paler 
 yellowish-green colour, while other parts of the same crystal are red- 
 dish. Under the microscope the thin section shows that these large 
 irregular phenocrysts are labradorite, which have undergone more or 
 less advanced alteration to saussurite or huronite, with the develop- 
 ment of zoisite, epidote and sericite. The reddish portions of the 
 crystals are comparatively unaltered and still show the twinning 
 lamellae. The finer interstitial matter is made up essentially of green 
 hornblende and plagioclase. Some of these individuals show the pale 
 interiors and comparatively dark-green borders usually considered as 
 characteristic of uralite. Most of the plagioclase has undergone more 
 or less advanced saussuritization. The iron ore present is mainly 
 ilmenite, for it may be seen undergoing alteration to leucoxene. 
 A little quartz is present, and also an occasional scale of biotite. 
 
 Very frequently these more massive types pass into foliated schis- 
 tose varieties, the structures being the direct result of pressure and 
 stretching, and all gradations may frequently be observed in the 
 same rock exposure, from the massive gabbro-diorite, through diorite 
 schist, hornblende schist or amphibolite, to actinolite and chlorite 
 schist. The prevailing type of hornblende schist or amphibolite is a 
 dark-green to almost black, usually glistening and very fissile rock. 
 It is made up largely of slender prisms of the common green horn- 
 blende, usually compact and strongly pleochroic, but sometimes actin- 
 oTitic, a varying but usually small amount of plagioclase and quartz 
 occupying interspaces between the rudely parallel individuals. In the 
 less altered varieties the original plagioclase still remains, although 
 usually more or less saussuritized, but some specimens examined are 
 seen to have undergone more or less complete recrystallization, with 
 the formation of an interlocking mosaic of water-clear, usually un- 
 striated plagioclase (albite'O and quartz. Biotite is almost invariably 
 present, and the iron ore is sometimes ilmenite, or highly titaniferous 
 magnetite, the grains of this mineral being bordered with sphene. 
 In other instances the iron ore is simply magnetite, showing no 
 traces of alteration and this mineral is often present in large quan- 
 tity. Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite are sometimes disseminated 
 through the rock in small grains, and in the vicinity of the ore- 
 bodiea these sulphides are often abundantly present in this type of 
 rock. Some exposures of these rocks are made up almost entirely of 
 hornblende. The thin section of a specimen secured from Cryder- 
 man mine, (lot 5, con. Ill, Garson) showed this rock to be made up 
 of hornblende individuals closely compacted together, with no inter- 
 vening feldspar or quartz. Magnetite is abundant, while pyrrhotite 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 59 
 
 and chalcopyrite are thickly disseminated through the rock. Some 
 phases of these hornblende schists are sometimes so badly decom- 
 posed that only occasional cores of the hornblende crystals have sur- 
 vived, the remainder having been converted into chlorite. The plagio- 
 clase and quartz present in these rocks are often indistinguishable 
 from one another, the former being the clear, often unstriated variety 
 (albite), so characteristic of these recrystallized eruptives. Biotite 
 is present in much smaller amount, and has likewise contributed by 
 its alteration to the formation of the abundant chlorite. Epidote and 
 calcite are also present in comparatively large amount, as secondary 
 products of decomposition. Magnetite is plentiful, and much of it 
 is undoubtedly of secondary origin. These rocks are usually much 
 paler in colour than the prevailing and less decomposed varieties of 
 amphibolite. 
 
 In certain localities these hornblende schists were noticed to con- 
 tain numerous small, irregularly oval, light-coloured patches or 
 ' augen/* sometimes made up almost entirely of plagioclase, or this 
 mineral in association with an equal or even greater quantity of 
 quartz, while in certain instances quartz alone is present. These are 
 of various sizes and shapes, but they are usually less than a quarter 
 of an inch in diameter, and most of them are about the size of an 
 ordinary pea. In certain instances some of the larger of these areas 
 seemed to be made up of a single imperfect phenocryst of plagioclase, 
 but a study of the slides usually shows a mosaic made of several dis- 
 tinct interlocking grains of this mineral, together with a varying 
 amount of quartz. The rock, at first sight, suggests an amygdaloid, 
 with the amygdules or vesicles filled with this quartzo-feldspathic 
 material, but a more reasonable explanation suggests their probable 
 origin as small, more or less continuous veins of pegmatite which 
 have become thus deformed and separated as a result of stretching. 
 The structure is of rather frequent occurrence and characteristic of 
 comparatively large areas of the amphibolite. Similar rocks have 
 been noticed by Dr. Coleman as occurring in the vicinity of the 
 Frood mine, while in the central part of the township of Graham the 
 writer has collected several specimens from the N. 1 lot 8, con. Ill, 
 and the N. J lot 1, con. IV, of this township. The matrix in which 
 these small eye-like forms are developed shows a fine-grained horn- 
 blende schist, made up, in great part, of compact, dark-green, strongly 
 pleochroic hornblende, together with a little biotite. In the specimen 
 from the N. 4 lot 1, con. IV, of Graham, the quartz and feldspar of 
 many of the ' augen ' contain small scattered individuals of horn- 
 blende, zoisite and biotite. 
 
60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Another type of rock, which was noticed at two widely separated 
 localities, intimately associated with these amphibolites, is a dark- 
 grey, almost black, faintly glistening schistose rock. The thin sec- 
 tion of a specimen obtained near the openings on lot 12, con. IV, of 
 Denison, shows a fine-grained aggregate of pale-coloured or ' bleached ' 
 biotite, with a much smaller amount of plagioclase. Small grains of 
 sphene are abundant, and also irregular fragments of calcite. 
 
 Another variety of the same rock is represented by a specimen 
 obtained near the Century Copper mine, on the "N. -J lot 4, con. IV, 
 of Graham. It contains frequent disseminations of pyrrhotite, 
 pyrite and chalcopyrite, and in addition to the plagioclase contains 
 a considerable amount of quartz. The biotite, which is in fairly 
 large plates, is ' bleached' with frequent pleochroic halos, surround- 
 ing certain of the smaller inclusions, which are abundant, and in- 
 clude sphene, epidote and zoisite. 
 
 Occasionally these amphibolites contain garnet, wKich is some- 
 times abundant, and often in large, ill-defined or rounded crystals. 
 The most striking example of such a rock is, doubtless, that occurring 
 in the vicinity of the Vermillion mine, (lots 5 and 6, con. IV, of 
 Denison). The matrix shows the prevailing fine-grained, dark-green 
 schist, in which rounded crystals of reddish garnet, sometimes two 
 inches in diameter, are developed. The matrix is made up principally 
 of hornblende and quartz. The garnet is quite normal, but is much 
 cracked and slightly seamed with green chlorite, which has resulted 
 from its incipient alteration. It was also noticed to contain inclu- 
 sions of magnetite and quartz. 
 
 There can be little doubt in regard to the origin of most of these 
 older greenstones that they represent greatly decomposed, sheared, 
 and, at times, completely re crystallized, basic eruptives, but there is 
 still considerable doubt regarding the exact conditions attending the 
 genesis of certain other types of rocks, which are intimately asso- 
 ciated with, and usually included in these greenstones. Some of 
 these show, though somewhat indistinctly, the ellipsoidal and amygda- 
 loidal structures characteristic of lava flows, while others, again, are 
 almost certainly of a pyroclastic nature, representing consolidated 
 beds of volcanic ashes and fine agglomerates, but all of these have 
 been so greatly squeezed and stretched that their precise identifica- 
 tion is extremely, difficult, if not impossible. Some portions of the 
 sedimentary rocks, chiefly quartzites and greywackes, are included in 
 these areas of greenstones. In some instances these clastic rocks, 
 which have thus been caught up in the greenstone, are sufficiently 
 large to permit of being separated on the map, but, for the most part, 
 they are comparatively small, and have been included under the same 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 61 
 
 colour as the greenstone. All of these clastic rocks are greatly meta- 
 morphosed. The tuffs or greywackes are now made up chiefly of clear 
 feldspar, with a smaller proportion of quartz, the former mineral 
 being largely altered to sericite; biotite, chlorite and magnetite or 
 ilmenite are the most abundant minerals represented. Often decrys- 
 tallization has been so advanced that no traces of their detrital origin 
 remain. The quartzites are of the usual feldspathic variety, the com- 
 ponent grains only occasionally revealing traces of water action, the 
 structure, for the most part, being eminently interlocking. 
 
 (2.) UPPER HURONIAN. 
 B. CONGLOMERATES, FELDSPATHIC SANDSTONES AND QUARTZITES. 
 
 Although a large proportion of the rocks included as Huronian in 
 the Sudbury district are the direct result of igneous action, consid- 
 erable areas are underlaid by others of undoubtedly sedimentary 
 origin. While, however, the various types of these rocks have been 
 studied in considerable detail, so that their precise mineralogical 
 composition is well understood, their stratigraphical position has not 
 been determined as satisfactorily as might be desired, as only a com- 
 paratively limited time could be spared from the work of examining 
 and delimiting the more important eruptives .directly associated with 
 the ore bodies. The geological succession, therefore, advocated in this 
 report, is not based on an extended or critical study of the field rela- 
 tions of these rocks, and much more exhaustive work will be neces- 
 sary before a final and authoritative utterance is possible on this 
 point. Some difficulties which presented themselves, during even the 
 preliminary investigations undertaken by the writer, may be men- 
 tioned briefly. In the first place all the rocks of the district have 
 been greatly disturbed, so that the originally horizontal strata are 
 now tilted at very high angles, in some instances having assumed a 
 vertical attitude, and, occasionally, having even been overturned as a 
 result of the mechanical stresses to which they have been subjected. 
 In some cases, and over extended areas, the rocks have been so meta- 
 morphosed that the planes of original sedimentation are more or less 
 completely masked, or even destroyed altogether, thus rendering it 
 very difficult, if not impossible, to interpret the true structure or suc- 
 cession. In addition, the situation is further complicated, and a satis- 
 factory explanation delayed, by reason of the frequent development 
 of certain secondary structures due to intense and prolonged pressure 
 and stretching. The foliated, schistose or slaty structures, thus in- 
 duced, are frequently mistaken for bedding planes, although usually 
 
62 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 forming considerable angles with them. Besides, the continuity of 
 the areas of the clastic rocks is frequently broken by the intrusion 
 of irregular masses of igneous material, which not only greatly dis- 
 turbed and obscured the original order of deposition, but divide these 
 sedimentaries into a number of separate basins, whose satisfactory 
 correlation can only be unravelled by much more detailed study than 
 the present opportunity afforded the writer. At this stage, therefore, 
 the succession favoured in this report is not offered without a certain 
 degree of hesitation, although it is without doubt a much more com- 
 plete and satisfactory classification than any which has yet been 
 attempted. With the exception of one or two minor points it differs 
 in no essential particular from the scheme offered by Dr. Coleman 
 in his last report, (*) and we both agree in advancing the opinion, 
 that the intrusion of the nickel bearing norite took place at a much 
 later date than formerly supposed. It is confidently expected, how- 
 ever, that Dr. Coleman, as a result of the later work he is now con- 
 ducting in the district, will decide many of the questions which are 
 still a matter of opinion and conjecture, and the appearance of his 
 monograph is accordingly awaited, with the expectation that this 
 question of succession, especially, will receive full and satisfactory 
 treatment. 
 
 The oldest clastic rocks exposed in the vicinity of Sudbury are 
 certain feldspathic sandstones or greywackes, frequently interbedded 
 with, and passing by insensible gradations into feldspathic quartzites 
 or arkoses, the latter, for the most part, being the later rocks, and 
 usually forming the summit of the series. These rocks are evidently 
 closely related, the main point of difference noticed consisting in the 
 relatively coarse grain and large amount of quartz in the quartzites, 
 with less of the finer-grained interstitial material, this being made 
 up, for the most part, of the lighter coloured decomposition product 
 sericite, while in the greywacke the texture is finer, and feldspar, not 
 quartz, is the predominant constituent. Chlorite, with innumerable 
 fine, disseminated particles of opaque matter, gives the prevailing dark 
 colour to the rock. The quartzites, for the most part, occur in thick, 
 massive beds, which are very uniform in mineralogical composition, 
 while the greywackes are much more distinctly and evenly stratified, 
 and certain shales and slates exposed in the district are evidently 
 thinly bedded varieties of this rock. All intermediate stages, both in 
 composition and structure, may be noticed between these two types of 
 rock, which, at the two extremes, are quite distinct and recognizable. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, p. 298. 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 63 
 
 Comparatively large areas are characterized by the prevalence of one 
 or other of these rocks. 
 
 Some of the greywackes are evidently of the nature of muddy sedi- 
 ments deposited in water, as a result of ordinary conditions of degra- 
 dation and deposition, but tuffs constitute, by far, the larger part, 
 representing the consolidation of what was originally volcanic ashes, 
 being one of the results of the explosive action to which is due the 
 presence, at the surface, of the great belts of greenstone. These have, 
 in most cases, been sorted and re-arranged by "the action of water, 
 but, in other instances, little or no trace of rounding action can be 
 detected in the component grains, even in those types which have 
 suffered little or no alteration. These rocks are usually of a dark- 
 grey, purplish-brown, or greenish-grey colour. They are often evenly 
 and very distinctly banded, in varying shades of grey. Jointing is 
 frequent and also slaty cleavage. They are often faulted and shat- 
 tered, and in the vicinity of the various greenstone masses are pene- 
 trated and altered by irregular tongues and masses of the basic 
 igneous material. They are frequently porphyritic, and usually the 
 phenocrysts are small, very thickly disseminated, and of a very pale- 
 greyish or whitish colour. For this reason the rock has been referred 
 to, in the field, as ' rice rock/ These phenocrysts were probably 
 andalusite or staurolite, but the skeleton-forms are now occupied by a 
 confused aggregate of minute sericite scales and quartz. Other ex- 
 posures show small yellowish-brown spots made up of rutile, while 
 others again exhibit irregular phenocrysts of hornblende, now wholly 
 replaced by chlorite. Thin sections, examined under the microscope, 
 reveal a rock which has undergone rather extensive decomposition. 
 It is usually made up very largely of feldspar, with a smaller propor- 
 tion of quartz, in small, angular or slightly rounded fragments. 
 These are surrounded by a net-work of sericite and chlorite scales, 
 together with a considerable amount of opaque iron ore. The larger 
 individuals, at least, have evidently been ilmenite, but are now almost 
 completely altered to leucoxene. The darker bands are made up of 
 more thickly disseminated, dust-like particles of iron ore, much of 
 which at least is ilmenite. In the vicinity of the various eruptive 
 masses, as well as in those masses which have been caught up in the 
 greenstone, these rocks are very much altered, the various types having 
 been described as mica schists, felsites and phyllites. The rocks re- 
 ferred to as quartzites are massive, though usually distinctly strati- 
 fied, of a pale-grey, reddish, yellowish-grey, or greenish-grey colour. 
 They are intimately associated and often interbedded with the tuffs 
 or greywackes, so that it is frequently impossible to separate the two 
 for purposes of mapping. Under the microscope the thin section 
 
64 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 exhibits a rock made up chiefly of quartz, with a somewhat smaller 
 proportion of feldspar, most of which is unstriated, and, therefore, 
 presumably orthoclase. Occasional grains of microline were noticed, 
 showing the various stages in the development of the characteristic 
 fine, cross-hatched, twinning structure. Much of the feldspar is de- 
 composed into a hydrous form of muscovite (sericite), occurring in 
 irregular, pale-yellowish or colourless scales and plates, which, together 
 with fragments of undecomposed feldspar, make up a groundmass, 
 in which the larger individuals of quartz, and more rarely of feldspar, 
 are embedded. 
 
 The structure of the rock is for the most part interlocking, but 
 some specimens show distinctly clastic structure, while, in most, the 
 resemblance to well authenticated, recrystallized elastics is such as 
 can hardly be mistaken. 
 
 A little over a mile northwest of Sudbury the Canadian Pacific 
 railway crosses a belt of very highly altered feldspathic quartzite, the 
 outcrops of this rock forming a series of comparatively high and con- 
 spicuous ridges. This band averages about half a mile in width, and 
 extends with unbroken continuity from the vicinity of the Frood 
 mine to Copper Cliff. Here, denudation has removed a considerable 
 portion of these rocks, leaving only small areas such as that which 
 outcrops immediately north of the old Copper Cliff mine. These 
 rocks are again exposed to the west of the Ontario Smelting Works at 
 Copper Cliff, forming the high ridges, which with some minor breaks, 
 extend in a southeasterly direction a little beyond the boundary 
 between Waters and Graham townships. Areas of very similar rocks 
 are shown on the map as occurring in the township of Denison, the 
 largest mass covering a considerable tract north of the Vermilion 
 mine. The microscopical examination . of most of the thin sections, 
 representative of this rock, throws little or no light on its origin, and 
 the exposures might very readily be mapped as belonging to a biotite 
 or hornblende granite, while the prescence of a breccia of autoclastic 
 character at the junction between this and the greywackes to the 
 southeast might easily be interpreted as indicating the intrusion of 
 a granitic rock through the greywacke. 
 
 These small, usually parallel, and seemingly dike-like forms of 
 quartzo-feldspathic material are in reality thin bedtf of aikose mate- 
 rial, which, originally continuous, have been drawn out, broken and 
 separated during the process of stretching, while the enclosing rocks, 
 having yielded more readily to deformation, give no evidence of auto- 
 clastic action. This quartzite is frequently ' blotched ' in the vicinity 
 of the railway line, the spots or blotches of a pale-reddish or pinkish 
 coloui being embedded in a network of greyish material, without 
 
UPPER HURONIAN 65 
 
 however, any sharp or well-defined boundary between these two por- 
 tions of the rock. It is made up principally of quartz, feldspar, bio- 
 tite, muscovite and sometimes hornblende, the last mentioned mineral 
 being especially conspicuous in those exposures of the rock crossed 
 by the railway and wagon, road to Azilda. This mineral occurs 
 usually in long, slender prisms of a dark green colour, disposed at 
 various angles to one another, and very evidently the product of 
 secondary action. 
 
 The component minerals possess the irregular, interlocking out- 
 lines, with usually 110 suggestion of the rounding action of water, 
 and, at first sight, has every resemblance to a granite or gneiss. An 
 examination of the field occurrences of this rock fs, however, much 
 more satisfactory than that of the thin section under the microscope. 
 At times, a series of beds can be traced out, differing considerably 
 in composition and texture, the whole occurring in the form of a 
 synclinal basin, resting upon the greywackes. This quartzite repre- 
 sents the most advanced type of a recrystallized arkose for which the 
 term ' regenerated granite ' has been proposed. ( x ) In the Huronian, 
 there are no very large areas of conglomerate, and the exact position 
 of these rocks is still a matter of doubt, but it is hoped that future 
 investigation will, at an early date, enable a precise statement of the 
 stratigraphical position to be made. From the investigations under- 
 taken by the writer, these conglomerates would appear to lie at the 
 bt:se of a series, which, passing upwards into darker coloured feld- 
 spathic sandstones or greywackes, are in turn overlaid by feldspathic 
 quartzites or arkoses which cover the larger portion of the southeast- 
 ern part of the Sudbury map. 
 
 Such rocks are, as a rule, of a dark-grey colour, with disseminated, 
 angular, subangular, or rounded fragments, chiefly of quartz, granite, 
 diorite, c. Thin sections exhibit a rock made up of fragments, 
 chiefly of quartz, but also of orthoclase, plagioclase and microper- 
 thite. The most abundant composite fragments are granitite, com- 
 posed mainly of microperthite and quartz, together with a little bio- 
 tite. All of the larger individuals are embedded in a matrix, made 
 up of much finer pieces of quartz and feldspar, together with biotite, 
 sericite and a pale-green chlorite. Occasional grains of pyrite and 
 also some of ilmenite occur. Excellent exposures of the last men- 
 tioned conglomerate may be seen along the line of the Canadian 
 Pacific railway, immediately east of Sudbury, and in the vicinity of 
 the north shore of Kamsay lake. As usual, these conglomerates are 
 extremely local in their development, covering no very large extent 
 
 (1) Quart. Journ. Geol. Lon. Vol. LIU. (1397) p. 44. 
 4187 5 
 
66 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 of country, and the area to the east of Sudbury is, by far, the largest 
 covered by such coarse, detrital rocks. Exposures of a very similar 
 rock occur on lot 7, con I, of the township of Denison, to the south 
 of a small lake, the conglomerate at this place underlying the 
 quartzite. 
 
 Dr. Coleman mentions that, ' the most typical conglomerate in the 
 region, however, extends as a much broken band from northeast to 
 southwest, near Stobie mine, showing crowded pebbles and small 
 boulders of more than half a dozen kinds, including granite, quartz- 
 ite and several sorts of green schist, as well as greenstone.' ( 2 ) The 
 occurrence of these conglomerates and the character of their pebbles 
 indicate a probable lack of conformity in the Huronian, and it is 
 quite possible that there is a lower and an upper series, the former 
 made up of greenstones, schists, greywackes and highly altered quartz- 
 ites (regenerated granites), overlaid unconformably by the conglo- 
 merates just mentioned, together with the overlying greywackes and 
 feldspathic sandstones exposed in the southern part of the Victoria 
 mines map, and the southeastern part of the Sudbury map. Besides 
 these coarse detrital rocks, which are evidently consolidated shore 
 deposits, there are certain pseudo-conglomerates or autoclastic rocks, 
 formed, as already stated, as a result of pressure and deformation. 
 These ' crush ' conglomerates are especially abundant where the 
 harder and more brittle quartzites come in contact with the schistose 
 greywackes. Certain portions of the green schists, penetrated by 
 granitic material, have likewise become autoclastic, through the 
 stretching and rolling out of the rocks, while large portions of the 
 greywackes themselves have been broken, the fragments separated 
 and recemented together by similar, though somewhat coarser 
 material. 
 
 (2.) UPPER HURONIAN? 
 (O.) OLDER? NORITES AND DIORITES. 
 
 Certain areas of gabbro and norite, with their derivative diorite, 
 occur, which have no direct or visible connexion with the main mass 
 of the nickel bearing norite. Most of these intrusive masses exhibit 
 certain peculiarities of composition and structure, which all seem to 
 possess in common, and by means of which they may usually be dis- 
 tinguished from the ordinary norite. The possesion of these charac- 
 teristics, as well as their prevailingly greater alteration, suggests a 
 probable difference in age, and the position assigned to them in the 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, pp. 239 and 29*0. 
 
UPPER HURONIAN ? OLDER NORITES AND DIORITES 67 
 
 table of the geological formations exposed in this district is believed 
 to be a very close approximation to the truth. Most of these masses, 
 at least, are distinctly younger than any of the clastic rocks with 
 which they come in contact, as they pierce and alter the highest beds 
 of the quartzites, which occur in the region covered by the southern 
 and southeastern portions of both the accompanying map-sheets. 
 Their age, with regard to the granite or main mass of norite, is not 
 known, as they nowhere occur in conjunction with these rocks. They 
 are, however, older than the olivine-diabase, for dikes of this latest 
 rock in the area are seen to cut them in many places. 
 
 With the exception of the Worthington mine, no large or economi- 
 cally valuable deposits of nickel and copper have been found in con- 
 nexion with them, although the Mitchener and Totten mines, situ- 
 ated in the* township of Drury, were opened on masses of these mine- 
 rals which were directly connected with the Worthington mine intru- 
 sive. Other deposits of these sulphides are known to occur at several 
 points, as for instance on lot 12, con. Ill, of Neelon township, where 
 the pyrrhotite was found to contain 3 '10 per cent of nickel, and on the 
 north half of lot 4, con. VI, of Neelon township, but, so far as known, 
 none of these are of sufficient dimensions to form working mines 
 under present conditions. 
 
 One of these belts of norite starts in the township of Drury, to 
 the south of the Canadian Pacific railway, and extends across the 
 southern part of the township of Denison, ending a short distance 
 east of the Vermilion river. The small areas shown on the map, as 
 occurring on lot 12, con. II and III, of Denison, are of the same 
 rock. Another band forms the high land between Trout, Clear and 
 Whitefish lakes on the southeast, and McCharles and Simon lakes on 
 the northwest. The highest portion of the ridge rises 220 feet above 
 McCharles lake. The probable continuation of this band forms the 
 higher hills northwest of Kelly lake, and with some minor breaks, 
 the ridges formed by the outcropping of these hard rocks extend to 
 the eastern end of Ramsay lake. To the north of the Canadian 
 Pacific railway, and to the east of the town of Sudbury, the rock 
 forms a series of exceedingly rugged and comparatively high hills, 
 the highest of which rises over 1,000 feet above the sea. This mass 
 of norite and diorite covers an area of about four square miles in 
 this part of McKim and Neelon townships, sending off a long narrow 
 arm, which crosses the sixth concession of the township of Neelon. 
 The large irregular mass of similar igneous material, occurring in 
 the eastern part of Neelon, and shown on the map as covering por- 
 tions of the third, fourth and fifth concessions, is known to be 
 directly connected with the same mass. With the exception of the 
 
 4187 5fc 
 
68 GE.OLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 I 
 
 smaller separated masses, with which the Frood and Stobie mines are 
 connected, and which undoubtedly belong to the main mass of the 
 norite, all of the smaller areas of massive, basic, igneous rocks, shown 
 on the map, are made up of this or a closely related type of rock. In 
 addition to these, considerable areas of massive diorite occur in inti- 
 mate association with, and probably intrusive through, the older 
 greenstones and tuffs which make up the larger portion of the area 
 covered by the third and fourth concessions of Denison. These rocks 
 are quite distinct from that which forms the main mass of norite, and 
 are seemingly more closely related to this older norite intrusive. 
 Similar areas of diorite rocks occur in the belt of older hornblende 
 and tufaceous rocks which crosses the third and fourth concessions 
 of Graham, to the south of the granite mass. Deposits of pyrrhotite, 
 chalcopyrite, pyrite and cobaltiferous arsenopyrite are known to occur 
 in connexion with these rocks, but they are not at present of econo- 
 mic importance. 
 
 In the field, outcrops of these older norites are pale-greenish, in 
 contrast to the dark-greyish or black tones of the main mass of norite. 
 They are, as a rule, finer in grain, eminently diabasic in texture and 
 frequently show considerable masses of diorite pegmatite, or mala- 
 chite, in this last respect differing from the ordinary norite, which is 
 remarkably uniform in grain over the whole area. Under the micro- 
 scope they contain less quartz, and the hornblende is always actino- 
 lite, and not the compact variety common in the diorite derived from 
 the norite of the main mass. 
 
 Fresh representatives of this apparently older norite are compara- 
 tively rare, and the writer's specimens, selected with every care, at 
 widely separated localities, contain only two specimens in which the 
 pyroxenes are sufficiently fresh to permit of their identification, and 
 even in the slides from these specimens by far the greater portion of 
 the original ferromagnesian constituents are represented by the usual 
 secondary serpentine and actinolite. 
 
 One of the hand specimens of the least altered phase of the diorite, 
 collected near the eastern extremity of the band of greenstone be- 
 tween Whitefish and Simon lakes, is a pale greenish, medium-textured, 
 massive greenstone, with little or no evidence of having been sub- 
 jected to dynamic metamorphism. 
 
 The thin section shows a hypersthene-gabbro or norite, the greater 
 portion of which has undergone advanced chemical alteration or de- 
 composition. For the most part it is now made up of plagioclase and 
 a serpentine closely related, if not identical with bastite. The latter 
 mineral is very evidently secondary, and occupies very approximately 
 the same position as the original bisilicate material, from whose 
 
UPPER HURONIAN ? OLDER NORITES AND DIORITES 69 
 
 alteration it has resulted. Occasionally, limited areas show the ori- 
 sinal pyroxeiiic minerals, in various stages of the bastitic alteration. 
 A faintly pleochroic hyperstheiie or enstatite and diallage are both 
 present, and some of the individuals or grains of these minerals are, 
 with difficulty, distinguishable from one another. Both minerals are 
 very nearly colourless, but the double refraction of the hypersthene 
 is weak, while the diallago, on the contrary, shows brilliant chromatic 
 polarization. Both pyroxenes show a faint, though distinct pleo- 
 chroism, that possessed by the hypersthene being more decided. The 
 index of refraction of the hypersthene is somewhat higher than that 
 of the diallage, while the latter mineral shows frequent polysynthetic 
 twinning. Both pyroxenes, however, decompose to the same pale- 
 greenish, usually fibrous, but occasionally scaly bastite, often exhibit- 
 ing brilliant polarization colours. In places, this bastite is being con- 
 verted into a pale-greenish, feebly pleochroic, fibrous hornblende or 
 actinolite, this uralitization being especially pronounced in the vicin- 
 ity of the margins of the individuals. These bastitic areas contain 
 very numerous, small, irregular scales and plates of a pale-brownish, 
 apparently secondary biotite, and, in places, are crowded with small 
 grains of secondary magnetite. The plagioclase, which, judging from 
 the extinction angles, is labradorite, has a marked poikilitic develop- 
 ment, this mineral extinguishing simultaneously over large areas, 
 which in the thin section are separate either partially or wholly by 
 intervening bisilicate material. This poikilitic effect is likewise 
 noticeable in the hand specimen owing to the uniform reflection of 
 light from the plagioclase individuals. Comparatively large, irregular 
 grains of magnetite, probably titaniferous, are also distributed 
 through the rock, while quartz occurs, filling up occasional inter- 
 spaces between the tabular forms of feldspar. 
 
 Another specimen, representing a very fresh variety of this rock, 
 was obtained from a small hill, west of a lumber road, on lot 11, con. 
 V, of Neelon. Dr. Coleman mentions the fact that a specimen of 
 this rock from the hilltop east of the town of Sudbury is l a typical 
 norite made up essentially of faintly pleochroic enstatite or hypers- 
 thene and plagioclase, the latter somewhat lath-shaped.' (*) 
 
 A thin section from a specimen obtained from the large mass of 
 this rock, occurring to the southeast of the Evans mine, shows a 
 greatly altered variety of this norite. The original pyroxene minerals 
 are wholly converted into an aggregate of pale-greenish, brilliantly 
 polarizing scales and fibres of serpentine, this, in turn, being con- 
 verted, in certain instances, to actinolite. Pale-coloured biotite is 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, p. 296. 
 
70 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA . 
 
 abundant. A small amount of greenish-brown, compact hornblende 
 is also present. The plagioclase, with the pale-brownish tints so com- 
 mon in these rocks, occurs in rather broad, lath-shaped or tabular, 
 well-twinned crystals, which are, as a rule, quite fresh. Quartz is not 
 very abundant, and some grains are intergrown with plagioclase, 
 forming the characteristic granophyre. The iron ore is ilmenite, 
 with borders of sphene. Apatite is abundant, in the usual slender, 
 prismatic forms. 
 
 Another thin section, taken from a specimen obtained on the north 
 half of lot 10, con. V, of Nelson, is still more decomposed, the pyrox- 
 ene being replaced by a very pale yellowish-green serpentine and acti- 
 nolite. All the intermediate stages in the conversion of serpentine to 
 actinolite may be studied. Much of the feldspar is quite fresh and 
 clear, with a pale-brownish colour, but the areas of this mineral have 
 been invaded, to a considerable extent, by small fibres and crystals of 
 actinolite. A little compact, brownish hornblende is also present. A 
 large amount of zoisite occurs as a secondary product of decomposi- 
 tion. Ilmenite, largely altered to sphene, and occasional grains of 
 pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite are also present, while quartz occasion- 
 ally occupies the irregular interspaces between the plagioclase laths. 
 Another specimen, from the north half of lot 4, con. VI, of Neelon, 
 was also examined under the microscope. The rock may be referred 
 to, at present, as a uralitic quartz-diabase. The original pyroxene is 
 now represented by pale greenish, feebly pleochroic bastite and actino- 
 lite ; much of the plagioclase is rather clear and fresh, but some has 
 undergone considerable saussuritization. A little brownish horn- 
 blende is present. Sphene, in irregular grains, with black opaque 
 cores of ilmenite, epidote and zoisite, are the principal other minerals 
 noticed. 
 
 The actinolite diorite and schist, with which the deposits at the 
 Worthington, Mitchener, Totten and Macdonell or Gersdorffite mines 
 are associated, are evidently highly altered forms of this norite. 
 These deposits possess certain peculiarities in common with one 
 another, which distinguish them from the other ore bodies connected 
 with the main mass of the norite. Some of the rock collected at the 
 Vermilion mine is possibly of the same type and age, but this was 
 not definitely ascertained. As is evident from the foregoing, it is 
 manifestly difficult, if not impossible, in all cases, to decide the ques- 
 tion of the identity of every individual specimen of altered norite, or 
 even the various separated masses, but in a broad way these two 
 norites are distinct and separate from one another, and the criteria 
 aVeady mentioned for distinguishing them will usually be found 
 sufficient. 
 
LAURENTIAN GNEISSES 71 
 
 (3.) LAURENTIAN GRANITE AND DIORITE-GNEISSES. 
 
 The rocks usually classified as Laurentian comprise a series of 
 foliated, eruptive rocks, mainly of granitic and dioritic composition, 
 crossing the southeastern corner of the Sudbury map, in the town- 
 ships of Dill and Neelon, in the vicinity of the Wanapitei river. 
 These rocks possess a well-marked foliation, this structure being 
 determined not only by the alternation of lighter and darker coloured 
 bands, but also by the parallel disposition and alignment of the com* 
 ponent minerals. The lighter coloured bands are usually of the pre- 
 vailing flesh-red tint, and are made up largely of quartz with ortho- 
 clase, microline and microperthite as the feldspathic constituents, 
 and these minerals, together with biotite in varying amount, make up 
 the bulk of the rock. The darker coloured bands contain less quartz 
 and very abundant mica, with oligoclase as the principal feldspar. 
 The biotite is often altered to chlorite. Muscovite and zircon are 
 often present in small amount. Garnet is very abundant, of the pre- 
 vailing almandine variety, and usually more or less rounded, but 
 some of the well-formed individuals show the faces of the rhombic 
 dodecahedron and icositetrahedron. Perhaps the most interesting 
 mineral is cyanite, which is abundant in certain portions of the rock, 
 occurring both in the micaceous and feldspathic bands. This mineral 
 occurs in flat, blade-like crystals, with the prevailing bluish and 
 whitish colours. In the micaceous bands the colour is especially 
 deep, and of a beautiful azure tint, somewhat unevenly distributed 
 or cloud-like in its effect, the colour being often deepest in the centre 
 of the crystals, gradually becoming colourless towards, the margin. 
 These crystals are arranged, for the most part, parallel to the folia- 
 tion, but some individuals are disposed at considerable angles to this 
 structure. Sillimanite or fibrolite is also occasionally present, espe- 
 cially on slickensided or jointing planes, and shows abundant evi* 
 dence of pressure and stretching. These gneisses are distinctly of 
 eruptive origin, and their intrusion through the quartzites and other 
 clastic rocks is everywhere apparent, where the line of junction is so 
 exposed that the relationship between the two may be examined and 
 studied. 
 
 4. UPPER HURONIAN ( ?) CLASTIC KOCKS. 
 
 The rocks, thus classified, occupy the large oval area situated 
 immediately northwest of the main belt of the nickel bearing and 
 kindred eruptives, and underlying the extensive clay plain which has 
 already been described as so eminently suitable for agricultural pur- 
 poses. As a result of the first geological examination, these rocks 
 
72 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 were regarded by Dr. Bell as probably of Cambrian age, and have 
 thus been coloured on all subsequent geological maps. Their precise 
 geological age is still a matter of doubt, but the later work seems to 
 indicate a close relationship both in origin and age, with the main 
 masses of norite and micropegmatite. If, as seems probable from 
 the work already accomplished, these several separate ranges of nickel 
 bearing norite are, in reality, the exposed portions of one continuous 
 laccolite, with occasional minor irregularities or offsets, then, as illus- 
 trated by Dr. Coleman, C 1 ) these youngest clastic rocks of the district 
 will, no doubt, be snown to occupy a synclinal trough, overlying this 
 deep platter- shaped sheet of intrusive rock. 
 
 These rocks extend from the southeastern part of the township of 
 Trill, to within a few miles of Wanapitei lake, the area being thus 
 nearly thirty-five miles in length, with an extreme width of a little 
 over eight miles. 
 
 They comprise, at the base, certain breccias and agglomerates, 
 most of which, at least, are of pyroclastic origin, these rocks passing 
 upward into black, bituminous shales, while they are, in turn, over- 
 laid by a comparatively coarse greywacke or feldspathic sandstone. 
 
 The identification of the breccia at the base of this series as a 
 consolidated volcanic ash was the result of microscopical studies 
 undertaken by the late Prof. G. H. Williams, of material furnished 
 him by Dr. Bell. The important fact of the occurrence, in these 
 ancient rocks, of a volcanic glass breccia, the various minute details 
 of structure being so exceptionally preserved through silicification 
 as to permit of its positive recognition, has always been a matter of 
 general interest and comment, especially amongst those geologists 
 who regarded these earlier periods of the earth's history as character- 
 ized by exceptional and prolonged explosive volcanic activity. 
 
 A description of this comparatively rare type of rock was carefully 
 prepared by Prof. "Williams, and communicated to a meeting of the 
 Geological Society of America, held on December 31st, 1890. These 
 details were embodied in an appendix to Dr. Bell's paper on the nickel 
 and copper deposits of this district, which was also read at this 
 meeting. ( 2 ) 
 
 The material submitted for examination consisted of two small 
 hand specimens, collected at the lowest falls on the Onaping river, in 
 the township of Dowling. Prof. Williams' description ( 3 ) is so com- 
 plete and satisfactory, that it may be quoted in this connexion. 
 
 ' In a hand specimen, this rock presents a nearly black f elsitic 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, (illustration 52) pp. 288-289. 
 (3) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part F, pp. 74-76. 
 
 (2) Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., 1891, pp. 74-76. 
 
UPPER HUROXI AN ? CLASTIC ROCKS 73 
 
 matrix, in which are embedded sharply angular or slightly rounded 
 fragments, varying from l cm. in ciiameter, downwards to ultra- 
 microscopic dimensions. .These fragments are lighter in colour 
 than the matrix, but differ considerably among themselves in their 
 tint, structure and composition. The majority resemble chalcedony 
 in appearance, others are greenish, while some of the largest frag- 
 ments are now replaced by a single calcite individual. Occasional 
 small grains of clear vitreous quartz may also be detected, while 
 specks of pyrrhotite are everywhere abundant. Many of the angular 
 fragments show distinctly under the lens a flow or vesicular structure, 
 which is still more apparent in a thin section of the rock when seen 
 under the microscope. The fragments, even down to those of the 
 smallest dimensions, have the angular form characteristic of glass 
 sherds produced by explosive eruptions, with more or less coarsely 
 vesicular structure. The flow structure is as perfectly marked by 
 sinuous lines of globulites and microlites which terminate abruptly 
 against the broken edge of the glass particle, as in the most recent 
 vitrophyre. Minute spots of pyrrhotite are scattered throughout the 
 section. The groundmass is of a dark colour, owing to the massing 
 in it of minute black globulites, to whose nature the highest magnify- 
 ing power gives no clue. Between crossed nicols it is seen to be made 
 up largely of chalcedonic quartz, which has changed the easily 
 destructible glass into a sort of jasper. Chlorite is also abundant, 
 frequently arranged as a border of radiating scales around the edges 
 of the fragments, so as to coat them green in the hand specimen. 
 The larger grains are always a fine mosaic of interlocking quartz, but 
 some of the smaller ones are composed of a unit individual of clear 
 vitreous quartz. The only other minerals which could be identified 
 in the section are calcite and a few grains of a glassy striated feld- 
 spar. The presence of this latter mineral is very noteworthy, as we 
 should expect it to have disappeared during the vicissitudes through 
 which this rock has passed.' 
 
 In other localities this breccia shows a greater diversity in the 
 character of the larger fragments, and composite rocks made up 
 largely of quartz and feldspar, either granite or recrystallized quartz- 
 ite, frequently occur. Plagioclase and quartz, usually in angular or 
 sub-angular pieces, are very often represented, while epidote and horn- 
 blende, also mentioned by Dr. Coleman, are likewise present in the 
 thin sections examined by the writer. 
 
 No complete chemical analysis has yet been made of the individual 
 specimens examined by Prof. Williams, but Dr. Hoffmann made a 
 silica determina'tion, showing it to contain 60*23 per cent. Dr. T. L. 
 Walker, however, has made an analysis of a specimen of this breccia, 
 
74 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 obtained from the north shore of Whitson lake, with the following 
 results: (*) 
 
 Si O 2 59-93 
 
 A1 2 O 3 12-12 
 
 Fe O 10-56 
 
 Mn O trace. 
 
 Ca 4-49 
 
 Mg O 5-19 ' 
 
 Na2 0. . . 3-80 
 
 K 2 O 0-97 
 
 Loss by ignition 1-57 
 
 Total 98-63 
 
 Various sulphides, chiefly pyrite, but sometimes also pyrrhotite 
 and chalcopyrite, are often abundantly disseminated through this 
 rock, and not a few mining locations have been surveyed, 
 intended to cover such deposits, which were regarded as possible 
 mines. One of the most promising of these, visited by Mr. Leroy, 
 was situated on the south half of lot 8, con. IV, of the township of 
 Bowling, and the specimens secured were handed to Dr. Hoffman for 
 assay. The hand specimen shows a massive pyrrhotite, with which 
 is associated a little chalcopyrite and a somewhat larger proportion 
 of gangue. The pyrrhotite, when freed from the chalcopyrite and 
 gangue, was found by Mr. F. G. Wait C 1 ) to contain 0-26 per cent of 
 nickel with a trace of cobalt. Resting upon this breccia or agglo- 
 merate are certain black bituminous shales, often with well developed 
 slaty cleavages. This rock is made up principally of minute frag- 
 ments of quartz, with intervening scales of chlorite and sericite, and 
 abundantly disseminated, black, opaque particles of carbonaceous or 
 bituminous matter. These slates sometimes contain fissures occupied 
 by anthraxolite or vein anthracite, and a large outcropping of such 
 material in the township of Balfour occasioned considerable excite- 
 ment some years ago. Samples of the surrounding rock, analyzed by 
 Dr. Ellis, showed 6-8 per cent of carbon in the shale. ( 2 ) The highest 
 rocks in this series are certain grey sandstones and shales, the former 
 frequently containing concretions, which weather more rapidly than 
 the matrix in which they are enclosed. Composite fragments can 
 often be recognized with the naked eye, and the rock then assumes 
 the character of a coarse grit. It is made up principally of angular 
 
 (1) Quart. Jo>ur. Geol. Soc. Lon., Vol. LIIL, 1897, p. 45. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. XIII. Part R, p. 35. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1896, pp. 159-166. 
 
POST HURONIAN-GRANITE 75 
 
 and subangular grains of quartz, embedded in a finer-grained base, 
 composed of feldspar, quartz, chlorite and mica. Zircon and tourma- 
 line are also sometimes present. The dark colour of the rock is due 
 to disseminations of innumerable, fine particles of opaque material, 
 especially abundant in the feldspar, and which are probably ilmenite. 
 
 (5) POST HURONIAN. 
 
 (A.) GRANITE. 
 
 It has been customary, of late years, to speak of certain areas of 
 acid intrusives occurring in intimate association with the nickel 
 bearing eruptive as the i younger granites/ Keference has already 
 been made to their strange and anomalous behaviour with regard to 
 the sulphide bearing norite, for wherever the line of junction between 
 these two classes of rock has been examined, it presents a series of 
 apparently conflicting phenomena, which, in the present state of our 
 knowledge, cannot be satisfactorily interpreted or explained. The 
 larger proportion of the evidence, so far available, seems decidedly in 
 favour of regarding these granite rocks as of earlier generation than 
 the norite or gabbro, and even in the vicinity of the Creighton mine, 
 where the immediate junction is characterized by the presence of a 
 narrow belt of intermediate composition between the granite or norite, 
 Dr. Coleman states that ' on the whole, however, the impression is 
 formed that the granitoid gneiss is older than the gabbro, the latter 
 sometimes growing finer-grained at the edge of the gneiss. O A 
 reasonable explanation of the contradictory phenomena witnessed 
 seems to be closely connected with the manner and rate of cooling of 
 the granite bathoiith. This immense body of acid eruptive, as at 
 present exposed at the surface by denudation, has not evidently re- 
 sulted from the consolidation of a body of magma, the product of one 
 simple act of plutonic activity, but is rather the result, locally at least, 
 of several successive fusions and re-cementations, before the whole 
 mass reached its final or present condition. The evidence of such 
 successive periods of intrusion is furnished by a study of the granite 
 mass itself, for although over the larger part of the area the granite 
 is remarkably uniform in structure and composition, certain locali- 
 ties show rather sudden changes in these respects, with occasionally 
 a sharp dividing line, thus indicating an apparent difference in age. 
 All attempts, however, to trace out this apparent line of subdivision 
 in detail, over any extent of country, proved futile, and the conclusion 
 was reached that the whole mass is very closely synchronous, and 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, p. 245. 
 
76 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 that no appreciable lapse of time in a geological sense has occurred 
 between the several dates represented by these different phases of the 
 granite. The rate of cooling, moreover, was extremely slow, much 
 more so in fact than the norite, so that it is possible that, in certain 
 instances, some portions may have been sufficiently consolidated to 
 permit of the cooling against it of the norite, while in areas not far 
 distant some of the latest acid secretions of the granite penetrated 
 and altered the norite or gabbro. There are two main types of these 
 granites, the difference between the two being essentially one of 
 structure, and although intermediate varieties between the two ex- 
 tremes are known to occur, such phases are relatively unimportant 
 and may be ignored for purposes of general description. These two 
 varieties are at present believed to be very approximately, at least, of 
 the same age. One type of rock which occupies by far the largest 
 area of any of these acid eruptives is a very decided ' augen ' or por- 
 phyritic granitite-gneiss. In places, this seems to pass into a finei- 
 grained and more massive type, with ill-defined or no foliation, thus 
 resembling the second variety, the type of which, however, forms two 
 smaller and separated batholiths occurring to the northeast of the 
 main mass. 
 
 The coarser or ' augen ' type presents such a strong resemblance, 
 in every respect, to certain gneissoid rocks occurring in the Lauren- 
 tian, that it was indicated as part of this formation in the first geo- 
 logical map. It constitutes a well marked batholith, intrusive 
 through the older green schists and diorites, which it has greatly dis- 
 turbed and altered, forming a belt to the south of the main mass of 
 the sulphide bearing norite, and extending from the second lot in the 
 township of Denison to a point a little east of the boundary between 
 Snider and McKim townships, near the Copper Cliff mine. The 
 mass is thus about thirteen miles in length, with an average width 
 varying from one to two miles. It forms a very striking and beauti- 
 ful rock, eminently suitable for building or ornamental purposes. It 
 has been used in the building of the main office at Copper Cliff, as 
 also for mantles in the manager's house at Victoria Mines. 
 
 Under the microscope the thin section sEows the rock to be made 
 up chiefly of microcline, orthoclase, albite, oligoclase, biotite and 
 quartz, with epidote, sphene and apatite as accessory minerals and 
 calcite, epidote, zoisite, sericite and chlorite as secondary pro- 
 ducts of decomposition. The orthoclase and microcline sometimes 
 occur free, but, for the most part, are intergrown with the albite, 
 forming both microcline and orthoclase-microperthite. The quartz 
 is the usual granitic variety, frequently showing intense strain 
 shadows and sometimes granulated into a fine interlocking mosaic. 
 
POST HURONIAN GRANITE 77 
 
 The feldspars of the rock, although like the quartz often much 
 cracked, broken and granulated, are comparatively fresh. Reddish- 
 brown iron oxide has spread through the cracks, giving a cloudy or 
 stained appearance to many of the grains. Much of the oligoclase 
 has undergone considerable saussuritization, the resulting products 
 being epidote, zoisite and sericite. It is usually stained a deep red- 
 dish-brown colour. The biotite is usually 'bleached' and has often 
 undergone more or less complete chloritization. Sphene and epidote 
 are often embedded in the biotite. Apatite is frequently present in 
 the rsual acicular prisms, while occasionally a little calcite was 
 noticed in thin sections. 
 
 The * augen ' are usually made up of a comparatively coarse- 
 grained aggregate of microperthite or microcline, together with a 
 much smaller proportion of quartz. More rarely, it is a single crys- 
 tal of feldspar, often a Carlsbad twin, rarely, however, with sharp or 
 well defined boundaries. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Creighton mine the granite of the main 
 batholith comes in immediate juxtaposition with the nickel bearing 
 norite, while to the southwest in the vicinity of the Gertrude mine, 
 as well as to the northeast from the North Star mine and beyond, 
 considerable areas of the peculiar granite and greenstone breccia 
 intervene between the two rocks. As has been stated, there is the clear- 
 est evidence at the Creighton mine of considerable reaction between 
 the granite and norite, the former being often impregnated for a con- 
 siderable distance from the contact with the nickel and copper bear- 
 ing sulphides, while, in addition, certain portions of granite are un- 
 usually basic, presenting a rock of intermediate composition between 
 the granite and norite, with deep flesh-red porphyritic individuals, 
 often Carlsbad twins of orthoclase, microcline or microperthite, em- 
 bedded in a groundmass made up principally of biotite, hornblende, 
 epidote and sphene, the latter containing black opaque ores, pre- 
 sumably of ilmenite. 
 
 The finer-grained variety of granite is characteristic of two areas. 
 The smaller one is situated immediately east of the Lady Violet 
 mine, and extends a little north of the Manitoulin and North Shore 
 railway, on the boundary between McKim and Snider townships. It 
 o^vsrs a considerable portion of lot 1, con. IV, of the township of 
 Snider. 
 
 The other and larger area extends from the main line of the Cana- 
 dian Pacific railway, a little southeast of the Murray mine, northeast 
 to within a quarter of a mile of the Little Stobie mine. It thus con- 
 stitutes an oval area, measuring about three miles in length, and 
 averaging about three-quarters of a mile in width. A microscopical 
 
78 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 examination of the thin section shows an aggregate of quartz, ortho- 
 clase, plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, magnetite and zircon. The 
 rock has evidently been subjected to great crushing. The structure 
 is by no means uniform, but larger fragments are embedded in a 
 finer-grained mosaic, which has resulted, in great part, from their 
 peripheral granulation. The magnetite is highly titaniferous, as it is 
 often surrounded by borders of leucoxene or the more normal sphene. 
 Besides these, a very small and irregularly shaped area crosses the 
 Manitoulin and North Shore railway, immediately east of Pump lake, 
 on lot 1, con. IV, of Snider township. It has a general resemblance 
 to the coarse * augen ' variety. This small mass measures about 850 
 feet long and from 150 to 500 feet wide. 
 
 About two miles west of the Murray mine, Walker mentions that 
 the nickel bearing eruptive is cut by two separate intrusions of fine- 
 grained pinkish, biotite-granite, which send off apophyses into the 
 surrounding greenstone. The wider of the intrusions is about 100 
 yards broad, while the smaller is less than sixty yards. The microscope 
 shows that quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase and biotite, are the chief 
 constituents. Considerable areas, in the vicinity of the line of junc- 
 tion between these granites and the older greenstones, are character- 
 ized by the presence of a breccia, made up of an extremely intricate 
 intrusion or penetration of the greenish schistose rocks by dikes and 
 irregular masses of granitic material. The chief alteration noticed 
 in connexion with the greenstone is the development of biotite at 
 the expense of the original hornblende, and the replacement of the 
 plagioclase by a fine mosaic of secondary plagioclase, quartz and epi- 
 dote, the rock being thus a well formed mica or biotite schist. Subse- 
 quent differential movements have occasioned very considerable de- 
 formation, and some portions of the resultant rock mass represent 
 very perfect and characteristic pseudo-conglomerates. Areas of these 
 breccias are often big enough to be shown on maps of ordinarily large 
 scale. They are especially noticeable east and southeast of the Ger- 
 trude mine, and betwen this and the Creighton mine, and some of the 
 cuttings of the Manitoulin and North Shore railway, between these 
 two mines, have been made through hills of this breccia. It seems to 
 occupy a lenticular area, intervening between the norite and the 
 granite, the widest part being a little over three-quarters of a mile, 
 while the length from northeast to southwest is about three miles. 
 To the northeast, in the vicinity of the North Star mine and beyond, 
 as far as Clarabelle lake, considerable areas are underlaid by this 
 breccia, while in the neighbourhood of the Murray mine they are 
 especially noticeable and well developed. The manager's house at 
 Copper Cliff is located on a rocky knoll, made up of this breccia, and 
 
NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE 79 
 
 a comparatively narrow band of this rock extends for a short distance 
 in a southwesterly direction. 
 
 In addition, the main mass of the granite batholith contains fre- 
 quent inclusions, often of large size, of these older greenstones and 
 schists, the reason for their presence and occasional abundance being 
 readily explained by Dr. Daly as due to ' stoping,' as he terms the 
 phenomenon of the detaching of portions of the original material 
 overlying or enclosing a batholith, and the inclusion of such frag- 
 ments in the mass of the original magma. (*) 
 
 (5.) POST HURONIAN. 
 (B.) NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE. 
 
 Soon after the discovery of these nickel and copper deposits it 
 was remarked that all of the rich and extensive ore-bodies occurred 
 in intimate connexion with certain basic eruptive rocks of medium 
 texture, and which for convenience of description, and in the absence 
 of more precise information, were usually referred to under the 
 names of greenstone and diorite. The first published microscopical 
 descriptions were all in substantial agreement, in regarding the pre- 
 vailing type of the nickel bearing eruptive as made up essentially of 
 plagioclase and hornblende, with a smaller proportion of biotite and 
 quartz, while ilmenite and apatite, with variable quantities of pyrrho- 
 tite and chalcopyrite, were the usual accessory constituents. The 
 rock was, therefore, regarded as an intrusive gabbro or diabase, which 
 owing to subsequent metamorphism, had its pyroxenic components 
 changed to secondary hornblende or uralite. . Rocks quite like these 
 had been studied in many regions, where they could be traced with 
 certainty into basic eruptives of normal character, and it was confi- 
 dently predicted Dy the late Prof. G. H. Williams, who was the first 
 to make any detailed petrographical examination of these rocks, 
 that ' specimens might be collected at some of' these localities which 
 would establish positively both the original form, and the course of 
 alteration of the present specimens.' (*) 
 
 Included in the same suite of specimens as the foregoing, all of 
 which had been sent by Dr. Bell to Prof. Williams for identification 
 and description, was one which had been collected near the Dominion 
 mine, in the township of Blezard, but which, in the hurry of a first 
 examination, was regarded as occurring in the form of a dike. This 
 rock, the exceptional character of which was noted at the time by 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XVI., 1903, p. 108. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 189P-91, Part F, pp. 60 and 62. 
 
80 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Prof. Williams, and which was described as a ' quartz-hypersthene- 
 gabbro with accessory biotite ' ( 2 ), was in reality a practically unal- 
 tered representative of the nickel bearing eruptive, although its iden- 
 tity as such was not suspected until some years afterwards. 
 
 All of these first microscopical determinations, therefore, showed 
 a normal type of greenstone, differing in 110 essential particular from 
 others similarly altered, and with no apparent reason for the develop- 
 ment of such unusually large and rich deposits of sulphide material. 
 At the same time, the field and prospectors' term of diorite was justi- 
 fied, as also the names proposed after more detailed microscopical 
 examination, such as uralitic or gabbro-diorite, uralitic diabase, etc. 
 
 It is to be regretted, therefore, that although great care was exer- 
 cised in the collection of these first or type specimens, attention was 
 directed chiefly to the selection of material in immediate association 
 with the ore-bodies, and the rocks thus obtained were in such ad- 
 vanced stages of decomposition that no very definite or precise infor- 
 mation was possible in regard to their original composition or true 
 affinities. As a consequence of this the opinion prevails that the 
 whole of the eruptive in the vicinity of these nickel deposits is com- 
 pletely altered, whereas the very opposite appears to be the case, and 
 most of the writer's collection of fresh and unaltered material was 
 obtained in the immediate vicinity of the various mines. In this 
 connexion it may be remarked that some of these hand specimens, 
 containing as much as from 5 to 10 per cent of the sulphides, have 
 undergone so little metamorphism as to permit of the positive identi- 
 fication of all the prevailing minerals, including hypersthene, ensta- 
 tite, diallage, olivine and labradorite. 
 
 In 1892 the late Baron von Foullon published the first determina- 
 tion of the nickel bearing eruptive occurring in the vicinity of the 
 Murray mine, snowing it to be a gabbro, closely related to the norites, 
 his description being prepared after a study of material collected at 
 this locality in the summer of 1890. In 1893, Dr. A. P. Coleman 
 identified the eruptive of the Northern Nickel range as a gabbro 
 containing both diallage and hypersthene. 
 
 The true significance of these discoveries and isolated descriptions 
 was not, however, fully appreciated until the appearance of Dr. 
 Walker's results, the issuing of this publication marking a very signal 
 advance in our knowledge regarding the origin and relationship of 
 these sulphide deposits and their associated rocks. 
 
 The nickel bearing eruptive, characteristic of the three main belts 
 or ranges, may, for purposes of description, be considered under two 
 divisions. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rap. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part F, pp. 77-78. 
 
NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE 81 
 
 I. A basic portion: Including certain gabbroid rocks, chiefly, at 
 least, of the norite facies, with their derivative diorites, with which 
 the nickel and copper bearing sulphides are immediately associated. 
 
 II. An acidic portion: Comprising large areas of rock of grani- 
 tic type, with well marked gneissoid structure, the prevalence and 
 abundance of the graphic intergrowth of the quartz and feldspar, 
 known as graiiophyre or micropegmatite, having suggested the name 
 ' micropegmatite/ by which this rock is now generally known. 
 
 The least altered phase of the basic portion of the eruptive is re- 
 presented by what may be referred to as ' norite.' The rock is some- 
 times called a 'quartz hypersthene-gabbro/ but for general purposes 
 the former name is preferred. 
 
 The microscopical examination shows the rock to be an eruptive 
 cf rather exceptional character and interest. It belongs to the general 
 family of gabbros, but with distinct traces, and, at times, well marked 
 diabasic or ophitic structure. The prevalence and usual preponder- 
 ance of hypersthene or enstatite show its close affinity with the 
 norites, while it contains, what is very exceptional for such a rock 
 type, an abundance of original quartz. In fact, many specimens 
 could be secured which contain nearly as much quartz as an ordi- 
 nary hornblende granite. In some instances, noticeably at the Cop- 
 per Cliff mines, a large quantity of micropegmatite or granophyre is 
 present, the feldspathic constituent of this graphic intergrowth being 
 usually plagioclase. Exposures show a massive, medium to coarse- 
 grained, dark-greyish, greenish-grey or brown rock, which is often 
 almost black in colour on freshly broken surfaces. Scales of deep 
 brown biotite are usually conspicuous, while the quartz is perhaps 
 equally so, in very characteristic sapphire -blue or purplish grains, 
 the colour which is often seen in the phenocrysts of quartz-porphyries. 
 
 These rocks do not offer any very effectual resistance to processes 
 of decomposition and erosion, and, as a consequence, the area charac- 
 terized by their presence is, generally, one of low relief. 
 
 Spheroidal weathering is characteristic, but not so pronounced as 
 in the case of the later dikes of the olivine-diabase. 
 
 The orthorhombric pyroxene, either hypersthene or enstatite, shows 
 a distinct approach to perfection of crystallographic outline, and, in 
 many cases, was the first of the essential minerals to form. In occa- 
 sional instances the hypersthene is unaccompanied by a monoclinic 
 pyroxene, as in some of the specimens collected in the vicinity of the 
 Blezard mine. It is often, by far, the most abundant of the coloured 
 constituents, as at the Murray mine, where the diallage is only occa- 
 sionally represented, while almost the whole rock mass is made up of 
 hypersthone, in various stages of decomposition, the small and inf re- 
 
 4187 fl 
 
82 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 quent interspaces being occupied by plagioclase. The hypersthene is, 
 as a rule, rather faintly pleochroic, although specimens from the 
 vicinity of the Blezard mine, and from a railway cutting about one 
 mile and a half northwest of the Murray mine, are very strongly 
 pleochroic, rose red to pale yellowish-green. The enstatite is also 
 colourless in thin section, and, in contradistinction to the hypers- 
 thene, exhibits little or no pleochroism. Both the hypersthene and 
 the enstatite are very liable to decomposition, so that, in most cases, 
 areas of this mineral are replaced by an aggregate of light-green, 
 iion-pleochroic, brilliantly polarizing, fibrous or scaly serpentine 
 (bastite). This alteration is otfcen accompanied by the separation of 
 minute grains of magnetite. In most cases, even the fresh individu- 
 als of hypersthene are bordered by a compact, strongly pleochroic, 
 green hornblende, which is doubtless an original constituent. This 
 primary hornblende, likewise, forms borders on areas showing the 
 complete bastitic alteration. In addition to this, there is undoubted 
 secondary hornblende resulting from the alteration, first of the bas- 
 tite into actinolite, and this, in turn, to the ordinary type of green 
 hornblende. 
 
 The monoclinic pyroxene, which is usually present in subordinate 
 amount, is likewise frequently bordered by primary hornblende, and 
 thus the individuals of these two pyroxenes cannot be distinguished 
 from one another in specimens which have undergone any advanced 
 decomposition. Sometimes, both pyroxenes show the presence of the 
 characteristic, minute, tabular interpositions or schillerization pro- 
 ducts, but, as a rule, these are absent. 
 
 The diallage is distinguished from the orthorhombic pyroxene 
 chiefly by the absence of pleochroism, its inclined extinction, and 
 frequent polysynthetic twinning, while it usually shows a lower index 
 of refraction with higher double reiraction. Olivine is present in 
 small amount in the norite obtained from the Little Stobie mine, but 
 most of it is altered to an aggregate of deep-coloured scaly serpen- 
 tine, talc and magnetite. Biotite is an almost invariable constituent 
 and is usually rather abundant in large plates and is undoubtedly of 
 primary origin. The plagioclase is usually in broadly twinned, stout, 
 lath-shaped or tubular crystals, whose frequent interlacing arrange- 
 ment produces the characteristic, rude, ophitic structure. Separa- 
 tions by means of Thoulet's heavy solution, as well as the extinction 
 angles, show that this plagioclase is labradorite. The presence of 
 innumerable, brown, dust-like inclusions, presumably of ilmenite, 
 gives to the feldspar its prevailing dark colour. 
 
 Quartz and occasionally granophyre fill most of the irregular 
 interspaces between the other constituents, although, in the norite 
 
NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE 83 
 
 from the Creighton mine, microline almost invariably accompanies 
 this interstitial quartz. Apatite, magnetite, which is usually highly 
 titaniferous, zircon and grains of pyrite, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite 
 are almost always present. These sulphides are distinctly of primary 
 origin, and were among the earliest of the minerals to crystallize 
 from the original magma, antedating even the magnetite, in some 
 cases, for grains of pyrrhotite were noticed completely enclosed by the 
 iron ore. The sulphides occur, for tne most part, intimately asso- 
 ciated with, and frequently embedded in the coloured constituents, 
 in much the same way as the magnetite, from which they can only 
 be distinguished by the difference in colour in reflected light. The 
 pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite are often very intimately associated, so 
 that they are extremely difficult of separation, even the smallest 
 grains showing intimate intergrowths of these minerals with one 
 another. These sulphides frequently occur in those portions of the 
 norite which have suffered so little from dynamic metamorphism that 
 only an occasional dislocation of a plagioclase crystal is noticed, 
 while the same exposures have been so little affected by hydrochemical 
 agencies that such readily alterable minerals as hyper sthene, ensta- 
 tite, olivine and diallage are still plainly recognizable in such speci- 
 mens. The sulphide material, in such cases, is often not subordinate < 
 in amount, but is so abundantly disseminated as to characterize the 
 rock, and justify the name of ' pyrrhotite-norite ' which is sometimes 
 applied to it. 
 
 Although a considerable number of specimens were secured, repre- 
 sentative of the comparatively unaltered norite, by far the larger 
 proportion of the material collected consisted of a massive, usually 
 coarse gabbro-diorite in various stages of alteration. Very few of 
 these show even traces of dynamic metamorphism, and, as a rule, the 
 ophitic structure, produced mainly by the interlacing arrangement of 
 the plagioclase crystals, is quite undisturbed. The alteration is 
 mainly due to hydrochemical agencies, and affects the pyroxenic 
 minerals, decomposing these to a pale yellowish-green serpentine, 
 sometimes of the ordinary type, but usually of the bastite variety. 
 Actinolite also results from the alteration of the pyroxenes. The 
 compact borders of primary hornblende often surrounding the ori- 
 ginal pyroxenes are evidently made up of much more stable material, 
 not having been affected by any of these changes. The areas for- 
 merly occupied by the pyroxene are, therefore, replaced by bastite or 
 actinolite, the hornblende borders remaining unaffected, the indi- 
 viduals thus decomposed being referred to as uralite. No distinction 
 can be drawn between grains which represent hypersthene or diallage, 
 as both of these minerals apparently decompose to closely related, if 
 
 4187 6i 
 
84 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 not identical, material. The labradorite is usually quite fresh, In 
 tabular or broad blade-like forms, with a brownish colour of varying 
 shades, which is so prevalent in the norites. Occasionally it shows 
 incipient decomposition to the usual saussuritic products, mainly 
 sericite, but also epidote and zoisite. Biotite is always present and 
 conspicuous in large plates with strong pleochroism. It is sometimes 
 intergrown with the hornblende and has also undergone considerable 
 ' bleaching.' It usually contains comparatively large, irregular grains 
 of magnetite. Quartz is always present, and sometimes abundant, 
 filling up the irregular interspaces between the other constituents. 
 Highly titaniferous magnetite and apatite are also always present, 
 but in small amount, while the pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite vary in 
 amount, from occasionally disseminated grains, to such quantities 
 as ensure the use of the mass as an ore of nickel and copper. 
 
 In addition to the norite and diorite a more acid rock of granitic 
 composition and prevailing gneissoid structure occurs, which cannot 
 be separated genetically from the more basic portion with which the 
 sulphides are more directly associated. This rock has usually been 
 referred to ' micropegmatite/ a name first suggested by the late Prof. 
 G. H. Williams. 0) There is no sharp line of demarcation between 
 the acidic and basic portions of the nickel bearing eruptive, but the 
 change, though gradual, is usually sharp enough to enable a boundary 
 to be placed betwen these two types, with tolerable accuracy. Out- 
 crops of this rock are evenly banded or foliated, with a distinct strike 
 and dip, usually porphyritic,weather a pale reddish or greyish colour 
 and are frequently intersected by irregular and often intricate vein- 
 like masses of quartz, evidently of pegmatitic origin. On freshly ex- 
 posed surfaces the rock is usually dark coloured; with abundantly 
 disseminated, small, reddish or yellow phenocrysts of feldspar. 
 Orthoclase is often present in considerable amount, and, towards the 
 outer edge of the mass, is the predominant feldspathic constituent, 
 but plagioclase (oligoclase or oligoclase-andesine) is usually more or 
 less abundant. Microperthite and microcline are also often present, 
 but in subordinate amount. Much of the feldspar is somewhat tur- 
 bid, owing to decomposition. Biotite is the prevailing ferromagne- 
 sian mineral, and much of it is ' bleached' and altered to chlorite. 
 It is usually in small irregular, tattered scales and plates, arranged 
 in narrow, approximately parallel bands, gently curving around and 
 among the larger phenocrysts of feldspar. The abundance of the bio- 
 tite, and its frequent alteration to chlorite, give the prevailing dark 
 colour to the rock on fresh surfaces. The transition type between 
 the micropegmatite and the norite shows a varying proportion of 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part F, p. 78. 
 
NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE 
 
 85 
 
 hornblende, which mineral, as a general rule, diminishes in amount 
 in passing outward from the norite, although certain bands of rela- 
 tively greater basicity show an appreciable amount of this mineral, 
 even at a considerable distance from the line of junction. One of 
 the most noteworthy points, in connexion with this gneissoid rock, 
 is the prevalence and abundant development of micropegmatite or 
 granophyre, and also the fact that plagioclase and quartz are most 
 frequently the component minerals forming this graphic intergrowth. 
 The micropegmatite, together with the bisilicate material, chiefly 
 biotite or chlorite, and sometimes hornblende and accessory epidote, 
 ilmenite and sphene, form a groundmass, in which the comparatively 
 large phenocrysts of feldspar, chiefly plagioclase, but sometimes also 
 orthoclase and microperthite, are embedded. The granophyre or 
 micropegmatite very often stretches out in various directions from a 
 central portion or body, made up of well twinned and rather sharply 
 bounded crystals of plagioclase. The effect of pressure is very 
 noticeable in all the thin sections, not only in the strain shadows, but 
 also in the dislocation of the feldspar individuals, and the abundant 
 development of the fine interstitial quartz and feldspar. 
 
 On the first geological map this micropegmatite was included 
 with, and coloured as, a part of the Laurenfian, the reddish colour, 
 gneissic structure, and general behaviour, being the main factors 
 which determined this classification. 
 
 The variation in the chemical composition, marking the transi- 
 tion from the norite to the micropegmatite, is well illustrated by a 
 series of analyses made by Dr. T. L. Walker ( J ) from specimens 
 obtained along the Blezard mine crossing. The specimens range 
 from south to north, from I to V. Analysis No IV is by Mr. C. B. 
 Fox, M.A. 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 11. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 SiO. . . 
 TiOo 
 
 49 90 
 1*47 
 
 51-52 
 1'39 
 
 64-85 
 
 69 27 
 0'78 
 
 67 76 
 0'46 
 
 Po Or 
 
 0'17 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 06 
 
 0'19 
 
 A1 2 0, 
 Fe, 0, 
 
 16-32 
 
 19-77 
 0'47 
 
 11 44 
 2 94 
 
 12 56 
 
 2-89 
 
 1400 
 
 FeO 
 
 13'54 
 
 6'77 
 
 6'02 
 
 4 51 
 
 5'18 
 
 Ca 
 
 6'58 
 
 8'16 
 
 3 49 
 
 1-44 
 
 4-28 
 
 Mg . 
 
 6'22 
 
 6 49 
 
 1-60 
 
 0'91 
 
 I'OO 
 
 Mn 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 trace 
 
 K, 
 
 2'25 
 
 0'70 
 
 3 02 
 
 3'05 
 
 1 19 
 
 Na. 2 
 
 1-82 
 
 2-66 
 
 3'92 
 
 3 12 
 
 5-22 
 
 Ho 
 
 0'76 
 
 1-68 
 
 0'78 
 
 76 
 
 1-01 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 99-03 
 
 99-71 
 
 98-30 
 
 99-35 
 
 100 29 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 3 026 
 
 2-832 
 
 2-783 
 
 2 724 
 
 2-709 
 
 (1) Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lon., Vol. LIII, February, 1897, p. 56. 
 
86 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 According to the present state of our knowledge there are. three 
 main belts of norite with which workable deposits of the various 
 sulphides carrying nickel and copper occur. Until recently these 
 were believed to be entirely distinct and separated, but the later, more 
 detailed geological examinations are tending to prove that these are 
 all portions of a geological unit, and all referable to one continuous 
 mass. They have always been regarded as essentially the same in 
 origin and mineralogical composition and approximately, at least, of 
 the same geological age. Two of these belts are not included on the 
 accompanying map-sheets and, so far, none of the deposits occurring 
 in association with them have ever been operated as mines, pro- 
 ducing ore for shipping and smelting purposes. 
 
 The most northerly of these bands, known as the ' Northern 
 Nickel range/ starts from the old Ross mine (W. R. 5), near the 
 line between lots 5 and 6, on the line between cons. Ill and IV, of 
 the township of Foy, and extends in an east-southeast direction 
 through the township of Bowell, where on lot 6, con. II, it branches. 
 One offset runs southeast, into the townships of Lumsden and Mor- 
 gan, where its limits have not been definitely ascertained. The main 
 band, however, runs to the east, cutting across the township of 
 Wissner, and crosses the Vermilion river, immediately north of 
 Bronson lake. Trending still more to the north it connects with the 
 large area of basic rocks occurring to the west of Wanapitei lake. 
 This mass extends, for the most part, in a southerly direction, and, as 
 far as at present ascertained, is buried beneath the sand and gravel 
 plains of the eastern part of Garson and the western portion of Fal- 
 conbridge. It is, as yet, a matter of conjecture whether this mass 
 is continuous with the southern or main belt of the norite, which to 
 the east of lot 3, in con. Ill, of Garson, is likewise covered up by the 
 heavy mantle of drift. It is probable, however, that this main belt is 
 continuous beneath the drift, as far, at least, as the outcrops of 
 norite occurring on cons. IV and V, of Falconbridge. It may be 
 possible, with the assistance of delicate magnetic instruments, to 
 trace out this connexion, but this work will be difficult and tedious, 
 on account of the great accumulation of drift material, which is 
 sometimes over 100 feet in depth. 
 
 A second important band of norite occupies an approximately 
 intermediate position between the other two, and so may be referred 
 to as the ' Middle Nickel range/ although it is likewise known as the 
 Levack Nickel range/ while Walker refers to it under the name of 
 the ' Windy Lake eruptive/ According to present information this 
 band starts about lot 12, con. Ill, of the township of Trill, extends 
 north and northeast through this township into Cascaden, and 
 
NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE 87 
 
 crossing under Windy lake goes on uninterruptedly through the 
 northwest comer of Bowling, to lot 2, con. IV, of Lavack township. 
 Little information is available in regard to the geology of the inter- 
 vening stretch of country between this point and the Ross mine, and 
 it is possible that this gap may be filled in by extending this norite 
 range still farther to the northeast. The area to the east and south- 
 east is known to be occupied by the acid differentiate of the norite, 
 (micropegmatite) so that a connexion between the Levack and .the 
 Northern Nickel range is well within the limits of possibility. To 
 the southwest the Levack range reached within two miles of the old 
 Sultana and Trillabelle nickel mines, so that, in this direction also, 
 a connexion may be made with the southern or main belt of the 
 norite. The celebrated Levack nickel deposits are developed along 
 the northern contact of this band with the granitite-gneiss included 
 as Laurentian. 
 
 By far the largest and most important band of norite, however, ;s 
 what is known as the ' Southern or Main Nickel range,' a portion of 
 which has been described by Dr. Walker under the name of the 
 ' Whitson Lake eruptive.' Its southeastern limit, in all probability, 
 consists of a comparatively narrow band of basic eruptive material, 
 crossing the southern portion of Trill, and extending thence into the 
 northeastern part of Drury township. Its possible connexion in this 
 direction with the Middle or Levack Nickel range has already been 
 discussed. From Drury, the band of norite extends eastward, cross- 
 ing the southern half of lot 12, con. V , of Denison. From this point 
 it has been traced continuously, in a northeast direction, for a dis- 
 tance of about thirty-five miles, as far as lot 8, con. Ill, of Garson, 
 where the exposures pass under the extensive accumulation of drift 
 material. At the Victoria mines the basic portion of the intrusive 
 is rather less than a mile in width, but at the crossing of the Ver- 
 milion river this width is increased to one mile and three-quarters, 
 while in the vicinity of the Creighton mine the norite is a little over 
 two miles wide. Through the townships of Snider, McKim and 
 Blezard the width of the norite is fairly uniform, averaging about 
 one mile and a naif, gradually becoming narrower until Garson town- 
 ship is reached, where the basic portion of the nickel bearing erup- 
 tive is scarcely half a mile in width. 
 
 On lot 2, con. IV, of the township of Snider, this main belt of 
 norite sends off a narrow, dike-like extension or offset, in a south- 
 easterly direction, on which are situated most of the mines of the 
 Canadian Copper Company, at Copper Cliff. This band runs across 
 the northeast end of Clarabelle lake, and crossing Lady Macdonald 
 lake it runs with unbroken continuity as far as No. 2 mine, where 
 
88 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 its further extension southward is covered up with drift. Mine No. 
 2, with its extensions to the north, mines No. 4, 5 and 6, are all im- 
 mediately associated with this narrow, dike-like form, while the 
 Lady Violet mine is located at the eastern junction of the norite with 
 the granite, a short distance northeast of the point where it joins the 
 main mass. 
 
 It is unnecessary to furnish similar details of the distribution of 
 the micropegmatite or acid portion of the nickel bearing eruptive, but 
 the area underlaid by this rock is considerably in excess of the basic 
 portion, as shown on the map. 
 
 The famous old Copper Cliff mine is a veritable chimney of ore, 
 occurring in connexion with an isolated stock of norite, which comes 
 in contact with feldspathic quartzites and green schist. The open- 
 ings in the vicinity of the Ontario Smelting Works belong to three 
 separate masses of norite, which are surrounded by banded tuffs and 
 quartzite. It is difficult to obtain specimens from the small area of 
 norite on which the Evans mine is situated sufficiently free from the 
 sulphide material for purposes of examination. 
 
 The Little Stobie mine, Dominion, Davis property, Kirkwood and 
 Cryderman mines, are situated on the borders of the main belt of 
 norite with green schist. The Stobie and Frood mines occur in con- 
 junction with comparatively small stocks or areas of norite, which 
 are separated from one another. The Elsie mine occurs at the junc- 
 tion between norite, on the one hand, and green schist and hornblende 
 porphyrite, on the other. The Murray mine occurs at the junction 
 between the granite and greenstone breccias and green schists on the 
 one hand, and the main band of norite on the other; while the old 
 Cameron mine, farther to the northeast, is found at the junction 
 between the granite and the norite. The North Star and Creighton 
 mines occur at the junction between the granite and the norite. 
 
 The various openings known as the Gertrude mine are located 
 along the junction between the main band of norite and a breccia 
 made up of the granite intrusive through the older greenstone and 
 schists. The main shaft of the Victoria mines is at the end of a 
 small offset, connected with the main mass at the junction between 
 the norite and the older green schists. Without exception, all of 
 these immense bodies of sulphide material are situated at the imme- 
 dirte contact between the intrusive norite and the older rock in such 
 a way as to indicate in the clearest manner their common origin. 
 
 (C.) LATER DIKES OF OLIVINE DIABASE. 
 
 The rock usually designated olivine diabase, and characteristic of 
 what has been called the later dikes, is very uniform in mineralogical 
 
LATER DIKES OF OLIVINE DIABASE 89 
 
 composition and structure. Hand specimens show a rock which is dark- 
 grey, greenish-grey, to almost black, with spheroidal rusty weather- 
 ing, which is very characteristic. In many instances, exposures 
 exhibit a rude basaltic structure and are frequently porphyritic, with 
 phenocrysts of yellowish or greenish labradorite, often an inch or 
 even more in diameter. The alteration of these phenocrysts produces 
 the mineral i huronite,' so named by Thomson. These dikes possess 
 well marked selvages of fine-grained, occasionally glassy material 
 (tachylite), and present every gradation between basalt and diabase. 
 The thin section of the fairly coarse rock shows a remarkably fresh 
 olivine-diabase, made up chiefly of plagioclase, augite and olivine. 
 The plagioclase is the principal constituent and is generally quite 
 fresh and glassy, although occasionally somewhat turbid, as a result 
 of incipient decomposition. Being the earliest constituent to crystal- 
 lize, it is in idiomorphic, well twinned, tabular or lath-shaped crystals, 
 which have a marked ophitic arrangement. The extinction angles 
 clearly indicate labradorite. The twinning is according to the albite 
 law, but a combination of the albite and pericline law is very com- 
 mon. Occasional individuals exhibit twinning according to the rarer- 
 baveno law. The augite shows a very irregular or jagged outline, 
 with characteristic imperfect or interrupted cleavages. It is reddish 
 to violet brown in colour, and very distinctly pleochroic. The olivine 
 occurs in more or less rounded, pale yellow grains, and sometimes 
 fills in the spaces between the feldspar crystals. It is remarkably 
 fresh, but occasionally shows decomposition to a deep green, compact 
 serpentine (antigorite). 
 
 Apatite is very abundant, in the usual acicular prismatic forms, 
 and the opaque constituent is probably ilmenite. Some of the thin 
 sections are very instructive, especially as regards the order of crys- 
 tallization of the various mineral constituents. Apatite was cer- 
 tainly the first to crystallize, as it occurs in sharp, well defined, 
 elongated prisms which are embedded in, or pierce the other constitu- 
 ents. The labradorite has, in most cases at least, crystallized before 
 the augite, but its relation to the olivine is not quite so distinct. In 
 some cases the olivine has the rounded outline it usually assumes 
 when its crystallization is not interfered with, but often it may be 
 found occupying the triangular interspaces between the feldspar laths, 
 or sharply moulded upon them. It appears, therefore, that the period 
 of the crystallization of the olivine certainly overlapped that of the 
 labradorite, although, in general, the olivine is distinctly earlier. 
 Most of the ilmenite, likewise, is earlier than the plagioclase, but 
 occasional individuals contain crystals of olivine and plagioclase, 
 
90 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 showing that some of the ilmenite formed after the olivine and 
 plagioclase. 
 
 A quantitative analysis of a specimen from the big dike near Mur- 
 ray mine gave Dr. Walker O the following results : 
 
 Si0 2 47-22 
 
 A1 2 8 16-52 
 
 Fe 2 8 3-32 
 
 FeO 12-40 
 
 MnO 0-04 
 
 CaO 9 61 
 
 MgO 3-33 * 
 
 K 2 0-67 
 
 Na 2 3-40 
 
 Ti0 2 3-62 
 
 P 2 5 0-33 
 
 BaO 0-01 
 
 CuO trace. 
 
 NiO 0-0275 
 
 CoO. 0-0055 
 
 Loss by ignition 0'30 
 
 Total 100-803 
 
 Specific gravity 3-01 
 
 These dikes of olivine-diabase are distinctly later in age than the 
 rest of the associated rocks. They cut the greenstones and associated 
 micropegmatite, as well as the ore bodies themselves. They likewise 
 cut the tuffs, breccias and quartzites, although one dike was noticed 
 which did not reach the summit of the quartzites, but was cooled 
 against the upper beds. 
 
 As a rule, most of these dikes are remarkably fresh and unaltered, 
 and all of those mapped as occurring in the vicinity of the Murray 
 mine are of this description. On the other hand, with the single 
 exception of the large dike which runs in a northwest direction near 
 the Ontario Smelting Works, all of the others are much altered and 
 decomposed, and thin sections prepared from these cannot be dis- 
 tinguished from the finer grained and more basic, altered facies of 
 the norite. The boundaries between the bisilicates and plagioclase 
 are not well defined, the latter containing scattered shreds and grains 
 of hornblende and biotite. The plagioclase shows the same cloud-like 
 arrangement of sub-microscopic inclusions, presumably of ilmenite. 
 The hornblende is in small, strongly plechroic individuals, and is 
 
 (1) Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lon., February, 1897, p. 63. 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 91 
 
 very abundant. Biotite is also abundant, while the ilmenite is largely 
 represented by sphene. The ophitic structure still remains, but is 
 not so pronounced. Most of the plagioclase is quite fresh, but some 
 of it is altered to a saussuritic aggregate. Quartz is fairly abundant, 
 filling in small, irregular interspaces between the other constituents. 
 Small grains of sulphide material are also disseminated through the 
 rock. The occurrence of such a rock in dike-like form, with the 
 same mineralogical composition of the norite, indicates that these 
 dikes, at least, are later and differentiated portions of the norite, 
 representing the dying efforts of the very pronounced and long con- 
 tinued vulcanism. The occasional presence of olivine in the norite 
 of the Little Stobie mine, and the recognition of quartz in some of 
 these later dikes, have supplied the links hitherto missing and neces- 
 sary for a proper understanding of the relationship existing between 
 these two rocks. As shown by Walker, in the analysis quoted of a 
 fresh type, this olivine-diabase contains small quantities of copper, 
 nickel, and cobalt, which the same author regards as original con- 
 stituents of the olivine-diabase magma. The relations of these dikes 
 to the various ore bodies through which they are intruded show dis- 
 tinctly that these latter had already attained their present dimensions 
 at some time previous to the intrusion of the dikes. For the most 
 part they have a fairly constant direction, but present frequent broad 
 curves and occasional faults. Two of the largest dikes met with 
 vary in width from 150 to 200 feet, and were traced with practically 
 unbroken continuity from the northwest corner of McKim town- 
 ship, southeast to Ramsay lake. There is no local enrichment what- 
 ever of the ore bodies in the vicinity of the dikes, as has frequently 
 been surmised. The influence occasioned by their passage through 
 these ore bodies is extremely local and very insignificant. In the 
 vicinity of the Copper Cliff and Murray mines, and the area inter- 
 vening, many of these dikes have been encountered, and it has been 
 found possible over this limited area to accurately determine and 
 map their dimensions and direction, and although the prevailing 
 direction is perhaps northwest and southeast, many of them occupy 
 fissures with courses very widely divergent. 
 
 MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH THE NICKEL AND COPPER OP THE SUDBURY 
 
 MINING REGION. 
 
 PYRRHOTITE AND CHALCOPYRITE. 
 
 The ore bodies, with which the nickel and copper are immediately 
 associated, consist essentially of pyrrhotite (Fe 8 S 9 ) which is by far 
 the most predominant constituent, and chalcopyrite (Cu Fe S,) usually 
 
92 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 in much smaller amount, and a varying proportion of gaiigue, con- 
 sisting mainly of the associated eruptive or its constituent silicates. 
 The nickel present in the ore bodies is not, as so many have supposed, 
 an essential constituent of the pyrrhotite, isomorphously replacing 
 an equivalent amount of iron, but is mainly present, at least as a 
 distinct and magnetically separable nickel-iron-sulphide known as 
 pentlandite. This mineral is, as a rule, very intimately associated 
 with the pyrrhotite, but occasional hand specimens from the lower 
 levels of the old Copper Cliff mine show a rather intimate associa- 
 tion of . nearly pure pentlandite and chalcopyrite. The pyrrhotite 
 and chalcopyrite will be described more fully in that portion of the 
 bulletin dealing with the composition of the ore bodies. 
 
 PENTLANDITE. 
 
 This mineral is usually very intimately associated with the pyrrho- 
 tite, and is so finely disseminated through the mass of this mineral 
 that a separation can only be effected by very fine grinding. Though 
 pentlandite itself is feebly magnetic, and in finely powdered form is 
 attracted by an ordinary hand magnet, advantage is taken of the great 
 difference in the magnetism of these two minerals to effect their 
 separation. It requires repeated trials to eliminate the last traces of 
 the pyrrhotite, but this has been successfully done by Penfield, 
 Browne and Dickson, and their analyses which are quoted give all 
 necessary details of the chemical composition of this mineral, show- 
 ing it to be very uniform over the whole district. It is essentially 
 the same as the original pentlandite (eisennickelkies), analyzed by 
 Scheerer, but contains more nickel, and less iron and sulphur. Some- 
 times, as at the Worthington mine, it occurs in tolerably large pieces, 
 which can be readily distinguished from the enclosing pyrrhotite, but 
 even these contain a considerable amount of disseminated pyrrhotite, 
 so that material thus secured rarely assays over 30 per cent of 
 nickel. The mineral is very abundant^at the Creightoii mine, and 
 can be readily recognized on account of its perfectly developed, octa- 
 hedral parting. It is somewhat paler in colour than the pyrrhotite, 
 varying from steel-grey to silver- white, and almost invariably breaks 
 with flat surfaces, which are planes of parting, parallel to the octa- 
 hedron. The mineral, however, in freshly broken material, cannot 
 readily be distinguished from the equally fresh pyrrhotite, especially 
 if the planes of parting are imperfectly developed. Exposure to the 
 weather brings about a rapid change in colour to a peculiar pale 
 bronze yellow, which is very characteristic and quite distinct from 
 the pyrrhotite. 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 93 
 
 The material obtained by Penfield O was crushed and sifted to a 
 grain of from 1-2 mm. in diameter, and the pyrrhotite was extracted 
 by means of an ordinary magnet. The pentlandite, for analysis, was 
 further carefully selected by hand-pickir.g. 
 
 Similar, preliminary, careful preparation of material was used by 
 Mr. C. W. Dickson ( 8 ). The following are the analyses : No. 1 
 (Penneld); 2-4, (Dickson); 5-9, (Browne) ( 3 ). Analyses 5-7 in- 
 clusive, are stated to contain some pyrrhotite as fine dust. Analyses 
 10 and 11, are by Scheerer (*) of the pentlandite from Lillehammer. 
 Analysis No. 2, is from Creighton mine; No. 3, Worthington mine; 
 No. 4, Frood mine; No. 5, Copper Clitf mine; No. 6, Stobie mine; 
 No. 7, Evans mine; No. S, Copper Cliff mine (hand-picked); No. 9, 
 Evans mine (hand-picked). 
 
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 
 
 Ni 34-23 34-82 33 '70 34'98 35'05 34'70 34'12 35'00 34'90 18 '35 21 '07 
 
 Co 0-85 0-84 0'78 0'85 
 
 Fe 30-25 30 '00 29 '17 30'04 29'80 29 '90 29 '95 30 '30 29'CO 42'70 40 '21 
 
 S 33-42 32 90 32'30 33'30 34'35 33'90 35'43 33'50 33'55 36'45 36-64 
 
 Cu 1-16 1'78 
 
 Gangue .. 0'67 
 
 99'42 98-56 95 '95 99 '17 99 20 98'50 99'50 98'80 98 '05 98'66 99'70 
 The ratios in Prof. Peiifield's analysis are S' (Fe + Ni) 1-044: 
 1-047, almost 1 : 1, or that of a normal sulphide (Ni + Fe) S. The 
 ratio of the Fe: Ni is 1 : 1-32, while in that from Lillehammer, it is 
 about 2 : 1. Dickson remarks that the ratio of the (Ni + Fe) : S 
 varies from 10 -91 to 11-07: 10, and points out that this ratio 11: 
 10 is not accidental, but constant for all analyses of pure material. 
 He, therefore, suggests that the formla for this mineral be written 
 (Fe + Ni)ii Sio which seems rather clumsy and an unnecessary re- 
 finement of expression of material, which, even when every precau- 
 tion is taken, is still not absolutely pure. The formula of the Lille- 
 hammer pentlandite is given as 2 Fe S + Ni S. The ratio of nickel 
 to cobalt in the Sudbury pentlandite varies, running from 40 to 
 42: 1, is worthy of remark, as this proportion is almost identical 
 with that found in the ore bodies. 
 
 A magnetic separation of the nearly pure sulphides forming the 
 ore from the Creighton mine was made by means of the Wetherill 
 separator, the material thus used being crushed to different degrees of 
 fineness, and graded by means of sieves. The original product showed 
 an assay value of 1.20 per cent of copper, and 4.87 per cent of nickel, 
 with 2.49 per cent of insoluble matter. The very fine material gave 
 the cleanest separation, and some of that which passed through a 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc. (3rd Series) Vol. XLV., 1893, pp. 493-494. 
 
 (2) Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Albany Meeting, February, 1903. 
 
 (3) Eng. and Min. Jour., December 2nd, 1893, Vol. LVL, p. 566. 
 
 (4) Dana, System of Mineralogy, 6th Ed.. 1892, p. 65. 
 
94 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 100-mesh sieve, was divided into three products which may be dis- 
 tinguished from one another as strongly magnetic, feebly-magnetic 
 and non-magnetic. The feebly magnetic product showed the pre- 
 sence of 30.41 per cent of nickel, and the non-magnetic 30.36 per 
 cent of nickel. A complete analysis, and an adjustment of the vari- 
 ous constituents, showed that the feebly magnetic portion consisted 
 of chalcopyrite and pentlandite, in the proportion of 1 : 21, while the 
 non-magnetic product showed these same materials present in the 
 proportion of 1 : 7. 
 
 PYRITE. 
 
 A sulphide which presents all the ordinary physical characters of 
 pyrite, such as hardness, specific gravity, colour, lustre, and mag- 
 netism, is by no means uncommon in most of these deposits, and can 
 generally be found when a special search is made for this mineral. 
 Large cubical crystals of pyrite are mentioned by Dr. Coleman, C 1 ) 
 as occurring in fissures, with quartz and calcite, at the JElsie mine, 
 but the assay of one of these showed no nickel. Dickson mentions 
 the fact that a number of his samples from the Copper Cliff mine 
 were associated with secondary quartz, calcite and millerite. Pyrite 
 was also noticed occurring with pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and danaite, 
 at the Century Copper mine on the north half of lot 4, con. IV, of 
 the township of Graham. A determination by Mr. F. G. Wait of the 
 Geological Survey showed 0'49 per cent of nickel, with a trace of 
 cobalt. Dr. Walker ( 2 ) found what he regards as a true nickeliferous 
 variety at the Murray mine, and has published a full description and 
 analysis of the specimen. The following is the analysis under 1, and 
 if the mineral be considered as pyrite, in which part of the iron is 
 replaced isomorphousiy by nickel, the explanation is given under 
 II and III. 
 
 Nickel 
 Iron 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Copper 
 
 Insoluble 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 4-34 
 39-70 
 
 49-41 
 10 
 traces 
 
 Nickel 
 Sulphur 
 
 Iron 
 Oxygen 
 Water 
 
 II 
 
 49-31 | 
 
 (calculated).. 
 
 4-34 ) 
 4-78 f 
 44-53 ) 
 38 96 / 
 74 ) 
 .28 f 
 
 III 
 
 NiS 2 9-12 
 
 FeS 2 83-49 
 Fe 3 O 4 1-02 
 -10 
 
 5-76 
 
 In^olubl 
 
 
 
 5-76 
 
 none 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 99-49 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont. 1903, p. 281. 
 
 (2) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XLVII., 3rd Series, April 1894, pp. 312-314., 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURT MINING REGION 95 
 
 A peculiar greyish-green, bronze-coloured, non-magnetic mineral 
 was found by Mr. McVittie on the location where the Gertrude mine 
 now is. The mineral occurred massive, with small crystals of mag- 
 netite, and specks of chalcopyrite disseminated through it, in a streak 
 about six inches wide, adjoining the granite. An analysis of the 
 mineral, after removing the magnetite, gave Mr. Mickle C 1 ) the fol- 
 lowing results under I, while under II is given the proportions, 
 omitting the insoluble matter and recalculating to 100. 
 
 I II 
 
 Iron .. 37-28 41-48 
 
 Sulphur 46-54 57 -79 
 
 Nickel 5-95 6-62 
 
 Copper 0-10 0-11 
 
 Iiisol. . 9-66 
 
 Total 99-53 100-00 
 
 Mr. Mickle regards this as an aggregate made up of pyrite, millerite 
 and chalcopyrite, the composition, as given above, practically agree- 
 ing with such a mixture. A very similar compound is found at the 
 old Beatrice mine (Davis property), on lot 1, con. Ill, of the town- 
 ship of Blezard. After an analysis of this material, Dr. Emmons 
 ( 2 ) decided that the mineral was a new nickel-iron-sulphide, and 
 proposed for it the name l Whartonite.' The mineral is not homo- 
 geneous and is very evidently a mixture. It has a peculiar bronze- 
 yellow colour, is cellular, the cavities being lined with minute crystals, 
 with an intermediate, finely granular material. It was usually re- 
 ferred to by the miners as ' matte/ on account of the resemblance to 
 this artificial product. The chemical analysis by Emmons showed 
 it to contain C 1 ) : 
 
 Nickel 5-40 
 
 Iron 42-90 
 
 Sulphur 45-00 
 
 Insoluble 4-80 
 
 Total.. 98-10 
 
 CO Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903. p. 282. 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont,. 1892, p. 170. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1892, p. 170; also Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 
 Vol. XIV., No. 7. 
 
96 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 MARCASITE. 
 
 The mineral thus designated is distinguished from pyrite . chiefly 
 by its silver white colour, which even weathering only deepens 
 slightly to a very pale, bronze-yellow. Samples of such material, 
 submittei to Prof. Penfield by Mr. C. W. Dickson, were considered 
 by him as massive marcasite. Ine analyses conform to the formula 
 FeS2 and show the presence of from 2 to 4 per cent of nickel, pro- 
 bably as pentlandite. Dr. Walker mentions the occurrence of mar- 
 casite in the midst of the usual sulphides at the Murray mine, but 
 assays of this material failed to show the presence of any nickel. 
 Perhaps the most noted specimens which may be included under this 
 name are those for which the name ' blueite ' was proposed by Dr. 
 S. H. Emmons (*). The mineral has a metallic, somewhat silky 
 lustre, while the colour is pale olive-grey inclining to bronze. The 
 type specimens came from the Gersdorffite mine (lot 12, con. Ill, 
 Denison), which, at the time, was worked under option by the Em- 
 mons Metal Company. The mineral also occurs on the lot to the 
 south (lot 12, con. II), as well as at the Totten mine (lot 1, con. II, 
 Drury), and at the Worthington mine (lot 2, con. II, Drury). Dr. 
 Emmons' analysis showed the presence of 3-5 per cent of nickel with 
 38-8 per cent of iron, and 5-4 per cent of insoluble matter, but the 
 sulphur 52-3 per cent, calculated by difference, is evidently too high. 
 At the Gersdorffite mine the nickeliferous marcasite occurs in asso- 
 ciation with niccolite, gersdorffite, pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, in a 
 small quartz vein cutting a hornblende schist. 
 
 At the "Worthington and the Totten mines this very white nickel 
 ore occurs in the form of circular or oval patches, which are very 
 conspicuous, embedded in the pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and associated 
 with rocky matter. An assay of a specimen from the Worthington 
 mine, by T. L. Walker, showed the presence of 4 -5 per cent of nickel. 
 A specimen was also sent to Prof. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist of the 
 U.S. Geological Survey, and an analysis of this ore was made by 
 Dr. F. W. Hillebrand, his results being reported as follows: ( 2 ) 
 
 Iron 38-36 
 
 Nickel 4-57 
 
 Manganese. . O'lO 
 
 Sulphur 45-11 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0'95 
 
 Carbonic acid. . 1 '49^: 
 
 (1) Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol. XIV., No. 7; also Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, 
 Ont., 1892, p. 168. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part SS, p. 116. 
 
 i Calculated on the supposition that all the calcium exists as carbonate. 
 
MINERALS OP THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 97 
 
 Magnesia 0-41 
 
 Insoluble 4-80 
 
 Water at 100 C 0-55 
 
 Water combined ? 
 
 Loss and oxygen ? 
 
 Total 98-25 
 
 A consideration of the above analysis shows that it agrees very 
 closely with the assumption that the nickel is present in the form of 
 pentlandite disseminated through the marcasite. Prof. Clarke, in 
 his letter, states : ' It seems to me that the material is a mixture, not 
 a definite species. Your Sudbury minerals deserve an exhaustive 
 study, and the work would be well repaid/ 
 
 MILLERITE. 
 
 The simple or normal sulpnide of nickel is occasionally met with in 
 some of the mines, and may be the source of some of the nickel of 
 these deposits. Agreeably with its formula NiS, this mineral should 
 contain, when pure, 35*3 per cent of sulphur and 64 '7 per cent of 
 nickel. Undoubted slender crystals of miller ite were found at the 
 Copper Cliff mine, in workings 150 feet below the surface. Another 
 specimen containing this mineral, associated with pyrrhotite, was 
 obtained at the Beatrice mine, on lot 1, con. Ill, of Blezard township. 
 Dickson mentions having found ' small bunches of hair-like crystals 
 of this mineral, in the cavities of some radiating pyrite, mixed with 
 calcite.' He regards the millerite as undoubtedly secondary, and pro- 
 bably derived from pre-existing pentlandite. 
 
 POLYDYMITE. 
 
 This mineral occurs in. association with chalcopyrite, chalcocite, 
 pyrrhotite and pyrite at the Yermillion mine, lots 5 and 6, con. IV, of 
 the township of Denison. It is steel-grey, massive, and exceedingly 
 alterable in the air. It has a specific gravity of 4.5. An analysis of 
 carefully selected material gave Clarke and Catlett the results under 
 I, C 1 ). A good sample of the Vermilion ore, analyzed by Mr. Browne, 
 after deducting 1-5 per cent of silica, gave the results under II, 
 evidently impure polydymite. ( 2 ) 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XXXVII., 1889, pp. 372-374. 
 (2) Eng. and Mln. Jour., Dec. 2, 1893, Vol. LVL, p. 566. 
 41877 
 
98 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 I II 
 
 Nickel .' . . . . 41-96 36-85 
 
 Iron 15:57 18-70 
 
 Sulphur 40-80 38-43 
 
 Copper 0-62 4-47 
 
 Silica 1-02 
 
 Totals 99-97 98-45 
 
 These figures give approximately the formula Nis FeSs. Neither 
 cobalt nor arsenic could be detected. If we deduct silica, together 
 with the copper reckoned as admixed chalcopyrite, and recalculate 
 the remainder of the analysis under I, to 100, we get the following 
 figures : 
 
 Nickel 43-18 
 
 Iron 15 :47 
 
 Sulphur 41-35 
 
 Total 100-00 
 
 In short, the mineral has the composition of Ni4$s with about one- 
 quarter of the nickel replaced by the iron, which agrees with Las- 
 peyres' polydymite, of which it is doubtless a ferriferous variety. 
 The polydymite from which the above was selected came from a mass 
 in which an average of 35 -39 per cent of nickel and 5 -20 per cent of 
 copper had previously been found. 
 
 A specimen of the so-called polydymite was presented to the 
 writer by Mr. F. L. Sperry, at one time chemist of the Canadian 
 Copper Co. The mineral at the time was known to be impure, but 
 was the best sample which could be secured for the Museum. The 
 material was mainly polydymite, in a gangue composed of diorite 
 and small quantities of quartz. Carefully selected material which, 
 however, it was found still contained a little intermixed gangue and 
 chalcopyrite was found by Mr. K. A. A. Johnston to contain 40 -80 
 per cent of nickel with no cobalt. 
 
 SPERRYLITE. 
 
 Sperrylite was first found at the Vermilion mine in the gossan or 
 loose material, and was named after Mr. Francis L. Sperry of the 
 C. C. Co. by Profs. Horace L. Wells and S. L. Penfield, of the 
 Sheffield Scientific School, who examined and described this new 
 species C 1 ). The material as received consisted of a heavy, brilliant 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XXXVII., 1889, pp. 67-63. 
 
MINERALS OP THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 
 
 99 
 
 sand, composed largely of the sperrylite, but intermixed with this a 
 considerable number of fragments of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and 
 some silicates could be seen. After the material was purified it was 
 found to contain some transparent grains which proved on examina- 
 tion to be oxide of tin or cassiterite (SnCh). 
 
 Sperrylite is isometric, simple cubes are common, octahedrons are 
 exceptional, while the majority of the crystals are combinations of 
 the cube and octahedron. Hardness is between six and seven, as it 
 scratches feldspar, but not quartz. T^he specific gravity is 10-602. 
 The crystals have no distinct cleavage, but are very brittle, and 
 break with an irregular, probably conchoidal fracture. The chemical 
 composition, according to the mean of two analyses, was as follows: 
 
 Arsenic 40 -98 
 
 Antimony 0'50 
 
 Platinum 52-57 
 
 Ehodium o -72 
 
 Palladium trace. 
 
 Iron 0-07 
 
 Cassiterite or oxide of tin 4-62 
 
 Total 99-46 
 
 The composition is, therefore, represented by the formula PtAs2, 
 a small portion of the platinum and arsenic being replaced respec- 
 tively by rhodium and antimony. The colour of the mineral was 
 nearly tin-white, or about the same as metallic platinum. The fine 
 powder is black. Nearly all the grains showed extremely brilliant, 
 crystal faces, though most of the crystals were fragmentary in size, 
 usually ^50 to ^sooth of an inch in diameter. 
 
 The presence of an appreciable amount of indium was expected 
 by Professor Wells, but careful search failed to reveal even traces of 
 this element. 
 
 Sperrylite is regarded as the source of the metals of the platinum 
 group, which are invariably present in appreciable amounts in the 
 bessemer matte, assays of the Copper Cliff and Victoria mines mattes 
 showing from 0*4 to 0-5 oz. per ton. Wherever occurrences of this 
 mineral have been examined it is directly and intimately associated 
 with the chalcopyrite, so that matters rich in copper contain a large 
 amount of platinum, while those containing very little copper show 
 a correspondingly small amount of platinum. In Dr. Walker's ( J ) 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. I., 1896 p. 112. 
 4187 7J 
 
100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 analysis of the bessemer matte from the Murray mine the presence 
 of iridium and osmium is noted in almost equal amounts, but in 
 Prof. Wells' analysis, as noted above, these metals were not detected. 
 Baron von Foullon concludes from the absence of these elements 
 that there is another mineral present, which contains the iridium, 
 but although this is possible Dr. Walker considers that a more likely 
 explanation is that, in some cases, part of the platinum in sperrylite 
 is replaced by the elements iridium and osmium. 
 
 NICCOLITE. 
 
 This mineral, in intimate association with gersdorffite and with 
 variable quantities of intermixed pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite, 
 has been found in connexion with the occurrence of two small 
 * stocks ' or intrusions of quartz-mica-diorite (altered norite), in the 
 township of Denison. This diorite forms two small hills, which rise 
 above the surrounding country, which is underlaid by the slaty 
 variety of the tuffs or greywackes, these rocks surrounding the 
 diorite on all sides. One of these masses, known as the McConnell or 
 Gersdorffite mine, is situated in the southeastern corner of lot 12, 
 con. Ill, of Denison, while the other, constituting what is known as 
 the Hiram Robinson property, is on the northeastern corner of the 
 west half of lot 12, con. II, of the same township. The country 
 rock in the immediate vicinity is usually a more or less schistose 
 diorite or hornblende schist, produced by the shearing of the more 
 massive diorite, of which most of the hill is composed. The rock is 
 made up, chiefly, of irregular crystals of hornblende closely aggre- 
 gated together, the few and small remaining interspaces being 
 occupied by quartz and plagioclase. At the Gersdorffite mine, from 
 which the first and finest specimens of this mineral and the associ- 
 ated gersdorffite were obtained, they occur in a small vein, interfoli- 
 ated with a chloritic actinolite schist, at the north side of the small 
 area of diorite shown on the map. The vein consists mainly of 
 quartz with a very small amount of feldspar and calcite, with grains 
 and small disseminated masses of the sulphides already mentioned, 
 the most abundant and conspicuous being the niccolite and especially 
 the gersdorffite. No analysis of the niccolite was made. This, when 
 pure, is represented by the formula NiAs=arsenic 56-1, nickel 
 43-9=100-0. It usually contains a little iron and cobalt, also 
 sulphur, while sometimes part of the arsenic is replaced by antimony. 
 The mineral occurs massive, and the peculiar pale, copper red is 
 quite distinctive. A sample containing niccolite and gersdorffite was 
 submitted by the writer to Mr. T. L. Walker who found them too 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 101 
 
 intimately associated to separate for analysis. He, therefore,, made an 
 analysis of the two minerals together, which resulted as follows: 0) 
 
 Nickel 20-87 
 
 Cobalt 0-64 
 
 Copper trace. 
 
 Iron 2-43 
 
 Sulphur 10 -60 
 
 Arsenic 26 '04 
 
 Silica 26-70 
 
 Alumina 5-43 
 
 Lime I 7-29 
 
 Soda I 
 
 Total 100-00 
 
 GERSDORFFITE. 
 
 This mineral was first recognized in a small sample brought to the 
 Geological Museum, in 1891, by Mr. E^gleson, who had obtained the 
 specimen from Mr. Dan. O'Connor, of Sudbury, the owner of the 
 Gersdorffite mine, where it had been found. The particulars of the 
 association of the mineral have already been described under nicco- 
 lite. When pure the mineral is essentially a sulph-arsenide of 
 nickel, with the formula NiAsS or NiS2, NiAsfc = sulphur 19-3, 
 arsenic 45 -3, nickel 35 -4 = 100 -0. Iron replaces the nickel, often 
 in considerable amount, also sometimes cobalt. The following is the 
 description of the specimen collected by the writer in 1891, prepared 
 by Dr. Hoffmann and Mr. R. A. A. Johnston. ( 2 ) 
 
 Structure, for the most part lamellar, but occasionally granular, a 
 few minute, fairly well developed crystals exhibiting the forms of the 
 octahedron and cubo-octahedron, with the faces of the octahedron 
 predominating, were also observed. Colour, steel-grey, here and 
 there tarnished blackish. Specific gravity (after correction for a 
 little included quartz) at 15-5 C., 6-231. 
 
 The material upon which the analysis was conducted, although 
 selected with all possible care, and, so far as could be seen, apparently 
 pure, nevertheless contained, it was subsequently found, a very appre- 
 ciable amount of quartz. Its analysis afforded Mr. R. A. A. Johnston 
 the results given under I. Deducting the gangue (silica), and recal- 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part SS, p. 118. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part R, p. 22. 
 
102 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 culating the remaining constituents to one hundred parts, we obtain 
 
 the figures given under II. 
 
 I II 
 
 Arsenic 40-31 46*96 
 
 Sulphur 14-34 16 -71 
 
 Nickel 22-50 26-32 
 
 Iron 6-78 7 -90 
 
 Cobalt 1-73 2 01 
 
 Copper 0-09 0-10 
 
 Gangue (quartz) 13-55 
 
 Total 99-39 100-00 
 
 This mineral had not previously been identified as occurring in 
 Canada. 
 
 MORENOSITE. 
 
 This mineral, which is also known as ' Nickel vitriol ' is a hydrous, 
 nickel sulphate (Ni SO4 + 7 H^O) = sulphur trioxide 28 -5, nickel 
 protoxide 26 -6, water 44 -9 100 -0. ' It occurs as a greenish-white 
 and pale apple green incrustation on associated gersdorffite, niccolite, 
 chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite at the McCoiinell or Gersdorffite mine 
 (lot 12, con. Ill, of Denison) ; also, but more sparsely, as a greenish- 
 white incrustation on some of the nickeliferous ore of the "Worthing- 
 ton mine (lot 2, con. II, Drury).' ( 1 ) It has also been noticed at the 
 Wallace mine on Lake Huron. 
 
 ANJAA.BERGITE. 
 
 Some specimens of gersdorffite, which had been in the drawers of a 
 mineral cabinet for about a couple of years, were found to have 
 undergone a partial decomposition, with the formation of hydrous 
 nickel arsenate. The material which came from the Gersdorffite 
 mine, (lot 12, con. Ill, Denison), consisted of gersdorffite, with a 
 few scattered particles of chalcopyrite. The nickel arsenate, which 
 occurred both lining and filling cavities in the gersdorffite was, in the 
 former case, in the form of botryoidal, globular, or mammillary crusts 
 of a greenish-yellow colour, pale grass-green, and honey-yellow to 
 brownish colours, and exteriorly of a sub-vitreous lustre, whilst that 
 filling the cavities was compact and amorphous, texture colloid, of a 
 greenish-yellow colour and waxy lustre, also occasionally, but more 
 rarely, earthy, chalk-like and dull. (2) 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., Vol. VI., 1892-93, Part R, p. 27. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., Vol. VI., 1892-93, Part R, p. 27. 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 103 
 
 DANAITE (COBALTIFEROUS ARSENOPYRITfi). 
 
 This mineral is a sulph-arsenide of iron (FeAs S), with part of 
 the iron replaced by cobalt. Agreeably with the formula given above 
 it should contain, theoretically, arsenic 46'0, sulphur 19-7, iron 
 34 -3 = 100 -0. It is not abundant in the Sudbury district, and has 
 only been recognized as occurring in two localities, and in both of 
 these places it is found in association with the older diorites and 
 hornblende schists. The first place in which it was found was on the 
 north half of lot 6, con. Ill, of the township of Graham, this lot- 
 forming a portion of what is known as the Russell location or 
 property. 
 
 The mineral is massive, with a steel-grey colour. Intermixed with 
 it were small quantities of white, translucent quartz, some pyrrhotite, 
 a little galena and a trifling amount of chalcopyrite. The specific 
 gravity at 15-5 C. = 5-988. 
 
 An analysis by R. A. A. Johnston '( 2 ), of carefully selected mate- 
 rial, is given under I. Deducting the gangue of silica, and recalcu- 
 lating to 100 we obtain the results under II. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Arsenic 40-16 42-22 
 
 Sulphur 17-92 18-84 
 
 Iron 31-69 33-32 
 
 Cobalt 3-89 4-09 
 
 Nickel 0-88 0-93 
 
 Antimony 0-57 0-60 
 
 Gold trace. trace. 
 
 Gangue (quartz) 4-77 
 
 Totals 99-88 100-00 
 
 This mineral also occurs in considerable quantity on the north lot 
 4, con. IV, of the township of Graham, at a deposit which was being 
 worked for copper, and known as the Century Copper mine. It is 
 present in intimate association with pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and 
 pyrite, abundantly disseminated through a hornblende and biotite 
 schist ,and also through a pale greyish quartzite, which is embedded 
 in the hornblende schist. 
 
 SMALTITE. 
 
 This mineral, so far as known, is rare in the Sudbury district, 
 although it occurs in large masses in the Timagami region, to the 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can, Vol. V., 1890-91, Part R, p. 19. 
 
104 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 northeast. It is a cobalt diarsenide, Co As2 = arsenic 71-8, cobalt 
 28-2 = 100-0. This mineral was observed by Mr. E. B. Kenrick, of 
 the Geological Survey of Canada, in the form of minute crystals, 
 with well marked octahedral cleavage, in association with chalcopy- 
 rite, from the township of McKim. C 1 ) 
 
 GALENA. 
 
 This mineral has been found at all the mines, wherever search was 
 made for it. It is the common sulphide of lead PbS = sulphur 13-4, 
 lead 86-6,=100-0; usually contains a little silver. It generally 
 occurs in thin seams penetrating the other sulphides. It may be the 
 source of much of the silver found in all the mattes produced from 
 the Sudbury ores. It shows the usually bright lead-grey colour, with 
 distinct cubical cleavage. No analysis was made of this mineral in 
 immediate association with the ore bodies. 
 
 CHALCOCITE. 
 
 This mineral, also known as copper glance, has only been described 
 as occurring at Vermilion mine, in Denison township. Its occurr- 
 ence at this place is noticed by Mr. Johnston, in a specimen which 
 was given to the writer by Mr. F. L. Sperry. This specimen consisted 
 of chalcocite and chalcopyrite, through which was disseminated some 
 polydymite. Some of the fragments were coated with green car- 
 bonat3 of copper. Mr. Johnston found that the specimen contained 
 9-40 per cent of nickel with no cobalt. No chemical analysis of the 
 chalcocite was made. 
 
 BORNITE. 
 
 This mineral is mentioned as occasionally seen by Mr. C. W. 
 Dickson. Some of the chalcopyrite obtained at the Vermilion mine, 
 which was greatly weathered, has a general resemblance to this min- 
 eral. No undoubted bornite was, however, noticed by the writer. 
 
 MAGNETITE. 
 
 
 
 This mineral is an invariable constituent of the norite, and is 
 always more or less titaniferous. It is generally disseminated in 
 minute grains through the ore bodies, but, as a rule, in very subor- 
 dinate amounts. Occasionally, small masses of titaniferous magne- 
 tite are associated with the pyrrhotite, and an analysis of such a 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can., 1886, Part I, p. 13. 
 
MINERALS OP THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 1Q5 
 
 mass, from the Murray mine, gave Dr. Walker, (*) 18-34 per cent of 
 titanic acid. The largest mass yet noticed was recovered from the 
 workings of the Clarabelle mine, where, according to Capt. McAr- 
 thur, about five tons were found enclosed in the sulphides. This 
 magnetite is readily attracted by the magnet, and contains grains of 
 pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, as well as small portions of a green 
 silicate. ( 2 ) 
 
 CASSITERITE. 
 
 The purified material from which the analysis of sperrylite was 
 made by Professor Wells, of Yale University, contained, as stated, 
 24-6 per cent of oxide of tin, in the form of minute transparent 
 grains. These were carefully examined and pronouncsd to belong to 
 the species cassiterite. 
 
 NATIVE COPPER. 
 
 Dendritic or leaf -like forms are ocasionally met with, as at the 
 Vermilion mine where a few specimens of chloritic schist were 
 obtained, showing native copper developed along the planes of cleav- 
 age. L. P. Silver has a specimen of the diorite, obtained from the 
 twelfth level of the Copper Cliff mine, showing a good deposit of leaf 
 copper, which he considers must have been formed by the reduction 
 of the chalcopyrite, by reducing solutions leaching through the 
 rock. ( 3 ) 
 
 NATIVE GOLD. 
 
 Samples of the ore obtained from the Vermilion mine contain 
 appreciable quantities of native gold, and specimens may be obtained 
 from this mine showing abundantly disseminated grains and strings 
 of gold, often of large size. All of the mattes produced from the 
 Sudbury ores contain gold, the percentages of this metal varying in 
 the bessemer matte from strong traces to 0-3 oz. per ton. The aver- 
 age amount would be about 0-15 oz. of gold per ton, although 
 Silver ( 4 ) reports having found 0-75 oz. of gold in a matte which 
 contained 39-64 per cent of nickel and cobalt, and 42-75 per cent of 
 copper. 
 
 (1) Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lon. Vol. LIIL, Feby., 1897, p. 52. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, p. 281. 
 
 (3) Jour. Can. Min. Inst., Vol. V., 1902, p. 536. 
 
 (4) Jour. Can. Min. Inst., Vol. V., 1902, 534. 
 
106 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 GRAPHITE. 
 
 Dr. Coleman(2) reports having found a few scales of graphite in 
 the country rock occurring on the dump at the Lady Macdonald 
 
 mine. 
 
 CUBANITE. 
 
 David H. Browne, ( 3 ) for some time chemist to the Canadian 
 Copper Company, at Copper Cliff, found this mineral, which is repre- 
 ,sented by the formula Cu Fe2 84 = sulphur 35-4, copper 23-3, iron 
 41 -3=100-0, in the roast heaps, being one of the products formed 
 during the roasting. 
 
 In addition to the above mineral varieties mention may be made 
 of the fact that quartz, calcite, dolomite and ankerite are found in 
 association with the massive sulphides, but these minerals are rela- 
 tively very unimportant, and even at such deposits as the Victoria 
 mines considerable quartz has to be added to the furnace charges on 
 account of the basicity of the associated rocks. Nearly all of the 
 gangue occurs as intermixed norite or diorite. 
 
 Composition of the ore-bodies. 
 
 The ore bodies with which the nickel and copper are immediately 
 associated consist essentially of a mixture of sulphides, in which 
 pyrrhotite (FegSg), is, by far, the predominant constituent; chalco- 
 pyrite is almost invariably present, and usually in considerable 
 amount, although proportionately much less than the pyrrhotite. It 
 has been conclusively proved by means of the magnetic separations 
 carried on by Browne, Dickson, and the writer that the nickel pre- 
 sent in these ores is all contained in the pentlandite, although the 
 first mentioned authority is still inclined to the belief that the small 
 amount retained by the magnetic portion or pyrrhotite proper occurs 
 in part, at least, as an essential constituent of the pyrrhotite. This 
 pentlandite is usually very finely and uniformly distributed through- 
 out the whole mass, although in certain mines, as the Creighton, 
 Copper Cliff, Evans, and very noticeably the Worthington mine, it 
 occurs in spots and patches, often as much as half an inch to an inch, 
 or even more, in diameter, of fairly pure material. The relative 
 abundance of this nickel-iron-sulphide determines the richness, or 
 otherwise, of the containing deposit. Pyrite also contributes to the 
 formation of these deposits, and much of it is nickeliferous. Present 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, p. 284. 
 
 (3) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, p. 284. 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 107 
 
 opinion varies somewhat in regard to the form in which the nickel is 
 present in this compound, Dr. Walker's researches tending to prove 
 that this element replaces isomorphously an equivalent amount of 
 iron in chemical combination, while others regard intermixed pent- 
 landite as the source of the nickel. Certain other sulphides of nickel 
 already mentioned and described also contribute to the unusual rich- 
 ness of these deposits, but these are relatively much less important, 
 and many of the occurrences, where such minerals are present, are, 
 so far as known, of no commercial importance. A varying amount 
 of gangue, usually of the associated eruptive, but occasionally also 
 of the older green schists, greywackes and even quartzite, is always 
 present. The percentage of such intermixed rocky matter is some- 
 times unusually large, as in certain portions of the Elsie and Murray 
 mines where material has been used in large amount, which consists 
 of sulphides and rock in about equal proportion, while, in other in- 
 stances, as at the Creighton and Victoria mines, the sulphides are so 
 pure and massive that large quantities of associated norite have to be 
 added to the furnace charge to act as a flux. Magnetite, and certain 
 of the silicates peculiar to the norite, usually more or less decom- 
 posed, such as hornblende, actinolite, serpentine or chlorite are almost 
 always present. A comparatively small amount of quartz, calcite, 
 dolomite, and very occasionally crystals of tourmaline, molybdenite 
 and apatite, are also found. 
 
 The pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite are not, as a rule, so intimately 
 commingled as to form a homogeneous mass, but each may be describ- 
 ed as occurring in pockets, spots, bunches or threads, in the other. 
 The chalcopyrite is not so closely intermixed with the pyrrhotite, but 
 tends to isolate itself rather in patches or spots, usually enclosing, but 
 occasionally enclosed by, the pyrrhotite. It is sometimes possible to 
 separate considerable masses of chalcopyrite, assaying over 30 per 
 cent of copper, or pyrrhotite, that will only show traces of that metal. 
 In practice, however, careful examination and trial have proved that 
 the two minerals are too intimate 1 ? associated to make sorting by 
 hand at all practicable. Although the chalcopyrite seldom occurs free 
 from the pyrrhotite, large and massive deposits of the latter occur 
 comparatively free from copper. The first ore shipped from the Ger- 
 trude mine was so free from copper that it was proposed to utilize it 
 for the production of ferro-nickel, and this deposit was purchased by 
 the Lake Superior Power Company, with this object in view. Ana- 
 lyses made of a large mass of the Creighton mine ore obtained near 
 the surface, show the nickel to vary from 4-87 per cent to 5-31 per 
 cent, with 0-72 per cent to 1-20 of copper. The prevailing intimacy 
 of association, however, of the pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite will per- 
 
108 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 haps be better appreciated by mention of the fact that hand-picked 
 specimens from the Evans, Stobie and Copper Cliff mines, collected 
 and analyzed by Mr. Browne,^ 1 ) showed the presence of from 13-86 
 to 15 -71 per cent of copper with a sufficient quantity of intermixed 
 pyrrhotite and pentlandite in the same to assay from 1-28 to 2-47 per 
 cent of nickel. On the other hand, selected nickel ore from Copper 
 Cliff mine, with 8 -12 per cent of nickel, contained only -80 per cent 
 of copper, while similarly picked ore from the Evans mine contain- 
 ing 5-36 per cent of nickel showed the presence of only 0-49 per cent 
 of copper. In certain of the deposits, as for instance at the main 
 shaft of the Victoria mines, the nickel and copper are almost identical 
 in quantity, assays of a large number of samples, neglecting the in- 
 soluble matter, showing the presence of 3-66 per cent of each metal. 
 At the Dominion, Murray and Elsie mines, the nickel is usually 
 nearly double that of the copper. Thus, Mr. George Attwood, M.E., ( 2 ) 
 at one time manager of the Dominion Mineral Company, under date 
 of March 18th, 1891, stated that the ' kies ' or metallic portion of the 
 Blezard mine averaged 4 per cent of nickel and 2 per cent of copper, 
 this result being the average of a large number of assays, as also of 
 the practical working of the mine. About the same date Mr. F. R. 
 Daw, then manager of the Murray mine, stated that an average of 
 the ore smelted at this mine contained 1-5 per cent of nickel and 0-75 
 per cent of copper. Other assays of an average sample of ore from 
 this mine show 0-9 per cent of copper, with 1-5 por cent of nickel 
 and 46 per cent of insoluble, or the equivalent of 1-66 per cent of 
 copper and 2-76 per cent of nickel, in the pure sulphide material. 
 
 The Gertrude and the Creighton mines, and especially the latter, 
 are deposits in which the nickel is often present in the ore in the por- 
 portion of 3 or 4 to 1. In the first years of the development of the 
 mines of the Canadian Copper Company the copper was greatly in 
 excess of the nickel, and assays of specimens of raw ore, taken with- 
 out selection from these mines, showed a range in copper from 4 -.03 to 
 9-98 per cent, with an average of 6-44 per cent, while the nickel, in 
 the same specimens, varied from 1-12 per cent to 4-21 per cent, with 
 an average of 2-38 per cent. This preponderance of the copper was 
 maintained for some time, for an average of two samples of the blast 
 furnace matte, taken 22nd February, 1889, and the 2nd March, of the 
 same year, showed copper 26-91 per cent and nickel 14-14 per cent. 
 About the same time the Dominion Mineral Company produced 
 mattes containing from 18 to 20 per cent copper and 24 to 26 per 
 cent nickel. At the present time, however, this condition of affairs is 
 
 (1) Bng. and Min. Jour., Dec. 2nd, 1893, Vol. LVL, p. 566. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part P, p. 52. 
 
MINERALS OP THE SUDBURY MINING REGION 1Q9 
 
 reversed, and two specimens of this matte, analyzed by Mr. Donald 
 Locke, of tnis Department, showed 14-53 per cent and 14-69 per cent 
 of copper, with nickel 26 -34 per cent and 28 -IT per cent, respectively. 
 
 The nickel present in the pyrrhotite of the Sudbury district varies 
 usually from 2 -25 per cent to 5 -50 per cent, the lower figure being 
 characteristic of such deposits as the Stobie, Murray and Elsie mines, 
 while the latter is approached, and, at times, exceeded by the ore of 
 the Creighton, Victoria, Blezard, Copper Cliff and Evans mines. 
 Small specimens are occasionally met with which contain as high as 
 30 per cent of nickel, as at the Worthington mine, but such material 
 is only obtainable by careful hand-picking, at either the Worthington 
 or Creighton mines. These ores contain appreciable quantities of 
 cobalt, gold, silver, and metals of the platinum group. Cobalt is 
 almost invariably present, but in most of the assays of the ores which 
 have been made, it is included with the nickel. The cobalt is usually 
 very uniform in amount, in the proportion of 1 to 40 or 50 of the 
 nickel present. The amounts of the rarer elements, such as gold, 
 silver and platinum, are usually so small that the proportions of 
 these can be best determined by analyses of the bessemer or higher 
 grade mattes. Analyses of this product, which are available, contain- 
 ing about 80 per cent of combined nickel and copper, contain from 
 0-10 to 0-20 oz. of gold, with an average of probably about 0-15 oz. 
 to the ton of 2,000 pounds, although L. P. Silver (*) obtained as high 
 as 0-75 oz. of gold in the high grade matte of the Orford Copper 
 Company, containing 39-64 per cent of nickel and cobalt, and 42-75 
 per cent of copper. Locke, of the Geological Survey, shows that in 
 this same matte, containing 40-37 per cent of nickel and 24-95 per 
 cent of copper, only 0-10 oz. of gold per ton is present. In the matte 
 produced by the Mond Nickel Company, containing 41-88 per cent of 
 nickel and 37-37 per cent of copper, this same chemist found Vis of 
 an oz. of gold. 
 
 The silver in the ore is still more variable, as Locke found 2-5 oz. 
 to the ton in the Orford Copper Company's matte, and 4-87 oz. to the 
 ton in the matte produced by the Mond Nickel Company. J. W. 
 Bain's ( 2 ) analysis shows 5-1 oz. to be present in the Orford Copper 
 Company's matte. L. P. Silver shows that 5-30 oz. are present in 
 each ton, while Ulke states that 7 oz. of silver are present in this 
 same matte. The platinum, as already mentioned, is directly asso- 
 ciated with the chalcopyrite, and, therefore, should be found in mattes 
 which are relatively richer in copper. Locke found that the Orford 
 matte contained 0'44 oz. per ton of metals of the platinum group, 
 
 (1) Jour. Con. Min. Inst., Vol. V., 1902. p. 534. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1900, p. 218. ' , 
 
110 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 while the Mond Nickel Company's matte contains 0-4 oz. per ton of 
 these same metals. Ulke mentions that the platinum and palladium, 
 in about equal amounts, together made up about *50 oz. per ton, 
 while L. P. Silver has secured the same result. 
 
 Nickel and Copper in Sudbury Ores. 
 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Total 
 Nickel and 
 
 Authority. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Copper Cliff, Evans and Stobie 
 mines. 
 
 % 
 2'38 
 
 % 
 6'44 
 
 % 
 8 82 
 
 Can Copper Co. 
 
 la Copper Cliff mine, average 1890 . 
 2 Copper Cliff mine (mixed ore). 
 
 3-69 
 4'75 
 
 6-24 
 5'69 
 
 9-93 
 10 44 
 
 
 3 (picked nickel ore) 
 4 
 5 
 6 (picked copper ore) 
 7 it 
 8 Evans mine (mixed ore) 
 
 8-12 
 9'25 
 
 n-oo 
 
 2-74 
 1-25 
 4 '00 
 
 0-80 
 0-51 
 
 o-oo 
 
 14-13 
 
 23-78 
 2'60 
 
 8-92 
 9'76 
 11-00 
 16 '87 
 25-03 
 6'60 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 8a Evans mine, average 1890 
 9 Evans mine (picked nickel ore) . . . 
 10 
 11 M (picked copper ore). . 
 12 Stobie mine (mixed ore) 
 12a Stobie mine, average 1890 
 13 Stobie mine (picked nickel ore) 
 14 
 15 it picked copper ore) 
 
 3'62 
 5-36 
 9-02 
 T34 
 2'2S 
 2-00 
 2 75 
 2-99 
 1'28 
 
 2-84 
 0-49 
 
 o-oo 
 
 13 80 
 2-21 
 1-99 
 00 
 0-37 
 15-71 
 
 6-46 
 5-85 
 9-02 
 15-20 
 4-49 
 3-99 
 2-75 
 3-36 
 16'99 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 17 No. 2 mine (picked nickel ore) .... 
 M (picked copper ore). . . 
 19 No. 2 Extension (picked ni. ore) . . 
 20 No. 3 mine (Frood mine) (picked 
 nickel ore) 
 
 0-64 
 4-70 
 1-87 
 4-32 
 
 4 '85 
 
 24-23 
 0-38 
 13'76 
 0-35 
 
 0'42 
 
 24-87 
 5-08 
 15-63 
 4-67 
 
 5" 27 
 
 n 
 
 21 No. 4 mine 
 22 
 
 4-33 
 4'15 
 
 1-39 
 2'49 
 
 5'72 
 6'64 
 
 M 
 
 23 Creighton mine 
 
 7'03 
 
 1 81 
 
 8'84 
 
 
 24 
 
 4'87 
 
 1'20 
 
 6'07 
 
 Geol Surv.Dept. 
 
 25 M 
 
 5-31 
 
 0'72 
 
 6 "03 
 
 
 26 Victor mine 
 
 3'50 
 
 4 '50 
 
 8'00 
 
 Mond Nickel Co. 
 
 27 ii 
 
 3 -05 
 
 3-05 
 
 6 "25 
 
 
 28 
 39 
 
 2 67 
 3'21 
 
 2-81 
 2 '41 
 
 5-43 
 5'62 
 
 " 
 
 30 Worthington mine 
 
 3'00 
 
 3 00 
 
 6 "00 
 
 C W. Dickson. 
 
 31 n (picked ni. ore). 
 32 Blezard mine (metallic portion) . . . 
 33 Murray mine 
 
 17'48 
 4-00 
 1'50 
 
 o-oo 
 
 2-00 
 0'75 
 
 17 48 
 6-00 
 2 "25 
 
 T. L. Walker. 
 Dom. Min. Co. 
 H H Vivian&Co 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 1. Average of nine analyses, made by IT. L. Sperry, of raw ore takon 
 without selection from the Copper Cliff, Evans and Stobie mines, of 
 the Canadian Copper Co., in November, 1888. la. Average of Cop- 
 
MINERALS OF THE SUDBURY MINING REGION HI 
 
 per Cliff mine ore, for year 1890. (Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. 
 V., 1890-91, Part F, p. 51.) 
 
 Analyses 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, are by David H. Browne, 
 chemist to the Canadian Copper Company. (Eng. and Min. Jour., 
 Dec. 2nd, 1893, p. 566.) 
 
 Analysis 8a. Average of Evans mine ore for the year 1890. (Ann. 
 Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part F, p. 51.) 
 
 Analyses, 4, 7, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 26, are from the 
 catalogue of the mineral exhibit of Ontario at the Pan-American 
 Exposition of 1901, pp. 33 and 35. 
 
 Analysis, 12 a. Average of Stobie mine for the year 1890. (Ann. 
 Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part F., p. 51.) 
 
 Analysis 30 is the result of a number of analyses of average 
 samples, by Mr. C. W. Dickson, (Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Albany 
 meeting, Feby., 1903). 
 
 Analyses 24 and 25 are by Mr. Donald Locke, of the Geological 
 Survey Department, Ottawa, of material obtained within a few feet 
 of the surface. 
 
 Analysis 27 is the result of an average of a large number of assays 
 of samples of raw ore, from the Victoria mines, as supplied to the 
 smelter by T. M. Paris, the chemist. The insoluble amounted to an 
 average of 16-81 per cent. 
 
 Analysis 28 is the average of the raw ore for July, 1902, by ET. 
 M. Paris, chemist to the Mond Nickel Company. Insoluble, 17-2 per 
 cent. 
 
 Analysis 29 is the average of the raw ore for September, 1902, 
 by T. M. Paris, chemist to the Mond Nickel Company. Insoluble, 
 13-9 per cent. 
 
 Analysis 30 is the result of an analysis of the pyrrhotite from the 
 Worthington mine, which contained a large amount of pentlandite, 
 by T. L. Walker. (Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, 
 Part SS, p. 117.) 
 
 Analysis 32, according to Mr. George Attwood, manager for the 
 Dominion Mineral Company, is the average of the results of many 
 hundreds of assays of the ' kies ' or metallic portion of the ore of the 
 Blezard mine, also the practical working of the mine on a large scale. 
 (Ann. Itep. Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part F, p. 52.) 
 
 Analysis 33 is the average percentage of the ore smelted at the 
 Murray mine, according to Mr. F. R. W. Daw, the manager for 
 Messrs. H. H. Vivian & Co. The 'kies' or metallic portion of the 
 Murray mine ore contains on an average of about 2-75 per cent of 
 nickel and 1-65 per cent of copper. 
 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 NICKEL AND COBALT IN ORES FROM SUDBURY DISTRICT. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Insol. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 Ni. in Metal- 
 lic portion. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 1. Location W. 7, 
 (W. side Lake 
 \Vanapitei) 
 
 % 
 
 40 
 25 
 
 % 
 
 Small quantity 
 Present. 
 Small quantity 
 
 7 
 
 2-00 
 1-57 
 3-10 
 
 2-70 
 
 1-95 
 1-57 
 
 1-95 
 
 2-01 
 1-55 
 2-36 
 4-13 
 
 1-96 
 2-75 
 
 % 
 
 None, 
 it 
 Trace. 
 
 None. 
 
 Trace. 
 
 None 
 Trace. 
 
 None. 
 
 Trace. 
 None. 
 
 % 
 
 3'33 
 2-09 
 3-10 
 
 2-70 
 2 : 34 
 
 1 ; 77 
 3-02 
 4 13 
 
 2 40 
 
 3'29 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 ti n 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 ii n 
 n ii 
 
 n it 
 n n 
 
 2. Boucher's mine, 
 N.E. side Lake 
 Wanapitei 
 
 3. N eel on town- 
 ship, Lot 12, Con. 
 Ill 
 
 4. Boundary line 
 bet. Districts of 
 Algoma & Nipis- 
 sing, 2 miles N.of 
 
 
 5. Lome town- 
 ship. Lot 2, Con. 
 
 Small pro- 
 portion. 
 
 33 
 
 Small pro- 
 portion. 
 
 Trifling 
 amount. 
 
 12-5 
 22 
 None, 
 18-5 
 16-5 
 
 Trifling 
 amount. 
 Small amount. 
 
 None. 
 
 Little. 
 None. 
 
 Very small 
 amount. 
 
 Small amount. 
 
 6. Lome to wn- 
 ship 
 7. Nairn township 
 Lots land 2, Con. 
 Ill 
 
 8. Drury town- 
 ship, Lot3, GOJ. 
 Ill 
 
 9. Denison town- 
 ship, Lot 6, Con. 
 
 10. Levack town- 
 ship, Lot 7, Con. 
 
 11. Levack town- 
 ship, Lot 7, Con . 
 II. 
 
 12. Levack town- 
 ship, Lot 3, Con . 
 IV 
 13. Ross mine, W. 
 R., 5, North Nic- 
 kel range 
 
 Explanations. 
 
 1. Association of a somewhat coarse granular pyrrhotite with 
 small quantity of chalcopyrite, in greenstone. 
 
 2. An intimate association of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite, in 
 gangue of greenstone. 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE SUDBURY PYRRHOTITE H3 
 
 3. A somewhat coarse granular pyrrhotite, associated with small 
 quantities of chalcopyrite, from what was then known as the McCor- 
 mick mine. 
 
 4. Pyrrhotite, in association with small quantities of dark-coloured 
 greenstone. 
 
 5. Pyrrhotite, with a trifling amount of chalcopyrite, with green- 
 stone. 
 
 6. Pyrrhotite, with a little chalcopyrite, with greenstone. 
 
 7. Pyrrhotite, with a small proportion of greenstone. 
 
 8. Pyrrhotite, with a little chalcopyrite, through which was dis- 
 seminated a trifling amount of a quartzose gangue. 
 
 9. A somewhat coarse granular pyrrhotite, through which was dis- 
 seminated a small amount of quartz. 
 
 10. A somewhat coarse granular pyrrhotite, through which was 
 disseminated a quartzose gangue. 
 
 11. A very coarse granular pyrrhotite, free from gangue. 
 
 12. A somewhat coarse granular pyrrhotite, with a very small 
 amount of chalcopyrite, in association with greenstone. 
 
 13. A coarse granular pyrrhotite, with a small amount of chalco- 
 pyrite. The gangue was readily discernible. 
 
 These analyses, 1 to 13, were done in the chemical laboratory of 
 the Geological Survey Department, by Messrs. R. A. A. Johnston and 
 F. G. Wait, assistants to Dr. G. C. Hoffmann. (Ann. Rep. Geol. 
 Surv. Can., Vol. V., 1890-91, Part R., pp. 41-44 (STos. 7 to 19). 
 
 THE SUDBURY PYRRHOTITE. 
 
 The composition of pyrrhotite, as shown by a large number of ana- 
 lyses, is not constant, and although repeated trials have been made by 
 various chemists and mineralogists to obtain a formula which would 
 be satisfactory, and representative of this mineral, their attempts so 
 far have been attended with only a fair amount of success. 
 
 It has, therefore, been the custom to express the composition of 
 pyrrhotite by the formula Fe n S n + i the available analyses collected 
 by Lindstrom in 1875, and by Habermehl in 1879, showing a varia- 
 tion of Fe: S = l: 1., 1902, corresponding to Fes Se, to 1: 1-0610, 
 which agrees with the formula Feie SIT. Habermehl, from a mean 
 of fourteen determinations, ten of which were essentially identical, 
 showed that the Bodenmais pyrrhotite contains 60 -57 per cent of iron, 
 thus conforming closely to the formula Fe? Ss, the theoretical com- 
 position of which would require 60 -40 per cent of iron. This material 
 was obtained on portions separated successively from the fine powder, 
 suspended in water by a fine magnet. Doelter, by artificial means, 
 
 41878 
 
114 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 produced a compound closely resembling, if not identical with the 
 natural pyrrhotite, the analysis of which agreed with the formula 
 Fen Sia. 
 
 This variation in composition has suggested the possibility that 
 pyrrhotite is not really a definite species, in a mineralogical sense, 
 but rather a mixture, in varying proportions, of perhaps several 
 closely related compounds. Such a view was regarded as also sup- 
 ported by the wide range in the specific gravity of the mineral, (3-98 
 to 4-80) as well as observed differences in the possession of certain 
 physical properties, especially noticeable in regard to its magnetism. 
 Some specimens exhibit this property in such a feeble manner that 
 only the finer powder is attracted by the magnet, while others are so 
 intensely magnetic as even to exhibit the phenomenon of polarity. 
 
 Careful consideration of all the facts available suggests that much, 
 at least, of the discrepancies in composition can perhaps be better 
 explained on other grounds. Thus, although it is known that a con- 
 siderable number of these analyses were conducted on material which 
 had been selected with great care, and using every known precaution 
 to ensure a pure and homogeneous product, by far the larger number 
 of determinations were of impure, often intermixed material. Be- 
 sides, the methods of analysis were not always above reproach, so 
 that errors constantly occurred, not only in the determination of the 
 sulphur, but also of the iron. In addition, even with the possession 
 of the requisite knowledge of analytical methods, as well as skill in 
 their manipulation, it is usually extremely difficult, if not impossible, 
 in all cases to obtain sufficiently homogeneous material on which to 
 base a formula which would be thoroughly reliable and representa- 
 tive. If we regard pyrrhotite as a sulphide, intermediate in chemical 
 composition between the normal sulphide FeS and the disulphide 
 FeS2, it is possible to obtain every gradation of material showing a 
 range in the iron content from 63 61 per cent to 46 60 per cent, while 
 the sulphur to correspond would show a gradual increase from 36-39 
 per cent to 53-40 per cent. There is, however, a wide gap between 
 Fey Ss with iron 60-40 per cent and sulphur 39-60 per cent, and 
 Fe S 2 with iron 46-60 per cent and sulpiuir 53-40 per cent. These 
 analyses, however, which have evidently .been conducted with the 
 greatest care, show a variation in formula from Fen 812 with iron 
 61-60 per cent and sulphur 38-40 per cent, to Fe? Ss with iron 60-40 
 per cent and sulphur 39-60 per cent. These determinations are as 
 uniform and accurate as could be expected from material so mani- 
 festly impure as pyrrhotite. 
 
 A satisfactory and reliable analysis of Sudbury pyrrhotite is, per- 
 haps, more than usually difficult to obtain, owing to the very intimate 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE SUDBURY PYRRHOTITE H5 
 
 association of various closely related sulphides. In the first place, it 
 was the generally accepted view that the nickel really replaced iso- 
 morphously an equivalent amount of iron, and was thus an essential 
 constituent of the pyrrhotite, whereas it is now a well ascertained 
 fact that by far the greater proportion of the nickel, at least, occurs 
 as a distinct and separable nickel-iron sulphide. Many, however, still 
 cling to the belief, that a small portion of the nickel may exist in a 
 state of chemical combination, but such persons can find little sup- 
 port for this view in the fact, that, by repeated, use of a magnetic 
 separator and with material sufficiently comminuted, it is possible 
 t;) remove almost the last trace of nickel from a compound which 
 originally contained from 2 to 5 per cent of this element, while the 
 isolated nickel-iron-sulphide or pentlandite is usually pure enough 
 for analytical purposes. The process is, however, tedious, and re- 
 peated trials are necessary before the pyrrhotite or pentlandite is 
 obtained of the degree of purity desired. 
 
 In addition, other sulphides, mainly chalcopyrite, but sometimes 
 also pyrite, are present, the former almost invariably accompanying 
 the pyrrhotite, and all of these are so intermixed with one another, 
 that very fine grinding and the assistance of magnetism is neces- 
 sary before a satisfactory and complete separation can be effected. 
 Such a dissociation, however, may be conducted at the same time 
 as the trials for the elimination of the pentlandite are proceeding, 
 while this latter mineral, which is itself feebly magnetic, can, in turn, 
 be separated from the copper and iron pyrites, which do not possess 
 the property of magnetism in any sensible degree. The chief diffi- 
 culty, however, encountered in the purification of the pyrrhotite, 
 arises from the fact that a small quantity of magnetite (Fes O4>, 
 often amounting to not less than 1 per cent of the whole, is almost 
 invariably present. C. W. Dickson, after a number of experiments, 
 found, that by treating the sample with dilute \(10 per cent) solution 
 of nitric acid, the pyrrhotite could be largely removed, while the 
 magnetite was but little affected. The separated sulphur was re- 
 moved by means of bromine and carbon-bisulphide ; and, after several 
 treatments, the residue of magnetite was obtained pure, and the iron 
 was estimated by titration. The nature of these operations, as he 
 remarks, involves the possibility of some loss, especially as the 
 amount of magnetite is comparatively small, but, on the whole, the 
 method answered very well. The greater number of the analyses in- 
 dicated that the pyrrhotite could be represented by the formula 
 Fes 89, while two or three others worked out to Fe? Ss and Feo Sio. 
 The first-mentioned formula may be regarded as the most probable 
 for the pyrrhotite from the Sudbury district. He likewise mentions 
 
 4187 8J 
 
116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 the interesting fact that a trial of a specimen from Rossland, B.C., 
 showed it to be represented by the same formula (Fes 89). 
 
 The pyrrhotite is always massive and amorphous, showing all 
 gradations of texture from very finely to very coarsely granular, the 
 coarser varieties possessing well marked cleavages in two directions. 
 As may be seen by a reference to the analyses there is little or no 
 foundation for the popular belief that the coarsely crystalline varie- 
 ties are relatively poorer in nickel than those which are finer grained. 
 Good crystals are extremely rare, and although occasional fragments 
 are found which are apparently bounded by crystal faces, such planes 
 are really the direct result of cleavage. Perhaps the only authenti- 
 cated crystal of pyrrhotite was obtained by Mr. G. K. Mickle, from a 
 man working in the Worthington mine. Mr. Mickle thus describes 
 it : l The crystal is evidently a hexagonal prism showing strongly 
 marked basal cleavage; two of the sides are intact, and portions of 
 two others remain. The dimensions are 1& inches, or 32mm., by \ 
 inch, or 13mm.; the weight, 27-4 grains; and an analysis of a very 
 small fragment frojn the crystal gave 2-3 per cent of nickel. 7 
 
 The colour of the pyrrhotite is a bright steel-grey on fresh frac- 
 ture, quickly weathering to a deep bronze-yellow, often, however, tar- 
 nished or iridescent. 
 
 CHALCOPYRITE. 
 
 The copper contained in the ore is all obtained from chalcopyrite, 
 the common sulphide of copper and iron, (CuFeS2 sulphur 35-0 per 
 cent, copper 34-5 per cent, iron 30-5 per cent = 100-0). It is always 
 massive, with the usual deep brass or yellow colour. As usual, this 
 mineral is very subject to tarnish, and beautiful iridescent speci- 
 mens can be obtained from the ore heaps, or scattered around the 
 works. The composition of the ore varies greatly, as may be seen by 
 a reference to the analyses, and according to the preponderance of 
 either the pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite, the resulting furnace product or 
 matte is relatively richer or poorer in nickel or copper. The mines of 
 the Canadian Copper Company, as the name implies, were first oper- 
 ated for their copper contents, and it was not until considerable work 
 had been done that nickel was discovered to be present in the ore. A 
 large shipment of ore had been made to New York, and a chemist 
 there who was making a volumetric determination of the copper con- 
 tents, by the potassium cyanide process, was struck by the great 
 variation in his results, which led him to make a more minute exami- 
 nation of the ore, when he found that nickel was present. The ore 
 has now become of more value on account of its nickel than its cop- 
 
NICKEL AND COBALT IN SUDBURY PYRRHOTITE 
 
 ' 117 
 
 per contents, and Dr. Peters himself greatly doubted if the mines 
 would pay to work for copper alone. 
 
 NICKEL AND COBALT IN SUDBURY PYRRHOTITES. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Insol. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 8. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Ni. in pure 
 Pyrrhotite. 
 
 1. Elsie mine (a) 
 2. (b) 
 
 % 
 2-00 
 3'45 
 1'50 
 4-00 
 0-40 
 5-00 
 2-20 
 
 1-10 
 5-00 
 
 0-50 
 3-25 
 50 
 5-00 
 6-00 
 0-50 
 0'40 
 3-00 
 3'20 
 4'10 
 2-28 
 2-49 
 
 /o 
 
 Trace. 
 
 ii 
 
 4-50 
 Trace. 
 
 0-72 
 1-20 
 
 0-00 
 O'OO 
 
 o-oo 
 o-oo 
 
 Trace. 
 
 o-oo 
 
 Trace. 
 
 o'-'io 
 
 Trace. 
 
 7 
 
 /o 
 
 2-40 
 2'35 
 3-00 
 2-05 
 2'35 
 2 34 
 3-00 
 
 3-24 
 3-70 
 
 3 47 
 
 3'84 
 2-26 
 3 83 
 3-61 
 3-36 
 3 14 
 3'50 
 2-80 
 2-22 
 5-31 
 4-87 
 
 11-00 
 
 4-62 
 2-75 
 2-15 
 9-02 
 3'82 
 3-40 
 4-46 
 3-52 
 4-06 
 
 06 
 0-05 
 0-08 
 0-05 
 0-05 
 0-06 
 0'07 
 
 0-06 
 
 0-t8 
 08 
 
 o-io 
 
 06 
 O'll 
 0.09 
 0-07 
 0-08 
 
 % 
 
 7 
 
 /o 
 
 2-46 
 2-44 
 3-05 
 2-15 
 2-40 
 2-48 
 3-06 
 
 3'30 
 
 4 00 
 
 3 50 
 4-00 
 2'32 
 4-05 
 4-00 
 3-40 
 3-20 
 
 
 
 3. Stobie mine (a) 
 4. (b) 
 5. No. 3 mine (a) 
 6. it 3 I. (b). . 
 
 
 
 
 7. Mount Nickel 
 
 
 
 8. Copper Cliff No. 4 mine 
 (a) 
 
 
 
 9. Copper Cliff No. 2 mine 
 (b) 
 
 
 
 10. Copper Cliff No.5 mine 
 (c) 
 
 
 
 11. Creighton mine (a). . . 
 12. (b)... 
 13. Gertrude mine (a) . . . . 
 14. (b).... 
 15. Victoria mine (a) 
 16. (b) 
 16a. (b) 
 17. Levack township 
 18. Wisner 
 19. Creighton mine (a) ... 
 20. (b)... 
 21. Copper Cliff (7th level) 
 (a) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '32-00 
 
 55 : 66 
 
 2'88 
 2-32 
 
 
 
 '34 : 28 
 34-62 
 
 38-01 
 
 38-58 
 35-35 
 36-10 
 39-28 
 40-18 
 
 
 
 
 
 50-40 
 
 55-70 
 58-00 
 57-00 
 51-50 
 56-00 
 
 n-oo 
 
 4-62 
 2-75 
 2-15 
 9-02 
 3-82 
 Co=0'2, Ni3'98 
 Co=0'18, Ni 4'6 
 Co=0'16, Ni3'90 
 Co=0'17,Ni4-17 
 
 22. Copper Cliff (7th level) 
 (b) 
 
 
 23. Stobie mine (a). . 
 
 
 24. .. (b) 
 
 
 : 175 
 0-174 
 0-146 
 0-165 
 
 25. Evans mine (a) 
 
 
 26. it (b). 
 
 
 27. Copper Cliff mine . . 
 28. Cryderman mine 
 29. Cochrane mine. ... 
 30. Little Stobie mine. .. 
 
 7'75 
 2-96 
 
 11-10 
 
 2'70 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 Analyses 1-18, inclusive, with the exception of 16a, were made by 
 Mr. C. W. Dickson, (Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., Albany meeting, 
 Feb., 1903) in duplicate or triplicate, to ensure the greatest possible 
 accuracy. These were made to ascertain as accurately as possible 
 the average nickel and cobalt contents of the general run of the 
 pyrrhotite from the whole region. The pyrrhotite was coarsely 
 crushed, and the mineral picked out as pure as possible, under a lens, 
 
118 ' GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 when necessary. From the massive varieties good samples were easily 
 obtained, but, in other cases, the pyrrhotite was so intimately mixed 
 with chalcopyrite and rock that it was very difficult to obtain satis- 
 factory samples, some rock always adhering to the sulphide. The 
 results obtained show that the percentage is fairly constant over a 
 wide area. The pyrrhotite includes both fine and coarse-grained. In 
 the case of the coarse-grained varieties, where the nickel mineral 
 peiitlandite can often be recognized, this was carefully rejected, as 
 far as possible. But the difficulty of separation accounts for the fact 
 that some of these varieties show less nickel than the finer-grained 
 ones, although the former are usually considerably richer. Had the 
 coarse-grained samples been treated in their original condition the 
 results would have been more uniform. These analyses, therefore, 
 represent the nickel which is most intimately associated with the 
 pyrrhotite and does not appear as particles of pentlandite. 
 
 1. Coarse pyrrhotite, with a small amount of chalcopyrite and 
 rock; 2. Compact fine-grained pyrrhotite, with a small amount of 
 rock; 3. Massive, fine-grained pyrrhotite; 4. Pyrrhotite and chalco- 
 pyrite, in diorite; 5. Pure, coarse pyrrhotite; 6. Fine-grained pyrrho- 
 tite; 7. Massive pyrrhotite; 8. Coarse pyrrhotite; 9. Massive, fine- 
 grained pyrrhotite; 10. Massive, fine-grained pyrrhotite; 11. Mas- 
 sive, fine-grained pyrrhotite; 12. Coarse pyrrhotite; 13. Massive 
 pyrrhotite; 14. Massive pyrrhotite; 15. Massive, fine-grained pyrrho- 
 tite; 16. Coarser than No. 15, but with more chalcopyrite; 16a. Ana- 
 lysis of ore by Mond Nickel Company; 17. Massive pyrrhotite (Tough 
 & Stobie's property) ; 18. Coarse, massive pyrrhotite, from the 
 Northern Nickel range; 19 and 20 are analyses by Mr. Donald 
 Locke. Analyses 21 to 26, inclusive, are of ore selected for purposes 
 of magnetic concentration, by Mr. David H. Browne. Analyses 27 to 
 30, inclusive, are by Mr. M. F. Connor, of this Department, and were 
 of hand-picked ore, as free as possible from chalcopyrite and gangue. 
 All of the specimens were of pyrrhotite of medium grain, with the 
 exception of that from the Little Stobie mine, which was a very 
 coarse cleavable variety. 
 
 MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF THE SUDBURY NICKEL DEPOSITS. 
 
 Most geologists, at least, who have examined these deposits in 
 detail, are agreed that they are not true fissure veins, and although 
 at times certain sloping surfaces are obtained, which seem to have a 
 uniform inclination and limit the distribution of ore in their direc- 
 tion, yet it seems certain that there are no regular walls, in the 
 miner's sense of the term, and at both sides of the deposit the 
 
MODE OP OCCURRENCE OP DEPOSITS 119 
 
 enclosing rock is impregnated, more or less, with pyritous matter. 
 Although mining is thus rendered somewhat difficult and uncertain, 
 on account of the absence of the walls, and irregularity in the dis- 
 tribution of the ore, so that there is very little means of knowing in 
 what direction to drive the levels, this uncertainty is usually more 
 than compensated by the extent and massiveness of the deposits, 
 when found. 
 
 The ore -bodies are of irregular, oval or pod-shaped outline, and all 
 agree in having their longer axes to correspond very closely with the 
 direction o'f the foliation of the enclosing rocks. The shapes and 
 dimensions of the ore-bodies of the International Nickel Company's 
 mines at Copper Clilf are accurately shown on the accompanying 
 large scale maps. There are three main types of these ore deposits in 
 the Sudbury mining district. 
 
 1. Those which occur at the southern border of the immense body 
 of hypersthene-gabbro, or norite, which reaches without interruption 
 from Drury to Garson townships. Under this division are included 
 the Gertrude, Creighton, North Star, Tarn O'Shanter, Lady Violet, 
 Elsie, Murray, Cameron, Little Stobie, Mount Nickel, Blezard, Bea- 
 trice, Kirkwood and Crydernian mines. 
 
 2. Those which are developed in connexion with offsets or dike- 
 like forms of the norite, extending southward from the main mass, 
 and which are intruded into the older rocks, almost at right angles 
 to the planes of foliation and bedding. This would embrace such 
 mines as the Victoria, Clarabelle (No. 6), No. 4, Lady Macdonald 
 (No. 5) and No. 2, ancl the extensions of No. 2 mine. 
 
 3. Those which are associated with smaller and, at present, com- 
 pletely isolated bodies of norite. These separate masses of the nickel 
 bearing eruptive are so closely identical, in mineralogical composi- 
 tion, structure and behaviour, to the parent eruptive, that they are 
 probably connected with it, in some way, at a distance below the 
 surface. 
 
 The original Copper Cliff, No. 1, and its extensions, Evans, Erood 
 (No. 3) and Stobie mines are all examples of this last-mentioned 
 class. 
 
 The first-mentioned divisions of deposits are all situated at the 
 immediate contact between this huge mass and the older rocks, into 
 which it is intruded. The intrusive nature of this contact is well 
 shown, the impregnation of the old green schists consisting, for the 
 most part, of small, dike-like forms or veins of sulphide material, 
 injected along the planes of schistosity, while, on the other side, the 
 line of separation between the ore-body and the norite is even more 
 uncertain, the sulphide material gradually fading out, until it is 
 
120 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 only represented by occasional disseminations. To the northwest this 
 basic rock shows a gradual differentiation or passage into the peculiar 
 and characteristic type of gneissic granite usually referred to as 
 1 micropegmatite.' On the Levack or Middle range (Windy Lake 
 eruptive), this condition of affairs is reversed, and we find the de- 
 posits at the northwestern margin of the norite, while its differentiate, 
 the micropegmatite, lies to the southeast. This same condition of 
 affairs obtains on the Northern Nickel range where the norite comes 
 in contact with the older granites and green schists on the north 
 side, while the micropegmatite underlies the area to the south. 
 
 The Worthington and the Vermilion mines are the only deposits 
 which have been developed, having no visible connexion with the 
 main mass of norite already noticed. As has been shown on a pre- 
 vious page, the Worthington mine occurs on a narrow neck of actino- 
 lite diorite, which is, without doubt, the altered representative of 
 the older norite. To the southwest and east this norite is directly 
 connected with a much larger mass of basic eruptive material. As 
 far as can be learned no large deposit of ore was encountered at the 
 Vermilion mine, and the small amount of norite found resembles 
 very closely the decomposed variety of the older type of this rock. 
 
 Rounded hills of gossan, indicating the presence of the more or 
 less pure and unaltered ore beneath, extend with almost unbroken 
 continuity for miles along the line of junction, while by far the 
 larger portions of the offsets and isolated masses with which the 
 ore-bodies are associated are also of a prevailing brownish colour, 
 from the decomposition of the abundantly disseminated sulphides. 
 This gossan has resulted, as usual, from the alteration of the pyrrho- 
 tite and chalcopyrite, and the formation of hydrous oxide of iron, 
 which gives " prevailing brownish colour to the upper portions of the 
 deposits. This covering of iron oxide is sometimes as much as six 
 feet in depth, although usually it is only two or three feet, gradu- 
 ally merging into the unaltered ore beneath. The depth to which 
 this gossan extends depends largely, of course, on the length of time 
 the deposits have been uncovered, and thus exposed to processes of 
 weathering. Some, from which the green forest and overlying soil 
 have but lately been removed, show little or no iron oxide, while 
 others, like the Murray mine, which have been exposed to the action 
 of the weather for years, exhibit an extensive covering of this char- 
 acteristic decomposition product. From the Elsie mine, in a north- 
 easterly direction, past the Murray mine as far as the boundary be- 
 tween McKim and Blezard townships, a considerable belt of rock 
 occurs at the immediate margin of the norite, so heavily charged 
 with sulphides that its weathered outcrop at the surface is covered 
 
MODE OP OCCURRENCE OF DEPOSITS 121 
 
 with this gossan. At the old Copper Cliff mine, as well as at the 
 Creighton mine, this overlying gossan is very wide spread and deeply 
 impressive. 
 
 In most cases these ore-bodies show a brecciated character, large 
 angular or partially rounded blocKs of almost barren rock being 
 mingled with the ore. Some of these horses, as they have been called, 
 are made up of the material derived from the wall rock against which 
 the pyritous matter cooled. Their presence, in this connexion, is no 
 doubt due to the shattering of the invaded formation at their con- 
 tact with the plutonic magma. In fact, they form an illustration, on 
 a small scale, of the phenomenon of ' overhead stoping/ so fully 
 described and explained by Dr. R. A. Daly^ 1 ) In other instances, 
 however, this comparatively barren material is of norite, but such 
 inclusions are seldom sharply denned from the sulphide, exposures 
 showing a gradual transition from one to the other, while the blocks 
 themselves are generally more or less plentifully impregnated with the 
 prevailing sulphide. 
 
 No great depth has yet been reached by the workings of any of 
 the mines of the marginal type of deposits. The deepest of the shafts 
 is at the Blezard mine, which has only been sunk a distance of 172 
 feet, while those of the Murray and Gertrude are 160 and 120 feet 
 deep, respectively. On the other hand the diamond drilling under- 
 taken at the Creighton is stated to have proved the existence of this 
 phenomenally large body of nickle ore to a depth of at least 400 
 feet. This wonderful deposit of pyrrhotite has been worked, mainly, 
 as a large open pit, measuring 150 by 200 feet, and extending to a 
 depth of 62 feet. All of these deposits dip to the north and north- 
 west at an angle varying from 30 to 70. 
 
 Of the mines belonging to the second group of those developed 
 along the offsets, the two most important are the Victoria mine and 
 the No. 2 mine, of the International Nickel Co., at Copper Cliff. 
 The Victoria mine, of the Mond Nickel Company, with seven levels 
 and extensive slopes, has reached a depth of 557 feet. The No. 2 
 mine has afforded a large amount of ore, being worked for the most 
 part as a large open pit, measuring about 250 feet in length, by 100 
 to 150 feet in width, and with a depth of 217 feet. 
 
 The original and famous Copper Cliff mine has often been re- 
 ferred to as a chimney of ore, averaging in width from 50 to 100 
 feet in the cross section, through the shaft, while at right angles to 
 this direction it varies from 30 to 210 feet The first or old haft, 
 now in large part abandoned except for pumping purposes, was sunk 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XVI., 1903, p. 108. 
 
122 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 to a cbjjlli of over 500 feet, on an incline of 40, while shaft No. 2, 
 or the new shaft to take its place, starts from the third level, at a 
 distance of 150 feet from the surface, and continues at an angle of 
 77 30', or approximately parallel to the ore body, to the 14th level 
 (depth 1,0:.S feet). 
 
 The ore body of the Stobie mine, developed in connexion with a 
 small isolated mass of norite, has an inclination of 65, and, although 
 the workings have only reached a vertical depth of 250 feet, it has 
 yielded a larger amount of ore than any other mine in the district 
 (415,000 tons). 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE ORE DEPOSITS. 
 
 The question as to how these abnormally large masses of sul- 
 phide material acquired their present position and dimensions has 
 furnished a fruitful topic for speculation and discussion ever since 
 their first discovery. Fortunately, however, only two theories, with 
 some minor modifications, have been advanced in explanation of the 
 manner of their formation, and which may be summarized as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 1. That the sulphides are directly of igneous origin, the products 
 of the differentiation of a gabbro or norite magma, being segregated 
 along its margin in obedience to Soret's principle, the order of for- 
 mation of the minerals being in accordance with Fournet's series. 
 
 2. That these ore bodies are altogether of secondary and -aqueous 
 origin, occurring as replacements along crushed and faulted zones. 
 
 The extreme advocates of either theory seek to ignore the share 
 of the other in forming these deposits, as they exist at present. Thus, 
 those who originally held that these ores were the immediate product 
 of magmatic segregation failed to mention, or at least emphasize 
 the possibility that those deposits were, in any way, influenced by 
 the presence of these heated solutions, which to a certain extent 
 accompany, and in all cases immediately follow all plutonic action. 
 On the other hand those who consider these deposits as of secondary 
 origin, in seeking to explain the source of the metals, although they 
 acknowledge as a^fact, 'that the universal association of these ores 
 with essentially similar rocks is also striking' and again ' that the 
 norite, (or gabbro) has an intimate connexion with the development 
 of the ores cannot De doubted, but in just what way they are related 
 is not clear,' still at the same time they nullify any effect which 
 might be produced by such information by a statement to the effect, 
 that ' an appeal must be made to a more distant source of the metals, 
 
ORIGIN OP THE SUDBURY ORE DEPOSITS 123 
 
 probably minutely disseminated in the rocks through which the de- 
 positing solution passed/ ( x ) 
 
 The writer, who was one of the first to affirm a direct igneous 
 origin for these Sudbury ores, giving independent expression to pre- 
 cisely similar views, which about the same time were stated, in much 
 more detail, by Professor J. H. L. Vogt, of Christiania, Norway, 
 realizes the fact that, in the first endeavour to fix definitely the re- 
 sponsibility for these unusual occurrences, too much emphasis was 
 perhaps given to the idea of magmatic differentiation, as in itself 
 giving an adequate explanation of all the phenomena witnessed. 
 This can only be excused on the ground that this doctrine as 
 applied to ore deposits was an entire innovation, and its strongest 
 affirmation was at first very necessary in order to effect its recogni- 
 tion as a previously ignored though important factor in the de- 
 velopment of ore deposits. More recent and detailed examination of 
 the various ore bodies has shown that while the first hypothesis of a 
 segregation of these sulphides, directly from the magma, is, in the 
 main, the true* explanation of their present position, other agencies, 
 which are usually grouped together under the name of secondary 
 action, have contributed rather largely to bring about their unusual 
 dimensions. 
 
 As Professor Kemp remarks, ( 2 ) ' increasing experience leads us 
 to look with especial favour on the igneous rocks as the original 
 source of the ore, whose widely disseminated, although, when con- 
 sidered in comparison with their mass, whose small percentages of 
 all the metals, except the invariably abundant iron, suggest to us 
 original stores for leaching. We are also attracted to them, as a 
 source, because, without doubt, all other rocks must be ascribed to 
 them in the last analysis; because they are so often in close associa- 
 tion with ores as mined, and because, above all, they are the natural 
 stimulators of those heated solutions to which we can with most 
 reason attribute the results.' 
 
 At the present day, fused magmas are regarded as more or less 
 complex solutions, which, by reason of their high temperatures, obey 
 the same laws in the order and method of their solidification as those 
 which govern the crystallization from ordinary solutions of a simi- 
 larly heterogeneous composition. A study of thin sections of igneous 
 rocks, under the microscope, reveals the fac f that a certain definite 
 order in the generation of the component minerals is always ob- 
 tained, which is closely followed in the cooling of any body of 
 magma. Thus, in a gabbro or norite magma, the oxides of iron and 
 
 CD Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Albany Meeting, Feb., 1903. 
 (2) Min. Industry, Vol. IV., 1895, pp. 756-757. 
 
124 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 titanium, the sulphides of iron, nickel and copper, zircon and apatite 
 are the first to crystallize. These are followed by the ferromagnesian 
 silicates, olivine, hypersthene, biotite and diallage. The plagioclase 
 may antedate, accompany or immediately follow the crystallization 
 of one or more of the coloured constituents, depending on its basicity, 
 while quartz is invariably the last to form, filling up all the irregular 
 interspaces remaining. On<e of the main laws governing the crystal- 
 lization from a solution, or an igneous magma, is known as Soret's 
 principal, according to which the dissolved matter is concentrated 
 in the coolest part of the solution. Gravity, temperature and pressure 
 are also important factors, but these have not yet been deeply in- 
 vestigated. 
 
 Perhaps one of the most significant developments of modern petro- 
 graphic geology has been the recognition of the fact that an origin- 
 ally homogeneous molten mass tends to so separate or split itself, 
 upon cooling, as to ultimately produce rocks of varying composition. 
 This fact, bearing so intimately on the genesis of igneous rocks, has 
 caused the formulation of the hypothesis known as magmatic differ- 
 entiation. The hypothesis may be briefly described as the division 
 or differentiation of a more or less viscous magma, or fused mass of 
 rock, into chemically and mineralogically diverse parts, which, on 
 cooling, yield correspondingly different types of rocks. It would be 
 manifestly unwise in this connexion to enter into any detailed ex- 
 planation of this very generally accepted hypothesis, as the conditions 
 attending the consolidation of a large body of magma are now 
 believed to be much more complex than at first supposed. Moreover, 
 our -knowledge regarding tuese conditions, and the several processes 
 which are no doubt involved, is so vagu^ and incomplete that no full 
 or satisfactory explanation can yet be offered of this phenomenon. 
 All geologists of repute are, however, agreed on the main fact that 
 magmatic differentiation furnishes the only reasonable explanation 
 of most of the observations made in connexion with any extended 
 exposure of igneous rocks. 
 
 Applying these principles to the geological relations of the Sud- 
 bury gabbro or norite, and the associated sulphide deposits, the sub- 
 joined facts seem to furnish unanswerable proof that the hypothesis 
 of a segregation of these ore bodies, directly from the magma, is, in 
 the main, the true explanation of their position. 
 
 1. The deposits, without exception, all occur at the margin of the 
 gabbro or norite, the rock itself in immediate association with the 
 ore being finer in texture, and relatively much more basic in compo- 
 sition than portions further removed from the contact. There is a 
 very gradual increase in the basicity of the gabbro outward from 
 
ORIGIN OF THE SUDBURY ORE DEPOSITS 125 
 
 the micropegmatite, although a rather abrupt transition takes place 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of the contact. The sulphides are 
 also finer grained near the contact, while farther away they become 
 coarser grained. (*) 
 
 2. The sulphides are always much more sharply defined against 
 the walls of the intrusion than on the inner side towards the main 
 mass of the gabbro, the transition in this direction showing a more 
 gradual decrease in the amount of ore in the rock as the contacts are 
 left. This phenomenon, as has been mentioned, is explained by the 
 fact that the sulphides, in obedience to Soret's principle, become 
 concentrated towards the cooling surface of the mass. 
 
 3. These deposits are always found in such intimate association 
 with the norite or hypersthene-gabbro that we are forced to the con- 
 clusion that the ore bodies stand in some genetic relation to this 
 plutonic igneous rock. This is not only true in regard to the Sud- 
 bury district, but is also the invariable association of precisely simi- 
 lar deposits, found in Norway, Sweden, Lombardy and Pennsylvania. 
 The importance of geological studies, in connexion with ore deposits, 
 is emphasized by the fact, mentioned by Adams, ( 2 ) that although, in 
 these several widely separated countries, the pyrrhotite deposits, 
 associated in the manner described with the gabbros, are so rich in 
 nickel, the celebrated Fahlbands of Norway, which are bedded, or 
 apparently bedded, deposits, consisting of heavy impregnations of 
 pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, etc., but occurring in gneisses and 
 schists of various kinds, contain hardly any nickel, hundreds of 
 analyses showing the nickel and cobalt contents to range from 0-1 
 to 0-5 per cent, and what is still more remarkable the same is true 
 of the similar Fahlbands associated with our Laurentian in Canada, 
 so far as these have been examined. In these the pyrrhotite and 
 pyrite is present in large amount, and is often associated with copper 
 pyrites, but only a very small quantity of nickel and cobalt, ranging 
 from faint traces to 0-16 per cent, occurs in the pure sulphide 
 material. In addition, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite occur, 
 sometimes in promising quantities, in the older green schists and 
 tuffs of the Sudbury district, but even the richest of these deposits 
 were shown by analyses to contain a much smaller amount of nickel, 
 ranging from 0-45 to 0-96 per cent, in the pure pyrrhotite. 
 
 4. Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrites are all ordinary constituent 
 materials of the normal norite, and are, at times, comparatively 
 abundant even in exposures situated some distance from the contact. 
 
 (1) Quart. Jour. Geol. Sac.. Lou.. Vol. LIIL, 1897, p. 52. 
 
 (2) ' On the Igneous Origin of Certain Ore Deposits,' Montreal, 1894, p. 17; 
 also, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can.. Vol. VI., 1892-93, Part J. 
 
126 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 We may readily obtain, at any of the mines, specimens which ex- 
 hibit every gradation in the amount of these sulphides present in 
 the rock, from the ordinary type of norite, with occasional dissemin- 
 ated grains of the pyritous matter, to what has been referred to by 
 Vogt as ' pyrrhotite-gabbro or norite' with from 5 per cent to 50 
 per cent, or even 80 per cent of pyrrhotite, while portions of some of 
 the deposits are made of practically pure pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, 
 with little or no gangue matter. 
 
 5. The sulphides are, undoubtedly, of primary origin, and are 
 among the earliest of the minerals to crystallize out from the original 
 magma, sometimes even antedating the iron ore, in which they are 
 occasionally completely enclosed. They occur in very much the same 
 way as the iron ore, embedded in, or in the immediate vicinity of the 
 various coloured constituents. In fact individual grains can only 
 be distinguished from one another by their colour in reflected light. 
 This intimate association between the iron ore not only occurs in 
 the normal norite, but even the ore bodies themselves, especially 
 those of the North range, which almost invariably contain titanifer- 
 ous magnetite often in appreciable quantities. Occasionally consider- 
 able masses of magnetite, sometimes several tons in weight, are en- 
 countered in the working of the mines, which are completely enclosed 
 in the sulphide material, while this iron ore itself contains dissemin- 
 ated grains of the pyrites, in addition to certain decomposed silicates 
 belonging to the norite. The relations which obtain between the 
 sulphides and >the norite are closely analogous to deposits of magne- 
 tite, occurring in connexion with certain basic igneous rocks in 
 central Ontario. In these deposits the magnetite is the abundant 
 ore, while the sulphides are usually present in subordinate amount. 
 The enclosing rocks usually show much more alteration than in the 
 case of the norite associated with the Sudbury sulphide deposits. 
 
 6. The transitional type between the normal norite and the richer 
 forms of the pyrrhotite-norite furnishes unmistakeable evidence that, 
 in these cases at least, the sulphides were formed during the cooling 
 and crystallization of the norite magma, and that they were very 
 little affected by any secondary action. The only ertects of pneuma- 
 tolytic or vein action noticed, consisted in the more or less complete 
 alteration of the pyroxene minerals, while much of the plagioclase 
 is surprisingly fresh and glassy. Although most of the rock matter 
 associated with the ore bodies is more or less decomposed the altera- 
 tion is not of the extreme type, which would be expected if the whob 
 of the deposits resulted from secondary action. The writer's collec- 
 tion of rocks contains specimens of the pyrrhotite-norite, sometimes 
 containing as high as 10 per cent of the sulphides, from most of the 
 
ORIGIN OP THE SUDBURY ORE DEPOSITS 127 
 
 principal mines, which are so free from alteration as to permit of 
 the precise identification of both the orthorhombic and monoclinic 
 pyroxenes. The rocks in the immediate vicinity of the ore bodies 
 are not, therefore, as generally described, so made up of secondary 
 minerals as to thoroughly obscure their original composition and 
 structure, but, on the contrary, the least altered representatives of 
 the norite may readily be obtained at or in the immediate vicinity 
 of any of the mines. 
 
 7. Fournet has shown that sulphur, when dissolved in a molten 
 magma of silicates, shows affinity for the metals in the following 
 order: copper, nickel, cobalt, iron, tin, zinc, leadr silver, antimony 
 and arsenic. The small percentages of copper, nickel and cobalt 
 present in the original magma unite with the sulphur, and thus be- 
 come concentrated in any sulphide of iron which separates, while 
 any tin, zinc, lead, silver, antimony or arsenic present in the magma 
 is not so concentrated. 
 
 8. Vogt (*) mentions that if we were to distribute the whole 
 metallic contents of the ore deposits through their respective mother 
 rocks in Norway these would have the following percentages: nickel, 
 0-03 per cent to 0-12 per cent; cobalt, 0-005 per cent to 0-017 per 
 cent; and copper, 0-015 per cent to 0-05 per cent. No attempt has 
 been made to calculate these percentages, with regard to the Sud- 
 bury district, but the above results are just about what would be 
 expected from our knowledge of the nickel contents, generally, in 
 the basic silicates of rocks. 
 
 9. One, difficulty which has often been urged against the direct 
 development, of these deposits from a state of igneous fusion is that 
 it would be impossible to obtain such large and comparatively pure 
 concentrations of the sulphides. Mr. David Browne ( 2 ) has shown 
 by numerous analyses and diagrams that in a pot of matte the nickel 
 tends to concentrate towards the centre, while the copper is much 
 richer at the outer margins. This is exactly the experience in min- 
 ing. ' These observations/ Prof. Kemp remarks, ' are extremely 
 important, showing as they do the migration of metallic matter even 
 in so viscous and quickly chilling a mass as a pot of matte.' 
 
 10. Vogt believes that eruptive magmas may keep dissolved even 
 very considerable quantities of sulphides, supporting his belief by 
 the fact that basic blast furnace slags usually hold from 3 to 5 per 
 cent of sulphides, especially CaS and MnS; likewise, the basic ferri- 
 ferous slags from copper, nickel and lead smelting may contain from 
 
 (1) Min. Industry, Vol. IV., 1895. p. 748. 
 
 (2) School of Mines Quarterly, Columbia College, July, 1895, p. 297; also 
 Min. Industry, Vol. IV., 1895, p. 762. 
 
128 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 4 to 6 per cent FeS and the basic zinc slags even 6 to 8 per cent 
 ZnS. Sandberger separated the dark silicates of many rocks and 
 proved them to contain copper, nickel, cobalt, lead, tin, antimony, 
 arsenic, bismuth and silver. 
 
 11. Galena, zinc blende, and compounds of arsenic and bismuth 
 are either completely wanting or present in very insignificant amount. 
 
 12. The remarkable scarcity of boracic and fluoric minerals and 
 other secondary products which usually attend any pronounced or 
 long continued vein action. 
 
 13. Secondary quartz, calcite and dolomite are occasionally pre- 
 sent, in appreciable amounts, but the prevailing scarcity of these 
 minerals, at most of the deposits, has always been a subject of re- 
 mark, and the first mentioned mineral has often been brought from 
 considerable distances, not only to line the converters, but also to 
 add to the furnace charges, even at such mines as the Victoria, where 
 secondary quartz is relatively perhaps more abundant than at any 
 other deposit in the district. 
 
 14. Platinum, usually at least, in the form of sperrylite, is found 
 in small quantities at all of the deposits. Such an occurrence seems 
 to be closely related to the native platinum and osmiridium metals, 
 in the altered basic olivine rocks of the Urals and elsewhere. 
 
 15. The deposits are singularly uniform in chemical and mine- 
 ralogical composition, and their monotonous character, in this respect, 
 has been frequently commented upon. A careful study of the 
 analyses will serve to further emphasize this fact. This peculiarity 
 holds good, not only with regard to the Sudbury deposits, but applies 
 with equal force to those of Norway and elsewhere, wherever full 
 details of composition are available. The characteristic minerals of 
 this ' world group/ as it has been called, are everywhere the same. 
 Pyrrhotite, with generally from 2 to 4 per cent of nickel and cobalt, 
 although occasionally reaching as high as 10 to 11 per cent of nickel, 
 
 "pyrite (in Norway relatively rich in cobalt), pentlandite, together 
 with some chalcopyrite, and some titaniferous magnetite, are always 
 present in the norite or gabbro. The nickel minerals polydymite, 
 millerite, etc., are also often present, but only in very subordinate 
 amounts. 
 
 16. Brecciation, which is so frequently characteristic of these 
 deposits, is an almost constant feature of eruptive contacts, resulting 
 from the detaching of material from the containing walls. The fre- 
 quent angular character of these blocks is due to their imperfect 
 assimilation by the fused basic magma, in which they have been 
 floated off. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE SUDBURY ORE DEPOSITS 129 
 
 These are some of the main points which may be urged in sup- 
 port of the hypothesis of magmatic ditterentiation, as explanatory 
 of the origin of these Sudbury ore deposits. Many of them are not 
 new, and have been stated in more detail by Vogt, Adams, Kemp and 
 others. They are introduced, in the present instance, as the trend of 
 some of the more recent examinations seeks to ignore the full signifi- 
 cance of the intimate genetic relationship which exists between the 
 norite and the ore bodies, affirming that secondary causes or replace- 
 ment are alone and directly responsible for the present position and 
 dimensions of these deposits. 
 
 Vogt, (*) in his classification of eruptive ore deposits, divides 
 them into two chief groups. 1. Deposits formed by ' magmatic 
 differentiation ' ; that is by the concentration of some metallic parts 
 within the still fluid eruptive magma. 2. Deposits formed by pro- 
 cesses subsequent to the eruption or i after actions/ as they have been 
 sometimes called; that is by pneumatolysis, fumarole action, hydro- 
 thermal agents and the like, directly consequent on the eruption. 
 
 The trend of modern geological investigation seems to emphasize, 
 more and more, the fact that no really sharp division exists, as indi- 
 cated by Vogt's sub-divisions, but that processes, which at the two 
 extremes are manifestly very widely divergent in their effects, are so 
 intimately associated in time and. manner of operation in nature, 
 that the resultant product cannot, with any degree of propriety, be 
 attributed wholly to either group of processes. 
 
 Thus, although the researches of M. Fouque and Michel-Levy 
 have clearly shown that diabase and kindred basic eruptive rocks may 
 be artificially reproduced from a simple state of dry fusion, it is 
 equally certain that no extended intrusive process, produced by 
 natural causes, is ever unaccompanied by a greater or less abundance 
 of superheated waters and vapours, as an integral portion of the 
 fused mass. As a general rule these heated solutions are relatively 
 much more abundant in the case of the acidic magmas than those of 
 more basic composition. It is thus obvious that all igneous action is 
 both accompanied and, in a more extended manner, immediately fol- 
 lowed by more or less pronounced vein or pneumatolytic action (sec- 
 ondary causes) and certain rocks and mineral occurrences may be 
 representative of the various transitions between what has been termed 
 aqueo-igneous fusion and igneo-aqueous solution. The abnormally 
 large amount of original or primary quartz, so uniformly distributed 
 throughout the Sudbury norite or gabbro, has been repeatedly men- 
 tioned and commented upon by the various geologists who have 
 
 (1) Zeit fur Prak. Geol. 1893, pp. 4-11; 125-143; 257-284; also 1895, pp. 
 145-156; 367-370; 444-459; "465-484. 
 41879 
 
130 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 examined these rocks in detail under the microscope. It thus natur- 
 ally follows that the agencies grouped together under the name of 
 secondary action would be much more actively effective in connex- 
 ion with the ore bodies and other segregations resulting from the 
 eruption of such a rock, than with the ordinarily less quartzose or 
 basic varieties of such rocks. The manner of formation of these ore 
 bodies, as thus indicated, is much more complex than was at first sup- 
 posed. There can be no doubt, however, that much of the sulphide 
 material was introduced simultaneously, as an integral portion of the 
 same magma, along with the other minerals of which the norite or 
 hypersthene-gabbro is composed. There can, moreover, be little doubt 
 of the abundant presence of heated solutions and vapours which were 
 capable of dissolving out, and, under certain conditions, of redeposit- 
 ing these sulphides. Such agencies certainly began their work before 
 the whole magma had cooled, bearing their heavy burdens of sulphide 
 material, most of which was obtained from the magma in the imme- 
 diate vicinity, to occupy the various cavities and fissures as fast as 
 these were formed. 'T^he whole of this action was practically completed 
 before the intrusion of the later dikes of the olivine-diabase which 
 are now regarded by the writer as the end product of the vulcanism 
 to which the norite masses owe their intrusion. In certain of the 
 deposits the various hydrochemical agencies accompanying dynamic 
 action have been more active than in others, as at the Victoria mine, 
 and some of the Copper Cliff mines, but in otherb, as for instance 
 the Creighton mine, magmatic differentiation has been the main and 
 almost sole principle, determining and favouring the development of 
 this the largest and richest sulphide nickel mine in the world. The 
 enunciation, in the first place, of the simple doctrine of the direct 
 igneous origin of these ore bodies and their intimate relationship in 
 this respect to certain bands of norite or diorite, served an excellent 
 practical purpose in directing and controlling all the earlier prospect- 
 ing work. 
 
 After all, however, the origin of these ore deposits is largely a 
 matter of theory and opinion, and strong arguments may be adduced 
 in support either of the view that they are the direct result of mag- 
 matic segregation, or that the sulphides were brought up in a state of 
 solv^ion from considerable depths, to replace certain portions of the 
 rock, or to fill up spaces caused by structural weakness. The real 
 practical side of the geological investigation consisted in the out- 
 lining of the immense masses of intrusive norite or gabbro, with 
 which the nickel and copper deposits of the region are alone assoc- 
 iated. 
 
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OP PYRRHOTITE 131 
 
 MAGNETIC SEPARATION OF NICKELIFEROUS PYRRHOTITE. 
 
 The application of magnetism, either to free the pyrrhotite from 
 impurities with which it is so frequently intermixed, in order to 
 obtain a homeogeiieous and pure product for analytical purposes, as 
 well as to effect a separation of the nickel present in the pyrrhotite 
 ores, is by no means a novel idea, and many experiments have already 
 been undertaken with this end in view. In 1879 Habermehl 
 succeeded in dividing the Bodenmais pyrrhotite into magnetic and 
 non-magnetic portions respectively, using fine powder suspended in 
 water by a strong magnet. The magnetic portion thus separated by 
 successive, trials furnished a product which was so homogeneous and 
 uniform that ten out of fourteen of the determinations for iron con- 
 tent were essentially identical. 
 
 In 1890, T. J. McTighe C 1 ) applied magnetic separation in the 
 treatment of the nickeliferous pyrrhotite of Canada. 
 
 In July, 1892, Mr. Thomas A. Edison, in applying for a United 
 States patent embodying the same principle, gave the following ex- 
 planation in support of his claim : ' I have discovered that when 
 magnetic pyrites, called " pyrrhotite " is nickeliferous, as it usually 
 is to a more or less extent, the nickel is distributed generally 
 throughout the whole body of the pyrrhotite, but certain crystals are 
 pure pyrrhotite or magnetic pyrites, while other crystals have some 
 of the iron replaced by nickel and sometimes by cobalt, and that the 
 crystals containing the nickel or cobalt are considerably less magne- 
 tic than the pure pyrrhotite/ 
 
 In the same year (1892), Dr. S. H. Emmons ( 2 ) carried on certain 
 magnetic experiments on material obtained from the Gap mine, 
 Penna., and Sudbury, Ont. These were undertaken not only for the 
 purpose of testing the accuracy, or otherwise, of the theory of the re- 
 placement of a portion of the iron by nickel in pyrrhotite, but also 
 to arrive at a more accurate expression of the composition of pyrrho- 
 tite, by means of a formula. The practical side of the question was 
 not ignored, and a statement of the relative abundance of the separ- 
 ated portions is given, with their respective contents of nickel. 
 
 Dr. Emmons mentions that he obtained his material from a mine 
 near Sudbury, but does not specify the precise locality. He also neg- 
 lects to give the necessary details of the composition of the ore 
 selected, except that the gangue formed 10 -7 per cent of the whole. 
 In regard to the preparation of the material for purposes of separa- 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1892, p. 164; also Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 
 Vol. XIV., No. 10. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. of Mines, Ont., 1892, pp. 163-166; also Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 
 Vol. XIV., No. 10. 
 
 41879J 
 
132 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 tion, he states that the sample was very finely powdered and cara- 
 fully separated by means of a magnet into three grades, namely, 
 ' magnetic/ ' feebly magnetic ' and ' non-magnetic.' The magnetic 
 and non-magnetic grades were then submitted to analysis, resulting 
 as follows, after deduction of gangue. 
 
 Magne- 
 tic. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Feebly 
 Magnetic. 
 
 Non- 
 Magne- 
 tic. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Division of total nickel contents. 
 
 Magnetic 
 portion. 
 
 Feebly 
 magnetic. 
 
 Non- 
 magnetic. 
 
 92-95% 
 
 fNi 1'30 
 {Fe 58-27 
 IS 40-43 
 
 | 2-09% 
 
 4-96% 
 
 {23-16 
 33-92 
 42-92 
 
 I 58-01% 
 
 7-60% 
 
 34-39% 
 
 A short time after, (1893) David H. Browne 0) contributed the 
 most valuable article on the question of the magnetic separation of 
 these ores which had yet appeared, showing the existence of a rich 
 nickel-iron-sulphide, almost identical in chemical composition with 
 pentlandite, which formed the non-magnetic portion of the separa- 
 tion. In the same article Mr. Browne questions not only the validity 
 of Dr. Emmons ? conclusions, as ' hasty generalizations from insuffi- 
 cient premises/ but points out that ' he has never yet found the non- 
 magnetic residue of the analysis given by Dr. Emmons.' 
 
 The material selected for experimental purposes by Mr. Browne 
 consisted of carefully hand-picked nickeliferous pyrrhotite from the 
 Copper Cliff, Stobie and Evans mines, altogether free from gangue, 
 and with no copper, or, at the most, only traces of this metal. He 
 mentions that the samples were crushed to pass a sixty-mesh sieve, ex- 
 periment having shown that a very fine powder did not yield such 
 perfect, separations. The following tables show, in brief form, the 
 results obtained: 
 
 COPPER CLIFF MINE, (SEVENTH LEVEL.) PICKED NICKEL ORE. 
 
 Analysis of total 
 ore. 
 
 Magnetic . 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Non- 
 magnetic. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Nickel in 
 magnetic 
 pyrrho- 
 tite. 
 
 Nickel in 
 non- 
 magnetic 
 pent- 
 landite. 
 
 Cu O'OO 
 
 } 
 
 Y 78-6% 
 
 (o-oo 
 4-62 
 55-70 
 38-58 
 
 U'4% 
 
 c o-oo 
 
 135-05 
 \ 29-80 
 134-35 
 
 V34-00% 
 J 
 
 66-00% 
 
 Ni ll'OO 
 
 Fe 50'40 
 
 S '. 38-01 
 
 
 (1) Engineering and Mining Journal,' Dec 2, 1893, page 566. 
 
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OP PYRRHOTITE 133 
 
 STOBIE MINE, PICKED NICKEL ORE. 
 
 Cu O'OO 
 
 
 / O'OO 
 
 ^ 
 
 j O'OO 
 
 
 
 Ni 2'75 
 
 
 I 2-15 
 
 
 (34-70 
 
 
 
 Fe 58'OQ 
 
 97-175% 
 
 1 57'00 
 
 / 2 "825% 
 
 1 29 ' 90 
 
 72-00% 
 
 28'00% 
 
 s 35-35 
 
 
 (36-10 
 
 J 
 
 133-90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EVANS MINE, PICKED NICKEL ORE. 
 
 Cu trace 
 
 \ 
 
 (O'OO 
 
 1 
 
 {o oo h 
 
 
 Ni . 9'02 
 
 
 3'82 
 
 
 34-12 1 A , 
 
 
 Fe 51 50 
 
 V84-04% 
 
 56 '00 
 
 I 15 '96% 
 
 29-95 1 I 6t> 47 / 
 
 64-53% 
 
 S 39-28 
 
 J 
 
 40'18 
 
 J 
 
 35-43 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1900, Mr. J. N. Judson, of the Wetherill Separating Company, 
 carried on an extensive series of experiments, an abstract of the 
 results accompanying Mr. C. W. Dickson's paper on ' The Ore De- 
 posits of Sudbury, Ontario.' C 1 ) The material experimented witi 
 consisted of nearly pure pyrrhotite from Copper Cliff, containing by 
 analysis nickel 3-14, copper 0-42, iron 49-78 per cent. The results 
 showed that with a current strength of one ampere, on material 
 crushed to thirty-mesh, 90-11 per cent of the total sample was mag- 
 netic, and this contained 2 -46 per cent of nickel, or the equivalent of 
 70-58 per cent of the total nickel in the original pyrrhotite, and 0-22 
 per cent copper, or the equivalent of 47 48 per cent of the total amount 
 of this metal in the original sample. The remaining, non-magnetic 
 portion, forming 9-89 per cent of the total sample, contained 9-33 
 per cent nickel and 2-21 per cent copper, or 29-42 per cent and 52-52 
 per cent of the total of these metals, respectively, in the original 
 sample. The other trials, with samples of the same material, crushed to 
 pass a sixty-mesh at | ampere, showed 86-22 per cent was magnetic 
 and contained 1-92 per cent of nickel. The remaining 13-78 per cent, 
 or non-magnetic portion, was a comparatively rich nickel ore, but he 
 losses in the magnetic portion were so great that Mr.Judsori con- 
 cluded that a commercial separation, by means of magnetism, was 
 out of the question. 
 
 During the winter sessions of 1901-1902, and 1902-1903, Mr. C. 
 W. Dickson, a post-graduate student at Columbia University, carried 
 on a series of experiments, by means of magnetism, in order to deter- 
 mine, as near as possible, how much of the nickel occurs as a separ- 
 ate mineral, and how much, if any, replaces iron, and also to ascer- 
 tuin the composition of the nickel mineral. 
 
 A number of representative samples of pyrrhotite were ground to 
 pass through a 100-mesh, and the non-magnetic portion was removed, 
 
 (1) Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. (Albany Meeting), 1903. 
 
134 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 a>* completely as possible, by repeated treatments with a small horse- 
 shoe magnet. The nickel present in the original samples is given 
 under I, and that of the magnetic concentrates under II. 
 
 In the second treatment the original samples were coarsely 
 crushed and the magnetic portion was seized between forty and sixty- 
 mesh, then freed, as well as possible, from non-magnetic material, 
 crushed between sixty and eighty-mesh, and again concentrated. By 
 successive treatments the mineral was finally reduced to fine powder. 
 The ultimate product was then assayed for nickel, and as shown under 
 III, the nickel was much reduced in quality, but not entirely elimin- 
 ated. 
 
 In the third experiment, to see if it was possible to still further 
 reduce the nickel contents, a number of samples were very carefully 
 prepared. They were coarsely crushed, and the purest mineral 
 selected. 
 
 This was crushed to pass through ten on twenty-mesh, and the 
 finest material rejected. All the non-magnetic portion was eliminated, 
 and the concentrate was then crushed to twenty on forty-mesh, the 
 inner part being again rejected. The operations were repeated until 
 the ore was finally removed each time. The nickel in the final con- 
 centrate is given under IV. 
 
 Location. 
 
 I. 
 
 Niand 
 Co. 
 
 II. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 III. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Description of sample. 
 
 1 . Elsie mine 
 
 2 44 
 
 2'22 
 
 0'98 
 
 
 Fine-grained pyrrhotite. 
 
 2. Stobie mine 
 
 3 '05 
 
 2-14 
 
 0'68 
 
 
 
 3. Frood mine ... ... 
 
 2'40 
 
 2 07 
 
 ros 
 
 0'65 
 
 Coarse 
 
 4. Mount Nickel mine 
 5. Copper Cliff No. 2 m ne. . 
 6. Copper Cliff No. 4 mine. . 
 7. (a) Creighton mine 
 7. (b) Creighton mine 
 
 3-06 
 4-00 
 3-30 
 2-32 
 4'15 
 
 2-14 
 2-00 
 2-32 
 2'25 
 
 0-75 
 
 0-70 
 0-83 
 1-20 
 
 0'70 
 
 6 : 70' 
 0'45 
 
 Medium 
 Coarse 
 
 Fine 
 
 8. Gertrude mine 
 9. Victoria mine 
 
 4-00 
 3'40 
 
 2'30 
 2'46 
 
 1 10 
 0'80 
 
 
 Massive pyrrhotite 
 Fine-grained pyrrhotite. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 As stated by Mr. Dickson the results show in the most conclusive 
 manner that even in the lower grades of pyrrhotite the nickel is not 
 present, as replacing part of the iron in the pyrrhotite, but exists as a 
 separate mineral. The fact that all the nickel could not be elimin- 
 ated by the methods used did not indicate that even the small am- 
 ount that remained was an essential part of the pyrrhotite, as several 
 factors entered which rendered its complete removal practically 
 impossible. In the first placp the nickel mineral is very intimately 
 associated with the magnetic pyrrhotite, and even a minute adhering 
 fragment of the latter will cause it to be carried over with the mag- 
 
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OP PYRRHOTITE 135 
 
 netic portion. It must also be noted that the nickel mineral itself 
 is slightly magnetic, and in the form of a fine powder is attracted by 
 even a small magnet. 
 
 The magnetic experiments in connexion with the present work 
 were carried on by Mr. W. M. Ogilvie, B.A. Sc., by means of a 
 Wetherill magnetic separator of the ordinary type, in the mining 
 laboratories of McGill University, the authorities, with the recom- 
 mendation and approval of Dr. J. B. Porter, having kindly placed the 
 machine at the disposal of the writer for a considerable period during 
 the winter of 1901-1902. The samples selected consisted of the richer 
 grades of ore in use at the different mines. Such samples were ob- 
 tained from the Creighton, Victoria, Cryderman and Mount Nickel 
 mines, the Tough and Stobie property, in Levack township, and the 
 Cochrane property, near Blue lake, on the Northern Nickel range. 
 It is to be regretted that the chemical analyses couid not be under- 
 taken while the experiments were in progress, as otherwise much more 
 important results coulol have been obtained. The voltage of the 
 current employed was 110, and the strength of the current was varied 
 according to the magnetic permeability of the different samples. 
 The least magnetic of the material was that obtained from the 
 Creighton mine, and with such material a current as high as 15 am- 
 peres was employed, while the pyrrhotite from the Cochrane property, 
 on the Northern Nickel range, was so strongly magnetic that much 
 weaker currents had to be used, the greatest reaching a strength of 
 only 1-5 amperes. 
 
 In the case of the Creighton mine the original sample weighing 
 thirty-six pounds was divided into two products, according to the size 
 of grain obtained by crushing. The first product was obtained by 
 passing the powdered mineral through a forty-mesh sieve, and catch- 
 ing it on a 100-mesh sieve, this part weighing twenty-one pounds. The 
 second product, fifteen pounds, was made up of the finer material' 
 which passed through the 100-mesh sieve. The coarser phase of the 
 original sample gave the following analysis : Insoluble, 2 28 ; copper, 
 0-72; nickel, 5-31, and sulphur, 34-28 per cent. The composition of 
 the finer material was: Insoluble, 2-49; copper, 1-20; nickel, 4-87, 
 and sulphur, 34-67. Each of these two original samples was divided 
 into three equal portions, and subjected to magnetic currents of 1-5, 
 3 -8 and 15 amperes respectively. By means of the magnetic current 
 each of these three portions was again subdivided into three grades, 
 which may be designated as ' magnetic/ ' feebly magnetic ' and ' non- 
 magnetic.' The coarser material showed that the magnetic portion 
 varied from 86-3 to 90-2 per cent of the whole sample, with a loss of 
 2-4 to 9-7 per cent in handling, which loss, however, could be over- 
 
136 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 come, while the feebly magnetic portion contained from 4-2 to 8-6 per 
 cent, and the non-magnetic from 1-2 to 2 -7 per cent. In the finer mate- 
 rial the magnetic portions varied from 74-6 to 78-3 per cent, the feebly 
 magnetic from 2-3 to 10-9 per cent, while the non-magnetic varied 
 from 4-1 to 8 per cent. The loss in the case of the fines was very 
 great, owing to the dust adhering to the belts, the percentages of such 
 loss varying from 9-2 to 11-4 per cent. Assays of all the separate 
 products from the Creighton mine were made by Mr. Donald Locke, 
 who for a short time was attached to this Department as assayer and 
 metallurgist, but certain unexplained discrepancies in the results will 
 prevent, at present, the publication of all the details of the chemical 
 investigation. In this connexion, however, it may be sufficient to 
 state that a very rich nickel ore was always obtained, the greater part 
 of which was contained in the feebly magnetic portion, although a 
 small proportion was carried over into the tailings or non-magnetic 
 portion. The loss, however, in the magnetic portion, amounting to 
 from 40 to over 50 per cent of the total nickel present in the original 
 ore, was too serious to be disregarded. In addition to the nickel 
 present the magnetic part also contained from 28 to 48 per cent of 
 the total amount of copper present in the original ore, while from 
 16 to 18 per cent is contained in the feebly magnetic part, and the 
 remainder is carried over with a large proportion of the gangue into 
 the non-magnetic residue, which is really a very rich copper concen- 
 trate, some of the assays showing as high as 28-38 per cent of this 
 metal. The proportion of gangue present in the non-magnetic resi- 
 due generally amounts to about one-third of the total product. 
 
 The best separation is effected on the fine material, although the 
 presence of dust must be avoided, as this clings to and fouls the 
 belts. The stronger the current the greater the proportion of nickel 
 remaining in the magnetic portion, while, at the same time, although 
 the total amount of nickel present in the feebly and non-magnetic 
 portions is less, the assay value of such products is much higher, and 
 some of these, which were examined in detail, consisted almost wholly 
 of pentlandite, with intermixed chalcopyrite. Thus, the feebly mag- 
 netic product of the fine material, obtained by using a current of 3-9 
 amperes with only one trial, showed, on analysis, the following com- 
 position: Insoluble, 5-81; copper, 1-52; iron, 30-41; nickel, 30-01, 
 and sulphur, 33-56 per cent. Knowing the composition of the pent- 
 landite and chalcopyrite, and distributing the above constituents in 
 their proper proportions in these materials, we find that this product 
 consists of chalcopyrite and pentlandite in the ratio of 1 : 21. In the 
 same way the non-magnetic product obtained by using a current of 
 1-5 amperes on this fine material and from which most of the gangue 
 
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OP PYRRHOTITE 137 
 
 had been removed by means of hydraulic separation, showed, by 
 analysis, the following composition: Insoluble, 2-66; copper, 3-58; 
 iron, 30-01; nickel, 30-36, and sulphur, 33-77 per cent. This pro- 
 duct is made up of chalcopyrite and pentlandite in the proportion of 
 1:7. 
 
 In the Victoria mine's separation the ore was much more strongly 
 magnetic, and the currents employed were only 0-2 and 1-5 amperes. 
 The magnetic portion varied from 86-4 to 90-6 per cent on the 
 coarser material, while with the fine material, using a current of 0-2 
 and 1-2 amperes, the magnetic part varied from 71-4 to 86-7 per cent. 
 The feebly magnetic part never exceeded 2-1 per cent, and in one 
 case was as low as 5 per cent. No assays of these products, however, 
 have been made, as the results obtained in the case of the Creighton 
 mine, although of great scientific and practical interest, demonstrated 
 rather clearly that under present conditions an economic and com- 
 mercial separation of these ores is out of the question. 
 
 The Cryderman mine ore is also more magnetic than the Creigh- 
 ton, although less so than the Victoria. The original sample on which 
 the experiment was conducted weighed thirty pounds. This was divided 
 into two portions, according to size, one portion consisting of crushed 
 ore which passed through a forty-mesh and was caught on a 100-mesh 
 sieve, and finer material consisting of ore which passed through the 
 100-mesh sieve. The currents used had a strength of '2, 3-5 and 4 
 amperes respectively. The magnetic portion of the coarser product 
 varied from 75 to 85-6 per cent, the feeble magnetic from 2 to 7-7 
 per cent and the non-magnetic from 1-9 to 2-3 per cent. There was 
 no loss using the 0-2 and 1-5 amperes current, but with the 4 amperes 
 current the loss was~4-8 per cent. With the finer material the mag- 
 netic part varied from 65-6 to 71-8 per cent, although the loss of 10-9 
 per cent belongs very largely to the first mentioned amount. The 
 feebly magnetic part varied from 1-6 per cent to 17-2 per cent, the 
 latter amount being obtained with the 4 amperes current, while the 
 non-magnetic varied from 6-3 to 28-1 per cent. 
 
 The magnetic separation of the ore from the Nickel Mountain 
 mine was effected by using currents having a strength of 1-5, 3-8 
 and 13-5 amperes respectively. The original sample weighed sixty- 
 three pounds. The magnetic * part of the coarser product (through 
 forty-mesh on 100-mesh) varied from 91-2 to 92-5 per cent with losses 
 of 0-9 and 2-5 per cent respectively, the feebly magnetic from 4-1 to 
 4 4 per cent, and the non-magnetic from 1 2 to 3 8 per cent. The losses 
 varied from 4 to 5-7 per cent, and are accounted for by the fact that 
 the fine material has a great tendency to stick to the belts. Also the 
 cross belts were given their maximum velocity to effect the best sepa - 
 ration. 
 
138 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 The original sample from the Levack property (Tough and 
 Stobie's), weighing twenty-four pounds, was crushed in the same way 
 as the above, and the magnetic currents used had a strength respec- 
 tively of 0-2, 1-5 and 3-8 amperes. The magnetic portion varied from 
 92-5 to 96-3 per cent, with losses belonging chiefly to this part of 1-9 
 to 2:5 per cent, the feebly magnetic from 1 '3 to 3:8 per cent and the 
 non-magnetic from 1-3 to 2-5 per cent. With the fine product, the 
 magnetic portion varied from 91-6 to 93-8, with a loss in one in- 
 stance of 1-9 per cent, the feebly magnetic from 1-1 to 2-1 per cent, 
 and the non-magnetic from 5-2 to 6-3 per cent. 
 
 The pyrrhotite from the Cochrane property on the Northern 
 Kickel range is very strongly magnetic, and the current used had a 
 strength of 0-2 and 1-5 amperes. The magnetic portion of the coarser 
 product varied from 85-3 to 89 per cent, with a loss of 1-4 to 2-8 per 
 cent, the feebly magnetic 1 to 4-8 per cent, and the non-magnetic 
 from 4-8 to 10-9 per cent. With the finer material the magnetic 
 portion varied from 77-7 to 83 per cent, the feebly magnetic from 
 0-8 to 4-1 per cent and the non-magnetic from 15-2 to 18-2 per cent. 
 
 The various factors which enter into the construction of the 
 Wetherill magnetic separator suggested, at the outset, that by its 
 employment it mignt be possible to accomplish a separation on a com- 
 mercial basis, which, at the same time, would be much more thorough 
 and complete than any previously recorded attempts, making use of 
 different types of hand magnets. Thus, it was possible on this machine 
 not only to vary at will the strength of the magnetic current to be 
 used, but also to make any required adjustment in the distance 
 between the two magnets, while, at the same time, the speed of the 
 belts was under complete control. With these refinements or aids to 
 efficient separation it was hoped to make such a thorough division of 
 the products that the nickel present in the magnetic portion would 
 constitute so small a proportion of the whole as to render this pro- 
 duct of no commercial value, and thus, at one simple operation, get 
 rid of about 80 per cent of practically barren ore. At the same time, 
 it was believed that the feebly and non-magnetic portions would con- 
 tain by far the larger proportion of both the nickel and copper. 
 
 The preliminary trials of the Creighton mine ore and assays of 
 the separated products were disappointing, as they showed most 
 conclusively that an efficient and economical separation by this 
 method was. impossible. It was, therefore, considered unwise to an- 
 alyze the products from the other mines, although the main facts in 
 connexion with these separations have been mentioned. 
 
 About the same time Mr. C. W. Dickson published the results 
 of his magnetic experiments, which gave further emphasis to this 
 
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OF PYRRHOTITE 139 
 
 conclusion. Mr. Dickson's final utterance on this subject, published 
 in 1903, also contained a summary of Mr. J. N. Judson's results, to 
 which reference has already been made, all tending to show that the 
 removal on a commercial scale of the nickel from the pyrrhotite, by 
 magnetic methods, is, in the light of our present experience, an im- 
 possibility. On the other hand, the fact that all of the nickel cannot 
 be eliminated from the pyrrhotite does not prove that even the portion 
 remaining occurs as a replacement of an equal amount of iron in 
 chemical combination. Examination under the microscope reveals 
 the fact that even the smallest grains of sulphide material are often 
 made up of intricate intergrowths of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite, 
 which minerals, moreover, can be distinguished from one another by 
 the use of reflected light. Such an intimate relationship, doubtless, 
 obtains in the case of the pyrrhotite and pentlandite, although this 
 could not be proved, as these minerals cannot be separately recognized 
 under the microscope. In addition, a large proportion at least of the 
 pentlandite is itself feebly magnetic, and this is apt to remain with 
 the pyrrhotite. 
 
 The difficulty of obtaining an absolutely pure product, even of 
 minerals of widely different magnetic permeability, is well' known to 
 all who have carried on experiments in magnetic separation, so that 
 it is not surprising that the magnetic portion of the separated sul- 
 phide always contains an appreciable amount of nickel. In the light 
 of our present experience it is safe to say that the nickel is doubtless 
 present as very minute grains of pentlandite embedded in or adher- 
 ing to the grains of pyrrhotite. The fact that material originally 
 containing 5-31 per cent of nickel, with the application of a current 
 of 1 '5 amperes on material crushed to pass only through a forty-mesh 
 sieve can, at one operation, be separated into a magnetic product 
 containing only 1-48 per cent of nickel, while this, in turn, by succes- 
 sive grinding and magnetic treatment can be ultimately forced to give 
 a product which contains less than 0-50 per cent of nickel, is in itself 
 sufficient evidence for regarding all the nick*-! in these Sudbury ores 
 as occurring in the form of a distinct sulphide, chiefly pentlandite. 
 With all of the foregoing results Wb may well pause and repeat with 
 Dickson the question, c Is there such a thing as a true nickeliferous 
 pyrrhotite ?' and we might even extend it and ask, is there such a thing 
 as a true nickeliferous pyrite? The matter is still open for further 
 investigation, although at the present stage the onus probandi rests 
 with those chemists and mineralogists who are still wedded to the old 
 idea. A most convincing proof might be possible, by repeated mag- 
 netic treatment of some of the masses of pyrrhotite occurring in 
 central Ontario, which are known to contain from 0-05 to 0-23 per 
 
140 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 cent of nickel. Any enrichment of the feebly magnetic or non-mag- 
 netic product obtained from the separation of such material would no 
 doubt furnish the most ample proof, which even the most skeptical 
 would be forced to accept. 
 
 LOCATION OF PYRRHOTITE DEPOSITS BY MAGNETOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 The magnetic permeability of pyrrhotite early suggested the em- 
 ployment of magnetic instruments to determine the location of 
 valuable deposits of this nickel bearing sulphide in the Sudbury dis- 
 trict. All the earlier measurements, however, were made by means of 
 the ordinary dip-needle, and the observers were content to obtain such 
 data as would enable them to form a rough judgment of the approxi- 
 mate afea underlaid by rock containing more or less of the magnetic 
 pyrrhotite, although this mineral might be so sparsely disseminated 
 as to be of no economic importance. 
 
 In 1901, however, it was decided by the Mond Nickel Company 
 to inaugurate a more extensive and elaborate system of magnetic 
 surveying, not only in examining the properties they had already 
 purchased, but also in determining the probable value of other nickel 
 properties which were known to be in the market. It was realized 
 that such delicate instruments as the Thalen-Tiberg magnetometer, 
 in the hands of experts who had been trained in the Swedish methods, 
 would yield data in regard to the location and extent of workable de- 
 posits of pyrrhotite which would enable a very close estimate to be 
 formed of their commercial value. Early in the spring of 1901, 
 Messrs. Karl Kb'jer and Erik Nystrom, mining engineers of Stock- 
 holm, Sweden, and pupils of the well known Professor Nordenstrom, 
 were engaged. Mr. Kojer only stayed about a month, but Mr. 
 Nystrom was employed for the greater portions of the two seasons 
 of 1901 and 1902 in making detailed magnetic surveys of various min- 
 ing locations and mines in this district. Most of the lots in the 
 vicinity of the main shaft of the Victoria mines were thus minutely 
 examined, and later other properties such as the Murray, Lady Violet, 
 Mount Nickel, Beatrice and Cryderman mines were also similarly 
 treated. A magnetic survey was also made of the Cochrane property 
 on the Northern Mckel range. It is impossible to get the details of 
 the results of this work, as the maps which were prepared with great 
 care are the property of the Mond Nickel Company, the information 
 being regarded as of a confidential nature. 
 
 The value of such work, however, when properly undertaken, is 
 beyond all doubt, although considerably more care and expense is 
 necessary than is the case with magnetite. Speaking roughly, the 
 
CLASSIFICATION AND OBNESIS OF NICKEL, ORES 141 
 
 magnetic permeability of magnetite is about five times as great as 
 pyrrhotite, although this latter mineral varies very greatly in this 
 respect. It is, therefore, imperative, that the lines along which the 
 magnetic observations are made should be correspondingly closer to- 
 gether. In most of the detailed work undertaken by the Mond Nickel 
 Company these lines were only separated by intervals of twenty feet, 
 while in some special cases, where fuller information was desired or 
 necessary, a distance of only ten feet intervened between the various 
 observation stations. For some time, commencing in 1902, Mr. 
 Thomas A. Edison carried on rather extensive magnetic surveying in 
 the area between Sudbury and Wanapitei lake, with a view of dis- 
 covering new deposits of nickel ore. The efforts of the several parties 
 engaged in this work are stated to have met with a considerable de- 
 gree of success, as on the strength of the information obtained various 
 mining locations were applied for. Messrs. J. A. Robert and G. F. 
 Kay have also conducted magnetic surveys under the auspices of the 
 Lake Superior Power Company. The publication of Dr. Haanel's 
 report ( x ) ' On the Location and Examination of Magnetic Ore De- 
 posits by Magnetometric Measurements ' should stimulate this method 
 of inquiry, not only in connexion with these pyrrhotite deposits, but 
 also as regards our magnetic iron deposits. It is the only detailed 
 account of the Swedish method which has yet appeared in the English 
 language. With the exception of magnetic observations to assist in 
 the geological mapping, chiefly of the iron formations and associated 
 rocks of the Lake Superior district, details of which are furnished by 
 Prof. H. L. Smyth ( x ), no very extensive use of magnetic instruments 
 has been made in any other country outside of Sweden. The Swedish 
 instruments may be obtained from J. Fr. Berg, instrument maker, 
 Stockholm, and are the most perfect and suitable for the work which 
 have yet been manufactured. All necessary descriptions and informa- 
 tion in regard to their operation may be obtained by consulting Dr. 
 Haanel's work, which he hopes may be of service to the mining pro- 
 fession. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND GENESIS OF NICKEL ORES. 
 
 Mineralogically the ores of nickel may be divided into eight 
 classes, as follows: 1. Sulphides; 2. Arsenides and sulph-arsenides ; 
 3. Sulph-antimonides ; 4. Sulpho-bismuthides ; 5. Tellurides; 6. Sili- 
 cates; 7. Oxides and Salts; 8. Carbonates. 
 
 Many of the nickel minerals included under these divisions are 
 
 (1) Published by the Department of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada. 
 (1) Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XXVI., pp. 640-709. 
 
14 2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 unimportant in an economic sense, and Yogt ( 2 ) has shown that all 
 of those which are commercially valuable fall naturally into three 
 main groups. 
 
 1. Ores containing arsenic and antimony, with or without bis- 
 muth, such as niccolite, gersdorffite, chloanthite, &c. 
 
 2. Sulphide ores (without arsenic), as for example, nickeliferous 
 pyrrhotite and pyrite, pentlandite, polydymite, millerite, &c. 
 
 3. Silicated nickel ores, such as genthite, garnierite, &c. 
 
 The arsenides and sulph-arsenides, belonging to the first group, 
 occur principally in veins, as for instance the old and well known 
 metalliferous lodes of Saxony and Hungary; Mine la Motte and 
 Bonne Terre, in Missouri; the Gem mine in Fremont county, Color- 
 ado; the McConnell or Gersdorffite mine, in the Sudbury district, 
 Ontario; and the recently discovered deposits near Haileybury, on 
 the west side of Lake Timiskaming, Ontario. 
 
 By far the largest deposits, belonging to the second group, are the 
 nickel-copper sulphide ores of the Sudbury district, in Canada, which 
 are the subject of the present bulletin, but Norway has, for many 
 years, operated on a large scale precisely similar concentrations. Other 
 closely related ore bodies have also been worked as mines, as at 
 Yarallo, in Piedmont, Italy, and at Lancaster Gap in Pennsylvania. 
 The deposits which have been partially developed and worked near 
 St. Stephen in the province of New Brunswick, Canada, are also 
 apparently of the same nature. The most celebrated and extensive of 
 the deposits, representative of the third group, are those of New 
 Caledonia. Important bodies, however, of similar silicates are known 
 to occur, and have been developed to some extent, near Riddle's, in 
 Douglas county, Oregon, and near Webster, the capital of Jackson 
 county, in western North Carolina. 
 
 The veins of the first group occur either penetrating or in inti- 
 mate connexion with eruptive rocks of the peridotite or gabbro type, 
 and are generally found in the more decomposed or altered portions. 
 These basic igneous rocks, as is well known, contain appreciable 
 quantities of nickel as a normal constituent. The extremely rich 
 nickel ore contained in these veins has, therefore, evidently been 
 derived from the leaching out of the nickel from the neighbouring 
 rock during certain processes of alteration to which it has been sub- 
 jected. 
 
 The method of formation of the sulphide deposits of the second 
 group, typified by the Sudbury deposits, -has already been discussed 
 at length, and the conclusion reached that they are the direct product 
 
 (2) Zeit fur Prak. Geol., 1893.. 
 
CLASSIFICATION AND GENESIS OF NICKEL ORES 143 
 
 of the differentiation of a basin igneous magma, modified, to some 
 extent, by processes which are usually grouped together under the 
 designation of secondary action. 
 
 The silicates o nickel are always confined to areas underlaid by 
 intrusive masses of non-feldspathic basic magnesian rocks of the 
 peridotite family, the several varietal forms of which are distin- 
 guished from one another by the names of dunite, saxonite, 
 websterite and eherzolite. These rocks are always more or less de- 
 composed to a serpentinous material, so that the type of rock with 
 which these deposits occur is usually described as serpentine. 
 
 The ore rarely crops out at the surface, but is covered with a thick 
 mantle of decomposed material, from which most, if not all, of the 
 nickel has been leached, to be concentrated in places a few feet lower 
 down. This covering or soil is very highly ferruginous, with occa- 
 sional large ' chert ' fragments lying about. These pseudo-boulders 
 of so-called chert are considered a favourable sign in prospecting for 
 the ore todies, for they invariably indicate the presence of the perido- 
 tite beneath. They really represent residual portions of the peridotite, 
 which escaped the wholesale decomposition on account of their being 
 held together by an intricate series of quartz veinlets, the interstices 
 of which are occupied by only partially decomposed peridotite. The 
 surface mantle or soil usually varies from nothing up to a few feet 
 when it gives place, gradually, to a loose, brownish material, repre- 
 senting the decomposition of the peridotite 'in situ.' This usually 
 shows abundant, but small and intricate veins and veinlets of the 
 greenish silicate of nickel and magnesium, often with abundant scales 
 of chrome mica. In places irregular fissures and cavities, often of 
 considerable size, are occupied by rather pure silicate material. This 
 brownish, loose material gives place, in turn, to a brownish, soft, fri- 
 able rock, filled with smaller but harder and rich veinlets of the 
 nickel silicate, while this, again, is replaced farther down by the un- 
 altered peridotite, which, it is believed, will contain little or none of 
 the silicate concentrations. 
 
 Analyses of the associated dunite or websterite, from the North 
 Carolina occurrences, show the undecomposed rock to contain from 
 0-15 to 0-35 per cent of nickel oxide, while the saxonite, in which 
 the Oregon occurrences are developed, contains, according to Diller, 
 0-10 per cent of nickel oxide, while the olivine itself, of which the 
 rock is mainly composed, contains 0-26 per cent of nickel oxide. 
 This is a very unusual occurrence, and the undecomposed peridotite 
 of New Caledonia often contains as high as 1 per cent of nickel 
 oxide. Similar rocks, from the Eastern townships of Canada, show 
 the presence of 0-15 to 0-26 per cent of oxide of nickel, without 
 
144 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 cobalt, while the associated chromic iron ore also contains 0-22 per 
 cent of oxide of nickel, with distinct traces of cobalt. It is almost 
 impossible to collect any of the brownish material, resulting from 
 the decomposition of these peridotites, without finding an appreciable 
 amount of nickel present. It appears certain, therefore, that the 
 nickel has been leached out of the surrounding rock, and redeposited 
 along with silica and magnesia in all available cracks and inter- 
 spaces. The peridotite is always readily decomposed under ordinary 
 conditions of atmospheric decay, the magnesia being the first ingre- 
 dient to be carried away in the form of a carbonate. This is follow- 
 ed by the silica and nickel, which is redeposited at lower levels and 
 in suitable places. The result of such an origin will be the occur- 
 rence at these several localities mentioned of comparatively shallow 
 deposits, their downward extension depending almost entirely on the 
 depth to which decomposition has proceeded. On the other hand, the 
 ease with which many of these deposits may be mined, and the large 
 amount of comparatively rich and desirable nickel ore which may 
 be thus secured, make them particularly attractive. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF NICKEL ORES. 
 
 Ores of nickel are much more evenly and abundantly distributed 
 over the whole world than is generally supposed, but in only a few 
 countries are the deposits of such dimensions as to warrant their 
 development as working mines, and, at the present day, the mines of 
 New Caledonia, and those of Sudbury produce almost the whole of 
 the world's supply of nickel. 
 
 Small quantities of the arsenides and sulph-arsenides of nickel are 
 found in association with ores of silver, lead, bismuth and cobalt, in 
 the well known veins of Saxony and Hungary. As a rule, however, 
 this nickel may be regarded as a by-product obtained in the refining 
 of these ores, and although valuable, it forms a comparatively small 
 proportion in comparison with the other metals present. 
 
 Nickel also occurs in Sweden and Finland, and the famous de- 
 posits of Norway for many years produced a comparatively large 
 proportion of the nickel of the world. Nickel is also known to occur 
 in Scotland, while the serpentines of the west of Ireland, and those of 
 Cornwall, all contain a little nickel associated with them.. 
 
 In Eussia, nickel has been reported from Rewdinsk and Zang- 
 hesour. The most celebrated deposit of nickel in the United States 
 is at the Gap mine, in Lancaster co., Pennsylvania, but this mine 
 suspended operations in 1891. The domestic production of 'nickel in 
 the United States is, at present, all derived as a by-product from 
 
NICKEL IN CANADA 145 
 
 the treatment of lead ores, which are found in the mineralized por- 
 tion of the sedimentary limestones at Mine la Motte, Missouri. Very 
 rich nickel ore has been found in the ' Gem mine ' in Fremont co., 
 Colorado. Nickel minerals are also known to occur at other localities 
 in this state, as for example in the hornblendic rock near Salida, 
 associated with copper, and also in small quantities in some of the 
 ores from the Leadville region. The occurrence of nickel has also 
 been reported from several places in California. At the Kelsey mine, 
 in Los Angeles county, nickel and cobalt are found in the form of 
 arsenates, together with silver-glance and native silver, in a fissure 
 vein in close relation with a dike rock, probably dioritc. The asso- 
 ciated ores contain 7 to 15 per cent cobalt, and 2 to 3 per cent nickel, 
 and 1,000 to 1,400 ounces of silver per ton. (*) Nickel also occurs at 
 the cobalt mines near Chatham, Connecticut. Some important 
 bodies are known to exist in Nevada but these have not been exten- 
 sively developed. Nickel ores are also reported from Idaho, Arizona 
 and New Mexico. Rich ores of nickel also occur in the copper dis- 
 trict south of Lake Superior. The most important deposits of nickel 
 ore at present known to exist in the United States are the silicates 
 of North Carolina and Oregon, to which more detailed references 
 will be made. 
 
 In Canada the distribution of the nickel deposits occurring at 
 Sudbury have already been described, but important bodies of similar 
 sulphide material are also known to occur, and have undergone pre- 
 liminary development at St. Stephen, New Brunswick. Other occur- 
 rences are reported from British Columbia and the province of 
 Quebec, but these are at present of no economic importance. In 
 Newfoundland rich nickel ore has been found in considerable quan- 
 tities at the Union mine, at Tilt cove in Notre Dame bay. Australia, 
 New Zealand, South Africa and Chili all contain deposits of nickel 
 ore, but New Caledonia is the only formidable rival with which Sud- 
 bury has at present to deal. 
 
 NICKEL IN CANADA. 
 
 The Wallace mine, about a mile west of the mouth of the White- 
 fish river, on the north shore of Lake Huron, is of historic interest, 
 as being the first place in which the presence of nickel was recognized 
 in Canada. It was first opened as a copper mine, in 1847. During 
 the season of 1848 this location was visited by Mr. Alex. Murray, 
 Assistant Provincial Geologist, who reported on the geological asso- 
 
 (1) Proc. Col. Sci. Sac., Vol. IV., 1&91-93, pp. 419-20. 
 418710 
 
146 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 ciations and probable extent of the deposit. (*) This occurrence has 
 also been described by Mr. C. W. Dickson ( 2 ), as consisting of 
 pyrrhotite, pyrite and chalcopyrite, occurring at the junction of two 
 small dikes of mica-diorite which are intruded into the surrounding 
 quartzites. The mining development work undertaken did not reveal 
 any large body of ore, and although a considerable amount of copper 
 ore was encountered, in association with a rich arsenical ore of nickel, 
 the occurrence of the latter in very small veins, adjacent to the 
 southern wall of the mine, did not encourage extensive mining opera- 
 tions, and the mine was accordingly soon abandoned. The material 
 obtained by Murray, in 1848, was handed to Dr. Hunt for analysis. 
 This specimen, weighing forty-five ounces, is described by Dr. Hunt 
 as ' a steel grey arseniuret, the species of which I have not yet deter- 
 mined, with iron pyrites and probably some arsenical sulphuret of 
 iron.' The analysis of the whole mass, when powdered, gave the results 
 under I. The first five substances, making 59 -30 per cent of the ore, 
 are separated, as corresponding to the metallic portion of the mass, 
 although it is probable that a portion of the iron is derived from 
 the gangue. The cobalt equals about three parts in a thousand of the 
 weight of the nickel. Removing the gangue, and recalculating the 
 remainder to 100, we get the results under II. 
 
 I II 
 
 Iron 24-78 41-79 
 
 Nickel (with a trace of cobalt) 8-26 13-93 
 Arsenic (mean of two deter- 
 minations) 3-57 6-02 
 
 Sulphur 22-63 38-16 
 
 Copper 0-06 0-10 
 
 59-30 100-00 
 
 Silica 28-40 
 
 Carbonate of lime 4-00 
 
 Magnesia 4-40 
 
 Alumina.. 3-21 
 
 40-01 
 
 99-31 
 
 Two ores of nickel are described by Dr. Hunt ( 3 ) as occurring 
 ' in a vein cutting a bed of 'amygdaloid, on Michipicoten island, in 
 
 (1) Rep. of Progress ,Geol. Surv., Can. 1848-49, pp. 42-45; also pp. 61-64; 
 also Geol. of Canada, 1863, pp. 59-60, 506, 695, 737 ; also Min. Res., Ont., 
 1890, pp. 24, 67, 91 and 97. 
 
 (2) Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. 1903. 
 
 (3) Geol. of Can., 1863, pp. 506 and 737. 
 
NICKEL IN CANADA 147 
 
 Lake Superior.' The first of these is a brittle massive ore associated 
 with quartz and having a brilliant metallic lustre and a colour vary- 
 ing from tin-white to bronze-yellow. Its hardness is 5 and its specific 
 gravity varies from 7-35 to 7-40. The mineral is variable in com- 
 position. The results of four analyses were as follows: 
 
 I II III IV 
 
 Arsenic 37-36 44-67 ..... 
 
 Copper 44-70 30-81 27-60 10-28 
 
 Nickel 17-03 24-55 27-29 36-39 
 
 Silver.. 0-25 0-21 
 
 Total 99-09 100-28 
 
 The above variable results are due to the material analyzed con- 
 sisting of a mixture, in different proportions, of niccolite (nickel 
 44-1 per cent and arsenic 55-9 per cent) and domeykite (copper 
 *l-7 per cent and arsenic 28-3 per cent). 
 
 The second ore, said to be from the same mine as the preceding, 
 occurs as the gangue of native copper and native silver, which are 
 scattered through it in grains. The material is amorphous, greenish- 
 yellow or apple-green in colour, with a waxy lustre and a conchoidal 
 fracture. It is very soft, polishing under the nail, and falling to 
 pieces when immersed in water. It is decomposed by acids, and is 
 found to be essentially a hydrated silicate of nickel. Under I is 
 an analysis of one specimen dried at 212 F. Under II is an analysis 
 of another specimen dried at a higher temperature. It contains, be- 
 sides, traces of cobalt and copper, and appears to be identical with 
 nickel-gymnite or genthite. Under III ,is a partial analysis of a 
 specimen which contained small disseminated grains of the native 
 metals. 
 
 I II III 
 
 Silica 33-60 35-80 
 
 Oxide of nickel 30-40 32-20 20-85 
 
 Protoxide of iron 2-25 
 
 Lime 4-09 
 
 Magnesia 3-55 
 
 Alumina 8-40 
 
 Water 17-10 12-20 
 
 Cobalt traces 
 
 Silver 2-55 
 
 Copper traces 18-51 
 
 4187 10J 
 
148 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 The arsenide of nickel (niccolite), has also bee nfound at the 3 A 
 mine, on lot 3 A, of the township of McGregor, in the district of 
 Thunder bay, Ont, where it occurs in somewhat large, nodular grains 
 and bunches, together with native silver of a similar form, freely 
 disseminated through a gangue of calc-spar, with some quartz. (*) 
 
 Nickel is seldom or never absent from the magnesian rocks of the 
 Eastern townships, in the province of Quebec, and the various ser- 
 pentines, steatites, diallages, actinolites, etc., always contain small 
 quantities of this metal, rarely, however, more than two or three 
 thousandths. It has never yet been found in any considerable quanti- 
 ties, although the chromic iron ore from Ham gave, on analysis, 
 0-22 per cent of oxide of nickel. (*) Dr. Harrington also found a 
 small amount of nickel in the serpentine brought by Dr. Bell from 
 Pigeon lake, on the Montreal river, Ontario. ( 2 ) 
 
 Mining for nickel was, at one time, carried on at lot 6, con. XII, 
 of the township of Orford, in the province of Quebec, but operations 
 had evidently been suspended for a considerable time before the 
 year 3883 when Mr. Willimott visited the locality. ( 3 ) The presence 
 of nickel at this locality had been known for a long time ( 4 ) but the 
 deposit had not been opened up as a mine until long after its dis- 
 covery. The location, known as the Orford Nickel mine, was de- 
 veloped by means of two small shafts, sunk on what appears to be a 
 large calcite vein, enclosing small transparent green crystals of 
 chrome garnet, and often penetrated by long filaments of pyroxene of 
 a greenish or yellowish colour. The chrome garnet also forms large 
 granular masses, holding sparingly disseminated, small, brass-like 
 grains and crystals of millerite. The largest crystals, however, are 
 generally found penetrating a beautiful cleavable variety of calcite, 
 and often exceed three inches in length. The houses, mining build- 
 ings and smelting furnaces were abandoned in 1883, with the excep- 
 tion of one house, which was occupied by a caretaker. 
 
 A sample of iron pyrites, from the eleventh concession of the 
 Seigniory of Daillebout, Joliette county, in the province of Quebec, 
 yielded Dr. Hunt 0-55 per cent of oxide of nickel (=0-43 per cent 
 of nickel) mixed with cobalt. ( 5 ) 
 
 A carefully picked sample of iron pyrites, occurring on lot 163 of 
 the cadastral plan of St. Jerome, P.Q., was analyzed by Dr. Earring- 
 CD Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., Vol. V.. 1890-91, Part R, p. 47. 
 
 (1) Rep. of Progress, Geol. Surv., Can., 1853-56, pp. 435-474; also Geol. of 
 Can., 1863, pp. 507 and 614. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv.. Cam., 1876-77, p. 483. 
 
 (3) Rep. of Progress Geol. Surv., Can., 1880-82, Part GG, p. 5. 
 
 (4) Geol. of Can., 1863, p. 738. 
 
 (5) Geol. of Can., 1&63, p. 506. 
 
NICKEL IN CANADA 149 
 
 ton and found to contain copper 0-05 per cent, cobalt 0-22 per cent 
 and nickel 0-10 per cent. ( 6 ) 
 
 Dr. Hunt mentions that a bronze coloured, impalpable variety of 
 iron pyrites, in irregular, reniform or globular masses, which occurs 
 with copper pyrites in the township of North Burgess, Ont., gave 
 him on analysis 3-47 per cent of cobalt and 2-21 per cent of 
 nickel. ( 7 ) 
 
 Dr. Adams analyzed a specimen of pyrrhotite, associated with a 
 little chalcopyrite and sphalerite, with a small amount of inter- 
 mingled chlorite, from Pic island, Lake Superior, and found it to 
 contain 0-562 per cent of nickel and 0-138 per cent of cobalt. C 1 ) 
 
 Dr. Hoffmann analyzed a specimen of iron pyrites from London- 
 derry, N.S., which he found to contain 0-144 per cent of nickel and 
 0-813 per cent of cobalt. ( 2 ) 
 
 Nickel has also been met with in British Columbia, at various 
 localities, associated with pyrrhotite and other sulphides. Gersdorffite 
 has been observed, in the form of small octahedral crystals, distri- 
 buted through specimens which show an intimate association of 
 massive pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, from the Columbia-Kootenay 
 property, one mile and a quarter northeast of the town of Kossland. 
 Th(- whole sample, which weighed 6 Ibs. 10 ozs., was analyzed by Mr. 
 F. G. Wait ( 3 ) who found it to contain 0-65 per cent nickel, with 
 traces of cobalt. 
 
 Considerable interest has been manifested in the deposits of nickeli- 
 ferous pyrrhotite occurring near St. Stephen, N.B. These deposits 
 were first visited and described by H. P. H. Brumell ( 4 ). Dr. K. W. 
 Ells, who visited the localities where these ore bodies occur during the 
 summer of 1903, has furnished the following description ( 5 ) : 
 
 The nickel-bearing rocks of St. Stephen were specially examined, 
 and found to consist of newer intrusives, instead of the Laurentian 
 granites as at one time supposed. The rocks are chiefly of the gabbro 
 type, which have penetrated and altered a series of black and grey 
 slates, the edge of which has also been a matter of much doubt. They 
 were at one time supposed to be of Silurian age, but from the absence 
 of fossils this point has never been fully determined. As developed 
 about the head of Oak bay it was supposed that here they might be 
 
 (6) Rep. of Progress Geol. Surv., Can., 1876-77, p. 482. 
 
 (7) Rep. of Progress Geol. Surv., Can., 1863-66, p. 217. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., 1880-82, Part H, p. 15. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., 1874-75 p. 14 and Vol. V., 1890-91, Part R, 
 p. 48. 
 
 (3) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., Vol. IX., 1896, Part R, p. 15, 16 and 38. 
 
 (4) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can. Vol. IV., 1890-91, Part SS, pp. 112-114; 
 also Vol. X., 1897, Part M, pp. 27-30. 
 
 () Summ. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., 1903, pp. 156-159. 
 
150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 the equivalents of some portion of the primordial of the St. John area, 
 but this point also has never been determined by finding fossils. On 
 the geological map of the district they are provisionally coloured 
 Cambro-Silurian. They apparently underlie, conformably, the sandy 
 slates which are regarded as Devonian, and which occupy the north- 
 west portion of the county, and on this basis their age might be Upper 
 Silurian. 
 
 They are extensively altered in many places, changing into mica 
 and chiastolite schists, but these alterations are purely local, and 
 caused by intrusions of the gabbro masses. They resemble, in certain 
 points, pre-Cambrian schists, but not as a series. Further detailed 
 examinations for fossils will be required to finally settle the question 
 of their true horizon. 
 
 The nickel near St. Stephen occurs in pyrrhotite, as at Sudbury, 
 but the associated rocks are of a very different geological horizon 
 from those of the latter district. The pyrrhotite is found in gabbro 
 masses, which cut a series of slates, and have altered these extensively 
 along the contacts. The mineral occurs, apparently, in pockety 
 masses, which are probably quite local in character. The ore is found 
 at a number of points, but attempts at mining for nickel have been 
 made chiefly at two places, on what are known as the Rogers and Hall 
 farms. The former is usually styled the Todd mine, the latter the 
 Carroll mine. 
 
 On the Rogers farm considerable work, mostly 1 of an exploratory 
 nature, has been done. A shaft, 12 x 12, has been sunk for twenty- 
 four feet, and three trenches have been cut, with depths ranging from 
 three to eight feet, the principal one being rather more than two 
 chains in length, on a course of S. 54 W. magnetic. In this trench 
 the ore is exposed for a little more than thirty feet along the line of 
 excavation, the rest of the cut showing partly mixed ore and partly 
 rock. The width of the ore body was not ascertained, as sufficient 
 development work has not been done to decide this point. 
 
 On Hall's lot (Carroll mine) several shafts have been sunk, one of 
 seventy-seven feet, one of fourteen feet and one of twelve feet. In 
 addition, a bore-hole with a diamond drill was carried down from the 
 bottom of the deepest shaft to a farther depth of 163 feet. From in- 
 formation obtained from Mr. J. Carroll the first forty feet of the 
 main shaft was in ore, but from that point to the bottom the ore was 
 mixed with rock. 
 
 The formations at this place are practically the same as on the 
 Todd area. The openings are apparently near the eastern edge of the 
 gabbro mass, since altered slates are seen in close proximity. 
 
 An examination of the specimens collected from one of these de- 
 
NICKEL IN CANADA 151 
 
 posits, about three miles north of St. Stephen, was conducted by Mr. 
 K. A. A. Johnston, (') who gives the following description: 
 
 ' The material consisted of pyrrhotite, through which was dis- 
 seminated a little copper pyrites, and a very small amount of quartz- 
 ose gangue.' A partial analysis gives the results under I, or calculated 
 on the material free from all gangue, under II. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Nickel 1-72% 1-82% 
 
 Cobalt 0-16% 0-17% 
 
 Copper 0-31% 0-33% 
 
 Pyrrhotite, in association with chalcopyrite, and a little magne- 
 tite, in a gangue of greenish-grey serpentine, obtained from Thomp- 
 son's farm, St. Stephen, was partially analyzed by Dr. F. D. 
 Adams ( r ). The pyrrhotite constituted approximately about one- 
 fourth, by weight, of the whole. The pyrrhotite, carefully freed from 
 the associated minerals, was found to contain, nickel 0-923 per cent, 
 and cobalt 0-394 per cent. 
 
 Partial analyses by Mr. M. F. Connor, of this Department, were 
 made of specimens, selected by Mr. R. A. A. Johnston, from both the 
 Todd and the Carroll properties. The specimens from the Todd mine, 
 consisting of nearly pure pyrrhotite, with a small proportion of inter- 
 mixed chalcopyrite, and with about 10 per cent of gangue, gave nickel, 
 1-38 per cent, and cobalt, 0-21 per cent. The specimen from the 
 Carroll mine, which was almost pure pyrrhotite, with very little chal- 
 copyrite, and less than 5 per cent of gangue, gave nickel 1;35 per 
 cent and cobalt 0-21 per cent. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the ore is of lower grade than that gener- 
 ally met with and mined at Sudbury, so that, for the present at any 
 rate, unless large bodies are encountered, these deposits will not be 
 able to compete with the much larger and richer deposits of Sudbury. 
 
 The rocks at all these places appear to be very familiar in char- 
 acter, and consist, for the most part, of a gabbro, varying from fine to 
 somewhat coarse-grained. The presence of the pyrrhotite is indicated 
 by masses of gossan at the surface, and in places the ore is largely 
 mixed with rock. There does not appear to be any well defined con- 
 tact of the ore body with the adjacent rock, and but little indication 
 of a vein structure is visible. Outside of the ground covered by the 
 trenches and pits the surface shows the gossan cap at a number of 
 points, with a thickness ranging from a few inches to several feet. 
 From the fact that this capping shows at several places east of the 
 
 (1) Aon. Rep. G-eol. Surv., Can., 1880-82, Part H, p. 16. 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Oeol. Surv., Can., Vol. V.. 1890-91, Part R, p. 39. 
 
152 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 main trench on the Kogers farm, it is probable that masses of pyrrho- 
 tite will be found over a considerable area, but probably in many cases 
 so mixed with rock that careful separation would be necessary after 
 mining. The existence of these ore-bodies could be best proved by 
 judicious boring with a diamond drill. The areas of gabbro are 
 limited, and appear to rise in dome-shaped masses through the slate 
 formation at a number of places. In the present state of development 
 of the district but little information of a definite nature can be given 
 as to future values. 
 
 At the location near Moore's mill, while the gabbio is seen at 
 different points, the pyrrhotite appears to be disseminated in a mass 
 of altered schistose slates. The ore here is, apparently, of a low 
 grade, and the extent of the deposit not large. 
 
 Another locality where mining for nickel has been undertaken is 
 on lots 11 and 12, range IX, of the township of Calumet (Calumet 
 island), Pontiac county, in the province of Quebec C 1 ). The ore is 
 mostly a pyrrhotite, containing both nickel and cobalt. The asso- 
 ciated rocks are diorites, that cut a series of grey and rusty gneisses 
 and crystalline limestones. A large knoll of the diorite rises to the 
 south of the ore beu, which has a thickness of about twelve feet, and 
 between it and the diorite mass is a band of crystalline limestone. 
 The ore itself is associated with another band of diorite that appar- 
 ently traverses grey gneiss, the latter being seen beneath, or to the 
 north of the ore deposit. On the river a short distance to the south 
 of this mine the formation is mostly a crystalline limestone, and the 
 intrusions of diorite and granite in this rock can be readily seen. The 
 band of pyrrhotite at the Cowen mine dips to the south at an angle 
 of about 50. A shaft has been sunk to a depth of about forty feet, 
 and crosscuts have been made to test the width of the deposit. 
 
 A compact massive pyrrhotite, through which was disseminated 
 small quantities of quartzose gangue, handed to Dr. G. C. Hoffmann 
 by Mr. E. P. Cowen, was partially analyzed by Mr. F. G. Wait, giving 
 the' results under I. The gangue constituted 4-30 per cent, by weight, 
 of the whole; so that, neglecting this, the pure sulphide would give 
 the results under II. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Nickel 3-88% 4-06% 
 
 Cobalt 0-32% 0-33% 
 
 A quartz-amphibolite, carrying a somewhat large quantity of pyrr- 
 hotite, some pyrite, a small quantity of chalcopyrite, and a very litttle 
 zinc blende, was obtained from the southeast half of lot 6, range II, of 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Sunr., Can., Vol. XI., 1898. Part A, p. 119. 
 
NICKEL IN CANADA 153 
 
 the township of Calumet. The pyrrhotite, freed from all gangue and 
 associated minerals, was found by Mr. F. G. Wait to contain nickel, 
 1 -48 per cent, with no cobalt. (*). 
 
 Cobaltiferous lollingite (diarsenide of iron) occurs on lot 16, con- 
 cession XIV, of the township of Galway. The specimen was received 
 by Dr. Hoffmann from the late Mr. J. B. Campbell on July 21, 
 1888 ( 2 ). 
 
 The mineral, which was associated with a small quantity of pyrrho- 
 tite, and a little white translucent quartz, was massive and exhibited 
 only in parts, and that but very indistinctly, any approach to crystal- 
 line structure. Colour, steel-grey; lustre, metallic; brittle; fracture 
 uneven; streak, greyish-black; specinc gravity, after correction for a 
 little included" quartz at 15-5 C., 7-028. 
 
 An analysis by Mr. E. A. A. Johnston, of carefully selected mate- 
 rial, afforded the results under I. Deducting the gangue (silica), and 
 re-calculating the remaining constituents to 100, we obtain the results 
 under II. ' 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Arsenic 70-11 70-85 
 
 Sulphur 0-80 0-81 
 
 Iron 24-41 24-67 
 
 Cobalt 2-85 2-88 
 
 Nickel 0-78 0-79 
 
 Gangue (quartz; . 1-69 .... 
 
 Totals 100-64 100-00 
 
 This mineral had not previously been identified in Canada, and if 
 found in quantity would be of economic importance. 
 
 The discovery of cobalt, nickel, arsenic and silver ores on the west 
 side of Lake Timiskaming, Ontario, was made public in November, 
 1903. The deposits were discovered during the building of the Timis- 
 kaming and Northern Ontario railway, the roadbed of this new 
 government railway running almost over the top of the first of the 
 deposits discovered. The deposits lie five miles south of the village of 
 Haileybury, which is 106 miles north of North Bay, and 333 miles 
 north of Toronto. At the time of Prof. Miller's ( 3 ) visit, from whose 
 description the present information is obtained, four veins of deposits 
 had been located in the vicinity of a small body of water known as 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can., Vol. XI., 1898, Part R, p. 39. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., Can.. Vol. VI., 1892-93, Part R, p. 19 and 43. 
 
 (3) E,ng. and Min. Jour, Vol. LXXVL, Dec. 10, 1903, pp. 888-889, also Can- 
 adian Mining Review, Dec. 31st, 1903. 
 
154 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Long lake, lying about half a mile south of the southern boundary 
 of lots 8 and 9, concession I of the township of Bucke. All of the 
 veins cut through the slate and slate conglomerate of the Upper 
 Huronian. The presence of dikes or sheets of the darker coloured 
 eruptives was suspected, but they were not definitely recognized. The 
 slate and slate conglomerate have a slight dip, and the veins referred 
 to cut them almost vertically. The strike of the veins Nos. 1 and 3 
 is approximately northeast and southwest, that of 4 is east and west, 
 that of 2 northwest and southeast. 
 
 Vein No. 1 lies east of the railway track, at the edge of a swamp, 
 about a quarter of a mile north of the end of Long lake. It has been 
 uncovered at three points which are within a few yards of one 
 another. Medium-grained, dark-coloured conglomerate is found on 
 one wall. At the widest opening the deposit has a width of over six 
 feet, but the vein matter is more or less mixed with rock. The ore 
 consists of niccolite or the arsenide of nickel, and smaltite, the diarse- 
 iiide of cobalt, together with much native silver. On- weathered 
 surfaces the vein matter is coated with the beautiful decomposition 
 product, erythrite (cobalt bloom). The green nickel stain (anna- 
 bergite?) is also seen on some surfaces, but is usually masked by that 
 of the cobalt, ivlickel silicate (genthite) may also be present. The 
 secondary mineral arsenolite (As2Os) also occurs. Native silver, in 
 leaves, films and fine threads, and moss-like forms, is intimately asso- 
 ciated with the nickel and cobalt minerals, especially with the nicco- 
 lite, as well as in cracks in the rock and in the calcite veinstone. In 
 weathered portions of the ores the silver shows distinctly. One sheet, 
 composed chiefly of silver, had a thickness of nearly 0-375 of an inch 
 and a diameter of about one foot. The silver appears to have crystal- 
 lized earlier than the niccolite which has been deposited around it. 
 The smaltite has formed still later than the niccolite. 
 
 On location No. 2, which lies about, half a mile southwest of No. 
 1, the ore body is distinctly veinlike in form. The ore is a mixture 
 of smaltite, and probably some closely related arsenide, such as safilo- 
 rite (Co-As 2 ), and niccolite. It was found to have the following com- 
 position : 
 
 I. II. III. IV. 
 
 Nickel 7-0 6-24 ,4-56 ) 21-YO 
 
 Cobalt 16-8 16-76 19-80) 
 
 Iron 6-3 6-20 8-89 
 
 Arsenic \ J 66-60 60-30 63-55 
 
 Sulphur ( } ( 3-57 4-09 5-38 
 
 Insoluble 0-9 2-40 0-60 
 
 Water . 2-00 
 
NICKEL IN CANADA 155 
 
 Analysis I was made by O. S. James; II and III are of average 
 samples collected by W. G. Miller, the former from the uppermost 
 opening, the latter from the middle or main opening, the analyst 
 being A. G. Burrows. It was evident that III was somewhat 
 weathered, as it showed considerable cobalt bloom. Analysis IV is 
 by Dr. J. Waddell. It represents a specimen collected by Prof. Nicol. 
 This specimen was not taken like II and III with the object otf 
 determining the average composition of the vein. Prof. Nicol states 
 that a qualitative analysis showed the presence of small amounts of 
 copper and lead, and the absence of antimony, bismuth and zinc. 
 
 This ore body, unlike the others examined, carries no silver in 
 the parts so far discovered. Three openings have been made in the 
 vein, over a length of 300 feet. The massive ore has a width of four- 
 teen inches, but vugs in the wall rock, two feet or more from the 
 vein, are filled with cobalt bloom. The walls, which are well defined, 
 are of slate, and the vein is almost perpendicular, lying on the hill- 
 side about seventy feet above the level of Long lake, and a few hun- 
 dred yards east. 
 
 Ore body No. 3 lies at the southern edge of Long lake, about half 
 a mile southwest of No. 2. It is very similar to No. 1, consisting of 
 native silver, smaltite, erythrite, and, in all probability, niccolite. 
 
 Vein No. 4 is about half a mile southeast of No. 3. The vein, 
 averaging not more than eight inches, cuts a perpendicular bare cliff, 
 facing the west, nearly seventy feet high. The vein is weathered 
 away, leaving a crack in the face of the cliff in some places four or 
 five feet in depth. Thin leaves of silver, up two inches in diameter, 
 were lying on the ledges, and the decomposed matter was cemented 
 together by the metal. It was found impossible to get a fresh sample 
 of the ore with the hammer, the vein being so much decomposed. The 
 weathered specimens, however, in addition to the native silver, con- 
 tained erythrite, and the unaltered ore will be found in all probability 
 to consist of smaltite and niccolite, in addition to the silver. Across 
 a distance of eight inches a distinct banded structure was noticed, 
 and there were twelve or fourteen layers of ore lying parallel to the 
 walls. A sample of the much weathered ore from vein No. 4, which 
 appeared to contain less silver than most of the samples collected, was 
 found by Mr. A. G. Burrows to have the following percentage com- 
 position; Silver, 16-60; cobalt, 3-91; nickel, 1-42; arsenic, 16-79, 
 and gold none. This ore is brownish to yellowish in colour, and has an 
 earthy appearance. Its colour is due to the presence of several de- 
 composition products, the oxides of iron, cobalt and nickel. A small 
 amount of cobalt bloom is present. At the bottom of the cliff the vein 
 cuts thin banded, dark grey or greenish, at times, almost black slate, 
 
156 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 which has a slight dip. The slate passes gradually, as far as could be 
 discovered from the steep character of the cliff, into a coarse breccia- 
 conglomerate in the upper part. The fragments in the conglomerate 
 consist of quartz, slate, granite and other rocks. 
 
 On some of the native silver specimens there are small, black, 
 speriodal masses, with little lustre. These appear to be the hydrated 
 oxide of cobalt (heterogenite). Some of the deposits, on the silver, 
 resemble asbolite. The carbonates of cobalt and nickel are also prob- 
 ably present. 
 
 Prof. Nicol, of the Kingston School of Mines, who afterwards 
 examined the material collected, recognized the silver antimonide, 
 dyscrasite, in association with the native silver of No. 1. He has also 
 definitely determined the presence of chloanthite (arsenide of nickel). 
 It is associated with the niccolite, and also occurs rather free from 
 cobalt in some of the nodular masses. 
 
 Smaltite and erythrite have also been met with in small quantities 
 associated with the basic igneous rocks, to the west of Rabbit lake, so 
 that the whole area where such rocks occur in the Timiskaming and 
 Timagami districts should be carefully prospected. Although the 
 width and extent of these veins may not be very great, the character 
 of the ore is such as to make them a distant economic possibility at 
 the present ruling prices of the metals contained in them. 
 
 OTHER ASSAYS FOR NICKEL OF THE SULPHIDE ORES IN CANADA. 
 
 Since the discoveries of the highly nickeliferous pyrrhotite of the 
 Sudbury mining district there has been very active prospecting for 
 similar sulphide material. Numerous specimens from all parts of the 
 Dominion have come to the laboratory of the Geological Survey De- 
 partment for assay. The material thus submitted has been examined, 
 and partial analyses have appeared from time to time in the reports 
 of the Section of Cheniistry and Mineralogy, which, besides appearing 
 as separates, are included in the various annual volumes. It has been 
 thought advisable to tabulate these results, arranging them according 
 to provinces. All of the analyses have been conducted by Messrs. 
 R. A. A. Johnston and F. G. Wait, assistants to Dr. G. C. Hoffmann, 
 the chemist and mineralogist to the Geological Survey. These anal- 
 yses are in addition to those which have been already quoted on 
 previous pages of this bulletin. 
 
PARTIAL ANALYSES OP NICKEL ORES IN CANADA 157 
 
 PARTIAL ANALYSES OF NICKEL ORES IN CANADA. 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 la 
 
 .2.0 
 
 3-J 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 1 
 
 Clarendon, Frontenac 
 
 CO 
 
 60 '00 
 
 
 Trace 
 
 0'20 
 
 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Lot 10, con. IV., 
 Creighton, Algoma. 
 Schreiber, (2 miles 
 west of) Thunder 
 Bay dist 
 
 16'00 
 None. 
 
 
 
 None. 
 0'03 
 
 None. 
 Trace. 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 R. A A Johnston 
 
 4 
 
 Same locality 
 
 10 '00 
 
 
 Trace 
 
 Trace 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Darlington bay, L. 
 of the Woods . 
 
 20-00 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston 
 
 6 
 
 E. $ lot 18, con. III., 
 Dalhousie, Lanark 
 
 CO 
 
 20'50 
 
 
 0'09 
 
 
 11 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 Lot 15, con. A. An- 
 glesea, Addington 
 
 CO 
 
 Lot 12, con. III., Gal- 
 way, Peterborough 
 
 CO 
 
 37-89 
 
 Present. 
 
 o-io 
 
 0'16 
 
 
 
 0'16 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 9 
 
 Lot 18, con. IV., Gal- 
 way, Peterborough 
 
 CO 
 
 17 -25 
 
 
 O'lO 
 
 
 0'12 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 10 
 
 Lot 16, con. XIV., 
 Galway, Peterbo- 
 rough CO 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 O'lO 
 
 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 11 
 
 S. end lot 16, con. 
 XIV., Galway, Pe- 
 terborough CO ... . 
 
 
 
 0'05 
 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 12 
 
 Lot 16, con. XV., 
 Galway, Peterbo- 
 rough CO 
 
 38-46 
 
 
 faint 
 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 13 
 
 Galway, Peterbo- 
 rough co 
 
 
 
 traces 
 0'04 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 14 
 
 Lot 1, con. XI, Som- 
 erville, Vi c t o r i a 
 
 CO 
 
 62-36 
 
 
 fai. tr. 
 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 Somerville, Victoria 
 
 CO 
 
 N. part of Victoria 
 
 CO 
 
 48 '97 
 
 
 0-06 
 0'15 
 
 Trace. 
 
 0-12 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 17 
 
 S*. E. shore Vermi- 
 lion lake, Nipissing 
 dist 
 
 
 
 0'05 
 
 Pres't. 
 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 18 
 
 Lot 6, con. l.,Hyman, 
 Algoma dist. .... 
 
 
 
 
 None. 
 
 1-55 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 English river, 9 miles 
 N. of C. P. Ry., 
 District of Rainy 
 river 
 Near Jackfish station 
 C. P. R., Thunder 
 Bay dist 
 
 10 50 
 
 
 0-12 
 Trace. 
 
 S^one. 
 
 0-13 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 21 
 
 Twelve -mile lake, 
 Minden, Haliburton 
 
 CO.. . 
 
 6-92 
 
 
 0-13 
 
 Trace. 
 
 0-14 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
158 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue . 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 II 
 *-2 
 
 3-1 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 22 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 29 
 
 Lots 32 and 33, con. 
 XL, Sebastopol, 
 Renfrew co . . . . 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 0-165 
 
 None. 
 
 Trace. 
 
 it 
 
 None. 
 Trace. 
 
 o-io 
 
 0-23 
 
 0-29 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 E. $ lot 18, con. III., 
 Dalhousie, Lanark 
 
 CO. 
 
 29-35 
 
 Matawatchan, Ren- 
 frew CO 
 
 Catting on Whitney 
 and Opeongo Ry., 
 7i miles from junc- 
 tion with C.A.Ry., 
 Sproule, Nipissing 
 district 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 0-19 
 fai. tr. 
 
 0-49 
 0-98 
 
 Lot 17, con. II, West- 
 meath, Renfrew co. 
 N I lot 4, con. IV., 
 Graham, Algoma 
 district 
 
 
 0-49 
 0-26 
 1-02 
 
 1-04 
 
 S. i lot 8, con. IV., 
 Dowling, Algoma 
 district 
 
 Present. 
 
 tt 
 
 W i lot 10, con. IV., 
 Olden, Frontenac 
 
 CO. . 
 
 3-32 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 1. A greyish-white, gneissoid rock; through which was disseminated 
 a somewhat large amount of pyrrhotite. The metallic portion of the 
 ore contained 0-5 per cent of cobalt. 2. Coarse, granular pyrrhotite, 
 in association with zinc blende, through which was disseminated a 
 somewhat small amount of a dark-grey, schistose rock and white 
 quartz. 3. Pyrrhotite, from an extensive deposit. Examined for Mr. 
 Thomas Marks. 4. A fair sample of the pyrrhotite, from the same 
 locality. Collected by Dr. Selwyn. A fine, granular, massive pyrrho- 
 tite, through which was disseminated a little quartzose gangue. 5. 
 Pyrrhotite, with a dark-grey gneissoid rock. Examined for Mr. 
 Mather. 6. Pyrrhotite, with a little pyrite, in quartz mica-diorite. 
 Examined for Mr. W. C. Caldwell. 7. A dark grey gneissoid rock, 
 through which was disseminated a fairly large amount of pyrrhotite, 
 and a trifling quantity of chalcopyrite. 8. A compact, massive pyrrho- 
 tite. Examined for Mr. E. D. Orde. 9. A massive pyrrhotite, in 
 association with very small quantities of pyrite in quartz. Collected 
 by Mr. F. D. Adams. 10. A compact, massive pyrrhotite, with a little 
 pyrite, and trifling amounts of chalcopyrite and quartz. Examined 
 for Mr. E. H. G. Chapman. 11. Massive pyrrhotite, with very small 
 quantities of chalcopyrite, quartz and felspar. Collected by Dr. F. D. 
 Adams. 12. Quartz, carrying some pyrrhotite, and a small quantity 
 
PARTIAL ANALYSES OF NICKEL ORES IN CANADA 
 
 159 
 
 of pyrite. 13, Lot and concession not communicated. Massive pyrrho- 
 tite, with a very trifling amount of calcite. 14. Quartz, a little felds- 
 par, and a very little garnet, carrying a small quantity of pyrite and 
 pyrrhotite. Collected by Dr. F. D. Adams. 15. Pyrrhotite, with 
 quartz, and a little garnet. Number of lot and concession not com- 
 municated. 16. A compact, massive pyrrhotite. 17. From E. V. 
 Wright's claim, north of Northeast arm of Lake Timagami. A very 
 fine crystalline, massive pyrite, in a gangue of quartz-diorite. Col- 
 lected by Mr. A. E. Barlow. 18. Pyrrhotite, with mica and but little 
 visible quartz. Collected by Mr. W. Mclnnes. 20. A very fine, gran- 
 ular pyrite with small quantities of pyrrhotite. 21. Compact massive 
 pyrrhotite, with a little pyrite, and a small quantity of quartz. 22. 
 Compact, massive pyrrhotite, with small quantities of chalcopyrite 
 and pyrite, in a gangue of calcite, pyroxene, some hornblende, feldspar 
 and a little garnet. Examined for Mr. L. Meaiiy. 23. Quartz, with a 
 little hornblende, carrying large quantities of pyrite and pyrrhotite. 
 Examined for Mr. T. B. Caldwell. 24. Compact, massive pyrrhotite, 
 with a small quantity of quartz and hornblende-gneiss. 25. Compact, 
 massive pyrrhotite, with a few particles of chalcopyrite, and a small 
 quantity of gangue, mainly quartz and feldspar, with a very little gar- 
 net. Examined for Mr. A. H. N. Bruce. 26. Pyrrhotite, with a little 
 chalcopyrite, apatite and hornblende. 27. Massive pyrite. associated 
 with pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and danaite (cobaltiferous arsenopyrite). 
 28. A massive pyrrhotite, with which was associated a little chalcopy- 
 rite and a somewhat large proportion of gangue (vitrophyre-tuff.) 29. 
 Granular, massive pyrrhotite, with a very little chalcopyrite, with a 
 little gangue of feldspar, quartz and hornblende. Examined for Mr. 
 J. Bawden. 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ni. in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 metal- 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 lic 
 por- 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 30 
 
 Lake Mistassini 
 
 47 "CO 
 
 
 Dist. 
 
 Dist. 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 31 
 
 Lot 24, R. 18, Potton, 
 
 Small 
 
 
 traces 
 
 traces 
 
 
 
 
 Brome co 
 
 amount. 
 
 
 Small 
 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 32 
 
 Lot 24, R. 7, Claren- 
 
 
 
 a int. 
 
 
 
 
 
 den, Pontiac co. 
 
 None . 
 
 
 1'50 
 
 Trace. 
 
 1'50 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 33 
 
 Lot 2, R. 8, Eardleyj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ottawa co 
 
 
 
 0'13 
 
 None. 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 34 
 
 Lot 14, R. 6, Aylwin, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ottawa co 
 
 
 
 
 
 1'68 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 35 
 
 Lot 14, R. 5, Mash am, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ottawa co 
 
 
 Present . 
 
 A litt. 
 
 
 Co.Ni 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 36 
 
 Lot 14, R. 5, Masham, 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-28 
 
 
 
 Ottawa oo 
 
 
 
 O'll 
 
 None. 
 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 37 
 
 Same locality.. . 
 
 
 
 O'lO 
 
 ti 
 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
160 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 30. Pyrrhotite, in gangue of hornblende schist. Collected by Mr. 
 Walter McOuat (Survey) in 1872. 31. Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and 
 pyrite, with small amount of gangue. One specimen contained a very 
 small amount, and the other a trace of nickel. 32. Pyrrhotite, but 
 the material does not, so far as is known, occur in quantity. 33. A 
 massive pyrrhotite. Examined for Mr. W. A. Allan. 34. Pyrrhotite, 
 almost pure, or with quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende and calcite. 
 35. Massive pyrite, with a few particles of chalcopyrite, and a some- 
 what larger proportion of granite. 36. Massive pyrrhotite, with a very 
 little quartz. 37. Taken from a different part of the deposit. Pyrrho- 
 tite, a little pyrite and a very small amount of gangue of black garnet 
 and pyroxene, and a very little quartz. Nos. 36 and 37 were examined 
 for Mr. W. L. Marler. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue . 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 Ni in 
 metal- 
 lie 
 por- 
 tion. 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 38 
 
 STear head of Barclay 
 sound, Vancouver I 
 
 
 
 Trans. 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 39 
 
 Monashee mine, near 
 head of Cherry 
 creek 
 
 
 Present . 
 
 None 
 
 Trifl'g 
 Am't. 
 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 40 
 41 
 
 Qlecillewaet dist 
 Creek flowing into 
 Downie creek, 20 
 miles above fork 
 with Columbia R., 
 West Kootenay 
 district 
 
 16'75 
 
 Present. 
 
 0-12 
 
 Faint 
 traces 
 
 Trace. 
 
 0-14 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 42 
 
 Crawford bay, Koot- 
 enay lake 
 
 
 Present 
 
 Trace 
 
 
 
 F G. Wait. 
 
 43 
 
 Same locality 
 
 10 70 
 
 Present . 
 
 0'048 
 
 None. 
 
 0'053 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 44 
 45 
 
 A few miles N. of 
 Savona station, C. 
 P. R., Yale dist.... 
 Between N. Thomp- 
 son and Clearwater 
 rivers .... 
 
 10-17 
 
 Present. 
 Present 
 
 0-031 
 Trace 
 
 
 0-034 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F G Wait. 
 
 46 
 
 Mission City claims, 
 townships 17 and 
 18, Westminster 
 dist 
 
 36 "50 
 
 
 0'055 
 
 
 0'09 
 
 F G Wait 
 
 47 
 
 Jervis inlet 
 
 14'80 
 
 Present 
 
 0-24 
 
 Trace 
 
 0'28 
 
 F G. Wait. 
 
 48 
 
 King Solomon mine, 
 Kaslo-Slocan min- 
 ing camp, West 
 Kootenay dist 
 
 0-36 
 
 
 0'15 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 49 
 
 E. side, Upper Arrow 
 lake, about 12 miles 
 from its head, W. 
 Kootenay dist 
 
 
 Present . 
 
 
 None. 
 
 0'12 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
PARTIAL ANALYSES OF NICKEL ORES IN CANADA 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. Cont. 
 
 161 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 Ni. in 
 metal- 
 lic 
 por- 
 tion. 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 50 
 51 
 
 Monte Cristo claim,. 
 Trail creek, Colum- 
 bia river 
 [ron Colt claim, Trail 
 creek, Columbia 
 river 
 
 14 '50 
 
 Present. 
 Present. 
 
 0'20 
 
 Strong 
 trace. 
 
 Strong 
 
 0-13 
 234 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 52 
 
 Bunbury claim, near 
 Lac le Bois, Inte- 
 rior Plateau region 
 
 17 'S3 
 
 
 0'065 
 
 trace. 
 Trace. 
 
 0'08 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 53 
 
 Humphrey claim, 
 Lac le Bois. Inte- 
 rior Plateau re- 
 gion 
 
 59'20 
 
 
 0'04 
 
 Trace. 
 
 O'lO 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 54 
 
 Quartz creek (Sal- 
 mon R.), 20 miles 
 south of Nelson 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trace 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 55 
 56 
 
 Kootenay-Colum b i a 
 property, l miles 
 N.E. of Rossland. 
 Qu een Victoria 
 claim, 8 miles W. 
 of Nelson 
 
 29-03 
 37 '15 
 
 Present. 
 Present. 
 
 0-65 
 0'43 
 
 Trace. 
 Trace. 
 
 0-92 
 0'68 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 57 
 58 
 59 
 
 Evening Star mine, 
 E. slope Mt. Monte 
 Cristo, 1 nr.ile N. of 
 Rossland. 
 Leviathan Group of 
 claims, Campbell 
 creek, E. side of 
 Kootenay lake. . . . 
 R,. & K. claim, 1 mile 
 N. of Argenta, 
 W. Kootenay 
 dist. . 
 
 62 73 
 
 61-84 
 
 Present. 
 Present. 
 Present. 
 
 25 
 0-06 
 0'05 
 
 ! 59 
 
 None. 
 
 Ni.0'67 
 Co.1'58 
 
 0-16 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 60 
 61 
 
 Kennedy lake, W. 
 coast, Vancouver 
 island 
 Two Sisters and Crow 
 claim, Deer creek, 
 Clayoquot, V a n - 
 couver island 
 
 7-50 
 41'00 
 
 Present. 
 
 0-15 
 0'69 
 
 Trace. 
 Trace 
 
 0-16 
 1'70 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F G Wait 
 
 62 
 
 N.E. i Section, Block 
 I., W. side of Tex- 
 ada island 
 
 
 
 Faint 
 
 
 
 R A. A. Johnston. 
 
 63 
 
 Near Kruquot, W. 
 coast Vancouver 
 island 
 
 
 Present 
 
 trace. 
 Trace. 
 
 
 
 F G. Wait. 
 
 64 
 
 Mt,,W. of Ice river, 
 6 miles from forks 
 with Beaverfoot 
 R., East Kootenay 
 district 
 
 0-20 
 
 
 0-12 
 
 None 
 
 0-12 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 65 
 66 
 
 N. bank of the 
 Thompson, about 5 
 miles above Lyt 
 ton, Yale district 
 Shuswap lake 
 
 17-72 
 15'75 
 
 Present 
 Present. 
 
 0-08 
 Trace 
 
 Trace 
 
 None 
 
 0-097 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 418711 
 
1G2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 38. A massive pyrrhotite. Examined for Capt. J. Jaques. 39. An 
 association of white translucent quartz and dark green diorite, carry- 
 ing large quantities of pyrrhotite, and a little chalcopyrite. 40. 
 Pyrrhotite, with a little chalcopyrite, and a small quantity of a dark 
 green rock. 41. Quartzo-feldspathic rock, with a large amount of pyrr- 
 hotite. Examined for Mr. J. D. Boyd. 42. Pyrrhotite, with a very 
 small amount of chalcopyrite, in quartz. 43. Pyrrhotite, with small 
 quantities of chalcopyrite and graphite, quartz, feldspar and mica. 
 These two last were examined for Cockle Bros. 44. Massive pyrrho- 
 tite, with a few specks of chalcopyrite, and a small quantity of quartz. 
 Examined for Mr. J. Dickenson. 45. Pyrrhotite, with small quanti- 
 ties of chalcopyrite. 46. Fine, granular pyrrhotite, with small quanti- 
 ties of pyrite and chalcopyrite, and a somewhat large proportion of 
 gangue. Examined for Mr. D. Elliott. 47. Pyrrhotite, with some 
 chalcopyrite, and a little galena, with a small proportion of gangue, 
 composed of quartz and fine-grained diorite. 48. Compact, massive 
 pyrrhotite, through which was disseminated very small quantities of 
 quartz. Examined for Mr. H. E. Porter. 49. Quartz, with a little 
 chlorite and mica, carrying small quantities of a compact, massive 
 pyrrhotite, a little pyrite and a few specks of chalcopyrite. Exam- 
 ined for Mr. R. Sanderson. 50. Pyrrhotite, with a little chalcopyrite, 
 and small quantities of quartzose gangue. 51. Exceedingly fine- 
 grained pyrrhotite, with a little chalcopyrite, and small quantities of 
 a quartzose gangue. 52. A feldspathic rock, carrying small quantities 
 of pyrrhotite. 53. Quartzo-feldspathic rock, carrying small quantities 
 of pyrrhotite. 54. Pyrrhotite and pyrite, with small quantities of 
 calcite and feldspar. 55. Pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, with a little 
 gersdorffite, in a somewhat calcareous gangue. 56. Pyrite and chal- 
 copyrite, with some pyrrhotite, in a gangue of andradite, quartz, and 
 a few scales of mica. 57. Arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite, in a gangue 
 of hornblende and calcite. Danaite or cobaltiferous arsenopyrite, 
 carrying 3-05 per cent cobalt, also occurs at this mine (Ann. Rep. 
 Geol. Surv. Can., Vol. VIII, 1895, Part R, p. 13). 58. Quartz, with 
 a little feldspar, hornblende and graphite, with a small quantity of 
 pyrrhotite, and a very little chalcopyrite. Examined for Mr. F. W. 
 Pettit. 59. Massive pyrrhotite, with a very little chalcopyrite, and a 
 trifling amount of quartz and feldspar. Examined for Mr. J. Turner. 
 60. Massive pyrrhotite, with a few particles of chalcopyrite, and a 
 small quantity of gangue, made up mainly of garnet and calcite, with 
 a little quartz and hornblende. 61. Chalcopyrite, with some pyrrho.- 
 tite, and a small quantity of quartz. Examined for Mr. F. Jacobsen_ 
 
PARTIAL ANALYSES OF NICKEL ORES IN CANADA 
 
 163 
 
 62. Very fine, granular, massive pyrrhotite. Examined for Mr. Alfred 
 Raper. 63. Granular, massive pyrrhotite, with a very little chalcopy- 
 rite. Examined for Mr. G. H. Franklin. 64. Compact, massive 
 pyrrhotite, with a little quartz. Examined for Mr. James Walker. 
 65. Fine, granular, massive pyrrhotite, with some pyrite, and very 
 little chalcopyrite, with a gangue mainly of hornblende and quartz. 
 Examined for Mr. Geo. de Wolf. 66. Compact^ massive pyrrhotite, 
 with a little chalcopyrite, and a somewhat large quantity of quartz. 
 Examined for Mr. J. T. Edwards. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. Co. 
 
 Ni. in metal-| 
 lie portion. 1 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 67 
 
 L'Etete Charlotte co 
 
 
 present . 
 
 present 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 67. Pyrrhotite, like that from St. Stephen, with a little chalcopy- 
 rite in a gangue of diorite. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 No. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 Ni. in metal- 
 lic portion. 
 
 Analyst . 
 
 68. 
 69. 
 
 Barrachois harbour, 
 Cape Breton co. . . 
 Lutche creek, Cape 
 Breton co 
 
 25 -40 
 
 
 
 trace.. 
 75 
 
 none . 
 
 trace.. 
 I'OO 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 F G Wait 
 
 70. 
 
 Boularderie Centre, 
 Victoria co 
 
 12-41 
 
 present . 
 
 0-07 
 
 trace.. 
 
 08 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 68. Pyrrhotite. Examined for Mr. Alex. McLeod. 69. Pyrrhotite, 
 with a somewhat large amount of siliceous gangue, from the land of 
 Mrs. O'Hanley, on the rear of George river. Examined for Mr. Alex. 
 McLeod. 70. Massive pyrrhotite, with a few particles of chalcopyrite, 
 and a little hornblende and quartz. Examined for Mr. William 
 Haggerty. 
 
 4187 11J 
 
164 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 3) ' 
 
 
 No. 
 71 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Gangue. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Co. 
 
 y 
 
 Analyst. 
 
 Deer river, (tributary 
 of Churchill R.).... 
 
 42-20 
 
 
 0-06 
 
 Trace. 
 
 o-io 
 
 F. G. Wait. 
 
 72 
 
 Island, oil W. point 
 ofKogalukR.,East 
 coast, Hudson bay, 
 Ungava district . . 
 
 48-00 
 
 
 0-08 
 
 Pre- 
 sent,. 
 
 0-15 
 
 R. A. A. Johnston. 
 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 71. Pyrrhotite in a gangue of quartz, feldspar, and a little mica 
 and graphite. Collected by Mr. D. B. Dowling. 72. Massive pyrrho- 
 tite, with a large amount of quartz. 
 
 THE NICKEL DEPOSITS OF SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 The nickel deposits of Norway and Sweden are of especial interest 
 to us, since they resemble in all essential particulars the larger and 
 richer deposits of the Sudbury district. It would be impossible, with- 
 in the scope of the present bulletin, to give a full, or even satisfactory, 
 account of these occurrences, and the various phenomena attendant 
 on their geological associations, and the reader is referred for such 
 details to the elaborate and epoch-making work of Prof. J. H. L. Vogt, 
 of Christiania, Norway ( x ). 
 
 All of the Scandinavian nickel deposits are intimately related to 
 masses of gabbro or norite. In Norway there are about forty of these 
 masses with which deposits of nickeliferous pyrrhotite are associated, 
 these being the largest nickel deposits in Europe. 
 
 These masses, which are undoubtebtedly of igneous origin, are 
 either composed of gabbro, which is essentially an admixture of pla- 
 
 (1) Vogt, J. H. L.. Nikkei forekomster og Nikkelproiduktion.' Geol. Soc., 
 Norway, Ghristiania, 1892. ' Sulphidische Ausseheidungen von Nickelsulp-hi- 
 derzen,' Zeit. fur Prak. Gaol., 1893, also 1894, 1895, 1900 and 1901. ' Ueber 
 die Bildiung van Erzlagerstatten durch Differentiationprocesse in Eruptiv- 
 magmaten.' International Geol. Congress, Zurich 1894. ' The Formation 
 of Eruptive Ore Deposits.' Min. Ind. Vol. IV., 1895. ' Problems in the Geo- 
 logy of Ore Deposits.' Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Richmond, 1901. ' Plat- 
 ingehalt in n<orw>egisichiein Nickelerz.' Zeit. fur Prak. Geol., Aug., 1902 
 
THE NICKEL DEPOSITS OF SCANDINAVIA 165 
 
 gioclase feldspar and augite, or of norite, a closely related rock, made 
 up principally of .plagioclase feldspar and hypersthene (rhombic 
 pyroxene) . These masses of gabbroic material occur in the Archaean 
 hornblende schists and gneisses, generally intruded parallel to their 
 foliation or lamination but often cutting across them. The norite of 
 all these masses shows a remarkable tendency to differentiation, so 
 that the same mass, in different parts of its extent, will vary greatly 
 in the relative proportions of the constituent minerals. The principal 
 types of such differentiates are often distinguished as gabbro, olivine 
 gabbro, and pyrrhotite gabbro and norite, olivine norite and pyrrho- 
 tite norite, while the decomposed representative is distinguished as 
 uralite-gabbro. 
 
 The ore is chiefly pyrrhotite, containing, when pure, from 2 -5 to 5 
 per cent of nickel and cobalt, but as much as 7 per cent is sometimes 
 found. These metals are usually present in the proportion of one 
 part of cobalt to from seven to twelve parts of nickel. Associated 
 with the pyrrhotite (FesSg) are pyrite ;(FeS2), chalcopyrite 
 (CuFeS 2 ), and, in some places, ilmenite or titaniferous magnetite. 
 Chalcopyrite is never present in large amount. The pyrite usually 
 contains more cobalt than nickel. In the nickel ore, in a few places, 
 the mineral pentlandite (eisennicke Ikies), is distinctly discernible, 
 and, in a single case, the mineral cobaltite. 
 
 The pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite, are regular constituents 
 of the gabbro or norite, occurring in small quantities all through the 
 various masses, but, like the other constituents of the rock, are found 
 more abundantly in certain places, and a gradual transitition can 
 often be observed from the normal gabbro to pyrrhotite gabbro, and to 
 masses of pure pyrrhotite, with little or no rocky or silicate admixture. 
 Occasionally, the ore occurs in masses sharply separated from the 
 norite, as at the Ertelien mine. These segregations of ore are, in the 
 great majority of cases, situated either directly at or near the edge 
 of the igneous masses, and Vogt regards these concentrations as dis- 
 tinctly comparable to the basic borders or edges, so often observed 
 about granites and other igneous rocks, in which the basic borders 
 are sometimes marked by similar gradual passages, and, in some 
 cases, by rather abrupt transitions. 
 
 Prof. Vogt draws attention to the fact, that the average proportion 
 of nickel to copper in the Norwegian ores is about 100 to 40 or 50 
 and that in the Varallo (Piedmont, Italy) occurrence about the same 
 proportion holds good, while in Canada, where the associated igneous 
 rocks are more acid in composition, there is sometimes relatively 
 more copper, 100 parts nickel to 100 or 150 parts of copper being 
 ' found in some of the deposits. 
 
166 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 Katio of Nickel to Copper in some of the most importani of the 
 Scandinavian mines. 
 
 Name of Mine. 
 
 Content of copper 
 corresponding 
 to 100 parts of 
 nickel. 
 
 Percentages of nickel 
 and cobalt in 
 the pure pyrrhotite. 
 
 Gragalten mine 
 
 75-80 
 55 
 45-50 
 35-40 
 37 
 35-40 (about) 
 30-35 
 20-25 (about) 
 
 about 2 '50 
 2 75-3-00 
 3-00 
 it 3-50-4-00 
 it 4'50 
 3-50-4-00 
 3-80-4-20 
 n 7-00 
 
 Kief va mine .... 
 
 Ertelien mine 
 
 Bamle district 
 
 Flaad mine 
 
 Senjen mine 
 
 Dyrhaug mine 
 
 Beiern mine 
 
 
 The Scandinavian ores also contain small quantities of silver, 
 gold, and metals of the platinum group, including platinum, iridium 
 and osmium. The amount of these metals is shown by the following 
 analyses of the matte, from the Bingerike and Evje nickel smelters. 
 
 C 1 ) 
 
 
 Ringerike 
 
 Evje 
 
 
 7 
 
 /o 
 
 % 
 
 N ickel 
 
 51'16 
 
 41'50 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 1*98 
 
 0'97 
 
 Copper 
 
 IG'41 
 
 23'60 
 
 Iron 
 
 10'87 
 
 (13) 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 19 58 
 
 (20) 
 
 Silver... 
 
 g.pert. 
 
 g. per t. 
 140 
 
 Gold 
 
 0'5 
 
 1 (about) 
 
 Platinum 
 
 2'6 
 
 3 (about) 
 
 Iridium 
 
 "| 
 
 
 Osmium 
 
 v O'l (about) 
 
 
 
 
 
 The mineral associations of the precious metals are shown by the 
 following table ( 2 ) of analyses of the ore from the Flaad mine at 
 Evje. 
 
 (1) Zeit. fur Prak. Geol., Aug., 1902, p. 259. 
 
 (2) Zeit. fur Prak. Geol., Aug., 1902, p. 258. 
 
THE NICKEL DEPOSITS OP SCANDINAVIA 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 Ni & Co. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Insoluble. 
 
 A . 
 
 Au. 
 
 Pt. 
 
 g- per. t. 
 
 Pyrrhotite (mainly) 
 
 % 
 
 ( 4-37 
 50 
 1 2-90 
 [ 3-31 
 
 / 2-60 
 I 1-70 
 
 / 
 
 % 
 
 0'35 
 0'60 
 0'21 
 0'67 
 
 8-00 
 13-33 
 
 % 
 
 9-02 
 IG'OO 
 20-63 
 17-46 
 
 18-90 
 14-40 
 
 4 
 Trace. 
 6 
 Trace. 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 37 
 
 80 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 
 
 Chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite . . . 
 Chalcopyrite 
 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 Trace. 
 
 Mining for nickel began in Sweden between 1838 and 1840, at 
 Klefva, (Smaland), and in Norway between 1847-50 at Espeda] and 
 Kingerike. In 1838, Berzeims showed that the pyrrhotite from the 
 Klevja mine, in Smaland, in southern Sweden, contained nickel. 
 Before that time this mine had been worked for copper. When the 
 fact was announced that the ore contained about 3 per cent nickel 
 it was decided to erect a smelting plant for nickel, this being the 
 oldest nickel smelting plant in Scandinavia. In the beginning of 
 1840 Th. Scheerer, the professor of metallurgy in the University of 
 Christiania (who had been born in Saxony, and was manager of the 
 Modums works), described the new mineral eisennickelkies (with 22 
 per cent of nickel), from Espedalen (Gausdal). Scheerer also an- 
 nounced that nearly all the Norwegian pyrrhotite and pyrite con- 
 tained nickel and cobalt. The publication of these results was really 
 the cause of the erection of the nickel plant at Espedalen, which was 
 in operation, on a large scale, between 1840 and 1850, with a staff of 
 200 men. This smelter, however, was closed down about 1855. In 
 1837 Scheerer analyzed the pyrrhotite from Modums, and found it 
 to contain 2 '80 per cent of nickel. This pyrrhotite had been obtained 
 from the Ertelien mine, which, later on, proved to be the chief mine 
 supplying the Ringerike nickel smelter. About 1700, these works had 
 been used for copper, and had, in the first half of the century, a 
 small plant for the production of vitriol and red paint. Scheerer 
 supplied information to his friend, A. Roscher, (who is described as 
 being descended from a mining engineer), as to where he had found 
 the pyrrhotite^ This man had also been working in connexion with 
 the paint plant at Modums and Snarums. All of these facts com- 
 bined helped to bring about the establishment of the nickel industry 
 in Scandinavia. 
 
168 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 Between 1850 and 1860, and towards the latter end of this decade, 
 the nickel mines in connexion with the Kragero nickel smelter were 
 started by D. Forbes and the two brothers J. and T. Dahll. During 
 the nickel boom about 1870 there were several nickel refineries located 
 in Norway, while, at the same time, the plants of Sweden, Austria- 
 Hungary, and Italy, supplied a large quantity of nickel, but Norway, 
 during- this period, was the largest producer of nickel in the world. 
 After the discovery of the nickel in ]\ ew Caledonia, and its advent on 
 the market between 1876 and 1878, the price of nickel fell to such a 
 degree that most of the European nickel smelters closed down, or 
 decreased their production, and from 1877-80 up to 1888-89 New 
 Caledonia produced from two-thirds to three-fourths of all the nickel 
 in the market. Quite recently the production of nickel from New 
 Caledonia, has, in turn, been exceeded by that of Canada. 
 
 From 1848 to 1892 about 330,000 metric tons of nickel ore were 
 mined in Norway. The maximum yearly output was in 1876, when 
 42,500 tons, were mined. From that time, until 1892, from 5,000 to 
 7,000 tons per annum were produced. The average nickel contents 
 of the ore per annum have been as follows; 1851-1860, twenty tons; 
 1861-1872, forty-five tons; 1873-1876, 245 tons; 1876, 360 tons ; 1877- 
 1880, 100 tons; 1881-1885, 125 tons; 1886-1892, 105 tons. 
 
 Since 1892 the production of Norwegian nickel ore and nickel, 
 has been as follows. 
 
 Nickel Ore Value Metallic Nickel Value 
 
 metric tons. $ metric tons. $ 
 
 1893 2,397 6,480 113 70,605 
 
 1894 2,355 5,400 103 63,450 
 
 1895 494 1,080 17 10,530 
 
 1896 315 16 8,100 
 
 1897 nil nil 
 
 1898 nil nil 
 
 1899 220 810 5 2,700 
 
 1900.. ...... 1,888 12,690 13 9,720 
 
 In 1901 the Mineral Industry states that twenty-seven tons of 
 nickel were produced from Norwegian ores, but this is included in the 
 United States production from imported ores. 
 
 In some of the mines small bodies of rich ore have been found, as 
 for example, at Beiern, where ore was encountered with an average 
 of 7 per cent nickel (nickel-bearing pyrite and pyrrhotite) ; and in 
 other places with an average of about 5-5 per cent. In the better 
 mines first class smelting ore can often be sorted out, but the grade 
 of the bulk of the ore is much lower. In 1870 miners were satisfied 
 
THE NICKEL DEPOSITS OF SCANDINAVIA 169 
 
 with a yield of 0-8 to 1-3 per cent of nickel from the smelting ore, 
 the actual assays of which were from 0-9 to 1.5 per cent. In later 
 years, when only the richer mines have been operated, and hand 
 sorting has been practiced with more care, the yield has increased 
 from 1-4 to 1-5 per cent, almost to 2-5 per cent, with an average of 
 2 per cent. In the mines the cost of producing one ton of ore, assay- 
 ing about 2 per cent nickel, varies from $1.67 to $3.09, averaging 
 $2.38 C 1 ) 
 
 From 1861 to 1891 Sweden produced nearly 80,000 tons of ore. 
 From 1866 to 1875 the nickel contained in the Swedish ores averaged 
 from sixty-five to seventy tons per annum ; 1876-80, fifty tons ; 1881- 
 85, twenty to forty tons. Since 1886, however, the nickel contained in 
 these ores has only averaged from ten to fifteen tons per annum. The 
 last year in which there was any production of Swedish nickel ore 
 was in 1891, when 483 tons were mined. None of the Norwegian 
 mines are at present in operation, although attempts are being made 
 to revive the nickel industry in that country. The keen rivalry of 
 Canada and New Caledonia will, however, prevent any extensive 
 operations, at least for many years to come. 
 
 NICKEL IN EUROPE. 
 
 Nickel was first produced at Schneeburg, on the suggestion of Dr. 
 Geitner, who erected a plant for the manufacture of the alloy known 
 as ' new silver.' They used, as their raw material, the dumps from 
 the cobalt works. These dumps were soon exhausted, and it became 
 necessary to prospect for nickel ore. Early in the last century several 
 small nickel deposits were discovered in Germany and Austria-Hun- 
 gary, as for instance at Dillenburg, in Nassau, which was provided 
 with a smelting plant in 1843, Dobschau, in Hungary, etc. 
 
 The nickel deposits of Varallo, in Piedmont, Italy, are very closely 
 analogous to the Norwegian occurrences, but the ore bodies are much 
 smaller in size. The mines, which are at Cevia and Sella Bassa, were 
 worked and the ore smelted between the years 1860 and 1870, the 
 smelter being operated by the same company as the Schneeburg works 
 in Saxony. Badoureau gives the production as about fifty-four tons 
 of metallic nickel a year. (*) 
 
 In Spain, in 1875, they mined 440 tons of ore, but the ore bodies 
 were not operated after 1877 or 1878. The mines which were situated 
 in the province of Malaga were on small deposits of nickel silicate 
 (pimelite) with 3-96 per cent of nickel. 
 
 (1) Zeit. fiir Prak. Geol., 1893, p. 143. 
 (1) Annales dee Mines, 1877. 
 
170 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 At Eewdinsk, in Russia, attempts have been made several times, 
 to mine the deposits of the nickel-magnesia-silicates (rewdinskite) 
 with 4-8 to 19-2 per cent of nickel oxide, but the deposit is small. In 
 1873, 47-4 tons of ore were mined, and in 1887, 4-9 tons of metallic 
 nickel were produced in the first three months, from which they cal- 
 culated the yearly production at 40-9 tons of nickel. 
 
 In Wales, in 1882, thirty-eight tons and in 1883, forty-nine tons 
 of ore were mined, containing 1-4 per cent of cobalt and 0-7 per cent 
 of nickel. 
 
 Nickel refining is quite an important industry in Great Britain, 
 where a large amount of foreign nickel ore is refined at the various 
 works. The most important of these nickel refineries are at Kirkin- 
 tilloch (near Glasgow), in Scotland, and at Erdington (near Birming- 
 ham) in England. Both of these belong to i Le Nickel,' of New 
 Caledonia, and are principally using garnierite as ore. Vivian and 
 Sons' old and well known copper and nickel refinery at Swansea* 
 Wales, the Mond Nickel Go's, refineries at Clydach (near Swansea) 
 and Smethwick (near Birmingham), as well as the Wiggin's refinery 
 in Birmingham, are, for the most part, working with foreign nickel 
 sulphide material. 
 
 In France, no nickel ore has been mined, but after the discovery 
 of the New Caledonia ore several refineries were erected, the first one 
 being at Septemes, near Marseilles, where, from 1876 to 1882, experi- 
 ments were conducted on a large scale for producing ferro-nickel. 
 Christofle's well known works at St. Denis, near Paris, between 1870 
 and 1880 produced about 120 tons of metallic nickel yearly. Later on 
 the 'Le Nickel' plant at Havre was erected. The copper plant at 
 Eguilles (Vancluse, near Lyons) has several times conducted experi- 
 ments in the refining of nickel and at the Paris exhibition of 1889 
 several samples were shown produced by bessemerizing according to 
 the Manches process, which contained from 91 to 95 per cent of pure 
 nickel. ( 2 ) 
 
 Lately, however, the Martha and Benno mines in Silesia, Austria, 
 have produced ore. In 1899, according to the Mineral Industry, only 
 eighty tons of nickel ore were mined, but this rose to 3,896 tons in 
 1900, and during the half year ending June 30, 1902, when there were 
 1,036 labourers employed at the mines and works, the quantity of ore 
 treated was 5,689 tons, which yielded 108 tons of nickel. The mines 
 are situated at Kosemitz, Ziisendorf and Glasendorf, a short distance 
 north of Frankenstein. They are described by Illner. (*) The ore, 
 
 (2) J. H. L. Vogt., Nikkelforekomster og Nikkelproduktion/ Nor. Geol. 
 Sac., Christiania, 1892, pp. 38-40. 
 
 (1) Zeit. fur das E'erg-Hu'tten-und-Salinenwesen, No. IV.. 1802, p. 816; also 
 Mineral Industry, Vol. X.. 1901, pp. 485-486, and Vol. XI., 1902, p. 486. 
 
NICKEL IN EUROPE 171 
 
 which contains from 0-5 to 3 per cent of nickel, fills fissures in serpen- 
 tine. Occasionally, these veins carry from 4 to 18 per cent of nickel. 
 Only the two mines already mentioned are operated, the Martha 
 having two shaft furnaces, capable of treating fifty tons of' ore daily. 
 The composition of the ore ranges as follows: SiO 2 60-65-4 per cent; 
 MgO 8-5-12 per cent; Fe 2 O 3 and AlfcOs 6-8 per cent; Ni 2-3-3-5 
 per cent, and loss on ignition 8 to 15 per cent. Before smelting the 
 ore is first mixed with gypsum or with calcium sulphite and limestone, 
 crushed to 12mm. size and pressed into bricks. The shaft furnace is 
 5m. high, and is charged with the bricks and coke in the proportion of 
 180 kg. of the former, to 50 kg. of the latter. A very fluid slag is pro- 
 duced, containing 3 per cent of nickel, which is used in making slag 
 bricks. The matte composed of about 31-4 per cent of nickel, 49-7 per 
 cent of iron and 14-5 per cent of sulphur, is crushed and subjected to 
 an oxidizing roast, in a two-stage reverberatory furnace, which is 
 6 -13m. wide, and has a capacity of 300 kg. in eight hours. There are 
 four furnaces of this type at the works. The roasted matte, contain- 
 ing approximately 65 per cent of nickel, 15 per cent of iron and 20 
 per cent of sulphur is run into a bessemer converter with sufficient sand 
 to slag the iron oxide and is blown for forty-five minutes, thus raising 
 the tenor in nickel to 77-8 per cent. This fine matte is pulverized 
 and treated to a dead roast in the reverberatory, which converts it 
 into a greyish green nickel oxide, containing 77-6 per cent of nickel. 
 This oxide is pulverized, moistened, cut into small cubes, dried and 
 charged with charcoal into fire brick muffles, that are heated in a 
 regenerative gas furnace. After three hours' treatment in this fur- 
 nace the metal contains 99 per cent of nickel, and 0-3 per cent of 
 iron. The sulphur dioxide from the roasting is caught in water and 
 the solution neutralized with lime, the .resulting calcium sulphide 
 being used as a flux in the shaft furnace. 
 
 Nickel ore is known to occur in Greece, Switzerland and Sardinia, 
 but in none of these countries are the "deposits large enough to permit 
 of them being mined at a profit. 
 
 NICKEL IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The existence of nickel in the United States was probably first 
 made known in 1818, when Seth Hunt opened up the cobalt deposit, 
 near Chatham, Conn. This important announcement was made aa 
 the result of an analysis of a trial shipment of this ore to England. (*) 
 
 These mines were at first opened for their supposed silver contents 
 
 (1) Whitney. ' The Metallic Wealth of the United States,' 1854 p. 497; 
 also Proc. Col. Sc. Sac., Vol. IV.. 1891-93, p. 381. 
 
172 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 as far back as 1661. They were not, however, very remunerative to 
 their successive owners, who in turn tried to operate them. In 1762 
 they were again tried, and in 1770 several parties associated them- 
 selves together for the purpose of operating them for their cobalt con- 
 tents. In 1787, a quantity of the cobalt was shipped to China. In 
 1853, a creditable exhibit was made by the Chatham Cobalt Mining 
 Co. of the ore from their mines and its products. 
 
 Perhaps the best known nickel deposit in the United States is that 
 situated at Lancaster Gap, in Pennsylvania, about three miles south 
 of the main line of the Pennsylvania railroad, and a little over fifty 
 miles west of Philadelphia. 
 
 According to authentic history the Gap mines had been worked 
 for their copper prior to the year 1744, and tradition, in the neigh- 
 bourhood, states that they were discovered about the year 1718. For 
 eighty or ninety years they proved unremunerative to the four or five 
 different companies who tried to operate them, but in 1849, after they 
 had been lying idle for thirty or forty years, the Gap Mining Company 
 was formed, to again open them up for copper. This company obtained 
 considerable supplies of copper, about enough to pay for running 
 expenses, selling their product to copper smelters in Boston and Balti- 
 more. In all of these earlier operations the millerite and pyrrhotite 
 were cast aside as useless, being regarded by the miners as ordinary 
 'mundic' or pyrite. In the beginning of 1852, however, Capt. Chas. 
 Doble, who had come to the work, first as a miner, but who subse- 
 quently became superintendent, was convinced that the material on the 
 dump was not ordinary sulphide of iron, but some other mineral. An- 
 alyses of specimens, sent to so-called experts in Boston and Baltimore, 
 were unsatisfactory, so that, in the latter part of 1852, or the beginning 
 of 1853, a sample was sent .to Prof. F. A. Genth, who, after analysis, 
 pronounced it to be a nickel ore, at the same time giving the per- 
 centage of pure nickel present. The mines, which had hitherto been 
 known as the Gap Copper mines, changed to the ' Gap Nickel mines/ 
 but the expenses of mining the ore, and especially the difficulties of 
 the smelting operations, rendered the enterprise too costly, so that the 
 whole of the works were closed down in 1860. C 1 ) 
 
 In November, 1862, Joseph Wharton acquired possession of the 
 ' Gap mine/ and the deposit became a nickel producer in May, 1863, 
 the ore obtained being treated at the refinery built by Wharton at 
 Camden, opposite Philadelphia. The development of the New Cale- 
 donia mines had, in 1882, reached such a stage that the world's con- 
 sumption' of metallic nickel, which had hitherto been about 800 tons 
 
 (1) 2nd Geol. Surv. Perm., ' The Geology of Lancaster co.,' CCC, 1880, pp. 
 163-176. 
 
NICKEL IN THE UNITED STATES 173 
 
 per annum, was exceeded by several hundred tons. On account of 
 this over-production prices immediately fell in the forced sales, and 
 Wharton's Camden refinery was obliged to close down about the end 
 of this year. The advent in large quantities into the market of the 
 Sudbury nickel proved a further disturbing feature, resulting in the 
 final closing of the ' Gap mine ' in 1891. 
 
 The dark, basic rock whith which the ore body at the Gap mine is 
 associated forms a lenticular mass or stock, extending about 1,500 feet 
 east and west and 500 feet north and south, and lying in the midst of 
 mica schists of the Georgetown series of Eraser. The rock consists 
 mostly of green secondary hornblende, and although the change is 
 very thorough recognizable remains of orthorhombic pyroxene and of 
 olivine were revealed after careful search through a number of micro- 
 scopic slides. Reddish-brown, biotite is present, and, in some instances, 
 considerable plagioclase appears, with occasional accessory titaiiite. 
 The ore consists of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite in largest amount, but 
 pyrite is not lacking. Crusts of secondary millerite are also encount- 
 ered, and often this mineral furnished a not unimportant portion of 
 the nickel contents. Although some ore has been found in bunches 
 within the lens-shaped mass of rock, the productive ground lies near 
 the walls. The ore body is nearly, if not quite vertical, and the depth 
 reached by mining was 250 feet, while, at times, the workings were as 
 much as thirty feet wide. As mined, the ore contains from 1 3 per cent 
 of nickel, '25 to *75 per cent of copper, and :5 to '15 per cent of 
 cobalt. The ore is believed by Prof. Kemp, (from whose description 
 the foregoing information has been obtained) to be the direct result 
 of igneous action, the ore bodies being concentrated as such by reason 
 of magmatic differentiation, ( 2 ) in this respect resembling the Cana- 
 dian, Norwegian and Italian occurrences. 
 
 The ' Gap mine ' at one time produced one-sixth of the world's 
 supply of nickel, although its total production is only given as 2,000 
 tons. 
 
 The nickel deposits associated with the peridotites of the south- 
 eastern Appalachians, have, from time to time, claimed public atten- 
 tion and several attempts have been made not only to ascertain their 
 true economic value and extent, but also to develop them to the stage 
 of producing mines. Probably the largest and best known of these 
 occurrences is situated in the vicinity of the town of Webster, the 
 capital of Jackson county, in western North Carolina. The deposits 
 in question underlie a strip of land running approximately north and 
 south a distance of about 7,000 feet, and east and west nearly 1,500 
 
 (2) Trans. Am. lust. Min. Eng. Vol. XXIV., 1894, p. 622-631. 
 
174 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 feet. The north end of the deposit immediately adjoins, to the east, 
 the town of Webster. The nearest railway station is Dillsboro, on 
 the Murphy 1 branch or division of the Southern railway, this station 
 being 48-9 miles southwest of Asheville. A wagon road connects 
 Dillsboro and Webster, the distance being about 3-5 miles. The ore 
 is very closely allied to the celebrated garnierite or noumeaite from 
 New Caledonia. It is a hydrous silicate of magnesium and nickel, but 
 very variable in composition, particularly as regards the mutual re- 
 placement of nickel and magnesium. It is, therefore, not a homo- 
 geneous compound. It is amorphous, filling certain cracks with en- 
 crusting, delicate, hemispherical, or stalactitic forms, usually soft and 
 friable, falling to pieces in water, unctuous to the touch, and adhering 
 slightly to the tongue. It varies, in colour, from pale yellowish-green 
 to rather deep apple-green, and depth of colour usually accompanies 
 an increase in the nickel contents. 
 
 Analyses of genthite (nickel-gymnite), from Webster, N.C. 
 
 I II 
 
 Silica .................. 49-89 55-38 
 
 Nickel oxide .............. 16-60 17-84 
 
 Magnesia ................ 22-35 15-62 
 
 Water .................. 12-36 10-77 
 
 Alumina ..................... ..... 
 
 re20s]Iron ................... 0-56 
 
 FeO JOxide .............. 0-06 ..... 
 
 Cobalt oxide. . 
 
 Total 101-26 100-17 
 
 Explanation. 
 
 1. Analyses of genthite, from Webster, N.C., by Dunnington 
 (Ch. News, 25,270, 1872, and Dana, System of Mineralogy, 6th Ed., 
 1892, p. 676). II. Analysis by P. H. Walker, (Am. Chem. Jour., 
 10, 44, 1888, also Dana, System of Mineralogy, 6th Ed., 1892, p. 681). 
 
 Although, as shown, some of the ore contains f roin 16 to 18 per cent 
 of nickel oxide, no very large amount of similarly rich material could 
 be secured in mining, and most of the rich nickel seams are occupied 
 by greenish nickel silicate, which will assay from 5 to 7 per cent of 
 nickel oxide. Much of this secondary vein matter is mixed with com- 
 paratively barren, partially decomposed peridotite, so that .it would 
 be impossible to effect a separation, on an economic basis, and the 
 
NICKEL IN THE UNITED STATES 175 
 
 bulk of the material which could be secured as ore would assay from 
 1 -50 per cent to 3 per cent of nickel oxide. The ore assaying from 2 to 
 8 per cent of nickel contains, in addition, "02 to -10 per cent cobalt 
 oxide. These nickel deposits are found in intimate association with 
 a mass of peridotite, made up principally of two varieties, which are, 
 doubtless, differentiates of the same magma, viz.: dunite, made up 
 almost entirely of olivine and chromite, and websterite, composed 
 essentially of bright green diopside, and pale brown bronzite. The 
 mode of occurrence and origin of these deposits are precisely 
 analogous to those occurring in New Caledonia, Oregon and else- 
 where. The development work undertaken consists of a series of 
 parallel trenches or ditches which are excavated in some cases 
 simply to the solid rock beneath, and, in others, to a uniform depth, 
 in no case exceeding thirty feet. These trenches are designed to give 
 an idea of the relative abundance and disposition of the veins of 
 silicate material. A shaft was sunk, but to what depth has not been 
 learned, while considerable prospecting by diamond drill has also been 
 undertaken. 
 
 Nickel has, for many years, been known to exist in considerable 
 quantities in southern Oregon, and some of the deposits are regarded 
 as of commercial importance. The mineral josephinite, a nickel-iron 
 compound (Ni. 60-45; Fe. 23-22), has been described by W. H. 
 Melville as occurring in the form of pebbles and smooth boulders in 
 the placer gravels of a stream in Josephine county, Oregon, which 
 are supposed to have been derived from some dike of ultra-basic rock, 
 whose location has not yet been discovered. ( x ) 
 
 Nickeliferous pyrrhotite has also been noticed in both Jackson and 
 Douglas counties, but the nickel silicates of Douglas county are the 
 only ores which appear to be worthy of other than a passing notice. 
 The deposits occur near the small village of Kiddles, in 'the south- 
 ern part of Douglas county, a station on the Oregon and California 
 railway, 226 miles from Portland, and 547 miles from San Francisco-. 
 The nickel mines are situated on Pineyj mountain, about three miles 
 west of Riddles, and are connected with this village by an excellent 
 wagon road of easy grades. This mountain, as its name implies, is 
 thickly covered by forest, rising to a height of about 3,400 feet above 
 sea level, occurring as an isolated ridge in a sea of other mountains. 
 It is, approximately, 1 miles long by 1 mile wide, thus embracing an 
 area of l square miles, in which nickel deposits might be expected 
 to occur. The rock underlying this area is a peridotite or ' saxonite/ 
 composed essentially of olivine and enstatite, with a small quantity of 
 accessory chromite and magnetite. The olivine predominates, forming 
 
 (1) Amer. Jour. Sc., Vol. XLIII, 1892, pp. 509-515. 
 
176 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 more than two-thirds of the mass of the rock. The ore is a silicate 
 of nickel and magnesium, and, as usual, very variable in composition. 
 The mode of occurrence and origin of ores of this class have already 
 been discussed in detail, and the Oregon occurrence presents no un- 
 usual features which are worthy of special or extended reference. 
 The following analyses of carefully selected material will illustrate 
 the chemical composition of the pure nickel mineral, but the bulk of 
 the ore which could be economically secured and utilized, would, of 
 course, be much lower in nickel contents. 
 
 I II III 
 
 Loss at 110 C 8-87 6-63 7-00 
 
 Loss on ignition 6-99 .... .... 
 
 AlaOs and FesO 1-18 1-38 1:33 
 
 SiO2 44-73 48-21 40-55 
 
 MgO 10-56 19-90 21-70 
 
 NiO.. 27-57 23-88 29-66' 
 
 Total 99-90 100-00 100-24 
 
 Explanation. Analysis I is by F. W. Clarke, (Am. Jour. Sc., 
 Vol. XXXV, pp. 468-487; Nos. II and III are by Dr. Hood, (Min. 
 Kes. U. S., 1883, p. 404.) 
 
 The first discovery of these deposits was in 1864, and, in the fall 
 of 1881, Mr. W. Q. Brown secured control of what appeared to be the 
 most valuable portion, transferring his interest to an incorporated 
 company known as the ' Oregon Nickel Mines.' It is stated that 
 about $30,000 was expended in development work. In 1891 some of 
 the nickel bearing area was secured by a Chicago corporation, called 
 the ' International Nickel Mining Company/ which is said to have 
 expended about $60,000 on development work. Extensive prepara- 
 tions were made to mine and smelt this ore, but much of the smelting 
 and other machinery purchased was never even set in position. The 
 Anglo-American Nickel Company, incorporated in 1893, and the 
 Oregon Nickel Mining Company, also own property in this neigh- 
 bourhood. The amount of development work done in connexion with 
 these deposits is hardly sufficient to test their commercial capabili- 
 ties. Numerous open cuts, short tunnels and shallow shafts from 
 twenty to forty feet deep have been made, but nowhere has a vertical 
 depth of over fifty feet been reached. (*) 
 
 (1) Dr. W. L. Austin. ' The Nickel Deposits near Riddles, Oregon.' Proc. 
 Col. Sc. Soc., Vol. V., 1894-96, pp. 173-196. 
 
NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA 177 
 
 The Gem mine, in Fremont county, Colorado, may be mentioned 
 at some length in this connexion, as it is very similar, in mineralogical 
 composition, to the Haileybury occurrences discovered last autumn 
 in Northern Ontario. The vein at the Gem mine is in hornblende 
 schist, and the ores were principally copper, but nickel soon made its 
 appearance, and at a depth of 15 to 20 feet became quite prominent. 
 From the surface down to a depth of seventy-five feet the vein has an 
 average width of 3 '5 to 4 feet. At this point it pinched out, and with 
 the exception of a narrow streak of ore, which may be its continuation, 
 and which contained the same cobalt and nickel minerals, no further 
 ore was encountered lower down. The nickel-cobalt minerals of this 
 mine are accompanied by native silver, some of the mineral speci- 
 mens being occasionally so permeated by fine wire silver as to be 
 broken with difficulty. In 1882 twelve tons of ore, containing 12 per 
 cent of nickel and 2-2-5 per cent of cobalt, with considerable chalco- 
 cite, were shipped. Later, about half a ton of selected ore, contain- 
 ing 34 per cent of nickel and 3-4 per cent of cobalt, were sent to 
 Swansea, England. The mine, however, was involved in litigation, 
 and the ore body was seemingly too small for any extended mining 
 operations. ( 2 ) 
 
 Since the closing down of the Lancaster Gap mine the entire 
 United States production of nickel, from domestic ores, has been 
 derived from Mine la Motte, Mo., the metal being secured as a by- 
 product in the treatment of lead ores. In 1899 this production 
 amounted to 22,500 pounds, but in 1901 it had decreased to 6,700 
 pounds, while in 1902 the twenty tons of matte, containing nickel and 
 cobalt, which were refined at the works of the Mine la Motte Lead 
 and Smelting Company, yielded 5,748 pounds of metallic nickel. ( 3 ) 
 
 NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 The nickel deposits of New Caledonia have, for many years, en- 
 joyed an enviable reputation, not only for the large and continuous 
 supply of ore they have produced, but also for the high grade they 
 have been able to furnish for purposes of export. From about the 
 years 1880 to 1888 these mines produced from two-thirds to three- 
 fourths of all the nickel in the market. From the latter year, how- 
 ever, the mines of Canada have been gradually increasing their out- 
 put, and, in spite of many adverse circumstances, it is believed that, 
 at the present time, the amount of nickel secured from Canadian 
 
 (2) Thomas Charlton, Pro-c. Col. Sc. Soc., Vol IV.. 1891-93, pp. 420-421. 
 
 (3) Min. Des., U.S., 1902, pp 265-266. 
 418712 
 
178 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 sulphide ore is considerably in excess of that produced from the New 
 Caledonia silicates. 
 
 The only nickel ore that occurs in New Caledonia is a hydrated 
 silicate of nickel, in which more or less of the nickel oxide is replaced 
 by magnesia, ferric oxide and alumina. The ore is associated with 
 chalcedony, a magnesian silicate resembling meerschaum or sepiolite, 
 limonite or bog iron ore and serpentine. In addition to these there 
 are usually small quantities of chromite and asbolite. The mineral 
 is entirely free from sulphur, arsenic or copper, and, although, in the 
 first instance, the deposits were regarded as the gossan-like material 
 produced by the sub-aerial decay of nickeliferous sulphides, the ex- 
 tensive workings already undertaken have failed to reveal any traces 
 of such material even in the deepest workings. 
 
 The mineral garnierite or noumeaite, characteristic of these de- 
 posits, was discovered by M. Jules Gamier, in 1865, and was noticed 
 by him in 1867, C 1 ) and was described by Liversidge in 1874 ( 2 ). Tho 
 mineral is closely related to the nickel-gymnite, described by Genth 
 in 1851, and for which the name genthite was proposed by Dana, in 
 1867. 
 
 As the following analyses will show it is very variable in chemi- 
 cal composition. The material analyzed was selected with great care, 
 and will give a good idea of the composition of the purest varieties 
 of garnierite as well as its intimate connexion with sepiolite, or 
 silicate of magnesia, with which it is associated, and into which it 
 passes by insensible gradations. 
 
 <1> Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, Vol. XXIV., p. 438, Paris, 1867. 
 (2) Jour. Chem. Soc., Vol. XII., p. 613, July, 1874. 
 
NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA 
 
 179 
 
 
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180 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Explanation I. Analysis by Dann (Ber. Nied. Ges., Jan. 7, 1878). 
 "II. Analysis by Gamier (Comptes Rendus, 86,684, 1878). III. Ana- 
 lysis by Kiepenheuer (Ber. Nied. Gest., July 14, 1879). IV. Analysis 
 of dark-green garnierite, from Nakety, by Liversidge (Minerals of 
 New South Wales). V. and VI. Analyses by Gamier (Soc. des Ingrs. 
 Civils, 1887). Analysis of a translucent, pale-green variety, from 
 Oiiaillon, by Liversidge. VIII. Analysis of similar mineral from 
 same locality, by Liversidge. IX. A very pale-green variety from Bel 
 Air mine, Kanala, by Liversidge. X. Another similar specimen from 
 same locality. XI. Analysis by Gamier of white veins, in the green 
 mineral (garnierite), resembling sepiolite. 
 
 At first, when mining operations were started, it was stipulated 
 that the ore should contain from 12 to 15 per cent nickel, but now 
 the minimum has been reduced to 7 per cent and it is stated to be 
 difficult to secure more than 60,000 to 70,000 tons per annum of such 
 a grade of ore, although, if the European smelters would lower their 
 limit to 5-5 per cent, the production could be more than doubled. 
 From 1875 to 1884, E. Flechner has calculated that 8-3 per cent of 
 nickel was the average contained in the ore, while Du Peloux states 
 that in 1884, 850 tons of metal were produced from 12,000 tons of 
 ore, thus giving an average of 7-1 per cent. Croissille states that 
 between 1880-85, 28,933 tons of ore were produced with an average 
 of 10-5 per cent nickel. In the first years a large amount of ore, 
 containing from 3 to 11 per cent nickel, was discarded as valueless 
 for purposes of export, but lately these dumps have been overhauled 
 and some of the material shipped. The largest New Caledonia com- 
 pany " Le Nickel," in its catalogue issued at Paris in 1889, stated 
 that the various grades of their ore contained 8, 10 and 12 per cent 
 of nickel. From 1876 to the present time the ore has varied in com- 
 position, as shown under I; under II is given the composition of 
 the ore which was being shipped to Europe in 1876; under III the 
 average composition of New Caledonia smelting ore, (according to 
 Levat^ ; under IV is given the average composition of the nickel ore, 
 as it was shipped in 1899, according to E. A. Wineberg (Min. Indus- 
 try, Vol. VIII, 1900, p. 435). 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Nickel oxide . . 
 
 / 
 
 9 to 17 
 
 / 
 
 18 00 
 
 % 
 7 to 8 
 
 % 
 10 '00 
 
 Silica 
 
 41 to 46 
 
 38 '00 
 
 45 to 50 
 
 42' ('0 
 
 Iron oxide. 
 
 5 to 14 
 
 7 '00 
 
 14 to 16 
 
 10 '50 
 
 Alumina . . 
 
 1 to 7 
 
 
 S to 5 
 
 2 '50 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 G to 9 
 
 15 '00 
 
 10 to 19 
 
 92 '00 
 
 Water 
 
 8 to 16 
 
 22 '00 
 
 14 '00 
 
 12 '00 
 
 Lime 
 
 
 
 
 I'OO 
 
NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA 181 
 
 The nickel contents of the New Caledonia garnierite, lately 
 smelted, have averaged about 7 per cent of nickel, but each succeeding 
 year sees a poorer product handled and shipped. 
 
 The ore is intimately associated with a peridotite, and its various 
 decomposition products grouped together under the name of serpen- 
 tine. Fresh, undecomposed pieces of this rock, made up chiefly of 
 olivine, are said to contain as high as 1 per cent of nickel. These 
 serpentines, which cover the larger portion of the area of the island, 
 rise into a series of hills, which are from 400 to 4,000 feet above the 
 sea, the general elevation being about 2,000 feet. The deposits gen- 
 erally occur on the tops of these mountains, so that transportation of 
 the ore, mining materials and supplies is very tedious and difficult, 
 and in many cases expensive roads and aerial rope- ways had been 
 constructed to deposits which, in some cases, came far from realizing 
 expectations as to extent and richness. The ore-bodies occur as veri- 
 table ' stock-works,' cutting the decomposed peridotite in all direc- 
 tions. Invariably, where the nickel occurs, the surface is covered 
 with a highly ferruginous soil, in which pisolitic iron ore is very 
 abundant. Although this decomposed remnant of the peridotite con- 
 tains a little nickel, most of the nickel has been leached out to be 
 deposited in secondary veins of nickel silicate in locations at various 
 depths below, favourable places for such concentrations being in the 
 vicinity of faulting and jointing planes. The veins vary in size 
 from a few inches to as much as thirty feet, but they are exceedingly 
 irregular in this respect, at one time becoming gradually narrow, 
 while, in other cases, large deposits end abruptly against barren rock. 
 These veins or deposits are comparatively shallow. It is true that 
 one fissure was followed down about 600 feet in depth, but generally 
 the veins give out from 75 to 100 feet below the surface. Without 
 reference to the surface mantle or covering, from which most, if not 
 all, of the nickel has been removed by leaching, the richest deposits 
 are those nearest the surface, while the higher parts of any deposit 
 are richer than those lower down. The comparative shallowness of 
 the deposits is, however, compensated by the large areas they cover, 
 and some of the mines have yielded from 30,000 to 100,000 tons of 
 ore, and are still in operation. The mining is carried 011 by means 
 of open cut work, the ore being secured by means of a series of 
 benches. The pick and shovel are usually sufficient to loosen and 
 remove the ore, but occasional blasting is sometimes necessary. The 
 ore, when properly mixed, is carried by means of aerial rope-ways to 
 ground tram-lines, from which it is transported by lighters to the 
 ships. 
 
 Various methods for the extraction of nickel from these ores have 
 
182 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 been attempted. Gamier, whose name has been associated with these 
 deposits from the date of their discovery, tried to smelt the ore 
 directly to a nickeliferous pig iron, which was afterwards to be re- 
 fined in a reverberatory furnace to ferro-nickel. The first part of the 
 process proved satisfactory, and the nickel-iron pig obtained from 
 the richer lumps contained 65-68 per cent of nickel, 23-29-5 per cent 
 of iron, 1-5-2-5 per cent of sulphur, 3-5-5-5 per cent of silica and 
 carbon occurring as graphite, and from 1-5 to 2-5 per cent of other 
 impurities, and amongst them, phosphorus. It was found impossible 
 to economically handle or to refine this product, owing to the pre- 
 sence of sulphur, which has a strong affinity for nickel. Various wet 
 methods were then employed, which followed, on a large scale, the 
 different operations used in making chemical analyses. The ore was 
 first dissolved in acid and the metals removed by the use of lime ot 
 bleaching powder, and finally a solution, containing nickel alone, was 
 obtained. From such a condition it is easy to produce the nickel by 
 fusing with charcoal the dried nickel salt. 
 
 Later on, however, they adopted a dry method, in the preliminary 
 stages. In the first years they smelted it, with the addition of a 
 special Norwegian pyrrhotite containing nickel and copper. In order 
 to remove the excess of iron and copper they now melt the ore in low 
 water- jacketed blast furnaces, with materials containing sulphur 
 (calcium sulphide obtained in the manufacture of soda by the Le 
 Blanc process), or with gypsum. The gypsum, which is made up of 
 both lime and sulphur, is reduced, the sulphur uniting with the 
 nickel by reason of its greater affinity for this metal, while a portion of 
 it is taken up by part of the iron, the rest of it combining with the 
 silica, magnesia and lime and the remainder of the iron to form a 
 slag. This slag contains about 48 per cent of silica, 12-13 per cent of iron 
 and not more than 0-40 to 0-45 per cent of nickel. The nickel-iron 
 matte contains about 50-55 per cent of nickel, 25-30 per cent of iron 
 and 16-18 per cent of sulphur. This matte, by reason of its greater 
 specific gravity, sinks to the bottom, permitting the lighter slag to be 
 drawn off. This matte is in turn roasted and a portion of the sul- 
 phur thus removed. It is re-smelted with sand, and the nickel will 
 again combine with by far the larger share of the sulphur, leaving a 
 comparatively small proportion for the iron, while the remainder of 
 the iron combines with the silica or sand to form a slag. By a repe- 
 tion of these, or similar methods, the iron is finally removed, leaving 
 a compound made up essentially of nickel and sulphur, which ?s 
 roasted with nitrate of soda to produce nickel oxide. This is then 
 mixed with charcoal, and reduced, by the application of intense heat, 
 to metallic nickel. 
 
NICKEL IN NEW CALEDONIA 
 
 183 
 
 Attempts have been made, from time to time, to partially refine 
 these ores in New Caledonia, and blast furnaces were erected and in 
 operation both at Noumea and Thio, as well as at Newcastle in New 
 South Wales, but the difficulties of procuring coke, suitable flux and 
 labour have hindered their progress, and most of the ore at least is 
 now exported for smelting and refining purposes. Most of this ore is 
 refined in France, where " Le Nickel " company have extensive refin- 
 erie^s at Havre, but a large proportion is also refined at Kirkintilloch 
 (near Glasgow), in Scotland, Erdington (near Birmingham), in 
 England, and at Iserlohn (Westphalia), in Prussia. The Engineer- 
 ing and Mining Journal of May 20, 1899, notes that a cargo of 3,000 
 tons of New Caledonia ore is being sampled for the Orford Copper 
 Company, the ore averaging 7 per cent nickel. The merging of the 
 Nickel Corporation, Limited, and the Societe Miniere Caledomemie, 
 of New Caledonia, as part of the International Nickel Company, 
 will result in the smelting, by this company, of a considerable 
 amount of New Caledonia ore, at their refinery at Constable Hook, 
 N.J. 
 
 Although these deposits were discovered in 1865, it was not until 
 1873 that active mining operations were undertaken. In 1880, the 
 Societe le Nickel acquired the celebrated mines at Thio, but did. not 
 commence mining until 1887. 
 
 The following figures represent the production of ore and nickel 
 from the New Caledonia mines. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF ORE AND NICKEL FROM NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Ore mined. 
 
 Ore 
 exported. 
 
 Nickel 
 contents. 
 
 Nickel contents. 
 
 1875 
 
 Tons. 
 327 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1876 
 
 3 406 
 
 
 
 
 1877 
 
 4377 
 
 
 
 
 1878. 
 
 155 
 
 
 
 
 1879. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1880 
 
 2,528 
 
 
 210 
 
 
 1881 
 
 4 070 
 
 
 388 
 
 
 1882 
 
 9 025 
 
 
 749 
 
 
 1883 
 
 6 881 
 
 
 561 
 
 
 1884.. . 
 
 10838 
 
 
 904 
 
 
 1885 
 
 5,228 
 
 
 850 
 
 
 1886 
 
 920 
 
 
 150 r 
 
 
 1887.. 
 
 8,602 
 
 
 .1,350? 
 
 
IQ4: GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 PRODUCTION OF ORE AND NICKEL FROM NEW CALEDONIA. Con. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Ore mined. 
 
 Ore 
 exported. 
 
 Nickel 
 contents. 
 
 Nickel contents. 
 
 1888 
 
 Tons. 
 6,616 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 900? 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1889 
 
 19 741 
 
 
 1,381 
 
 
 1890 
 
 22,690 
 
 
 1,633 
 
 
 1891 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 2,449 
 
 
 1892 
 
 
 
 1 244 
 
 
 1893 
 
 69,614 
 
 45 614 
 
 2,493 
 
 
 1894 
 
 61,243 
 
 40,089 
 
 2,422 
 
 
 1895 
 
 29,623 
 
 38,976 
 
 2,548* 
 
 (2,548) 
 
 1896 
 
 6 417 
 
 37 467 
 
 2,972* 
 
 (2,707) 
 
 1897. 
 
 26 464 
 
 57,439 
 
 2,858* 
 
 \~ i i ' w / 
 (2,858) 
 
 1898 
 
 53,200 
 
 74,614 
 
 3,608* 
 
 (4,205) 
 
 1899 
 
 103,908 
 
 103,908 
 
 3,845* 
 
 (4,205) 
 
 1900. 
 
 
 100 319 
 
 4,676* 
 
 (4,526) 
 
 1901 
 
 
 132,814 
 
 6,202* 
 
 (5,210) 
 
 1902 
 
 
 
 
 (3,620) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Nickel contents of ore refined in Europe, according to Mineral 
 Industry. The figures in brackets are production of nickel from New 
 Caledonia ores, in France, Germany and England (according to 
 Metallgesellschaft and Metallurgische Gesellschaft, August, 1903, 
 p. 23). 
 
 METHODS OF MINING AT SUDBURY. 
 
 The methods usually employed throughout the Sudbury district 
 for obtaining the requisite supply of ore consist, partly, in the sink- 
 ing of shafts and the opening up of the ore body by means of under- 
 ground levels, drifts and stopes, the whole of such mining operations 
 being carried on under a solid roof. For this work very little timber- 
 ing is required, although, in some cases, serious accidents involving 
 the loss of one or more human lives have resulted from neglecting 
 to provide even the small amount of timbering necessary where 
 occasional slips, faults or slickensides occur. As a rule, however, the 
 walls and roof are very solid, and, at the present time, every reason- 
 able precaution is taken to guard against such accidents by frequent, 
 careful and systematic scaling, removing all loose or menacing por- 
 tions of rock or ore. Tfie larger part of the ore, however, is secured 
 by a combination of this method and a system of open cast work. 
 This, which, in reality is a species of deep quarrying, is a very cheap 
 
METHOD OF MINING IN SUDBURY DISTRICT 185 
 
 and effective method of obtaining large supplies of ore, arid these 
 considerations, no doubt, contributed to its adoption in the first place. 
 On the other hand, these open pits being exposed to the weather, work 
 is, at times, carried on only with extreme discomfort to the men, or 
 is even seriously interrupted during periods of extreme cold or other- 
 wise inclement weather. At the same time it is open to the serious 
 objection that it is much more dangerous to the men, and in spite of 
 the most careful inspection and frequent scaling large bodies of 
 rock and ore are liable to be detached by the action of frost, gravity 
 or other agencies. Lately", a disposition has gradually developed to 
 abandon in large measure much of the open mining, and to remove 
 the ore by means of levels and stopes at regular intervals beneath 
 these pit floors, cross-cutting the ore-body frequently by a series of 
 drifts. Finally, after breaking away overhead, and providing an 
 arched roof, the whole is stoped away to the level below, and the ore 
 hoisted from thence by means of shafts. Only such pillars and sup- 
 ports as are necessary will remain standing, and the intervening 
 spaces will be filled by rock and ore too lean to be utilized, the whole 
 being supplemented, when necessary, by material from the dumps. 
 
 The system of open cast work, which has hitherto found most 
 favour in the district, consists, first, in the sinking of a shaft of the 
 required dimensions at varying angles, this inclination being gov- 
 erned, mainly, by the general dip and direction of the ore body. This 
 shaft secures the necessary accommodation for the skipway for hoist- 
 ing the ore, while, at the same time, it provides a manway for ingress 
 to or egress from the underground workings, by means of ladders, 
 with landings at frequent intervals. 
 
 The largest pit in the district is at the Creighton mine, where on 
 the first of June last (1904), ore was being hoisted from an open cut 
 or quarry, measuring about 350 fee I; long, by 275 feet wide and 62 
 feet deep. The pit, known as No. 2 mine of the Canadian Copper 
 Company, at the end of January, 1903, was opened up on a chimney 
 of ore, which, below the 200" foot level, is growing larger. At the bot- 
 tom of the open pit, which has reached the third level at 217 feet 
 below the surface, the average diameter is 120 feet. The new vertical 
 shaft had, at the same time, reached a depth of 390 feet, the fifth level 
 being at 374 feet. At the Victoria mine the main shaft has been 
 sunk to a depth of 557 feet, with various levels, drifts and stopes- 
 The west open pit at this mine measures 70 by 125 feet at the sur- 
 face, gradually tapering to 50 by 100 feet at the first level. 
 
 Each mine is provided with a rock house as soon as its perman- 
 ency is established, and a double skiproad leading to it from the 
 mine. The steel skips, having a capacity of one and a-half tons each,. 
 
186 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 are hoisted to the top of the rock-house, dumping automatically on a 
 large inclined i grizzly ' sizing-screen, which separates the fine from 
 the coarse ore. Most of the ore is sledged to a proper size for the 
 crusher in the mine, although, sometimes, this operation takes place 
 on the floor of the rock-house. The coarse ore falls near the mouth 
 of the 15 x 9 Blake crusher, set to about one and three-quarter inches, 
 which has a capacity of about twenty tons per hour, (or 400 tons for 
 the usual two shifts of ten hours each). Occasionally, as at the 
 Creighton mine, there are two of these Blake crushers, but usually 
 one is considered sufficient. The ore is then passed into the upper 
 end of a slightly inclined revolving trommel screen, where it is sized 
 into three classes for the succeeding operation of roasting. The fines 
 pass through three-quarter inch mesh holes in the trommel screen, the 
 medium or ragging through one and three-quarter inch holes, while 
 the coarse is discharged at the lower end of the screen and is caught 
 on an oscillating sorting table, also slightly inclined lengthwise. 
 The jerking motion of this table provides such a rate of travel 
 of the pieces of ore as enables a certain number of boys, stationed 
 along the side, to pick out and cast aside a considerable propor- 
 tion of barren rock or very lean ore, at the same time permit- 
 ting the purer and higher grades to continue their journey to the ore 
 bins. Each of these sizes falls into a separate series of bins, from 
 which ore of the required class is automatically loaded, by means '-f 
 inclined steel chutes, into standard gauge cars, and hauled by loco- 
 motives to the roasting yards. At the time the surveys for the Cop- 
 per Cliff mines area were being carried on there were three roasting 
 yards. The old one, which was graded by Dr. E. D. Peters, is situa- 
 ted immediately west of the old or East Smelter, and measures 
 roughly 2,000 feet long and 125 feet wide. This still remains in use, 
 and by the removal of the East Smelter buildings has been 
 increased to 3,000 feet. For some years a small roast yard 
 was utilized about midway between the original Copper Cliff 
 mine and the Ontario Smelting Works. The site of this, which 
 measured about 1,000 feet by 125 feet, is shown on the large 
 scale maps, but it has now been abandoned, as its situation so 
 close to the works and residences at times occasioned great discom- 
 fort to the workmen and inhabitants. The main roast yard, which is 
 in use at present, and which is capable of much greater expansion, is 
 located to the northeast of the West Smelter, towards the Manitou- 
 lin and North Shore railway. At the time the surveys were made, 
 it was about 2,700 feet long by 150 feet wide, and it could be very 
 readily extended to measure 4,000 feet. It will thus be seen that 
 without any great effort roasting ground with a capacity of from 
 
METALLURGY ROASTING 187 
 
 250,000 to 300,000 tons is already available. Many of the mines 
 situated at Copper Cliff are, of course, handy to the roast yards, but 
 most of the ore at present being utilized by the Canadian Copper 
 Manitoulin and North Shore railway a distance of about seven and 
 a half miles, to Clarabelle junction, about a mile has to be brought by 
 a branch railway to Sudbury, a distance of about three and a-half 
 miles and then down the ' Sault ' branch of the Canadian Pacific rail- 
 way to the southern roast yard at Copper Cliff, a further distance of 
 about four miles. The ore from the Frood, or No. 3, mine has to be 
 hauled first to the Stobie mine, by a spur about 1 *25 miles long, and 
 thence, by the same route, from the Stobie mine to Copper Cliff. 
 Neither of these mines are, however, in operation, as an abundant 
 supply of very high grade ore is more easily procurable at the 
 Creighton mine. At the Victoria mines of the Mond Nickel Com- 
 pany an aerial tramway carries the ore from the mine to the roast 
 yeard, and thence to the smelter. 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 In the production of nickel and copper from a sulphide ore the 
 following operations have to be considered. 
 
 1. Treatment of the ores, for low grade copper-nickel matte. 
 
 2. Treatment of the copper-nickel matte, for concentrated copper- 
 nickel matte. 
 
 3. Treatment of this matte, for copper-nickel alloys. 
 
 4. Treatment of the concentrated copper-nickel matte, for nickel 
 matte. 
 
 5. Treatment of the nickel matte, for nickel oxide and metallic 
 nickel. 
 
 The first two of these operations are carried out at the smelting 
 works in the Sudbury district. 
 
 BOASTING. 
 
 The metallurgical treatment of this ore commences at the roast 
 yard, whither it is conveyed from the mines, and being piled in con- 
 venient heaps, on previously laid cordwood, is exposed at high tem- 
 peratures, without fusion, or at most incipient fusion, to the action 
 of currents of air. The object of this roasting is to bring about the 
 oxidation of the iron, and incidentally of the sulphur, as complete as 
 is possible without involving an undue loss of metal in the slags of 
 the following smelting, and second, the expulsion of arsenic, if any 
 
188 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 should happen to be present. With the possible exception of the 
 Worthington mine, and some other deposits in that vicinity, none ot 
 the ore of the Sudbury district contains any appreciable amount of 
 arsenic or antimony. If the oxidation be very imperfect the resulting 
 matte will contain so much iron that its bringing forward will be 
 unduly costly, while if the oxidation be too thorough an undue loss 
 will occur on smelting the roasted ore. At Copper Cliff and at Vic- 
 toria mines the Canadian Copper Company and Mond Nickel Com- 
 pany have spared neither trouble nor expense in the construction and 
 equipment of their roast yards. The sites selected consisted of flats 
 or swamps which have been further graded or filled up, any natural 
 roughness or unevenness being cleared away and levelled, and the 
 whole being given a gentle slope, with carefully made drains, serves 
 to remove at once any rain or surface water. These precautions have 
 to be taken to prevent loss of metal as soluble sulphates. It has been 
 frequently stated that any great loss is thus fully guarded against, 
 but, so far as known, no deliberate attempts have been made to deter- 
 mine what amount is thus actually carried off by rain and melting 
 snow. After the heap has been fired a crust rapidly forms, which is 
 believed to give further assistance against loss, but during heavy or 
 long-continued wet and stormy weather it is believed an appreciable 
 amount is thus removed. Whether the saving of this is a commercial 
 possibility is well within the range of experiment. Hollows in thr 
 burnt-out heaps are filled with stalactites, an analysis of one of 
 which gave Mr. Donald Locke the following composition: Cu O, 
 8-42 per cent; Ni O, 10-21 per cent; Fe O, 7-18 per cent, and S Os, 
 27-53 per cent. The water, too, of the marsh adjoining, has a decided 
 bluish tinge, and an iron object immersed in it is immediately covered 
 with a thin coating of copper. 
 
 Open air heap roasting, as practised at Sudbury, is, with favour- 
 able weather conditions, an old, simple, cheap and very effective 
 method of treatment for the elimination of the undesired surplus oi 
 sulphur from low grade sulphide ores. Experiments and trials hava 
 been made to profitably save this sulphur, by present methods, but 
 the sulphur contents, averaging from 16 to 30 per cent, and for the 
 most part approaching, in this respect, the first-mentioned figure, 
 with iron from 33 to a little over 50 per cent, are, apparently, too low 
 to permit of their economic winning. 
 
 Titus Ulke 0) states that, 'during 1902, was demonstrated the 
 commercial impracticability of cheaply roasting Sudbury pyrrhotite 
 nickel ores, which do not average over 25 per cent of sulphur, in 
 Herreshoff furnaces, in order to utilize the sulphurous acid gas thus 
 
 (1) Min. Industry. Vol. XI., 1903, p. 490. 
 
METALLURGY ROASTING 189 
 
 obtained to make sulphite pulp or liquid acid. The use of the dead 
 roasted residue, in the making of ferro-nickel, was also found to be 
 commercially unsuccessful. It is recognized that, unless this roasting 
 in the Herreshoff furnace can be done mainly without the aid of ex- 
 traneous heat, the cost, compared with heap roasting, is prohibitive, 
 and that, in any case, the average percentage of sulphurous acid in 
 the gas produced is too low to be economical for use in the manu- 
 facture of calcium bisulphite for making sulphite pulp/ On the 
 other hand, Mr. E. A. Sjostedt, (*) metallurgist to the Lake Superior 
 Power Company, who initiated and carried on these trials, states that 
 the process has been worked out in a satisfactory manner, the pyrrho- 
 tite being roasted without extraneous heat, and yielding sulphurous 
 acid in quantities that more than repay the cost of converting the 
 raw ore into briquettes. 
 
 The results of operations for two weeks in 1903 showed an. average 
 recovery of 86-4 per cent of sulphur, and a total working cost of 
 $1.86 per ton of ore. Such are the conflicting statements of experts 
 who have been concerned in the practical working out of the process, 
 but the popular opinion seems general that failure has followed 
 these elaborate trials, which had the advantage of being conducted 
 on a commercial basis, by skilled men, with every modern appliance 
 to ensure success. The fact that the Lake Superior Power Company, 
 during their later operations in the Sudbury district, had practically 
 adopted the general system of heap roasting and smelting, seems to 
 lend support to the view expressed by Mr. Ulke. 
 
 The sulphurous fumes from the roast heaps have destroyed most 
 of the vegetation from within an area of between one and two miles 
 of Copper Cliff, and have a very injurious effect on vegetation, and 
 especially young and tender trees and plants, as far as the town of 
 Sudbury. In the immediate vicinity of Copper Cliff the destruction 
 wrought to all growing plants and trees is very complete, and a more 
 desolate scene can hardly be imagined than the fine white clay or silt 
 of the flats, through which protrude at intervals rough rocky hills, 
 with no trees, or even a blade of grass, to break the monotony. Of 
 late years, vegetation has, so to speak, become accustomed to the 
 sulphur, and gradually, and as a result, the area affected by the 
 fumes is becoming more circumscribed. The maple seems to with- 
 stand the sulphur the best, and trees of this species may be found 
 fairly green in the immediate proximity of the roast yards. To add 
 to this scene of desolation the houses are of wood, rarely painted, 
 while most, of the area is covered with half -decayed logs, stumps and 
 upturned roots, all of which have a peculiar brownish tinge, the re- 
 
 (1) Eng. and Min. Jour., April 25th, 1903. 
 
190 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 suit of the sulphur, which acts as an excellent preservative. On the 
 other hand, all the barbed-wire fences, telegraph lines and other iron 
 objects are rusted, and rapidly eaten away, requiring to be frequently 
 replaced. The removal of one of these roast yards has had a most 
 marked effect, and the beneficial results which were sure to follow 
 are even now beginning to be apparent, for the two remaining are 
 situated to the east and northeast of the town, and thus the prevailing 
 winds, which are from the southwest, will tend to carry the fumes 
 away. With the persistent influence and guidance of the president 
 and general manager, Mr. A. P. Turner, trees are being planted, cer 
 tain areas graded and made into lawns, roads opened up and cul- 
 verts and bridges fixed, while the tortuous course of a small stream 
 running through the town has been straightened and deepened. It 
 is hoped that these efforts at beautifying the place will meet with th<* 
 success they deserve, and already the town has taken on a new appear- 
 ance, due to these improvements. The fumes, which are free from 
 arsenic, seem to have no injurious effect on man or beast, except on 
 occasions when particularly dense and accompanied by fog, when 
 they produce a peculiar strangling or choking sensation, accompanied 
 on rare occasions by bleeding at the nose. The residents are all 
 seemingly healthy, and suffer from no unusual complaints, while 
 some even assert that the sulphur is a positive cure for catarrh, con- 
 sumption, and kindred diseases. People, however, at first, complain 
 of a strangling sensation, but this gradually disappears, and those 
 who have resided there for a time miss the sulphur when removed to 
 another place, and have even an ill-defined though rarely expressed 
 longing for this seemingly heavy and satisfying atmosphere. 
 
 At the Murray mine a huge shed with numerous large chim- 
 neys was erected for the purpose of roasting the ore during the 
 winter, but it was not a success in any respect. No great thought or 
 care has in the past marked the efforts of some of the companies in 
 the selection of a site for the roast yard, and the ore has been placed 
 in heaps, where the natural surface of the ground permitted, with 
 scarcely any previous preparation, such as grading and draining. 
 The mechanical loss, alone, from such carelessness, must have been 
 far from negligible. The main supply of fuel that can be secured 
 and is used for the heap roasting is dead or dry pine, often still 
 standing as tall bare rampikes, the remains of extensive fires which 
 swept over the area about thirty-five years ago. This, during the first 
 years of the operations, could be secured very readily and cheaply, 
 but the extensive and continuous roasting has used up all available 
 sources of supply close at hand, and this wood has now to be brought 
 considerable distances by rail, and is often mixed with ordinary 
 
METALLURGY ROASTING 191 
 
 cordwood. At the Victoria mines, however, there is an abundant 
 supply of this dry pine for years to come, and it is brought in by 
 teams and sleighs during the winter, from the area immediately ad- 
 joining. This dry pine is very efficient for this purpose as it is 
 readily kindled and produces almost immediately a short though 
 fierce heat which serves to ignite the pile thoroughly, and this, once 
 started, continues burning on account of its sulphur contents. 
 
 The roast heaps are rectangular in shape, varying in size from forty 
 by sixty feet, and seven feet high, to sixty feet by 120 feet and 
 eighteen feet high, containing, in general, from 200 to over 3,000 tons 
 of ore. The small heaps of 200 tons are of ' split matte, ' of which 
 mention will again be made. Ore heaps are not less than about 600 
 tons. Heaps of from 800 to 1,000 tons should burn out in from 
 forty to fifty days, the larger heap taking, in general, from three to 
 four months, while occasional heaps containing 4,000 tons, which 
 are the largest yet attempted and which were by no means a brilliant 
 success, have been known to burn from six to seven months. The 
 ore is piled on a bed of split wood, about one cord being 
 used to twenty tons of ore. This wood serves to start the 
 oxidation of the sulphur, iron, nickel and copper; the sulphur to 
 sulphurous acid, the iron to iron oxide, the nickel and copper chiefly 
 to sulphates. The sulphur, which, in general, averages about 25 per 
 cent, is reduced to about 6 or 8 per cent, while the iron is, in large 
 part, oxidized to ferrous oxide, and the associated norite or gangue is 
 rendered more or less porous or disintegrated by the swelling and 
 oxidation of the ore. An analysis of roasted ore, in December, 1888, 
 gave F. L. Sperry 5-40 per cent of copper, 2-43 per cent of nickel. 
 7-92 per cent of sulphur and 25 per cent of iron and the rest gangue, 
 chiefly norite or diorite. L. P. Silver ( x ) states that an average sample 
 of the roasted ore gave 3-25 per cent of copper, 2-16 per cent of 
 nickel, 8-32 per cent of sulphur, 25-61 per cent of iron and the rest 
 gangue. 
 
 Donald Locke says that the roasted ore in 1902, being used by 
 the Canadian Copper Company, assayed about 1-5 per cent of copper, 
 2-5 per cent of nickel, 6 per cent of sulphur and 26 per cent of iron. 
 At the Mond Nickel Company no assays of the roasted ore are made, 
 as it is so variable in composition and difficult to obtain representa- 
 tive material, and one-tenth is added to the assays of the raw ore to 
 enable the furnace manager to make up a charge for smelting. 
 
 When an abundance of ore fines is in stock, over and above the 
 usual requirements for covering and finishing the heaps, the excess is 
 generally used to cover the ground on which the roast heap is to be 
 
 (1) Jour. Can. Min. Inst.. Vol. V., 1902, p. 544. 
 
192 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 built, to a depth of about six inches. The material is thus ' caked ' 
 together in the roasting, and after having served for several roast- 
 ings is broken up and used as coarse ore, as it has only enjoyed an 
 incipient oxidation. These roast piles are built up as follows: the 
 place selected may or may not be covered with the ' fines, ' as already 
 mentioned, as occasion demands. Sticks of cordwood, of nearly 
 uniform size, should be placed side by side across both sides and ends 
 of the rectangular area. The whole interior of this may be filled in 
 with old stumps, roots, ties or cordwood, as material comes to hand, 
 but in such a way as to form a level and solid bed on which the 
 ore is to rest. Over this is placed small wood and chips to fill up 
 all the larger interstices, care being taken to provide small canals, 
 filled with kindlings, at intervals of eight to ten feet, leading from the 
 outer air to the center of the heap. As first practised these canals 
 connected with ' chimneys ' along the centre, which were specially 
 designed to rapidly and certainly kindle the whole heap. These 
 chimneys were usually built of four sticks or old boards, so fixed 
 together as to leave an opening, communicating below with the 
 draught passages. Five or six such chimneys sufficed for each pile, 
 and they were made to project two feet above the upper surface of 
 the heap, so that no pieces of ore could fall into the flue opening. 
 Such precautions, to ensure certain kindlings, are, however, not need- 
 ed, and the canals are amply sufficient for this purpose; besides, it 
 was found that they induced undue local heating in their immediate 
 vicinity, thus tending to incipient fusing or matting of the ore, which 
 is to be specially guarded against. The bed of cordwood varies from 
 nine to eighteen inches in depth, according to the size of the pile. 
 This bed of fuel being completed the coarse ore to the extent of about 
 65 per cent of the whole heap is transferred by wheelbarrows from the 
 cars over a narrow and roughly constructed trestle platform running 
 the whole length of the heap. This plan is sometimes adopted by the 
 Mond Nickel Company, at the Victoria mines, although in some 
 instances, the tram cars are deflected by means of a spur or branch 
 line of the aerial tramway running over the roast beds. The car 
 is then lowered, and the ore dumped directly at any place desired. 
 The medium sized ore or ' ragging,' about the size of nut coal, is then 
 carefully spread over the coarse ore, and lastly, the whole heap is 
 covered up with fines, until a height of from six to eighteen feet is 
 reached, according to the size of the pile. The whole structure should 
 then form a shapely rectangular pile, with sharp corners, and as 
 steeply sloping sides as the ore will naturally lie on without rolling 
 (about 45). 
 
 The heap is now finished, and only those openings connecting 
 
METALLURGY ROASTING 193 
 
 with the canals around the base of the pile are left exposed. Kind- 
 lings or cotton waste, saturated with oil, are applied to these openings, 
 and these are simultaneously ignited. These openings are themselves 
 covered with ' fines ' as soon as the cordwood is burning freely. 
 In spite of this ample covering the whole of the fuel, as stated by 
 Mr. James McArthur, (") is burned out in about sixty hours after 
 lighting up. ' A complete oxidizing roasting process then begins, and 
 continues until the end, namely, until the sulphur contents are so far 
 reduced and burned off that there is not sufficient left to promote 
 further combustion. The remaining portion of the sulphur (6 to 8 
 per cent) is enclosed and sealed up in non-porous portions of ore or 
 matte, the semi-fused covering of which would require to be re- 
 broken in order to expose fresh faces under heat and thus liberate the 
 remaining sulphur. This could only be done by turning over and re- 
 roasting the ore, after the first roast was finished, but it is not at all 
 necessary as the remaining sulphur is essential in the smelting of 
 the ore, in order to produce a clean slag.' About twelve hours after 
 the firing the whole heap should be pouring forth dense pale yellow 
 fumes of sulphurous acid. Great attention is paid to the pile for the 
 first few days to prevent excessive local heating, which frequently 
 causes partial fusion of the ore, this tending to prevent successful 
 roasting. The heap is carefully and systematically watched day and 
 night, and all holes or fissures, caused chiefly by settlement due to 
 the burning out of the fuel, are at once covered with ' fines ' of raw 
 ore. After the first few days are over the pile may be left to itself 
 until cold enough to remove to the storage bins or furnace. After 
 the period of roasting is over, and the pile is cold enough to be 
 handled, the outer covering of partially roasted ore is first removed. 
 This is more abundant along the sides and base, and the precaution 
 is sometimes taken to cover up these portions of the pile with old 
 iron sheeting, which materially assists in preserving the heat, thus 
 aiding the roasting. The longer the period of roasting the less the 
 matting, and, of course, the larger the heap, the smaller quantity of 
 the outside covering or margin is left only partially roasted. When 
 this outer covering is removed to be re-roasted the remainder of the 
 heap is conveyed in wheel-barrows a few yards, in one case, to a 
 sunken railroad which runs alongside of the roast yards. At the 
 Mond Nickel Company it is loaded into cars, which are hauled up 
 an inclined tramway to an elevated series of strong bins at the 
 roast yard, from whence it is loaded, as required, into the aerial 
 tramcars, and thus conveyed to the smelter. 
 
 (1) Ann. Report, Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903. p. 300. 
 
 418713 
 
194 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 The ore, when roasted, is aggregated together in large clinker- 
 like masses. They are loosened and broken up into suitable pieces 
 for smelting, usually by pick and shovel, but often the assistance of 
 explosives is needed to help in the removal. This roasted ore is 
 loaded on large side-dumping cars, and hauled by locomotives to the 
 stock bins at the furnaces. An experienced workman knows the 
 difference in the quality of roasted ores at sight, and is able "to mix 
 them roughly, as they are loaded into the cars at the heaps, to be 
 taken to the smelter and dumped into separate bins. Here it is 
 sampled, and again mixed by the furnace men and made into smelt- 
 ing charges and fed into the furnaces. 
 
 SMELTING. 
 
 The copper nickel ores of the Sudbury district are, at present, 
 (June, 1904,) being treated by only one corporation, the Canadian 
 Copper Company, but during the progress of our work in 1901 and 
 1902 both the Mond Nickel Company and the Lake Superior Power 
 Company were also conducting smelting operations. The Mond 
 Company produced both the blast furnace or standard matte, and the 
 bessemer or converter matte, while the last-mentioned corporation 
 restricted their refining process to obtaining the lower grade or blast 
 furnace matte. The smelter of the Lake Superior Power Company, 
 situated at the Gertrude mines, was completed early in June, 1902, 
 and for some time was treating fr'om 100 to 160 tons of ore daily. 
 The matte resulting from these operations steadily accumulated at 
 the works until the suspension of all operations of this concern in 
 1903, and, during this period about 2,000 tons of the standard matte 
 were produced. This matte is stated to have contained 29 per cent 
 of nickel and copper combined, the proportion of the nickel to the 
 copper being as 2 to 1. It was proposed to further refine this product 
 at a converter plant being erected at Sault Ste. Marie, or to ship it 
 elsewhere to be refined. In addition about twenty tons of ore daily, 
 out of a total production of 200 tons, were picked out as free as possi- 
 ble from chalcopyrite, which quantity was laid aside to be shipped to 
 Sault Ste. Marie for the manufacture of ferro-nickel. 
 
 From 1889 to 1893 the Murray mine conducted rather extensive 
 smelting operations, making both standard and bessemer matte. The 
 average of the lower grade product was 8-5 per cent of nickel and 4 
 per cent of copper, while Walker's analysis of the latter showed it to 
 contain 48-82 per cent of nickel and cobalt and 25-92 per cent if 
 copper. The Dominion Mineral Company, during the same period, 
 produced only standard or blast furnace matte, containing from 18 
 to 20 per cent of copper and 24 to 26 per cent of nickel. About 1893,. 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 195 
 
 and later in 1896 and 1898, the Drury Nickel Company, and the 
 same corporation reorganized under the name of the Trill Mining 
 Company, smelted and sold about 420 tons of blast furnace matte. 
 During the early >90's, the Canadian Copper Company produced a 
 considerable amount of high grade matte by the bessemer process, 
 but the refiners seeming to prefer the standard or blast furnaco 
 matte the manufacture of this product was abandoned, and the besse- 
 mer plant, consisting of a cupola, and three converters, located at the 
 East Smelter, has been left idle for the greater part of the time since. 
 In the fall of 1900 the plant of the Ontario Smelting Works was 
 installed by the Orford Copper Company, an organization closely 
 related to the Canadian Copper Company, both of which, in April, 
 1902, were included in the amalgamation of these and kindred cor- 
 porations under the name of the International Nickel Company. 
 These works were designed to further refine the low grade or blast 
 furnace matte of the Canadian Copper Company. 
 
 Before the erection of the new smelter, which will be described 
 and figured later, the Canadian Copper Company had smelting plants 
 installed in two separate buildings, known respectively as the East 
 and West Smelters. The processes at the two smelters were alike, 
 and they differed only in the number of their blast furnaces. At the 
 West Smelter there were eight, and at the East Smelter five blast 
 furnaces, in addition to the bessemer plant. Lately the East Smelter 
 has been dismantled, and in a short time it is stated to be the inten- 
 tion of the company to pull down the West Smelter also, and con- 
 centrate all refining operations under one roof. At the time of writ- 
 ing no smelting is carried on at Copper Cliff, but the company have 
 leased the Mond Smelter at Victoria mines for a period of six months, 
 this lease expiring about the 1st of August next, and all refining 
 operations going on at present are carried on at this place. 
 
 The smelting or blast furnaces have the form of a flattened ellipse, 
 are nine feet in height to the charging door, and measure nine feet by 
 five feet at the top, and nine feet eight inches by four feet four 
 inches at the tuyeres, of which there are twenty-five (2 inch), arrang- 
 ed in two rows. They are made of steel with a water space of two 
 inches between the outer and inner plates, and have for a bottom a 
 cast iron plate one and three-quarter inches thick protected 
 by fire-brick, the whole supported by four strong cast iron 
 legs. A light dome of plate steel, brick-lined at the 
 top and sides, covers the furnace, and in one side of this dome, on a 
 level with the ore bins, is the feed door. The furnace gases pass to 
 the stacks, (one to each pair of furnaces), through brick chambers 
 with trough-shaped sheet iron bottoms. Here the flue dust, having an 
 
 4187 13i 
 
196 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 opportunity to be precipitated, is taken periodically from these cham- 
 bers and added to the blast furnace charges. The smelters are situ- 
 ated at or near the ground level, and ore, coke and flux are brought 
 into the building on an elevated track, and dumped into the bins on 
 the feed floor level. The well, forehearth or settling pot, is built of 
 cast iron water-jackets in four sections, with a water space of six 
 inches, and rests upon four wheels, for convenience of moving it 
 whenever repairs are necessary; a second well standing ready to be 
 put in its place. When the forehearth is in position a square open- 
 ing on one side is fitted by fire-clay to a corresponding opening in 
 the furnace, and the molten slag and matte flow into the forehearth 
 when the furnace is in blast. The feeding of the furnace is con- 
 tinued at frequent and stated intervals, and as the molten mass 
 gathers at the base of the furnace it flows through the discharge 
 liole into the forehearth, where the heavier or metallic portion, 
 (matte), sinks to the bottom, while the lighter slag rises to the sur- 
 face, to flow out in a continuous stream from a water-cooled, phos- 
 phor-bronze slag spout to a Me Arthur granulating trough, where it 
 comes in quiet contact with a stream of water that has already done 
 duty in the water-jackets of the furnace, and flowing in the same 
 direction as the stream of molten slag. This granulated slag is 
 carried by the water, which gradually filters away into the dump or 
 into the slag wells, out of which the slag is elevated by means of a 
 bucket elevator into high waste heaps. From these immense dumps 
 road makers, and especially the Canadian Pacific and Manitoulin 
 and North Shore railways, help themselves, loading this slag on cars 
 by means of steam shovels for use as ballast, for which it is excel- 
 lently adapted. It is much heavier than ordinary ballast and does 
 not retain water and, therefore, is not so liable to wash-outs, or to 
 freeze in winter and heave up the tracks, as does the ordinary sandy 
 or silt ballast often used in the district. 
 
 The matte is drawn off periodically, the tap-hole for this purpose 
 being situated at a lower level, which is opened with a pointed iron 
 rod and afterwards closed with a plug of fire-clay. This process is 
 usually attended with a display of fireworks, but, as the men engaged 
 at it become very expert, the stream of liquid matte is very quickly 
 and effectively stopped. The matte is then allowed to remain in the 
 cast iron pots or moulds into which it has been tapped, until cool, 
 when it is dumped out, broken by means of sledge-hammers, weighed, 
 loaded on cars, and shipped to the Ontario Smelting Works for 
 further treatment. 
 
 The blast is furnished by No. 7 Connersville blowers, discharging 
 sixty-seven cubic feet of air blast per revolution, and making from 90 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 
 
 197 
 
 to 130 revolutions per minute, each blower being driven by an engine 
 of fifty H. P. The blast is delivered at the tuyeres at a pressure of 
 about fourteen to sixteen ounces per square inch. 
 
 The roasted ore, with which the furnace is principally charged, is 
 a mixture of oxides, sulphates and sulphides of nickel, copper and 
 iron, together with a certain amount of the basic silicate of the gan- 
 gue. The process of smelting is very economical, the ore furnishing 
 in itself the exact ingredients for fluxing. By the smelting of the ore 
 with a small quantity of quartz in the blast furnace, using from 15 
 to 17 per cent of Connellsville coke, the iron is chiefly reduced to 
 ferrous oxide and forms a slag with the gangue and quartz. 
 
 Under I and II, are analyses of this slag by Mr. Donald Locke, 
 late assayer of this 'Department. Under III, is an average analysis, 
 published by Mr. John Herdt, 0) while under IV, is an analysis by 
 Mr. J. W. Bain. ( 2 ) 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 TV 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silica 
 
 34'16 
 
 32'58 
 
 38-00 
 
 26 '67 
 
 Ferrous oxide 
 
 41 '24 
 
 44-37 
 
 43-00 
 
 50-82 
 
 Ferrous sulphide . . ... 
 
 
 
 
 3'52 
 
 .Lime 
 
 8 '23 
 
 6'62 
 
 4'50 
 
 3'38 
 
 Magnesia 
 Copper 
 
 3-44 
 0'25 
 
 2-77 
 0'13 
 
 2-00 
 0'40 
 
 2-95 
 0'20 
 
 Nickel 
 
 0'23 
 
 0'23 
 
 0'45 
 
 O'lO 
 
 Alumina 
 
 9 '03 
 
 10 '41 
 
 10-00 
 
 12-88 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 0'91 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 97-49 
 
 97-11 
 
 100-85 
 
 100-52 
 
 The nickel and copper, and some of the iron, unite with the sul- 
 phur to form a matte. Under I and II, are analyses of this blast 
 furnace or standard matte, the results obtained by Mr. Donald Locke, 
 in November, 1902; under III, is an analysis by Mr. J. W. Bain, 
 (1900) ; under IV, is the mean of two analyses of matte, which were 
 made by Mr. F. .L. Sperry on the 22nd February, and the 2nd of 
 March, 1899. Under V, is the copper and nickel determination for 
 this matte in February, 1891, while under VI, are determinations 
 for these same metals by Mr. L. P. Silver (1902). 
 
 (1) " Les Mines de Nickel du District de Sudbury (Ontario)." 
 de Commerce, Montreal, 1892, p. 39. 
 
 (2) Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1900. p. 217. 
 
 Rep. Cham. 
 
198 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Copper 
 
 Nickel.. 
 
 Iron . 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Cobalt.. 
 
 Slag.... 
 
 Totals . 
 
 14-69 
 28-17 
 31-89 
 24-96 
 
 99-71 
 
 II. 
 
 14-53 
 26-34 
 34-15 
 24-93 
 
 99-85 
 
 III. 
 
 19-87 
 
 16-75 
 
 43-90 
 
 18-72 
 
 0-63 
 
 0-05 
 
 99-92 
 
 IV. 
 
 26-910 
 
 14-140 
 
 31-235 
 
 26-950 
 
 0-235 
 
 0-935 
 
 100-405 
 
 V. 
 
 17-24 
 21-44 
 
 VI 
 
 20-35 
 16-48 
 
 38-68 36-83 
 
 Each furnace, of which there were thirteen installed, puts through 
 about 130 tons every twenty-four hours, the total capacity being about 
 1,800 tons per day. 
 
 Mr. Donald Locke gives the following average for a day's work 
 of a furnace. In a day of twelve hours, using twelve ounce blast pres- 
 sure, there were smelted 264,000 pounds of roasted ore, assaying: 
 
 Copper 1-43 per cent. 
 
 Nickel 2-56 
 
 Silica 26-00 
 
 Sulphur 5-57 
 
 To this was added 3,600 pounds of quartz, with 98 per cent of ailics, 
 using 45,300 pounds coke (17 per cent),. There were produced 26,- 
 318 pounds of matte, containing: 
 
 Copper 11-90 per cent. 
 
 Nickel 22-10 
 
 and 207,425 pounds of slag, containing: 
 
 Copper 0-27 per cent. 
 
 Nickel 0-40 " 
 
 Silica 32-00 
 
 Iron 40-00 " 
 
 An extraordinarily good run was as follows With a sixteen ounce 
 blast there were smelted in twenty-four hours: 
 
 Ore 510,000 Ibs. 
 
 Quartz 2,250 " 
 
 Using coke 87,200 " 
 
 There were produced: 
 
 Matte 44,231 Ibs. 
 
 Slag ... 439,233 " 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 199 
 
 The furnace gases pass to the stacks (one to each pair of fur- 
 naces), through brick chambers, with trough-shaped sheet iron bot- 
 toms. Here the flue dust, having an opportunity to be precipitated, 
 is taken periodically from these chambers and added to the blast 
 furnace charges. Four samples, assayed by Mr. Locke in 1902, re- 
 sulted as follows: 
 
 I. II. III. IV. 
 
 Copper 1-45 1-49 1-55 1-39 
 
 Nickel.... 3-28 3-84 3-79 3-62 
 
 An assay of a typical sample, by Mr. L. P. Silver, (*) gave copper 
 4-25 per cent and nickel 3-37 per cent. 
 
 In the roasting of the ore a large proportion is badly roasted, or, 
 owing to the heat in the pile being too intense, the ore melts to matte 
 and is not roasted at all. This should be re-roasted, and is so, to a 
 certain extent, but when large orders are on hand this unroasted and 
 partly roasted ore is smelted in the blast furnace, and the resulting 
 low grade matte is ' split/ that is, poured out on the ground in layers 
 of about half an inch in thickness, and broken up. Two assays of 
 this ' split ' matte, collected in November, 1902, gave Mr. Locke the 
 following results: 
 
 Nickel 2-30 per cent. 3-43 per cent. 
 
 Copper 3-26 3-56 
 
 Iron 63-08 " 61-18 " 
 
 This matte usually contains from 7 to 15 per cent of the metals, 
 and a typical sample analyzed by Mr. L. P. Silver, (op. cit.), con- 
 tained nickel 6.01 per cent and copper 7.45 per cent. 
 
 This ' split matte ' is broken up and taken to the roast-yard where 
 it is roasted in small heaps (about 200 tons)* After the necessary 
 oxidation, the roasting usually lasting about thirty days, it is re- 
 melted, being added to the blast furnace charge in place of some of the 
 ore, the matte thus produced being thereby much richer in metallic 
 contents. 
 
 Previous to the installation of the plant at the Ontario Smelting 
 Works the Canadian Copper Company still further refined their own 
 blast furnace or standard matte by the ' Bessemer Process. ' In 
 these earlier years, about 1893, this was done on rather an extensive 
 scale, but during the later '90's, there was no very constant or largo 
 demand for this higher grade of matte, and this method of concen- 
 tration was only practised as occasion demanded. The converter 
 
 (1) Jour. Can. Min. Inst, Vol. V., 1902, p. 456. 
 
200 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 used was of the Manches type, with a capacity of one and a half tons 
 with a new lining, and three tons with an old lining. 
 
 The process is very similar to that followed in bessemerizing iron. 
 The Manches converters are cylindrical shaped vessels, with convex 
 ends measuring usually about eight feet in length, with a diameter 
 of about four feet. They are made of boiler plate, and lined with a 
 thick layer of clay mixed with quartz. 
 
 In the first years much of the quartz used, and especially at the 
 Murray mine, was obtained from the Bruce mines, where great quan- 
 tities of ' skimpings ' exist, resulting from the jigging of the ore from 
 that mine during its operation in past years. This material consists 
 of the crushed quartzose gangue, cleaned of all but a small propor- 
 tion of the sulphides of copper constituting the ore. It carries but 
 a small proportion of feldspar. The silica now to be used is ob- 
 tained from a large vein of massive quartz, situated on the high 
 range of norite hills near the shores of Kelley lake, a little over a 
 mile south of the large new smelter. 
 
 The converter rests, with its axis horizontal, on a carriage running 
 on a track. It is provided, on its upper side, with a mouth or throat 
 through which it can be charged. The dimensions are: length seven 
 feet, three inches; diameter five feet, eight inches. The blast is 
 driven through the charge from two parallel series of small tuyere 
 holes, piercing the lining along either side, below and along the length 
 of the vessel. Opposite each of these tuyere holes corresponding holes 
 are pierced through the tubes which run along the outside of the con- 
 verter to supply them with blast. These holes are closed with wood- 
 en plugs, removable to admit an iron bar, which, being poked through 
 them successively during the process of blowing, keeps the tuyeres 
 clear and the charge stirred. 
 
 A gearing enables the converter to be rotated on the car about its 
 horizontal axis, and the throat having been thus lowered, a charge of 
 low grade matte from the well or forehearth of the cupola is run into 
 it by means of a trough. It is then rotated back until the mouth is 
 again vertical, and run around underneath a large hood connected 
 with a stack in another part of the smelter house where it is connect- 
 ed with the blower. 
 
 At first a pressure starting at five pounds of an air blast is blown 
 through the mass of metal, when a violent agitation takes place, and 
 on raising the pressure to seven pounds white fumes appear. As there 
 are none of the usual flame reactions the point at which to stop the 
 blast, after the iron has been removed, and before the nickel has also 
 begun to slag in undue amount, requires special experience and 
 judgment. The end of the operation is determined mainly by a 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 
 
 201 
 
 perceptible decrease in the temperature of the mass, as shown by the 
 flame, but also of the fragments splashed or blown out of the con- 
 verter, as well as by the size and appearance of the particles, which 
 gradually become larger and more frothy, at the last issuing in 
 pieces about the size of a man's hand. The duration of the blowing 
 operation depends on the size of the charge, and the displacement of 
 the converter spaces for the siliceous lining i gradually appropriated 
 by the iron in the charge. Each charge is, therefore, greater than 
 the preceding one, until the sixth or seventh charge is blown, when 
 the converter is laid to one side for relining. As a result of this, the 
 continuance of the blast generally varies from twenty to eighty min- 
 utes, averaging about fifty minutes. 
 
 During the bessemerizing process the iron is almost entirely 
 removed, the sulphur lowered to from 10 to 15 per cent, and the 
 copper and nickel combined to from 80 to 85 per cent. The iron 
 unites with the siliceous lining to form a very fluid slag, which is 
 spilled off the top. The amount of nickel lost by oxidation is very 
 trifling, cobalt is perfectly scorified, zinc, arsenic and antimony are 
 completely driven off, while bismuth, silver, gold and platinum are 
 entirely concentrated in this matte. 
 
 The following are analyses of this bessemer matte: 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Nickel 
 Cobalt 
 
 J39 "96 
 
 40-93 
 
 31-35 
 
 41-18 
 
 39-64 
 
 48-82 
 
 Copper. 
 Iron 
 Sulphur 
 
 Gold 
 
 43-36 
 0-30 
 13-76 
 / 0-1 to 
 1 n 9 r\t 
 
 45-71 
 
 0-40 
 
 48-86 
 0-81 
 
 44-87 
 0-94 
 11-62 
 
 0.0 _._ 
 
 42-75 
 1'03 
 14-05 
 
 25-92 
 2-94 
 22-50 
 
 00007 fv 
 
 Silver 
 
 7 oz. 
 
 
 
 5'1 QZ. 
 
 5'30oz. 
 
 001775 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 0'25oz. 
 
 
 
 
 0-50 
 
 000430 
 
 Iridium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 000056 
 
 Osmium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 000057 
 
 Rhodium. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trace. 
 
 Palladium 
 
 25 oz 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trace. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Explanations. Analysis I is by Titus Ulke and is styled ' a fair 
 average analysis of the Canadian Copper Company's bessemer matte.' 
 (Min. Industry, Vol. Ill, 1890, p. 460) ; II, and III, are by Koberts- 
 Austeii, (Min. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Vol. CXXXV. p. 30) ; IV, is 
 an analysis by J. W. Bain, (Ann Kep. Bur. of Mines, Ont, 1900, p. 
 218) ; V, is an analysis by L. P. Silver, (Jour. Can. Min. Inst., Vol. 
 V, 1902, p. 534) ; VI, an analysis by Dr. T. L. Walker of the besse- 
 mer matte from the Murray mine, (Amer. Jour. Sc. Vol. I, 4th 
 
202 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 Series, 1896, p. 112; also Ann. Kep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., 1903, pp. 
 283-284). 
 
 Under Norway, on a preceding page, analyses of similar concen- 
 trated matte, obtained from the Norwegian pyrrhotite, are also 
 quoted. These show the presence also of gold, silver and platinum 
 in appreciable quantities. Speaking roughly the silver is only from 
 one-half to one-quarter of that present in the Sudbury matte, the 
 gold about the same as that in the Murray mine matte, which is only 
 about one-quarter of that present in the mattes from the Copper 
 Cliff and the Victorian mines, while the metals of the platinum group 
 occur in about half the amount of that present in the Murray mine, 
 this matte itself only containing less than half that usually present 
 in the mattes produced from the Copper Cliff and Victoria mines. 
 
 Prof. Vogt also gives the interesting information that the pro- 
 portion of these metals present in the Norwegian ores and mattes 
 is one part of gold to twenty of silver, one of platinum to thirty of 
 silver, one of silver to 5,000 of nickel and one of platinum to 150,000 
 of nickel. 
 
 The following are analyses of the converter or bessemer slag. All 
 converter slags are returned to the furnaces for re-smelting, as they 
 are so high in nickel. 
 
 I. II. III. 
 
 Ferrous Iron 66-6 67-1 67-6 
 
 Silica 28-5 27-9 27-5 
 
 Nickel 1-9 1-6 1-4 
 
 Copper 1-1 0-8 1-2 
 
 Sulphur 0-5 0-4 0-5 
 
 I and II, are analyses by Edwards, (Eng. and Min. Jour., May 2nd, 
 1896; ; III, is an analysis by L. P. Silver, (Jour. Can. Min. Inst., 
 Vol. V, 1902, p. 549). 
 
 From about the beginning of November, 1900, until the destruc- 
 tion of the plant early in the spring of 1904, the blast furnace matte 
 produced by the Canadian Copper Company was further refined at 
 the Ontario Smelting Works, built and operated by the Orford Cop- 
 per Company at Copper Cliff. These companies were closely allied, 
 and were consolidated in 1902 under the management of the Inter- 
 national Nickel Company. 
 
 The standard matte is brought from the Canadian Copper Com- 
 pany's works on cars, and put through a Blake crusher. It passes 
 from that directly into a Krupp ball mill, where it is reduced to a 
 fine powder. From the ball mill it runs on a belt conveyer, which 
 raises it to a storage bin, and from this storage bin it is conveyed 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 203 
 
 still further, as required, on belt conveyers, to the feed hoppers of 
 the roasting furnace. 
 
 The matte is roasted in two Brown, straight-line, automatic re- 
 verberatory calciners, each with a hearth area of 140 feet by ten feet. 
 Later, these furnaces were enlarged to 200 feet, and a third one of 
 similar dimensions was also built. One furnace has six sets of 
 ploughs, and the other seven. The ploughs make one, complete trip 
 in six and a half minutes. The plough carriage, on passing the auto- 
 matic feeder, causes a certain amount of the powdered matte to fall 
 into the furnace. Each furnace puts through forty-five tons of matte 
 in twenty-four hours, and reduces the sulphur from 25 to 30 per cent 
 down to 5 to 8 per cent, using four and a half cords of wood per fur- 
 nace per day. 
 
 The roasted matte is discharged from the furnaces into the 
 trough of a screw conveyer, which takes it to the feeding floor of the 
 blast furnace. 
 
 The furnaces are of brick, usually known as the f Orford ' fur- 
 nace, cooled in the region of the tuyeres by water circulating in 
 pipes embedded in the brickwork. The furnace measures fifty inches 
 by 128 inches at the tuyeres, of which there are seven. 
 
 The blast is furnished by two No. 9 Sturtevant, centrifugal blow- 
 ers. The furnaces are fed by hand, the charge consisting of roasted 
 matte, fed in powder form, with quartz tailings and some roasted 
 ore. 
 
 Owing to the large amount of fines in the charge, great quantities 
 of fine dust are formed forty tons a week being a small figure, and 
 often as high as eighty tons a week being produced. This flue dust, 
 assaying about 11 per cent of copper, and 18 per cent of nickel, is 
 put through the furnace again. 
 
 The matte and slag flow from the furnace continuously into an 
 Orford siphon-tap forehearth. This consists of a rectangular box 
 about four feet long, two feet six inches wide and eighteen inches 
 high, formed of cast iron plates strongly bolted together at the corn- 
 ers and lined with a six-inch brick wall. It is divided into two parts, 
 in the ratio of about two to three, by a nine inch division wall, with 
 a slot on the level of the floor of the forehearth through which the 
 matte can flow from the larger compartment, the forehearth fills, 
 the slag being lighter floats, and only the matte is able to find its way 
 to the smaller compartment, through the slot at the bottom of the 
 division wall. 
 
 When the forehearth is full matte and slag are discharged in 
 separate and continuous streams, the former being received in cast 
 iron pots. This refined product is shipped to the Orford Copper Com- 
 
204 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 pany, New York, for the separation of copper and nickel. Two 
 samples of this high grade matte, assayed by Mr. Donald Locke, 
 contained as follows: 
 
 Nickel 41-58 40-37 
 
 Cobalt 0-71 0-78 
 
 Copper 24-99 24-95 
 
 Iron.. : 9-82 9-64 
 
 Silver 2-50 oz. per ton. 
 
 Gold 0-15 oz. per ton. 0-10 " " 
 
 Platinum .... -50 " " -44 " " 
 
 Two samples of the slag collected at the same time, analyzed by 
 Mr. Donald Locke, gave the following results: 
 
 Silica 31-03 26-62 
 
 Ferrous oxide 64-31 66-72 
 
 Lime 0-22 0-24 
 
 Magnesia 0-08 0-09 
 
 Nickel 2-57 2-68 
 
 Copper 0-56 0-77 
 
 Alumina 0-54 0-54 
 
 Sulphur 0-49 0-30 
 
 Totals.. 99-80 97-96 
 
 f This slag is taken to the Canadian Copper Company's works, and 
 put through the blast furnace to recover the metal contents, which 
 are too high to be neglected. 
 
 PYRITIC SMELTING. 
 
 Mr. James McArthur is authority for the following statement: C 1 ) 
 ' Cold blast pyritic smelting of sulphide ores has been carried on in 
 Canada, off and on, and for long periods at a time, since 1879 ; not as 
 an experiment but as a process. Thousands of tons of copper sul- 
 phide fines have been smelted with cold blast, and later on in recent 
 years at Copper Cliff with cold and also with very moderately hot 
 blast, (the latter about 400 F.), making in these recent operations 
 some 18,000 to 20,000 tons of matte product. The coke consumption 
 was about 5 per cent for both temperatures of the blast, the grade 
 of matte product being almost identical. With a blast temperature 
 sufficiently high not less than 1200 F. to counteract gumming at 
 tuyeres, the sulphur contents of the ore, which should be the only 
 fuel used apart from a small percentage of the iron, can be kept in 
 
 (1) Ann. Rep. Boir. of Mines, Out., 1903, pp. 302 and 303. 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 205 
 
 ignition, and with a higher pressure of the blast we should get suffi- 
 ciently rapid oxidation action, even in a large and fast smelting 
 furnace, to produce a direct 30 per cent matte, or even seven into 
 one from a raw 4 per cent ore as it comes from the mines, because 
 if we can dispense with all carbonaceous fuel in first smelting and 
 can use the sulphur contents of charge in its stead, we stop all reduc- 
 ing action, and in lieu thereof introduce a complete oxidizing action, 
 oxidizing the iron and consuming the sulphur in the operation.' 
 
 Just to what extent green ore will be employed, in place of 
 roasted ore, under the new conditions which will obtain at the new 
 smelter which is about to be described, and where the pressure will 
 be forty instead of fourteen ounces, cannot be foretold, but it is ex- 
 pected that a very large amount of raw ore will be added to the fur- 
 nace charge. 
 
 The drawings accompanying this bulletin are plan and sectional 
 elevations of a 1000-ton smelter designed by the Engineering Com- 
 pany of New York C 1 ). These were submitted to the Canadian 
 Copper Company, who, after their approval and adoption, proceeded 
 to instal this new smelting and power plant, in which are assembled 
 the latest and best improvements and conveniences for every part of 
 the work. It is confidently expected that this smelter will be in opera- 
 tion early in July (1904) ( 2 ). 
 
 In the erection of this smelter there were several objects that had 
 to be borne in mind, among them the cheap handling of a large ton- 
 nage of ore, the storage during the winter months of materials such 
 as coke and coal, which can be received by boat during summer; the 
 elimination of all needless manual labour, and the thorough effi- 
 ciency of the power department. The plant was designed to be erected 
 on two levels; the large amount of slag produced had to be taken 
 into consideration, and the disposition of this slag was an important 
 factor in determining the site. The plant, as it now stands, was built 
 along the face of a cliff on the northern side of the flat on which the 
 town of Copper Cliff stands. 
 
 On the upper edge of the cliff a system of bins has been con- 
 structed for storage purposes. The smelter building proper is situated 
 parallel to these bins, with the power-house at the northeastern end. 
 A trestle was built on the grade level of the bottom of the bins, which 
 is also the grade level of the charging floor connecting the charging 
 floor with the bins and also with the power-house, making a circular 
 track, running on both sides of the furnaces, and passing the coal 
 
 (1) The blocks for the drawings" reproduced in this report were kindly 
 loaned by the Engineering and Mining Journal of New York. 
 
 (2) Eng. Min. Jour. Vol. LXXVI.. Dec. 31st, pp. 1003-ia09. 
 
206 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 chute in front of the power-house. After roasting the ore is loaded 
 into fifty-ton hopper bottom cars, and drawn up to the top of the bins 
 by seventy- ton locomotives. The track leading to the trestle is on an 
 easy grade all the way, and is also connected with the main line lead- 
 ing to the Canadian Pacific railway. 
 
 All ore, flux, coke, &c., is handled on these tracks, and dumped 
 directly into the bins. Running on the circular track underneath 
 the bins, and into the smelter building and past the power house, is 
 an electric railroad, with side-dumping cars drawn by electric locomo- 
 tives. The ore, coke, &c., is loaded into these cars, and weighed on 
 the end of the trestle. The furnace charge is dumped direct into the 
 furnaces, and the coal into the pockets next the power-house. 
 
 As shown by the sectional elevations the site consists of two 
 levels, with a difference of thirty-five feet in elevation. The upper 
 level is the same elevation as the feed floor, and is occupied by a 
 double track pocket trestle, 35 x 35 x 600 feet. 
 
 On the lower level are located the power-house, 156 x 102 feet; 
 the blast furnace building, 84 by 283 feet; the foundation for the 
 trestle carrying the electric tramway, connecting the storage pockets 
 with the feed-floor; the coal-bins of the boiler room; the dust- 
 chamber, sixteen feet wide, eighteen feet high and 444 feet long; the 
 stock, fifteen feet inside diameter, 210 feet high; together with the 
 necessary slag-tracks, sunken tracks for loading metal for shipment, 
 tracks to store-house, &c. 
 
 The power-house is equipped with two Nordberg Manufacturing 
 Company's horizontal, cross-compound, condensing, blowing engines, 
 with steam cylinders thirteen inches and twenty-four inches by 
 forty-two inches, and air cylinders, fifty-seven inches and fifty-seven 
 inches by forty-two inches. When operating under the usual working 
 conditions these engines will deliver 20,000 cubic feet of free air per 
 minute, against a pressure of forty ounces, for use in the blast fur- 
 naces. One Nordberg Manufacturing Company's horizontal cross- 
 compound, condensing, blowing engine, with steam cylinders fifteen 
 inches and thirty inches by forty-two inches, and air cylinders forty 
 inches and forty inches by forty-two inches, will deliver 10,000 cubic 
 feet of free air per minute, against a pressure of fifteen pounds, for 
 use in the converters. Two thirteen inch and twenty-six inch by 
 twenty inch horizontal, compound, condensing engines, built by the 
 Robb Engineering Company, to each of which is directly connected 
 one 200 kw. 600-volt, three phase alternating current generator, built 
 by the Canadian General Electric Company, each generator having 
 its own exciter of eleven kw. capacity belt driven from generator 
 shaft. The electrical energy thus generated is used for hoisting 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 207 
 
 in and pumping at the mines, operating the electric tramway for 
 charging cars ,turniiig the converters, and operating the travelling 
 crane in the furnace building. The station is also equipped with 
 one twenty-five kw. motor-driven generator set, for furnishing direct 
 current to the electric locomotives. A travelling crane is installed 
 in the engine-room for handling all this apparatus. A gravity oiling 
 and oil filteration system is installed on all engines. 
 
 In the boler-room the present installation of boilers consists of 
 four 400-H. P., 150 pound pressure, horizontal water-tube boilers, built 
 by the Aultman & Taylor Machinery Company, of Mansfield, Ohio, 
 and space is provided for two more boilers of the same size. The 
 boilers are equipped with Potter Super-heaters and Tread-Kill shak- 
 ing grates. The ashes are removed from the boiler ash-pit by opening 
 a grate in the bottom, which permets them to fall into a bucket rest- 
 ing on a small flat car, which runs on a track in the ash-tunnel under 
 the boilers. The car is then run outside of the building and a hoist 
 lifts the bucket and dumps the ashes into an ash-bin, from which it 
 runs into cinder cars. 
 
 Coal is brought to the power plant by the ele*ctric locomotive train 
 above referred to, and dumped into bins built in the trestle along the 
 west side of the building. Then it runs through coal chutes to one- 
 half ton coal cars in the boiler-room, from which cars it is shovelled 
 into boiler furnaces. 
 
 The only available water for boiler use contains considerable sul- 
 phuric acid and scale-forming elements, and to eliminate these the 
 water is subjected to a chemical treatment and precipitation in a 
 water purifying system built by the Industrial Water Company of 
 New York. In this way the acid is neutralized, and the scale-form- 
 ing material is removed before the water enters the boilers. The 
 condenser is of the elevated barometric shape, built by the Alberger 
 Condenser Company, of New York. 
 
 The blast furnace building contains two sectional, rectangular, 
 water- jacketted, Holthoff copper blast furnaces, three stands for 
 Holthoff converters, one forty-ton electric crane, the necessary matte- 
 settlers, clay mills, silica and clay storage bins, etc. Room is pro- 
 vided for expansion. 
 
 In operation, the ore, coke and flux for the blast furnaces, silica 
 and clay for lining the converters, and coal for the boilers are deliv- 
 ered into the top of the trestle pockets by standard-gauge cars 
 Ingoldsby drop-bottom in the case of the ore and drawn from the 
 bottom of the pockets into trains of six two-ton, thirty-six inch gauge, 
 Bide-dump Ivoppel cars, which are hauled to the blast furnace, silica 
 and clay storage bins, or coal bins, by twenty-five H. P. Canadian 
 General Electric Company electric locomotives. 
 
208 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 The slag and matte runs from the blast furnace into sixteen inch 
 settlers, the slag overflowing into thirty-ton Pollock cinder cars, which 
 are hauled to the dump by the 1 standard gauge locomotives. The 
 matte is tapped into ten-ton cast-steel ladles and taken to the conver- 
 ter by a forty-ton Case Manufacturing Company's electric crane. The 
 same crane removes the converter shells for re-lining, and takes care of 
 tne converter slag and white metal, pouring them into moulds for re- 
 turn into the pocket trestle, or for shipment to the refinery. The coal 
 bins at the boilers, and the silica and clay bins at the clay mills, are 
 kept full by six-car trainloads of material. 
 
 The flue dust is drawn from the dust chamber into a standard 
 gauge bottom-dump gondola, especially fitted for the service, and this 
 car is hauled to the top of the pocket trestle on the upper level, and 
 the dust drawn into a pocket fitted for the purpose, whence it is 
 drawn to a briquetting machine, pressed into briquettes and added to 
 the charge. 
 
 The electric tramway consists of two parallel thirty-six inch gauge 
 tracks, running under two lines of grates under the pocket trestle, then 
 over suspension scales to opposite sides of the furnaces on the feed- 
 floor level, passing over the top of the boiler room, coal bins and con- 
 verter lining house, silica and clay bins. The two tracks have cross- 
 over connexions, but, under normal working conditions, each track 
 carries a train entirely independent of the other. 
 
 The blast furnaces are fifty by 204 inches at the tuyeres ; fourteen 
 feet nine inches from centre of tuyeres to the feed-floor, and have, 
 on each side, four lower jackets, each fifty-one inches wide and eight 
 feet six inches high, and two upper jackets eight feet six inches 
 wide, and six feet high. Each lowerside- jacket carries four six-inch 
 tuyeres. Both ends of the furnace are made alike, so that either 
 end can be used for removing matte and slag. There is no brick work 
 under the deck beams. The converters are eighty-four by 126 inches 
 and are tilted by a train of gears and a worm, driven by the electric 
 motor. 
 
 The water for the plant is supplied by a sixteen inch pipe, running 
 from a dam situated about 5,000 feet from the plant itself. The water 
 is run by gravity into the jackets, and when drawn out is pumped in- 
 to a tank above the smelting tank, for fire purposes, or into the reser- 
 voir which is near the foot of the plant, and the hot water is also 
 used in the boilers in order to economize at that point. 
 
 The Mond Nickel Company refine the ore from their own deposits 
 at Victoria Mines, a station on the ' Sault branch ' of the Canadian 
 Pacific railway, twenty-two miles west of Sudbury. Their smelter, be- 
 fore the erection of the new one now about completed at Copper Cliff, 
 was the most modern and best equipped in the district. It not only 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 209 
 
 produces standard or blast furnace matte, but further bessemerizes 
 this into a concentrated matte containing about 80 per cent of 
 nickel and copper, these two metals being present in about equal 
 amounts, 18 per cent of sulphur, about 0-75 per cent of iron, and 
 
 -25 per cent of silica. This is sent to England to be treated there 
 by the Mond process for copper and nickel. Difficulties in connex- 
 ion with the operation of their refining at Clydach, Wales, have, for 
 the time being, caused a suspension in their mining and metallurgi- 
 cal operations in the Sudbury district, while their smelter has been 
 operated by the Canadian Copper Company under a six month's 
 lease, which expires about August 1st next (1904). It is authora- 
 tively stated, however, that these difficulties have now been success- 
 fully overcome, and that their refinery, greatly enlarged and with all 
 the necessary changes, is ready to go to work. It is confidently ex- 
 pected that immediately on the expiration of the Canadian Copper 
 Company's lease the smelter will again resume operations, under the 
 former management, on even a larger scale than before. The North 
 Star mine, on the Manitoulin and North Shore railway, is, at pre- 
 sent, being developed imder option by this company, under the direc- 
 tion of Mr. C. V. Corless, and the ore secured is shipped to Victoria 
 Mines for treatment. 
 
 The roasting of the ore is carried on as at the Canadian Copper 
 Company's works. The roasted ore is brought to the smelter by 
 means of an aerial tramway from the roast yards, which are about 
 one mile distant. 
 
 The smelter is erected on a sloping hillside, and has three levels, 
 those of the feed floor, the furnace floor and the converter floor. The 
 roasted ore is brought into the smelter to a platform above the third 
 level, where the tubs are received by a boy after having been auto- 
 matically unhitched from the haulage rope. The boy runs the tubs 
 to the bins, tips them and hitches them, again empty, to the out- 
 going rope. The ore bins are situated above and behind the feed 
 floors, so that the roasted ore can easily be discharged through chutes 
 into the dump cars on the feed floor. 
 
 Assays of the roasted ore are not made owing to the difficulty of 
 selecting samples, and without careful sampling widely different 
 results are sure to be obtained. For the purpose of deciding the 
 proper proportions of ore to be included in the furnace charges one- 
 tenth is added to the assays of the raw ore. The averages of the 
 daily assays of raw ore for July and September, 1902, made by Mr. 
 T. M. Paris, chemist to the Mond Nickel Company, are given under 
 
 1 and II respectively, while under HI is given an average of sev- 
 eral months' assays. 
 
 418714 
 
210 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 I. II. III. 
 
 Nickel 2-67 3-21 3-05 
 
 Copper 2-81 2-41 3-05 
 
 Insoluble 17-20 13-90 17-01 
 
 The ore is smelted in rectangular, steel, water- jacketed furnaces, 
 twelve-feet high, forty-two by 120 inches at the tuyeres, and increas- 
 ing slightly towards the top. The two furnaces (only one runs at a 
 time) have each sixteen tuyeres, eight on each side, a cast iron water- 
 cooled tap jacket and Hixon slag spout. This consists of a coil of 
 one inch piping, cast around with cast iron so as to form a channel 
 some four feet long, through which the matter and slag flow continu- 
 ously into the forehearth. The spout is fully described in Hixon's 
 'Lead and Copper Smelting/ pp. 28-30. One furnace puts through 
 about 170 tons a day, made up (for example) as follows : 120 charges 
 each containing: 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Flue dust 200 Ibs. 
 
 Tailings 200 " 250 Ibs. 
 
 Converter slag. . 500 " 500 " 
 
 North Star ore 300 " 250 " 
 
 Eoastcd ore 1,600 " 1,800 " 
 
 Coke 300 " 300 " 
 
 The tailings are practically pure quartz, with a small percentage 
 of copper from the Bruce mines. 
 
 The North Star ore (obtained from the North Star mine) is not 
 roasted, and the quantity used is varied according to the amount of 
 sulphur in the roasted ore. The charges are dumped directly from 
 the dump-cars into the furnace through the open top, alternate 
 charges being fed to the sides by means of a simple device consist- 
 ing of a wrought-iron pipe about eight inches in diameter through the 
 length of the furnace opening, and let down about three feet into the 
 furnace. On this the charge falls and is deflected towards the sides. 
 The blast for each furnace is furnished by a No. 6 Green blower. 
 The forehearth is of boiler iron, ten feet in diameter, with six inch 
 lining of fire-clay and quartz. In this the matte and the slag have 
 every opportunity for a complete separation, and, owing to its large 
 size, the converter foreman can always be assured of having sufficient 
 matte ready for him when he requires it. When the hearth fills the 
 slag spout is at first kept stopped up, so that the bath rises right to 
 the top of the hearth and a stiff slag crust forms, which is covered 
 with a layer of non-conducting coke. This forms the hearth cover. 
 
METALLURGY SMELTING 211 
 
 After the formation of the cover the slag spout is opened and the slag 
 overflows and is granulated by falling into a powerful stream of 
 water, and is carried to the slag dump by means of a large cast-iron 
 pipe. 
 
 Under I is given the average of the blast furnace slag assays for 
 September, 1902; II is the average for several months in the same 
 year, by Mr. T. M. Paris, of the Mond Nickel Company, while, under 
 III, IV and V are similar assays, by Mr. Donald Locke of this 
 Department. 
 
 I. II. Ill IV. V. 
 
 Nickel 0-30 0-34 0-31 0-25 0-28 
 
 Copper 0-36 0-35 0-33 0-28 0-29 
 
 Silica 31-20 31-31 30-50 32-00 30-70 
 
 The matte is tapped periodically through the water-cooled tap- 
 hole flowing through sheet-iron channels lined with clay into the 
 converters, which are situated on the lowest level of the smelter. 
 About twenty to twenty-five tons of matte are produced per day .by 
 one furnace. 
 
 Under I is given the average of the metal contents of this blast 
 furnace or standard matte for September, 1902. Under II the aver- 
 age for several months, in the same year, by Mr. T. M. Paris, while 
 III, IV and V are assays by Mr. Donald Locke of this Department. 
 
 I. II. III. IV. V. 
 
 Nickel 15-20 16-53 13-80 15-00 15-50 
 
 Copper .. 13-14 16-22 12-10 11-80 12-00 
 
 In the converter department are six Leghorn converters, only one 
 of which is in use at a time, the others being repaired, lined or dried. 
 The lining consists of a mixture of quartz and clay, the quartz being 
 crushed and then ground in a Chilian mill, where it is also mixed 
 with the clay and moistened. 
 
 In lining a converter the bottom is first put in and tamped firm; 
 a tapering iron tub is then placed in the converter, and round this 
 the lining is firmly tamped. When the lining is completed to the top 
 of the tub the tuyere holes are punched, the tub lifted out, and the 
 top of the converter put on. This is then lined and the converter 
 moved to where a blast pipe can be connected. A wood fire is lighted 
 and the blast turned on. The fire is kept up until the converter is 
 wanted. The converters are moved from place to place by means of 
 a travelling electric crane, commanding the whole floor of the con- 
 verter department. 
 
 The first charge of a newly lined converter is only about one ton, 
 
 4187 14i 
 
212 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 but as the lining is eaten away the size of the charge increases, the 
 average charge being about two tons. A lining lasts from eleven to 
 twelve hours, about six charges being blown in this time. A blast of 
 ten pounds pressure is employed. 
 
 During the blowing of a charge the slag is twice poured off into 
 slag pots by tipping the converter, the blast being turned off during 
 the pouring. The finished matte is poured into a clay-lined bucket, 
 which is carried by the electric crane, and the matte tapped from it 
 into flat, cast-iron moulds. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a clean converter slag, by Mr. 
 Donald Locke of this Department. 
 
 Silica 33-40 
 
 Ferrous oxide 46-50 
 
 Lime 0-93 
 
 Magnesia 0-08 
 
 Nickel .. 0-55 
 
 Copper 0-45 
 
 Alumina 4-60 
 
 Sulphur..* 1-17 
 
 The total amount of copper and nickel skimmed off, or poured 
 from the matte during the converting, is, of course, much larger than 
 this, as the last skimming contains much pasty, half-fused substance 
 containing matte, and being higher in nickel than the clean slag. 
 The average, therefore, of the converter slags would be considerably 
 higher in nickel, averaging about 1 5 per cent of copper and from 1 5 
 to 2 per cent of nickel. 
 
 The bessemer or converter matte contains as follows, according to 
 two analyses by Mr. Donald Locke of this Department: 
 
 Nickel 41-88 41-23 
 
 Cobalt 0-33 0-52 
 
 Copper 37-37 37-83 
 
 Iron 1-07 0-77 
 
 Gold Ms of an oz. to a ton of 2,000 Ibs. 
 
 Silver 4-87 oz. " " 
 
 Platinum 0-40 oz. " 
 
 The slag is broken as soon as it sets, loaded into small cars and 
 raised to the feed floor, to be put through the blast furnace on an 
 inclined elevator on the west side of the smelter. 
 
 The matte, when cold, is crushed in a Blake crusher, and packed 
 in barrels to be sent to England for further treatment. 
 
 A railway track passes the lowest level of the smelter to take 
 
REFINING OP NICKEL 213 
 
 away finished products, etc., and a track enters the upper level to 
 bring coke, raw ore, quartz, etc. 
 
 The engine house, situated to the west of the smelter, contains 
 the Bledler blowing engine for the converter, the blowers for the 
 blast furnaces, a pump to furnish the hydraulic power for turning 
 the converters, two dynamos one working by day and one by night 
 which supply light and power for the crane for the two crushers 
 one for matte, the other for the quartz for the converters for the 
 Chilian mill, and for the aerial tramway. Power is furnished by five 
 horizontal tubular boilers. 
 
 REFINING OF NICKEL. 
 
 The subject of nickel has not, until quite recently, received from 
 truly scientific men^ that proper share of attention and inquiry which 
 the known, desirable, physical properties of the metal demanded, 
 these giving ample promise of its wide industrial application. Sev- 
 eral reasons might be assigned for this apparently unwarranted 
 apathy in regard to such a hopeful field of inquiry, but, doubtless, 
 the most important influence related directly to the apparently lim- 
 ited distribution and supply of ores containing this metal, and the 
 great, and, for a long time, insuperable difficulties encountered in 
 all attempts at refining the ores so as to obtain an absolutely pure 
 and uniform product. From 1840 to 1860 the production of nickel 
 was less than 200 tons annually, derived principally from the mines 
 of Saxony and Hungary, with much smaller quantities from Sweden 
 and Norway. Between the latter date and the year 1876 the greatest 
 proportion of the world's supply of nickel was obtained from the 
 mines of Norway and Sweden, with much smaller quantities from 
 Saxony, Hungary and the United States. Careful examination of 
 the occurrences of these nickel deposits in the countries mentioned 
 indicated their probable exhaustion at no distant date, especially if 
 called upon to maintain a large and steady output. The prospecting 
 undertaken resulted in no new discoveries of a startling nature, and 
 everything pointed to a comparatively limited supply and demand. 
 This state of affairs continued until about the year 1882, when the ores 
 from the New Caledonia mines began to flood the market. A period of 
 over-production followed, with its accompanying losses and uncer- 
 tainties. The discovery of the Sudbury ores, in 1883, proved a still 
 further disturbing feature, although, at the same time, it prompted 
 and stimulated that scientific inquiry which had been so long delayed, 
 resulting in the discovery of several processes, some of which although 
 far from realizing expectations in regard to simplicity, economy an-1 
 
214 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 ease of manipulation, have produced metallic nickel on a commercial 
 basis which contains as high as 99 '70 to 99 '82 per cent of fine nickel, 
 the impurities being chiefly very small quantities of carbon, iron and 
 sulphur. 
 
 Another influence which has contributed in no small measure to 
 retard the progress of nickel metallurgy, and, no doubt, prevented 
 the wide industrial employment of nickel, is the secrecy which has 
 always been maintained by most companies who have been or are 
 engaged in the mining and smelting of nickel. The indifference and 
 at times positive unwillingness to impart information which would 
 be of value or profit to the general public has probably received no 
 greater emphasis than in the case of nickel. Various excuses, more 
 or less urgent or reasonable, are furnished by those in control to 
 account for their action in this respect, but gradually this barrier of 
 silence is being withdrawn, and, in the case of the Sudbury district, 
 the managers of the two principal companies nave lately shown a 
 commendable desire to give all reasonable details in regard to the 
 mining and smelting operations carried on in Canada. 
 
 This universal secrecy has, in the past, not only been maintained 
 with regard to the exact location, extent and production of the indi- 
 vidual mines themselves, but was especially extended to embrace the 
 metallurgical treatment of the ores, even in the preliminary stages 
 of roasting, matting and bessemerizing, while many of the small de- 
 tails, on which most of the success of the later refining methods 
 depend, are still jealously repressed, or made known in such vague 
 terms as to be practically valueless. All of our text books seem in 
 sympathy with this lack of desire to impart information, and, in 
 most of those reference to the subject of nickel, or accurate and 
 detailed knowledge in regard to this metal, is conspicuous by its 
 absence. The secrecy was, no doubt, in the first place, prompted by 
 the desire of deterring others from engaging either in the mining or 
 refining of nickel, and, if so, it has utterly failed in its purpose. It 
 has permitted, and even greatly favoured, the spreading of the wild- 
 est and most exaggerated statements in regard to the enormous pro- 
 fits accruing to all engaged in this business. 
 
 The public, and especially those who are interested in mining, are 
 being constantly apprised of the location of nickel deposits which 
 not only surpass all others in point of magnitude but also in their 
 peculiar adaptability for refining purposes. Further investigation, 
 by competent individuals, (when such are available, or happily chosen) , 
 usually discloses some well known prospect or abandoned mine. On 
 the other hand, men who are possessed of ample means, and are will- 
 ing to devote a considerable portion to the promotion of some legi- 
 
REFINING OF NICKEL 215 
 
 timate mining or smelting proposition, are often approached by so- 
 called experts, with a supposed new and secret process, but which is 
 already well known to a certain few, favoured individuals, who havo 
 already expended large sums only to find that it is not a commercial 
 possibility. Very few people have the necessary knowledge or any 
 means of verifying or refuting the statements of these interested 
 individuals, and are thus often prompted to unusual and unwise ex- 
 penditures, while, on the other hand, their ill success in these par- 
 ticulars prevents them from investing in some good, wholesome min- 
 ing and metallurgical enterprise when occasion offers, which, if full 
 details were available and offered, would not be the case. Fling wide 
 the gates of knowledge; break down the barriers of silence; and it 
 is confidently predicted that the resulting free and wide exchange of 
 opinions and experience will be of incalculable benefit, not only to the 
 smelters and refiners who are engaged in the nickel industry, but 
 will prompt, encourage and direct the inquiring students and investi- 
 gators of nickel, with profit to the whole of mankind. 
 
 Numerous processes for the refining of nickel have been suggested 
 and published, and, in many cases, elaborate experiments have been 
 conducted, with varying degrees of success, to determine definitely 
 their economic practicability. These could not be adequately or even 
 satisfactorily discussed or explained within the scope of the present 
 report even if all the necessary details were available for publica- 
 tion, but it may be well to refer, in general terms, to a few of those 
 which are either at present producing nickel on a commercial basis, 
 or seem to give promise of doing so in the near future. 
 
 All of these methods are based on certain well known and long 
 established principles, which have, in some instances, been worked 
 out in more or less detail, and which are embraced under the general 
 description of the so-called ' wet ' and ' dry ' processes. Certain 
 minor changes and additions, chiefly in details, have made the latest 
 refining of nickel much more readily and economically possible. 
 Even with the present improvements, both are open to very serious 
 and grave objections, as their adoption, in the first place, necessitates 
 a very large and expensive plant, which is liable to frequent renewal 
 and change, while the many complicated operations, which are still 
 far from being fully understood and the reactions appreciated, must 
 entail a loss which is far from negligible. At the same time, however, 
 the final product has, of late years, been all that could be desired 
 from a commercial point of view. The 'wet' process, especially, 
 which imitates, although on a large scale, the operations carried on 
 in the chemical laboratory for the analysis of nickel, needs a very 
 large and expensive plant if any extensive output is contemplated. 
 
216 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 This must occupy a considerable area of ground, while a very long 
 time must necessarily elapse before the ore is sufficiently refined to 
 permit of its being placed upon the market. In the case of the Gap 
 mine it has been stated that a year sometimes passed from the time 
 the ore was taken from the mine before the product was in market- 
 able shape. t 
 
 The present methods of treatment make use of some of the more 
 valuable features of both the ' wet ' and the ' dry ' processes, calling 
 in the assistance of electrolysis in the final stages, and thus obtaining 
 the metal in very pure form. In the treatment of the concentrated 
 nickel-copper matte for the nickel-copper alloys, usually referred to 
 under the general name of German silver, this bessemerized matte is 
 first crushed to powder and roasted in a reverberatory furnace to 
 remove all the sulphur, and the oxides are reduced directly to the 
 alloy, either by smelting with charcoal or by reducing gases. 
 
 In the treatment of the concentrated nickel-copper matte for 
 nickel matte, nickel oxide and metallic nickel, the most important 
 methods for the separation of the nickel and copper are the Orford 
 or American process, the Mond process and some electrolytic pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 Nearly the whole of the matte produced by the Canadian Copper 
 Company is refined by the Orford Copper Company at their works 
 at Constable Hook, N.J., opposite Brighton, Staten island, by what 
 is known as the alkaline sulphide process. There is considerable dis- 
 pute as to the origin of this process, some holding the discovery to be 
 of recent date, while others contend that the principle upon which 
 it is based has not long been known but has been in successful 
 operation for many years. Mr. Robert M. Thompson, in an account 
 of the discovery of this process, as far as the Orford Copper Com- 
 pany is concerned, says that it was the result of an accident follow- 
 ing a long series of unsatisfactory experiments to discover some pro- 
 cess which would successfully and economically treat certain mattes 
 which had been sold to the United States Government by the Canadian 
 Copper Company. In visiting the works one day he noticed some 
 pots of matte which were cooling in front of the furnace, and which 
 presented a somewhat unusual appearance. On calling attention to 
 this fact, and failing to get satisfactory explanations from either the 
 superintendent or foreman, he proceeded to investigate, the result 
 Bfeing the discovery of the governing principle which effected the 
 separation and caused the yellow ' bottoms ' and black ' tops/ After 
 a long series of experiments, on a large scale, the process at present 
 in operation was gradually worked out. Mr. J. W. Bain, (*) in his 
 
 CO Ann. Rep. Bur. of Mines, Ont., p. 220. 
 
REFINING OF NICKEL 217 
 
 ' Sketch of the Nickel Industry,' draws attention to the fact that in 
 certain descriptions accompanying applications for English patents, 
 dating as far back as September 5th, 1839, undoubted reference is 
 made to this principal. Moreover, in a letter published in the En- 
 gineering and Mining Journal, in August, 1893, an ex-employee of the 
 Vivian Company, at Swansea, states that the method had been em- 
 ployed for a number of years at that Company's works. At any rate 
 the application of the alkaline sulphide process as a definite scheme 
 for the separation of nickel and copper was in a fair way of being 
 lost to metallurgy, or, at least, to be employed in a very restricted 
 manner, if the Orford people had not, so to speak, re -discovered the 
 principle upon which it is based. Great credit is also due to this 
 company for the thorough manner in which they have worked out 
 the details, and made it a distinct economic success. 
 
 In the Orford nickel process, the concentrated or bessemer matte 
 is smelted in a small blast furnace, with salt cake or crude sodium 
 sulphate, a chemical which can be obtained readily and cheaply. The 
 sodium sulphate is reduced to sulphide, which forms, with the cop- 
 per and iron sulphides, a very fluid matte, of lower specific gravity 
 than the nickel sulphide. On cooling, ' tops ' and ' bottoms ' are easily 
 separated ; in the ' tops ' being the bulk of the iron and copper as 
 sulphides, together with sodium sulphide ; while the ' bottoms ' contain 
 most of the nickel, with small quantities of iron and copper. On 
 exposure to the weather the soda in the tops is gradually converted 
 into the caustic condition. These tops are now mixed with fresh 
 matte and re-smelted, whereby the caustic soda is converted into sul- 
 phide of soda at the expense of the nickel in the bottom, producing 
 again a fluid mixture of iron, copper and sodium sulphides, while the 
 nickel, in a semi-metallic state, sinks to the bottom once more. By 
 properly balancing these operations a pure sulphide of nickel is at 
 last obtained, which is simply calcined with a little sodium nitrate to 
 the nickel oxide of commerce. The oxide is either mixed with flour, 
 molasses, etc., and pressed into cubes, or with charcoal and reduced 
 to metallic nickel in cube or powdered form. This product is not 
 strictly a homogeneous metal, but a loose sponge of metallic particles, 
 which retains all the impurities contained in the oxide, with the addi- 
 tion of from 0'5 to 2 per cent of carbon. To produce the solid metal 
 the oxide is melted direct with charcoal and a small quantity of flux, 
 and cast into ingots. 
 
 On the following page a diagrammatic scheme that accompanied a 
 paper by Titus Ulke ( J ) is reproduced, which illustrates fully and 
 briefly the various operations necessary in the Orford process. 
 
218 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 The ]$Iond or carbon-monoxide process ( 2 ) is based on the fact, 
 that if finely divided nickel is exposed to a current of carbonic oxide, 
 at a temperature below 150 C., a nickel carbonyl is formed, with the 
 formula Ni (Co) 4, which is volatile at a temperature above 43 C., 
 and which is decomposed at a temparature of 180 C. into metallic 
 nickel and carbonic oxide. Iron forms a similar carbonyl, but no 
 other metal has been found "to do so. In the process there were 
 many technical difficulties to overcome, and it was not until 1898 
 that it was brought to that stage of development that demonstrated 
 its practical importance. 
 
 The bessemerized Victoria Mines matte is first dead roasted, and 
 for this purpose any suitable furnace may be employed. After roast- 
 ing the matte averages about 35 per cent of nickel, 43 per cent of 
 copper and about 2 per cent of iron. It is then treated with dilute 
 sulphuric acid for the extraction of part of the copper, (about 66 
 per cent), and not above 2 per cent of the nickel. This copper is sold 
 as crystallized sulphate of copper. The residue, after drying from 
 this operation, assays from 45 to 60 per cent of nickel, (averaging 
 about 51 per cent), and 21 per cent of copper. The third operation 
 has for its object the reduction of the nickel and, incidentally, the 
 remaining copper, to the metallic state, without including the iron. 
 For this purpose it is treated in a tower 7 '5m. high, and containing 
 fourteen hollow shelves, which are heated with water gas to not more 
 than 300 C., and preferably 250, when much iron is present. The ore 
 is moved from shelf to shelf by means of rakes operated by a verti- 
 cal axle. The lowest shelves are cooled. The reduced charge is 
 transferred to another similar tower, where volatilization takes place, 
 in which part of the nickel is taken away by carbon monoxide and 
 forms the compound nickel carbonyl, but the temperature must not 
 exceed 100 C. The remainder from this volatilizer is returned to 
 the reducing tower, and the charge continues to circulate between 
 the two towers for a period of between seven and fifteen days, until 
 about. 60 per cent of the nickel has been removed as nickel carbonyl. 
 The nickel carbonyl passes to the decomposer, either a tower or a hori- 
 zontal retort, which is heated to a temperature of 180 C., so as to 
 decompose this compound, and release the nickel in a metallic state, 
 preferably on granules of ordinary commercial metal. The carbon 
 monoxide is also released, and is returned to the volatilizing tower, 
 
 * Eng. and Min, Jour., Vol. LXIV., July 1897, pp. 8-9. 
 
 t Roberts-Austen ' Nickel Extraction by the M>ond Process,' a paper 
 read before the Institution iof Civil Engineers, London, Eng., on the 8th 
 November, 1898. Also Ann. Rep. B'ur. of Mines, Ont., Vol. VIII., 1899, pp. 
 106-120. 
 
REFINING OF NICKEL 
 
 219 
 
 
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 UTION 1 NICKEL OXIDE 
 
 a Containing SOT.* l.ttle 
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 REDUCTION SMELT 
 
 WithC<*e.. 
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 IUM SLIME | | NICKEL ANODES 
 
 nearly 60^ Pt. 95-96 % Ni, 5-0 6 X ( 
 and a littU Rn. 0.75%Fe. 0.25% S.. 0.45 
 ,ndAg. 3%S..nd05ozPtpen 
 
 ELECTROLYTIC REFI 
 IN CYANIDE (?) BA 
 
 REFINED NICKEL | ANO 
 
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220 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 to obtain a fresh charge of nickel. It has been stated that Dr. 
 Mond's process, although ingeniously and thoroughly worked out, has 
 developed certain weaknesses, such as imperfect extraction of nickel, 
 and the necessity of repeating certain of the operations several times 
 before satisfactory results are achieved and the larger proportion of 
 the nickel obtained. The danger of explosion and poison from the 
 carbon monoxide gas have all, seemingly, combined to delay the suc- 
 cessful operation of this process on a large scale for any protracted 
 period. 
 
 THE HOEPFNER ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS. 
 
 In this process, a chloride solution is obtained which has been 
 freed from other metals, either chemically or electrolytically. The 
 solution is neutralized and then acidulated with some weak oxygen 
 acid, such as citric or phosphoric acid, and the electrolysis effected 
 with insoluble anodes. The anodes are immersed in a chlorite solu- 
 tion of some more electro-positive metal than nickel. The cathodes 
 are rotating or vibrating metal plates. The chlorine evolved is 
 collected. 
 
 THE FRASCH ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS'. 
 
 This process depends on the reaction in- the electrolytic decompo- 
 sition of common salt. At the anode chlorine is evolved, at the 
 cathode sodium hydrate is formed by a secondary reaction. When 
 applied to copper-nickel matte the anode consists of a layer of car- 
 bonaceous material. This is covered with a layer of matte, and the 
 matte with a layer of sand, which serves as a diaphragm between the 
 anode and cathode sections. The chlorine evolved dissolves the metals 
 of the matte, forming chlorides. The solution is treated for the 
 contained metals by electrolysis or chemically. From the solution of 
 sodium hydrate at the cathode caustic soda is obtained. 
 
 BROWNE'S ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS. 
 
 In this process (*) the copper is first deposited from a solution of 
 the mixed chlorides, using cathodes of pure copper and soluble 
 anodes of copper-nickel alloy. The original percentage of metal 
 chloride in the electrolyte is maintained partly by the solution of the 
 anode, and partly by passing the electrolyte through a tower filled 
 with bessemer matte or alloy to be treated in contact with 'the chlo- 
 rine gas evolved at the anode by the nickel precipitation. 
 
 (1) Min. Industry, Vol. X., 1901, p. 497. 
 
ANALYSES OF NICKEL 221 
 
 When the electrolyte is rich in nickel and nearly all the copper is 
 deposited the remaining copper is precipitated with hydrogen sul- 
 phide or a similar re-agent, and the iron with ammonia. The nickel 
 chloride solution is then electrolyzed, using cathodes of pure nickel 
 and anodes of carbon, in water-sealed compartments, from which the 
 chlorine is conducted to the regenerating tower. 
 
 ULKE'S ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS. 
 
 In^ this process ( 2 ) a sulphate solution of the metals is used, in- 
 stead of a chloride solution, as in the three processes described above, 
 
 * With the Ulke process it is most advantageous to use a material 
 consisting of not over 20 per cent of nickel, and not less than 80 per 
 cent of copper, which is cast into anode plates. The electrolyte con- 
 sists of a solution of copper and nickel sulphate, and contains an 
 excess of free-sulphuric acid, and the cathodes are of pure sheet 
 copper. The electrolyte is heated and kept in circulation, and from 
 time to time portions of it are withdrawn from the electrolytic vats 
 to be re-standardized. The electrolyte withdrawn is replaced with an 
 equal volume of copper sulphate solution, containing an excess of 
 free acid to re-standardize the electrolyte. A portion of this copper 
 sulphate is obtained as a by-product in the extraction of the nickel, 
 as is outlined later in the description. The copper is precipitated 
 (from withdrawn electrolyte) with hydrogen sulphide, and after filter- 
 ing the copper sulphide precipitate is treated with sulphuric acid 
 and heat to recover the hydrogen sulphide and make the by-product 
 copper sulphate. The nickel sulphate is made ammoniacal, and used 
 hot as an electrolyte for the precipitation of nickel, using anodes of 
 lead and cathodes of sheet nickel. To avoid impoverishment of this 
 electrolyte, portions of it are periodically withdrawn, the ammonia 
 recovered for re-use and the nickel sulphate added to the electrolyte as 
 needed to preserve the proper strength. The process is economical and 
 produces nickel of high quality continuously and cheaply.' 
 
 Another process for the electrolytic winning of nickel which is 
 hi successful operation is the Balbach process, as carried on at the 
 Balbach works, N.J. This process, however, is kept strictly secret. 
 
 NICKEL. 
 
 Nickel is a comparatively new metal, as far as our western civili- 
 zation is concerned, for it was discovered in 1751 by the Swedish 
 metallurgist Cronstedt. It was, however, not until 1754 that Cron- 
 
 (2) Min. Industry, Vol. X., 1901. pp. 497-498. 
 
222 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OP CANADA 
 
 stedt definitely determined that it was a new element. Its name was 
 given on account of its being a constituent of niccolite or ' kupfer- 
 nickel,' as it was then called. Cronstedt's discovery was made in 
 examining the ore obtained from the mines of Helsingland. In 1776, 
 Engstrom analyzed the material which had found its way to Europe 
 from China under the name of ' Pachfong/ finding it an alloy made 
 up of variable quantities of copper, nickel and zinc, but usually pre- 
 sent in the proportion of 40 per cent of copper, 15 per cent of nickel 
 and 45 per cent of zinc. This alloy had been in use in China for 
 thousands of years. Previous to this again, as noticed by Dr. Austen 
 in his ' Historical Sketch of Nickel/ the Bactrian King Eutheydemos, 
 who reigned about 235 B.C., employed an alloy of nickel for coinage 
 purposes, containing 77-58 per cent of copper, 20-04 per cent of 
 nickel and 1-72 per cent of other impurities, such as iron, cobalt, tin, 
 silver and sulphur. It is worthy of remark that so long after this 
 the alloy at present in use for the manufacture of coins is very simi- 
 lar in composition, containing about 75 per cent of copper and 25 
 per cent of nickel, which experience has taught us is the best pro- 
 portion for such a purpose. 
 
 Nickel, in its pure state, is silver-white in colour, hard, tough, 
 fusible with difficulty, and is susceptible to magnetism, although not 
 to the same extent as iron. It has the peculiar property of losing 
 *th|is magnetism, whjenj heated, and regaining it when cooled, this 
 peculiarity being taken advantage of in the manufacture of certain 
 alloys for electrical purposes. Nickel has a specific gravity of 8-5 
 to 8-9. 
 
 The purity of the nickel which has been on the market has steadily 
 increased since its first manufacture. This will be evident from the 
 subjoined table of analyses of the commercial product. The thre<? 
 first analyses are quoted from the Mineral Industry and were made 
 in 1891. All the others were made in 1898 and 1899. 
 
ANALYSES OF NICKEL 
 
 223 
 
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224 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 USES. 
 
 The first and chief demand for this metal was for making nickel 
 or German silver, as a substitute for the more precious metal, in the 
 manufacture of spoons, forks and other ware in general use for which 
 silver had been previously used. Its whiteness, and the facility with 
 which it received and held the silver, after the process of electro- 
 plating was introduced, has caused it to be still more widely used. 
 This use, however, has been replaced in a large degree by plating 
 iron with nickel, which gives a very similar effect to German 
 silver. 
 
 Nickel is also used very extensively for coinage purposes, both in 
 Europe and America, these coins generally consisting of an alloy 
 of from 75 to 88 per cent of copper and 12 to 25 per cent of nickel. 
 Eecently both Austria and Switzerland have authorized the use of 
 pure nickel in coins. 
 
 Pure nickel is now used in making small articles which formerly 
 were only electroplated with nickel. An alloy, with 20 per cent of 
 nickel and 80 per cent of copper, is used for casing bullets. This 
 alloy has a higher degree of tenacity than the best brass, and a high 
 co-efficient of elongation. 
 
 Owing to the intense colouring properties of nickel, (it is greater 
 than that of any other metal except tin), these alloys have almost 
 the same colour as the pure nickel. 
 
 In far more general use are the nickel-copper-zinc alloys. These 
 were first introduced into Europe from China, in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, under the name of Packfong or China silver, and it was only 
 later that it was discovered that they consisted of nickel, copper and 
 zinc. As European firms began to use these alloys for manufac- 
 turing purposes they gave them various names, such as german 
 silver, argentan, etc. 
 
 The following are analyses, from Ledebur's ' Technologic/ of some 
 of these alloys: 
 
 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 English new silver 
 
 63 ' 34 
 
 17 '01 
 
 19'13 
 
 0'52 
 
 Vienna n .... , 
 French ' 
 
 55-60 
 50-00 
 59'10 
 
 22-20 
 31-25 
 30-20 
 
 22-20 
 18-75 
 9-70 
 
 l : 6o" 
 
 
 69 90 
 
 5-60 
 
 19-80 
 
 4'70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
USES OP NICKEL 225 
 
 The chief uses of these alloys are for forks, spoons, etc., and 
 various household goods to be silver-plated, and for many scientific 
 instruments where brass was formerly used. 
 
 A little magnesium added to nickel when* in a molten state in- 
 creases its malleability, and this property has been utilized in the 
 manufacture of nickel into sheets, and also in making sheets com- 
 posed of an iron plate, with a nickel plate welded upon each side of 
 the iron; the mass then becoming capable of being rolled into any 
 desired thickness. This rolled nickel plate is an advance over the 
 ordinary tin plate for culinary and other utensils. 
 
 Nickel-plated zinc or ' nickeloid/ as it is called, is being used to a 
 considerable extent in the manufacture of reflectors, refrigerator 
 linings, baths, etc. 
 
 The most important and extended use of nickel, however, is in the 
 manufacture of nickel steel, and, at present, we must look to its 
 more general employment in this direction, as replacing carbon and 
 manganese steel, for the development of the nickel industry. The 
 peculiar* and desirable behaviour of nickel in alloy with other metals, 
 and especially with iron and steel, has often been remarked, the 
 material partaking more of a chemical combination than an ordinarily 
 intimate mixture. All these alloys are remarkably homogeneous, 
 and susceptible of a high polish, though rather difficult of manipula- 
 tion. In obtaining a correct idea of the usefulness or value of alloys 
 of nickel with iron and steel it should be borne in mind that these 
 mixtures contain manganese, carbon, silicon, sulphur and phos- 
 phorus, whose influence may be carefully watched, requiring a long 
 series of experiments. A comparison of steel alloyed with 4-7 per 
 cent of nickel raised the elastic limit from sixteen up to twenty-eight 
 tons, and the breaking strain from thirty up to forty tons, without im- 
 pairing the elongation or contraction of area to any appreciable extent. 
 A further gradual increase of hardness is noticed until 20 per cent 
 is reached, when a change takes place, and successive additions of 
 nickel tend to make the steel softer and more ductile. The alloys polish 
 well, and the colour of the steel is lightened as the proportion of 
 nickel is increased. They do not corrode as readily as other steel. The 
 one per cent nickel steel welds fairly well, but this property lessens with 
 each addition of nickel. It may, therefore, be said that considerable 
 advantage can be expected from these alloys, especially where the 
 amount of nickel present is less than 5 per cent. Nickel steel is now 
 being used for a variety of purposes, among which may be mentioned 
 rails for railways. These have been tried for a number of years at 
 Cumberland Gap in the United States, and have given very great 
 satisfaction. The first cost is considerably higher, but they can be 
 
 418715 
 
226 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 made much lighter, and will outlast three ordinary steel rails. Its 
 most important use, however, is for armour plates and heavy ordnance. 
 For machine parts, subjected to alternate stress and shock, and where 
 increase of strength and decrease of weight are desired, it is un- 
 rivalled. On account of this marked quality it has been used for 
 engine and propeller shafts, and has proved so superior to all other 
 steel for this purpose that it has no rival of importance. Owing to 
 its resistance to i fatigue ' from persistent vibration arid concussion it 
 is particularly valuable for steam hammer piston rods, rock drill 
 piston rods, railway axles or tank pins; also for light forged engine 
 frames, bolts for extreme hydraulic pressure, bicycles, etc. It has 
 also been recommended for the manufacture of dies and shoes in 
 stamp mills, and of wire rope. Nickel steel wire rope would be less 
 corrosive and have more tensile strength than the ordinary steel 
 wire ropes in use at present. 
 
 The co-efficient of expansion of nickel steel with 36 per cent of 
 nickel is only 0-00000087, that of ordinary materials varying from 
 ten to twenty times this figure. This low co-efficient of expansion will 
 likely be of great value for many purposes. Alloys with 42 to 46 per 
 cent of nickel have the same co-efficients of expansion as the various 
 sorts of glass, which will make them valuable in replacing the more 
 expensive platinum in cases where metal and glass have to be welded 
 together. 
 
 Other alloys of nickel are mentioned in ' The Mineral Industry/ 
 Vol. X. They are nickel-aluminium, with a tensile strength of 40,000 
 pounds per square inch, and an elastic limit of 35,000 pounds per 
 square*inch. 
 
 Chrome nickel, containing usually 73 per cent of chromium, 23 
 per cent of nickel, 2-5 per cent of iron, 1 per cent of carbon and 
 0-5 per cent of silicon, is used for making steel for projectiles and 
 armour plates, which is said to be better than Harveyized steel 
 armour plates. Tungsten-nickel has a composition similar to chrome- 
 rtickel, tungsten taking the place of chrome. 
 
 Molybdenum-nickel with 45 to 75 per cent of molybdenum, 20 
 to 50 per cent of nickel, 2 to 2-5 per cent of iron, 1 to 1-5 per cent 
 of carbon and 0-25 to 0-50 per cent of sulphur, is largely used in the 
 manufacture of forgings, guns, wire, boiler-plate and shells. 
 
 The era of nickel steel has only been entered upon, for it was not 
 until 1888 that this desirable alloy was made on any scale of com- 
 mercial importance. Canada has the largest supply of the most 
 desirable nickel ores in the world, and the quality of the metallic 
 nickel, as shown by the analyses quoted, is of a very high degree of 
 purity. It is beyond the scope of the present report to enter upon 
 
PRODUCTION OF NICKEL AND COPPER FROM SUDBURY 227 
 
 a discussion of the manifold merits of nickel steel, and the numerous 
 benefits to be derived from its use. In 1899, Messrs. R. A. Had- 
 field C 1 ) and David H. Browne ( 2 ), published two very complete con- 
 tributions on this subject, and the reader may have reference to these 
 for more detailed information. Lately, Dr. Waddell has been em- 
 ployed, under the auspices of the International Nickel Company, in 
 making an elaborate series of tests and experiments with nickel steel, 
 with special reference to its more extended use in bridge building. 
 The general public, and more particularly that numerous section of 
 it in Canada who are interested in the extension of the nickel in- 
 dustry, will look forward with pleasure to the appearance of Dr. 
 Waddell's conclusions, which, it is hoped, will not be withheld on the 
 plea that the information is of a confidential nature. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF NICKEL AND COPPER FROM THE SUDBURY DISTRICT. 
 
 It is difficult to obtain the exact production of the nickel and 
 copper ores of the Sudbury district during the first three years of 
 mining, from 1886 to 1888, inclusive. Thus, R. R. Maffett, Superin- 
 tendent of the Orford Copper Company, at New Brighton, L.I., N.Y., 
 under date of April 18, 1904, answering an inquiry addressed to 
 President A. P. Turner, of the Canadian Copper Company, at Copper 
 Cliff, Out., states, that during 1886, 1,040 tons of ore, carrying 7-2 
 per cent of copper and 3 per cent of nickel, were mined at Copper 
 Cliff, and during 1887, 8,864 tons carrying 8-56 per cent of copper 
 and 3-31 per cent of nickel, were also raised from the same mine. 
 According to details furnished the Geological Survey Department 
 by the Customs Department, 3,307 tons of copper ore were shipped 
 form Sudbury in 1886, with a declared customs value of $16,404, 
 and in 1887, 567 tons of similar ore were also shipped, with a declar- 
 ed customs value of $3,416. A careful and conservative estimate to 
 arrive at the total production would place the amount mined during 
 these three years at 30,000 tons, averaging about 5 per cent of cop- 
 per and 3 per cent of nickel, this ore thus containing, approximately, 
 900 tons of nickel and 1,500 tons of copper. Valuing the nickel at the 
 average price for the three years, at 62-12 cents per pound, the total 
 ultimate value of the nickel in the ore would amount to $1,118,160, 
 while the copper, at the average price of twelve cente per pound, would 
 amount to $360,000. According to the yearly returns furnished the 
 Geological Survey Department and the Ontario Bureau of Mines, 
 tEe total ore mined in the district, including the estimate as above 
 
 (1) Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., London, Vol. cxxx., pp. 1-167. 
 
 (2) Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. xxix., (Sept.), 1899, pp. 569-648. 
 4187154 
 
228 GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 given for the first three years, has amounted to 2,093,427 tons. The 
 total amount of nickel in matte, sold from 1889 to 1903, both years 
 inclusive, amounted to 39,827 tons, with a final value in New York, 
 at the lowest average prevailing price in the year in which it was 
 placed upon the market, amounting to $35,603,272, while the copper 
 present in the matte, in the same period, amounting to 37,429 tons, 
 valued at the average price of copper in the year sold, realized 
 $9,799,730. If we include the three first years, at the figures already 
 given, we obtain a total amount of nickel sold of 40,727 tons, with a 
 value of $36,721,432 ; while the copper amounted to 38,929 tons, with 
 a value of $10,159,739. 
 
 This nickel and copper ore also contains cobalt, and an average of 
 a large number of assays would indicate that the proportion of 
 nickel to cobalt as 50 to 1 is a conservative estimate. If all of this 
 could have been saved, 815 tons of cobalt would have been thus pro- 
 duced, and this, at a price of $3 per pound, would have amounted to 
 $4,890,000. In addition, these ores contain appreciable quantities of the 
 precious metals, gold, silver and metals of the platinum group. " The 
 platinum metals average about 1 25 ounces, the gold 375 of an ounce, 
 while the silver has been calculated on the assumption that 7-5 oz. are 
 present to the ton of nickel, which is certainly below the average. On 
 this assumption, the value of the precious metals, at the average of the 
 ruling New York price in the years produced, would be as follows: 
 Gold, $305,460; Silver, $195,286; Platinum, $805,429; Total, $1,- 
 306,175. The total ultimate value in New York of the various metals 
 contained in these ores, would, therefore, be as follows: 
 
 Nickel . . $36,721,432 
 
 Cobalt 4,890,000 
 
 Copper 9,799,739 
 
 Gold 305,460 
 
 Silver 195,286 
 
 Platinum. . 805,429 
 
 Total $52,717,346 
 
 Of the total production of ore, about four-fifths must be credited 
 to the Canadian Copper Company. This company does not wish, at 
 present, to give the production of each individual mine, but through 
 the courtesy of President A. P. Turner of the Canadian Copper Com- 
 pany, I am authorized to state that the three largest of their mines 
 
PRODUCTION OP NICKEL AND COPPER FROM SUDBURY 229 
 
 have produced the following amounts of ore, up to the first of June, 
 1904. 
 
 Stobie mine 419,000 tons. 
 
 Copper Cliff mine 366,000 " 
 
 Creighton mine 310,000 " 
 
 Some of the other mines have also produced large quantities of 
 ore, as the Evans mine, No. 2 and No. 3 (Frood) mines, all 
 three of which have produced between 100,000 and 200,000 tons of 
 ore. The Creighton mine is, without doubt, the largest mine in the 
 district, and is regarded as capable of producing many millions of 
 tons of high grade ore. The ore at present being mined averages 
 about 5 per cent of nickel and 2 per cent of copper. During the 
 month of May last (1904) 19,000 tons of ore were mined, and, in 
 June, it was expected that 22,000 tons would be secured. It is pro- 
 posed in the near future to erect another rock house farther west on 
 this same deposit, when the output will be nearly doubled. The old 
 Blezard mine, belonging to the Dominion Mineral Company, probably 
 produced about 100,000 tons of ore, while 25,000 tons seems a reason- 
 able estimate for that produced by the Worthington mine. The Vic- 
 toria mine, belonging to the Mond Nickel Company, has produced 
 about 80,000 tons of ore, while the same company, up to the 1st of 
 June, 1904, had obtained about 13,000 tons from the North Star 
 mine. At the Murray mine, 62,193 tons were produced, while the 
 Lake Superior Power Company obtained 33,835 tons from the Elsie 
 mine, and 18,000 tons from the Gertrude mine, up to the end of 1903. 
 
 The following tables are reproduced from the annual reports of 
 the Division of Mineral Statistics and Mines of the Geological Sur- 
 vey Department, and of the Bureau of Mines, of Ontario. Both have 
 been prepared by Mr. J. McLeish, who has charge, under Mr. E. D. 
 Ingall, of this branch of the work. They will show, in a diagram- 
 matic manner, the details of the mining operations carried on in 
 the district from 1889 to 1903, both years inclusive. 
 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
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PRODUCTION OF NICKEL AND COPPER FROM SUDBURY 231 
 
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232 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF NICKEL. 
 
 From 1840 to 1860 the annual production of nickel scarcely- 
 averaged 100 metric tons per annum, and in no single year was a 
 production of 200 metric tons exceeded. From 1860 to 1880, a very 
 gradual, though . distinct, increase was noticeable, up to 600 metric 
 tons, although about the year 1874 a little over 700 metric tons 
 were produced. In 1880, the product of the New Caledonia mines 
 became a distinct factor on Uhe market, at first with a production of 
 about 200 metric tons per annum, but gradually increasing until the 
 year 1884, when the production was about 1,000 tons. In the year 
 1889, the product of the Sudbury mines was placed upon the market, 
 but only 432 tons were sold. In the year 1891, however, 2,018 tons 
 U,830 metric tons) of nickel were sold, which had been produced 
 from the Sudbury ores, while, at the sam^ time, the product of the 
 New Caledonia mines, which had reached the figure of 2,494 me trie 
 tons, dropped to 1,696 metric tons in 1892. In 1893 the world's total 
 production of nickel amounted to 4,412 metric tons, the amount of 
 the Canadian product placed on the market aggregating 1,807 metric 
 tons; while Norway, in the same year, produced about 90 metric 
 tons, and the United States 22-4 metric tons. 
 
 These figures showed a still further and rather rapid increase up 
 to the year 1901, when a total oi, 9,381 metric tons was produced, 
 the Canadian nickel amounting to 4,168 metric tons, and the New 
 Caledonia to 5,210 metric tons, while the United States produced 
 only three tons of nickel from domestic ores. 
 
 In 1902 the total of the world's production amounted to 8,473. 
 metric tons, but of this Canada's share was 4,850 tons, while the 
 New Caledonia output showed a decrease of 3,620 tons. 
 
 In 1903 the amount of Canadian nickel produced amounted to 
 6,348 metric tons, while New Caledonia produced only 4,750 metric 
 tons. 
 
 The world's total production of nickel for 1903, as stated by the 
 Metallgesellschaft, amounted to 9,850 metric tons. It is evident, 
 however, that this is understated and that the actual production is 
 considerably in excess of this amount, for the official returns for 
 Canada and the United States, as reported to the Geological Survey 
 and the Bureau of Mines of Ontario, give the production as 6,400 
 metric tons, instead of 5,100. metric tons, as stated by this authority. 
 Assuming the official figures as more nearly accurate, and adding the 
 production from New Caledonia as quoted by the Metallgesellschaft, 
 (4,750 metric tons), a grand total of 11,150 metric tons is obtained 
 as the aggregate of the world's production for 1903. 
 
THE PRICE OP NICKEL 233 
 
 These figures are full of hope for Canada, and with the gradually 
 increasing knowledge of the true value and uses of nickel, by reason 
 of its many desirable physical qualities, which is gradually becoming 
 more general, the production of nickel should be doubled in the next 
 five years. It is hoped and confidently expected that Canada's share 
 in this large output will be fully three-fourths of the whole. 
 
 The following table will show, at a glance, and in much greater 
 detail, the world's annual production of nickel from 1889 to 1902. 
 The figures for the foreign production for 1903 are not yet available. 
 
 These statistics are obtained mainly from the Metallgesellschaft 
 and Metallurgische Gesellschaft (Frankfort-on-the-Main), Aug., 1903, 
 p. 23. 
 
 The production of nickel from domestic ores in the United States 
 is quoted from Mineral Resources of the United States, while that of 
 Canada is from the Division of Mineral Statistics and Mines, Geo- 
 logical Survey of Canada, with the exception of 1903, which is from 
 the Bureau of Mines. The figures of Canadian production include 
 nickel actually sold, while those of the Bureau of Mines, which are 
 stated in a separate table, are of nickel produced, part of which 
 remained in stock. 
 
 The figures for Germany represent the production of Prussia, 
 Saxony also produces nickel, but accurate details are not readily 
 available. 
 
 THE PRICE OF NICKEL. 
 
 In 1876, the price of nickel per pound amounted to $2.60. In 1877 
 it dropped to $1.60 per pound and in 1878 it showed a still further 
 decline to $1.10 per pound. In 1879, it recovered slightly to $1.12 per 
 pound, but in 1880 it again decreased to $1.10, which latter figure was 
 maintained until 1^83, when the price steadily declined to about sixty 
 cents. At present the price quoted by leading producers varies from 
 forty to forty-seven cents per pound for large quantities down to ton 
 lots, according to size and terms of order. The price for smaller lots, 
 according to quantity, runs as high as sixty cents per pound in New 
 York. 
 
234 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
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 2 
 
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 3 
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 ooooooooooooooo 
 
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 I 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ACCIDENTS , 184 
 
 ACTINOLITE DIOKITE 120 
 
 ADAMS, PROF. FRANK D . 17, 125, 149, 151, 158, 
 
 159 
 
 ALGOMA NICKEL Co. 34 
 
 ALKALINE SULPHIDE PROCESS 216 
 
 ALLAN, W. A. A 160 
 
 ALLOYS 224-227 
 
 " AFTER ACTIONS " 129 
 
 AGRICULTURAL LAND 48 
 
 ALBERGER CONDENSER Co., N.Y 207 
 
 ALTITUDES 47 
 
 AMERICAN NICKEL WORKS 28 
 
 AMPHIBOLITE 58 
 
 ANALYSES. 
 
 Bessemer matte 212 
 
 slag 212 
 
 Copper-nickel stalactites 188 
 
 Copper ore . 10 
 
 Danaite. 103 
 
 Domeykite .... 147 
 
 Furnace matte 197, 198, 201, 202, 204 
 
 Garnierite 179 
 
 Genthite 174, 175 
 
 Gersdorffite 102 
 
 Iron ore 146 
 
 Iron pyrites, N. Burgess, Ont 149 
 
 St. Jerome, Que 148 
 
 Magnetic trap 23 
 
 Marcasite 96 
 
 Niccolite 102 
 
 Michipicoten island 146 
 
 Niccolite ores, Timiskaming dist 155, 156 
 
 Nickel alloys 224 
 
 Nickel, commercial 225 
 
 Nickel ores, Austria 170 
 
 Canada 157-104 
 
 Noumea 180 
 
 Scandinavia 166, 167 
 
 Sudbury dist 110, 112-133 
 
 Nickel silicates, Oregon, U. S. A 176 
 
 Norites 86 
 
 Olivine diabase 90 
 
 Pentlandite 92 
 
 Polydymite 97 
 
 Pyrite 94 
 
 Pyrrhotite, Calumet island, Que 152 
 
 Charlotte co. , N. B 151 
 
 ANGLESEA, ADDINGTON co., ONT 157 
 
 ANGLO-AMERICAN IRON Co 28 
 
 NICKEL Co 176 
 
 ANNABERGITE 102, 154 
 
 ANTHRAXOLITE 74 
 
 APATITE t 56 
 
 ARGALL, PHILIP 17 
 
 ARGENTA, W. KOOTENAY DIST, B.C 161 
 
 ARIZONA, U. S. 145 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ARMOUR PLATES 226 
 
 ARROW LAKE, UPPER W. KOOTENAY, B.C. 160 
 
 ARSENIC 128 
 
 ARSENIDE ORES 141 
 
 ARSENOLITE 154 
 
 ASBOLITE 156, 178 
 
 ATTVVOOD, GEORGE 10, 108, 111 
 
 AUGEN AMPHIBOLITE 59 
 
 GRANITE 76 
 
 AULTMAN AND TAYLOR MACHINERY Co., 
 
 OHIO 207 
 
 AUSTIN, DR. W. L 176, 222 
 
 AUSTRALIA 145 
 
 AUSTRIA 170 
 
 AUTOCLASTIC GREENSTONE 66 
 
 AYLWIN TP., OTTAWA co., QUE 159 
 
 AZILDA 47,65 
 
 BAIN, J. WATSON 18, 109, 197, 201, 216 
 
 BALFOUR TP 74 
 
 BAMLE DISTRICT, NORWAY 166 
 
 BARCLAY SOUND, V.I 160 
 
 BARLOW, DR. ALFRED E. . . .13, 19, 100, 123, 159 
 
 BARRACHOIS HARBOUR, CAPE BRETON 163 
 
 BATHOLITHS 51,76-79 
 
 BAWDEN, J 159 
 
 BAYONNE, N. J 28 
 
 BEATRICE MINE 95, 97, 149, 140 
 
 BEHENNA, G. H 32 
 
 BEIERN, NORWAY 168 
 
 BELL, DR. ROBT 5, 11, 12, 72, 79, 148 
 
 BRNNO MINE, SILESIA, AUSTRIA.. .... 170 
 
 BERG, J. FR HI 
 
 BESSEMER MATTE 201 
 
 PROCESS, 41 
 
 BICYCLES 226 
 
 BIG LEVACK PROPERTIES 35, 36 
 
 BlOTITE SCHISTS 
 
 BISMUTH 128 
 
 BLAST , 190, 204 
 
 FURNACE 26, 195, 196, 207 
 
 " BLEACHING " 56, 85 
 
 BLEZAHD MINE, 
 
 Classed in marginal deposits 
 
 Depth of workings at 121 
 
 Discovery of 25 
 
 History of ^ . 
 
 Production of 229 
 
 Proportion of nickel and copper in ores 
 
 of . . 108110 
 
 Ref . to report on, by G. H. Williams . . 16 
 
 Smelting at 194 
 
 BLEZARD TP <> if" 
 
 " BLOTCHED " QUARTZITE 
 
 BLUKITE 14-16, 96 
 
 BODENMAIS, SAXONY 
 
 BONNE TERRE, Miss 
 
 BORAX 128 
 
236 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 BORING FOR NICKEL, CHARLOTTE co., N.B. 150 
 
 SUDBURY DIST. ... 26 
 
 32, 36, 37, 40 
 
 BORNITE 104 
 
 BOUCHER'S MINE 112 
 
 BOULARDERIE CENTRE, VICTORIA CO., N.S. 163 
 
 BOUNDARY POSTS 46 
 
 BOWELL TP . 86 
 
 BOYD, J. D 162 
 
 BRECCIA 78 
 
 BRECCI ATION 128 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA, NICKEL FROM 145, 149 
 
 BROWN, W. Q 176 
 
 BROWNE, DAVID H. 
 
 Analysis by, of pentlandite 92 
 
 of polydymite 97 
 
 Criticism by, of Emmons 132 
 
 Cubanite found by 106 
 
 Electrolytic process of 220 
 
 Magnetic separation by 16, 106, 127 
 
 Ref. to analyses by, of Sudbury ores. Ill, 118 
 Ref. to paper by, on Nickel and Steel . . 227 
 
 BRUCE, A. H. N 159 
 
 BRUCE MINES, ALGOMA DIST., ONT. ..22, 200, 210 
 
 BRUMELL, H. P. H 149 
 
 BUCKE TP., TlMISKAMING DIST., QUE 154 
 
 BUILDING STONE 76 
 
 BUREAU OF MINES, ONT 14, 15, 20 
 
 BURROWS, A. G 155 
 
 BUSH, E. RENSHAW 17 
 
 CALCITE 128 
 
 CALDWELL, T. B 159 
 
 CALDWELL, W. C 158 
 
 CALIFORNIA, NICKEL IN 145 
 
 CALUMET ISLAND, OTTAWA RIVER, QUE 152 
 
 CAMBRIAN 52 
 
 CAMDEN, N. J 28 
 
 CAMERON MINE, BLEZARD TP., ONT. . .34, 88, 119 
 
 CAMPBELL, J. B 153 
 
 CAMPBELL CREEK, KOOTENAY LAKE, B.C. . 161 
 CANADIAN COPPER Co. 
 
 Assays of roasted ore of 19! 
 
 Bessemer matte production of 195 
 
 Capital of 26 
 
 Diagram of cross-section of new smelter 
 
 At end 
 
 History of 26 
 
 Inclusion of, in International Nickel Co 28 
 
 Mines of, first operated for copper 116 
 
 Mines owned or worked by 26, 27 
 
 No. 2 mine of 185 
 
 Option of, on North Star mine 209 
 
 Percentage of copper and nickel in 
 
 mines of , 108, 110 
 
 Plant of, installed to work nickel 10 
 
 notes by Barlow. . .187, 188, 194, 199, 
 202, 205, 209 
 
 photos . . At end. 
 
 Ref. to analyses by 110 
 
 Statistics of 227 
 
 CANADIAN G SNERAL ELECTRIC Co 207 
 
 CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY 23, 47, 196 
 
 CARROLL, J 150 
 
 CARROLL MINE, CHARLOTTE co., N.B. ..150, 151 
 
 CASCADEN TP., ALGOMA DIST., ONT 86 
 
 CASSITERITE. . . 105 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 CATLETT, PROF. CHARLES 11-17, 97 
 
 CENTURY COPPER MINE 94, 103 
 
 CEVIA, PIEDMONT, ITALY 169 
 
 CHALCEDONY 178 
 
 CHALCOCITE 104 
 
 CHALCOPYRITE. 
 
 Norway, mineral associations of 167 
 
 Sudbury dist., analyses. . . .112, 113, 116, 118 
 association with pyrrho- 
 
 tite ....9, 106, 107, 116, 115 
 description of . . .91, 115-118 
 
 occurrences in 19, 34, 39 
 
 CHAPMAN, R. H. G 158 
 
 CHATHAM, CONN., U. S 145, 171 
 
 CHATHAM COBALT MINING Co 172 
 
 CHICAGO MINE see INEZ MINE 
 
 CHILI 145 
 
 CHINA 222 
 
 " CHINA SILVER " 222 
 
 CHLOANTHITE 142, 156 
 
 CHROME NICKEL 226 
 
 CHROMITE 178 
 
 CLARABELLE LAKE 53, 87 
 
 CLARABELLE MINES 26, 105, 119 
 
 CLARABELLE JUNCTION 47, 187 
 
 CLARK, PROF. F. W 11, 96, 97, 176 
 
 CLASTIC ROCKS 51, 62, 71 
 
 CLYDACH, NEAR SWANSEA, WALES. ..42, 170, 209 
 
 COBALT .. ... 109,127,228 
 
 COBALT BLOOM 154, 155 
 
 COBALT MINES 145 
 
 COCHRANE MINE 117, 138, 140 
 
 COCKLE BROS 162 
 
 COLEMAN, A. P., ref. to surveys by 16, 19, 
 
 21, 27, 59-62, 69, 80, 94 
 
 COLLINS, J. H 10 
 
 COLORADO, U. S 177 
 
 COMPASS 23 
 
 CONCESSIONS 46 
 
 CONGLOMERATE 61-66 
 
 CONNECTICUT, U. S 145 
 
 CONNOR, M. F 118, 151 
 
 COPPER 10, 21-45, 107-113 
 
 COPPER CLIFF MINES. 
 
 Analyses and assays of ores from. . . 108, 117, 
 
 Breccia of 78 
 
 Browne's experiment on ore from 132 
 
 Building-stone of 76 
 
 Contact of norite and granite in 
 
 Copper of, chalcopyrite 92 
 
 native 105 
 
 percentage of in ores . . . 108, 109 
 
 Depth of 121 
 
 Discovery of, flotation of 25 
 
 Gossan of 121 
 
 Hydrochemical action at 130 
 
 Magnetic separation of ores from 16, 132 
 
 Maps of, and vicinity At end. 
 
 ref s. to same 7, 21 
 
 Millerite in 13, 97 
 
 Mines of, on Main Nickel range 87 
 
 Nickel of, percentage 109 
 
 Norite of 119,121 
 
 Olivine diabases at 90 
 
 Photos of At end. 
 
INDEX 
 
 237 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 COPPER CLIFF MINES Con. 
 
 Platinum in matte of 99 
 
 Position of 87 
 
 Production of 27, 229 
 
 Pyriteof 94 
 
 Reported on, by Collins 1887 10 
 
 Roast-yards of 186, 188 
 
 Smelters of 28 
 
 Sulphurous fumes at 189 
 
 Work at 25, 26 
 
 CORNWALL, (ENGLAND) 144 
 
 COWEN, E. P 152 
 
 COWEN MINE, PONTIAC CO., QlJE 152 
 
 CRAWFORD BAY, KOOTENAY LAKE. B.C 160 
 
 CREIGHTON MINE. 
 
 Classed in marginal deposits 119 
 
 Depth of 121 
 
 Gossan of . 121 
 
 Magmatic differentiation at 130 
 
 Magnetic separation of sulphides from . 93 
 
 134- 136 
 
 Main shaft of 185 
 
 Microline at 83 
 
 Nickel, percentage of in ores 109, 110 
 
 Norite of, character 5, 83 
 
 junction with granite 53, 88 
 
 Ores of, freedom from copper 107 
 
 Pentlandite of 92, 106 
 
 Photos of At end. 
 
 Production of 27, 229 
 
 Pyrrhotite of, assays 117 
 
 Report on, by Murray, extract 22 
 
 Sulphides of 27, 107 
 
 CREIGHTON TP . 7, 23, 57, 157 
 
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 19 
 
 CUBANITE 106 
 
 DAHLL BROS 168 
 
 DAILLEBOUT SGY., JOLIETTE co., QUE ... 148 
 
 DALHOUSIE, LANARK co., ONT 157, 158 
 
 DALY, DR. REGINALD... 79.121 
 
 DANA, PROF. Eix S 178 
 
 DARLINGTON BAY, L. OF THE WOODS 157 
 
 DAVIS PROPERTY 36, 88 
 
 DAW, F. R. W 108, 111 
 
 DEER CREEK, CLAYOQUOT, V. I 161 
 
 DEER RIVER, CHURCHILL RIVER, N.V 7 .T . . 164 
 DENISON TP. 
 
 Biotite schists of 60 
 
 Building stone of . 76 
 
 Conglomerates of , 66 
 
 Niccolite in 100 
 
 Norite belt of . . . 6, 7, 67 
 
 Ores of, percentage of copper, cobalt 
 
 and nickel in ... 112 
 
 Quartzite in, altered 64 
 
 Traversed by Main Nickel range 87 
 
 DIABASE DIKES 49, 130 
 
 DIALLAGE 1(> 
 
 DlCKENSON, J 162 
 
 DlCKSON. C. W. 
 
 Assays and analyses by. 93, 110, 111, 115-117 
 
 Description by 94, 97 
 
 Magnetic separations by 106, 133, 138 
 
 Ref. to papers by 19, 104, 139, 146 
 
 DILLTP 71 
 
 DILLENBURG, NASSAU, GERMANY 169 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 DILLER, JOSEPH S 143 
 
 DILLSBORO, JACKSON co., N. CAROLINA.. 174 
 
 DIORITE 53, 54 
 
 PORPHYRITE 57 
 
 DOBLE, CAPT. CHAS 172 
 
 DOBSCHAU, HUNGARY 169 
 
 DOELTER, C 113 
 
 DOLOMITES 128 
 
 DOMEYKITE 147 
 
 DOMINION MINE 79, 88, 108 
 
 DOMINION MINERAL Co 32, 10^, 111, 194 
 
 DOUGLAS co., OREGON, U. S 175, 176 
 
 DOWLING, D. B 164 
 
 DOWLING TP., ALGOMA DIST 8, 74, 87, 158 
 
 DOWNIE CREEK, COLUMBIA RIVER, B.C 160 
 
 DRIFT 48 
 
 DRURY TP 67, 87, 112 
 
 DRURY NICKEL Co., see TRILL MINING Co. 
 
 DUCKTOWN, TENN. , U. S 20 
 
 DUNITE 143 
 
 DYRHAUG MINE, NORWAY 166 
 
 DYSCRASITE ... 156 
 
 E AGLESON, MR ... 101 
 
 BARDLET TP., OTTAWA co., QUE 159 
 
 EAST SMELTER, COPPER CLIFF MINE 26 
 
 EASTERN TOWNSHIPS, P.Q 143, 148 
 
 EDISON, THOMAS A 131, 141 
 
 EDWARDS, J. T 163 
 
 E JUILLES, NEAR LYONS, FRANCE 170 
 
 ElSSENICKELKIES , 13 
 
 ELECTRO-PLATING 224 
 
 ELECTROLYTIC PROCESS 216, 220 
 
 ELLS, DR. R. W ".... 149-150 
 
 ELSIE JUNCTION 47 
 
 ELSIE MINE. 
 
 Altitude of hill near 47 
 
 Assays of pyrrhotites of 117 
 
 Classification of 119 
 
 Geological maps of, and photo At end. 
 
 Gossan of ... 120 
 
 History of 39 
 
 Hornblende porphyrite of 57 
 
 Magnetic separation of ore from 134 
 
 Percentage of nickel in ores'of 108, 109 
 
 sulphides in rock of 107 
 
 Position of 8S 
 
 Py rite at 94 
 
 EMMONS, DR. S. H 14, 16, 95, 96, 131, 132 
 
 EMMONS METAL Co 37 
 
 ENGINEERING Co. , OF NEW YORK 205 
 
 ENGLISH RIVER, RAINY RIVER DIST., ONT.. 157 
 
 ENSTATITE 16 
 
 EPIDOTE 56 
 
 ERDINGTON, ENGLAND 170 
 
 ERTELIEN MINE, NORWAY 165, 166 
 
 ERUPTIVE ROCKS. 51 
 
 ORE DEPOSITS 129 
 
 ERYTHRITE 154-156 
 
 ESPEDALEN, GAUSDAL, IS ORWAY 167 
 
 EUROPE 169-171 
 
 EUTHYDEMOS 222 
 
 EVANS MINE. 
 
 Analyses of ore from , 108 
 
 Experiments on ore from 110, 133 
 
 History of 25, 26 
 
 Isolated masses of norite in . . 119 
 
238 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 PAGE. | 
 
 EVANS MINE Con. 
 
 Magnetic separation of ores from 16 
 
 Norite at, and near .... 69, 88 | 
 
 Pentlandite in 106 i 
 
 Percentage of copper in ore of 108 j 
 
 nickel 109 | 
 
 Photo of At end. 
 
 EVJE, NORWAY 166 
 
 FAHLBANI s, NORWAY 125 
 
 FAIRBANK CREEK, ALGOMA DIST., ONT 41 
 
 FAIRBANK LAKE. ONT 7 
 
 FALCONBRIDGE TP 48,86 
 
 FELDSPATHIC SANDSTONE 61-66 
 
 FERRO-NICKEL 38, 170, 189 
 
 FLA AD MINE, EVJE, NORWAY 166 
 
 FLECUNER, R 180 
 
 FLUORITE 128 
 
 FOLGERITE 14-16 
 
 FORBES, D 168 
 
 FohEST FIRES 46 
 
 FOULLON, BARON VON 15, 80, 100 
 
 FOLQUE, F. A 129 
 
 FOURNET, J. J. B. X 122, 127 
 
 Fox,C. B 85 
 
 FRANCE 170 
 
 FRANKLIN, G. H 163 
 
 FRASCH, HANS. A 38, 220 
 
 FROOD MINE. 
 
 Augen amphibolite from 59 
 
 Magnetic separation of ore from 134 
 
 Norite of 88, 119 
 
 Percentage of nickel and copper in 110 
 
 Situation of ; work at! . . .26, 27, 88, 119, 187 
 FUEL 190 
 
 FUMAROLE ACTION 129 
 
 GABBRO 151, 165 
 
 DIORITE 54 
 
 GALENA 104, 128 
 
 GALWAY TP., PETERBOROUGH co., ONT 157 
 ^GAP MINE, PENN., U. S. 
 
 Closing of 144,173 
 
 History of ; ore from 172 
 
 Magnetic experiments in ore from . ... 131 
 
 Pyrrhotite from . . 15 
 
 Refining process at 216 
 
 GAP MINING Co 172 
 
 GARNETIFEROUS AMPHIBOLITE 60 
 
 GARNIER, JULES 
 
 Analyses of gamierite by 179, 180 
 
 Discovery of garnierite by 178 
 
 Ref . to paper by, 1891 14 
 
 Work by, in Noumea 182 
 
 GARNIERITE. 
 
 Analyses of, from Noumea 179, 180 
 
 Smelting of, in Great Britain 170 
 
 Vogt's division, in class III ... 142 
 
 Webster (N. C. ), ore similar to 174 
 
 GARSON TP. 
 
 Crossed by Main Nickel range 87 
 
 High land from, to Denison tp., Algoma 47 
 
 Nickel mining in 37 
 
 Norite belt of 87 
 
 GEITNER, DR 169 
 
 GEM MINE, FREMONT co.. CoL.,U.S.142, 145, 177 
 GENTH, PROF. F. A 172, 178 
 
 ^ PAGE, 
 
 GENTHITE. 
 
 Analysis of ore similar to 147 
 
 Analyses of, from Webster, Penn .... 174 
 
 Classification of 142 
 
 In Timiskaming ores 154 
 
 GEOLOGY 7, 50 91 
 
 GERMAN SILVER 216 
 
 GERSDORFFITE. 
 
 Analysis, discovery and character of . 101, 102 
 
 Association of, with niccolite 100 
 
 Classification of 142 
 
 From McConnell mine 37 
 
 Rossland, B.C 149 
 
 GERTRUDE MINE. 
 
 Assays of py rrhotites from 117 
 
 Classification of 119 
 
 Depth of . . . 121 
 
 Elevation of 47 
 
 Freedom of ore of, from copper 107 
 
 Location of openings on 88 
 
 Magnetic separation of ore from 134 
 
 Nickeliferous pyrite from 95 
 
 Norite mass in 5 
 
 Production of matte by 194 
 
 ore from 229 
 
 Rocks near 77 
 
 Workings of 39 
 
 GIRDWOOD, DR. G. P 24 
 
 GLACIATION 47 
 
 GLASENDORF, SILESIA, AUSTRIA 170 
 
 GNEISS 18 
 
 GOLD AND GOLD MINING .. .105, 109, 166, 202, 228 
 
 GOLDSCHMIDT, PROF. VICTOR 19 
 
 GOODWIN, PROF. W. L 17 
 
 GOSSAN 120, 121, 143, 151, 152 
 
 GRAF, ANTON 37 
 
 GRAGALTEN MINE, NORWAY 1.66 
 
 GRAHAM TP., ALGOMA DIST., ONT. 
 
 Analysis of nickel ore from 158 
 
 Augen amphibolite and biotite schist of 59 
 
 Danaitefrom 103,104 
 
 Norite of 68 
 
 Quartzite in , 64 
 
 GRANITE 6, 50, 52, 75-7 
 
 GRANITOID GNEISS 75 
 
 GRANOPHYRE 85 
 
 GRAPHITE 1 06 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 170 
 
 GREAT LAKES COPPER Co ... 37 
 
 GREECE 171 
 
 GREENSTONE 6, 53, lltf 
 
 SCHISTS 53-61 
 
 GREYWACKE 62-6 
 
 GRUNAU, WESTPHALIA, EUR 11 
 
 HAANEL, DR. EUGENE 141 
 
 HABERMEHL, F 113, 131 
 
 HADFIELD, R. A 227 
 
 HACGERTY, WILLIAM 163 
 
 HAILKYBURY, TIMISKAMING DIST., ONT.. 142, 153 
 
 HAM TP., WOLFE co., QUE 148 
 
 HARRINGTON, PROF. B. J 148 
 
 HAVRE, FRANCE 170. 183 
 
 HERDT, JOHN 197 
 
 HETEROGENITE 156 
 
 HlLLEBRAND, W. F 96 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 HIRAM ROBINSON PROPERTY 100 
 
 HISTORICAL NOTES 21-45 
 
 HIXON, HIRAM W 41 
 
 HOEPFNER, DR. CARL 38, 220 
 
 REFINING Co 38 
 
 HOFFMANN, DR. G. C 25, 101, 113 
 
 HORNBLENDE PORPHYRITE. 57 
 
 SCHIST 58 
 
 HOWEY, DR. W. H , 23, 24 
 
 HUNGARY 142, 144 
 
 HUNT, DR. T. STERRY .23, 14G, 149 
 
 HURONIAN 23 
 
 LOWER 50 
 
 UPPER 50, 53-71, 154 
 
 HURONITE 89 
 
 HUTTON TP 50 
 
 HYMAN TP 157 
 
 ICE RIVER, E. KOOTENAY PIST., B.C 161 
 
 IDAHO, U.S 145 
 
 IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS, ROCKS 124 
 
 ILLECILLEWAET DIST., B.C 160 
 
 ILMENITE 57 
 
 INDUSTRIAL WATER Co., NEW YORK 207 
 
 INEZ MINE 35, 37 
 
 INTERNATIONAL NICKEL Co. 
 
 Barlow's acknowledgments to officials 
 
 of 9 
 
 Depth of mines of 121 
 
 Formation of 28 
 
 Nickel-steel experiments of . 44 
 
 Ore bodies of 119 
 
 Ref . to scale maps 8 
 
 INTERNATIONAL NICKEL MINING Co., CHI- 
 CAGO, U. S 176 
 
 IRELAND 144 
 
 IRIDIUM 160 
 
 IRON COLT CLAIM, TRAIL CREEK, COLUM- 
 BIA RIVER, B. C 161 
 
 IRON PYRITES 148 
 
 ISERLOHN, WESTPHALIA, PRUSSIA 1S3 
 
 ITALY 169 
 
 JACKFISH STATION 157 
 
 JACKSON co., N. CAROLINA, U.S 173-175 
 
 JACOBSEN, F 162 
 
 JAMES, O. S 155 
 
 JOHNSTON, R. A. A. 
 
 Analysis by, of danaite 103 
 
 of gt-rsdorffite 102 
 
 of lollingite 153 
 
 of Sudbury ores. . 112, 157-164 
 
 Chaleocite examined by 104 
 
 Description by, of gersdorffite 101, 102 
 
 of pyrrhotite 151, 152 
 
 Ref. to analysis by, of poly dy mite. ... 98 
 
 JOSEPHINE co., OREGON, U.S 175 
 
 JOSEPHINITE 175 
 
 JUDSON, J. N 133, 139 
 
 KAY, G. F 141 
 
 KELLEY LAKE, ALGOMA DIST., ONT 67, 200 
 
 KELSEY MINE, Los ANGELES, CAL 145 
 
 KEMP, PROF. J.. F 18, 123, 127, 173 
 
 KENNEDY LAKE, V.I . . . 161 
 
 KENRICK, E. B 104 
 
 KlEPENHEUER, DR 180 
 
 KING SOLOMON MINE, BOUNDARY CREEK 
 DIST., B.C 160 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 KlRKINTILLOCH, SCOTLAND 170 
 
 KlRKWOOD MINE 37, 88, 119 
 
 KLEFVA MINE, SMALAND, SWEDEN 166, 167 
 
 KLOTZ, O. J 8 
 
 KOGALUK RIVER, HUDSON BAY 164 
 
 KOGER, KARL 140- 
 
 KOOTENAY-COLUMBIA PROPERTY, ROSS- 
 
 LAND, B.C 161 
 
 KRAGERO, NORWAY 168 
 
 KRUQUOT, V. I 161 
 
 LAC DE Bois, INTERIOR PLATEAU REGION, 
 
 B.C 161 
 
 LADY MACDONALD MINE. 
 
 Classification of 119 
 
 Crossed by Main Nickel range 87 
 
 Discovery of 25 
 
 Graphite from 106 
 
 Situation of 26 
 
 LADY VIOLET MINE. 
 
 Classification of 119- 
 
 Contact norite and granite at 88 
 
 Fine-grained granite near 77 
 
 Magnetic surveying in 140 
 
 Work at 32 
 
 LAKE HILL, DENISON TP., ALGOMA, ONT. . 5& 
 
 LAKE SUPERIOR . . '. 145- 
 
 LAKE SUPERIOR POWER Co. 
 
 Barlow's acknowledgments to officials 
 
 of 9 
 
 Magnetic surveying by , . 141 
 
 Operations of 38, 39 
 
 Production of matte by 194 
 
 Smelting methods of 139 
 
 LANCASTER GAP., PENN 142 
 
 LANGER, DR. CARL 39 
 
 LASPEYRES, ERNEST, ADOLPH, HUGO 11 
 
 LAURENTIAN 50 
 
 LAURENTIAN GRANITE 71-79 
 
 LAVA FLOWS 60 
 
 LAWSON, CAPT 9 
 
 LEAD ORES 144 
 
 LEAF COPPER . 105 
 
 LEDEBUR 224 
 
 " LE NICKEL '' COMPANY 183 
 
 LE ROY, OSMOND E 8, 74 
 
 L'ETETE, CHARLOTTE co., N.B . ... 163- 
 
 LEVACK TP 30, 87, 112, 117 
 
 LEVACK NICKEL RANGE. 
 
 Magnetic separation of ore from 138- 
 
 Other names for ; outlines of 86 
 
 Relation of norite in, to micropegma- 
 
 tite 120 
 
 Work on 35,36 
 
 LEVAT, DAVID 15, 180 
 
 LIGHTNING 42 
 
 LlLLEHAMMER, NORWAY 93, 94 
 
 LINDSTROM, AXEL, FREDRIK 113 
 
 LITERATURE 9-21 
 
 LITTLE STOBIE MINE. 
 
 Classification of 119 
 
 Character of norite from 82 
 
 Granite near IT 
 
 Olivine in norite of 91 
 
 On main belt of norite . 88 
 
 Operations at 42 
 
 Pyrihotite from 117, 118- 
 
340 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 LIVERSIDGB, PROF. A 178-180 
 
 LOCKE, DONALD... 9, 101), 111, 118, 188, 191, 197, 
 199, 204, 211, 212 
 
 LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM E 22 
 
 LOGAN CLUB, OTTAWA, ONT 13 
 
 LOLLINGITE 153 
 
 LOMBARDY 125 
 
 LONDONDERRY, KINGS co., N.S 149 
 
 LONG LAKE, TlMISKAMING DIST 154, 155 
 
 LORNETP 34,112 
 
 LOTS 46 
 
 LUMSDEN TP 86, 112 
 
 LUTCHE CREEK, CAPE BRETON 163 
 
 LYTTON, ASHCROFT DIV., B.C 161 
 
 MCALLISTER MINE 2B 
 
 MCARTHUR, CAPT. JAMES 105, 193, 204, 205 
 
 MCARTHUR GRANULATING TROUGH 196 
 
 McCHARLES LAKE, ALGOMA DIST 6, 52, 67 
 
 McCONNELL, RlNALDO ... 40 
 
 McCONNELL MINE. 
 
 Actinohte diorite and schist of 70 
 
 Annabergite from 102 
 
 Arsenide ores of 141 
 
 Location of 25 
 
 Marcasite from 96 
 
 Morenpsite from. 102 
 
 Niccolite from 100 
 
 Nickel minerals from 37 
 
 Purchase of, work in 40 
 
 MACDONELL MINE see MCCONNELL 
 
 McGiLL COLLEGE, MONTREAL 9 
 
 MCGREGOR TP., THUNDER BAY DISTRICT. . 148 
 
 MclNNEs, WM 159 
 
 Me KIM TP. 
 
 Copper Cliff mines in 26 
 
 Crossed by Main Nickel range 87 
 
 Diorite and norite of - 67 
 
 Elevation of flat in 48 
 
 Gossan belt of 120 
 
 Smaltite from 104 
 
 McLEiSH, J 230-234 
 
 McLEOi), AI.EX 163 
 
 MCNAUGHTON, JUDGE ANDREW 23, 24 
 
 McOuAT, WILLIAM 160 
 
 McTiGHE, T. J 131 
 
 Me VITTIE, MR 95 
 
 MAFFETT, R. R 227 
 
 MAGMAS 123, 124, 130 
 
 MAGMA TIC DIFFERENTIATION 123, 124 
 
 MAGNESIUM 225 
 
 MAGNET 22, 23 
 
 MAGNETIC SEPARATION 131 
 
 TRAP 23 
 
 MAGNETITE 104, 115, 126, 141 
 
 MAGNETOMETER '. 140 
 
 MAIN NICKEL RANGE 87, 88 
 
 MALAGA PROVINCE, SPAIN 169 
 
 MANCHE'S FURNACE 30 
 
 MANITOULIN AND NORTH SHORE R'y. Co. 47, 196 
 
 MAPLE *. . . . . 189 
 
 MAPS OF ONTARIO At end. 
 
 REFERENCES TO 5, 6, 8, 12, 
 
 21, 46 
 
 MARCASITE 17 
 
 " MARGINAL DEPOSITS " 119, 120 
 
 MARKS, THOMAS 158 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 MARLER, W. L 160 
 
 MARTHA MINE, SILESIA, AUSTRIA 170 
 
 MASHAM TP., OTTAWA co., QUE 159 
 
 MASSEY COPPER MINE 28 
 
 MATTAWATCHAN, RENFREW co., ONT 158 
 
 MEANY, L 159 
 
 MELVILLE, W. H 175 
 
 MERRITT, W. H 11 
 
 MERRY, A 35 
 
 MICHEL-LEVY, AUGUSTK 129 
 
 MlCHIPICOTEN ISLAND, L. SUPERIOR 146 
 
 MICKLE, G. R 95, 116 
 
 MICROPEGMATITE 7, 16, 84, 85, 120 
 
 MIDDLE NICKEL RANGE 86 
 
 MILLER, PROF. W. G 153-156 
 
 MlLLERITE. 
 
 Copper Cliff mine 13 
 
 Classification of 142 
 
 Description and occurrences of ........ 97 
 
 Gap mine, Penn 173 
 
 Orf ord Nickel mine, Sher brooke co 148 
 
 MINE LA MOTTK, Mo 142, 145, 177 
 
 MINERALS , 91-118 
 
 MINES SECTION, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 
 
 OTTAWA 14, 169 
 
 MINING GEOLOGICAL PLANS 7 
 
 MINING METHODS 140, 181, 184-187 
 
 MISSION CITY CLAIMS, WESTMINSTER 
 DIST., B.C 160 
 
 MlSTASSINI LAKE, QUE 159 
 
 MlTCHENER MINE 6, 70 
 
 MOHR, DR. BERNHARD 9 
 
 MOLYBDENUM NICKKL 226 
 
 MONASHEE MINE, CHERRY CREEK, B.C 160 
 
 MONO NICKEL COMPANY. 
 
 Acknowledgments to 9 
 
 Assay of matte of 109, 118 
 
 Chimney building by : . ..... 192 
 
 Depths of mines of 121, 122 
 
 Exploratory work by 36 
 
 History of 41-44 
 
 Magnetic surveying by 140 
 
 Percentage of nickel and copper in ores 
 
 of 110 
 
 Refineries of, Great Britain 170 
 
 Roast yards of 188 
 
 Roasted ore, method of handling 193 
 
 Roasted ore, not assayed by, 191 
 
 Smelteis, Photo of, At end. 
 
 Smelting of 210, 211 
 
 MONTK CRISTO CLAIM, TRAIL CREEK, CO- 
 LUMBIA RIVER, B.C 161 
 
 MORENOSITE 102 
 
 MORGAN TP 86 
 
 MOUNT NICKEL MINE. 
 
 Assays of pyrrhotites from 117 
 
 Classification of 119 
 
 Magnetic separation of ore' from 134, 135 
 
 137 
 
 surveying in 140 
 
 Workings of 37 
 
 MURRAY, ALEX 22, 145 
 
 MURRAY MINE. 
 
 Breccia of 78 
 
 Bruce Mines quartz used at 200 
 
 Classification of .. 119 
 
INDEX 
 
 241 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 MURRAY MINE Con. 
 
 Copper in ores, proportion of 108 
 
 Diabase dike near 49 
 
 Discovery of - 24 
 
 Failure of . . 32 
 
 Gossan of, depth of 120 
 
 Granite S. E., of 77 
 
 Hornblende porphyrite of 57 
 
 Magnetite of 105 
 
 Maps of In pocket. 
 
 Matte from, analysis of 100,201,202 
 
 Marcasite from 17 
 
 Nickel bearing eruptive from 15 
 
 in ores of, percentage of 109 
 
 Norite with schists, at junction of 88 
 
 Olivine diabase near. 90, 91 
 
 Operations at 30 
 
 Photos of At end. 
 
 Production of 229 
 
 Roasting shed of 190 
 
 Selwyn's opinion of 24 
 
 Smelting at 194 
 
 Sulphides in rocks of 107 
 
 Surveying in 140 
 
 NAIRN TP 112 
 
 NAKETY, N. S. W 180 
 
 NATIVE COPPER 105 
 
 NEELON TP. 
 
 Diorite and norite of 67, 69 
 
 Eiuptive rocks of 71 
 
 Intrusive rocks of 52 
 
 Percentage of nickel, copper and cobalt 
 
 in ore from 112 
 
 Pyrrhotite of 67 
 
 NEVADA, U. S 145 
 
 NEW CALEDONIA. 
 
 Nickel production of. .144, 145, 168, 183, 184, 
 
 213, 232 
 
 Ores of, comparison with Perm 175 
 
 nickel 178-184 
 
 peridotite 143 
 
 sulphide 142 
 
 NEWCASTLE, N. S. WALES 183 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 145 
 
 NEW MEXICO, U. S 145 
 
 " NEW SILVER " 224 
 
 NEW ZEALAND 145 
 
 NlCCOLITE. 
 
 Analysis and description of 100, 101 
 
 Classification of 142 
 
 McConnell mine 37 
 
 Michipicoten island, L. Superior 146 
 
 Thunder Bay district, Ont 148 
 
 Timiskaming district, Ont 154, 155 
 
 NICKEL. 
 
 Analyses of 223 
 
 Discovery of, Algoma district 9 
 
 History of, in Sudbury district 21-45 
 
 Mining of, in Austria 170 
 
 Production of, Italian, Spanish and 
 
 Welsh 169,170 
 
 Production of, New Caledonia 177-184 
 
 Norwegian 168 
 
 Swedish. 169 
 
 Roasting, smelting and refining of. ..187-221 
 
 Silicates of 143 
 
 418716 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 NICKEL <Am. 
 
 Sudbury and N. Caledonia ores of 
 
 compared 15 
 
 Uses and statistics of 224-234 
 
 NICKEL BEARING ERUPTIVE 52, 79, 88 
 
 NICKEL COINS 222, 224 
 
 NICKEL COPPER Co., HAMILTON . . 38 
 
 NICKEL CORPORATION, LTD 28, 183 
 
 NiCKEL-IRON-SULPHIDE 106 
 
 NICKEL ORES. 
 
 Analyses of, see analysis. 
 
 Classification and genesis of 141-144 
 
 Distribution of 144-143 
 
 Canada 145-164 
 
 Europe 169-171 
 
 New Caledonia 177-184 
 
 Scandinavia 164-169 
 
 United States 171-177 
 
 NICKEL OXIDE 143 
 
 NICKEL STEEL 225-227, 
 
 NICKEL VITRIOL. See MORENOSITE. 
 
 NlCKELIFEROUS PYRITE 17, 142 
 
 PYRRHOTITE.. ..131-137, 139, 142 
 
 NICKELOID. 225 
 
 NICOL, WILLIAM 19, 155, 156 
 
 NORDENSTROM, PROF. OLAF G 140 
 
 NORITE 5, 7, 51-53, 66-70, 77, 124 
 
 SCANDINAVIA 164 
 
 NORTH BURGESS TP., LANARK co 149 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, U.S 143 
 
 NORTHERN NICKEL RANGE, ALGOMA DISTRICT. 
 
 Limits and description of 86 
 
 Nickel deposits of 30 
 
 Pyrrhotite analysis from 118 
 
 magnetic separation of, from 138 
 
 Rocks of., 16 
 
 NORTH STAR MINE. 
 
 Canadian Copper Go's, option on 209 
 
 Classification of . 119 
 
 Norite mass of . . - 5 
 
 Operations at 42 
 
 Position of 88 
 
 Rocks near 77 
 
 Uses of ore from 210 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 Matte of compared to Sudbury matte. . 202 
 
 Nickel mining and production of 164-166, 
 
 213, 232 
 
 Ref. to nickel ores of 18, 125, 127, 142 
 
 NOUMEA, NEW CALEDONIA 183 
 
 NYSTROM, ERIK 140 
 
 OAK BAY, CHARLOTTE co., N.B 149 
 
 OBSERVATORY, RAYSIDE TP., ALGOMA DIS- 
 TRICT, ONT 8 
 
 O'CONNOR, DAN 101 
 
 " OFFSET DEPOSITS " 119, 120 
 
 OGILVIE, W. M 9,166 
 
 O'HANLEY, MRS. K 163 
 
 OLDEN TP., FRONTENAO co., ONT 158 
 
 OLIVINE--DIABASE 53, 89-91 
 
 Photo of At end. 
 
 ONAPING, ALGOMA DISTRICT 8, 45 
 
 ONAPING RIVER 72 
 
 ONTARIO SMELTING WORKS. 
 
 Dike near 90 
 
 Matte, analyses of , 204 
 
242 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 ONTARIO SMELTING WOKKS Con. 
 
 Matte, preparation of 202 
 
 N orite near 88 
 
 Quartzites near 64 
 
 Works of 28, 195, 202 
 
 OPEN CAST WORK 184 
 
 ORDE, E. D 158 
 
 ORDNANCE 225, 226 
 
 OREGON NICKEL MINES 176 
 
 ORFORD COPPER Co. 
 
 Alkaline sulphide process of 216 
 
 Gold and silver in matte of 109, 110 
 
 Inclusion of, in International Nickel 
 
 Co .... 28 
 
 Photo of smelting works At end. 
 
 Refinery of 183, 216 
 
 Works of 28, 195 
 
 ORFORD FURNACE 202 
 
 NICKEL MINE 148 
 
 PROCESS, NICKEL REFINING , .216-218 
 
 TP. SHERBROOKE co., QUE 148 
 
 ORIGIN OF ORE BODIES 13 
 
 OSMIRIDIUM 128 
 
 OSMIUM , 166 
 
 PACHFONG (CHINA SILVER) 222, 224 
 
 PALLADIUM 110 
 
 PARIS, T. M 111,211 
 
 PARIS EXHIBITION, 1889 170 
 
 PENFIELD, PROF. S. L 93, 96, 98 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA , 125 
 
 RAILWAY 44 
 
 PENTLANDITE. 
 
 Analysis of, 93 
 
 Classification of 142 
 
 Description of , 16, 92 
 
 Discovery of 13 
 
 Distribution of ,. 33,106,107 
 
 Nickel in form of 139 
 
 Separation of, from pyrrhotite 115, 136 
 
 PERIDOTITES 143, 175, 181 
 
 PETERS, DR. EDWARD DYER 12, 117 
 
 PETROGRAPHY. 
 
 Clastic rocks -. 71 
 
 Diorito 53-57 
 
 Granite augen 76 
 
 fine grained 76 
 
 Laurentian 71 
 
 Greywacke 62, 63 
 
 Hornblende schist 58, 59 
 
 Micropegmatite 84 
 
 Norite 81-84 
 
 older 66-70 
 
 Quartzites 63-65 
 
 Volcanic breccia 72, 73 
 
 PETTIT, F. W > 162 
 
 Pic ISLAND, L. SUPERIOR 149 
 
 PIGEON LAKE, MONTREAL RIVER 148 
 
 PIMELITE 169 
 
 PINE 190 
 
 PlNEY MOUNTAIN, OREGON, U.S 175 
 
 PLATINUM .99, 109, 110, 128 
 
 Annual production of 228 
 
 In Scandinavian ores 166, 202 
 
 Sperrylite an arsenic of 11 
 
 PLEISTOCENE 51 
 
 PNEUMATOLYSIS . . . 129 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 POLYDYMITE 11, 13, 98, 142 
 
 PORPHYRITIC DIORITE 57 
 
 PORPHYRITIC GREYWACKE 63 
 
 PORTER, J. B 9, 135 
 
 PORTER, H. E 162 
 
 POST-HURONIAN 75-91 
 
 POTTON TP., BROME co., QUE 159 
 
 PULP MILLS, ALGOMA DIST 38 
 
 PUMP LAKE 78 
 
 PYRITE 94, 95, 106, 115 
 
 PYRITIC SMELTING 204-213 
 
 PYRRHOTITE. 
 
 Analyses of.. ..74, 113, 117, 118, 149, 157-163 
 
 Description of 91, 113-116 
 
 Calumet island, Que , 152 
 
 Charlotte co., N.B 150 
 
 Gap mine, Pa 15, 131 
 
 Oregon and N. Carolina, U.S 173, 174 
 
 Scandinavia 165-169 
 
 Special kind from Norway 182 
 
 Magnetic permeability of 140 
 
 surveying for 139 
 
 Opinions on 24 
 
 Percentage of 128 
 
 Ref . to works on 20 
 
 Relation of, to chalcopyrite 107, 108 
 
 PYRRHOTITE-NORITE 126 
 
 QUARTZ CREEK, SALMON RIVER, B.C 161 
 
 QUARTZ, SECONDARY 128 
 
 QUARTZITES 61-66 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA MINE, B.C 161 
 
 RABBIT LAKE, TIMISKAMING DIST ... 156 
 
 RAMSAY LAKE, NIPISSING DIST 65, 91 
 
 RAPER, ALFRED 163 
 
 RAYSIDE. See AGILDA 
 
 TP., ALGOMA DIST 8 
 
 REFINERIES . 1 83 
 
 REFINING 213, 222 
 
 REWDINSK, RUSSIA 144, 170 
 
 REWDINSKITE 170 
 
 RICE ROCK 63 
 
 RIDDLES, DOUGLAS co., OREGON 142, 175 
 
 RINGERIKE, NORWAY 166, 167 
 
 ROASTING 187 
 
 ORE, PHOTO OF At end. 
 
 ROBERT, J. A 141 
 
 ROGERS FARM, see TODD MINE 150 
 
 ROSSLAND, B.C. 
 
 Analysis of nickel ore from 161 
 
 Comparisons of ores of 20 
 
 Gersdorffite from 149 
 
 Pvrrhotite from 116 
 
 Ross' MINE, ONT 86, 112 
 
 RUSSELL PROPERTY 103 
 
 RUSSIA...., 170 
 
 SAFFLORITE 154 
 
 ST. DENIS, NEAR PARIS, FRANCE 170 
 
 ST. STEPHEN, CHARLOTTE co., N.B 142, 145 
 
 149-151 
 
 SALTER, ALBERT P , 22 
 
 SALTER'S MERIDIAN LINE 10, 23 
 
 SANDERSON, R 162 
 
 SARDINIA 171 
 
 SAULT STE. MARIE 38 
 
 SAVON A, YALE DIST., B.C 160 
 
 SAXONITE 143 
 
INDEX 
 
 243 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 SAXONY 142, 144 
 
 SCANDINAVIA, see ALSO NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 
 
 Nickel ores of 164-169 
 
 production of, former 213, 214 
 
 present 232, 234 
 
 SCHEERER, THOMAS 93, 167 
 
 SCHNEEBURG, SAXONY 169 
 
 SCHREIBER, THUNDER BAY DIST 157 
 
 SCOTLAND . 144 
 
 SEBASTOPOL TP., RENFREW co . 158 
 
 SECRECY 214 
 
 SHILLA :}ASSA, PIEDMONT, ITALY 169 
 
 SELWYN, DR. A. R. C 24, 158 
 
 SEN JEN MINE, NORWAY 166 
 
 SEPTEMKS, NEAR MARSEILLES, FRANCE .... 170 
 
 SERPENTINE 181 
 
 SHEPHERD MINE 36 
 
 SHEPPARD MINE see SHEPHERD MINE 
 
 SILICA 200 
 
 SILVER, L. P 105, 109, 110, 191, 197, 201 
 
 SILVER, SUDBURY DIST., ONT 10, 109, 228 
 
 In SCANDINAVIAN NICKEL ORES . 166, 202 
 
 SILVER GLANCE 145 
 
 SIMON LAKE, ALGOMA DIST H, 67. 68 
 
 SJOSTEDT, E. A 189 
 
 SKILL LAKE, ALGOMA DIST 7 
 
 SLAG-NICKEL 197-199, 208-213 
 
 SMALTITE 103, 153-156 
 
 SMELTERS .204-209 
 
 SMELTING. 
 
 Sudbury dist 194-213 
 
 Blezard mine 33 
 
 Chicago mine ' 35 
 
 Copper Cliff mine 27 
 
 Gertrude line. . , 38, 39 
 
 Mount Nickel mine 37 
 
 Murray mine 30 
 
 Victoria mines 42 
 
 Austrian nickel ores 170 
 
 Noumean 181 
 
 SMETHWICK, NEAR BIRMINGHAM, ENG. . .40, 170 
 
 SMYTH, PROF. H. L 141 
 
 SNIDER TP ,.,6,23,78,87 
 
 SOCIETE MlNERE CALEDONIENNE 28, 183 
 
 SOMERVILLE, VICTORIA CO., ONT 157 
 
 SORET, J. L 122 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA '. . 145 
 
 SPERRY, FRANCIS L. 
 
 Analysis by 110, 191, 197 
 
 Chemist to Canadian Copper Co 
 
 Discovery of sperrylite by 11, 98 
 
 Pentlandite in sulphides sent by 16 
 
 SPERRYLITE 11, 19, 98-100 
 
 SPROULE, NIPISSING DIST 158 
 
 STALACTITES 188 
 
 STATISTICS NICKEL 10, 14 
 
 STEEL CARS 39 
 
 STOBIE MINE. 
 
 Assays of pyrrhotites of 117 
 
 Conglomerate of 66 
 
 Depth of 122 
 
 Experiments on ore from 132, 13 
 
 Haulage of ores of 187 
 
 History of 25-27 
 
 Magnetic separation of ores from 16 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 STORIE MINE Con. 
 
 Magnetic separation of pyrrhotite from 
 
 133, 134 
 
 copper 109 
 
 Percentage of nickel in ore of 110 
 
 Position of 88, 119 
 
 Ref. to geological map of 21 
 
 Report on, 1887 10 
 
 Statistics of 229 
 
 "STOPING" 79, 121 
 
 SUDBURY DISTRICT, ONT. 
 
 Causes of failure in 43-45 
 
 Geology of 50-91 
 
 Geological maps of At end. 
 
 Literature of 9-21 
 
 Metallurgy of ores of 187-221 
 
 Mineralogy of 91-118 
 
 Mining methods in 184-187 
 
 Origin of ore deposits in 118-130 
 
 Output of 42 
 
 Physical features of 45-50 
 
 Statistics 227-231 
 
 SULPH-ARSENIDE OF NICKEL 142 
 
 SULPHIDE DEPOSITS : 11, 120-128 
 
 SULPHUR 38, 188-194 
 
 SULPHUROUS ACID GAS 188 
 
 SULTANA MINE 87 
 
 SURFACE FEATURES 45-50 
 
 SURVEYING 46 
 
 SWEDEN 125, 140, 141, 169 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 1 71 
 
 TEALL, PROF. J. J. H 18 
 
 TEXADA ISLAND, B.C 161 
 
 THALEN- TIBERG MAGNETOMETER 140 
 
 THOMPSON, ROBERT M 216 
 
 THOMPSON'S FARM, ST. STEPHEN, CHAR- 
 LOTTE co., N.B 151 
 
 TlMAGAMI DISTRICT, ONT 103 
 
 TIMBERING 184 
 
 TlMlSKAMING LAKE 153 
 
 TlMISKAMING AND NORTHERN ONTARIO 
 
 RAILWAY 153 
 
 TODD MINE, CHARLOTTE co., N.B 150, 151 
 
 TOTTEN MINE 6, 70, 96 
 
 TOUGH AND STOBIE PROPERTY 135, 138 
 
 TOWNSHIPS, ALGOMA DIST 46 
 
 TRENTON IRON Co., N. J 41 
 
 TRILL TP 37, 72, 86, 87 
 
 TRILL MINING Co 35, 195 
 
 TRILL NICKEL MINING AND MANUFAC- 
 TURING Co 35 
 
 TRILLABELLE MINE 37, 87 
 
 TROUT LAKE, ALGOMA DIST 67 
 
 TUNGSTEN NICKEL 226 
 
 TURNER, A. P 9, 190, 227, 228 
 
 TURNER, J 162 
 
 TWELVEMILE LAKE, HALIBURTON CO 157 
 
 ULKE, TITUS. 
 
 Analysis by 201 
 
 Diagram by 217 
 
 Electrolytic process.of 221 
 
 Statement by 110, 188 
 
 UNION MINE, TILT COVE, NOTRE DAME 
 BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND 14 
 
244 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 Nickel ores of 171-177 
 
 production of 232-234 
 
 UPPER CANADA Co 22 
 
 URAL MOUNTAINS, RUSSIA 128 
 
 VARALLO, PIEDMONT, ITALY 142, 165, 169 
 
 VARIATION OF COMPASS 22, 23 
 
 VERMILION LAKE, NIPISSING DIST 157 
 
 VERMILION MINE. 
 
 Chalcocite from 104 
 
 Garnetif erous amphibolite of 60 
 
 Gold from , 105 
 
 Native copper of , 105 
 
 Ref . to papers on minerals from 19 
 
 Sperrylite and polydymite in. . .11, 13, 16, 97 
 Unconnected with main norite body. . . 120 
 
 VERMILION MINING Co 28 
 
 VICTORIA MINES. 
 
 Aerial traniway of , . 187 
 
 Assays from 117, 209 
 
 Blast furnace of 209 
 
 Classification of 119 
 
 Crossed by Main Nickel range 87 
 
 Depth of 121 
 
 Disposition of ores at , 192 
 
 Euel of 191 
 
 Geological map of At end. 
 
 History and workings 41, 42 
 
 Hydrochemical agencies at 130 
 
 Lease of smelter of 195 
 
 Location of main shaft of , . . .88, 185 
 
 Magnetic separation of pyrrhotite from 
 
 134, 135, 137 
 
 Magnetic surveying in . . 140 
 
 Norite mass in 5, 7 
 
 Platinum of 99 
 
 Porphyritic diorite of 57 
 
 Production of 229 
 
 Proportion of nickel and copper in. .107-109 
 
 Photos of At end. 
 
 Relative abundance of secondary quartz 
 
 at ... 128 
 
 Roast yards of 188 
 
 Sulphides of , 106 
 
 VITRIOL 167 
 
 VIVIAN, H. H. & Co. 
 
 Acknowledgments to , 9 
 
 Assays by 110, 111 
 
 Alkaline sulphide process of 214 
 
 Mismanagement by 31 
 
 Purchase by, of Murray mine .30, 31 
 
 Swansea refinery of 170 
 
 VOGT, PROF. J. H. L. 
 
 Advocate of igneous origin of Sudbury 
 
 deposits 123 
 
 Classifications by 129, 142 
 
 On magnetic differentiation 127 
 
 On precious metals in Norwegian mattes 202 
 Ref. to work by, on nickel deposits of 
 
 Scandinavia 18, 19, 164, 165 
 
 Remarks by 165 
 
 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY 51, 52 
 
 ASH 60 
 
 VOLCANIC GLASS BRECCIA 72 
 
 WADDELL, DR. J . . 155 
 
 WAIT, F. G. 
 
 Analysis by 94, 111, 152, 157-164 
 
 WATT, F. G. Con. 
 
 Assays by ....................... 74, 152 
 
 WALES .......... ................. 170 
 
 WALKER, JAMES ............ 163 
 
 WALKER, P. H ......................... 174, 175 
 
 WALKER, T. L. 
 
 Analyses by. . . .73, 85, 90, 91, 94, 96, 99, 100 
 
 105, 201 
 Assays by ..................... HO, 111, 194 
 
 Chemist, Murray mine ....... ...... 13 
 
 Ref. to paper by, on Sudbury dist ..... 18 
 
 researches of, nickel-iro'n-sul- 
 phides ................... 107 
 
 Remarks by, on granite intrusions .... 78 
 
 on nickel bearing erup- 
 tives ............... 80 
 
 Work by, on nickelif erous pyrite ...... 17 
 
 on pentlandite ............. 19 
 
 on sperrylite ........... ..... 16 
 
 WALLACE MINES, ALGOMA DIST. 9, 22, 102, 145, 
 
 146 
 WANAPITEI, NIPISSING DIST., ONT ..... 8, 18, 50 
 
 LAKE .............. 46, 86, 112, 141 
 
 RIVER ....................... 71 
 
 WATERS TP .......................... 6,64 
 
 WEBSTER, JACKSON co., N. CAROLINA.... 142, 
 
 . 
 
 WESTMEATH, RENFREW co., ONT ...... '. . 158 
 
 WETHERILL SEPARATOR ................ 135, 138 
 
 WHARTON, JOSEPH .................... 31, 172 
 
 WHARTONITE ..... ................ 14-16, 95 
 
 WHITE, JAMES .......................... 8 
 
 WHITEFISH INDIAN RESERVE, ALGOMA 
 DIST ................ , ....... . . ____ 6 
 
 WHITEFISH LAKE, ALGOMA DIST ...... 10, 67, 68 
 
 RIVER, SUDBURY DIST ........ 48 
 
 WHITSON LAKE, NIPISSING DIST ......... 74 
 
 WILLIAMS, PROF. G. H ....... 16, 54, 72, 79, 84 
 
 WILLIMOTT, C. W ....................... 148 
 
 WlNEBERG, E. A ....................... 180 
 
 WINDY LAKE, SUDBURY DIST .............. 87 
 
 ERUPTIVE ................. 86 
 
 WIRE ROPE ............................ 226 
 
 WISSNERTP .................. 50,86,117 
 
 WOLF, GEO. DE ....................... 163 
 
 " WORLD GROUP " ... .................... 128 
 
 WORTHINGTON MINE. 
 
 Actinolite diorite and schist of ........ 70 
 
 Arsenic and antimony iu ore of ........ 188 
 
 Crystal of pyrrhotite from ............ 116 
 
 History of ......................... 33, 38 
 
 Marcasite from .................... 96 
 
 Morenosite from ..................... 102 
 
 Norite band of .................... 52 
 
 Pentlandite from .............. 13, 92, 106 
 
 copper . , ................ 109 
 
 Percentage of nickel in ore of .......... 110 
 
 Production of ...................... 34, 229 
 
 Unconnected with main norite body. . . 120 
 Western boundary of Sudbury dist ---- 45 
 
 WRIGHT, E. V ............. . ..... .... 159 
 
 ZANGHESOUR, RUSSIA ................... 144 
 
 ZlNCBLENDE .......................... 128 
 
 ZOISITE ............................... 56 
 
 ZU&ENDORF, SILESIA, AUSTRIA .......... . 170 
 
4187-17 
 
4187- 174 
 
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CREIGHTON MINE, CANADIAN COPPER Co. 
 
 This view was taken from the side of the main pit looking S.S. E. and shows the methods 
 
 of handling the ore. 
 
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 4187-19 
 
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SELECTED LIST OF REPORTS 
 
 (SINCE 1885) 
 
 OF SPECIAL ECONOMIC INTEREST 
 
 PUBLISHED BT 
 
 THE MINES DEPARTMENT OF CANADA 
 
 (A. Published by the Geological Survey.) 
 MINERAL RESOURCES BULLETINS 
 
 818. Platinum. 859. Salt. 877. Graphite. 
 
 851. Coal. 860. Zinc. 880. Peat. 
 
 854. Asbestus. 869. Mica. 881. Phosphates. 
 
 857. Infusorial Earth. 872. Molybdenum and 882. Copper. 
 
 858. Manganese. Tungsten. 913. Mineral Pigments. 
 
 953. Barytea. 
 
 745. Altitudes of Canada, by J. White. 1899. (40c.) 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 212. The Rocky Mountains (between latitudes 49 and 51 30'), by Q. M. Dawson. 
 1885. (25c.). 
 
 235. Vancouver Island, byG. M. Dawson. 1886. (25c.). 
 
 236. The Rocky Mountains, Geological Structure, by R. G. McConnell. 1886. (20o.), 
 263. Cariboo mining district, by A. Bowman. 1887. (25c.). 
 
 272. Mineral Wealth, by G. M. Dawson. 
 
 294. West Kootenay district, by G. M. Dawson. 1888-89. (35c.). 
 
 573. Kamloops district, by G. M. Dawson. 1894. (35c.) 
 
 574. Finlay and Omineca Rivers, by R. G. McConnell. 1894. (15c.) 
 743. Atlin Lake mining div., by J. C. Gwillim. 1899. (lOc.) 
 
 939. Rossland district, B.C., by R. W. Brock. (lOc.) 
 
 940. Graham Island. B.C., by R. W. Ells, 1905. (lOc.) 
 949. Cascade Coal Field, by D. B. Dowling. (lOc.) 
 
 YUKON AND MACKENZIE. 
 
 260. Yukon district, by G. M. Dawson. 1887. (30c.) 
 
 295. Yukon and Mackenzie Basins, by R. G. McConnell. 1889. (25c.) 
 687. Klondike gold fields (preliminary), by R. G. McConnell. 1900. (lOo.) 
 884. Klondike gold fields, by R. G. McConnell. 1901. (25c.) 
 
 725. Great Bear Lake and region, by J M. Bell. 1900. (lOc.) 
 
 908. Windy Arm, Tagish Lake, by R. G. McConnell. 1906. (lOc.) 
 
 942. Peel and Wind Rivers, by Chas. Camsell. 
 
 943. Upper Stewart River, by J. Keele. \ T*_ lln j *,*>< nrv> \ 
 979. Klondike gravels, by R. G. McConnell. ) B 
 
 ALBERTA. 
 
 237. Central portion, by J. B. Tyrrell. 1886. (25c.) 
 
 324. Peace and Athabaska Rivers district, by R. G. McConnell. 1890-91. (25c.) 
 703. Yellowhead Pass route, by J. McEvoy. 1898. (15c.) 
 
SASKATCHEWAN. 
 
 213. Cypress Hills and Wood Mountain, by R. G. McConnell. 1885. (25c.) 
 
 601. Country between Athabaska Lake and Churchill River, by J. B. Tyrrell and D B 
 
 Dowling. 1895. (15c.) 
 868. Souris River coal-field, by D. B. Dowling. 1902. (lOc.) 
 
 MANITOBA. 
 
 264. Duck and Riding Mountains, by J. B. Tyrrell. 1887-8. (lOc.) 
 
 296. Glacial Lake Agassiz, by W. Upham. 1889. (25c.) 
 
 325. Northwestern portion, by J. B. Tyrrell, 1890-91. (25c.) 
 
 704. Lake Winnipeg (west shore), by D. B. Dowling. 1898. ) , . 
 
 705. (east shore), by J. B. Tyrrell. 1898. (25c.) } Bound together. 
 
 KEEWATIN AND FRANKLIN. 
 
 217. Hudson Bay and strait, by R. Bell. 1885. (15c.) 
 
 238. Hudson Bay, south of, by A. P. Low. 1886. (lOc.) 
 
 239. Attawapiskat and Albany Rivers, by R. Bell. 1886. (15c.) 
 
 244. Northern portion of the Dominion, by-G. M. Dawson. 1886. (20c.) 
 
 578. Berens River Basin, by D. B. Dowling. 1894. (15c.) 
 618. Northern Keewatin, by J. B. Tyrrell. 1896. (30c.). 
 
 787. Grass River region, by J. B. Tyrrell and D. B. Dowling. 1900. (25c.) 
 815. Ekwan River and Button Lakes, by D. B. Dowling. 1901. (15c.) 
 905. The Cruise of the Neptune, by A. P. Low. 1905. ($2.00). 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 215. Lake of the Woods region, by A. C. Lawson. 1885. (25c.) 
 
 265. Rainy Lake region, by A. C. Lawson. 1887. (25c.) 
 
 266. Lake Superior, mines and mining, by E. D. Ingall. 1888. (25c.) 
 
 326. Sudbury mining district, by R. Bell. 1890-91. (20c.) 
 
 327. Hunter island, by W. H. Smith. 1890-91. (20c.) 
 
 332. Natural Gas and Petroleum, by H. P. H. Brumell. 1890-91. (25c.) 
 
 357. Victoria, Peterborough and Hastings counties, by F. D. Adams. 1892-93. (lOc.) 
 
 627. On the French River sheet, by R. Bell. 1896. (lOc.) 
 
 678. Seine River and Lake Shebandowan map-sheets, by W. Mclnnes. 1897. (20c.) 
 
 672. Nipissing and Timiskaming map-sheets, by A. E. Barlow. 18U6. (In Vol. X. 80c.) 
 
 723. Iron deposits along Kingston and Pembroke Ry., by E. D. Ingall. 1900. (25c.) 
 
 739. Carleton, Russell and Prescott counties, by R. W. Ells. 1899 (25c.)(See No. 
 
 739 Quebec). 
 
 741. Ottawa and vicinity, by R. W. Ells. 1900. (15c.) 
 790. Perth sheet, by R. W. Ells. 1900. (lOc.) 
 
 873. Sudbury Nickel and Copper deposits, by A. E. Barlow. (In Vol. XIV. 80c.) 
 977. Report on Pembroke sheet, Ont., by R. W. Ells. (lOc.) 
 
 961. Reprint of No. 873. 
 
 962. " " 672. 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 216. Mistassini expedition, by A. P. Low. 1884-5. (lOc.) 
 
 240. Compton, Stanstead, Beauce, Richmond and Wolfe counties, by R. W. Ells. 1886. 
 
 (25c.) 
 
 268. Me'gantic, Beauce, Dorchester, L6vis, Bellechasse and Montmagny counties, by 
 R. W. Ells. 1887-8. (25c.) 
 
 297. Mineral resources, by R. W. Ells. 1889. (25c.) 
 
 328. Portneuf, Quebec and Montmagny counties, by A. P. Low. 1890-91. (15c.) 
 
 579. Eastern townships, Montreal sheet, by R. W. Ells and F. D. Adams. 1894. (loo). 
 670. Auriferous deposits, Southeastern portion, by R. Chalmers. 1895. (20e.) 
 
 591. Laurentian area north of the Island of Montreal, by F. D. Adams. 1895. (loe.) 
 672. Timiskaming map-sheet, by A. E. Barlow. 1896. (30c.) (In Vol. 10. 80c.) 
 707. Eastern townships, Three Rivers sheet, by R. W. Ells. 1898. (20c.) 
 739. Argenteuil, Wright, Labelle and Pontiac counties, by R. W. Ells. 1899. (25c ) 
 (See No. 739, Ontario). 
 
 788. Nottaway basin, by R. Bell. 1900. (15c.) 
 
 863. Wells on Island of Montreal, by F. D. Adams. 1901. (30c.) 
 923. Chibougamou region, by A. P. Low. 1905. (lOc.) 
 
UNGAVA AND LABRADOR. 
 
 217. Hudson Strait and Bay, by R. Bell. 1885. (15c.) 
 
 267. James Bay and east of Hudson Bay, by A. P. Low. 1887-88. (25c.) 
 
 584. Labrador Peninsula, by A. P. Low. 1895. (30c.) 
 
 657. Richmond Gulf to Ungava Bay, by A. P. Low. 1896. (lOc.) 
 
 680. Hudson Strait (south shore) and Ungava Bay, by A. P. Low.) 
 
 1898. (15c.) I Bound together. 
 
 13. Hudson Strait (north shore), by R. Bell. 1898. (20c.) J 
 778. Hudson Bay, east coast, by A. P. Low. 1901. (25c.) 
 819. Nastapoka Islands, Hudson Bay, by A. P. Low. 1901. (lOc.) 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK AND NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 218. Western New Brunswick and Eastern Nova Scotia, by R. W. Ells. 1885. (20c.) 
 
 219. Carleton and Victoria cos., by L. W. Bailey. 1885. (20c.) 
 
 242. Victoria, Restigouche and Northumberland counties, N.B., by L. W. Bailey 
 
 and W. Mclnnes. 1886. (lOc.) 
 
 243. Guysborough, Antigonish, Pictou, Colchester and Halifax counties, N.S., by 
 
 Hugh Fletcher and E. R. Faribault. 1886. (25c.) 
 
 269. Northern portion and adjacent areas, by L. W. Bailey and W. Mclnnes. 1887-88. 
 (25c.) 
 
 330. Temiscouata and Rimouski counties, by L. W. Bailey and W. Mclnnes. 1890-91. 
 
 (lOc.) 
 
 331. Pictou and Colchester counties, N.S., by H. Fletcher. 1890-91. (20c.) 
 
 358. Southwestern Nova Scotia (Preliminary), by L. W. Bailey. 1892-93. (lOc.) 
 628. Southwestern Nova Scotia, by L. W. Bailey. 1896. (20c.) 
 661. Mineral resources, N.B., by L. W. Bailey. 1897. (lOc.) 
 
 New Brunswick geology, by R. W. Ells. 1887. (lOc.) 
 797. Cambrian rocks of Cape Breton, by G. F. Matthew. 1900. (50c.) 
 799. Carboniferous system in N.B., by L. W. Bailey. 1900. (10c.)\r. , . 
 803. Coal prospects in N.B., by H. S. Poole. 1900. (lOc.) J Bound together. 
 
 871. Pictou coal field, by H. S. Poole. 1902. (lOc.) 
 
 IN PRESS. 
 
 970. Report on Niagara Falls, by Dr. J. W. Spencer. 
 
 968. Report to accompany map of the Moose Mountain area, Alta., bv D. D. Cairnea. 
 
 974. Copper Bearing Rocks of Eastern Townships, by J. A. Dresser. (lOc.) 
 
 980. Similkameen district, B.C., by Chas. Camsell. (lOc.) 
 
 982. Conrad Mining district, Yukon, by D. D. Cairnes. (lOc.) 
 
 988. Telkwa valley, B.C., by W. W. Leach. (lOc.) 
 
 IN PREPARATION. 
 
 Rossland district, B.C. (full report), by R. W. Brock. 
 
 Report on Prince Edward county, Brockville and Kingston map-sheet, by R. W. Ells. 
 
 Report on Cornwall sheet, by R. W. Ells. 
 
 Reports on Country between Lake Superior and Albany river, by W. J. Wilson and 
 
 W. H. Collins. 
 Transcontinental location between Lake Nipigon and Sturgeon lake, Ont., by W. H. 
 
 Collins. 
 Nanaimo and New Westminster districts, B.C., by O. E. LeRoy. 
 
 (B. Published by the Mines Branch.} 
 
 On the location and examination of magnetic ore deposits by magnetometric measure- 
 ments. Eugene Haanel. 1904. 
 
 Report of the Commission appointed to investigate the different electro-thermic pro- 
 cesses for the smelting of iron ores and the making of steel in operation in 
 Europe (Only a few copies of this report are available.) By Eugene Haanel. 
 1904. 
 
 Final report on the experiments made at Sault Ste. Marie, under Government auspices, 
 in the smelting of Canadian iron ores by the electro-thermic process. 
 Eugene Haanel. 1907. 
 
Preliminary report on the Limestones and the Lime Industry of Manitoba. J. W. 
 
 Wells. 1905. 
 Preliminary report on the raw materials, manufacture and uses of Hydraulic Cements 
 
 in Manitoba. J. W. Wells. 1905. 
 Preliminary report on the industrial value of the Clays and Shales of Manitoba. (Only 
 
 a few copies available.) J. W. Wells. 1905. 
 Mica, its occurrence, exploitation and uses. Fritz Cirkol. 1005. (Only a few copies 
 
 available.) 
 
 Asbestus, its- occurrence, exploitation and uses. Fritz Cirkei. 5. 
 
 Report of the Commission appointed to investigate the Zir, ; sources of British 
 
 Columbia and the conditions affecting their exploit .... W. R. Ingalla. 
 
 1905. 
 Report on the present and prospective output of the Mines 01 ):t oilver-Cobalt ores 
 
 of the Cobalt District. Eugene Haanel. 1907. 
 Report on the Mining Conditions of The Klondike, Yuk . Eugrae Haanel. 1902. 
 
 IN PRESS. 
 Monograph on Graphite. Fritz Cirkel. 
 
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I 7= 
 lord = 
 
 f 9 
 
 y ay 
 
 PAMPHLET UNDER 
 = Syracuse, N. Y. 
 Sfockton. Calif. 
 
 3 1175 00674 9066 
 
 382052 
 
 Barlow, A.E. 
 
 Reprint of a 
 report on the ori- 
 gin, geological 
 relations and com- 
 position of the nickel 
 and copper deposits of 
 the Sudbury Mining 
 District. 
 
 TNU90 
 
 N6 
 
 B37 
 1907 
 
 PHYSICAL 
 SCIENCES 
 LIBRARY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 DAVIS 
 
m