'BERKELEY 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 CALIFORNIA J EA2TH 
 
 SCIENCES 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 GIFT OP" 
 
 C/0SS 
 
 
6.O. C^^t-v*r 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY 
 OF SCENERY 
 
THE 
 
 SCIENTIFIC STUDY 
 OF SCENERY 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN E. MARK, M.A., F.R.S. 
 
 FELLOW OF ST. 'JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE 
 
 WITH TWENTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS 
 AND NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS IN THE TEXT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 
 METHUEN & CO. 
 
 36 ESSEX STREET, W.C. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 1900 
 
0\ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 MANY books, as Sir A. Geikie's Scenery of 
 Scotland and Sir J. Lubbock's Scenery of 
 Switzerland, give an account of the origin of the 
 scenery of limited areas, but I believe that there 
 is room for an English work which treats of the 
 origin of scenery in general. 
 
 Under the title The Scientific Study of Scenery 
 I have written a work which may be regarded as an 
 Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject 
 which has sprung from the union of Geology and 
 Geography. 
 
 I have tried to make the work useful to the 
 student, and also to rouse the interest of the general 
 reader, and hope that I have not thereby rendered 
 it unpalatable to both. 
 
 For those who desire to pursue the study of the 
 subject, I have introduced numerous references to 
 works of a more technical character. In addition 
 to those cited in the text, I would refer the student 
 to Professor J. Geikie's Earth Sculpture and Professor 
 W. M. Davis's Physical Geography. These books 
 have appeared since the text was written. 
 
 To Mr. Geo. Allen, of Ruskin House, I am in- 
 
 112596 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 debted for permission to make the quotations from 
 Mr. Ruskin's works, and also for the use of the 
 block from which Figure 3 is printed ; I wish to 
 thank Mr. W. G. Collingwood for leave to use this 
 figure. My thanks are due to the Hon. D. W. 
 Carnegie and to the Council of the Geographical 
 Society for permission to reproduce the illustration 
 of a Spinifex desert ; the illustration in this work is 
 from a copy (made by my sister, Miss C. Marr) of 
 the figure in the Geographical Journal. Mr. A. W. 
 Rogers, of the Geological Survey of Cape Colony, 
 kindly sent me the photograph from which the plate 
 of the Langebergen Mountains is taken, and Mr. 
 R. D. Oldham, of the Geological Survey of India, 
 that from which the plate showing the lake in 
 the Garo Hills is copied. The plate illustrating 
 Ingleborough Cave is from a photograph by Mr. 
 G. Towler, of Settle, Yorkshire, and that of the 
 Wastwater Screes from one by Mr. Herbert Bell, 
 of Ambleside. The other plates are reproductions 
 of photographs by Mr. E. J. Garwood, to whom I 
 offer my special thanks. In conclusion, I desire to 
 express my indebtedness to a friend for kindly 
 
 reading the proofs of my book. 
 
 J. E. M. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, September ; 1899 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 Scope of the Study Attributes of Scenery . . . Pages l-J 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE NATURE OF THE EARTH'S EXTERIOR. 
 Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, and Atmosphere Rocks 
 
 Divisional Planes of Rocks . . . 8-19 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRODUCTION OF DOMINANT FORMS. 
 Accumulation of Material Elevation and Depression 
 
 Sculpture . . . ... 20-28 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 Colour Clouds Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones . . . 29-45 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS. 
 Production and General Structure of Continents and Ocean 
 
 Basins Initiation of River Drainage . . . 46-54 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MOUNTAINS. 
 Classification of Mountains Folded Mountains Faulted 
 
 Mountains . . . ... 55-69 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MOUNTAINS (continued*}. 
 Formation of Watersheds The Processes of Denudation . 7O~93 
 
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MOUNTAINS (continued}. 
 
 Details of Mountain Structure Influence of the Sculpturing 
 Agents Influence of Rock Composition and Structure 
 Vegetation on Mountains . . . Pages 9^-112 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 VALLEYS. 
 Classification of Valleys Angles of Valley Slopes Valleys 
 
 of Erosion . . . ... 113-138 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 VALLEYS (continued}. 
 Complications of River Drainage Waterfalls Underground 
 
 Rivers . . . ... 139-157 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 LAKES. 
 
 Classification of Lakes Lakes formed by Accumulation of 
 Material Lakes formed by Earth Movement Crater 
 Lakes Lakes formed by Erosion . . . 158-187 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 LAKES (continued}. 
 Topographical Features of Lake Shores and Lake Basins 
 
 Islands in Lakes Colour of Lakes . . . 188-202 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 VOLCANOES. 
 
 Theories of Vulcanicity Outlines and Structures of Vol- 
 canoes Fissure Eruptions Geysers Mud Volcanoes 
 Earthquakes . . . . . 203-230 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 PLAINS AND PLATEAUX. 
 
 Formation and Characters of Plains Formation and Charac- 
 ters of Plateaux . . , ;:' . 231-247 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 DESERTS. 
 Production of Deserts Erosion of Deserts Accumulation 
 
 in Deserts Vegetation of Deserts . . . 248-271 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 FROST, SNOW, AND ICE. 
 Hoar-frost Snow Glaciers . . . Pages 272-296 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS OF VARIOUS REGIONS. 
 Norway Spitsbergen Alaska Greenland . . . 297-309 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 THE SIGNS OF FORMER GLACIATION. 
 Glacial Erosion Glacial Accumulations and Deposits . 310-320 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE OCEANS. N 
 
 Oceanic Erosion Formation of Coast-lines Oceanic Islands 
 Raised Sea-margins Marine Vegetation Ice in the 
 Ocean . . 321-351 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 CONCLUSION . . . . . 352-361 
 
 INDEX . . . . . . 363-368 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 King's Bay Glacier, Spitsbergen . . . Frontispiece 
 
 Upper Surface of Cloud in Eden Valley . To face page 21 
 
 Langebergen, Mossel Bay District . . ,, 86 
 
 Nunatak, Nordenskjold Glacier . . ,, 90 
 
 Hornsund Tind . . . . ,, 109 
 
 The Drei Zinnen . * . . ,, 109 
 
 The Matterhorn, from the Hornli . . . ,, in 
 
 High Force, Teesdale , ,, 150 
 
 Ingleborough Cave, Clapham, Yorks . ' '.. ,, 156 
 
 The Ober-Gabelhorn from the Schwarz See . . ,, 159 
 
 Marjelen See . . . . ,, 161 
 
 Sty Head Tarn . . . . ,, 166 
 
 Hawesvvater . . . . ,, 169 
 
 Small water . . . . ,, 169 
 
 Lago delP Inferno . % . . ,, 175 
 
 Earthquake-lake, Garo Hills . . . ,, 180 
 
 The Screes, Wastwater . . . ,, 196 
 
 Spinifex: Queen Victoria Desert, Western Australia ,, 268 
 
 Ice-fall on Glacier below Scerscen and Roseg, Engadine ,, 286 
 
 Baldhead and Booming Glaciers, Spitsbergen . ,, 299 
 
 Englacial River, King's Glacier, Spitsbergen . ,, 302 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY 
 OF SCENERY 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 A WIDESPREAD appreciation of the beauties 
 of nature is not the least of the many beneficent 
 changes which have marked the Victorian era, and 
 with this appreciation has sprung up a desire on 
 the part of many people to obtain some insight into 
 the causes of scenery. Few persons at the present 
 day are content to believe that the superficial features 
 of the earth have always been as they are now, and 
 the wish to know something of the changes which 
 are responsible for the production of the existing 
 features of the globe is a very natural one, and its 
 fulfilment not only affords additional pleasure to a 
 vast number of lovers of scenery, but gives them an 
 insight into a noble aim of the natural sciences 
 which is too often overlooked. These sciences are 
 too frequently regarded from a purely philosophical 
 or a merely economic standpoint, and their aesthetic 
 side is ignored, though this is very valuable as a 
 means of education. 
 
2 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 The scientific study of scenery is concerned with 
 all the existing features of earth, sky, and sea, which 
 are visible to the eye, quite apart from their relative 
 attractiveness, which is indeed often a matter of 
 individual taste, for a view which one person con- 
 siders tame and uninteresting will produce feelings 
 of profound satisfaction in another. It is well known 
 that mountains which are now attractive to so many 
 were generally regarded with repulsion or horror at 
 no remote period ; while a fenland flat which arouses 
 little enthusiasm in some is contemplated with in- 
 tense pleasure by others. 
 
 If we take this comprehensive view of the scope 
 of our study, it will be seen that it covers a large 
 portion of the field of physical geography ; and 
 indeed no better method of imparting the elementary 
 principles of physical geography exists than that of 
 teaching the student the significance of the earth's 
 superficial features, especially those of the districts 
 with which he is acquainted. When this is recog- 
 nised, physical geography will take its proper place 
 as a subject eminently adapted for schools, and as 
 an introduction to a knowledge of geology of far 
 greater interest to the bulk of educated persons than 
 the dry details concerning rocks and fossils which 
 are frequently supplied to them as an introduction 
 to the science, details which naturally cause them 
 to turn away from the pursuit of the study with a 
 feeling of aversion. 
 
 In viewing any scene, the attributes which strike 
 us specially are size, form, character, surface, colour, 
 and movement, and of these attributes there is little 
 doubt that form is by far the most important, and 
 it will be most attentively considered in this work, 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 though occasional references will necessarily be made 
 to other attributes. The importance of form is so 
 great that it is necessary to devote a few words to 
 its consideration, but this will best be done by 
 quoting the words of acknowledged masters of the 
 study of scenery. Thus Ruskin writes : " We shall 
 see hereafter, in considering ideas of beauty, that 
 colour, even as a source of pleasure, is feeble com- 
 pared with form"; 1 while concerning magnitude 
 Wordsworth observes that " a short residence among 
 the British mountains will furnish abundant proof, 
 that, after a certain point of elevation . . . the sense 
 of sublimity depends more upon form and relation 
 of objects to each other than upon their actual 
 magnitude." 2 
 
 As the four attributes size, colour, movement, and 
 character of surface, or, as we may term the last, 
 texture, will not be treated systematically, it will be 
 convenient at this point to make a few further 
 observations concerning them. 
 
 I. Size. It is evident that mere size cannot add 
 directly to the beauty of an object or group of 
 objects, and the influence of magnitude of natural 
 objects is dependent upon the imagination. The 
 truth of this statement is well illustrated by an 
 example given by Ruskin, which I may be pardoned 
 for quoting at length : 
 
 " Not long ago, as I was leaving one of the towns of 
 Switzerland, early in the morning, I saw in the clouds 
 behind the houses an Alp which I did not know, a grander 
 Alp than any I knew, nobler than the Schreckhorn or the 
 
 1 Modern Painters, vol. i., part ii., sec. i., chap. v. 
 
 2 A Complete Guide to the Lakes, . . . with Mr. Wordsworth's 
 Description of the Scenery of the Country, sec. iv. 
 
4 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Monch ; terminated, as it seemed, on one side by a 
 precipice of almost unimaginable height; on the other, 
 sloping away for leagues in one field of lustrous ice, clear 
 and fair and blue, flashing here and there into silver under 
 the morning sun. For a moment I received a sensation of 
 as much sublimity as any natural object could possibly excite; 
 the next moment, I saw that my unknown Alp was the glass 
 roof of one of the workshops of the town rising above its 
 nearer houses and rendered aerial and indistinct by some 
 pure blue wood smoke which rose from intervening chimneys. 
 " It is evident, that so far as mere delight of the eye was 
 concerned, the glass roof was here equal, or at least equal 
 for a moment, to the Alp. Whether the power of the 
 object over the heart was to be small or great, depended 
 altogether upon what it was understood for, upon its being 
 taken possession of and apprehended in its full nature, 
 either as a granite mountain or a group of panes of glass ; 
 and thus, always, the real majesty of the appearance of the 
 thing to us, depends upon the degree in which we our- 
 selves possess the power of understanding it. ... For 
 though the casement had indeed been an Alp, there are 
 many persons on whose minds it would have produced no 
 more effect than the glass roof. It would have been 
 to them a glittering object of a certain apparent length 
 and breadth, and whether of glass or ice, whether twenty 
 feet in length, or twenty leagues, would have made no 
 difference to them ; or, rather, would not have been in any 
 wise conceived or considered by them. Examine the 
 nature of your own emotion (if you feel it) at the sight of 
 the Alp, and you find all the brightness of that emotion 
 hanging, like dew on gossamer, on a curious web of subtle 
 fancy and imperfect knowledge." l 
 
 II. Colour. It would be impossible in a work like 
 the present to give a lengthy account of the infinite 
 
 1 Modern Painters, vol. iii., part iv., chap. x. 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 variations in colouring produced by different atmo- 
 spheric conditions, though something will be said 
 upon this subject when we consider the atmosphere. 
 But beyond this variation we find definite colours 
 associated with particular objects, and these often 
 play an important part in affecting the aspect of a 
 scene. For instance, the colour of pure water is 
 stated to be a greenish blue, as will be more fully 
 described when treating of expanses of water. The 
 colour of terrestrial surfaces is largely affected by the 
 nature of the vegetation as well as by that of the 
 rocks. Though foliage has a more general effect than 
 flowers in giving colour to landscape, the influence 
 of the latter is by no means small. The vivid scarlet 
 of Poppy land, the purple tracts of heather in High- 
 land districts, the richly coloured carpet of flowers 
 in Alpine meadows before the hay is cut, are cases 
 where a marked effect is produced. The foliage of 
 trees and grasses need only be mentioned, though of 
 the latter it may be remarked that the most striking 
 effects are produced in rainy regions. The brilliant 
 green of our Lakeland vales is due to the excessive 
 rainfall, which in more ways than one must be 
 accounted beneficial to the lover of scenery. It is 
 to lowlier vegetation that we are indebted for some 
 of our richest colouring. The changes which occur 
 in the bracken of Westmorland are thus described by 
 Wordsworth : 
 
 " When in the heat of advancing summer, the fresh green 
 tint of the herbage has somewhat faded, it is again revived 
 by the appearance of the fern profusely spread over the 
 same ground ; and, upon this plant, more than upon any- 
 thing else, do the changes which the seasons make in the 
 colouring of the mountains depend. About the first week 
 
6 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 in October, the rich green, which prevailed through the 
 whole summer, is usually passed away. The brilliant and 
 various colours of the fern are then in harmony with the 
 autumnal woods : bright yellow or lemon-colour, at the base 
 of the mountains, melting gradually, through orange, to a 
 dark russet-brown towards the summits, where the plant, 
 being more exposed to the weather, is in a more advanced 
 state of decay." l 
 
 The same writer refers to the effect of the 
 lichens, which is also thus beautifully described by 
 Ruskin : 
 
 "As in one sense the humblest, in another they are the 
 most honoured of the earth-children. Unfading, as motion- 
 less, the worm frets them not, and the autumn wastes not. 
 Strong in lowliness, they neither blanch in heat nor pine 
 in frost. To them, slow-fingered, constant-hearted, is 
 entrusted the weaving of the dark, eternal tapestries of 
 the hills; to them, slow - pencilled, iris-dyed, the tender 
 framing of their endless imagery. Sharing the stillness of 
 the unimpassioned rock, they share also its endurance ; 
 and while the winds of departing spring scatter the white 
 hawthorn blossom like drifted snow, and summer dims on 
 the parched meadow the drooping of its cowslip-gold, far 
 above, among the mountains, the silver lichen-spots rest, 
 star-like, on the stone ; and the gathering orange stain upon 
 the edge of yonder western peak reflects the sunsets of a 
 thousand years." 2 
 
 But though the colouring of rocks as seen in 
 nature is so often due to vegetation upon their 
 surface, the bare rock frequently possesses colour 
 of its own, owing to the presence of organic matter, 
 or of some compound of iron. The former usually 
 
 1 WORDSWORTH, loc. cit., sec. i. 
 
 2 RUSKIN, Modern Painters, vol. v., part vi., chap. x. 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 gives a grey-blue or black colour, while the colouring 
 due to iron varies according to the particular com- 
 pound which is present. The peroxide of iron 
 produces a rich red, so well known in the red 
 sandstones of Britain, the hydrated oxide gives 
 yellow, orange, or rust-brown hues, while the silicate 
 is green. The effect due to colouring matter in the 
 rocks is specially well brought out in desert regions 
 where the vegetation is scanty ; for instance, it is 
 very noticeable in the walls of the deep canons of 
 the western territories of North America. 
 
 III. Texture. The important influence of texture 
 is well illustrated by the frequency of such expres- 
 sions as " fleecy clouds," " an oily sea," " soft and 
 downy pasturage," in descriptions of scenery. It 
 is largely determined by differences of shape, which 
 are too minute to be detected in detail, though they 
 produce a general effect upon the surface which is 
 viewed, and on this account it is superfluous to do 
 more than call attention to this attribute of surfaces 
 as affecting scenes. Lustre largely depends upon 
 the texture of surfaces, and may be conveniently 
 regarded under this head. 
 
 IV. Movement. The effect of movement in air, 
 on water, or on land is often very noticeable as an 
 attribute of a scene which may produce a feeling 
 of exhilaration in the mind of the beholder. It is 
 only necessary to refer to the effect of moving cloud, 
 of the eddying torrent, the sea-wave, and the waving 
 vegetation of cornfield, down, or mountain-brow as 
 illustrations of the influence of motion upon scenery. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE NATURE OF THE EARTH'S EXTERIOR 
 
 THE unknown interior of the earth is surrounded 
 by three envelopes, the lithosphere, hydro- 
 sphere, and atmosphere, of which the first and third 
 are continuous, while the second is interrupted in 
 places, and allows portions of the first to project 
 upwards into the third. The lithosphere is that 
 portion of the earth which is popularly spoken of 
 as its crust, and is in the solid condition ; the 
 hydrosphere is liquid, and is composed of the oceans, 
 rivers, lakes, and indeed all the surface waters of the 
 globe ; the atmosphere is the gaseous envelope 
 which surrounds the lithosphere and hydrosphere, 
 and extends for an unknown but limited distance 
 outward from their surfaces. Portions of these 
 envelopes are capable of passing from one state 
 to another ; for instance, parts of the waters of 
 the hydrosphere enter into the composition of the 
 lithosphere, or as aqueous vapour pass into the 
 atmosphere ; fragments of lithosphere e.g., volcanic 
 dust are often suspended for a long period in the 
 atmosphere, while the gases of the atmosphere are 
 taken up by the earth's crust and the waters of the 
 globe. This power which the envelopes possess of 
 interchanging some of their components will be 
 
 8 
 
NATURE OF EARTH'S EXTERIOR 9 
 
 found to exercise a marked influence upon scenic 
 effects. 
 
 It is unnecessary at present to touch more fully 
 upon the characteristics of atmosphere and hydro- 
 sphere, but the nature of the lithosphere requires 
 further consideration at this initial stage of our 
 inquiries, for the features of the globe are notably 
 affected by the composition and structure of the 
 earth's crust. 
 
 The lithosphere is composed of rocks^ which are 
 aggregates of mineral particles, the term rock being 
 used quite irrespectively of any consideration of hard- 
 ness or coherence. Thus a geologist would speak of 
 the loose sand of the sea-shore as a rock equally with 
 the hardest granite or basalt. Rocks are divided 
 into two great classes. The igneous class consists of 
 rocks which have directly consolidated from a state of 
 fusion, while the derivative class has been formed 
 by accumulation of material on the surface of the 
 earth, that material not having been in a state of 
 fusion immediately before its accumulation. These 
 derivative rocks may be composed of materials 
 derived from the atmosphere (as carbonaceous 
 accumulations such as peat and coal, formed of 
 carbon compounds extracted by vegetation from 
 the atmosphere, and ice derived from the aqueous 
 vapour of the atmosphere), or they may be formed 
 of substances previously contained in solution in the 
 waters of the hydrosphere, and brought into the 
 solid condition by precipitation or by the agency of 
 organisms (for instance, rock-salt, gypsum, and many 
 limestones and siliceous deposits), or they may 
 consist of fragments broken from pre-existing rocks 
 and carried by mechanical means to the position in 
 
io SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY' 
 
 which they are accumulated (as sandstone and mud), 
 or they may be due to a combination of two or all of 
 these processes. The great bulk of the derivative 
 rocks are accumulated in layers (generally, though 
 not universally, at the bottom of sheets of water), 
 and hence they are frequently spoken of as stratified 
 rocks. 
 
 Igneous and stratified rocks alike may undergo 
 considerable changes after their formation, and these 
 changes are spoken of as metamorphic, and we meet, 
 therefore, with metamorphic igneous as well as 
 metamorphic aqueous rocks. 
 
 In the following chapter we shall call attention to 
 the operations of certain agents which are responsible 
 for the sculpture of the rocks of the earth's crust, 
 and before studying these operations it is necessary 
 to allude to various characteristics of rocks which 
 influence the sculpturing processes. 
 
 If all rock had the same composition, and was 
 absolutely homogeneous throughout, the agents 
 which affect it would do so over the entire surface 
 in the same manner, assuming that these agents 
 worked uniformly, but a very brief inspection of the 
 crust of the globe shows that the work is not per- 
 formed in a uniform manner, even under conditions 
 in which the agents can work uniformly, and accord- 
 ingly it is clear that rocks differ from one another 
 in certain respects, some being more durable than 
 others. Some of the differences, such as difference 
 of chemical composition, may be discovered in a hand 
 specimen. This difference may be complete as 
 between chalk and flint, the former being composed 
 of carbonate of lime, the latter of silica, or it may 
 be partial as between a calcareous sandstone and a 
 
NATURE OF EARTH'S EXTERIOR u 
 
 ferruginous sandstone, one possibly composed of 
 grains of silica cemented by carbonate of lime, the 
 other of grains of the same material with a cement 
 of oxide of iron. As some of these constituents are 
 very soluble in ordinary water, others less soluble, 
 and others again practically insoluble, it is clear that 
 the influence of water upon rocks of different com- 
 position may produce very different results. 
 
 Other differences may be observed in a hand 
 specimen between rocks of the same composition. 
 Thus a siliceous rock may be practically homo- 
 geneous, like flint, or it may be composed of a 
 number of grains cemented into a more or less hard 
 sandstone. Mechanical differences of this nature, 
 which are readily observable in a hand specimen, 
 may be spoken of as differences of texture. 
 
 Again, when we examine the rocks of a country 
 we shall certainly find differences which are not 
 easily detected, if at all, in a hand specimen. Among 
 the most noticeable are the divisional planes which 
 cause rocks to break more readily in one direction 
 than another. These may be spoken of as differences 
 of structure. As these structural differences play a 
 most important part in determining and controlling 
 the action of the agents of sculpture, it is necessary 
 to treat of them at some length. 
 
 To the geologist the difference between divisional 
 planes is of prime importance, mainly with regard to 
 the way in which they are produced, though for our 
 present purpose their importance is commensurate 
 with their effect upon superficial features ; but as the 
 planes produced in any one way generally give rise 
 to similar effects, which differ from those caused by 
 planes produced otherwise, it is quite convenient to 
 
12 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 classify these planes according to their origin, and 
 they may be grouped under three heads : (i) Planes 
 formed during the formation of the rocks ; (ii) those 
 formed after formation by fracture ; (iii) those pro- 
 duced by metamorphism. It is not easy in all cases 
 to distinguish between (ii) and (iii), but there is no 
 difficulty in effecting a practical separation between 
 the two. 
 
 In class (i) we place planes of stratification and 
 lamination, in (ii) joint-planes and fault-planes, and in 
 (iii) cleavage-planes and planes of foliation. Between 
 these planes we may now proceed to discriminate. 
 
 (a) Planes of Stratification and Lamination. It is 
 found as the result of observation that stratified 
 rocks are accumulated in layers, which are separated 
 by divisional planes ; these when the rocks are 
 formed lie generally in a horizontal position. 
 These planes are planes of stratification, or when 
 they are near together (say several in the thickness 
 of an inch of deposit) planes of lamination, the latter 
 being merely planes of stratification on a small scale. 
 A plane of stratification, then, separates two beds or 
 strata of rock. It need not necessarily be a plane of 
 discontinuity, but may merely separate two beds of 
 different composition, as mud and limestone, which 
 are nevertheless welded together, but the majority of 
 planes of stratification, and those with which we are 
 here chiefly concerned, are actual planes of discon- 
 tinuity along which rocks may be split. It is obvious 
 that these planes are, strictly speaking, absent from 
 igneous rock, but similar planes may separate lava flows 
 from sediments which overlie or underlie them, and we 
 may conveniently include such planes in this division. 
 
 It was stated above that planes of stratification are 
 
NATURE OF EARTH'S EXTERIOR 13 
 
 usually formed as horizontal planes, but they are 
 frequently found at all angles and even turned over, 
 so that a bed which was once lower now lies above 
 the original upper one. It is known that this is the 
 result of movements of the earth's crust occurring 
 subsequently to the deposition of the strata, which 
 have produced a series of folds. A few words must 
 be devoted to the nomenclature applied to these 
 disturbed strata. 
 
 The greatest angle which an inclined stratum 
 makes with the horizon is known as the angle of 
 dip of the stratum, and the direction in which the 
 stratum plunges down into the crust along the line 
 of this greatest angle is the direction of dip. 
 Imagine that the roof of a house whose ridge runs 
 north and south is composed of a bent bed. Then 
 the dip is east on one side and west on the other, 
 and if the greatest angle of the slope is 30, the bed 
 would be said to dip to the east or west at 30. A 
 horizontal line at right angles to the direction of dip 
 is known as the line of strike of the beds. Thus, 
 in the above example, the ridge of the roof lies along 
 the line of strike, which is always at right angles 
 to the direction of greatest inclination, along which 
 a stream of water would flow if it were poured upon 
 the surface of the bed. The line along which a plane 
 of stratification (or a plane of joint, fault, cleavage, 
 or foliation) comes to the surface of the ground is 
 spoken of as its outcrop, and the outcrop of the 
 stratum is when the bed itself comes to the surface, 
 in this case not as a line, but as a narrow belt 
 bounded by approximately parallel lines of stratifi- 
 cation, and a bed or divisional plane is spoken of 
 as cropping out along such a belt or line. 
 
14 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 The folds into which inclined strata are thrown 
 are known to geologists by different names accord- 
 ing to their character, but it will be convenient to use 
 less technical terms in the body of the work, though 
 the technical names are given here for purposes of 
 reference. Fig. I shows the character of some of 
 these folds. 
 
 When the strata dip away on either side from 
 an axis the structure may be termed a saddle 
 (anticline], as in A I of figure, while when they dip 
 towards an axis, as in A 2, we have a trough (syncline). 
 When strata are horizontal, then dip in any direction, 
 and once more become horizontal, we get a hogback 
 (monocline), as in A 3. B I and B 2 show the 
 method in which the strata of a saddle and trough 
 crop out upon a flat surface (if the top of the fold be 
 cut off). The arrow indicates the direction of the 
 dip, and the numbers the angle. Thus the axes of 
 the saddle and trough here run north and south, 
 and the beds dip at an angle of 45 east and west, 
 away from the axis in the former figure, towards it 
 in the latter. If the strata, instead of being folded 
 around an axial line, are folded round a point, the 
 saddle is replaced by a dome (B 3), and the trough 
 by a basin (B 4). It will be seen that the section 
 across a dome is similar to that across a saddle at 
 right angles to its axis, and that of a basin to that 
 of a trough, though the outcrop of the beds in plan 
 is different. In nature the domes and basins are 
 usually somewhat unsymmetrical, and we get every 
 gradation from the ideal saddles and troughs to the 
 symmetrical domes and basins. When a fold con- 
 sisting of saddle and trough has been continued 
 until the central part has been turned over, as in 
 
16 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 A 4 (Fig. i), so that in that part the stratum b, 
 originally below, now rests upon the stratum a, the 
 fold is termed an overfold. 
 
 (b) Joint-planes. In addition to the planes of 
 stratification which separate strata, we often find a 
 number of more or less regular planes running at 
 different angles to the stratification - planes, and 
 similar planes are found in igneous rocks. They 
 may be, and in many cases have been, produced in 
 different ways, but it is not our province to consider 
 their mode of production. They clearly differ from 
 the planes of stratification, and there is this important 
 difference between them and cleavage -planes, that, 
 whereas the rock between two contiguous joint-planes 
 shows no tendency to split parallel to the joint- 
 planes, that between adjoining cleavage-planes in 
 a fragment of a cleaved rock may be split up into 
 extremely thin plates, whose surfaces run parallel 
 with the two cleavage faces with which we com- 
 menced ; indeed, with delicate tools, the splitting 
 process may be carried on almost indefinitely. The 
 joints are often very irregular, but we frequently find 
 the more important ones running with a considerable 
 degree of regularity. The columnar jointing of basalt 
 and other rocks is somewhat rare, and need not be now 
 considered, but both igneous and aqueous rocks often 
 show parallel systems of joints, which allow the rock 
 to be broken with comparative ease into rectangular 
 masses. These joints are termed master-joints. In 
 igneous rocks three sets of master-joints, each at 
 right angles to the other two, must exist, in order 
 that the rock may be separated into rectangular 
 blocks. In stratified rocks the planes of stratification 
 already form one set of planes of weakness, and these 
 
NATURE OF EARTH'S EXTERIOR 17 
 
 rocks may be separated into rectangular blocks if 
 two sets of joints exist. When the strata are 
 horizontal the master-joints tend to be vertical and 
 at right angles to one another. Thus if one set 
 runs north and south the other will run east and 
 west. 
 
 Very important to us is the relationship which 
 frequently exists between the direction of the dip 
 and strike of inclined strata and that of the master- 
 joints. One set usually runs parallel to the line of 
 strike, the other in the direction of dip, the former 
 being termed strike-joints and the latter dip-joints. 
 Of these the strike-joints are usually more important 
 than those parallel to the dip ; also the planes of the 
 strike-joints in inclined strata will in most cases be 
 approximately at right angles to the planes of the 
 strata. Thus if the strata dip at 30 to the east 
 the strike-joints may slope downwards towards the 
 west at an angle of 60. 
 
 (c) Fault-planes. The existence of strata thrown 
 into folds proves that in the circumstances in which 
 the rocks were folded they had lost much of the 
 rigidity which they normally possess ; but, never- 
 theless, in many cases movement of the strata has 
 occurred in a way which prevented the rocks from 
 being accommodated to the new conditions by 
 folding only, and they have become fractured, and 
 the relative position of the rocks on the two sides 
 of the fracture has been altered, the rocks on one 
 side having been carried up or down relatively to 
 those on the other side of the plane of fracture, 
 giving rise to what is known as a fault, as illustrated 
 in section in Fig. 2, where the portion of the stratum 
 c on the right of the section, which was once con- 
 c 
 
18 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 tinuous with c on the left, has been thrown down, 1 
 so that it now abuts against another bed. The 
 fissure X Y is an actual plane of discontinuity, 
 comparable with a joint-plane, and indeed it is a 
 joint-plane, along which differential movement of 
 the rocks has occurred. Accordingly we often find 
 one set of important faults which have a trend 
 parallel to the strike of the strata and another set 
 at right angles ; these are strike-faults and dip- 
 faults. To the student of scenery faults are of 
 
 Surface of X ground 
 
 a 
 
 cv 
 
 b 
 
 
 h 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 importance chiefly because they frequently cause 
 rocks of different degrees of durability to exist in 
 apposition. 
 
 (d) Cleavage-planes. When rocks have been sub- 
 jected to intense lateral compression the particles 
 of the rock become flattened in the direction of 
 pressure and elongated in a direction at right angles 
 to this, and the rock has a tendency to split into 
 thin plates at right angles to the direction in which 
 the pressure was applied. Rocks which possess this 
 property are known as slates, and the planes along 
 which fission occurs are cleavage-planes. As these 
 
 1 The side of the fault where the strata are relatively lower is termed 
 the downthrow side, the opposite being the upthrow side. These 
 terms are used for convenience, without assuming that one side has 
 been actually pushed downwards and the other upwards. 
 
NATURE OF EARTH'S EXTERIOR 19 
 
 planes are frequently parallel over wide regions and 
 often highly inclined to the horizon, cleaved rocks 
 are very prone to become affected by the agents of 
 disintegration, whose operations will be subsequently 
 considered, and a country occupied by slaty rocks 
 often exhibits characteristic scenic features. 
 
 (e) Foliation -planes. Many metamorphic rocks 
 consist of felted masses of crystals, whose longer 
 axes lie parallel, and the rocks exhibit a fissile 
 structure, the planes of fissility being also parallel 
 to the direction of the longer axes of the crystals. 
 These rocks are termed schists, and the planes of 
 fissility are spoken of as foliation-planes. There is 
 no doubt that these rocks are closely related to 
 slates, which also frequently exhibit a crystalline 
 structure, and we find every gradation from slate to 
 schist In some cases the foliation-planes were 
 originally stratification-planes, and in others planes 
 of cleavage. Consequently the planes of discon- 
 tinuity in schists are comparable with other planes, 
 and the rocks are here placed in a separate class 
 chiefly on account of their characteristic texture, 
 owing to the parallelism of the more or less coarsely 
 crystalline components. 
 
 It will be seen that the distinctions above given 
 enable the rocks to be separated into classes closely 
 comparable with those adopted by Ruskin. The 
 igneous rocks largely contain his massive crystallines, 
 the foliated rocks his slaty crystallines, the cleaved 
 rocks his slaty coherents, and the ordinary stratified 
 rocks his compact coherents. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 PRODUCTION OF DOMINANT FORMS 
 
 THE changes which produce the characteristic 
 forms in sky, sea, and surface of the solid land 
 are strictly comparable upon broad lines, and may be 
 separated into three divisions, namely, accumulation, 
 elevation and depression, and sculpture. 
 
 Accumulation is concerned with bringing together 
 of the material which will subsequently be moulded 
 into the various forms which delight the eye, whether 
 of cloud, terrestrial water-surface, or dry land, and in 
 each case the effect of accumulation is to give rise to 
 comparatively level surfaces, which, in the absence of 
 other change, would present a monotonous aspect. 
 Commencing with the atmosphere, we find that it is 
 divisible into layers whose surfaces are approximately 
 parallel with the earth's surface, each layer, under 
 conditions of equilibrium, having a temperature 
 differing from that of the layers above and beneath, 
 and accordingly capable of retaining a different 
 amount of aqueous vapour. When this aqueous 
 vapour condenses, it tends to accumulate in level 
 layers, if the barometric and other conditions are 
 uniform over wide spaces, and accordingly we have 
 an accumulation of cloud with a flat upper surface. 
 Turning to the hydrosphere, as water tends to seek 
 
 20 
 

 u^y 
 
PRODUCTION OF DOMINANT FORMS 21 
 
 its own level, the sheets of water when at rest have 
 also a flat upper surface. This flatness in the case of 
 the lithosphere is caused by the accumulation of 
 stratified rocks in horizontal layers, so that if the 
 ocean, which is the great receptacle of sediment, 
 continuously received deposit, and no other change 
 took place, it would eventually be silted up, and 
 converted into a level plane, whose surface would 
 coincide with that of the present ocean surface, 
 though, apart from this complete silting up, a flat 
 surface is produced beneath the ocean-top by the 
 level deposit of material. 
 
 Elevation and depression modify these monoto- 
 nous surfaces, diversifying them by the production 
 of dome and basin or ridge and trough, the former 
 being usually more local than the latter. The ridge 
 and trough structure is due to the formation of a 
 series of waves, and air-waves, water-waves, and 
 earth-waves are comparable with one another, though 
 produced by different causes, which in each case 
 bring about differential movement of horizontal 
 surfaces in contact with one another. One layer of 
 air moving over another throws the lower one into 
 waves, which are often defined by the condensed 
 aqueous vapour in the lower layer ; air moving over 
 water similarly throws the water into waves ; and, 
 lastly, differential movement of different layers of 
 the earth's crust causes the rocks to be thrown into 
 waves, which are often defined by the superficial 
 contour of the ground, as well as by the folding of 
 the planes of stratification. The identity of ap- 
 pearance of these waves is illustrated by the plate 
 showing clouds in the Eden Valley, and Fig. 3 
 showing earth-waves in the Jura. The plate shows 
 
22 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the upper surface of a fog, with waves produced 
 by a light breeze. It was taken on a calm day 
 in January, by Mr. E. J. Garwood, from the slopes 
 of the Crossfell range, overlooking the Eden Valley 
 in Westmorland. Fig. 3, reproduced from The 
 Limestone Alps of Savoy, by kind permission of 
 the author, Mr. W. G. Collingwood, is a bird's-eye 
 view of part of the Jura mountains and the Alps of 
 Savoy, near Geneva, and admirably illustrates the 
 wave-like character of these mountain ranges. The 
 similarity between the cloud-waves, earth-waves, and 
 ordinary water-waves is rendered perfectly clear by 
 these illustrations. Dome - structure may be pro- 
 duced in fluid as well as in solid media witness the 
 cumulus cloud, the geyser, and the laccolite but the 
 wave-structure is sufficient for purposes of illustration. 
 As the result of this change the flat surfaces produced 
 by accumulation are converted into surfaces present- 
 ing alternate convex ridges and concave hollows. 
 
 Further diversity is produced by the agents of 
 sculpture. We need only mention in passing the 
 effects of these agents upon air and water-waves, but 
 must devote some consideration to the changes which 
 are brought about by them upon the earth-waves. 
 
 The undulating clouds produced owing to differ- 
 ential movements are sculptured by winds and by 
 differences of temperature. The wind breaks the 
 masses of condensed vapour into fantastic forms, 
 and a somewhat similar result is produced by the 
 evaporation of a fragment of cloud here and the 
 condensation of a portion of vapour there. The 
 ocean waves are broken up by wind, ultimately 
 producing the storm -wrack and spin - drift of the 
 tempest-tossed sea. 
 
PRODUCTION OF DOMINANT FORMS 23 
 
24 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Similarly the earth-waves are carved out by the 
 graving-tools of nature, and the effects are generally 
 similar to those produced on ocean-waves by the 
 wind. Indeed, all writers upon mountain scenery 
 have been led to compare the serried ranks of hills 
 with the broken billows of a stormy sea. Let me 
 quote an instance : " Suppose the sea waves exalted 
 to nearly a thousand times their normal height, crest 
 them with foam, and fancy yourself upon the most 
 commanding crest, with the sunlight from a deep 
 blue heaven illuminating such a scene, and you will 
 have some idea of the form under which the Alps 
 present themselves from the summit of the Weiss- 
 horn. East, west, north, and south, rose those 
 ' billows of a granite sea/ back to the distant heaven, 
 which they hacked into an indented shore." 1 
 
 The scenery of the earth's crust is mainly depend- 
 ent upon three things, namely, the structure of the 
 crust, the nature of the sculpturing agent or agents, 
 and the character of the climate. The processes of 
 sculpture are known to geologists by the name of 
 denudation. Denudation is the stripping of por- 
 tions of rock from one place and their removal 
 to another, and is performed by agents which are 
 generally familiar to all. Among these agents may 
 be mentioned change of temperature, wind, rain, frost, 
 rivers, sea waves, and action of organisms, for the 
 most part assisted by gravitation, as the result of 
 which the material is carried from a higher to a 
 lower level, and ultimately to the sea, if not checked. 
 Thus the land is the great theatre of destruction by 
 denuding agencies, and the ocean the great re- 
 ceptacle of the sediment produced by these agencies. 
 
 1 TYNDALL, Mountaineering in 1861, chap. vi. 
 
PRODUCTION OF DOMINANT FORMS 25 
 
 Let us take our stand at the foot of some mountain 
 cliff on a winter day. The stillness of the frosty air 
 is ever and anon broken by the fall of a fragment 
 of rock from the cliff on to the slope beneath. 
 This fragment has commenced its journey seaward. 
 The spring freshet, generated by the melting of the 
 snow, may wash one fragment into the mountain 
 burn, there to be dashed against many a similar 
 fragment, knocking off its asperities, and rounding 
 it, while the broken portions are worn into particles 
 of sand and dust. If we take up a position on some 
 bridge in the lower reaches of the river during a 
 heavy flood, we shall find the swollen waters turbid 
 with the sediment produced by the breakage of the 
 rocks above, and following the river still further to 
 its junction with the ocean, may notice the sand banks 
 and mud flats accumulating by the deposition of the 
 sediment where the current of the river is checked 
 upon entering the sea. Our rock -fragment and 
 many another have now found rest until disturbed 
 by other changes. If we travel far from our own 
 country to the arid deserts of sub-tropical regions or 
 the ice-bound hills of the arctic tracts, we shall notice 
 that the agents are in some ways different, but the 
 ultimate effects the same. The materials composing 
 the crust are constantly being broken up, and carried 
 from a higher to a lower level, where they are spread 
 out to form fresh deposits. The agents, I say, are 
 in some ways different, and here the effects of climate 
 are noticed. Nature works in the wet way and in 
 the dry way, to borrow an expression from the 
 chemist, and where she carries out the processes of 
 denudation in the wet way, in regions subjected to 
 considerable rainfall, the scenic results differ in kind 
 
26 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 from those characteristic of deserts and arctic lands, 
 where much of the work is performed in the dry 
 way. 
 
 The agents of denudation are at work over all 
 parts of the earth's surface above sea level, though 
 their effects are more marked in some places than in 
 others. In one place rain is the principal agent, in 
 another frost, in a third the brook or river, and 
 accordingly one part of the surface is more worn 
 than another, and the monotony of the wave-curve 
 is broken by the removal of less material from one 
 place than from an adjoining one. But the difference 
 between the aspect of two places is further empha- 
 sised by the difference of structure. One rock is 
 more durable than another, and resists the work of 
 denudation to a greater extent. Some rocks are 
 harder than others, and tend to stand out after 
 denudation has been in operation for some time. 
 Some are soluble, others practically insoluble, and 
 in this case the insoluble rock will tend to form 
 eminences, the soluble depressions. One rock may 
 be separated into numerous blocks by planes of 
 lamination, joints, and cleavage-planes, another may 
 possess fewer divisional planes, and the former will be 
 more easily worn away than the latter. 
 
 Again, though some agent of denudation is at 
 work on all parts of the earth's surface, the amount 
 of material which accumulates may be greater than 
 that which is removed, and the character of the 
 surface on which accumulation takes place will differ 
 according to the nature of the accumulation. The 
 talus slope at the base of the cliff, the alluvial flat by 
 the riverside, the sand - dune on the sea-shore, the 
 cone of the volcanic vent, are caused by excess of 
 
PRODUCTION OF DOMINANT FORMS 2; 
 
 accumulation over material removed by denudation. 
 Each has its own character, and tends to diversify 
 the earth's surface. 
 
 We shall further find that differential movements of 
 portions of the earth's surface produce their effects 
 upon scenery over and above the development of 
 the earth -waves. The earthquake shock tilts up 
 parts of the earth and depresses others, producing 
 fault-cliffs, landslips, and often damming back the 
 waters of rivers, causing lakes. A similar ponding 
 back of waters is produced by slower movements, 
 which occur so gradually that we are not aware of 
 them except by their effects. 
 
 As the results of accumulation here, of denudation 
 there, of difference of climate in different places, of 
 difference of rock -structure, of variations in the 
 nature and energy of the denuding agents, of 
 differences in the nature and amount of the materials 
 which are accumulated, and, lastly, of the operation 
 of earth-movements, we are presented with those 
 diversified features of our earth's surface which it is 
 our present object to study in detail. Here we meet 
 with mountain chains, there with rivers meandering 
 through their valleys ; in one place is the desert- 
 floor, in another the fenland flat. Anon we stand 
 by the sparkling mountain tarn ; again we wander 
 along the salty borders of the inland sea. At one 
 portion of the river - course we find the stream 
 foaming amid boulders, or hurled boldly over the 
 precipice, at another winding sluggishly through 
 oozy swamps. At one time we may be standing 
 above the seething cauldron of the volcanic vent, at 
 another watching the apparently motionless sweep 
 of the glacier. The eye may be gladdened by the 
 
28 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 vivid carpet of Alpine flowers or saddened by the 
 monotonous hue of the desert scrub. We may gaze 
 at the vivid colouring of the striped rocks of the 
 American gorge or the white glint of the chalk cliffs 
 of Albion, at the turbid waters of the Yellow Sea or 
 the azure hue of the Alpine tarn. Over all is the 
 ever-changing sky, with the clouds hurrying past, 
 driven by the tempest, or wreathing languidly around 
 the mountain-peak. Happy is the man who takes 
 heed of these things, and pleasurable are the 
 emotions which are excited by inquiry into the 
 causes which have produced them ! And lives there 
 one who, communing thus with Nature, and admitted 
 to some of her secrets, is not led to ponder with 
 reverence upon the First Great Cause ? 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE 
 
 THE atmosphere is a gaseous envelope, consisting 
 of a mechanical mixture of various substances 
 surrounding the lithosphere and hydrosphere, and 
 extending outwards to an unknown distance (pro- 
 bably not less than 200 miles) from the surface of 
 the lithosphere. As is well known, it consists 
 essentially of a mixture of about seventy-nine parts 
 of nitrogen and twenty-one of oxygen ; of these 
 oxygen is by far the more important constituent ; 
 of the other components which are important with 
 reference to our present inquiries may be mentioned 
 aqueous vapour and carbon dioxide (carbonic acid 
 gas), while the solid particles which are derived 
 from the lithosphere and float in the air are also 
 of importance. 
 
 Colours in the Sky. The prevalent blue colour in 
 the clear sky is produced in a way which is still a 
 topic for discussion among physicists, and it would 
 require a fuller acquaintance with physical principles 
 than can be assumed here in order to present the 
 reader with an intelligible idea of the suggestions 
 which have been made to account for this blue 
 colour. Lord Rayleigh many years ago suggested 
 that the colour was due to the occurrence of solid 
 
 29 
 
30 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 particles in the air. It is generally known that a 
 ray of white light when passed through a prism is 
 broken up into a number of coloured rays, the solar 
 spectrum, varying from violet to red. The length of 
 the waves of different coloured light varies, the 
 waves of the red light being longest, those of the 
 violet shortest Now, just as a post standing in 
 the water will stop and reflect the small waves and 
 let the larger ones pass by, so the short waves may 
 be stopped by particles which allow the larger ones 
 to pass, and the short ones are reflected to the 
 observer, and are visible to him as blue ; as a result 
 of this the sky appears blue. Recent experiments 
 by Professor Dewar, however, show that the colour 
 of pure oxygen is blue, and the colour of the air may 
 be simply that of one of its most important con- 
 stituents. 
 
 Whatever be the cause of the blue colour, the 
 yellow and red colours seen at sunset are generally 
 recognised as due to the obstruction of the rays of 
 small wave-length. In this case the colour seen is 
 due to transmitted, and not to reflected, light ; hence 
 it is the rays of greater wave-length, which are not 
 obstructed by the particles, which appear to the 
 observer. As the obstructing particles are found in 
 greater abundance in the lower strata of the at- 
 mosphere, the effect of the obstruction is emphasised 
 as the sun sinks lower, and the violet and blue 
 colours are replaced by yellow and orange, and 
 finally by red. 1 
 
 1 The rose-coloured glow seen on the higher Alps when the sun 
 is below the horizon depends partly upon the above conditions, which 
 are further complicated. The reader will find an explanation of the 
 rosy glow given by Mr. J. Ball in a note appended to chap. vii. 
 of Peaks, Passes^ and Glaciers. 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 31 
 
 Any occurrence which causes the existence of an 
 abnormal number of the obstructing particles in the 
 atmosphere will intensify the character of the sunset 
 colours. Readers will recollect the remarkable sun- 
 set glows which were visible in our country as well 
 as in others during the winter and spring following 
 the violent outbreak of the volcanoes of Krakatoa 
 in 1883. There is evidence that the wave of air 
 produced by the eruption travelled more than three 
 times round the earth, and that fine dust from the 
 volcano was carried with it, and there is good reason 
 for supposing that the vivid sunset effects referred to 
 above were produced as the result of the existence 
 of this dust in the atmosphere. 1 
 
 Nature and Forms of Clouds. The importance of 
 the presence of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere 
 has already been noted. Different portions of the 
 atmosphere contain varying proportions of aqueous 
 vapour, the usual proportion being about 1*5 per 
 cent., and this when condensed forms cloud. It is 
 evident that the atmosphere cannot contain an un- 
 limited quantity of the vapour, and when it holds 
 as much as it can carry without any portion being 
 condensed it is said to be saturated. 
 
 It is also known that air when at a high tempera- 
 ture can hold more vapour than when at a lower 
 one ; hence condensation does not always take place 
 at the same temperature : in other words, the dew- 
 point, or temperature at which condensation occurs, 
 varies with the amount of aqueous vapour in the 
 air. The condensation of the vapour gives rise to 
 numerous droplets of water which compose clouds ; 
 
 1 See Royal Society Report on Krakatoa^ 1888. 
 
32 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 these when at a low level are termed fogs or 
 mists. 1 
 
 There are various ways in which the chilling of 
 the atmosphere, which brings about condensation, 
 may be effected, as (i) radiation ; (ii) ascent of 
 moisture-laden air into higher and therefore colder 
 regions of the atmosphere; (iii) contact of moisture- 
 laden air with a cold body as the solid ground ; and 
 (iv) admixture of masses of cold and hot air. 
 
 The form of clouds depends to a large extent upon 
 movements of the atmosphere, which are in turn due 
 to differences of barometric pressure. The way in 
 which these movements are set up will be referred 
 to anon. But though winds produce marked effects 
 upon the clouds, their primary shape depends upon 
 movements which take place so slowly that they 
 would hardly be termed winds, and these movements 
 take place vertically as well as horizontally, the 
 shapes of some clouds being largely due to vertical 
 movements, those of others to movements in a hori- 
 zontal direction, while others again are produced by 
 a combination of the two sets of movements. 
 
 Clouds may be classified according to their shapes, 
 or according to their modes of origin, but as the 
 former is largely dependent upon the latter, the two 
 classifications are similar. Nevertheless, there is still 
 much diversity of opinion as to the classification to 
 be adopted. Clouds were originally classified by Mr. 
 L. Howard in i8o3. 2 He defined three primary types 
 
 1 Mr. J. AITKEN (Trans. Roy. Soc. t Edin., vol. xxx., p. 337) 
 maintains that the presence of foreign bodies as particles of dust in 
 the atmosphere is necessary to the production of condensation. This 
 necessity has been questioned. 
 
 2 HOWARD, L. , Essay on the Modifications of Clouds. 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 33 
 
 of cloud, namely cirrus, cumulus, and stratus, and 
 four compound types formed by combinations of 
 these : cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, cumulo-stratus, and 
 nimbus ; the last is a term applied to any cloud from 
 which rain is falling, and can hardly be included 
 among the other types, and accordingly we are left 
 with three primary and three secondary types. 1 
 
 According to their origin, Mr. Clement Ley classifies 
 clouds as clouds of radiation, including some kinds of 
 fog, clouds of inversion, as cumulus, clouds of interfret, 
 as stratus, and clouds of inclination, as cirrus, and it 
 will be most convenient to adopt this classification 
 when considering the principal types of cloud. 
 
 (i) Clouds of Radiation. The ground becomes 
 cooled by radiation of heat into space, and when 
 cooled below dew-point the air in immediate contact 
 with the ground deposits its moisture as dew, but 
 the air above this, containing solid particles, is also 
 chilled, and the solid particles themselves become 
 cooled by radiation. Accordingly moisture is de- 
 posited on the solid particles, giving rise to one 
 form of fog. This may be complicated when low 
 ground is surrounded by higher ground by inter- 
 mixture of cold, vapour-charged air from the higher 
 ground with that which immediately overlies the low 
 country. The fog whose upper surface is seen in 
 the plate showing clouds in the Eden Valley was of 
 this composite character. Fogs due to radiation have 
 
 1 The reader will find an account of cloud-shapes and cloud-forma- 
 tion in Elementary Meteorology, by R. H. SCOTT, F.R. S. (International 
 Scientific Series); in Cloudland, by the Rev. W. CLEMENT LEY 
 (Stanford, 1894); and in a paper by A. F. OSLER, "On the Normal 
 Forms of Clouds," Report of the British Association for 1886 (Bir- 
 mingham), p. 530. From these works the account of clouds given here 
 is largely taken. 
 D 
 
34 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 been termed " radiation fogs " by Herschel, to dis- 
 tinguish them from other fogs, which present affinities 
 to other classes of cloud, for " clouds . . . are really 
 nothing else but fog or mist, and the most solid- 
 looking night-cap on a hill-top is found by those 
 who are enveloped in it to be neither more nor less 
 than a driving mist." 1 
 
 (ii) Clouds of Inversion. These clouds are due to 
 an upward movement of a portion of the atmo- 
 sphere, which tends to produce interchange of air 
 between lower and higher atmospheric strata. The 
 upward movement is due to a mass of air in a lower 
 stratum being rendered lighter than it was previously, 
 either owing to its becoming charged with vapour, 
 thus diminishing its specific gravity, or on account of 
 its expansion when heated by the rays of the sun. 
 As the rising column of air reaches higher altitudes, 
 it becomes chilled, and some of the vapour is con- 
 densed, forming cloud, the base of which may be 
 level. The process of condensation liberates heat, 
 which causes further rise and condensation, until the 
 upper part of the column becomes chilled below 
 the temperature of the surrounding air, and a down- 
 ward movement takes place at the top. In this way, 
 speaking briefly, are formed cumulus clouds, which 
 have not inaptly been compared by Tyndall to the 
 steam escaping from the funnel of a locomotive. The 
 friction of the particles of the minute droplets is 
 sufficient to prevent them from falling when raised 
 to the required height. 2 These cumulus clouds are, 
 in our country, essentially clouds of summer, and 
 also clouds of the day-time. 
 
 1 SCOTT, R. H. op. cit., p. 123. 
 
 2 For further account of formation of cumulus, see LEY, Cloudland, 
 chap. i. and Fig. I. 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 35 
 
 (iii) Clouds of Inter/ret are due to the existence 
 of two successive strata of air moving in different 
 directions, or moving in the same direction, but with 
 different velocities. A certain amount of intermixture 
 will take place about the plane of junction, and if 
 condensation occur, straight sheets of cloud stratus 
 will be formed. As has already been seen, a series 
 of waves will be developed on the bounding plane, 
 as the result of movement, which may give rise to 
 various complications. If the upper stratum, as is 
 usually the case, is the colder, the wave-crests of the 
 lower stratum will be at a higher level than the troughs, 
 and therefore the air of the wave-crests colder than 
 the air of the troughs. Accordingly condensation may 
 occur on the wave-crests, and not in the troughs, thus 
 giving rise to detached clouds, which, if the waves 
 are linear, will run in parallel lines, while, if the waves 
 are complicated, the clouds may be "cut up into small 
 waves, ripples, and vortices like a 'choppy sea.' In 
 this . . . case we have innumerable patches and 
 flecks of cloud so often seen in fairly quiet weather 
 in summer." 1 The wavy surface of the fog seen in 
 the plate showing the upper surface of cloud in the 
 Eden Valley is due to the movement of an upper 
 stratum over a lower one, the latter in this case 
 being the cooler, but here the waves are due to 
 mechanical disturbance of air in which the vapour 
 has already been condensed. Condensation in the 
 crests of complex waves is undoubtedly the cause 
 of one form of the cloud-group which is somewhat 
 loosely spoken of as " mackerel - sky," and this 
 particular form is termed stratus maculosus by 
 Mr. Ley, though some writers upon clouds have 
 1 LEY, C, op. cit., p. 13. 
 
36 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 called the mackerel-sky cirro-cumulus. There is, 
 however, another way in which a stratiform mass 
 of vapour may be cut up into detached por- 
 tions, as described by Mr. Osier, by a combina- 
 tion of lateral and vertical movements. Suppose 
 that a sheet of stratus - cloud, produced by 
 differential horizontal movement of adjacent strata, 
 is bodily elevated as a result of vertical movement, 
 greatest at one point, and dying out laterally ; the 
 original flat mass will take a gentle curved form, and 
 will therefore occupy more superficial area than 
 before, and the cloud will be ruptured in the same 
 way as a pane of glass when struck by a stone. 
 As Mr. Osier remarks, it " will be rent into frag- 
 ments or small groups, and thus produce what is 
 called a ' mackerel-sky/ just as a similar result is 
 produced, but by the reverse action, in mud that 
 has dried up and shrunk into small patches while 
 the damp earth beneath remains expanded by the 
 moisture it still contains." 
 
 As the result of vertical movement followed by 
 horizontal movement, cumulus cloud, as noted by 
 Mr. Osier, may be converted into a stratiform cloud, 
 cumulo-stratus. " The friction of the earth from the 
 irregularities of its surface, and the denser state of 
 the lower air, causing it to flow less rapidly than 
 that which is higher and more attenuated, the upper 
 portion of a cloud moves more rapidly thaft the 
 lower, and the cumulus shears over into a slanting 
 position, and finally assumes the form of the cumulo- 
 stratus, and, however reduced in depth or thickness 
 the cloud may become by this flattening and some- 
 what attenuating process, the cumulus character, 
 though much diminished, is seldom, if ever, entirely 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 37 
 
 obliterated." The writer aptly illustrates this by 
 reference to the flat brown cloud of smoke from a 
 passing steamer, which came from the funnel in 
 great rounded masses. We may sometimes observe 
 one set of clouds having a linear arrangement per- 
 pendicular to the direction in which the wind is 
 blowing, while another set has a linear arrangement 
 parallel to this direction. When the wind is slight, 
 cloud waves are developed at right angles to the 
 direction in which the wind is blowing. With a 
 strong wind, we often notice bars of stratiform cloud 
 running parallel to the wind's direction, and if the 
 wind be strong nean the earth's surface and gentler 
 above, two sets of stratiform clouds may occur at 
 the same time, the upper with lines at right angles 
 to the wind's direction and the lower arranged in 
 lines parallel to it. 
 
 The cloud-banner, which is often observed on the 
 lee-side of a mountain, is a particular form of stratus, 
 condensation only taking place in the upper, faster- 
 moving stratum when it is chilled below dew-point 
 by contact with the cold surface of the mountain. 
 As is well known, though the cloud is often stationary, 
 it is constantly changing its substance, fresh vapour 
 being condensed against the mountain as the pre- 
 viously condensed vapour becomes evaporated some 
 distance on the lee-side of the mountain. 
 
 (iv) Clouds of Inclination. The principal clouds of 
 inclination are cirrus, which are formed high above 
 the earth's surface. In the rarefied atmosphere at 
 these heights, when water vapour is condensed into 
 cloud, it can fall, owing to its weight, to lower parts 
 of the atmosphere, and if these are moving more 
 slowly than the upper layers, as will probably be the 
 
38 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 case, the upper part of the cloud moves faster than 
 the lower, which lags behind, thus giving rise to the 
 characteristic curved form of the cirrus or curl-cloud. 
 As the condensed vapour falls still lower it gets to 
 a stratum in which the air is sufficiently warm to 
 allow of the re-evaporation of the condensed matter, 
 and thus the cloud probably ends in a point. It is 
 known, from observation of the characters of haloes 
 and mock-suns, that these elevated clouds of inclina- 
 tion are often formed of spicules of ice, and not of 
 drops of water. 
 
 There is general agreement as to the mode of 
 origin of the primary types of clouds, but enough has 
 been said to show that the various processes which 
 form and shape the clouds may act in combination, 
 and when we add to this the modifications which 
 are produced by winds, changes of temperature, and 
 other minor causes, after the clouds have once been 
 formed, we need not be astonished at the infinite 
 variety presented by cloud outlines, which, while 
 rendering the sky a subject for profound contempla- 
 tion and reverence by the lover of scenery, causes 
 the student of cloud -classification to experience a 
 feeling of bewilderment when he is confronted with 
 the great differences in the nomenclature adopted 
 by different writers in their treatment of secondary 
 and complex cloud-types. 
 
 Distribution of Clouds. It has already been noted 
 that certain clouds occur at some times and seasons 
 more than at others ; in other words, clouds have a 
 diurnal as well as an annual distribution ; but, besides 
 this distribution in time, we have a distribution in 
 space, both horizontal and vertical. With regard to 
 the vertical distribution, it is easily seen that clouds 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 39 
 
 of different types do not exist at the same height ; 
 many of us have been in or above stratus or even 
 secondary types of cumulus, and still found cirrus far 
 above us. The following may be taken as the average 
 heights for the primary types of cloud : 
 
 Stratus . . 3000 to 20,000 feet. 
 
 Cumulus . . 4000 to 10,000 ,, 
 
 Cirrus . . 25,000 to 30,000 ,, 
 
 The horizontal distribution of different kinds of 
 clouds in space is affected by the time-variations, 
 but over and above this it is specially affected by 
 types of weather, and the connection of different 
 types of clouds with weather variations is a matter 
 of such great importance to us that it is remarkable 
 how little interest is evinced in it by the majority of 
 people. The local shepherd "can discern the face 
 of the sky" and foretell the weather with considerable 
 accuracy as the result of close observation of the 
 changes in the heavens, but comparatively few 
 people are weatherwise owing to their knowledge 
 of these changes, and most of us base our 
 prognostications on the changes of the barometer, 
 and are apt to speak lightly of the weather 
 reports in our daily papers, though these are 
 drawn up as the result of barometric observations 
 over wide areas in addition to numerous observations 
 on the character of the sky in these areas. We read 
 that " a cyclone is approaching our shores," and if 
 we give more thought to it, we are probably satisfied 
 with a further statement that " showery weather may 
 be experienced in our northern and north-western 
 counties," and may give no heed to the glorious 
 changes in the canopy of clouds which are likely to 
 
40 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 accompany the passage of this cyclone. Let us 
 briefly consider the probable nature of these changes. 
 It will be necessary at the outset to say something 
 about cyclones. 
 
 The atmosphere is heated by the sun, but it is 
 transparent to the direct rays of the sun, and receives 
 its heat from the dark rays given off by the earth's 
 surface. Accordingly the lower strata of the earth 
 become most heated, and the temperature falls as 
 one passes from sea-level to higher altitudes. Now, 
 heated air expands, and a given bulk becomes lighter 
 when heated, on account of this expansion, and also 
 because hot air can hold more water vapour than 
 cold, and the water vapour is lighter than the air 
 which it displaces. The lighter heated air tends to 
 rise, and accordingly, if one spot in the earth's surface 
 is heated more than the surrounding area, the air 
 above the spot rises, and the column of air above 
 that spot is higher than those above the surrounding 
 places, and the top of this elevated column will flow 
 out at the top of the atmosphere in order to restore 
 equilibrium, just as water will flow from one vessel 
 to another when the surface of the water is at a 
 different level in the two vessels if the barrier 
 between them be removed. Asa result of this, the 
 columns of air around the column which rose owing 
 to expansion will contain more air than they did 
 originally, and these columns will therefore press 
 on the earth's surface with force greater than that 
 exerted before the disturbance of equilibrium. We 
 have, in fact, a point of low barometric pressure, 
 surrounded by a ring or area of high barometric 
 pressure. This system is not yet in equilibrium, 
 and equilibrium is restored by the movement of 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 41 
 
 air from the ring of high pressure to the point of 
 low pressure just above the surface of the earth. 
 Air, then, tends to flow upwards and outwards in the 
 higher regions of the atmosphere from areas of low 
 pressure to areas of high pressure, and to flow down- 
 wards and inwards in the strata immediately over- 
 lying the earth's surface from areas of high pressure 
 to areas of low pressure. It is the latter movements 
 which specially concern us. 
 
 If the earth were stationary, the movements would 
 be in straight lines, but, owing to the earth's rotation, 
 the movements are really spiral. The earth is 
 rotating on its axis from west to east, and the air 
 is carried round with it. Thus a point on the equator 
 performs a journey of about 24,000 miles per diem, 
 and the same is the case with a particle of air just 
 above it, while a point at the poles is stationary, and 
 points situated between pole and equator perform 
 a longer or shorter journey according to their near- 
 ness to, or remoteness from, the equator. Now, a 
 particle of air moving in a northerly or southerly 
 direction retains for some time the initial velocity 
 which it possessed owing to the movement of rotation. 
 Suppose a particle of air in the northern hemisphere 
 to be travelling from north to south ; it proceeds from 
 a place with relatively small velocity to one with 
 greater, and accordingly appears to lag behind, and, 
 instead of reaching a point due south of its starting- 
 point will, reach one south-westward of it. Again, a 
 particle in the same hemisphere travelling from south 
 to north starts with considerable velocity, communi- 
 cated by the earth's rotation, and travels to a point 
 where the velocity of a point on the earth is less 
 than its own ; so it appears to advance instead of 
 
42 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 lagging behind, and, instead of reaching a point due 
 north of its starting-point, will reach one to the north- 
 eastward. In each case the wind is deflected to the 
 right of its direct course, and this is so with all winds 
 in the northern hemisphere, except those blowing 
 due east or due west. It will be found that in the 
 southern hemisphere the winds are similarly deflected, 
 but to the left of their direct course. In the case of 
 a point of low pressure surrounded by a ring of high 
 
 \ 
 
 A B 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 A. Cyclone. X. Low-pressure point. 
 
 B. Anti-cyclone. Y. High-pressure point. 
 
 Arrows show direction of wind. 
 
 pressure area the winds to the north of the point are 
 deflected westward, those to the south of it eastward, 
 and air does not flow in directly to the point of low 
 pressure from all surrounding points, but flows in 
 spirally in a direction contrary to the direction of 
 movement of the hands of a watch in the northern 
 hemisphere. Such a system is called a cyclone 
 (Fig. *A). 
 
 A cyclone, then, is a system of winds blowing in 
 spirally downwards towards a low pressure area 
 from a surrounding area of high pressure, and the 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 43 
 
 winds move in a direction contrary to the hands 
 of a watch in the northern hemisphere, and in the 
 direction of the hands in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 Conversely an anti-cyclone (Fig. 4 E) is a system of 
 winds blowing spirally upwards to a high pressure 
 area from a surrounding area of low pressure, and in 
 this case the winds move in the direction of the 
 hands of a watch in the northern hemisphere, and 
 in the contrary direction in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 The velocity of the winds of a cyclonic system is 
 generally much greater than that of the winds of an 
 anti-cyclonic system, and accordingly cyclones are 
 often accompanied by gales and storms, anti-cyclones 
 by calm. 
 
 The centre of a wind system is not usually 
 stationary for any length of time, but has itself a 
 more or less definite path, which, in the case of our 
 islands, is usually in a north-easterly direction along 
 a line running south-west and north-east ; hence we 
 so frequently read of cyclones approaching our shores 
 from the Atlantic. 
 
 The shape of the system may be circular, or may 
 be elliptical. In the latter case, when the longer 
 axis of the ellipse is a considerable multiple of the 
 shorter diameter, only one side of the ellipse is likely 
 to occur over our islands at once ; this forms a figure 
 in the shape of a V, and accordingly we speak of 
 the half of an elongated cyclone as a V-shaped 
 depression, while that of an elongated anti-cyclone 
 is known as a col, or ridge between two V-shaped 
 depressions. 
 
 Now the type of cloud over our islands and 
 elsewhere is largely dependent upon the nature of 
 the wind system which affects the areas. 
 
44 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 An anti - cyclone is usually marked by quiet 
 weather ; the long periods of dry weather in summer, 
 the prolonged fogs of autumn, and frosts of winter 
 occur during the prevalence of anti - cyclonic con- 
 ditions. Clear skies or fogs are frequent accom- 
 paniments, or, if the sky be cloudy, we find a haze 
 and belts of stratus, with cirrus in the higher 
 regions. Anti-cyclonic conditions are by no means 
 always conducive to fine scenic effects, and in 
 mountain regions especially the hills are apt to be 
 obscured by haze for days together, and the colour- 
 ing is frequently monotonous. 
 
 When a cyclone passes, there is often a definite 
 relationship between the different portions of the 
 cyclone and the nature of the cloud. In front of 
 an advancing cyclone, gossamer-like threads of the 
 secondary cloud of inclination known as cirro-filum 
 are seen, followed by a thicker mass of veil-like cirro- 
 velum. This is followed by the nimbus or complex 
 mass of cloud, from which rain is discharged. The 
 centre of the cyclone is marked by alternate patches 
 of blue sky and broken clouds. In the rear of the 
 cyclone cumulus is abundant, especially on the south 
 side of the system, with stratus on the north side ; 
 and, lastly, we have bands of cirrus and its secondary, 
 cirro-macula. 1 
 
 Thunderstorms occur when an area is occupied 
 by a low-pressure system, though the system is not 
 always of the same nature. Most of our summer 
 thunderstorms are accompaniments of small, shallow 
 depressions (that is, depressions where the pressure 
 in the centre is not very different from the pressures 
 around), while other thunderstorms occur along the 
 
 1 See diagram, LEY, C., Cloudland, Plate VI., facing p. 176. 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE 45 
 
 edges of deep, cyclonic disturbances, and may occur 
 at all seasons. 1 
 
 1 Besides electrical phenomena, there are various optical phenomena, 
 as rainbows, mock-suns, haloes, which are of interest to the student of 
 scenery, but, on account of their comparative rarity, it is unnecessary 
 to treat of them in a work like the present. The reader will find an 
 account of them in Mr. R. H. Scott's Elementary Meteorology, 
 chaps, x. and xi. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 MAIN FEATURES OF CONTINENTS AND 
 OCEAN BASINS 
 
 IT is generally recognised that the land surfaces 
 of the globe are essentially areas of denudation 
 or destruction of rock, and the ocean basins, regions of 
 reception and deposition of sediment, in other words 
 that rock-strata are on the whole manufactured in 
 the oceans, destroyed on the dry land. The oceanic 
 origin of the major portion of the strata which now 
 form our land surfaces is amply proved by the 
 general occurrence of the remains of marine organisms 
 within them, and the comparative rarity of terrestrial 
 or fresh-water organisms. We have thus indisput- 
 able proofs that our land masses have not always 
 existed as dry land, but that large tracts of them 
 have been submerged beneath the ocean waters. 
 Proofs are also forthcoming, though they are naturally 
 not so patent, that tracts of present ocean-floor once 
 existed as dry land, but as the student of scenery is 
 not directly concerned with the aspect of the ocean- 
 floor, it is unnecessary to enter into this matter at 
 length. 
 
 Admitting that extensive tracts of dry land have 
 been submerged, it is necessary to account for their 
 emergence, which may be brought about in two 
 ways : either by movement of the water, or upheaval 
 
 4 6 
 
CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 47 
 
 of the outer part of the lithosphere above water-level. 
 Our first thought would naturally be that the level ,of 
 the mobile ocean rather than that of the apparently 
 stable earth -crust would be changed in order to 
 produce the land masses, but a number of facts prove 
 that it is the land which has risen above the ocean 
 level, and not the latter which has changed. Promi- 
 nent among these, and sufficient for our purpose, is 
 the fact that the strata, originally laid down in 
 horizontal sheets, are now found inclined at various 
 angles, sometimes vertical, or even overturned, and 
 as these strata compose the lithosphere, the statement 
 that the strata have been moved is the same as the 
 statement that the lithosphere has been moved. The 
 cause, or rather causes, of this movement do not 
 directly concern us in our present inquiry, and 
 there is a considerable amount of uncertainty on 
 the subject in the minds of geologists, though the 
 contraction of the earth's crust is generally con- 
 sidered to be the most important factor in producing 
 earth movement. The earth is hotter inside than 
 outside. Now a cooling body contracts more when 
 suffering the loss of a given amount of heat if it 
 be at a high temperature than if at a lower one ; 
 accordingly the hot interior of the earth would 
 contract more than the cooler exterior, and tend to 
 shrink away from it, but the weight of the exterior 
 would prevent the formation of a space, and the 
 exterior would settle down in wrinkles, just as an 
 apple wrinkles owing to the loss of more moisture 
 from the interior than from the rind. Whether this 
 be the true explanation or not, inspection of the 
 earth's crust shows that it has been wrinkled into 
 a wavy surface, very like the surface of an ocean 
 
48 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 ruffled by the wind. In places we find evidence 
 of alternate ridges and troughs ; in other places, 
 where the movements have been complicated, the 
 earth is like an ocean surface affected by a choppy 
 sea, two or more sets of movements having occurred 
 at different angles, and just as the major waves 
 of the sea are often accompanied by minor ripples 
 on their surfaces, so we find minor folds of the 
 earth's crust superposed upon the larger ones. 
 Every earth-wave may be looked upon as composed 
 of two parts, a trough and an arch, with a septum 
 common to the two, and as in the case of the sea- 
 wave, so with the earth-wave, there is a tendency for 
 the slope of the septum to be steeper than that of 
 the other portions of the wave, as shown in Fig. 5. 
 
 In this case the wave system as a whole has moved 
 in the direction indicated by the arrow. Now a 
 movement of this character, if on a sufficiently large 
 scale, might give rise to an ocean basin in the trough 
 and a continental uplift on the arch, assuming that 
 the crust had previously been exactly at sea-level, 
 and we may briefly inquire if there is any evidence 
 that continents and ocean basins are due to move- 
 ments of this nature. 1 
 
 It requires little study of geological literature to 
 discover that as a general rule the most elevated 
 parts of continental masses are those in which the 
 strata have undergone most disturbance in compara- 
 tively recent geological times ; the flat tracts of Russia 
 are composed of horizontal strata, the sloping 
 plateaux of North America of gently inclined strata, 
 
 1 A very suggestive account of the structure of continents and ocean 
 basins will be found in Professor Lapworth's address to section C of 
 the British Association, Rep. Brit. Assoc., Edinburgh, 1892, p. 695. 
 
CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 49 
 
 the craggy summits of the Alpine chains of highly 
 contorted rocks, and further study shows that if 
 we omit the minor complications, and take into 
 account the main features, the contours of the land 
 masses, apart from the modifications produced by 
 denudation, tally with the slopes which would be 
 formed as the result of the various uplifts of which 
 we have independent evidence. The structure of 
 the lithosphere beneath the oceans is, from the facts 
 of the case, hidden, but comparison of the land and 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 A. Arch. T. Trough. S. Septum. 
 
 ocean features shows that one is complementary to 
 the other, as well shown in Professor Lapworth's 
 address, to which reference has just been made : 
 
 " The surface of each of our great continental masses of 
 land resembles that of a long and broad arch-like form, of 
 which we see the simplest type in the New World. The 
 surface of the North American arch is sagged downwards 
 in the middle into a central depression which lies between 
 two long marginal plateaux, and these plateaux are finally 
 crowned by the wrinkled crests which form its two modern 
 mountain systems. The surface of each of our ocean-floors 
 exactly resembles that of a continent turned upside down. 
 Taking the Atlantic as our simplest type, we may say that 
 the surface of an ocean basin resembles that of a mighty 
 trough or syncline, buckled up more or less centrally into a 
 E 
 
50 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 medial ridge, which is bounded by two long and deep 
 marginal hollows, in the cores of which still deeper grooves 
 sink to the profoundest depth. This complementary 
 relationship descends even to the minor features of the 
 two. Where the great continental sag sinks below the 
 ocean level we have our gulfs and our Mediterraneans, 
 seen in our type continent as the Mexican Gulf and 
 Hudson Bay. Where the central oceanic buckle attains 
 the water-line we have our oceanic islands, seen in our 
 type ocean as St. Helena and the Azores. Although the 
 apparent crust-waves are neither equal in size nor sym- 
 metrical in form, this complementary relationship between 
 them is always discernible. The broad Pacific depression 
 seems to answer to the broad elevation of the Old World, 
 the narrow trough of the Atlantic to the narrow continent 
 of America." 
 
 Similar movements on a smaller scale, as will be 
 eventually pointed out, account for our mountain 
 uplifts and valleys of depression, and even the 
 volcanoes which modify portions of the lithosphere 
 owe their geographical distribution to supplementary 
 phenomena connected with the production of these 
 great earth- waves. 
 
 If a continent were composed exclusively of 
 stratified rocks, and produced by one uplift of 
 a set of stratified deposits originally laid down 
 horizontally on the sea-floor, and if the uplift were 
 unaccompanied by denudation, the surface of the 
 continent would be completely covered by the upper- 
 most stratum, and the bedding planes separating 
 the strata would lie in curves parallel to the 
 surface of the ground. Study of our continents 
 indicates that they are of a much more complex 
 character, and due to alternate uplifts above and de- 
 
CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 51 
 
 pressions beneath the ocean level. Each depression 
 will allow of the accumulation of sediment ; each 
 uplift raises these sediments to form land, and as that 
 land is always subjected to denuding agents, these 
 sediments will be partially swept from the land, and 
 the edges of the strata will abut against the surface, 
 just as if we curved a number of sheets of paper into 
 an arch, and cut off the top of the arch : the edges of 
 the sheets, which may be taken to represent strata, 
 would abut against the surface produced by the 
 cutting process. Subsequent depression would admit 
 of the deposition of more horizontal strata on the 
 upturned edges of the earlier ones. Such an 
 arrangement of strata is known to geologists as an 
 unconformity ', and the frequency of unconformities 
 among the stratified rocks of our land surfaces shows 
 that many portions of our continents have been 
 submerged and elevated again and again, and that 
 each land surface is as a rule not the result of a 
 simple uplift, but that they have, grown by a process 
 of accretion of fresh masses of land at different times. 
 In these circumstances it will be well to leave the 
 actual structure of our main land surfaces for the 
 present, and to consider the events which would 
 occur, and modify the land masses, if we commenced 
 with a simple uplift of horizontal sediments. 
 
 An ideal symmetrical uplift around a central point 
 would give rise to a dome - shaped mass of land 
 highest in the centre, and sloping away to the sea 
 all round, with a coast-line forming a perfect circle. 
 A section through the uplift would show the surface 
 existing as a simple convex curve, and the planes of 
 stratification beneath it running parallel to the curve 
 as shown in Fig. 6. 
 
52 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 It will be more convenient, however, if we imagine 
 the uplift as occurring around a horizontal straight 
 line instead of above a point, in which case the result 
 would be a long ridge, highest above this axial line, 
 and sloping to the coasts, which in our imaginary 
 continent would form two parallel lines. A section 
 of this uplift at right angles to the axial line would 
 be precisely similar to the section across the dome, 
 shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 We may now consider the relationship of the 
 strata to the continent. The axial line of the con- 
 tinent is also that of an anticlinal arch or saddle of 
 
 S* 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 SS' = Sea-level. 
 
 the strata, and the strata dip away on either side of 
 that line towards the coast, while the strike of the 
 strata is, parallel to the axial line, and therefore to 
 the longer axis of the ideal land mass. It will be 
 seen that the main watershed is immediately above 
 the axial line, and accordingly the primary drainage 
 system of the continent will be divided along a line 
 coinciding with that from which the strata dip on 
 opposite sides in different directions. The rain 
 falling on the continent will determine two sets of 
 rivers, running from the watershed to either coast. 
 Thus, in the case of a simple uplift, there is a direct 
 connection between the folding of the strata and the 
 initiation of the river system. If there were no 
 
CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS 53 
 
 inequalities on the surface, the rivers would run as 
 straight lines in the direction of the dip of the 
 strata from the watershed to the sea -coasts. 1 It 
 will be eventually seen that these rivers cut into the 
 strata and carve valleys for themselves, thus ex- 
 posing the junction between different strata on the 
 earth's surface, and also producing secondary water- 
 sheds between adjoining rivers. Now, the strata are 
 of different degrees of hardness, and it will be found 
 that the tributary streams tend to cut along the 
 softer strata, and accordingly run at right angles to 
 the primary rivers, and parallel to the strike of the 
 strata. The primary rivers are known as consequent 
 streams, being consequent upon the uplift, while the 
 first-formed tributaries, which we shall here alone 
 refer to, leaving the consideration of subsidiary 
 streams to a future chapter, are termed subsequent 
 streams. 
 
 The formation of these subsequent streams and 
 their valleys will give rise to tertiary watersheds 
 separating the subsequent streams, and accordingly 
 in the case of a symmetrical and simple uplift, such 
 as we have described, a river-system of the following 
 character will be initiated (Fig. 7). 
 
 An ideal continent then owes its existence and 
 broader physical features to its main uplift ; its 
 mountain masses and plateaux, with the intervening 
 broad depressions, are due to the formation of minor 
 earth-waves ; if it possesses volcanoes, they will pro- 
 bably occur with definite relationship to the major 
 uplift ; and the minor features are due to sculpture 
 
 1 All the primary rivers need not rise at the watershed, but some 
 may rise at various points between the watershed and the sea. For 
 the sake of simplicity, these may be at present ignored. 
 
54 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 by denuding agents, and to occasional accumulation 
 mainly in the hollows : while an ideal ocean owes 
 its broad features to its main depression ; its smaller 
 elevations and depressions are due, as before, to minor 
 earth-waves ; volcanoes may modify it, and its coast- 
 
 Coast 
 
 r 
 
 Goask 
 
 i--- 
 ... i_ 
 _ i... 
 .&i_ 
 
 line 
 
 -I-- 
 
 /^ 
 
 2 
 
 FIG. 
 
 I, I = Main watershed. 2, 2 = Secondary watersheds. 
 3, 3 = Tertiary watersheds. 
 
 lines will be affected by erosion ; but the principal 
 minor modifications, unlike those of the land, are 
 produced, not by denudation, but by deposition, 
 which tends to fill up the inequalities by the forma- 
 tion of blankets of sediment, producing extensive 
 plains of deposition upon the ocean floor, ready upon 
 uplift to give rise to portions of new continents. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 MOUNTAINS 
 
 IT is obvious that as a valley, whether of move- 
 ment or of erosion, is complementary to a 
 mountain, the origin and structure of the two are 
 closely connected, but it will nevertheless be con- 
 venient to consider the two apart, though the 
 reader will remember that much of what is written 
 concerning mountains must be taken into account 
 when considering the details of valley structure and 
 valley formation. 
 
 Mountains and hills have been classified, accord- 
 ing to their formation : (i ) by accumulation; (ii.) by 
 upheaval ; (iii.) by circumdenudation. The hills of 
 accumulation are formed by piling of material on 
 the earth's surface, and the chief hills formed in 
 this manner are volcanoes, while minor hills of 
 accumulation are known as sand-hills or sand- 
 dunes. Each of these will be more appropriately 
 considered in later chapters, and we may here 
 confine our attention to the hills of upheaval and 
 circumdenudation, which constitute by far the largest 
 proportion of the mountains of the globe. 
 
 It is convenient, in our classification, to separate 
 hills of upheaval, produced by uplift of portions of 
 the earth's crust, from those of circumdenudation, 
 due to the erosion of portions of that crust, 
 
 55 
 
56 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 thereby leaving intervening portions to stand out 
 as hills above the general level of the eroded 
 portions, but a moment's reflection will convince 
 the reader that an ideal hill of upheaval or of 
 circumdenudation cannot exist. The agents of 
 erosion affect all parts of the surface of the land, 
 and therefore, however nearly a hill may approach 
 to an ideal hill of upheaval, it must owe some of 
 its surface features to erosion, whereas, in the case 
 of strata formed beneath the ocean, initial uplift 
 is necessary before the agents of erosion, whose 
 operation is essentially restricted to the land masses, 
 can come into play. Nevertheless, as some hills 
 owe most of their character to uplift, and others 
 to circumdenudation, the division is useful, though 
 it must be distinctly understood that a complete 
 gradation can be traced from the hill which is 
 almost entirely due to uplift, with very slight 
 modification due to erosion, to one which is 
 blocked out by erosion from an elevated tract of 
 plateau region, in which the uplift has been so 
 uniform that the outline of the individual hills owes 
 practically nothing to uplift, but nearly everything 
 to erosion. 
 
 Our study of hill structure will be simplified if 
 we consider the effects of uplift first, and those 
 of erosion subsequently, though it must be remem- 
 bered that in nature erosion commences with 
 uplift, and operates simultaneously. As soon as 
 the future hill-top has emerged above the water, 
 the agents of erosion begin the work of destruction, 
 and this destruction goes on while further emergence 
 takes place ; and accordingly, in order to have hills 
 at all, the uplift must occur in such a way that 
 
MOUNTAINS 5; 
 
 erosion cannot keep pace with it ; otherwise the 
 potential hill would be reduced to a level, while the 
 rocks of which it was composed were pushed up. 
 
 Before discussing the variations of hill structure 
 produced by upheaval, a few words are necessary 
 concerning the rate of operation of upheaval and 
 other agents which are occupied in producing 
 various scenic effects. We have every reason for 
 supposing that when the race to which belonged 
 the flint man of Abbeville and of Kent's Cavern 
 occupied Europe the occupants gazed on hill and 
 vale possessing much the same features as those 
 which they now present ; and if a palaeolithic artist 
 had represented Snowdon or Skiddaw on a piece 
 of ivory, its outline would be recognisable as 
 identical with that which it at present exhibits ; 
 indeed, long before the appearance of man in 
 Britain, the physical features of our country were 
 essentially those of the present time. It is evident 
 that no important change has taken place in 
 historic times, and the geologist has to deal with 
 aeons to which historic times are but as a day. 
 
 No definite idea of the duration of geological 
 time can be given ; its vastness becomes impressed 
 upon one as the result of observation of geological 
 phenomena ; the geologist finds that the agents 
 which are working at the present time are sufficient 
 to account for all the phenomena of the stratified 
 rocks with which he is acquainted ; but finding 
 how slowly these agents do their work, and how 
 insignificant are the changes which have occurred 
 during periods of time which to an ordinary man 
 seem enormous, he is led to infer that immense 
 periods must have elapsed in order to explain all 
 
58 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the changes, inorganic and organic, with which he 
 is acquainted. 
 
 The casual observer, noting the strata of a 
 mountain slope thrown into violent folds, zigzagging 
 across the face of a cliff like a series of whip-lashes, 
 might easily suppose that these folds are due to 
 rapid and catastrophic movements ; but experiment 
 will show that under ordinary conditions the com- 
 paratively rigid rocks cannot be bent as the result 
 of sudden application of pressure they will snap 
 across whereas if pressure be applied slowly they 
 may be bent into sharp folds. A simple experiment 
 may be tried with an ordinary stick of sealing-wax. 
 If one tries to bend it suddenly, it will break across ; 
 but if pressure be applied very slowly, it may be 
 bent into a complete circle with the fingers alone. 
 Experiments of this nature do not necessarily 
 indicate that folding cannot take place rapidly when 
 the rocks are far below the earth's surface and 
 affected by the pressure of thousands of feet of 
 superincumbent rock, but they show that under 
 certain conditions rock folding can be produced by 
 slow pressure, and not by rapid movement, and 
 therefore that violent contortion of the strata is by 
 no means proof of rapid movement. We have much 
 further evidence of the slowness of movement on a 
 large scale, but it is beyond our scope to enter fully 
 into this question, which the reader will find discussed 
 in the larger works devoted to the study of geology. 
 
 Passing now to a consideration of the types of 
 uplift which give rise to mountain masses, we may 
 divide them at the outset into two, the uplift pro- 
 duced as the result of folding of the rocks and that 
 due to fracture, or, in other words, mountain uplifts 
 
MOUNTAINS 59 
 
 are due (i) to folding ; (ii) to faulting. It will be 
 seen in the sequel that the one is often accompanied 
 by the other, but it will make mountain-structure 
 clearer to the reader if we omit consideration of all 
 complications in this place, and take ideal forms into 
 consideration. 
 
 Commencing with primary forms of mountain 
 masses due to folding, we have the dome and the 
 ridge, the former being the result of the bending 
 of the strata into a dome, while the latter is caused 
 by their curvature into a saddle. 1 The symmetrical 
 dome is comparatively rare on a large scale, and, so 
 far as we know, is produced by vertical upthrust of 
 strata, especially when igneous matter in a state of 
 fusion is introduced beneath them. If this matter is 
 brought up from below at a definite point and forced 
 between strata, it will tend to be thickest above the 
 point at which it enters the plane of stratification 
 along which it spreads, and to thin out on all sides, 
 so that it would have the general shape of a mush- 
 room, the stalk being represented by the molten 
 matter which flowed up the pipe, and the upper 
 part of the mushroom by the mass which was forced 
 along the plane of stratification, and if the mass 
 were perfectly symmetrical, its outline would be a 
 circle. The strata would be arched above it, the 
 planes of stratification lying parallel to the convex 
 curve of the surface of the ground and also to the 
 upper surface of the igneous mass. To an igneous 
 mass producing an elevation of this nature Dr. G. K. 
 
 1 The rocks are spoken of as strata for convenience, and to 
 emphasise the relationship which exists between surface contours and 
 direction of planes of stratification, but it must be noted that the 
 component rocks of mountain masses need not necessarily be stratified. 
 
60 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Gilbert has given the name laccolite, and as laccolites 
 present us with the most symmetrical cases of uplift 
 known to us, they have furnished us with much in- 
 formation important to the student of scenery, and 
 we shall frequently have occasion to refer to them 
 hereafter. The typical laccolites are found constitut- 
 ing the Henry mountains, situated in Southern Utah, 
 and are described by Dr. Gilbert 1 
 
 The ideal ridge will differ from the laccolitic uplift, 
 inasmuch as the strata are bent round a horizontal 
 straight line instead of round a point, but a cross- 
 section drawn at right angles to the axial line will 
 show a convex curve similar to that furnished by 
 a cross-section of the surface of a laccolite. It will 
 be seen that the ideal ridge does not exist in nature, 
 for it would go completely round the earth, and no 
 mountain chain does this. The ridge-like elevations 
 are, strictly speaking, elongated domes, of which one 
 axis is very much longer than the other ; but 
 remembering this, it will be simpler to treat of the 
 structure as that of a true ridge, to which it often 
 approximates in the parallelism of its two sides for 
 very long distances. The symmetrical ridge is, 
 however, not common in nature, the normal ridge 
 being usually steeper on one side than on the other, 
 as in the ocean wave, where the septum is steeper 
 than the other slopes, and a symmetrical ridge would 
 really be a combination of two waves with a trough 
 on each side of the uplift. Some of the ranges of 
 the Jura mountains approximate to the type of a 
 symmetrical ridge. 
 
 1 See GILBERT, G. K., Geology of the Henry Mountains (United 
 States' Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain 
 Region, Washington, 1880), a work to which frequent reference will be 
 made in these pages. 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 61 
 
 The unsymmetrical ridge may be regarded as the 
 normal development in the case of a mountain uplift. 
 The structure in this case is identical with that of 
 the ideal uplift, giving rise to a simple continent and 
 ocean basin, as seen in Fig. 5. Uplifts of this 
 character are specially produced as the result of 
 lateral pressure, and they tend to run in parallel 
 waves, giving rise to parallel mountain chains with 
 intervening valleys of depression. The degree of 
 departure from actual symmetry varies. In some 
 cases the septum is steeper than the other slopes, 
 but is not vertical ; in other cases it is vertical, and 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
 sometimes becomes turned over, when the strata of 
 the septum are reversed, as in the case of the Mendip 
 hills. It is obvious that in the last case denudation 
 must produce a very marked influence on the ultimate 
 outline of the mountain, otherwise a huge overhang- 
 ing cliff would be left upon the mountain-side where 
 the septum occurs. 
 
 In the case of uplifts of unconformable strata, the 
 upper strata may be completely denuded in the 
 mountai'n centres, and the stratification of the older 
 rock series may then show no relationship with the 
 axis of uplift, as shown in Fig. 8, where a represents 
 the structure before denudation, showing the relation- 
 ship of the folding of the upper strata with the axis 
 of uplift, and b the same after denudation, the former 
 
62 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 extension of the upper strata being indicated by the 
 curved line. This complication will be found to be 
 important when we enter into details concerning 
 mountain and valley outline. 
 
 Before discussing uplifts due to fracture, it will be 
 necessary to say a few words concerning the minor 
 folds which frequently accompany the main fold pro- 
 ducing an uplift, and produce very marked effects 
 upon the features presented by a mountain region 
 such as the Alps. When the lateral pressure which 
 produces the folds is comparatively slight, the 
 minor folds are often fairly symmetrical, but as it 
 increases in intensity, the earth-waves are compressed 
 into narrower folds, and the entire rock mass loses 
 greatly in horizontal extension, but gains proportion- 
 ately in height, giving origin to what is known as 
 a mountain range, the major fold forming the crest, 
 and the harmonic minor folds constituting the flanks 
 of the range. 1 
 
 Now towards the foot of this range the minor folds 
 remain fairly symmetrical, but nearer to the centre 
 the effect of the lateral thrust and counterthrust is 
 complicated by the weight of the mass above, which 
 presses the upper parts of the minor folds towards 
 the base of the mountain range, and accordingly the 
 plane surface which lies between the axial line and 
 the summit line of a ridge or the bottom of a trough, 
 which is vertical in the case of a symmetrical uplift, 
 is forced out of the vertical and made to dip inwards 
 
 1 Quoted from a paper by Professor LAPWORTH in the Geological 
 Magazine, dec. ii., vol. x, entitled, "The Secret of the Highlands," 
 part ix. of which gives a summary of the work of HEIM, Mecha- 
 nisnius der Gebirgsbildung, published at Zurich, 1878. The reader 
 will find admirable illustrations of Alpine structure in the atlis of the 
 latter work. 
 
MOUNTAINS 63 
 
 towards the centre of the range, and the strata form- 
 ing the septum of each wave become inverted. This 
 occurs on each side of the main axis, and gives rise 
 to the well-known fan structure which characterises 
 mountain ranges of Alpine type, as illustrated in 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 This fan structure may be repeated, giving rise to 
 a mountain system, composed of more or less parallel 
 mountain ranges, each of which is composed of a 
 central crest and lateral flanks. Such a system is 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 Showing the structure of a mountain range of Alpine type, without denudation. 
 
 found in the Alps complicated by countless minor 
 convolutions and fractures, but nevertheless composed 
 of strata so arranged as to allow of the recognition 
 of the fan structure on a large scale. For instance, 
 in taking a traverse from north to south, starting at 
 the Lake of Lucerne and travelling to the plain of 
 Lombardy, we traverse three definite ranges having 
 a general fan structure. On the north is the Aar 
 range, separated from the central Gotthard range by 
 the newer rocks of the Urserenthal, while the Gott- 
 hard range is separated from the Tessin range on the 
 south by the newer rocks in the valley in which 
 Airolo stands. Similarly to the west of this the 
 great Bernese Oberland range is separated from that 
 
64 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 of the Alps of the Valais by the upper portion of 
 the Rhone valley, containing newer rocks. 
 
 There is one type of unsymmetrical fold to which 
 allusion has not yet been made here, known as the 
 hogback, or monocline. A monocline is sometimes 
 spoken of as half an anticline or half a syncline, 
 with strata on either side of it. In reality a mono- 
 cline consists of a complete earth-wave, the septum 
 of which is inclined at a high angle, while the other 
 slopes approach to horizontality. The monoclinal 
 fold gives rise to steep, curved slopes overlooking 
 gently sloping surfaces, as typically shown in the 
 "hogbacks" of the western territories of North 
 America. When two hogbacks occur facing in 
 opposite directions, and a comparatively level tract 
 between them, we have the " Uinta type " of moun- 
 tain folding, typically developed in the Uinta 
 mountains of North America, the general structure 
 of which is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 10. 
 
 In summing up this part of our subject we may 
 say that the principal types of mountain structure 
 produced by folding are as follows : 
 
 T. SIMPLE TYPES. 
 (a) Symmetrical. 
 
 (a) Domes . . e.g. The Henry mountains. 
 
 (b) Symmetrical saddles Some of the Jura mountains. 
 
 (c) Uinta type . ,, The Uinta mountains. 
 
 (b) Unsymmetrical. 
 
 (a) Hogbacks . . e.g. The "hogbacks" of the 
 
 western territories. 
 
 (b) Unsymmetrical saddles. e.g. The Mendip hills. 
 
 2. COMPOUND TYPE. 
 Alpine type . . . e.g. The Alpine ranges. 
 
MOUNTAINS 65 
 
 The classification is not altogether satisfactory, for, 
 as already seen, the symmetrical saddles and the Uinta 
 type should be looked upon as compounded of two 
 earth-waves, and the hogbacks are really of the 
 nature of unsymmetrical saddles, of which one slope 
 is so small as to appear practically horizontal, but 
 the grouping we have adopted distinguishes between 
 different types each of which exhibits very definite 
 features, and the features of those types which are 
 placed in the same subdivision possess important 
 points in common. 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 We may now proceed to consider uplifts which are 
 primarily due to fracture, and must observe at the 
 outset that fracture is the outcome of folding carried 
 to excess, so that the strata will no longer yield by 
 bending. If a rock were a mathematically rigid 
 mass, we could completely separate fracture from 
 folding, but in a mass which is not absolutely rigid 
 a certain amount of folding precedes fracture. If 
 one examines a broken iron bar, it will be often 
 seen that the particles of the bar are slightly bent 
 at the broken part, owing to the production of an 
 incipient fold before fracture occurs, and the same 
 is often noticeable with rocks. Accordingly every 
 type of fold has its accompanying fault, which replaces 
 the septum of the fold. A simple earth-wave, con- 
 sisting of saddle and trough, where the strata dip 
 
66 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 away from the axis of the saddle and towards the 
 axis of the trough, has its septum replaced by what 
 is known as a normal fault, in which the plane of the 
 fault dips downwards towards the side of the trough, 
 while the septum of an overfolded wave or sigmoidal 
 flexure, in which the strata of the septum are inverted, 
 is replaced by an overfault or thrust-fault, the plane 
 of which dips downwards towards the side of the 
 saddle, and a monoclinal fold or hogback is replaced 
 by a monoclinal fault, which in the case of a normal 
 monocline is normal, and in that of an overfolded 
 monocline is reversed. This is illustrated in the 
 following figure. 
 
 FIG. ii. 
 
 a Symmetrical Earth-wave. 
 
 a' Normal Fault. 
 
 b Overfold. 
 
 V Faulted Overfold. 
 
 c Normal Hogback. 
 
 c' Monoclinal Fault. 
 
 d Overfolded Hogback. 
 
 d' Reversed Monoclinal Fault. 
 
 The main difference between a folded uplift and 
 a faulted one is that, whereas the fold gives a convex 
 surface to the uplifted region, the face of the fracture 
 tends to be a plane surface, having the inclination of 
 the determining fissure. Accordingly, if denudation 
 did not occur, uplifts, where the folding is replaced 
 by faulting, would be marked by the occurrence of 
 
MOUNTAINS 67 
 
 straight cliffs. It is clear that the arrangement 
 represented in Fig. 1 1 a would give rise to a hill- 
 range and valley of depression of exactly the same 
 nature as those produced by the arrangement 
 Fig. 1 1 a, except for the difference just alluded to. 
 The best cases of ridges and valleys determined by 
 fault scarps have been described by the explorers of 
 the western territories of North America. These 
 ridges and valleys have usually been profoundly 
 modified by denudation, but the features due to 
 movement are still ascertainable. Admirable ex- 
 amples have been described by Professor J. W. 
 Powell in his Geology of the Uinta Mountains, and 
 the nature of the movements and the resulting 
 features are well shown in Figs. 3 and 5 of that work. 
 In the lower part of the latter figure, a restoration 
 of part of the region is given showing the nature of 
 the country as it would appear if displacement had 
 not been accompanied by denudation, and it tallies 
 very well with the actual features as shown in the 
 upper portion of the same figure. The district has 
 been broken up into a series of blocks bounded by 
 rectilinear margins the faults and differential dis- 
 placement of these blocks has occurred, some being 
 elevated as compared with others, and also portions 
 of one block being tilted up more than others, or 
 one portion of a block being uplifted and another 
 sagged down. The country, as observed by Powell, 
 much resembles the surface of a mass of ice the 
 blocks of which are "crowded in an eddy of a 
 northern river at the time of its spring flood," and 
 it is significant that a district of the character we 
 are describing is often marked by great intrusions 
 of igneous rock forced up from below, so that the 
 
68 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 structure suggests the buoying up of a mass of the 
 earth's crust above a reservoir of molten rock and 
 settlement of the cracked parts of the crust to 
 different degrees in the molten mass below. 
 
 In our own country an illustration of this type of 
 displacement is furnished by the Pennine chain, 
 and it is especially well exhibited in the northern 
 part of the chain, which overlooks the lower part 
 of the Eden valley. This portion of the Vale of 
 Eden is a valley of depression, separated from the 
 uplift of the Pennine Chain by the great Pennine 
 fault, which has determined the existence of the great 
 scarped cliff which faces westwards, a cliff specially 
 noticeable to anyone travelling northwards by the 
 main Midland line between Settle and Carlisle. 
 The present features are due to denudation, but the 
 uplift of the Pennines and depression of the Vale 
 of Eden were undoubtedly determined by the faulted 
 earth-wave which exists in the area. 
 
 If the fault be small, and the rocks on either side 
 easily denuded, the fault scarp may be destroyed, or 
 never called into existence. For instance, the Isle 
 of Wight is marked by a monoclinal fold or hog- 
 back with the septum partly replaced by a thrust- 
 plane, but denudation has prevented the formation 
 of a fault scarp, and the ground on the uplifted side 
 of the fault, though higher than that on the other 
 side, slopes down towards it with a comparatively 
 small gradient. On account of the frequency with 
 which denudation has levelled the ground on either 
 side of a fault fissure, English geologists have 
 perhaps been prone to overestimate the power of 
 denudation to obliterate all inequalities produced by 
 faulting. In areas where the fracture is recent, 
 
MOUNTAINS 69 
 
 especially if agents of denudation are not very 
 powerful, as in desert regions, the actual cliffs may 
 be, and sometimes certainly are, directly due to 
 faulting, as shown by Gilbert in the case of certain 
 cliffs of the Great Basin region of North America, 
 in the neighbourhood of Great Salt Lake. 
 
 It will be seen that, as the result of earth 
 movement, the land surfaces would possess convex 
 curves among the hill ranges, and concave curves in 
 the valleys of depression, due to folding, and linear 
 straight-faced cliffs, as the result of faulting. The 
 fact that these surfaces are only rarely found in- 
 dicates that the existing superficial features, though 
 indirectly due to earth movement, have been pro- 
 foundly modified by other causes, and it remains to 
 be seen what these causes are, and how they have 
 produced the actual features presented by the prin- 
 cipal tracts of the land surfaces. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MOUNTAINS (Continued] 
 
 HAVING considered the general structure of 
 mountain ranges and mountain systems, we 
 are in a position to discuss the nature of the 
 modifications which they undergo, and the character 
 and origin of individual mountains. As the result 
 of uplift, mountain ranges are caused, but if the 
 uplift be equal, as in the case of our ideal ridge, 
 the ridge would be terminated at the summit 
 by a horizontal line the watershedding line 
 from which the streams would flow away on either 
 side. This watershed would be precisely similar to 
 that which we described in Chapter V., as forming the 
 main watershed of a continental uplift, and the drain- 
 age would be initiated and secondary watersheds 
 developed as described in that chapter. 
 
 It will be found that the modifications which result 
 in the formation of isolated mountain peaks from 
 mountain ranges are due to the agents of denudation, 
 which also greatly modify the general character of 
 the range itself, and it is necessary, therefore, at 
 this point to pay some attention to the effects of 
 denudation. 
 
 We noted in the third chapter that the agents of 
 denudation operated in the dry way and in the wet 
 way according to the climatic conditions of the 
 
 70 
 
MOUNTAINS 71 
 
 region in which they are at work. Work in the dry 
 way predominates in desert regions and the regions 
 of "eternal frost," though even there the effects of 
 water are not entirely eliminated, but over the 
 greater part of the earth's surface water action is 
 dominant, and as there is reason to suppose that 
 many areas now affected by desert conditions and 
 others covered by a mantle of snow and ice were 
 not always under these conditions, we must admit 
 that the action of water is of paramount importance 
 in effecting denudation, and its results must therefore 
 be considered at the outset, the characteristic features 
 of denudation in the dry way being discussed sub- 
 sequently. 
 
 The laws of water denudation have been very fully 
 illustrated by Dr. Gilbert as a result of study of the 
 simple conditions which exist in the uplifts of the 
 Henry mountains, and much of the following de- 
 scription is abstracted from his monograph upon 
 those mountains. It has already been stated that 
 the mountains are in the form of domes, marked by 
 intrusion of a mushroom-shaped mass of igneous rock 
 beneath the uplifted strata, but it will be convenient 
 if we consider the case of drainage impressed upon 
 an ideal ridge rather than upon a symmetrical dome. 
 
 Watersheds. The ideal ridge consists of an arch 
 of strata bent symmetrically around a horizontal 
 axial line, so that, if it be supposed that the ridge 
 be cut in two along a vertical plane extending from 
 the axial line to the parallel horizontal straight line 
 which would form the top of the arch, one side of 
 the ridge would be the exact counterpart of the 
 other, and its surface would form a slope approaching 
 horizontality towards the summit (though it would not 
 
72 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 be absolutely horizontal except along a mathematical 
 line the watershedding line), sloping more steeply 
 at some distance away from this line, and approach- 
 ing horizontality towards the bottom of the valley of 
 depression, the central line of which would be again 
 horizontal, so that the steepest part of the mountain 
 slope would be the centre of the septum. This is 
 shown in Fig. 12, representing a section across the 
 uplift. 
 
 The thick line a a indicates the ideal surface of the 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 ground, b the strata of which the uplifted tract is 
 composed, c the point at which the axial line is cut 
 in the section, d the watershed, c d the line in 
 which the bisecting plane is cut in the section, e e 
 the points at which the axial lines of the two de- 
 pressions are cut in the section, f f the sections of 
 the lines of the bottom of the depressions, and g g 
 the steepest parts of the slopes at the centres of the 
 septa. 
 
 The rain which falls upon the actual water- 
 shedding line would remain stationary ; there is no 
 reason why it should flow down one side more than 
 the other, but rain falling on either side of the water- 
 
MOUNTAINS 73 
 
 shedding line would tend to flow down that side. 
 In nature the water as a rule does not flow directly 
 it reaches the ground, for all rocks can absorb water 
 to a greater or less extent, and consequently the 
 streams which course down the mountain - side do 
 not rise absolutely beside the watershed, but some 
 little distance below it on either side. We must now 
 state a very important principle, to which we shall 
 have to refer again and again, namely, that when 
 conditions are uniform^ and agents are acting with 
 uniformity, the results will be symmetrical, and 
 accordingly all departures from symmetry must be 
 accounted for when we have evidence of conditions 
 which are generally favourable to the production of 
 symmetrical features. We have postulated the 
 existence of a symmetrical uplift which we will 
 suppose to affect homogeneous rocks, and if the 
 rainfall is uniformly distributed it follows that the 
 sources of the streams will arise at points equi- 
 distant beneath the watershedding line on either 
 side, and that these points must be equidistant from 
 one another, so that drainage of an equal area of 
 ground which has absorbed the water will issue from 
 the springs at which the streams arise. The only 
 symmetrical arrangement is that shown in Fig. 13, 
 which represents a plan of a watershed, x y, with 
 springs issuing from the points a b <:,... and giving 
 rise to streams flowing along the dotted lines in the 
 directions indicated by the arrows. It will be seen 
 that streams rise alternately on either side, and that 
 if three adjoining points, as a b c or b c d, be joined 
 by lines, the resulting figure is an equilateral triangle. 
 It will be ultimately seen that the streams tend 
 to carve out valleys, and that the erosion com- 
 
74 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 mences as soon as the water issues from the 
 spring, and accordingly valleys will be cut along 
 the dotted lines in Fig. 14, and the ground from 
 a b downwards along the dotted lines will be 
 rendered appreciably lower than the ground between 
 the springs and the watershed. The action of the 
 
 it it it it it 
 
 i i i i i 
 
 I i i i I 
 
 I I i i I 
 
 I I I 
 
 a 9 c *e 
 
 X- 
 
 . .d .f .Jl .k 
 I I I I i 
 
 I I I I I 
 
 I I I I I 
 
 II ll ll ll ll 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 X, Y = Watershed. 
 a, b, c, d, e,f, g t h, i, k Points of issue of water from springs. 
 
 weather, assisted by gravity, will prevent the for- 
 mation of a vertical cliff above a b ; material will 
 slip down from the ground above, and be carried 
 away by the stream ; and half-funnel-shaped valley 
 heads will be formed around the springs, each 
 having a semi-circular outline in plan, the springs 
 marking the centres of the semi - circles. This 
 
MOUNTAINS 75 
 
 arrangement is shown in Fig. 14, in which the 
 zigzag line x y represents part of the primary 
 watershed (the zigzag character of which we are 
 about to explain) ; a b c the springs, and the 
 dotted lines the streams flowing from them ; / 2 j 
 secondary watersheds, which will also become zig- 
 
 4- 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 
 s q r s y = Main watershed. 
 a b c d e = Points of origin of springs. 
 i 2345 = Secondary watersheds. 
 
 Dotted semi-circles = Incipient half-funnel-shaped hollows. 
 q r s Culminating peaks. 
 tuv w = Cuts or passes. 
 
 zagged, though for simplicity they are represented 
 as straight ; and the dotted semi-circles, the summits 
 of the half-funnel-shaped slopes above and around 
 the springs. These half-funnel-shaped terminations 
 of valleys are frequent on a large scale as the 
 cwms, combes, and cirques, which form so marked 
 a feature of many upland regions. As the valley 
 
76 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 becomes deepened, the funnels will be cut further 
 and further back, and at last those on the two sides 
 of the watershed will interfere with one another, 
 and produce a change in the direction of the water- 
 shed, which, instead of remaining straight, will now 
 run as a zigzag line, the curves becoming converted 
 into straight lines, as in this way only can symmetry 
 be maintained ; the watershed will now run along 
 the zigzag q r s y. The point /, in the centre of 
 the line x q, will be equidistant from the points a b, 
 and accordingly the greatest erosive influence will 
 be exerted here, and less and less erosion will take 
 place as the result of weathering and the action 
 of gravitation as one passes along the line to points 
 more remote from a and b, until we reach x and q, 
 where the least erosive influence is exerted ; the 
 points x and q are situated at the end of the line, 
 and from them secondary watersheds extend on 
 either side of the main one. Accordingly t will be 
 the lowest point of the portion of the watershed 
 represented by the line x q, and x q the highest 
 points, the intervening points being of intermediate 
 heights, and if action be symmetrical, the line will 
 appear in section as a curved line. Accordingly 
 the watershed as seen in section will present the 
 appearance shown in Fig. 15, the letters in which 
 correspond with those of the plan Fig. 14. 
 
 This change in the character of the watershed 
 is of primary importance to the student of scenery, 
 for when conditions are uniform, and symmetry 
 therefore maintained, the mountain-tops will appear 
 at the heads of the main valleys, while the cols or 
 passes will notch the watersheds at the sides of the 
 valleys, and from two adjoining mountain - tops 
 
MOUNTAINS 77 
 
 secondary watersheds will extend in opposite 
 directions. In nature we often find many departures 
 from uniformity of conditions, which produce marked 
 modifications of the ideal watershed described above, 
 but there are a very large number of cases where the 
 departure from uniformity is too slight to modify the 
 natural arrangement to any great extent. 
 
 As an illustration of the production of the arrange- 
 ment of mountain, valley, and col described above, 
 we may consider the district in the neighbourhood 
 of Monte Rosa, which shows it fairly well, though 
 there are several minor complications. Leaving these 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 out of account, we have the Matterhorn dominating 
 the head of the Val Tournanche, and sending off 
 the secondary watershed on which the Weisshorn 
 is situated. (This is modified by the line of weakness 
 which has allowed the valley in which the Zmutt 
 glacier is placed to cut through it.) On either 
 side of the Matterhorn, at the upper end of the 
 Val Tournanche, we have a lateral col, the Col 
 Tournanche to the west, the Theodul to the east. 
 From the Matterhorn the watershed trends south- 
 eastward to another culminating point, the Breithorn, 
 which dominates the Visp Thai, and sends ridges 
 to the south, though here the structure is com- 
 plicated by minor valleys, themselves dominated 
 by minor ridges, and accordingly the watershed 
 does not turn to the north-east, as it would if 
 uniformity had prevailed. The next culminating 
 
78 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 point is Monte Rosa itself, dominating the head 
 of the Val de Gressonay, and sending to the 
 northward a secondary ridge, which culminates in 
 the Mischabelhorner. This secondary ridge exhibits 
 a zigzag watershed, with very marked approach 
 to symmetry, the culminating points, marking the 
 angles of the zigzag, occurring in the following 
 order from south to north : Strahlhorn ; Rimpfisch- 
 horn; Allelinhorn; Alphubel; an unnamed point just 
 north of the Mischabeljoch; the two Mischabelhorner; 
 Siid-Lenspitze; Nadelhorn; Ulrichshorn; Balfrin. It 
 will be furthermore noted by referring to a map that 
 the more marked ridges are given off alternately from 
 these culminating points with considerable regularity. 
 
 In the case of a dome-shaped uplift, the primary 
 watershed will be a point at the centre of the dome, 
 and the streams and secondary watersheds will 
 radiate from this point like the spokes of a wheel. 
 The drainage of the English Lake District is deter- 
 mined and limited by watersheds of this nature, 
 though more symmetrical domes with more accurately 
 radial drainage are found among the Henry moun- 
 tains. 
 
 A mountain range or mountain complex consists 
 of mountains sculptured from an uplift or uplifts, 
 of which the height is usually comparatively small 
 as compared with the length, though the relation 
 of height to length varies considerably, being pro- 
 portionately large in sharp uplifts of Alpine type, 
 and small in the plateaux, from which are sculptured 
 those hills which most truly approach the ideal hill 
 of circumdenudation. Further, the height of neigh- 
 bouring tracts of the uplifts will not vary to any 
 great extent, and accordingly neighbouring moun- 
 
MOUNTAINS 79 
 
 tains formed by the sculpture of an uplift by denuding 
 agents will not vary in height to any great extent, 
 and no mountain, except one of accumulation, can 
 be higher than the surface which would be produced 
 by uplift alone. It will be eventually seen that 
 position of watersheds may change owing to con- 
 ditions of asymmetry, but with a symmetrical uplift, 
 as erosion by streams on the watersheds is nil, the 
 watersheds are not lowered to any great extent, and 
 the mountains which are carved from the uplifted 
 mass tend to have their summits remaining for long 
 periods at a height not much lower than that of the 
 original watershed. As the original primary watershed 
 is higher than any parts of the gradually sloping 
 secondary watersheds, the mountains situated along 
 the line of primary watershed tend to be higher than 
 those situated along the secondary lines, and the 
 latter, under uniform conditions, will be lower and 
 lower, the more remote their position is from the 
 primary watershed. Thus we find the highest 
 mountain of the Alps, Mont Blanc, on the primary 
 watershed of the complex, and the highest point 
 of the Lake District, Scawfell Pike, situated about 
 the centre of the system of radial drainage lines. 
 Taking the case of a secondary watershed, that which 
 starts between the Val d'Herens and -the Val 
 d'Anniviers, in the Valais, and afterwards separates 
 the two branches of the latter valley, though modified 
 by complications where it joins the main watershed, 
 has the following crests, varying in height as one 
 passes from south to north, away from the main 
 watershed: Dent Blanche, 4364 metres; Grand 
 Cornier, 3969 m. ; Bouquetin, 3484 m. ; Pigne de 
 1'Allee, 3404 m. ; Garde de Bordon, 3316 m. 
 
8o SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Departure from uniformity is caused by a number 
 of things, among which may be mentioned, as of 
 special importance, want of symmetry in the uplifts, 
 difference of structure and texture of the rocks, some 
 of which are more easily denuded than others, and 
 variation in the character and amount of denudation 
 in different places. The influence of these in pro- 
 ducing variation from the uniform types will be 
 considered in the sequel. Though their influence 
 tends to complicate the ideal structure which would 
 be produced if the conditions had been uniform, this 
 is usually only masked, and not destroyed, and when 
 once it is detected, it is much easier to account for 
 the causes of departure from uniformity than would 
 be the case if the laws of mountain formation under 
 uniform conditions had not previously been grasped. 
 
 The Three Processes of Denudation. Thus far we 
 have mainly inquired into the importance of uplift in 
 the production of mountain ranges and mountain 
 systems, and have only referred incidentally to the 
 action of erosion or denudation. We have now 
 reached a stage in which it is necessary to consider 
 more particularly the operation and influence of the 
 erosive agents. 
 
 The agents of erosion are many, and the more 
 important may be grouped as follows : atmospheric 
 or meteoric agents, including changes of temperature, 
 wind, and rain ; streams and rivers ; glaciers and sea- 
 waves. As previously observed, the influence of rivers 
 is of paramount importance to the student of scenery, 
 not only on account of the capacity of individual 
 rivers as agents of erosion, but also because of the 
 great frequency and general distribution of rivers over 
 land areas. It is found as the result of observation, 
 
MOUNTAINS 81 
 
 and might readily be inferred, that rivers erode not so 
 much by the direct action of the water on the river- 
 bed as by the friction of the sediment transported by 
 the river against the rocks which compose the river- 
 bed. Now the majority of rocks are in a solid and 
 compact state, with their particles more or less firmly 
 welded together, and before they are in a condition 
 for transport by streams they must be broken up. 
 This fracture and comminution of the solid rocks 
 is chiefly carried out by atmospheric agents, and is 
 therefore spoken of as weathering, and rock weather- 
 ing is the first process in the work of denudation. 
 Detailed accounts of the effects of weathering will be 
 introduced more appropriately in various subsequent 
 parts of this volume. It is sufficient for the present to 
 understand that, as the result of weathering action, 
 we are furnished with a supply of broken and com- 
 minuted rock material, which is capable of being 
 taken up and washed away by rivers. The latter 
 process is spoken of as transportation, and, owing to 
 gravitation, the transported material is carried from 
 higher to lower levels, and, if unchecked, ultimately 
 to the sea, where it settles down to form new deposits. 
 During the process of transportation the transported 
 material is rubbed and knocked against the bed of' 
 the river, gnawing it away and thus adding to the 
 amount of material to be transported, and at the 
 same time deepening the bed of the river. This 
 action is termed by the American geologists corrasion, 
 a term which is coming into general use. The three 
 processes of ordinary denudation in a country with an 
 abundant supply of rainfall and drained by rivers are, 
 therefore, weathering, causing the comminution of 
 solid rock, transportation of comminuted fragments 
 
82 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 of particles, and corrasion of the river-beds by these 
 particles. During these processes the larger frag- 
 ments have their asperities knocked off and are 
 converted into rounded pebbles, and the finer particles 
 are converted into grains of sand, the very finest into 
 mud. 
 
 Every river possesses a certain amount of energy, 
 which enables it to do work, and the work which it 
 performs is of a twofold nature, namely, transporta- 
 tion and corrasion. Its energy is not unlimited, and 
 accordingly every river can only do a certain amount 
 of work, which may be entirely transportation, or 
 transportation and corrasion, according to circum- 
 stances. The amount of energy of any river depends 
 upon two circumstances, its volume and its velocity. 
 Other things being equal, the velocity is dependent 
 upon the inclination of the river-course ; the steeper 
 the slope the greater the velocity. Now, imagine 
 a river running down a uniform slope having an 
 angle of, say, 30 along all parts of its course, 
 and further suppose that the volume of this river 
 is the same along all parts of that slope. Let that 
 river be supplied with the exact load of sediment 
 which it is capable of carrying, neither more nor less ; 
 all the energy of the stream will be utilised in carry- 
 ing this sediment, and no energy will be available 
 for the process of corrasion. Accordingly the river 
 will carry its material along the slope, and no other 
 change will take place. Let the volume and velocity 
 remain as before, and take away some of the sedi- 
 ment, and some of the energy of the river will be 
 rendered available for corrasion, and the bed of the 
 river will be corraded by the remaining sediment, 
 and though the slope will remain uniform, it will 
 
MOUNTAINS 83 
 
 be lowered by corrasion along its whole extent. If, 
 instead of taking away sediment, we add to the 
 original amount of it, the river will be supplied with 
 more material than it has energy to transport, and 
 the surplus material will be deposited uniformly upon- 
 the slope until the river is left with the amount 
 of sediment which it is able to carry, and this it will 
 transport along the uniform slope, raised above its 
 original level by deposition of sediment. 
 
 If now, instead of imagining the slope to be a 
 uniform slope of 30, we suppose that the average 
 slope is at that angle, some parts being more and 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 some less, as shown by the unbroken zigzag line 
 in Fig. 1 6, and further imagine that the river is 
 supplied with the maximum amount of sediment 
 which it can carry without corrading or depositing, 
 if its slope were uniformly one of 30, then, as the 
 parts b d,fk, are at greater slope than the mean, the 
 velocity of the stream is increased along here, and 
 corrasion will occur, while along a b, df, h i, the slope 
 is less than the average slope, and the velocity of the 
 stream will be diminished, so that the stream cannot 
 carry all its load along these portions, but will 
 deposit some of it. These processes of corrasion 
 and deposition will occur along the alternating steep 
 and gentle parts of the river-course until equilibrium 
 is established and the stream has formed a uniform 
 
84 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 slope of 30 by the erosion of the portions included 
 in the triangles a be, efg, and deposition of material 
 to fill up the parts shown by the triangles cde, ghi. 
 This slope will form a straight line, a c e g i, 
 corresponding with that existing in our original 
 stream of uniform slope, and on the establishment 
 of equilibrium material will be transported as before, 
 neither corrading nor being deposited. A river which 
 has established equilibrium in this way is said to 
 have reached its base-line of erosion, and no further 
 work of erosion or deposit can occur until the con- 
 ditions are changed, causing alteration of its velocity, 
 volume, or load of sediment. 
 
 Our ideal uplift presented a convex curve having 
 different slopes along different portions (see Fig. 12), 
 and rivers having the same volume, other conditions 
 being equal, would tend to cut valleys, having 
 uniform slopes along the valley bottoms until the 
 base-line of erosion was reached. But the volume 
 of a river varies along different parts of its course, 
 being greatest where it is discharged into the sea ; 
 and as we pass up from the sea towards the source, 
 and leave more and more tributaries, which swell its 
 volume, behind us, the volume of the main stream 
 becomes less and less, until at the watershed it is 
 nil. Remembering that, other things being equal, the 
 corrasion varies with the volume, it is clear that cor- 
 rasive power is strongest where the volume is greatest, 
 and there the river will make its slope flatter, while 
 it will be less and less flat where the volume is 
 smaller and the corrasive power less. Accordingly 
 when it has established its base-line of erosion this 
 line will be a curved one, ever increasing in steepness 
 from the sea to the source. If we imagined two 
 
MOUNTAINS 85 
 
 rivers rising opposite to one another in the watershed, 
 a section along their courses would consist of two 
 concave curves, as shown in Fig. 17, which would 
 replace the convex curve of uplift shown by the 
 dotted line. 
 
 It has been seen that at the extreme summit of the 
 river- courses the streams rise at some distance below 
 the watershed, and the degradation of the ultimate 
 slope is produced by weathering and slipping of 
 material which tends to lower the watershed, though, 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 if the conditions be uniform, it will be situated verti- 
 cally below its original position. The streams in the 
 secondary watersheds will act in the same way, and, 
 as the secondary streams have their velocity increased 
 by increase of declivity when the primary stream 
 lowers its level, their erosion will be increased, and 
 the secondary watersheds will be thus modified, and 
 their summits tend to be made parallel with the 
 curve of the main stream. In this way a mountain 
 uplift will be carved out by stream erosion into a 
 series of slopes of the character represented in Fig. 
 17 ; and viewed from a distance, though we are not 
 looking at the actual stream courses, but at the 
 
86 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 watersheds occurring between adjoining streams, the 
 outline of a mountain carved out by water erosion 
 from solid rock will present the curves seen in this 
 figure. As erosion progresses the curve will still 
 remain, though it will be rendered flatter, but it will 
 always retain its character, being flattest at the 
 mouth of the river and steepest at the watershed. 
 It need hardly be observed that the curve is not 
 confined to the mountain uplifts ; it must be pro- 
 duced when the river traverses gently sloping ground, 
 though in this case it will not be practically dis- 
 tinguishable from a straight line. 
 
 The curve of river erosion produced in this way 
 may be modified by a number of causes, but they 
 usually produce minor effects, and amidst all the 
 variations of outline, precipice, scree-slope, crag, and 
 pinnacle, which modify mountain slopes, the denu- 
 dation curve may be detected, if the main agent 
 of denudation in the district is the river, and the 
 work has proceeded for a period of time sufficient to 
 enable the streams to establish or to approach to the 
 establishment of their base - lines of erosion. The 
 importance of the curve of river denudation as in- 
 fluencing mountain scenery cannot be overestimated. 
 Mere size, though impressive, does not produce the 
 sense of beauty which is felt when viewing the har- 
 monious curves of hills whose outline has been deter- 
 mined by stream erosion. The adjoining plate is a 
 reproduction of a photograph of the Langebergen, in 
 Mossel Bay district, Cape Colony, which well illus- 
 trates the outline of hills whose sculpture has been 
 wrought by stream erosion, and it will at once be 
 seen how much of their grace they owe to the 
 beautiful curvature of their slopes. 
 
MOUNTAINS 87 
 
 We may now take into consideration other causes 
 which affect mountain outline on a large scale, and 
 first may take note of hills in districts which are 
 affected by stream erosion, which, while possessing 
 the curve of stream erosion in the basal portion at 
 each side, present a convex curve at the summit, as 
 shown in Fig. 18 a. This is a very common outline, 
 and it is obvious that the curve of erosion is modified 
 or replaced by a curve due to some other cause. 
 I have for some years taken note of hills possessing 
 this outline, and they are fairly numerous ; the Moels 
 of the Welsh hill system, as Moel Eilio, between 
 Carnarvon and Beddgelert, show it, at any rate on 
 
 FIG. 1 8. 
 
 one side, and it is very perfectly shown on a small 
 scale by the little Dunmallet, at the foot of Ullswater, 
 and by the larger Mell Fells near it. In all cases 
 where I have observed it, the portion of the hill 
 occupied by the convex curve is covered by vegeta- 
 tion, often by a thick accumulation of peat, while the 
 lower part exposes bare rock, and this coincidence is 
 so frequent that it would appear that the change of 
 curve is produced by the presence of vegetation. 
 Now where this vegetation grows corrasion is not 
 taking place, or bare rock would be exposed, and the 
 action of weathering is dominant, for the mass of soil 
 is, like the skin of the body, constantly destroyed on 
 the top, replenished from beneath. The removal is 
 effected by wind and inconstant rain runnels, the 
 
88 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 renovation by weathering of the rock beneath. It 
 is well known that a square mass tends to become 
 rounded by weathering, as seen in the granite tors 
 of Devon, and as can be experimentally shown by 
 subjecting a cube of limestone to the action of acid, 
 or more simply by dissolving a cubical block of sugar 
 in a cup of tea, for at every edge a given mass pre- 
 sents twice as much surface as a cubical mass of the 
 same size which is exposed away from the edge of a 
 cube. Thus a cube-shaped mass having a diameter of 
 one inch, forming part of a large cube, presents two 
 sides having a diameter of one inch if situated at 
 the side of the main cube and only one if away 
 from the side, while it exhibits three at the corners ; 
 consequently the corners wear away faster than the 
 sides, and the sides faster than the general surface 
 away from those sides, and a rounded form is de- 
 veloped. Now if we suppose a block of country of 
 a generally rectangular form bounded by four de- 
 pressions, the top of the block being occupied by 
 vegetation, in the absence of corrasive action, this 
 block would be modified at the edges and corners by 
 weathering action, and a rounded form would result. 
 This explanation receives confirmation by the fre- 
 quent occurrence of hills having the outline of Fig. 
 1 8 b, where one side has the true water erosion curve 
 to the summit, while the other exhibits the compound 
 curve. This is frequently seen, as, for instance, on the 
 above-mentioned Moel Eilio when viewed from the 
 north-west, the curve of water erosion being on the 
 north-east side, facing Llanberis, while the compound 
 curve faces the south-west. In the English Lake 
 District, the outline is frequently seen, as in Red 
 Screes, near the head of the Kirkstone Pass, where 
 
MOUNTAINS 89 
 
 the eastern face possesses the stream-erosion curve 
 and the western face the compound one, and on Steel 
 Fell, near the pass of Dunmail Raise, between Win- 
 dermere and Keswick, where the respective curves 
 occupy the same position. The rule amongst our 
 British hills, where this outline is frequent, is that the 
 stream curve should be on the east or north-east face 
 of the hill, and the compound curve on its west or 
 south-west side. It is well seen all along the Hel- 
 vellyn and High Street ridges in the Lake District, 
 and I believe that it is due to the fact that the 
 south-west slopes in our country are under meteor- 
 ological conditions allowing of extensive growth of 
 vegetation on the west and south-west slopes, while 
 its growth is checked on the east and north-east 
 sides. 
 
 It now remains for us to consider the dominant 
 outlines of mountains in regions where stream erosion 
 is insignificant, and nature works in the dry way, 
 namely, arctic and desert areas. Commencing with 
 consideration of arctic regions, we have the arctic 
 type of hill outline excellently exhibited in the case 
 of the Greenland hills. It can hardly be supposed 
 that the main forms of the mountains have been 
 blocked out by denudation acting in the dry way, 
 for, in the absence of water action, we know of no 
 agent which is capable of carving out valleys and 
 leaving the intermediate portions to stand out as 
 ridges and mountains. Some writers have asserted 
 that glaciers are capable of performing this work, 
 but we shall subsequently see reasons for supposing 
 that they are incapable of the task. We must there- 
 fore suppose that a country like Greenland owes its 
 mountains mainly to upheaval, the details of sculpture 
 
90 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 only being executed by denuding agents, or that at 
 some far-distant time the country enjoyed a milder 
 climate than its present one, and that the blocking 
 out of the individual mountains was then performed 
 by stream erosion. The latter supposition is more 
 probable ; but, be that as it may, inspection of the 
 mountains shows that their present outline has not 
 been determined by stream erosion, for the curve 
 of stream erosion is absent and replaced by straight 
 lines, which give the mountains an appearance 
 which is aptly described by the term applied to 
 this structure, namely, " house-roof structure." Illus- 
 trations of this structure have been given by A. 
 Kornerup, 1 and it is very well shown in the accom- 
 panying plates, of a hill projecting through Norden- 
 skjold glacier, and of Hornsund Tind, in Spitsbergen, 
 taken from photographs kindly furnished by Mr. E. J. 
 Garwood. 
 
 The principal agent which produces this structure 
 is frost, acting along the divisional planes of the 
 rocks. The water percolates along these divisional 
 planes, freezes, and in so doing expands, and wedges 
 off angular fragments of rock, which fall down the 
 slopes of the hills and accumulate there, forming 
 screes. We have already seen that stratified rocks 
 are specially affected by three sets of divisional 
 planes, namely, planes of stratification, and two sets 
 of joint -planes at right angles to the planes of 
 stratification and to each other. Let us suppose 
 that the planes of stratification are tilted at an angle 
 of 45 in one direction and the joints at the same 
 angle in the opposite direction ; the frost will work 
 along these planes, and produce a symmetrical 
 
 1 Mcddelelser om Grdnland, part ii., plate vii. 
 
.S-\ \ V 
 
MOUNTAINS 91 
 
 mountain with house - roof structure, as shown in 
 Fig. 19 a, whereas if the planes of stratification are 
 less inclined and the joint-planes at a greater in- 
 clination the resulting mountain will be unsym- 
 metrical, as in Fig. 19 b. 
 
 In some parts of Greenland this house-roof structure 
 Y'"* been brought to a very perfect state as the result 
 -i irost action, 1 and the higher peaks of Spitsbergen 
 show it very well, though the stream line of erosion 
 
 is often found in the lower parts of the islands, where 
 stream action is very pronounced. (See frontispiece). 
 The upper peaks and aiguilles of the Alps are also 
 frequently marked by the possession of house -roof 
 structure, but there is every reason for supposing that 
 at no distant date the Alps were subject to the action 
 of ordinary stream erosion in parts which are now 
 permanently above the snow line and occupied by 
 
 1 In parts of Greenland, valleys with parabolic section are found, 
 and appear to be due to denudation of rocks effected by a curved 
 system of joints. See figure by KORNERUP, Meddehlser om Gronland, 
 part i., fig. 1 6. 
 
92 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 snow and ice, and the curves of water erosion in 
 many cases do not seem to be completely obliterated, 
 though partly masked, by the subsequent action of 
 frost. The outline of the Dents de Veisivi shows 
 the frost outline very well as seen from Evolena, as 
 does also the beautiful Dent Blanche, on the opposite 
 side of the Ferpecle glacier, and a very perfect example 
 of a frost- formed aiguille, the Aiguille de la Za, is 
 seen on the ridge of which the Veisivis form the 
 termination. 
 
 Denudation in desert regions is also carried on 
 essentially in the dry way, and though the agents 
 are different, the resultant mountain forms are similar 
 to those of arctic regions. The differences of 
 temperature between day and night are very pro- 
 nounced, as radiation at night causes the temperature 
 to fall to a low point, and the rocks are subject to 
 alternate expansion during the heat of the day and 
 contraction during the cold nights, which causes 
 large fragments to split off the cliffs and fall to a 
 lower level. 
 
 "Dr. Livingstone found in Africa (12 south latitude, 34 
 east longitude) that surfaces of rock which during the day 
 were heated up to 137 Fahr. cooled so rapidly by radiation 
 at night that, unable to bear the strain of contraction, they 
 split and threw off sharp angular fragments from a few 
 ounces to 100 or 200 pounds in weight. In the plateau 
 region of North America, though the climate is too dry 
 to afford much scope for the operation of frost, this daily 
 vicissitude of temperature produces results that quite rival 
 those usually associated with the work of frost. Cliffs are 
 slowly disintegrated, the surface of arid plains is loosened, 
 and the fine debris is blown away by the wind." l 
 
 1 GEIKIE, Sir A., Text-book of Geology, 3rd edition, p. 329. 
 
MOUNTAINS 93 
 
 The wind in these regions plays the part of trans- 
 porting agent in lieu of the rivers of areas enjoying 
 a humid climate or the glaciers of arctic regions, 
 and clears away the debris, which would otherwise 
 accumulate to such an extent as to mask the solid 
 rock over which it lay. 
 
 We have now considered the main causes of the 
 general features of mountains of upheaval and 
 circumdenudation. Ridges, domes, and plateaux are 
 uplifted owing to earth movements, and these are 
 alike sculptured by surface agencies, so that a series 
 of minor ridges is developed in the direction of the 
 greatest slopes, while both the primary ridge of a 
 simple saddle-shaped uplift and the minor ridges 
 determined by the formation of the consequent 
 valleys are further carved into individual peaks, 
 separated from each other by cols or passes. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 MOUNTAINS (continued) 
 
 T\ETAILS of Mountain Structure. We have 
 seen that two primary types of mountain out- 
 line exist, according as the mountain mass has been 
 hewn out of the solid block by the sculpturing action 
 of running water, without modification by any other 
 agent, when the double denudation curve is pro- 
 duced, or whether it has been finished in the dry 
 way by the action of frost, or by alternate expansion 
 and contraction owing to rapid and marked changes 
 of temperature. The characters of mountains formed 
 according to the two types are recognisable at a 
 distance, but when we are on the mountain the 
 general outline is often concealed, and we notice 
 minor effects, which, though on a small scale as com- 
 pared with the bulk of the mountain, are sufficiently 
 important to produce a marked influence on the 
 scenery. A cliff 500 feet high on a mountain 15,000 
 feet high may appear as a mere notch at a distance, 
 hardly affecting the general character of the moun- 
 tain outline, but when we are stationed near the 
 base of that cliff it is an object sufficiently imposing 
 to contemplate with feelings of awe. 
 
 The minor features of mountain ranges and moun- 
 tain-masses are due to two principal causes, namely, 
 the character of the sculpturing agent and the nature 
 
 94 
 
MOUNTAINS 95 
 
 and structure of the component rocks. The influence 
 of these we may now proceed to consider. 
 
 Influence of the Sculpturing Agents. Little need 
 be added here to what has already been said con- 
 cerning these, for the effects which are produced on 
 a large scale are, to some extent, repeated on a 
 smaller one. Running water when passing over a 
 surface consisting of alternate hard and soft rocks, 
 before it has established its general base-line of erosion, 
 frequently establishes a temporary series of such base- 
 lines in the soft rocks, leaving the harder nearly in 
 their original state for some time ; accordingly we 
 frequently find a mountain-side defined by alternate 
 precipices and curves of erosion. The work of frost, 
 though most marked in Arctic and Alpine regions, is 
 sufficiently pronounced in the upland districts of our 
 own country on a small scale, and we find miniature 
 house-roof structure and aiguilles among the hills of 
 our island. The climbers who visit Wasdale Head, 
 in the Lake District, to whom the Great Gable is so 
 familiar, need not be reminded of the appearance of 
 the roof-like "Arrowhead Rock" or the aiguille-like 
 " Napes Needle," which furnish us with excellent 
 examples of mountain detail produced by the action 
 of frost. 
 
 The effect of wind is specially marked in desert 
 regions, and we shall pay attention to it at greater 
 length when considering deserts, but its action is 
 sometimes noticeable on a small scale in our own 
 country. The wind sweeps particles of sand near 
 the ground, and carries them against the rock like 
 a sand blast, fretting away the rocks, especially along 
 the divisional planes, such as planes of stratification 
 and joints, and accordingly we get fantastic pillars 
 
96 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 formed with undercut bases standing from the cliffs, 
 as seen in the case of the well-known Brimham Rocks, 
 carved out of the millstone grit of West Yorkshire. 
 
 The fragments split from the cliffs, whether by 
 frost or by alternate contraction and expansion of 
 the rock surfaces, accumulate at the bases of pre- 
 cipices as screes, which often form apparently 
 straight lines, corresponding with the maximum 
 angle at which the loose fragments can rest. These 
 screes frequently form prominent features of a scene ; 
 witness the well-known screes of Wastwater, which 
 rise about 1500 feet above the lake of that name. 
 (See plate in a later chapter.) Screes which accumu- 
 late at the bottom of a valley often possess an outline 
 similar to that of the curve of water erosion, and as 
 the stream-courses often branch from the top of the 
 screes, and run in many ramifications down them, it 
 might be supposed that the volume of the individual 
 runlets decreased from top to base, and that a convex 
 curve should be produced ; but although the stream- 
 courses ramify, the discharge of water usually takes 
 place down one watercourse at a time, so that the 
 action of water may be neglected, and the curved 
 form appears to be one normally produced by a self- 
 supporting pile of loose blocks, which, under the 
 influence of its own weight, tends to spread outwards 
 at the base ; the larger fragments also tend to roll 
 further down the slope than smaller ones, as they 
 present less surface compared with their mass, and 
 consequently are not so easily arrested owing to 
 friction. These changes give rise to a logarithmic 
 curve. 1 We find, therefore, that the apparently 
 
 1 See MILNE, Professor J., "On the Formation of Volcanoes," GeoL 
 Mag. , dec. ii., vol. vi., p. 506. 
 
MOUNTAINS 97 
 
 straight lines are not actually straight when closely 
 examined, but form portions of a curve which ap- 
 proaches most nearly to the straight line near the 
 summit of the screes, and rapidly flattens out near 
 the base, and this is true of screes, whether accumu- 
 lated along a considerable line of cliff or forming a 
 detrital, semi-conical mass, whose apex is situated at 
 the bottom of a gully or scree- shoot, from which the 
 material is discharged, sometimes by running water, 
 at other times owing to the action of frost and other 
 weathering agents. 
 
 Other variations than those we have considered, 
 which are due to differences in the nature or mode 
 of operation of the sculpturing agent, are largely 
 affected by the composition and structure of rocks, 
 which we may now proceed to. consider. 
 
 Influence of Rock Composition and Structure. 
 Apart from all minor considerations, and whatever 
 be the agent of denudation which is at work upon 
 rocks, it may be laid down as a general law that 
 rocks are denuded to a greater or less extent 
 according to their relative durability ; the harder 
 rocks tend to resist denudation, and the softer ones 
 to be worn away. As the ultimate result of subaerial 
 denudation (i.e., of that denudation which is carried 
 out over the general surface of the land by frost, 
 rain, rivers, etc., as opposed to marine denudation, 
 which is performed along coast-lines by the agency 
 of the sea) is to reduce a country to a general base 
 level of erosion which is so nearly a plain that it 
 would be undistinguishable from one by the eye 
 such a plain has been termed a peneplain by Professor 
 W. M. Davis and as a peneplain would be produced 
 in softer rocks much more quickly than in those of 
 H 
 
98 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 more durable texture, it is evident that hard rocks 
 are likely to stand out as elevations in a country 
 which has been subjected to denudation for long 
 periods after the soft rocks have been reduced to a 
 peneplain. Accordingly most hilly regions are 
 composed essentially of hard rocks, though there 
 are wide variations in the relative durability of the 
 rocks which compose these regions, as well as those 
 of the flatter tracts. Among the harder rocks the 
 most noticeable are crystalline rocks, as granite, 
 basalt, and the crystalline schists, also many sand- 
 stones and limestones, while consolidated muds and 
 clays constitute the most important softer rocks. 
 But, apart from the actual durability of the rock 
 substance, denudation is profoundly affected by the 
 character of the divisional planes which traverse the 
 rocks, and these are of the utmost importance, as 
 determining the details of scenery in both moun- 
 tainous and more level districts. It will be 
 impossible to separate completely the effects of 
 rock composition and rock texture from those which 
 are determined by the divisional planes which run 
 through rock masses, but we may do so to some 
 extent, and begin with a consideration of the in- 
 fluence of rock composition and rock texture upon 
 scenery of mountain districts, premising that much 
 that is said concerning this and also about the 
 divisional planes applies equally to the scenery of 
 lowland districts. 
 
 Beginning with the igneous rocks, we may note, 
 in the first place, that their influence upon scenery 
 is specially determined by their composition, and by 
 the conditions under which they have consolidated. 
 The composition is not only important on account 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 of the different effects produced upon rocks of 
 different composition by the agents of denudation, 
 but also because the distribution of the rock mass 
 is affected by its composition. Igneous rocks are 
 divided into two main classes, according to their 
 composition, namely, the acid class and the basic 
 class ; the rocks of the former contain a much larger 
 percentage of silica than those of the latter, and 
 rocks of the acid class are generally fusible at a 
 lower temperature than those of the basic class. 
 Accordingly the acid rocks, whether erupted on the 
 earth's surface or forced between masses of rock 
 below the surface, do not as a rule spread far from 
 the place at which they are intruded or extruded, 
 for they cool quickly ; whereas the more slowly 
 cooling basic rocks frequently spread over a wide 
 area before finally becoming solid. Acid rocks 
 accordingly occur very frequently in massive bosses, 
 while the basic rocks are apt to give rise to extensive 
 sheets of rock, of no great thickness as compared 
 with their horizontal extent, and having their two 
 limiting surfaces approximately parallel. There are 
 many exceptions to this rule for instance, in Skye 
 and Mull great masses of basic rock are found as 
 irregular bosses but taking the two widespread 
 types of the two classes, namely, the acid granite 
 and the basic basalt (using these terms in a some- 
 what general sense), we find that they conform fairly 
 closely to the above-mentioned conditions. We find 
 accordingly that the granitic type of rock is often 
 carved into massive hills and mountains, while the 
 basaltic type frequently forms terraced hills and 
 plateaux. 
 
 The texture of igneous rocks differs with the 
 
ioo SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 conditions under which they have consolidated, rocks 
 being coarsely crystalline, finely crystalline, or 
 glassy, according as they have been cooled very 
 slowly, fairly slowly, or rapidly, and the difference 
 of texture naturally produces some effect upon the 
 action of the denuding agents, though no general 
 rule can be laid down under this head, for difference 
 of texture is comparatively unimportant as in- 
 fluencing the structure of mountains upon a large 
 scale. 
 
 Of greater importance is the shape of the igneous 
 mass, which is due to the mode of intrusion or 
 extrusion. Intrusive rocks may occur as irregular 
 bosses or laccolitic masses, which give rise to irregular 
 or dome-shaped eminences when left standing as 
 elevations owing to denudation of the softer rocks 
 around, or they may be forced into vertical or nearly 
 vertical cracks as joints or fault -planes, forming 
 igneous dykes, or along horizontal or nearly horizontal 
 planes of bedding, forming intrusive sheets or sills, or 
 they may be poured out on the surface as lava sheets, 
 or, finally, they may fill the approximately cylindrical 
 shaft of a volcano. The horizontal or nearly hori- 
 zontal sheets, often alternating with softer rocks, 
 may be treated as hard strata, and produce the 
 same effects on a large scale. The cylindrical plugs, 
 often surrounded by a hardened mass of baked rock, 
 frequently resist denudation, and stand out as marked 
 elevations, after the surrounding rocks have been 
 worn away. 
 
 The dykes merit a somewhat fuller consideration. 
 They are forced between rocks as wall -like masses, 
 and their effect upon scenery depends to a great 
 extent upon their chemical composition. The 
 
MOUNTAINS 101 
 
 processes of weathering are conducted in two ways, 
 either mechanically or chemically. Hitherto we 
 have not referred to the effects of chemical change 
 on rock weathering, but as it produces marked 
 influence on the character of the scenery, it is 
 necessary to refer to it, and this is the most con- 
 venient place in which to consider it, as different 
 kinds of rock are affected by the weather in different 
 ways. 
 
 The rain which falls upon the earth is charged 
 with various solvent substances, the most important 
 of which is carbonic anhydride (carbonic acid gas), 
 and the water falling upon soil containing vegetable 
 matter extracts other solvent acids, so that this 
 acidulated water is capable of dissolving certain 
 rock constituents. In the case of many of the 
 sedimentary rocks, the materials of which they are 
 composed have frequently been subjected to the 
 action of carbonated waters at different times, and 
 much of the more soluble material has been leached 
 out of them ; but the igneous rocks, brought from 
 the earth's interior, contain much soluble matter, and 
 acidulated surface waters are capable of producing 
 marked changes in them in certain circumstances. 
 Some igneous rocks yield to the chemical action 
 of the weather more readily than others ; and 
 accordingly, in the case of dykes, we find that they 
 are frequently more capable of resisting the action 
 of the denuding agents than are the rocks through 
 which they have broken, especially when the 
 denudation is largely mechanical ; in these circum- 
 stances the dykes stand out as ribs of rock, looking 
 like walls traversing the mountain slope. Anyone 
 who has sailed down the Clyde and passed the island 
 
102 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 of Great Cumbrae must have noticed two remark- 
 able wall -like masses of rock standing out above 
 the shore near Millport, one being known as the 
 Lion Rock. These are dykes which have resisted 
 denudation to a greater extent than the surround- 
 ing strata. On the other hand, many dykes are 
 more prone to break up under the influence of 
 chemical weathering than the rocks through which 
 they are intruded ; and, instead of standing out, they 
 give rise to depressions which may run as trenches 
 along comparatively gentle slopes or level surfaces, 
 or form couloirs and gullies on the faces of steep 
 slopes and precipices. Several gullies on the 
 Scawfell group owe their existence to dykes which 
 have been thus weathered. When weathering along 
 a dyke proceeds to a sufficient extent, a mountain 
 peak may be thus severed into two, with a deep 
 gash between, an event which has occurred on 
 Scawfell. The highest point, Scawfell Pike, is 
 separated from its lower neighbour, Scawfell, by a 
 deep rent, Mickledore, which, as pointed out by 
 the late Mr. Clifton Ward many years ago, is 
 occupied by a dyke which has weathered away 
 more rapidly than the surrounding rocks. 
 
 The characteristic outlines yielded by different 
 forms of igneous rocks may now be considered. 
 Rocks of granitic type are often traversed by very 
 regular quadrangular joints which give rise to hemi- 
 spherical and pillow-shaped outlines, as the result of 
 the action of the weather, for a reason already ex- 
 plained when describing the outlines of certain hills, 
 mainly on account of the increased action of the 
 weather at the edges and corners of the masses. 
 Accordingly hills composed of granitic rocks are 
 
MOUNTAINS 103 
 
 often dome-shaped in outline, and the pillow struc- 
 ture is characteristic of small upstanding masses, 
 and is specially emphasised when the granite forms 
 " tors," like those of Devon and Cornwall. Though 
 this is the normal shape of granite hills, we find that 
 many granites are traversed by a series of close-set 
 parallel joints, which give rise to spiry crests, very 
 different from the ordinary granitic outlines, as seen 
 in the case of the granite of Arran, rising into the 
 sharp crests and pinnacles of Goatfell, that of the 
 hills surrounding the Bodethal, near Thale, in the 
 Harz mountains, and specially in that type of granite 
 known as protogine, which often forms the cores of 
 Alpine uplifts, as, for instance, in the Mont Blanc 
 massif. 
 
 It has already been stated that the basaltic type 
 of rock, when occurring on a large scale, is prone to 
 occur in sheet-like masses of wide extent, forming 
 terraced hills, on which each sheet of basalt, usually 
 well divided by vertical joints, gives rise to a preci- 
 pice. The terraced hills of many of the western 
 isles of Scotland, of parts of Greenland and other 
 Arctic islands, of the Deccan district of India, and 
 of portions of the western territories of North 
 America are of this character. Another feature 
 which, though not confined to basaltic rocks, is 
 specially frequent in them, is the formation of 
 columnar structure, due to shrinking of the mass 
 while cooling, the columns usually standing at right 
 angles to the cooling surfaces. I need only refer 
 to the Giant's Causeway and Staffa to show that this 
 columnar structure may produce locally considerable 
 effect upon the scenery of a district. Another feature 
 often found in basaltic rocks is a tendency to weather 
 
104 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 into exfoliating spheroids, which often occur on a 
 considerable scale. 
 
 The colour of granitic rocks is often sufficiently 
 marked to influence the character of the scenery. 
 Many of them are of a prevailing grey hue, owing 
 to the admixture of white felspar with dark mica, 
 while if the felspar is pink, a distinct pink colour 
 is observable at a distance. The basic rocks are 
 often dark, sometimes black, and as the result of 
 weathering the iron silicates contained in the rocks 
 are converted into oxides and hydrates, which pro- 
 duce the rusty oranges and browns forming so marked 
 a feature in the case of weathered basic rocks. 
 
 Closely connected with igneous rocks are the frag- 
 mental rocks thrown out from a volcano. These 
 consist of particles of various degrees of fineness, 
 from the finest dust to blocks many feet in diameter. 
 These volcanic ashes, when incoherent, allow water 
 to percolate through them with ease, and are apt to 
 retain their original form. Owing to their composi- 
 tion, they may be converted by chemical change into 
 rocks of extreme hardness, and if well jointed, give 
 rise to rugged eminences and precipices, the surfaces 
 of which are peculiarly rough owing to the variation 
 in size of the fragments and their different rates of 
 weathering. The precipices of Scawfell, Great Gable, 
 and other hills of the Lake District beloved by 
 climbers, are composed of altered volcanic ashes, 
 and to their texture is due that character which 
 renders them particularly suitable for rock-climbing. 
 
 The group of rocks to which the term " crystalline 
 schists" is applied presents many points of resem- 
 blance to igneous rocks, and indeed many of the 
 rocks of the group are igneous rocks which have 
 
MOUNTAINS 105 
 
 undergone alteration. They are particularly charac- 
 terised by the possession of foliation - planes (see 
 Chapter II.), and these planes are frequently curved 
 in a very remarkable manner. As the crystalline 
 schists are usually very durable, they tend to resist 
 denudation, and stand out as mountain ridges and 
 peaks. Owing to the closeness of the foliation 
 planes, which causes the weathered rock to split 
 into thin slabs, the crests of ridges and peaks of 
 hills formed of schists are apt to be extremely jagged 
 and serrated with fragments projecting like the teeth 
 of a saw, and as the planes are frequently curved, the 
 pinnacles and teeth frequently present curved out- 
 lines, recalling in many cases the projecting ribs of a 
 wrecked vessel. 
 
 It was stated in Chapter II. that slates are closely 
 related to schists, and that a gradation may be traced 
 from one class of rock to the other. As a whole, 
 slates are more finely crystalline than schists, and are 
 more readily broken up by the action of the weather. 
 The cleavage-planes of slates are more close-set and 
 regular than those of schists, so that when slates do 
 stand out the serrated structure of a ridge may be 
 even more pronounced than that of a roof formed 
 of schists, though the teeth may be on a smaller 
 scale. 
 
 We may now turn to the consideration of the 
 sedimentary rocks, which for our purpose may be 
 divided into sandstones, shales, and limestones, and 
 discuss the scenic effects of these in the order 
 mentioned. 
 
 Sandstones are relatively hard, and when alternat- 
 ing with shales, as is often the case, tend to stand 
 out, while the shales are denuded. The joints in 
 
io6 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 sandstones are often very regular, and two sets 
 run at right angles to the planes of stratification and 
 to one another, and the deposits of sandstone fre- 
 quently consist of beds of some thickness, the im- 
 portant bedding planes being separated from one 
 another by a considerable interval of rock. Accord- 
 ingly when mountains are composed of horizontal 
 or nearly horizontal stratified rocks we find the 
 sandstone bands marked by terraced cliffs and scarps, 
 so well described by Miss Charlotte Bronte in the 
 case of the characteristic millstone grit scenery of 
 the West Riding of Yorkshire around her native 
 village. Fig. 20 shows a diagrammatic representa- 
 tion of a hill composed of alternate deposits of nearly 
 horizontal sandstone and shale, the sandstone being 
 marked by dots and the shale by fine parallel lines, 
 and a similar outline would be produced if the shale^ 
 alternated with limestone or basalt. 
 
 As the result of change, sandstone is often con- 
 verted into a hard white rock, quartzite, which is 
 very durable, being prone to resist both chemical 
 and mechanical denudation, and accordingly it often 
 gives rise to eminences which frequently betray their 
 character owing to their dazzling whiteness. Some 
 of the quartzite-capped hills of Sutherland and Ross, 
 where the quartzite reposes upon rocks of a prevalent 
 reddish colour, sometimes appear as though capped 
 with snow. 
 
 The upper surfaces of gently inclined sandstones, 
 often laid bare to form gentle slopes, owing to 
 denudation of softer beds above, may simulate to 
 some extent the surfaces of granitic districts and 
 present rounded outlines, though very frequently 
 they are comparatively flat if the sandstone is 
 
MOUNTAINS 107 
 
 sufficiently durable to resist weathering even along 
 joints. The effect of wind on masses of sandstone 
 will be most conveniently considered when we de- 
 scribe the characters of desert regions. 
 
 Shales are composed of very fine particles, and are 
 generally affected by close-set planes of lamination. 
 Jointing is also often on a smaller scale than in the 
 case of sandstones, and as the result of weathering 
 shales tend to break up into small prismatic frag- 
 ments, which present many surfaces to the weather 
 and cause the rock fragments to be further comminuted 
 into an incoherent mud, which is readily washed to 
 a lower level, and gives rise to a slope of loose 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 material on which vegetation will readily grow ; 
 accordingly shales are prone to produce gentle 
 grass-covered slopes, separating the cliffs of more 
 durable rock. On comparatively level surfaces, 
 whether on the mountain-side or the lowlands, 
 owing to the impervious nature of the shale, water 
 finds a difficulty in penetrating into the ground, and 
 in humid climates a tract occupied by shales is apt 
 to give rise to rushy and marshy ground. 
 
 The peculiar features of limestone countries are 
 due to the well-jointed and thick-bedded character 
 of many limestones, and to their porosity and solu- 
 bility. The rocks break along joint-planes, producing 
 cliffs resembling those formed by sandstones. As 
 limestone is fairly soluble in carbonated water, and 
 
io8 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 as solution occurs along the joint-planes more ex- 
 tensively than elsewhere, much of the drainage of 
 limestone is underground, giving rise to caves, whose 
 structure will be considered elsewhere. Owing to 
 this underground drainage, limestones are often 
 marked by absence of surface streams, and corrasion 
 is of little account, and accordingly even soft lime- 
 stones like chalk often stand out as hills. As the 
 rain penetrates along joint-planes the limestone is 
 often cut up into more or less quadrangular columns 
 and pinnacles, and, owing to solution along fairly 
 horizontal bedding planes, these pinnacles become 
 fretted in an extraordinary manner. The small 
 hollows on the general surface of a fairly horizontal 
 tract of limestone hold the water, and solution takes 
 place in these hollows, causing their gradual enlarge- 
 ment. Accordingly the surfaces of fairly level lime- 
 stone tracts (known as " clints " in the north of 
 England) present a rough, irregular 'surface, tra- 
 versed by wide open fissures penetrating to a 
 considerable depth, often filled by masses of harts- 
 tongue and other ferns, while the surface of the 
 limestone is apt to be bare of vegetation, or if the 
 limestone is impure a thin, dry soil is formed, which 
 gives rise to a short, sweet herbage like that covering 
 the chalk downs. 
 
 The characters of a limestone area are often 
 developed in an exaggerated form in a region com- 
 posed of the rock formed of carbonates of lime and 
 magnesia, and usually spoken of as dolomite. The 
 joints in this rock are frequently developed with 
 extraordinary regularity, and give rise to those re- 
 markable mural precipices and pinnacles which have 
 caused a certain area of the Eastern Alps to be 
 
HORNSUND TIND 
 
 THE DREI ZINNEN 
 
MOUNTAINS 109 
 
 spoken of by the title of "The Dolomite Mountains." 
 The Drei Zinnen (shown in the plate) and the 
 Ftinffingerspitze are well-known examples of this 
 structure. Solution along bedding and joint-planes 
 also produces very characteristic effects in detail, 
 many of the summit ridges of the dolomite districts 
 resembling piles of ruined masonry. The charac- 
 teristic outline of dolomite rock, though specially 
 well shown in the Eastern Alps on a large scale, is 
 frequently reproduced on a small scale among the 
 masses of dolomite which occur here and there 
 among the crystalline rocks of the Valais and other 
 parts of Western Switzerland. 
 
 Before leaving the present subject reference must 
 be made to the quartz veins which frequently traverse 
 rocks of many kinds, both aqueous and igneous. 
 They have been deposited from solution along the 
 various planes of weakness which traverse the rocks, 
 and occur sometimes in regular bands, at other 
 times in an irregular interlacing network of strings 
 and knots. They frequently produce an effect 
 owing to their conspicuous whiteness, but are also 
 important to us because they often furnish a hard 
 skeleton to rocks which are otherwise soft, causing 
 them to resist denudation and to stand out as 
 hills. 
 
 Passing from the influence of particular kinds of 
 rocks upon scenery, we must still say something about 
 major divisional planes which traverse great belts of 
 rock of diverse composition and also concerning the 
 alternation of inclined rocks of different degrees of 
 hardness. Divisional planes, such as faults or parallel 
 systems of faults, act as planes of weakness along 
 which denudation readily acts, and the same may 
 
i io SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 be said of inclined soft strata. Complications thus 
 arise in the drainage lines which modify to a 
 considerable degree the initial drainage which was 
 established in accordance with the laws which we 
 have discussed. These complications will be more 
 fully considered when we treat of the formation of 
 valleys in greater detail, and they are referred to 
 here in order to point out their effect upon moun- 
 tains. We have seen that mountain peaks are 
 normally formed along ridges, and that each moun- 
 tain peak of a symmetrical mountain ridge is 
 separated from adjoining peaks by cols, and stands 
 at the head of a consequent valley, while a secondary 
 ridge extends in a direction opposite to that of 
 the valley. Accordingly most mountain peaks 
 are merely the culminating points of ridges, with 
 a long slope facing the consequent valley, and two 
 aretes, or ridges, stretching to the cols. A true 
 pyramid is therefore rare, and when it occurs excites 
 interest. If in any way the ridge which extends 
 from a peak in a direction opposite to the conse- 
 quent valley is cut through, the peak may become 
 a true pyramid. On the flanks of the Pennine 
 chain, in its course through Westmorland, four 
 great buttresses Roman Fell, Murton Pike, Dufton 
 Pike, and Knock Pike stand out from the escarp- 
 ment. Two of these, Murton and Dufton Pikes, 
 are true pyramids, and form very conspicuous objects 
 from the main line of the Midland Railway. They 
 were once the terminations of secondary ridges, 
 coming from the Pennines ; but owing to the 
 existence of a fault between them and the main 
 scarp of the Pennines, denudation has occurred 
 along the plane of weakness, producing a depression, 
 
 

 1UNIVE 
 
 O f 
 
THE MATTERHORN, FROM THE HORNLI 
 
MOUNTAINS in 
 
 'which has caused the Pikes to stand out as 
 pyramids. 
 
 Still more striking is the case of the Matterhorn, 
 that mysterious-looking pyramid which has excited 
 the wonder of all who have gazed at its apparently 
 unscaleable cliffs. It has already been pointed out 
 that it occurs at the head of the Val Tournanche, 
 and is separated from the Breithorn on one side 
 and the Dent d'Herens on the other by cols, and 
 that a secondary ridge once extended from it on 
 which the Weisshorn stands. This secondary ridge 
 has been cut through by the valley occupied by 
 the Zmutt glacier, which owes its existence to a 
 line of weakness apparently due to the occurrence 
 of a belt of comparatively soft rock, which extends 
 across the Zermatt valley beneath the valley 
 occupied by the Findelen glacier. Accordingly we 
 find the Matterhorn, formerly the end of a long 
 ridge at its junction with the main ridge, now 
 approaching the form of a true pyramid. (See the 
 plate.) 
 
 Vegetation on Mountains. It is well known that 
 elevation produces its effect upon the character of 
 the vegetation, and that a mountain near the equator 
 rising to the snow line is occupied by zones of vegeta- 
 tion which, to some extent, represent the zones which 
 are traceable when travelling from equatorial to polar 
 regions. The detailed changes in vegetation vary 
 with the geographical position of the mountains, but 
 whereas the lower slopes of the mountains in all 
 but arctic regions are frequently covered by belts 
 of dense forest, these are replaced higher up by 
 shrubby growths, still higher by grassy slopes en- 
 riched by numerous brilliantly coloured flowering 
 
ii2 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 plants, at a higher elevation by lichens, and at last 
 by bare rock or perpetual snow. The peculiar type 
 of vegetation which constitutes what is known as 
 an Alpine flora exerts considerable influence upon 
 the scenery owing to the peculiar conditions under 
 which it grows. Supplied with abundance of water 
 during the times of melting snow, and at other times 
 deprived of an outward supply of water during long 
 intervals, the growth of the plants is modified in 
 various ways to meet the peculiar conditions. 
 Specially interesting to us is the formation of the 
 cushion-shaped masses of plants, often covered with 
 a profusion of bright flowers. As in the case of 
 species of Silene, Androsace, Petrocallis, and Eritri- 
 chium, these masses frequently occur in such abun- 
 dance on rocky slopes and moraines, that they pro- 
 duce a very marked and pleasing influence upon the 
 character of the scenery. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 i 
 
 VALLEYS 
 
 VALLEYS are of two kinds, namely, those pro- 
 duced by earth movement and those produced 
 by denudation, though as in the case of mountains, 
 so in that of valleys, the two processes work together. 
 As the ridge of an earth-wave produces a mountain 
 range, so the trough gives rise to a valley of de- 
 pression, and when mountains are sculptured by 
 denuding agents the intervening gaps are left as 
 valleys of denudation. 
 
 Valleys of depression will coincide with troughs of 
 the strata, or we may have one side of the valley 
 defined by a fault which replaces the septum of the 
 earth-wave. 
 
 Of valleys which are primarily defined by folding, 
 we may mention in our own country the lower part 
 of the Thames, between Windsor and the sea, while 
 abroad a good instance is furnished by the upper part 
 of the Rhone valley, between its source and Martigny, 
 separating the Alps of the Bernese Oberland from those 
 of the Valais. In each case the river runs along the 
 bottom of a trough-shaped fold. An example of a 
 valley produced by a faulted depression is that part 
 of the Vale of Eden which lies between Kirkby 
 Stephen and Carlisle, and an admirable example on a 
 large scale in a foreign country is supplied by the 
 Jordan valley, and its prolongation to the southward, 
 i 113 
 
ii 4 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Though geologists are generally agreed that the 
 majority of valleys are formed by erosion, and not 
 by folding or cracking of the earth's crust, there are 
 many people who will feel surprised when told that 
 a river can carve out its own valley. Anyone who 
 carefully considers the laws of erosion, as described 
 in the preceding chapters on mountains, and sees 
 how exactly the directions and structures of valleys 
 of erosion agree with those which they should possess 
 in accordance with those laws, will, I think, be com- 
 pelled to admit that these valleys must have been 
 carved by erosion, but it will perhaps be as well 
 to give some evidence that rivers can and do erode 
 their valleys, though we cannot afford space to treat 
 the matter at great length. 
 
 In the first place, it may be remarked that many 
 people have a very exaggerated notion of the slopes 
 of valleys and mountains. Writers talk glibly of 
 precipices and beetling cliffs when the prosaic sur- 
 veyor finds that the general slope is perhaps less 
 than 45. Vertical precipices on a large scale are 
 very rare, and, as before remarked, form comparatively 
 insignificant features on a mountain-side when the 
 mountain is viewed from a distance. Mr. Whymper 
 notes that the east face of the Matterhorn, which looks 
 so steep when viewed from the Riffel, slopes at an 
 angle scarcely exceeding 40, and he remarks : 
 
 " Forty degrees may not seem a formidable inclination to 
 the reader, nor is it for only a small cliff. But it is very 
 unusual to find so steep a gradient maintained continuously 
 as the general angle of a great mountain slope, and very 
 few instances can be quoted from the High Alps of such an 
 angle being preserved over a rise of 3000 feet." 1 
 
 1 WHYMPER, E., The Ascent of the Matterhorn, p. 228. 
 
VALLEYS 115 
 
 On the accompanying figure (Fig. 21 B) is 
 shown a section through Mont Blanc and the 
 valleys of Chamonix and of the river Doire, which 
 is a portion of a section having the same vertical 
 and horizontal scale given by the late Sir H. de la 
 Beche in Plate II. of his Sections and Views Illus- 
 trative of Geological Phenomena^ while above it (A) 
 is a section across Snowdon reduced from one of 
 the horizontal sections of H.M. Geological Survey on 
 
 Ceunant 
 Jtawr 
 
 Srwwdon 
 
 JVant 
 Givyncuit 
 
 Brevent 
 Chamouni 
 
 M.Blanc 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 A = Section across Snowdon from Llanberis to Gwynant. (After Sir 
 
 A. RAMSAY.) 
 
 B = Section across Mont Blanc. (After Sir H. DE LA BECHE.) 
 
 In each section the vertical scale is the same as the horizontal 
 
 scale. The scale of Section A is about three times as great as that of 
 
 Section B. 
 
 the scale of six inches to the mile, horizontal and 
 vertical. These are sufficient to show the compara- 
 tive smallness of angles in slopes which appear to be 
 very steep. 
 
 Examination of sections across valleys drawn to 
 true scale will convince anyone that the majority 
 of valleys are not mere cracks produced by fissuring 
 of the earth's crust. It has already been stated that 
 some valleys of depression are determined by lines 
 of fault (though it can generally be proved that even 
 
ii6 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 these largely owe their present features to subsequent 
 denudation), but as it is found that most valley 
 bottoms are not occupied by faults, but that the 
 rock runs unbroken across them, faulting is out of 
 the question in those cases. Again, it might be 
 supposed that valleys could be produced by bending 
 of the strata into an arch which was ruptured at the 
 summit, giving rise to a V-shaped opening, and the 
 coincidence of many valleys with lines of anticlinal 
 folds of the strata seems at first sight to countenance 
 this view. On examination, however, it is usually 
 found that the slope of the strata is much smaller 
 than it should be if this were the explanation of 
 the origin of valleys. If a valley were formed by 
 rupture of an arch composed of strata which were 
 originally horizontal, and the rupture gaped to such 
 an extent as to give the valley sides slopes of 30, 
 a slope which is above the average slope of valleys, 
 the strata should dip away at an angle of 60 on 
 either side, whereas when the direction of a valley 
 does coincide with that of the axis of an anticlinal 
 fold the dip of the strata on either side is often quite 
 gentle. There is one method of producing an open 
 depression by earth movement which has perhaps 
 not received the attention which it deserves. When 
 an arch is formed the upper strata are bent into 
 a larger curve than the lower ones, and cracks may 
 be formed in the upper beds which do not extend 
 to the lower ones ; furthermore lateral sliding of the 
 upper strata along a well-marked plane of stratifica- 
 tion may take place, thus giving rise to a depression 
 bounded by heights on either side. In rocks which 
 have been subjected to much folding, it is probable 
 that minor valleys have often been initiated in this 
 
VALLEYS 117 
 
 way, but as a general rule we have abundant evidence 
 that the action has not been responsible for the 
 formation of valleys. It may be further remarked 
 that the slope of a valley formed in this way should 
 approach a plane surface, whereas the sides of valleys 
 in regions which are marked by copious rainfall have 
 the curve characteristic of stream erosion. 
 
 Anyone taking his stand on a height overlooking 
 one of the Yorkshire dales, say the slopes of 
 Ingleborough, will see the nearly horizontal escarp- 
 ments of the harder strata sweeping in continuous 
 curves round the sides and heads of the valleys, 
 each major deposit obviously represented by the 
 corresponding strata on the other side of the valley, 
 and examination of such a scene will be more useful 
 than pages of description devoted to the subject to 
 convince an observer that the valley has been carved 
 out by erosion. 
 
 But hitherto we have only put forward indirect 
 proofs that running water can erode. We have 
 discussed the ideal curve of stream erosion, and seen 
 that the actual curve corresponds with it in areas 
 where streams course over the surface of the country, 
 and that the curves are absent where streams are 
 wanting. Let us now examine the action of these 
 streams, in order to see whether they are capable 
 of exerting the requisite erosive power, for many 
 writers, though admitting a limited erosive power 
 to rivers, deny that these are capable of performing 
 the work which geologists claim for them, and this 
 is not to be wondered at, when the chances are that 
 the first river which is examined will, under existing 
 conditions, have reached its base-level of erosion in 
 a country which has not recently uprisen. 
 
iiS SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 If we take our stand by the side of a small rocky 
 gorge, we shall probably see a number of hemi- 
 spherical or cylindrical hollows in the bed of the 
 stream and semi - cylindrical shafts on the rocky 
 walls, which are known as potholes. Those which 
 are submerged, as well as those which are now high 
 and dry, will probably be occupied by a number of 
 water-worn pebbles. During a flood it will be seen 
 that eddies are at work over these hollows, and that 
 the pebbles are whirled round and round by the 
 eddies, gradually boring their way into the rock, like 
 the drill of a diamond boring machine. In time two 
 contiguous potholes join, and so a whole number 
 may coalesce, and by their coalescence the gorge is 
 deepened, and some of the isolated potholes left dry 
 above the existing stream-level. In this case it is 
 seen how a gorge can be formed, and its size is 
 merely a question of time, so long as the stream 
 can work without reaching its base-level of erosion. 
 Now take the case of a gorge below a waterfall, as, 
 for instance, Niagara. We know, as the result of 
 direct observation, that the falls are cutting back- 
 ward ; and we also know that the structure of the 
 gorge is essentially similar through the whole of its 
 extent, and accordingly writers are agreed that 
 Niagara has cut out a gorge from 200 to 400 yards 
 wide at the top, 200 to 300 feet deep, and seven 
 miles in length, in times which are, in a geological 
 sense, recent. 1 Here is a gorge which, it is generally 
 admitted, has been carved by the river which now 
 occupies it. But we find every gradation from the 
 waterfall, through the cascade and the rapids, to the 
 
 1 For a full account of the formation of the Niagara gorge, see 
 LYELL, Sir C., Principles of Geology, nth edition, vol. i., chap. xv. 
 
VALLEYS 119 
 
 ordinary flowing river. The work is performed in 
 each case in the same way, it is only the amount 
 which is different ; this amount, as we have seen, 
 being dependent on declivity, when other things are 
 equal. We may cite a few other instances of actual 
 formation of small valleys which are known to have 
 been formed by water action. "A great mass of 
 debris was washed down from the sides of Blease 
 Fell, on the east of the Lune, about two miles south 
 of Tebay Junction, in the course of three or four 
 hours during a thunderstorm, about the year 1858. 
 The rain excavated deep channels in the weathered 
 rock of the hill-side, and spread the rubbish over 
 some pasture land below. The debris still forms a 
 striking object as seen from the train." 1 Gilpin 2 
 describes the occurrence of a "cloud-burst" in the 
 Vale of St. John, in the Lake District, on August 
 22nd, 1749, "which forced a new channel through 
 a solid rock . . . and made a chasm at least ten feet 
 wide." Again, in the same district, "an interesting 
 gully is seen somewhat north of the top of High 
 Street, where, as seen on the six-inch ordnance map, 
 the Roman road is partially destroyed by a ravine, 
 which has cut through it. The head of the ravine 
 is a few yards above the road, and where it cuts the 
 road it is about eighteen feet deep and 103 feet across 
 at the top. It is excavated partly in loose rubble, 
 but largely through rock in situ, though much 
 affected by weathering. Some of the material may 
 have been removed by landslip, but the greater part 
 
 1 STRAHAN, A., Mem. Geol.. Survey > "The Geology of the District 
 around Kendal," etc., p. 51. 
 
 2 Observations on the Mountains and Lakes of Cumberland and 
 Westmorland^ vol. ii. , p. 36. 
 
120 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 was probably disintegrated by running water, which 
 has also removed it." 1 In Lyell's Principles of 
 Geology (vol. i., chap, xv.) an example is given of a 
 gorge " from fifty to several hundred feet wide, and 
 in some parts from forty to fifty feet deep," which 
 has been excavated by the river Simeto in a current 
 of lava which, according to Gemmellaro, flowed from 
 Etna in 1603. "On entering the narrow ravine 
 where the water foams down the two cataracts, we 
 are entirely shut out from all view of the surround- 
 ing country, and a geologist who is accustomed to 
 associate the characteristic features of the landscape 
 with the relative age of certain rocks can scarcely 
 dissuade himself from the belief that he is contem- 
 plating a scene in some rocky gorge of very ancient 
 date." 
 
 These examples will suffice to show that rivers 
 can erode, and the last is specially instructive. If 
 a gorge forty to fifty feet deep can be carved out 
 of hard rock in less than three centuries, how much 
 greater effects can be produced during the vast 
 intervals of time which we can prove to have elapsed 
 since the initiation of many of our existing drainage 
 systems. 
 
 In some of the examples cited, it will be noted 
 that the work was done during periods of excessive 
 rainfall, and it must be remarked that periods of 
 flood are the times when the work of denudation is 
 almost exclusively performed. The transporting 
 power of a river varies, not directly as the velocity, 
 but as the sixth power of the velocity, and accord- 
 ingly the corrasive power of a river is enormously 
 increased during periods of flood. This should be 
 
 1 Geographical Journal, June, 1895, p. 621. 
 
VALLEYS 121 
 
 remembered by those who are inclined to minimise 
 the importance of rivers as agents of denudation. 
 In the forty years that have elapsed since the for- 
 mation of the ravines on Blease Fell, near Tebay, 
 the erosion which has occurred is as nothing com- 
 pared with that which was then performed in a few 
 hours. 
 
 In Chapter V. allusion was made to the initiation 
 of the chief drainage lines of a country which had 
 undergone uplift, producing a set of primary 
 consequent streams running in a general direction 
 at right angles to the axis of uplift, and therefore 
 along the direction of the dip of the beds, and 
 another set of secondary subsequent streams whose 
 courses are directed along the strike of the strata, 
 and approximately at right angles to those of the 
 consequent streams. 1 We have stated that the con- 
 sequent and subsequent streams would, if conditions 
 were uniform, run in straight lines, and the main 
 direction of these streams often approaches the 
 straight line, but in uplift of actual rocks thousands 
 of minor inequalities would occur which would divert 
 the stream now on one side, now on another, from 
 its ideal course, and give it a sinuous track. The 
 subsequent streams will only be approximately at 
 right angles to the consequent streams, for although 
 the secondary watershed between neighbouring con- 
 sequent streams is parallel to the courses of those 
 streams, the subsequent streams are also affected by 
 the general declivity of the land towards the ocean, 
 
 1 The terms "consequent" and "subsequent" are applied to rivers 
 by Professor W. M. Davis in a paper on "The Development of Certain 
 English Rivers" (Geograph. Journal, vol. v., p. 127), which very 
 clearly describes the initiation of a typical drainage system and its 
 changes. 
 
122 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 and though this will probably be slight as compared 
 with the slope between the secondary watershed and 
 the bottom of the consequent valley, it will produce 
 its effect, and cause the subsequent streams to run 
 somewhat obliquely to the strike of the strata on 
 their way to join the consequent streams. 
 
 Consequent streams, being in the direction of the 
 dip, have the divisional planes of the rocks on either 
 side of the stream bearing the same relations to the 
 stream if conditions be uniform, but this is not the 
 case with subsequent streams, and accordingly the 
 cross-section of a subsequent stream is apt to be 
 unsymmetrical. In an ideal uplift the subsequent 
 stream will at first run over one stratum, the upper- 
 most, but, its course being somewhat oblique, it will 
 flow over different strata as it corrades its valley ; 
 though, as shown by Gilbert, in a region of inclined 
 strata there is a tendency on the part of streams 
 which traverse soft beds to continue therein, and 
 there is a tendency to eliminate drainage lines from 
 hard beds. 
 
 In Fig. 22 let A B be the surface of the ground, on 
 which a series of inclined strata, H S, crop out, and 
 let H be hard and S soft strata. Suppose a sub- 
 sequent stream running on a hard stratum at X, the 
 cross-section of its valley at the outset being 
 indicated by the semicircular unbroken line. The 
 stream, if the hard rock be uniform, will corrade 
 vertically downward till it reaches the softer rock 
 below, and if this be also uniform, it will corrade 
 downward through this also, as shown by the loop- 
 shaped dotted lines marking different stages of its 
 progress. When it reaches the underlying hard 
 stratum it will probably find it easier to cut sideways 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 123 
 
 along the junction of soft and hard strata, as shown 
 by the dotted lines to the right of the position of the 
 original stream, and will tend to undercut the over- 
 lying hard stratum. At Y, where the stream is 
 supposed to originate in the soft rock, it cuts 
 vertically down to the junction with the underlying 
 hard rock, and then cuts sideways as before, and a 
 stream developed along the soft rock between X 
 and Y would act similarly. Now we have seen 
 (Chapter II.) that the master-joints of rocks run in 
 two sets, respectively parallel with the lines of dip 
 and strike, and as the overlying hard rocks are 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 undercut they will be detached by the action of the 
 weather and in landslips, and the material will fall 
 into the stream and be transported. In gently 
 inclined rocks the joints will be highly inclined, and 
 accordingly every valley formed by a subsequent 
 stream will, when the inclination of the strata is less 
 than 45, as is usually the case, have a gentle slope 
 on one side, formed by the summit of a hard rock 
 (and this slope will possess the direction and degree 
 of inclination of the dip of the rock), and a steep 
 slope on the other, corresponding with the inclination 
 of the strike joints. Accordingly, after gently 
 inclined rocks are affected by the corrasion of 
 subsequent streams, a section across the country at 
 right angles to the direction of flow of the sub- 
 sequent streams will present the appearance shown 
 
i2 4 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 in Fig. 23. The gentle slopes, D, are known as dip- 
 slopes^ and the steeper ones, E, as escarpments, and 
 every escarpment in a district which has been formed 
 by a simple uplift of strata above sea-level will face 
 inland, and each dip-slope will slant down seaward. 
 In many cases, especially with softer rock, the slope 
 of the escarpment, and often the dip slope also, will 
 be diminished by accumulation of loose material, but 
 with hard rocks the escarpments often stand out 
 as parallel lines of cliff, each cliff being lim'ited to 
 the hard stratum or set of strata to which it owes its 
 origin. These escarpments, of course, give rise to 
 tertiary watersheds, from which streams flow in 
 
 either direction. Those which flow down the 
 escarpment in a direction contrary to that of the 
 primary consequent streams are termed obsequent 
 streams by Professor Davis ; the other streams which 
 flow down the dip-slopes will have courses parallel to 
 those of the primary consequent streams. 
 
 When we meet with great belts of alternating 
 soft and hard strata, the escarpments may recede 
 owing to general degradation by weathering and 
 the action of obsequent streams and their tribu- 
 taries, and the escarpment may recede while the 
 subsequent stream which determines it remains 
 practically stationary ; we then get an extensive 
 plain occupied by the subsequent stream and 
 its tributaries, and the courses of obsequent 
 
VALLEYS 125 
 
 streams are lengthened by recession of the top 
 of the escarpment. Thus we find the great plain 
 of the soft lias and new red sandstone rocks of 
 the east and south-east of England dominated by 
 the westward-facing escarpment of the hard oolites. 
 Approaching the east coast, we find that the dip- 
 slope of the oolites, sloping eastward, plunges down 
 to another plain formed of the soft upper Jurassic 
 clays. Another escarpment facing westward is fre- 
 quently encountered, formed of the more durable 
 lower greensand, the dip - slope of which in turn 
 sinks to the plain of soft gault clay, which is over- 
 looked by the great escarpment of chalk, again 
 facing westward. These two salient escarpments, 
 that of the oolites and that of the chalk, with their 
 corresponding plains, formed in the way described 
 above, form dominant features of the scenery of the 
 south-east portion of England. 
 
 Owing to the tendency of the streams which run 
 obliquely across harder and softer strata to eliminate 
 their courses from the harder rocks, and to flow 
 when possible over soft strata, a subsequent stream 
 with an oblique course, indicated by the dotted line 
 in the following plan, in which the outcrops of hard 
 and soft strata are respectively represented by the 
 letters H and S, will tend to alter its course, so 
 that it ultimately flows in the direction indicated by 
 the thick black line, though it must be understood 
 that the stream, with its altered course, would not be 
 actually beneath the original one, as the whole has 
 shifted laterally. (The arrow indicates the direction 
 of dip of the strata.) 
 
 The formation of obsequent streams, and of the 
 other tributaries to a subsequent stream which run 
 
126 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 down the dip-slopes, will give rise to another set of 
 watersheds from which subsidiary tributaries may 
 flow, so that a river system eventually may consist of 
 consequent stream, with a whole network of tributaries, 
 but with the formation of subsequent streams and 
 their main tributaries we have obtained a sufficient 
 insight into the development of a typical drainage 
 system in an area affected by a symmetrical uplift. 
 
 Before considering the deviations of drainage 
 which may be subsequently produced in different 
 ways in an uplifted area, it will be convenient if 
 
 H 
 
 Jf 
 
 s~ 
 
 H 
 
 FIG. 24. 
 
 we devote a short space to consideration of the 
 forms of river valleys as shown in cross-section. 
 
 The typical river valley is bounded by two hill 
 slopes, each possessing the denudation curve, and if 
 conditions are uniform, the cross - section of the 
 valley will show an outline similar to that repre- 
 sented in Fig. 25 a, while if we take a longitudinal 
 section from the watershed to the mouth of the 
 river, along the valley-bottom, the denudation curve 
 will appear as seen in Fig. 25 b, though here the 
 lower part of the curve will probably approximate to 
 a straight line for a considerable part of its course. 1 
 
 1 An English term for the line taken by the course of a river apart 
 from its meanderings is much needed, and we are driven to use the 
 German term Thalweg for this line. 
 
VALLEYS 127 
 
 In the case of a consequent valley formed under 
 uniform conditions, the curve will be bilaterally sym- 
 metrical, whereas in a subsequent valley the curve 
 will be greater on the escarpment side than on the 
 side of the dip-slope as seen in Fig. 23. 
 
 Writers sometimes speak of river valleys as 
 I-shaped, V-shaped, U-shaped, and Y-shaped, accord- 
 ing to the slopes, which roughly recall those of the 
 letters with which they are compared, but all valleys 
 of erosion will be ideally U-shaped, though the arms 
 of the U will depart from verticality and become 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 a = Cross-section of a valley of erosion. 
 b = Line of Thalweg, 
 
 separated to a greater or less extent, according to 
 certain conditions controlling erosion, the principal of 
 which are the nature of the rock, the character of the 
 weathering, and the occurrence of earth movement, and 
 of these the nature of the rock is really of import- 
 ance mainly because the weathering is influenced by 
 it, as soft rocks weather more readily than hard rocks. 
 If a rock resists weathering, the rivers will cut 
 narrower valleys than when the rock is readily 
 weathered. This is seen by the fact that narrow 
 gorges are apt to occur in rainless regions, though 
 there are many exceptions to this, and under suitable 
 circumstances extremely narrow gorges can be formed 
 in regions of considerable rainfall. It is also well 
 shown by the formation of those peculiar structures 
 
128 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 known as earth-pillars in districts where the condi- 
 tions are suitable for their formation, and as these 
 earth-pillars, when well developed, are apt to excite 
 the curiosity of those who see them, we may devote 
 a short space to their description. 
 
 When a river runs through a compact homo- 
 geneous clay charged with large stones, as shown 
 in Fig. 26, it cuts out a gorge with the characteristic 
 denudation curve a b c. If the rainfall is great, and 
 fairly vertical, the stones act like umbrellas, and 
 protect the clay immediately beneath, while the 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 intervening clay is washed away by the rain and 
 carried into the river. Accordingly the stone- 
 protected masses stand up as pillars, the sides of 
 which are furrowed by rain trickles, and they often 
 possess minor pinnacles and buttresses, due to other 
 stones occurring in the mass of the column. Now, 
 if the stones had not been in the clay, the whole 
 of the clay would have been washed away by rain 
 action, and instead of the gorge a c b we should 
 meet with a wider valley, d b f. The pillars which 
 occur near Botzen, in the Tyrol, are fully described and 
 figured by Sir C. Lyell in his Principles of Geology 
 (vol. i., chap, xv., and Plate II.); they vary in 
 height from twenty to a hundred feet. The pillars 
 near Stalden, above Visp, are well known, and 
 
VALLEYS 129 
 
 some admirable examples are found at Useigne, in 
 the Val d' Kerens, where the process of formation 
 is well shown. They are carved out of the material 
 of the terminal moraine of the ancient Val d'Here- 
 mence glacier. This moraine has been carved out 
 into sharp ridges by stream action, and the ridges are 
 further cut up by rain to form the pyramids, which 
 are cut through by the road to Evolena, on either 
 side of the mouth of the Val d'Heremence, though 
 the pillars of the upper group are more striking 
 than those of the lower. 
 
 One of the most important conditions for the 
 formation of a steep gorge is the occurrence of a 
 swift stream which can corrade rapidly, in which 
 case weathering action cannot widen the gorge to 
 any extent while the river is deepening it. The 
 swiftness of the stream may be due primarily to uplift, 
 and this is no doubt the most important factor in 
 producing steep-sided streams. When the upper part 
 of a river-course is being elevated, while the lower 
 part is stationary, corrasion will be increased, and 
 a gorge will be formed. To this cause, as well as 
 to the arid climate, the extraordinary canons of 
 the Colorado region are due. It follows that when 
 a river has reached its base-level of erosion, and 
 downward corrasion is stopped, the action of the 
 weather will be very pronounced, and accordingly 
 a gorge is not likely to exist for long periods in 
 a rainy region when the base-level of erosion has 
 been established. There are many secondary causes 
 which increase the corrasive power of a river over 
 parts of its course, and gorges may be carved out x 
 there ; for instance, as already seen, a waterfall will 
 form a gorge, and we shall show in the sequel that 
 
130 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 many waterfalls are due to secondary changes in 
 river-courses. 
 
 When vertical corrasion and weathering are both 
 at work, the width of the valley will depend on 
 their relative importance ; but when the base-level 
 of erosion is reached, important changes in the 
 action of the river occur, which must now be 
 considered. 
 
 So long as vertical corrasion is in operation, 
 lateral corrasion of the side of the river-bed is in- 
 significant ; but as soon as vertical corrasion is 
 checked by the establishment of the base-level of 
 erosion lateral corrasion becomes important, and 
 the rivers work sideways instead of downward, 
 though the width of the river is not necessarily 
 increased thereby, for compensation is made for 
 corrasion of one bank by deposition on the opposite 
 one. We have already noted that the courses of 
 streams are unlikely to be actually straight In nature, 
 as the river, on its initiation, will be turned from 
 side to side by minor inequalities. Imagine a portion 
 of a river-course flowing in the direction indicated 
 in Fig. 27, that is from x to_^, and that it has a slight 
 S - shaped curve owing to some inequality in its 
 course. In the straight part of a river-course the 
 centre of the stream flows more rapidly than the 
 sides, and the top than the bottom, as the stream 
 is retarded by friction against the bottom and sides. 
 Now when the stream, after traversing a straight 
 portion of its course, reaches the curve represented 
 in the figure, the central swift part tends to flow 
 on in the same straight line, and impinges against 
 the concave bank at x, eroding it, while an eddy 
 is set up, which causes the current to flow backward 
 
VALLEYS 131 
 
 on the convex side, x' t and to deposit material 
 there. The same process takes place at y, and, as 
 a result, the S-shaped curve becomes emphasised, 
 as shown by the dotted lines, and the river has a 
 cross - section like that of b, Fig. 27, which is a 
 section taken from y' to y in a. The whole of the 
 S - shaped curve tends to work down the valley 
 
 owing to the general slope of the Thalweg ; and 
 accordingly, when a river has reached its base-line 
 of erosion, it tends to widen its valley, and to form 
 a plane surface which slopes gently towards the 
 ocean. Through this plain the river meanders in 
 loop-shaped folds. During flood - times the river 
 overflows its banks, and in the slack water of the 
 flooded portions sediment is deposited in the form 
 of alluvium, which may build up the floor of the 
 
132 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 valley to a considerable height above the level 
 which it reached when the base-line of erosion was 
 established. These alluvial flats mark various parts 
 of river - courses, though they are usually more 
 numerous in the lower portions. A cross - section 
 of a valley under these conditions will be as 
 follows : 
 
 Jtiver 
 Alluvial Flat ^ 
 
 FIG. 28. 
 
 When the S-shaped folds have been growing for 
 some time, they may form almost complete circles, 
 and during floods the river may cut through the 
 isthmus which separates portions of two loops, when 
 the old course will be left as a crescentic lake. 
 
 "A multitude of such crescent-shaped lakes, scattered 
 far and wide over the alluvial plain, the greater number 
 of them to the west, but some of them also eastward of 
 the Mississippi, bear testimony to the extensive wanderings 
 of the great stream in former ages." J 
 
 After the establishment of an alluvial flat by 
 lateral corrasion accompanied by deposition the 
 plain will remain unaltered in its general characters, 
 though it may increase in width, so long as conditions 
 remain the same. Should the power of the stream 
 to exert vertical corrasion be restored to it in any 
 way, it will again cut downward, and a valley within 
 a valley will be formed, as shown in Fig. 29, in which 
 a exhibits a symmetrical cross -section, where the 
 river-course happened to be in the centre of the 
 alluvial plain at the time that vertical corrasive 
 1 LYELL, Sir C., Principles of Geology -, vol. i., chap. xix. 
 
VALLEYS 133 
 
 power was restored, while b shows an unsymmetrical 
 cross -section, with the later part of the valley to- 
 wards one side of the earlier portion. This diagram 
 illustrates the character of the Grand Canon of the 
 Colorado, which is a valley within a valley. It is 
 clear that the loops which were formed when the 
 base-level of erosion had been temporarily attained 
 will still be retained, and as a consequence of the 
 pause, followed by downward erosion, we are fur- 
 nished with those remarkable cases of narrow valleys 
 which run with very winding courses, such as the two 
 
 FIG. 29. 
 
 Crooks of Lune, above Lancaster and Kirkby Lons- 
 dale, and the great bend of the Wear around Durham 
 Cathedral. 
 
 Restoration of the power of a stream to corrade 
 vertically may be due to several causes, the chief of 
 which is uplift of the land along the upper course 
 of the stream, which, as already pointed out, in- 
 creases the velocity of the stream. Besides this 
 there are minor causes, which are of importance, 
 which may be briefly noticed, and some of their 
 effects considered. Increase in the amount of rain- 
 fall, or diminution of the supply of sediment to a 
 fully charged stream, or diversion of one stream into 
 another (in ways to be presently described), thereby, 
 increasing the volume of the second stream, may 
 restore the stream's power to corrade vertically. The 
 most interesting of the minor causes, however, is 
 
134 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the existence of hard and soft rocks which alternate 
 with one another along the course of a stream. 
 Suppose that a consequent stream is flowing across 
 alternate stratified deposits of hard sandstone and 
 soft shale, as in Fig. 30. The shale is more readily 
 denuded than the sandstone under ordinary circum- 
 stances, but a bed of shale cannot be corraded to 
 an appreciably greater depth than the sandstone sur- 
 face which occurs lower down the stream, or a pond 
 would be formed filled with still water, which could 
 
 B 
 
 not corrade. Accordingly if, as in the figure, a con- 
 sequent stream flows along the course A B in the 
 direction of the arrow, the soft shale 5 between 
 the two hard beds H H' may be worn down to a 
 nearly level surface, as represented by the dotted 
 line I 2, but it cannot be worn lower. The stream 
 here will have formed a temporary base-line of 
 erosion, and the same process will go on in the 
 shale S' . As the hard beds H' H" are not worn 
 away so rapidly, the result of lowering the level 
 of the upper surface of the shale 5 will be that the 
 slope of the stream is increased where the river 
 passes from H' to 5 at 2, and a gorge will be 
 formed, and the river will gradually lower its bed 
 along H', as shown by the dotted line 2 3 ; and 
 
VALLEYS 135 
 
 then the portion of the stream running through the 
 soft shale S' can be lowered, and formation of a 
 gorge will commence in H" t the course of the stream 
 being finally along the dotted line 1234. It will 
 be seen that the portion of the stream flowing over 
 S', which had temporarily established its base-line 
 of erosion, 5 6, before the hard rock H' was corraded, 
 is again capable of exerting a corrasive influence 
 under the changed conditions, and the cross-section 
 of that part of the valley situated over 5' will appear 
 as in Fig. 29. 
 
 It follows from the above that a valley initiated in 
 a country composed of alternating soft and hard rocks 
 will be occupied by a river alternately flowing over 
 gentle slopes and more abrupt ones, and that 
 corrasion of the abrupt slopes will cause the river 
 to cut back into the gentle ones, producing the 
 Y-shaped cross -section, which may be repeated 
 more than once. In the end hard and soft rocks 
 will be cut down till the base-line of corrasion is 
 reached, and accordingly alternation of rapids and 
 cascades in a gorge with a sluggish stream along 
 a flat can only occur in a young river or in an old 
 one which has been affected by disturbing influences, 
 for a rapid river which is charged with detritus and 
 has been in existence for a long period will cut its 
 channel till it has attained its base-level; for instance, 
 the Colorado in a course of 1000 miles falls over 
 5000 feet, and yet no waterfall is met with through 
 the whole of this portion of its course. To the 
 subject of waterfalls we shall recur in the next 
 chapter. It need only be stated that the valley is 
 likely to be narrow in the hard rocks and wider 
 where it traverses the softer ones. 
 
136 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 When a river temporarily attains its base-line of 
 erosion, and subsequently becomes capable of cor- 
 rading its bed vertically, if the main stream has a 
 longer course than its tributaries it will probably 
 possess a greater volume of water than that of each 
 tributary, and may corrade to a considerable depth, 
 while the tributaries exert little influence, notwith- 
 standing the increase of slope. For a considerable 
 period after the deepening of the main valley, the 
 minor valleys will end as definite gorges some height 
 above the floor of the main valley, and discharge 
 their waters in a series of cascades or falls down the 
 side of the main valley, and this period may be 
 lengthened owing to minor causes. In a district 
 like the Lake District many of the major valleys, 
 like that in which Thirlmere is situated, rise from 
 comparatively low cols, and the main stream is not 
 supplied with a very large supply of sediment near 
 its source. The tributary valleys rising amongst the 
 frost-shattered ridges of the higher hills are supplied 
 with a quantity of material for transportation, and 
 their power of corrasion of the un weathered rocks in 
 the lower part of their course is greatly diminished, 
 as their energy is mainly available for transportation 
 only. 
 
 Accordingly we find in the Lake District a 
 number of tributary valleys occurring in the hearts 
 of the ridges, and opening out far above the bottoms 
 of the main valleys, discharging their waters down 
 the slopes in cascades. They are specially well 
 marked on the east side of Helvellyn, and a number 
 of them also open into the upper branches of Borrow- 
 dale. 
 
VALLEYS 137 
 
 Now, let the river of the main valley once more 
 attain its base-level of erosion, and form an alluvial 
 plain. The material which is brought down the hill- 
 sides by streamlets is deposited in the form of " dry 
 deltas" when the velocity of the streamlets is checked 
 on reaching the plain, and the major streams which 
 issue from the upland valleys just described build 
 deltas of considerable size, assuming the shape of 
 half a cone, with its apex coinciding with the point 
 at which the tributary stream issues from the hill- 
 side to tumble down the slope of the main valley, 
 and accordingly a series of more or less symmetrical 
 "alluvial cones" are formed around the mouths oi 
 these valleys. 
 
 The dry delta is, of course, formed whenever a 
 rapidly running tributary charged with much material 
 enters into a main river flowing over a surface so 
 gently inclined that it cannot transport the sediment 
 brought down by the tributary. Now the water of the 
 tributary is impelled against the opposite side of the 
 main river, producing corrasion of the bank there, 
 and the formation of the dry delta drives the main 
 stream to the opposite side of the valley, and, as a 
 consequence, main streams tend to bend away from 
 their tributaries where these join them. Admirable 
 examples are found in the upper course of the Rhone 
 valley, where it wanders through the flat marshes 
 between Brieg and Martigny, the best being just east 
 of Sion. Here the rapid Borgne, draining the Val 
 d'Herens and Val d'Heremence to the south, drives 
 the Rhone against its northern bank, while a little 
 further east the Riere, flowing from the Wildstrubel 
 group to the north, forces the Rhone to its southern 
 bank near St. Leonhard. 
 
138 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 If a great quantity of debris is carried into a main 
 valley in this way, it may ultimately result in the 
 formation of a lake, occupying the portion of the 
 valley above the junction of the tributary, a process 
 which will be more fully described in a future 
 chapter. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 VALLEYS (Continued) 
 
 WE have hitherto assumed that river systems 
 are initiated as the result of uplift of an area 
 composed of stratified rocks which were originally 
 horizontal. These river systems are described by 
 Gilbert as consequent upon the uplift (the term con- 
 sequent being here used in a wider sense than that 
 in which it is applied by Davis), and we have 
 considered the conditions of drainage which would 
 exist in the case of a symmetrical uplift, which 
 must be in accordance with the laws which control 
 them. 
 
 We must now refer to the complications which 
 will result owing to departure from uniformity. 
 
 In the first place, actual drainage lines may differ 
 from those which would be developed under ideal 
 uniform conditions, on account of differences in the 
 hardness of rocks; any rock or any fracture or 
 system of fractures which permits weathering and 
 corrasion to occur more readily than among the 
 neighbouring rocks tends, if other conditions permit, 
 to give rise to valleys. Accordingly the ideal alter- 
 nate tributaries entering a main stream are often 
 partly replaced by two tributaries entering the stream 
 at the same point, the production of these being 
 determined by a plane of weakness, and a matter of 
 
140 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 greater importance from our present standpoint 
 tributaries of adjoining rivers may start from the 
 same position on the watershed, giving rise to a 
 depression at the top, which is not placed laterally 
 to the valley heads, but occurs at the heads, and 
 accordingly a valley of this character is not domi- 
 nated by a mountain peak, and the valley loses one 
 of its principal scenic attributes. The valley of 
 Thirlmere and the corresponding valley, in which 
 Grasmere is situated, are separated by the pass of 
 Dunmail Raise, which is of this character. The effect 
 of planes of weakness in giving rise to pyramidal 
 hills by severance of the lateral ridge has already 
 been considered. 
 
 Another complication may be produced when a 
 river has established its base-level of erosion. It 
 has been seen that lateral corrasion becomes im- 
 portant ; a river then eats into its banks, and it may 
 eventually cut through the ridge separating it from 
 an adjoining river, w r hen the upper waters of the 
 river at a higher level are switched off, and become 
 tributaries to the river at a lower level, while the 
 lower waters start from a freshly formed col. Many 
 minor complications may result from this, such as 
 increased erosive power of the one river, owing to 
 increase of volume, causing deepening of its valley, 
 and diminished erosive power of the other stream. 
 The new col will not be dominated by a mountain 
 peak, unless that at the head of the original valley is 
 visible from the shortened valley. 
 
 Other complications are produced according to 
 what Gilbert terms the law of unequal slopes. In 
 Fig. 31, suppose the line C A C' to represent a 
 section across an unsymmetrical uplift with a steep 
 
VALLEYS 141 
 
 slope A C, and a gentle one AC'. Weathering and 
 corrasion will occur more extensively along A C 
 than along A C', and so, while a small thickness of 
 rock, C' D') is worn away on the side of the gentle 
 slope, a much greater thickness, C D, will be 
 denuded on the steeper slope, and the result is that 
 the watershed is shifted laterally from A to B, and 
 any tributaries of the streams coursing down the 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 31. 
 
 gentle slope and entering them between A and B 
 will be diverted into the streams flowing down the 
 steep slope. The recession of the watershed will be 
 continuous all along owing to weathering, but will be 
 most marked at the heads of the major streams, and 
 accordingly we may have gorges cut into the side A C, 
 extending backwards and forming deep gashes in 
 the gentler valleys on the side A C', as is well seen 
 in the valley of High Cup Gill, near Appleby, in 
 Westmorland, which has cut far backward into a 
 shallow tributary of the Tees. 1 Here we have 
 
 See Geographical Journal, vol. vii., p. 607. 
 
i 4 2 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 another case of a valley which will not be dominated 
 by a peak at the head. 
 
 The law of unequal slopes may control erosion 
 when adjoining valleys are at different levels if the 
 lower valley receives the waters of subsequent 
 valleys. The subsequent valley falling into the 
 lower stream will have greater erosive power than 
 its neighbour over the col, and may gradually extend 
 its course backward till it beheads the adjoining 
 consequent stream, which will thus have its head 
 waters diverted to the consequent stream existing 
 at a lower level. In this way Professor Davis, in the 
 paper cited in the last chapter, accounts for many 
 complications in the drainage of East Anglia, and it 
 is this process which appears to have severed the 
 ridge extending northward from the Matterhorn, for 
 at one time the stream in the Zinal valley seems to 
 have had its source about the Tete de Valpelline, and 
 ran northward over the Zinal Joch, and was subse- 
 quently beheaded by the river occupying the valley 
 of the present Zmutt glacier, which severed the ridge 
 between the upper part of the original Zinal valley 
 and the Nikolai-thai. Obsequent streams flowing 
 down the steep faces of escarpments cut back their 
 heads, often forming combes, but as the adjoining 
 subsequent stream at the foot of the dip - slope is 
 naturally at a lower level than that beneath the 
 escarpment, actual beheading will only occur under 
 exceptional conditions. 
 
 Change of drainage lines may occur owing to the 
 existence of alluvial cones, though the results are 
 insignificant to the student of scenery. If a cone be 
 formed at the col separating two important valleys 
 by a tributary entering the main valley close to the 
 
VALLEYS 143 
 
 watershed, as the water shifts its position on the cone, 
 deserting the channels which it has built up to some 
 height above the general level, the water will flow now 
 to one main stream, at another time to the other. 
 A good case is exhibited on Dunmail Raise, where 
 a tributary coming down the Helvellyn range has 
 formed an alluvial cone on the watershed. The 
 tributary drains towards Grasmere at present, but a 
 small dry valley below the base of the cone towards 
 Thirlmere shows that it flowed in that direction at no 
 distant date. 
 
 The last mode of diversion of drainage lines to 
 which we shall call attention is described by Gilbert 
 under the name of ponding. Either by subsequent 
 uplift or by formation of a dam, a lake is formed 
 along a river -course. We shall discuss the forma- 
 tion of lakes in detail in a separate chapter. If 
 the dam is lower than all the cols higher up the 
 valley, the water issues from the lake over its original 
 position, and no diversion of drainage occurs ; but if 
 a col exists higher up the valley with its notch at 
 a lower level than that of the lowest part of the 
 barrier, the water of the lake escapes over this col, 
 and a permanent diversion of drainage takes place, 
 the ponded valley being beheaded by the uplifted or 
 accumulated barrier. 
 
 The main scenic effects due to diversions of drain- 
 age, causing beheading of one valley and addition to 
 the waters of an adjoining one, are (i) production 
 of pyramidal mountains by severance of a ridge, 
 culminating in a peak ; (ii) formation of cols or 
 passes which are on the medial line of a valley, 
 and accordingly the valley head is not dominated 
 by a peak ; (iii) production of dry valleys, often of 
 
H4 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 considerable extent, beneath the new col, produced 
 by diversion of the head waters of the valley into an 
 adjoining valley : as these valleys, owing to absence 
 of any large volume of running water, allow 
 weathered material to accumulate, upon which a 
 marsh vegetation often flourishes, they are apt to 
 present a particularly desolate aspect ; (iv) pro- 
 duction of waterfalls, as described in the latter part 
 of the chapter. 
 
 Drainage has been hitherto considered as though 
 it were always due to emergence of strata from 
 the sea, but we may have an uplift of a tract 
 of land which has been reduced to a nearly level 
 surface, or peneplain, by subaerial denudation, when 
 the watershed will coincide with the axis of uplift, 
 but will have no necessary relation to the inclination 
 of the partly denuded strata, for they owe this in- 
 clination to a previous movement. We may now 
 proceed to consider what Gilbert terms inconsequent 
 drainage, which he divides into two classes, namely, 
 antecedent drainage and superinduced drainage. 
 
 When an uplift takes place across a river-course, 
 we have seen that the stream may be ponded back. 
 If, however, the uplift is very slow, and the corrasive 
 action of the stream rapid, the stream may keep its 
 course open, notwithstanding the uplift, just as in 
 a fixed saw, when a log is pressed up against it, the 
 saw works in the same line, and cuts a fissure through 
 the log. As the result of this process, rivers may 
 run through mountains, and a gorge be formed. 
 A similar result may follow owing to superim- 
 posed drainage, and it is in many cases difficult 
 to distinguish one process from the other. The 
 course of the Green river through the Uinta moun- 
 
VALLEYS 145 
 
 tains has been ascribed by Powell as due to ante- 
 cedent drainage, i.e., drainage antecedent to the 
 uplift, and Medlicott and Blanford thus explain the 
 course of the Indus and the Brahmaputra through 
 the Himalayas. 1 
 
 Superimposed drainage may occur as the result of 
 formation of plains by lateral corrasion, this is the 
 drainage superimposed by planation, to use Gilbert's 
 expression ; or the drainage may be imposed upon 
 deposits, whether terrestrial, as alluvium, or marine, 
 as ordinary sediments. Drainage in this case is 
 
 superimposed by alluviation or sedimentation. Upon 
 uplift the drainage will coincide with the axis of 
 uplift, but when the superficial deposits have been 
 worn away, the drainage will have no apparent 
 relation with the inclination of the unconformable 
 strata beneath the overlying eroded deposits ; thus 
 the axis of the anticlinal fold of a ridge need not 
 underlie the main watershed. This is illustrated in 
 Fig. 32, which is a section across the English Lake 
 District. (See also Chapter VI.) 
 
 The older strata xx were formerly bent into an arch 
 with its axis about the head of the arrow A. These 
 arched strata were denuded to an approximately 
 
 1 It is only right to state that some cases . of asserted antecedent 
 drainage have been disputed by Professor W. M. Davis, but this is 
 not the place to discuss controversial questions. 
 L 
 
146 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 level surface before the deposition of the strata y y 
 upon them. The latter were originally deposited 
 horizontally, and subsequently uplifted around a 
 point situated about the position of the head of 
 the arrow j5, and a radial drainage was initiated, 
 which was consequent to the second uplift, and, as 
 far as the rocks y y are concerned, was an ordinary 
 case of consequent drainage. The strata y y have 
 since been denuded over the centre of the district 
 (their former extension being indicated by the dotted 
 lines), and the drainage is superimposed upon the 
 older strata x x and is inconsequent so far as their 
 axis of uplift at A is concerned. 
 
 The original consequent and subsequent streams 
 will run approximately in their original directions 
 after they have reached the older rocks, but a number 
 of minor streams will be developed, owing to the 
 occurrence of planes of weakness among the older 
 rocks which did not extend into the newer ones. 
 Thus in the Lake District the consequent streams, 
 as those occupying the Keswick, Coniston, Winder- 
 mere, and Ullswater valleys, run in the direction 
 which was determined by the uplift of the strata 
 which have now been eroded, though they have under- 
 gone minor modifications as the result of the different 
 nature of the rocks over which the streams now 
 course, but tributary valleys have been developed, 
 which owe nothing to the once overlying strata. 
 Such a valley is the Vale of Troutbeck, determined 
 by the occurrence of a great belt of broken rock, 
 and accordingly marked by very steep, parallel sides, 
 and a similar origin may be ascribed to the two 
 valleys which start from Dunmail Raise. 
 
 When an area has been reduced to a plain sur- 
 
VALLEYS 147 
 
 face by subaerial denudation, and widespread uplift 
 occurs, the cycle of denudation begins afresh, as 
 described by Davis, and the peneplain will be cut 
 up by denudation, which may give rise to new hills, 
 carved out of the plain, and marked at first by the 
 possession of flat tops ; to these Davis gives the 
 name " monadnocks," from a hill in New Hampshire. 
 An example is figured by Gilbert in his Geology of the 
 Henry Mountains (Fig. 6). 
 
 Before leaving the consideration of the causes 
 which may give rise to complications of drainage, 
 one suggested cause may be referred to, namely, the 
 rotation of the earth on its axis. Of this Gilbert 
 speaks as follows : 
 
 "The rotation of the earth, just as it gives direction to 
 the trade winds and to ocean currents, tends to deflect 
 rivers. In the southern hemisphere streams are crowded 
 against their left banks, and in northern against the right. 
 But this influence is exceedingly small. Mr. Ferrel's in- 
 vestigations show that in latitude 45, and for a current 
 velocity of ten miles an hour, it is measured by less than 
 one twenty-thousandth part of the weight of the water. 
 (American Journal of Science, January, 1861). If its 
 effects are ever appreciable, it must be where lateral 
 corrasion is rapid, and even there it is probable that the 
 chief result is an inclination of the flood-plain toward one 
 bank or the other, amounting at most to two or three 
 minutes." 1 
 
 Waterfalls. Reference has been made in passing 
 to the conditions favourable for the formation of 
 waterfalls, but on account of their prominent in- 
 fluence on certain types of scenery they deserve 
 more than passing mention. 
 
 1 Geology of the Henry Mountains ', p. 136. 
 
148 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 As the ultimate effect of river denudation is the 
 production of the base-line of erosion, it is clear that 
 waterfalls can only exist in the courses of streams 
 which have not reached the base-level, or which, 
 having once reached it, have been subjected to some 
 change which has restored the corrasive power of 
 the streams over parts of their courses. 
 
 In the early history of a consequent stream a 
 waterfall may be developed at any point where 
 soft rocks are formed lower down the stream than 
 hard rocks, so that the soft rocks may be readily 
 denuded, and the hard rocks remain undenuded in 
 the bed of the stream for a considerable time. Thus, 
 if a dyke of igneous rock traversing soft shales be 
 crossed by a stream, the shales below the dyke may 
 be worn away, and a waterfall produced down the 
 vertical wall of the dyke. Any mass of hard rock 
 in contact with soft rock may thus cause a fall. A 
 good example is furnished by Scale Force, near 
 Buttermere, in the Lake District, which is due to 
 the erosion of soft clay rock and the resistance of 
 a mass of granitic rock, down which the water now 
 falls. Many of the most impressive falls, however, 
 are produced in gently inclined strata, and their 
 formation merits fuller description. 
 
 Suppose a hard, well-jointed sandstone or lime- 
 stone, a, rests upon the surface of a deposit of soft 
 shale, b, as in Fig. 33. It has been previously shown 
 that where the shale crops out in the bed of a 
 stream of uniform slope the shale will be worn 
 away to a greater extent than the hard rock, and 
 the corrasive power of the stream will be increased 
 at the junction, and a cascade or rapid produced. 
 After the establishment of the cascade the action 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 149 
 
 of the water becomes somewhat different. The 
 water bringing sediment over the cascade begins 
 to undermine the soft deposit, and, as in the case of 
 escarpments, the harder rock overhangs, until a mass 
 breaks away along dominant joint-planes, and the 
 process starts afresh ; a ravine is formed in this 
 way, and the waterfall at the head of the ravine 
 gradually recedes, thus lengthening the ravine. 
 During the establishment of the cascade subsequent 
 streams may form valleys along the strike of the 
 
 FIG. 33. 
 
 soft shale, giving rise to an escarpment, and it is 
 often stated that a waterfall commenced at an 
 escarpment, but with a young consequent river, 
 waterfall and escarpment may be formed simul- 
 taneously. 
 
 Many of the best-known waterfalls are produced 
 in the way described above. In England the 
 numerous waterfalls of the Yorkshire dales, as 
 Thornton Force, near Ingleton, and Hardraw Force, 
 in Wensleydale, are due to the existence of masses 
 of well-jointed limestone or sandstone upon shale, 
 and High Force, in Teesdale, has been produced 
 owing to the occurrence of a nearly horizontal sill of 
 
ISO SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 intrusive rock in soft sediments. (See plate.) Niagara 
 is the classic example of a waterfall having this 
 structure, and, as previously stated, a full description 
 of its formation will be found in Sir Charles Lyell's 
 Principles of Geology, while the geological structure 
 and physical features of the country surrounding the 
 gorge and fall are admirably illustrated in the 
 coloured bird's-eye view of the falls and adjacent 
 country which forms the frontispiece to the first 
 volume of the same author's Travels in North 
 America. 
 
 Owing to the sudden change of volume of a 
 stream at the bottom of a cirque, cwm, or corrie, 
 causing sudden increased corrasion, the semicircular 
 summit of the amphitheatre is often marked by a 
 precipice, and any streams which rise on compara- 
 tively flat ground above the precipice are hurled 
 down its side as waterfalls. 
 
 It has already been stated that under certain 
 conditions a main valley may undergo further cor- 
 rasion, which is checked in the case of tributary 
 valleys, opening out far above the floor of the main 
 valley ; the tributary streams then flow down the side 
 of the main valley as cascades. If the geological 
 conditions are favourable, these cascades may be 
 replaced by waterfalls. An example is seen in the 
 case of the well-known Lodore, in Borrowdale, where 
 the waters of the deep and narrow Watendlath valley 
 are hurled down a cliff at the entrance to the main 
 valley. 
 
 In a region where the streams have established 
 their base-lines of erosion, deviation of the stream 
 courses in any of the various methods described in 
 the earlier part of the present chapter may give rise 
 
i UN'VERS 
 
VALLEYS 151 
 
 to waterfalls, either by diversion of the water over 
 existing cliffs, or by the formation of falls by erosion 
 of the softer rocks by the diverted stream. I have 
 recently examined a large number of the minor 
 waterfalls of Lakeland, and discovered that many 
 of them owe their existence to recent diversion of 
 stream-courses by the formation of dams of glacial 
 detritus which have blocked the old courses of the 
 streams. A pretty little example is seen in the 
 Langstrath valley, one of the feeders of Borrowdale ; 
 it is described and figured in the Geographical 
 Journal (vol. vii., p. 617, and figure on p. 618). 
 
 The course of the stream is often widened and 
 apparently deepened just below a waterfall, giving 
 rise to a deep, often more or less circular, pool, which 
 forms one of the characteristic features of a waterfall 
 scene. The widening is due to the production of 
 eddies, which cause the lateral corrasion of the cliffs 
 below the fall. The deepening is due to the force 
 of the water dashing stones and sediment against 
 the bottom and excavating a basin. How far this 
 process can occur I am unable to state, as I have 
 found no detailed description of the formation of a 
 large rock-bound pool of this character, though that 
 it can occur to some extent is proved by the forma- 
 tion of holes of some size below a waterfall. I 
 have in recent years examined a large number of 
 pools below minor waterfalls, and found that in 
 many cases the pool is essentially due to accumu- 
 lation of loose material some distance below the 
 actual fall. The force of the stream is sufficient to 
 carry away the transported sediment from the im- 
 mediate foot of the fall, and a barrier is produced, 
 damming back the waters to form a pool. This 
 
152 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 barrier is raised until an upward slope is made of 
 sufficiently low gradient to allow the material to be 
 carried up it by the swiftly flowing stream. If the 
 stream flows through a narrow gorge beneath the 
 fall, the force of the stream may be sufficient to carry 
 the material through the gorge, and to form the dam 
 at the lower end, when the gorge will be occupied by 
 water of some depth. To this is due the very 
 striking appearance of the gorge below the little 
 fall in the Langstrath valley referred to above. A 
 barrier has been formed at its lower end, and the 
 gorge itself is occupied by deep water of extreme 
 transparency, and of a lovely green hue, due to the 
 nature of the rocks at its side and stones at the 
 bottom. 
 
 Underground Rivers. In districts which are largely 
 occupied by rocks which are capable of being carried 
 away in solution by water charged with solvents, 
 an underground circulation may be established, 
 giving rise to caves ; and as the interior of these 
 caverns is often of great interest and beauty, it 
 is necessary to say a few words concerning their 
 formation and structure, leaving the reader who is 
 interested in the subject to gather further information 
 from the second chapter of Professor Boyd Dawkins' 
 work on Cave-hunting, in which the physical history 
 of limestone caverns is considered at some length. 
 
 A porous, soluble rock like chalk permits drainage 
 to take place underground to a considerable extent, 
 and accordingly we meet with numerous cases of 
 underground streams in a chalk district; hence also 
 the general absence of surface drainage over the 
 chalk, except when large streams contain a volume 
 of water so great that only a portion of it can be 
 
VALLEYS 153 
 
 absorbed. The chalk, therefore, is often marked 
 by dry valleys, the origin of which has been a 
 subject of dispute, though the suggestion of Mr. 
 Clement Reid that they were formed at a time 
 when the climate was sufficiently rigorous to freeze 
 the water in the surface-pores, thus stopping the 
 absorption of water and allowing the water to 
 establish surface streams, satisfies all the require- 
 ments. 
 
 It is, however, in the case of hard and regularly 
 jointed limestone rocks that we meet with the most 
 striking effects of underground circulation, exhibited 
 in our own country in the limestone rocks of York- 
 shire, Derbyshire, and Somerset, and abroad by those 
 of Belgium, Greece, and Kentucky. 
 
 We have already called attention to the formation 
 of plateaux of limestone, with gaping fissures worn 
 along the master -joint planes, by the action of 
 acidulated rain water. The water coursing down 
 the ordinary sediments, sandstones, and clays, which 
 form the bed of the stream at a higher level, reaches 
 one of these fissures, and plunges down it. A 
 gyratory motion is given to the stones and sediment 
 which it carries, and accordingly the stream bores 
 a cylindrical shaft in the limestone, locally known 
 as a " pothole " ; but as this term has been used in 
 a different sense, the term "swallow-hole" is best 
 applied to these cylindrical shafts in limestone 
 districts. 
 
 The water, after forming a " swallow - hole " to 
 some depth, may reach a well - marked plane of 
 stratification, along which it can penetrate, causing 
 solution of the limestone along that plane, and 
 giving rise to a cave. It will eventually issue at 
 
154 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the side of a valley, where the bedding plane reaches 
 the surface, as illustrated in Fig. 34, where 5 is shale, 
 L limestone, in which the joints are represented by 
 nearly vertical, the bedding planes 
 by nearly horizontal, lines, and V 
 is a valley. The portions worn 
 away by the water are indicated 
 by black, c being caves, and sh 
 swallow-holes. The swallow-hole 
 formed at the junction of the upper 
 shale with the limestone may work 
 as far as /, and then along the 
 bedding plane from / to 2. If at 
 2 it meets with another well- 
 marked fissure, it may form another 
 swallow -hole here, and proceed 
 along a lower plane of bedding to 
 j, where it appears at the surface. 
 In time a swallow -hole may be 
 formed at ^, and worked down to 
 the junction with the lower shale 
 until the water reaches the valley, 
 when the upper portion of the 
 cavern between j and ^ will be left 
 dry. At a later period a swallow- 
 hole may be formed at 5, and so 
 on, and eventually the original 
 swallow-hole will be deepened until 
 it reaches the junction between 
 limestone and shale, and the cavern 
 ' will extend along this junction, the 
 upper caverns and many of the 
 swallow -holes being deserted by 
 the water. 
 
VALLEYS 155 
 
 The cross-section of the cavern will vary. The 
 floor will probably be occupied by a stream which 
 forms a bed by mechanical erosion, but the main 
 portion of the cavern may be determined by the 
 solubility of a particular stratum of limestone, which 
 is greater than that of the overlying and under- 
 lying stratum, and fragments of the limestone may be 
 detached from the sides along dominant joints, and 
 from the top along a dominant plane of bedding, 
 when the cave will possess a roughly rectangular 
 cross-section. When the water percolates through 
 important joints in the roof, these joints may be 
 dissolved where the water hangs, thus producing 
 dome-shaped expansions of the cave along these 
 joints, as seen at x of the figure. Sometimes a 
 considerable portion of the roof may fall in, as at y, 
 producing a shaft like a swallow -hole of gigantic 
 proportions ; such is the huge Helln Pot, on the 
 west side of Ribblesdale, in Yorkshire ; and by a 
 continuation of this process and the removal of the 
 fallen rocks of limestone the cave may be converted 
 into a ravine. This is the origin of many of the 
 ravines occupying the sides of our limestone uplands. 
 From the sides of lateral caverns streams may pour 
 into these huge shafts formed by the subsidence 
 of the roof, as shown in Weathercote Cave, near 
 Ingleton. 
 
 The beauty of the interior of limestone caverns 
 is largely due to the formation of stalactites and 
 stalagmite within them. The formation of a stalac- 
 tite is well seen on the under-side of many bridges ; 
 the water which percolates through the masonry 
 dissolves some of the lime of the mortar, and when 
 it reaches the air redeposits it in pendent masses 
 
156 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 like icicles. The process as seen in the cavern is 
 as follows: Water percolates along a joint and dis- 
 solves some lime ; when it reaches the roof of the 
 cave the water is suspended as a drop, and this 
 evaporates on the exterior, and a little film of lime 
 is deposited as a ring round the drop, being pre- 
 vented from forming at the bottom by the movement 
 of the water. The next drop hangs to this ring, and 
 a further ring is formed in continuation of the first ; 
 and so the process goes on, till a long, pellucid, straw- 
 like tube hangs from the roof. Sooner or later the 
 interior of this tube becomes blocked, and the water 
 trickles down the outside, causing the formation of 
 coat after coat of lime, until the stalactite exists 
 as a thick cylindrical or conical pendent mass. In 
 the meantime drops fall on the floor beneath the 
 stalactite, undergo further evaporation there, and 
 form deposits of stalagmite in sheets or bosses. 
 The wall of the cavern is also bathed with moisture 
 in places, and, owing to the evaporation of this, 
 masses of stalagmite swathe the sides of the cavern 
 like folds of drapery. As the formation of stalactites 
 is mainly limited to the joint-planes they are often 
 found running in linear series approximately at right 
 angles to one another, and as the direction of the 
 cavern is probably determined by the same joints, one 
 set will be parallel to the length of the cavern, and 
 the other will run across it. In the accompanying 
 plate, from a photograph of a portion of the Ingle- 
 borough Cave at Clapham, in Yorkshire, taken by 
 Mr. G. Towler, and reproduced by his permission, the 
 formation of stalactites and stalagmite is well shown. 
 As caverns are liable to destruction by further 
 operation of the cause which produced them namely, 
 
VALLEYS 157 
 
 water denudation and as the materials which are 
 washed into caves tend to accumulate there, while 
 the lime which is carried in solution is deposited as 
 stalactite and stalagmite, and the cave may be 
 eventually filled up by material deposited from 
 solution, it is evident that caves cannot be very 
 long-lived, and that all existing caves must be, 
 geologically speaking, of recent date. 
 
 Before quitting consideration of caverns reference 
 may be made to the remarkable ice -caverns, or 
 glacieres, which are the subject of a special work 
 by the present Bishop of Bristol. 1 These caves are 
 found in several places, including the limestone 
 districts of the Jura and the Pyrenees, and are 
 remarkable as containing ice all the year round. 
 They occur at high altitudes, and accordingly the 
 air even in summer is not excessively warm. They 
 are explained by Dr. Browne as follows : " Occurring 
 at a lower level than the mouth, the ice formed in 
 winter is kept from melting to any extent in summer 
 because the warm, light air cannot displace the heavy, 
 cold air beneath to a considerable degree, and the 
 warm air which reaches the ice is deprived of its 
 heat by the work of melting a small quantity of the 
 ice, leaving the remainder to occupy the floor of the 
 cave throughout the summer." 
 
 1 Ice-caves in France and Switzerland^ by Rev. G. F. BROWNE (1865). 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 LAKES 
 
 THE study of lakes has received very consider- 
 able attention during recent years. The great 
 works of Forel on Geneva 1 and of A. Delabecque 
 on the lakes of France 2 have stimulated geographers 
 to follow the pursuit of limnology, and in our own 
 country the accurate and careful observations of 
 Mill on the lakes of English Lakeland 3 have 
 supplied the student of scenery with much valuable 
 material. 
 
 The existence of any hollow which is capable of 
 retaining a considerable sheet of inland water may 
 give rise to a lake, and as the requisite hollows may 
 be formed in various ways, lakes may and do present 
 considerable diversity of features. 
 
 We may commence with consideration of the con- 
 ditions which may produce a lake. Granted that the 
 requisite hollow exists, the formation and character 
 of the lake depends upon climatic conditions. In an 
 arid climate the hollow may be waterless, or if the 
 rainfall is small, the bottom of the hollow may be 
 occupied by a lake having no outlet, whereas if the 
 rainfall be sufficient to fill the hollow to the height of 
 
 1 FOREL, F. A., Le Union. 
 
 2 DELABECQUE, A., Les Lacs Fran$ais. 
 
 3 MILL, H. R., The English Lakes. 
 
 158 
 
V\9* A*V 
 
 or THE ' 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
LAKES 159 
 
 the lowest part of its rim an outflow will be estab- 
 lished. The physical characteristics of the lakes of 
 desert regions which depend upon climate will be 
 discussed when we consider the features of those 
 regions, and we shall here consider the conditions 
 which are necessary for the formation of the hollows 
 requisite for the accumulation of the waters of lakes. 
 
 A hollow adapted for the retention of water may 
 be formed in four ways : (i) by accumulation of 
 material above the existing surface of the earth to 
 form a barrier or dam ; (ii) by differential move- 
 ment of a portion of the earth's crust ; (iii) by 
 volcanic action forming craters ; (iv) by erosion. 
 
 (i) Lakes formed by accumulation of material are 
 very widely distributed, and the material which forms 
 the barrier or dam may be accumulated under very 
 different conditions. In some cases the barrier may 
 completely surround the hollow, as when the lake 
 exists owing to unequal accumulation of extensive 
 sheets of material. Such lakes are often found exist- 
 ing in the hollows of glacial drift, and are termed 
 " kettle-holes " by American geologists. According 
 to the late Professor Carvell Lewis, the meres of 
 Cheshire are of this character. Small pools, many 
 of which are dried up in times of drought, are 
 frequently found among the moraine mounds of our 
 upland regions ; they usually present few features 
 of interest in themselves, though they are often 
 effective as a foreground to mountain views. The 
 little Schwarz See at Zermatt occupies a hollow in 
 moraine material, and its immediate surroundings 
 are tame, but the view of the Ober-Gabelhorn as 
 seen from the end opposite the little chapel is very 
 impressive. (See plate.) 
 
160 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 When a region has been recently raised above 
 sea-level, lakes may be formed in inequalities of the 
 former sea-floor. 
 
 Again we may find the barrier blocking the stream 
 of a valley, and giving rise to a lake which drains 
 over the barrier, but unless the barrier is prolonged 
 for some distance down the valley, or is composed 
 of hard rock, lakes of this character are apt to be 
 short-lived, for the water issuing from the lake erodes 
 the barrier, and the lake is drained. At other times 
 the water runs between the barrier and the original 
 surface slope, and a barrier of this nature is also 
 readily destructible. If the barrier be raised to a 
 sufficient height, the lake level may be raised so 
 that the water reaches a col which is at a lower 
 level than the lowest part of the barrier, and lakes of 
 this nature will, from the circumstances of the case, 
 be much more permanent than those which have 
 an outlet over a dam of more or less incoherent 
 material. 
 
 We may now consider the nature of the material 
 which may accumulate to form a dam sufficient to 
 give rise to a lake. In the first place, we may take 
 the case of ice, for though an icy dam is naturally 
 unstable, ice-barred lakes present many features of 
 interest. Avalanches of ice falling from the terminal 
 cliff of a glacier may accumulate across a valley 
 bottom to form a dam, which will allow the waters 
 of a temporary lake to collect above it, as happened 
 in 1818 in the valley of the Dranse, which was 
 blocked by ice fragments falling from the Getroz 
 glacier, giving rise to a lake, the subsequent bursting 
 of which caused a disastrous flood in the Rhone 
 valley. At the junction of two glaciers a hollow 
 
LAKES 161 
 
 may be formted between the glaciers and the rock, 
 and a lake may be situated in this hollow, the water 
 being supplied by the melting of the ice. The lake 
 will probably be very variable, and sometimes empty, 
 the variations in height being largely due to escape 
 of the water through fissures in the ice. The little 
 Lac du Tacul, at the junction of the two great feeders 
 of the Mer de Glace at Chamonix namely, the 
 Glacier de Lechaud and the Glacier du Geant is 
 of this character. 
 
 Of greater interest are the lakes which are held 
 up by a barrier of ice, of which the lowest part is at 
 a higher level than a neighbouring col. Lakes formed 
 in these circumstances 'may also be drained at inter- 
 vals through fissures in the ice, but when water 
 accumulates it can only reach a certain level, namely, 
 that of the limiting col, and there is a tendency to 
 form a beach line at that level. The classic example 
 of a lake of this character is the well-known Marjelen 
 See, at the elbow of the great Aletsch glacier. The 
 glacier dams a tributary valley between the ^Eggisch- 
 horn and the Valliser Viescherhorner, and the water 
 which accumulates in this valley forms a lake, which, 
 when full, used to drain naturally over a col into the 
 adjoining valley occupied by the Viesch glacier. The 
 little icebergs detached from the icy precipice over- 
 looking the lake, and floating on its bosom, give rise 
 to a scene of much beauty. The lake is shown in 
 the plate. 
 
 Similar lakes on a larger scale, some of them 
 being from twenty to thirty miles in length, are 
 formed where the termination of the Greenland 
 inland ice blocks valleys near the west coast. East 
 of the Frederikshaab glacier the lake of Tasersuak, 
 
 M 
 
1 62 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 some miles in length, is situated in a valley stopped 
 at both ends by ice ; and to the north of the same 
 glacier another valley is not only blocked by ice at 
 its lower end, but a tongue of ice flows over a col 
 in the centre and splits the lake into two, separated 
 by a mass of ice. Further north are several large 
 lakes, one apparently about fifteen miles long, which 
 are blocked at their lower ends, and the water flows 
 to the sea over cols situated at the heads of the 
 valleys. The terraces formed by these lakes may 
 form conspicuous objects in the landscape when the 
 ice has vanished. It is well known that many 
 writers have advocated the formation of the famous 
 Parallel Roads of Glen Roy in this manner. 
 
 In Alaska some of the glaciers are in a very 
 peculiar condition, which will be more fully con- 
 sidered in the chapters devoted to the scenic effects 
 of ice. One of the results of this condition is, that 
 the ice, while moving down the valleys, receives no 
 addition from snow-fields at the head, and accord- 
 ingly the tops of the valleys are free of ice. This 
 is seen in some of the valleys which slope down to 
 the Muir glacier, and the upper parts of these valleys 
 are occupied by lakes, which are supported by the 
 barrier of ice below. Berg Lake, formed in this 
 way, is four miles long ; and Main Lake, which runs 
 across Main Valley, has a length of about seven 
 miles. 1 
 
 In passing to the consideration of more permanent 
 barriers, we may commence with one of the most 
 durable, namely, lava poured out from a volcano, and 
 crossing a valley, as described in the case of the 
 
 1 GUSHING, H. P., "Notes on the Muir Glacier Region, Alaska," 
 Amer. Geologist ', October, 1891. 
 
LAKES 163 
 
 river Simeto. It is obvious that the drainage may 
 be ponded back by the barrier, and a lake formed. 
 M. Delabecque, in his work on the lakes of France, 
 mentions one or two lakes which were formed in 
 this manner, including the Lac d'Aydat, near Cler- 
 mont-Ferrand, dammed by a basaltic flow from the 
 Puy de Lassolas. In rare cases a volcano may 
 actually be formed at the bottom of a valley in such 
 a position as to form a dam. Two possible cases are 
 cited and figured by Delabecque, namely, the case of 
 Lake Chambon, near Clermont-Ferrand, and that of 
 Montcyneire. 
 
 The remaining barriers to be considered are formed 
 by the accumulation of more or less incoherent 
 material, and accordingly, as above stated, the lakes 
 are usually short-lived, unless the barrier is so high 
 that the drainage is diverted over a col formed of 
 harder rock. 
 
 Landslips may, and often do, give rise to lakes, 
 for the amount of material is often so great, and the 
 barrier is formed so suddenly, that the stream has 
 no time to keep a passage open during the formation 
 of the barrier. It may be remarked in this place 
 that the lakes formed by incoherent barriers, and 
 having their exits over the barriers, often have a 
 longer existence than they would otherwise have, 
 because the sediment of the river is deposited in the 
 lake, and the issuing stream, being deprived of sedi- 
 ment, is incapable of producing much corrasion in 
 a short time even if its bed be composed of more or 
 less incoherent materials. The Lake of Derborence, 
 to the north-west of Sion, in the upper part of the 
 Rhone valley, is a good example of a lake formed 
 by a landslip. It came into existence in 1749 as 
 
1 64 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the result of a landslip from the Diablerets, and is 
 blocked by a dam composed of huge angular frag- 
 ments. 
 
 Near the sea-shore extensive sheets of water are 
 often formed by the formation of barriers composed 
 of beach deposit or blown sand. On the Atlantic 
 and Mediterranean coasts of France a number of 
 shallow lakes and lakelets exist, known as etangs, 
 some of which are due to beach barriers, others to 
 dams of blown sand, and some, as shown by Dela- 
 becque, belong to a different class, being caused 
 to a large extent by subterranean solution. He 
 mentions the ttangs of Kerloch and Kergalan, on the 
 Atlantic coast, and all those situated between Cape 
 Bear and the Etang de 1'Estomac, as well as that 
 of Pesquiers, near Hyeres, as being due to barriers 
 of beach, while several on the coast of Morbihan, 
 and all those between the Pointe de Grave and the 
 " falaises " of Biarritz, are due to barriers of blown 
 sand. The actual origin of these barriers, composed 
 of sea-beach and sand-dune, will be considered in 
 later chapters. 
 
 River deposits of organic and inorganic origin may 
 form barriers which hold up lakes. Sir A. Geikie 
 records the work of the beaver, which "by cutting 
 down trees (sometimes one foot or more in diameter) 
 and constructing dams with the stem and branches 
 checks the flow of watercourses, intercepts floating 
 materials, and sometimes even diverts the water into 
 new channels. This action is typically displayed in 
 Canada and .in the Rocky Mountain regions of the 
 United States. Thousands of acres in many valleys 
 have been converted into lakes." 1 
 
 ] GEIKIE, Sir A., Text-book of Geology, 3rd edition, p. 474. 
 
LAKES 165 
 
 The formation of crescentic lakes owing to wind- 
 ing rivers in an alluvial plain, forming "cuts-off" 
 and leaving the old windings as lakes and pools, was 
 described in Chapter IX. It is to be noted that the 
 water occupied its position before the formation of 
 the barrier. The same is the case with the " broads " 
 of Norfolk, whose origin is somewhat similar, though 
 more complex. Their formation has been described 
 by Dr. J. W. Gregory, and a reference to the litera- 
 ture of the subject will be found at the end of his 
 paper. 1 He gives reason to suppose that the East 
 Anglian rivers once opened into large estuaries like 
 those of the Tees, Tyne, Thames, and the Wash and 
 Humber. Owing to the peculiar tidal movement off 
 the East Anglian coast, which comes from the north 
 through a narrowing sea, the sediment is piled up by 
 the tides on the north side of the mouths of the East 
 Anglian rivers, and forms breakwaters, by which the 
 force of the current of the rivers is checked, and they 
 deposit their load of material against the inner side 
 of these breakwaters, thus causing the estuaries to 
 become silted up from their seaward terminations, 
 instead of at the head only. This tract of silt "would, 
 by the continuation of these operations, work its way 
 gradually backward up the estuary, leaving a great 
 sheet of water separated from the sea by a bank of 
 alluvium ; of this Breydon Water may be the dimi- 
 nished representative. But as the land worked further 
 backward it would cross the entrance of branches of 
 the estuary ; the sediment would be carried along 
 the central channel, upon the sides of which it would 
 be deposited ; it could thus cut off the branches 
 either entirely, as in the case of Fritton Lake, or 
 1 GREGORY, J. W., Natural Science, vol. i. (1892), p. 347. 
 
1 66 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 connected by a channel just sufficient for the escape 
 of the surplus rainfall, as does the memorable Muck 
 Fleet for the three great sheets of Rollesby, Ormesby, 
 and Filby Broads." The barriers are increased and 
 compacted by the abundant growth of marsh vegeta- 
 tion upon them. 
 
 Dr. Gregory also points out that those broads which 
 lie along the courses of the main rivers are more 
 complicated. One large broad is formed at first, and 
 the main river forms a delta at its entrance. This 
 delta grows outward along the course of the river, 
 the sediment being strained off by the vegetation 
 which grows on the banks formed on either side of 
 the current. By degrees this barrier is formed right 
 across the original broad, dividing it into two, and 
 the process of subdivision may take place more than 
 once. In this way he accounts for the formation of 
 Wroxham Broad, and of six other broads to the 
 east of it, along the course of the river Bure, all 
 having been formed by the subdivision of one 
 original large broad. 
 
 In the case of upland streams, lakes and tarns may 
 be formed by the deposition of a delta by one stream 
 where it enters another, if the main stream has not 
 sufficient volume to carry away the sediment brought 
 by the tributary. Anyone who has walked from 
 Borrowdale to.Wastdale, in the Lake District, over 
 the Sty Head Pass, will remember a small tarn, Sty 
 Head Tarn, near the head of the pass on the Borrow- 
 dale side (see plate). It is barred by a delta descending 
 from the two Gables, and as the small stream into 
 which it flows has no great volume, it has been 
 unable to carry away the material brought down the 
 Gables' slope, and the accumulated delta has driven 
 
; : R A /f ^ ^ 
 
LAKES 16; 
 
 the main stream some way back and formed a 
 barrier, which holds up the tarn, the waters from 
 which now escape by a channel running between the 
 margin of the delta and the solid rock on the other 
 side. Lakes may be formed in this manner on a 
 fairly large scale, especially when the upper waters 
 of the main river are deflected by beheading, and 
 accordingly the stream, owing to diminished volume, 
 loses much of its transporting power. 
 
 It may be stated here that these deltaic barriers 
 may in mountain regions resemble moraines so 
 closely that it requires considerable care to dis- 
 tinguish them. The late Professor J. D. Forbes 1 
 writes : 
 
 "Between St. Nicholas and Randa several wild and 
 bridgeless torrents have to be crossed, which, in bad 
 weather, must make this route., nearly impassable. 2 I 
 noticed particularly the mode 'in which a violent torrent 
 accumulates boulders, forming a mound of blocks on either 
 hand, which serves, in some measure, to restrain its fury, 
 whilst the level of its bed is continually raised by the 
 detritus which it accumulates ; and when, by extraordinary 
 freshes, the barrier is broken, the country on either side 
 is, of course, deluged. I only speak now of the wildest 
 and most powerful torrents descending at a great angle, 
 and which act sufficiently on blocks to roll them with the 
 aid of gravity for a great way, and chafe them into 
 irregularly rounded masses, with a noise which everyone 
 who has visited the Alps recalls as one of the most striking 
 of natural sounds, accompanied, as it always is, with an 
 impression of irresistible force. Now, these rocky accumu- 
 lations have a very striking resemblance to the moraines of 
 
 1 FORBES, J. D., A Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Kosa y p. 237. 
 
 2 This was written in 1855. 
 
1 68 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 glaciers, and this is a circumstance which it is well to be 
 aware of, and which has not, I think, been prominently 
 stated. In form these mounds resemble moraines, the 
 external, and even the internal slope, being in both cases 
 usually determined by the angle of repose of the blocks. 
 The materials of both are also alike; angular blocks, more 
 or less rounded by friction, never quite smoothed or 
 polished, angular gravel, and sharp sand. In the dis- 
 position of the materials I have not observed that regularity 
 of arrangement which is said to distinguish water action 
 from that of glaciers. On the contrary, the deposit of 
 these torrents seems to be wholly devoid of layers of 
 coarser or finer materials, and, as in true moraines, the 
 largest blocks often lie uppermost. I may mention the 
 great torrent descending from the Dent du Midi, which 
 devastates the country above St. Maurice, as another 
 example of this." 
 
 The dry deltas which descend from mountain 
 slopes only differ from torrent deltas in the inter- 
 mittent character of the water supply, and the falling 
 of blocks split off by frost and changes of tempera- 
 ture in the dry season. They are intermediate in 
 character between torrent deltas and screes, and may 
 form barriers supporting lakes in the same way. 
 
 Screes also act as barriers in the same way if some 
 of the material is sufficiently comminuted to prevent 
 the water from draining through the interstices be- 
 tween the larger blocks. The tarn known as Goats' 
 Water, on the side of the Old Man of Coniston, 
 in the Furness district of North Lancashire, is 
 dammed by screes, and I may call attention to two 
 other tarns formed in the same way, which admirably 
 illustrate the manner in which a lake supported by 
 a barrier may have its drainage diverted from the 
 
i-lFO 
 
SMALL WATER 
 
 HAWESWATER 
 
LAKES 169 
 
 barrier, so that it ultimately drains over bare rock. 
 One is situated in Ruthwaite Cove, a recess of 
 Helvellyn, and is known as Hard Tarn. It is quite 
 small and extremely shallow, but is surrounded by 
 solid rock on all sides except at the main exit, which 
 runs over a barrier of screes which has formed the 
 tarn. The water now stands at such a height that in 
 wet weather the water level stands just above a low 
 depression in the rock, and accordingly there is here 
 a wet-weather exit, along which a groove is being 
 cut by the water. As the growth of the screes 
 increases, the scree exit will be the wet -weather 
 exit, and the normal exit will be over the solid rock, 
 a state of things actually found in the tiny Ffynnon 
 Freeh, in Cwm Glas, on Snowdon, as described by 
 Mr. W. W. Watts. 1 The exit of each of these tarns 
 will ultimately abandon the dam, and exist perma- 
 nently over the solid rock, an event which has 
 happened in the case of a large number of similar 
 tarns and lakelets. 
 
 In many mountain regions the cwms and corries 
 are occupied by great snow-slopes during the winter 
 months. The fragments split from the cliffs above 
 by the action of the frost come flying down the 
 slopes, and form a crescentic barrier around the 
 mouth of the cwm, which may hold up the water to 
 form a tarn. Similar slopes on the sides of a hill 
 may block a valley just as a delta or slope of screes 
 does. The little tarn of Smallwater near Haweswater, 
 in Lakeland, shown in the plate, seems to be due to 
 this cause, and its exit is now permanently over solid 
 rock, with the somewhat remarkable consequence that 
 
 1 WATTS, W. W., "Notes on some Tarns near Snowdon,"^/. 
 Brit. Assoc. for 1895, p. 683. 
 
1 70 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the bottom of the original valley below the dam is 
 dry, and the present stream below the exit runs for 
 some distance in a shallow groove cut into the rock 
 of the hill-side some height above the valley bottom. 
 
 We must now consider the barriers formed of 
 glacial drift, which are the most important of the 
 many barriers due to accumulation of material across 
 a valley. A great number of lakes and tarns at 
 home and abroad owe their existence to a barrier 
 of this nature. I may mention Codale and Easedale 
 Tarns near Grasmere, Devoke Water between Esk- 
 dale and the Duddon valley, Burnmoor Tarn and 
 Sprinkling Tarn on Scawfell, Red Tarn and Keppel- 
 cove Tarn on Helvellyn, in Lakeland ; Llyn Goch, 
 Llyn Glas, and Llyn-y-nadroedd on the west side 
 of Snowdon, and Llyn d'ur Arddu on its north-west 
 side, in North Wales. Of larger lakes, Windermere, 
 Bassenthwaite, Ullswater, and Thirlmere in Lake- 
 land ; the lakes of Llanberis, Gwynant, and many 
 others, may also be due to great barriers of drift 
 extending far down the valleys. Delabecque cites 
 a number of French lakes formed by a similar 
 barrier, as the lakes of Chalain, Chambly, Nantua, 
 and others in the Jura, and Gerardmer, Longemer, 
 Blanchemer, among those of the Vosges. Some of 
 these lakes are produced by lateral moraines, others 
 by terminal moraines, and others again by the great 
 masses of " drift " which spread over extensive tracts 
 of country. 
 
 The statement that lakes may be blocked by 
 terminal moraines requires a word of explanation. 
 As an extensive torrent always issues from the end 
 of a glacier, it might be supposed that a passage 
 through the barrier would always be kept open. 
 
LAKES 171 
 
 No doubt this is often the case, but the stream does 
 not always cut down to the solid rock, for we often 
 find it rushing over moraine material for some distance 
 below the snout of the glacier, and on the recession 
 of the ice sufficient moraine may be left to form 
 a barrier supporting the waters of a lake, and, 
 secondly, even if the stream does cut through solid 
 rock, the point of issue of the stream need not be 
 situated just over the bottom of the original valley, 
 and here again a barrier of moraine may occur, which 
 gives rise to a lake. 
 
 The most striking tarns are those formed by a 
 dam of moraine at the mouth of a cwm, the com- 
 bination of lakelet and mural precipice being often 
 extremely picturesque. The finest tarn in the Lake 
 District, Bleawater Tarn, near Haweswater, forms 
 a nearly complete circle. The outer semicircle is 
 bordered by the retaining dam of moraine, while 
 the inner one is formed by the fine cliffs which rise 
 almost straight from the shores of the tarn, and tower 
 up many hundreds of feet to the ridge of High 
 Street. 
 
 Those lakes which were formed by drift, where the 
 exit was over the original valley bottom, are usually 
 drained quickly, as previously observed, and their 
 sites marked by peat mosses, and the number of 
 these moss-covered tracts in upland districts proves 
 that the tarns and lakelets which survive are but 
 a small proportion of those which once existed. 
 Of lakes blocked by drift, of which the exit is 
 now over solid rock, we may mention Burnmoor 
 Tarn, Codale Tarn, Small Water, and Harrop Tarn 
 in the Lake District, and of larger lakes Winder- 
 mere and Bassenthwaite. Delabecque has shown 
 
i;2 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 that Longemer, in the Vosges, has a similar 
 structure. 
 
 A word of explanation concerning the character 
 of the drift-filled valleys is necessary. In many 
 cases they are wide as compared with their depth, 
 but in others we meet with depressions occupied 
 by drift at the surface, which are narrow and 
 tortuous, and if they are filled with drift to the 
 bottom, which is necessary in order that lakes 
 may be formed by them, the drift must be very 
 deep ; a depth of two or three hundred feet is 
 often necessary. The existence of such drift-filled 
 depressions may seem unlikely, but it must be re- 
 membered that in a glaciated region the waters of 
 the streams issuing from the glacier are charged with 
 abundance of minute angular particles of sediment, 
 which are capable of cutting like a file, and these 
 rivers must produce great vertical corrasion. Accord- 
 ingly we frequently find that the valleys which have 
 been occupied by ice comparatively recently are wide 
 where the ice has recently receded, but that lower 
 down the rivers which flow from the glaciers -drain 
 through extremely narrow gorges cut out by the 
 streams, to which Desor has given the name roflas. 
 The gorge of the Trient, near Vernayaz, in the Upper 
 Rhone valley, is an example ; and many others 
 occur. 
 
 If ice passed over these gorges, they would readily 
 become filled with drift, especially if the ice moved 
 transversely to their general direction, and when 
 filled up their detection might be a matter of some 
 difficulty. 
 
 There is one particular case in which glacial drift 
 may produce a barrier under somewhat exceptional 
 
LAKES 173 
 
 circumstances which must be noticed. It has been 
 seen that much of the drainage in a limestone region 
 is subterranean. Suppose a stream to fall down a 
 swallow-hole. The stream above the swallow -hole 
 will erode its channel and gradually lower it, and 
 if the swallow-hole should slant downwards, a portion 
 of the limestone above it may become engulfed. 
 Eventually the stream will fall into the hole at some 
 distance below the general level of the surface. If 
 the swallow -hole be partly or entirely rilled up in 
 any way, the subterranean drainage may be stopped 
 or checked to such an extent that the whole of the 
 water cannot be carried underground, when it will 
 accumulate in the old channel to form a lake, until 
 it reaches a level at which it can overflow. M. 
 Penck has suggested that in regions which were 
 formerly glaciated the orifice may be stopped with 
 impermeable morainic material, forming a barrier. 
 In this manner M. Delabecque explains the 
 formation of the remarkable Lake Chaillexon, 
 forming a part of the course of the Doubs, in the 
 Jura, which is shown in Figs. 49, -53, and 104 of 
 his work on the French lakes, while a plan is 
 given in Plate VII. The lake is deepest at its lower 
 end, where a submerged swallow-hole having a depth 
 of 3i| metres occurs. The lake itself is sinuous 
 in form, its banks rising in precipices of limestone 
 on either side, with the corresponding beds easily 
 recognisable in each precipitous cliff. 
 
 It is clear that the blocking of the swallow-hole 
 by drift is not essential to the formation of a lake 
 in a region of fissured limestone ; if the swallow-hole 
 in any way becomes too small to allow the whole 
 of the drainage to be carried away underground, a 
 
1/4 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 lake will result, though glacial drift is likely to 
 form the most efficient plug in closing or partially 
 closing the orifice. 
 
 (ii) Lakes formed by differential movement of por- 
 tions of the earth's crust may now be considered. 
 Before discussing the formation of lakes owing to 
 extensive movements of the earth's crust, produced 
 by deep-seated changes, we may mention the origin 
 of certain lakes produced by sinking of the super- 
 ficial portion of the crust owing to the solution 
 and removal of material beneath. We have already 
 taken into account the action of acidulated water 
 upon limestone rocks, and have seen that one of the 
 effects was the giving way of the roofs of under- 
 ground caverns, producing hollows above. These 
 hollows would be admirably adapted for the for- 
 mation of lakes were it not for the fissured nature 
 of the limestone, which, as a general rule, permits 
 the underground drainage of the water which would 
 otherwise accumulate in the hollow, and give rise to 
 a lake; and accordingly lakes formed by underground 
 solution and removal of limestone appear to be 
 comparatively rare, and lakes formed by solution 
 of material beneath the surface are more frequently 
 produced if rock-salt or gypsum be the material 
 removed. Some writers have referred the formation 
 of certain Cheshire meres to the solution of rock- 
 salt, and it is a fact that the artificial removal of 
 this material in the form of brine . by introduction 
 of water and artificial removal of the brine by 
 pumping has caused serious subsidence in the 
 Cheshire district, with occasional formation of sheets 
 of water in the hollows. Many writers have referred 
 the production of various lakes in Switzerland to 
 
LAKES 175 
 
 underground solution. M. Delabecque quotes cases 
 of several lakes which he considers to be probably 
 formed in this manner, for instance the Lac de la 
 Girotte, the lakes of Tipies, and the Lac du Mont 
 Cenis. It is, of course, difficult to obtain definite 
 proofs that lakes have been formed in this manner, 
 as the proofs are concealed beneath the ground ; 
 but when lakes are found in districts which are 
 known to contain deposits of gypsum, rock-salt, 
 or dolomite, and the origin of the lakes by any 
 other process is not indicated, it is legitimate to 
 attribute them, with a certain amount of probability, 
 to the solvent action of underground waters upon 
 the above-mentioned salts. 
 
 Mr. Garwood has furnished me with an illustration 
 of a lake the production of which he refers to under- 
 ground solution. (See plate.) This is the Lago dell' 
 Inferno, at the foot of the Tre Signiori, a true 
 rock - basin holding a lake about half a mile in 
 length, and of considerable, though unknown, depth ; 
 the rocky barrier round the lake is well seen in the 
 photograph. 
 
 We now arrive at the consideration of the lakes 
 which show evidence of - existence owing to the 
 occurrence of those more widely spread foldings and 
 fractures of the earth's crust whose nature we con- 
 sidered when discussing the character of continental 
 and mountain uplifts. 
 
 The differential movement which results in bend- 
 ing of the earth's crust, accompanied by occasional 
 fracture, is spoken of by the American geologists 
 as "warping," the idea being that the crust of the 
 earth becomes warped, just as the cover of a book 
 when held in front of the fire. Now it is clear that 
 
176 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 if warping occurred in such a way as to cause the 
 bending up of the portion of the earth's crust in the 
 lower part of a valley, and if the stream was unable 
 to keep its original channel open by downward 
 corrasion, a lake would be produced by the process 
 of ponding, in the manner described in the preceding 
 chapter. It is clear that there is no a priori objection 
 to the formation of lakes in this manner, and it 
 remains for us to see whether we have any indis- 
 putable evidence of lake formation by the ponding 
 process. 
 
 One objection to the extensive formation of lakes 
 by this process was long ago made by Sir A. C. 
 Ramsay, who pointed out that a vast majority 
 of lakes occur in regions which can be proved to 
 have been glaciated in geologically recent times, 
 whereas, if a majority be due to ponding, no such 
 connection should be traceable. We have already 
 seen that the formation of glacial dams may account 
 for many lakes, and the association of lakes existing 
 in live rock basins and not held up by a dam of 
 accumulation, with glacial phenomena, was long ago 
 satisfactorily explained by Lyell, who pointed out 
 that ponding might be prevented in ordinary regions 
 by the rivers keeping their waterways open during 
 the period of uplift, whereas, if the uplifted tract 
 were covered by ice and the latter were unable to 
 corrade to the same extent as water, the barriers 
 could be formed, and on the recession of the ice 
 the rock basins would be ready for the reception 
 of water to form lakes. 1 We shall eventually call 
 attention to the evidence which has been gathered 
 during recent years bearing upon the erosive power 
 
 1 LYELL, Sir C. , Antiquity of Man, 4th edition, p. 360. 
 
LAKES 177 
 
 of ice, which points to the comparative impotence 
 of ice as an erosive agent. 
 
 No one has ever seriously called into question the 
 supposition that a large number of the great lake 
 basins of the world originated as the result of 
 differential earth movement. Among the basins 
 which have been formed in this way are those of 
 the Aralo-Caspian area, the Dead Sea, the large 
 lakes of the interior of Africa, and those which 
 occupy the Great Basin region of North America. 
 These lakes, though their origin is generally similar, 
 vary in matters of detail. Some of the fresh-water 
 lakes of Africa may have been produced by con- 
 version of part of the ocean floor into land, for Mr. 
 Edgar A. Smith has found shells allied to marine 
 forms in the slightly brackish waters of Tanganyika, 
 while others have probably been at no time con- 
 nected with the ocean, but are due to the formation 
 of basins by warping, the basins being afterwards 
 filled with fresh water. Dr. Gregory has described 
 some of the African lakes as occurring in a great 
 depression, bounded by steep parallel sides, due to 
 faulting. 1 " From the Lebanons . . . almost to the 
 Cape there runs a valley, unique both on account 
 of the persistence with which it maintains its trough- 
 like form throughout the whole of its course of 4000 
 miles, and also on account of the fact that scattered 
 along its floor is a series of over thirty lakes, of 
 which only one has an outlet to the sea." The 
 lakes of the Aralo-Caspian area were undoubtedly 
 once connected with the open ocean, and have been 
 separated from it by uplift, for Some of them still 
 have seals living in their waters, whereas we find 
 
 1 GREGORY, J. W., The Great Rift Valley (1896). 
 
 N 
 
i;8 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 evidence that the salt lakes of the Great Basin region 
 of North America have at no time had any con- 
 nection with the ocean. These lakes of the Great 
 Basin of America are of peculiar interest on account 
 of the very valuable detailed accounts of their 
 characters and origin which we owe to the labours 
 of the United States geological and geographical 
 surveyors, and especially to G. K. Gilbert and I. C. 
 Russell, whose monographs on the old lakes of 
 Lahontan and Bonneville contain a host of infor- 
 mation of the greatest importance to the student 
 of the earth's history. 1 The region of the Great 
 Basin extends from the British possessions on the 
 north to Mexico on the south, and though two rivers 
 traverse it on their way to the ocean, the greater part 
 of the area has no drainage to the ocean, and is 
 occupied by barren tracts scattered over which are 
 salt lakes. The old lakes of Bonneville and Lahontan 
 have now disappeared owing to change of climate, 
 but evidence of their former existence is furnished, 
 among other things, by old lake shores at different 
 levels. Each of these shores was naturally at a 
 constant level when it was formed, but Gilbert and 
 Russell have shown that they have since been bent 
 by warping, so that the level of each terrace varies as 
 one traces it laterally, and sometimes the change is 
 sudden and marked by a fault scarp. The upper 
 terraces have been deformed to a greater extent than 
 the lower ones, showing that the process of warping 
 has continued through long periods, and there is no 
 doubt that the basin as a whole, as well as the two 
 
 1 GILBERT, G. K., Lake Bonneville^ and RUSSELL, I. C., Geological 
 History of Lake Lahontan, monographs U.S. Geol. Survey, 1890 and 
 1885. 
 
LAKES 179 
 
 great lakes which once existed in it, whose history 
 has been written, originated owing to the warping 
 action. 
 
 Similar movements have also occurred around the 
 great fresh - water lakes of Canada, as shown by 
 Gilbert and more lately by Dr. J. W. Spencer, the 
 deformation of the Iroquois beach around Lake 
 Ontario and of the Algonquin beach surrounding 
 Lake Huron being specially marked. 1 The origin 
 of the Canadian lakes is, however, still somewhat 
 obscure, as great changes in the drainage have been 
 produced by glacial interference, to such an extent, 
 indeed, that some writers have advocated the forma- 
 tion of the basins solely as the result of the produc- 
 tion of glacial dams, though most students of these 
 lakes consider their existence to be due to the opera- 
 tion of warping accompanied by glacial interference, 
 the latter having caused diversion of drainage. 
 
 The origin of the Jordan depression and the Dead 
 Sea is, as already stated, connected with that of the 
 African lakes lying along the line of the Great Rift. 
 Another fairly large lake, though a shallow one, 
 which has been satisfactorily proved to be due to 
 differential movement, is Lake Balaton (the Flatten 
 See), in Hungary. 2 
 
 The origin of the great lakes which flank the Alps 
 has been much discussed, and most writers are now 
 agreed that they owe their existence chiefly to differ- 
 ential movement, though complications have also 
 been produced by glacial interference with the river 
 
 1 SPENCER, J. W., "Origin of the Basins of the Great Lakes of 
 America," Quart. Jozir. GeoL Soc., vol. xlvi., p. 523. 
 
 2 An account of this by Professor J. W. JUDD will be found in the 
 Geological Magazine, decade ii., vol. iii., p. 5. 
 
i8o SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 drainage. The lakes differ in some respects ; thus 
 Neuchatel, Bienne, Morat, and the lower portion of 
 Geneva run parallel with the axis of a great syncli- 
 nal fold or trough, while Thun and Brienz, Zug, 
 Zurich, Wallensee, Constance, Como, Maggiore, 
 Orta, and Lugano occupy valleys which are trans- 
 verse to the main axes of folding. The transverse 
 lakes, as pointed out by Heim, may be due to the 
 sinking down of the great mass of the Alps by 
 its own weight, causing relative depression of the 
 heads of the valleys, though the shape of Como 
 and Lugano suggests that they were formed in 
 valleys which once ran northward. Deformation 
 of terraces has also been noted in the case of the 
 Alpine lakes ; Heim and Aeppli record them on 
 the sides of Zurich. 
 
 The existence of large lakes owing to earth move- 
 ment has been satisfactorily proved, but it is a matter 
 of considerable interest to inquire whether small lakes 
 can be produced in the same manner. Minor move- 
 ments in a direction transverse to a river valley are 
 not likely to give rise to lakes if they take place 
 slowly, as the rivers would keep their courses open, 
 unless indeed the valleys were occupied by ice, but 
 sudden changes, such as are productive of earth- 
 quakes, might well cause the required uplift. Mr. 
 R. D. Oldham has observed cases of the formation 
 of small rock basins which hold up lakes in the 
 district affected by the great Indian earthquake of 
 June 1 2th, 1897. These lakes occur in granite rocks. 
 Through the kindness of Mr. Oldham, I am able to 
 reproduce a photograph of a lake formed during this 
 earthquake. (See plate.) This particular lake (Thirn 
 Hat, Garo Hills) is formed owing to the existence of 
 
UNt 
 
LAKES 181 
 
 a visible fault, but some smaller lakes which he has 
 observed, occurring in true rock basins, which were 
 formed during this earthquake, show no external 
 signs of faulting, as, for example, Naphak, in the 
 Garo Hills. 
 
 The existence of small rock basins due to earth- 
 quake action is of great importance, and the possi- 
 bility of the operation of earthquakes should be 
 taken into consideration in discussing the origin of 
 all lakes, large or small, which can be definitely 
 proved to occur in basins margined by live rock 
 around the entire sheet of water. 
 
 (iii) Crater Lakes. The formation of volcanic 
 craters will be described in its proper place ; it is 
 sufficient to mention here that they may be formed 
 as the result of accumulation, or of explosion, or 
 of a combination of the two processes, and when 
 the volcano is extinct, if the crater has not been 
 breached or destroyed, and the material is not too 
 porous to allow water to accumulate within it, a 
 lake will be formed. Many well-known examples 
 of crater lakes exist in various parts of the world, 
 as the Lucrine lake and Avernus in the Phlegraean 
 fields of Italy, the Laacher See in the Rhenish 
 provinces, Gustavila in Mexico, of which a repre- 
 sentation is given in Professor Judd's Volcanoes 
 (Fig. 72), and especially those of Auvergne and 
 Ardeche, which are described and illustrated by 
 M. Delabecque. Six of them are shown in plan 
 on Plate XIV. of his work on the lakes of France, 
 namely, Lacs d'Issarles, du Bouchet, de la Godi- 
 velle d'en Haut, Chauvet, de Tazanat, and Pavin. 
 They present a remarkably regular circular outline, 
 and the isobaths, or lines of equal depth, are also 
 
i82 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 extremely regular. The largest of the six, Lac 
 d'Issarles, has a depth of 108 metres, and the 
 comparatively small Pavin, with a diameter of about 
 800 metres, has a depth of 92 metres. A figure 
 of the Lac du Bouchet is seen on p. 276 of the 
 same work. Of the Lac d'Issarles the late Mr. 
 G. P. Scrope writes that it is one of those lakes 
 which " differ from ordinary craters, not only in their 
 greater dimensions, but in the nature also and dis- 
 position of their enclosure, which is usually of 
 primary or, at all events, pre-existing rocks, merely 
 sprinkled more or less copiously with scoriae and 
 puzzolana, little, if at all, elevated above the surface 
 of the surrounding country." 
 
 (iv) Lakes formed by Erosion. We now turn to 
 the consideration of the formation of lakes by 
 processes concerning which there has been a great 
 deal of controversy. The agents which have been 
 suggested as capable of forming rock basins by 
 erosion of some of the surface material are wind, 
 running water, and ice in the form of ice-sheets and 
 glaciers. According to Gilbert, a number of small 
 depressions are formed in the Colorado region by 
 the action of wind upon rocks devoid of vegetation, 
 and Pumpelly describes similar depressions occurring 
 in the crystalline rocks of the region between the 
 Siberian frontier and the Great Wall of China, which 
 he attributes to the removal of weathered rock by 
 wind-action. 1 
 
 In a humid climate it is well known that rocks 
 
 are weathered unequally according to the amount 
 
 of vegetation which covers them. If a fairly flat 
 
 surface, diversified by small slopes, is formed of 
 
 1 See DELABECQUE, Les Lacs Fran fats, p. 313. 
 
LAKES 183 
 
 rock which is mostly bare, especially if the rock 
 contains much soluble material, as in the case of 
 many igneous rocks, the lichens, liverworts, and 
 mosses, which retain the moisture, and hold it 
 against the rock, at the same time supplying it 
 by their decay with solvent organic acids, eat their 
 way into the rock, and furnish a superficial soil, in 
 which grass, heather, and other plants grow, and 
 allow the process to continue on a larger scale. 
 If for any reason the conditions should change 
 and the vegetation die, the vegetable matter and 
 decomposed rock beneath may be removed by the 
 wind, giving rise to a small rock basin. Little 
 basins of this character, a few feet or yards in 
 diameter, are often met with in the English Lake 
 District in every stage of formation. In some 
 cases we may strip off the vegetation, and find the 
 depression beneath, often containing some incoherent 
 weathered rock particles ; at other times most of 
 the vegetation has disappeared, and only a little 
 peaty material is left at the bottom of a pool. 
 How far this process is responsible for the for- 
 mation of pools of any size is unknown, but it 
 should be taken into account when discussing the 
 origin of small rock basins. 
 
 The other agent which has been considered 
 capable of producing rock basins, often of consider- 
 able size, is ice, and it is necessary to refer to this 
 at some length. 
 
 M. G. de Mortillet in 1859 suggested that the 
 Alpine lakes had been filled up with alluvial deposits 
 and afterwards excavated by glacial action ; and in 
 the same year the late Sir Andrew Ramsay put 
 forward his well-known theory that the basins had 
 
1 84 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 been scooped out of the solid rock by glacial 
 action, and afterwards applied the theory to account 
 for lakes in various regions, including even the 
 great fresh - water lakes of Canada. Evidence in 
 support of this theory was subsequently advanced 
 by many writers, among whom special mention 
 may be made of Mr. Clifton Ward, whose work on 
 the lakes of English Lakeland was distinguished by 
 the care which marked all the work of this lamented 
 geologist, whose labours have been fitly recorded 
 by Canon Rawnsley in his Literary Reminiscences 
 of the Lake District. Many writers have attacked 
 the theory from various points of view, and even 
 at the present day there is a considerable diversity 
 of opinion as to the capacity of ice to excavate 
 rock basins, some denying it in toto, while others, 
 admitting its power to hollow out small basins, as 
 those in which many of our upland tarns lie, or 
 even the larger lakes of an area like North Wales, 
 deny its power to form basins like those in which 
 the waters of the greater Alpine lakes are upheld. 
 
 We shall have occasion to speak about the asserted 
 erosive power of ice in a chapter devoted to con- 
 sideration of glaciers, and in the meantime may 
 observe that in order to prove that ice can excavate 
 a basin we must show, first, that the actual rock 
 basin exists, and, secondly, that it cannot have been 
 formed in any other way than by the erosive action 
 of ice, which, by the way, will probably be found 
 to be a matter of considerable difficulty. Not only 
 must the contour of the lake shores be examined, 
 but a complete survey of the subaqueous contours 
 is also necessary. In only a few cases has this 
 been done, notably by Mill and Delabecque ; and 
 
LAKES 185 
 
 we shall consider the results of their work and its 
 bearing upon the question of glacial erosion in the 
 succeeding chapter. In the meantime we may call 
 attention to recent writings where the existence of 
 rock basins of small size has been asserted, which 
 it is difficult to account for as being produced by 
 earth movement (though Mr. Oldham's observations 
 on the rock basins produced by the Assam earth- 
 quake of 1897 must always be borne in mind). I 
 mention recent writings only, because those who 
 have studied these basins in recent years have been 
 fully alive to the importance of establishing the 
 existence of live rock all round the basin, and not 
 merely where the stream issues from the lake, an 
 occurrence which was wont to satisfy many of the 
 earlier writers upon the origin of lakes that they 
 were dealing with live rock basins, though we have 
 had occasion to notice that the water often issues 
 over rock as the result of diversion of drainage by 
 glacial or other interference, and accordingly the 
 dam of accumulated material may occur at any 
 point around the margin of the lake. 
 
 Mr. H. P. Gushing, in a description of the Muir 
 glacier of Alaska, 1 describes a number of diminutive 
 pools on the tops of low hills near the termination 
 of the glacier, some of the hills projecting from its 
 mass. The pools are very shallow, and only a 
 few yards in diameter ; and though the shores of 
 some are partly formed of glacial debris, "some 
 of them clearly occupy rock basins, rock in places 
 being readily traced all round them." He states 
 that all the basins which he saw " lie in small 
 valleys on the mountain - tops, whose presence 
 1 GUSHING, H. P., American Geologist, 1891. 
 
1 86 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 seemed to depend on the fissure systems and on 
 the varying depths to which loosening of blocks 
 had taken place " ; and further, " That the glacier 
 has done little more than to remove the loosened 
 rock and polish the resulting surface is shown in 
 a vast number of localities." The ice in this case 
 appears to have removed blocks which had become 
 detached as the result of weathering. 
 
 A paper by Professor Bonney 1 is devoted to con- 
 sideration of " Some Small Lake Basins in the 
 Lepontine Alps." He gives proofs of the existence 
 of four rock basins holding the waters of the Lago 
 di Tremorgio, Lake Ritom, Lake Cadagno, and Lake 
 Tom, in the Val Bedretto and Val Piora. Sir John 
 Lubbock 2 remarks of two of these: "Some of the 
 smaller lakes in these regions, as, for instance, those 
 of Cadagno and Tremorgio, are * meres ' or lakes of 
 sinking, like those of Cheshire." But Professor 
 Bonney, though he speaks with extreme caution 
 concerning their origin, seems to admit the possi- 
 bility of their formation by glacial erosion. Of Lake 
 Ritom he writes : " This basin, then, the part which 
 lies below the present contour line of 6000 feet (in 
 round numbers), is the utmost that, in my opinion, 
 can possibly be attributed to the erosive action of 
 ice." 
 
 M. Delabecque, like Professor Bonney, is not a 
 believer in the efficacy of ice as a former of lake 
 basins on a large scale. In his work on the French 
 lakes, 3 when giving a summary of the various lakes 
 
 1 BONNEY, Professor T. G., Geological Magazine^ dec. iv., vol. v. 
 (1898), p. 15. 
 
 2 LUBBOCK, Sir J., The Seen ry of Switzerland, p. 448. 
 
 3 Les Lacs Franfais, p. 343. 
 
LAKES 187 
 
 of France formed in different ways, he concludes with 
 a list of lakes due to the excavation by glaciers of 
 the weathered parts of rocks, including all the lakes 
 which cannot be attributed to any of the other causes 
 which he has previously considered. The list is as 
 follows : 
 
 " In the (French) Alps : The lakes of Sept-Laux, the 
 principal lakes of the massif of Belledonne (except 
 Lake Robert), Lake Cornu, Lac de Rabuons, and 
 most of the lakes situated in the eruptive rocks and 
 crystalline schists. 
 
 " In the Jura : Lake de Paladru (?). 
 
 " In the Vosges : Lake de Retournemer. 
 
 "On the Central Plateau: Lake de la Cregut, de 
 Laspialade, many of the small lakes of the plateau 
 de FArtense, and of the neighbourhood of Riom-es- 
 Montagne. 
 
 " In the Pyrenees : Lacs d'Artouste, d'Arrius, de Migue- 
 lou, de Gaube, d'Estom, d'Espingou, de Saousat, 
 d'Oo, the lakes of Port de Venasque, Lac Bleu 
 or de Lesponne, the lakes of the massif of 
 Neouvieille and of Ca'illaouas, Naguille, Lanoux, 
 Garbet, Lers (?), Bassies, of the waste of Carlitte, 
 and generally the greater part of the lakes situated 
 on eruptive rocks and crystalline schists." 
 
 He concludes, " I need scarcely say in conclusion that 
 this list is far from being definite, and that the future 
 progress of geology will certainly modify it." 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 LAKES (Continued] 
 
 HITHERTO, while speaking of the origin of 
 lakes, we have said little of the nature of the 
 outlines of lake shores, or of the topography of their 
 basins, and we may now proceed to consider the 
 character of the shores and basins during different 
 periods of the existence of lakes. 
 
 Topographical Features of the Shores and Basins 
 of Lakes. The features of a lake depend, in the 
 first place, upon its origin, and, secondly, upon the 
 changes which have taken place after its formation, 
 some parts undergoing erosion, while others receive 
 deposit. The diversity in the structures of lakes, 
 due to difference of origin, has already been alluded 
 to in passing. A crater lake often presents a circular 
 outline, and may be very deep as compared with 
 its horizontal extent ; a lake of subsidence, due to 
 underground solution, may vary extensively both as 
 regards outline and nature of the hollow ; one formed 
 by erosion of a rock basin would present a general 
 basin-shaped cross-section ; lastly, lakes formed by 
 blocking of pre-existing valleys, whether by forma- 
 tion of dams of accumulation, or by differential uplift 
 in a direction transverse to the valley (or, what 
 comes to the same thing, sinking of the upper 
 portion of the valley in a downward direction), will 
 
 1 88 
 
LAKES 189 
 
 be distinguished by possessing a 'continuation of the 
 subaerial features of the valley sides beneath the 
 margin of the lake. These lakes are indeed drowned 
 portions of river valleys, and will at first possess the 
 physiographical features of such valleys, which may 
 be afterwards modified by erosion, and especially by 
 accumulation. We may consider, in the first place, 
 the subaqueous features of lakes of the last class, and 
 then refer to their marginal topography. The original 
 subaqueous features will naturally become masked in 
 lakes which have received a supply of sediment for 
 any length of time, and accordingly we cannot ex- 
 pect to find signs of features which were produced 
 by subaerial denudation before the formation of the 
 barrier in all lakes which form drowned parts of 
 former river valleys ; but we have several cases in 
 which these features are developed to a sufficient 
 extent to show that we are not dealing with ex- 
 amples of basins hollowed out by erosion. Dr. Mill's 
 work on the English Lake District brought to light 
 examples of submerged river valleys beneath the 
 waters of some of the lakes. In Windermere " a 
 channel about 100 yards wide . . ., commencing 
 off Ferry Head, runs close to the west shore, 
 and spreads out to nearly the full width of the 
 lake at Storr's Point. This channel suggests the 
 remnant of an old river valley by its narrow and 
 sinuous course." It has no doubt been modified by 
 subsequent accumulation of deposit. In the same 
 lake, a valley which enters near the head, in a direc- 
 tion at right angles to the long axis of the lake, is 
 continued beneath the water in Pull Bay ; and the 
 Troutbeck valley, on the east side, is also found to 
 run below the lake, though here the contour lines 
 
igo SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 are modified as the result of subsequent deposition. 
 Again, in Ullswater the Fusedale valley is submerged 
 where it joins the lake, as indicated by the course of 
 the sublacustrine contour lines around the bay at 
 Howtown. In Ullswater and Crummock are excellent 
 examples of subaqueous cliffs. Two soundings taken 
 near the head of the former lake, at a distance of six 
 feet from the shore, gave in one case a depth of 
 forty-four, in the other a depth of forty-eight, feet ; 
 and in Crummock, " at Plause Point, on the right, the 
 cliff ran sheer down, seventy feet being found eight 
 feet off the rock." The floors of Buttermere, Crum- 
 mock, and Wastwater are exceedingly flat for long 
 distances, and suggest the existence of submerged 
 alluvial flats formed before the conversion of valleys 
 into lakes. Again, the existence of the ice-smoothed 
 rock surfaces with a rough face on the lee sides, both 
 above and below water, on rocky islets, as seen in 
 Windermere and Ullswater, gives another example 
 of the identity of subaerial and sublacustrine scenery 
 in the case of the lakes of Lakeland. This identity 
 of the scenery above and below water is strong evi- 
 dence that the lakes of Lakeland are merely drowned 
 lower portions of river valleys. 
 
 More striking subaqueous features are found in the 
 Canadian lakes. Many of these have been recorded 
 by Dr. J. W. Spencer, 1 and some examples may 
 be quoted from his works. In Lake Ontario he 
 has "shown that a narrow buried channel, of 
 ninety fathoms depth or more, extends for about 
 
 1 See especially SPENCER, J. W., "A Short Study of the Features 
 of the Lower Great Lakes during the Great River Age," Proc. Amer. 
 Assoc. for Advancement of Science^ vol. xxx. ; also the same author, 
 Quart. Jour. Geol. Sac., vol. xlvi. 
 
LAKES 191 
 
 ninety miles from near Oswego to the seventy- 
 eighth meridian, and at a somewhat less depth 
 (seventy fathoms) to near the meridian of the 
 Niagara river. . . . From the Canadian shore the 
 lake bottom slopes gently, . . . but from the New 
 York side the slope for three or four miles is 
 double that on the northern side, and then comes 
 a plunge over the face of an escarpment. This 
 escarpment is quite comparable with a subaerial 
 escarpment, as that of the Niagara river. The 
 escarpment can be traced for nearly 100 miles." 
 Spencer has shown that Lakes Huron and Michi- 
 gan also possess the characters of drowned subaerial 
 valleys traversed by river systems. Huron possesses 
 a submerged escarpment, 300 to 450 feet high, facing 
 the north-east. Michigan "is in part bounded by 
 vertical submerged escarpments, one of which, upon 
 the eastern side, has a height of 500 feet." 
 
 Submerged valleys occur in Switzerland, at the 
 heads of Geneva and Constance, but Forel has shown 
 that these are due to deposition, and not to the 
 existence of drowned river valleys of erosion ; the 
 denser water of the river, charged with very fine 
 alluvial material, is bounded by walls of lighter water, 
 and where it meets with these, deposits its alluvium 
 in embankments which direct the course of the sub- 
 lacustrine stream. 1 
 
 The shore lines of lakes will at the outset be 
 determined by the existing nature of the ground 
 at the time of formation of the lake, in those lakes 
 which are due to the drowning of a subaerial surface 
 
 1 FOREL, F. A., Le Leman> vol. i., p. 385 ; and DELABECQUE, A., 
 Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, 4eme Periode, vol. i., 
 Geneva. 
 
IQ2 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 by formation of barriers. Accordingly the relation- 
 ship between depth and superficial extent will depend 
 upon the relation between width and depth of the 
 inequalities in which lakes are formed. Plateau lakes 
 on the whole will be comparatively shallow, valley 
 lakes comparatively deep. Moreover, the width of 
 the lake, as compared with its depth, will, in the case 
 of valley lakes, depend upon the character of the 
 valley. Wide shallow valleys will produce wide 
 shallow lakes ; deep narrow valleys will give rise to 
 deep and narrow sheets of water. Thus in the Lake 
 District the comparatively narrow valleys above 
 Ullswater and Windermere continue as deep and 
 narrow river-like lakes, while the wide shallow lower 
 part of Borrowdale is continued in the lakes of 
 Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite, which present the 
 same characteristics. 
 
 If the original valley was tortuous, the lake will 
 be tortuous, like our own Ullswater, and the lakes of 
 Lucerne, Como, and Maggiore. 
 
 Again, where tributaries have cut their valleys 
 down to the level of the main valley, lakes formed 
 by barriers will extend up the tributary valleys as 
 bays, the bay running up the tributary to a greater 
 or less extent according to the slope of the Thalweg. 
 If the slope is steep, the bay will be relatively small; 
 if gentle, the bay will form a deep indentation. Bays 
 of this character naturally become filled by sediment, 
 as we shall see presently, when the lake has existed 
 for some time, but if the supply of sediment be 
 small, and the bay large, the bay may remain for a 
 considerable period. The plateau tarns of Lakeland 
 and North Wales are frequently indented with small 
 bays, corresponding with minor valleys. Among 
 
LAKES 193 
 
 the larger lakes, we have already noticed the bays 
 extending up the Pullwyke and Troutbeck valleys 
 in Windermere, and the Fusedale valley at How- 
 town in Ulls water. In the Alpine region we may 
 notice the two arms of Lucerne occupying tributary 
 valleys, and the arm of Maggiore extending up the 
 Val d'Ossola. 
 
 The outlines of lakes forming drowned portions 
 of river valleys will at the outset be marked by 
 considerable irregularity, abrupt angles being fre- 
 quently observable where the original ground was 
 uneven. This may be seen at the present day with 
 the artificially raised Thirlmere, a useful object-lesson 
 furnished by the Manchester Corporation to show the 
 difference between a newly formed lake and one that 
 has adjusted itself to a stable condition. These 
 outlines will be subsequently modified as results of 
 erosion and deposition. 
 
 Erosion does not exert any profound effect upon 
 the shores of small lakes, though considerable erosive 
 action occurs on larger ones, causing gradual reces- 
 sion, especially of the more salient points of a lake 
 shore, with formation of cliffs. This is seen in the 
 large Canadian lakes, and also those of Sweden, which 
 are often stirred by storms of considerable violence. 
 Mill gives a figure in his work on the English lakes 
 showing effect of wave erosion on the incoherent 
 
 o 
 
 material of the Troutbeck delta at Windermere. 
 Small cliffs, simulating sea-cliffs, may be produced 
 by erosion, and a consideration of the formation of 
 cliffs may be deferred until we consider the action 
 of the sea. 
 
 The most marked changes are produced by accu- 
 mulation, which modifies to a very great extent the 
 o 
 
194 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 original outlines of a lake. Thus Mill has contrasted 
 the straight line of the south-east side of Hawes- 
 water, which is practically its primitive outline, with 
 the extremely sinuous north - western margin, pro- 
 duced by subsequent accumulation of deposit. 
 
 The -first accumulation to be considered is the 
 beach which surrounds a sheet of water. Now lake- 
 beaches merely differ from sea - beaches in the 
 absence of tidal action, and their essential features 
 are the same, and their structure and origin will 
 be more fully considered hereafter. It is sufficient 
 here to notice that beaches are formed by on-shore 
 travel of loose material, tending to fill up the hollows 
 between salient points by deposition of material, 
 which assumes a concave curve characteristic of 
 lakes which have adjusted themselves to conditions 
 of stability. The curvature of bays is one of the 
 most striking features in the scenery of a lake, and 
 the angular outlines of a recently dammed lake like 
 Thirlmere or the sheet of water at Tarn Howes, 
 near Coniston, form a marked contrast to the flow- 
 ing curves of a lake whose original angularities 
 have been replaced by the concavities due to beach 
 formation. The view of Haweswater in the accom- 
 panying plate shows the curved bays of the north- 
 western shore on the right, and the straight line of 
 the south-eastern shore on the left, of the figure. 
 
 Next we have the delta, formed where a stream 
 enters the lake. The velocity of the water is at once 
 checked on entering, and it deposits its material, 
 gradually converting a portion of the lake into a 
 flat tract of land, which ordinarily forms a fan, with 
 semicircular margin, though this margin may be 
 greatly complicated in many ways, especially by 
 
LAKES 195 
 
 the tendency of streams to deposit ridges on their 
 sides and build out parallel embankments rising 
 above the surface for some distance beyond the 
 general margin of the delta. Moreover, the shallow 
 waters in front of the deltas are frequently occupied 
 by a growth of marsh and water plants, as reeds and 
 water-lilies, which form a peaty surface sometimes 
 sufficiently firm to give rise to land, beyond the 
 general margin of the delta which is due to mecha- 
 nical deposit of sediment, as seen at the head of 
 Derwentwater. The plate with the figure of Sty 
 Head Tarn, besides exhibiting a delta at the foot 
 of the lake which originated the tarn, shows two 
 others ; that at the head, seen in the foreground, 
 which has considerably diminished the size of the 
 lake, and another on the left-hand side, with a minor 
 delta growing out from it, forming a promontory. 
 
 When a very important river enters a lake between 
 head and foot, it will build out its delta until the lake 
 is converted into two sheets of water, connected by 
 a narrow strait on the side opposite to that on which 
 the delta is growing. Haweswater is thus converted 
 into two sheets, known as High Water and Low 
 Water, by the straits at Measand, where the lake is 
 narrowed from a width of half a mile to about 100 
 yards. In the figure of Haweswater the Measand 
 delta is seen as a dark straight line just above and to 
 the west of the boat-house, and concealing High 
 Water beyond it, the straits being visible between the 
 delta and the dark slope on the left. As the outward 
 growth of deltas of this nature proceeds, they may, 
 and often do, eventually form completely across the 
 lake, severing it into two, as in the case of Butter- 
 mere and Crummock, and Bassenthwaite and Derwent- 
 
196 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 water in the Lake District, the two lakes of Llanberis 
 in Wales, and Brienz and Thun in Switzerland, to 
 mention a few examples. When this happens the 
 two lakes are separated by a flat alluvial tract, which 
 may be completely submerged after heavy rains, when 
 the lake level rises, an event which occurs not in- 
 frequently in the case of Derwentwater and Bassen- 
 thwaite. 
 
 Screes and dry deltas often encroach upon lakes, 
 altering the original topography of their shores. 
 The dimensions of many of our upland tarns have 
 considerably diminished as the result of material 
 slipping down the slopes or falling down scree-shoots 
 into the water. The well-known screes of Wastwater, 
 illustrated in the plate, have produced considerable 
 diminution of the area of the lake, and also pro- 
 foundly affected the scenery of its shores. 
 
 Lastly, we have avalanches of rock descending 
 from the hill-sides in mountain regions and tending 
 to diminish the area of the lake when they fall into 
 the water surrounding the shore. A somewhat 
 peculiar result of the fall of avalanches is described 
 in Delabecque's monograph on the French lakes, 
 the explanation of the phenomenon having been 
 given by MM. J. Vallot and E. Belloc. In certain 
 regions, as the Pyrenees, avalanches fall in winter 
 and the early spring, and are arrested on the frozen 
 surface of the lake. When it thaws the materials 
 fall to the floor of the lake, and become rearranged 
 to some extent, giving rise to a mound, which some- 
 times forms an island and sometimes a little second- 
 ary basin between the avalanche and the lake. 1 
 
 By these various processes deposition of sediment 
 1 See DELAKECQUE, Les Lacs Frangais^ p. 364. 
 
LAKES 197 
 
 in deltas, formation of screes and avalanches, and 
 general growth of vegetation in the shallows pro- 
 duced by growth of alluvium lakes are gradually 
 filled up. At the same time the top of the lake 
 at the exit may become lowered by erosion, though, 
 as before stated, the erosion is slight, owing to the 
 general absence of sediment. Accordingly we find 
 all stages from the existence of lakes in which the 
 diminution of area has commenced, through those 
 in which the tract of water consists of a pool 
 surrounded by peat moss, to the final extinction 
 of the lake and its replacement by turbary, or peat 
 moss produced by growth of marsh vegetation on the 
 flat alluvial tract caused by the silting up of the 
 lake. These peat mosses are usually very abundant 
 in mountain regions, and testify to the large number 
 of lakes which once existed, and have now been 
 destroyed by silting. 
 
 Islands in Lakes. It is very -doubtful how far 
 islands can exist in lakes produced by erosion, 
 though, assuming that erosion can produce lakes, the 
 existence of isolated masses of hard rock among 
 softer rocks might permit the formation of islands. 
 In lakes produced by " drowning " of the bottoms of 
 river valleys, any isolated hill standing above the 
 general level of the valley would remain as an island. 
 The rocky islands of Ullswater and Windermere 
 seem to be of this nature ; and, as pointed out by 
 Mill, submergence of the Ullswater valley to the 
 extent of another hundred feet would convert Hallin 
 Fell into an island a mile in diameter. Other islands 
 are produced by existence of incoherent material in 
 ridges ; thus, as suggested by Mill, the islands of 
 Derwentwater, composed of masses of gravel, sand, 
 
198 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 and clay, are probably ridges of glacial drift which 
 stood out above the general level of the floor of the 
 valley to a sufficient height to escape submergence. 
 The formation of islands by avalanches subsequently 
 to the time when the lake came into being has been 
 described above. 
 
 The so-called floating islands, which are sometimes 
 found, may be referred to, though they are of little 
 interest to the student of scenery. One occasionally 
 appears in Derwentwater, and the little lake Llyn-y- 
 dywarchen, between Carnarvon and Beddgelert, in 
 North Wales, receives its name from a similar appear- 
 ance. It would seem that these floating islands are 
 simply masses of peaty vegetable matter on the 
 floors of shallow parts of the lake, which, owing to 
 accumulation of light gases, formed by decomposi- 
 tion of vegetable matter, are occasionally buoyed up 
 to such an extent that they float upon the surface, 
 until the gases are disengaged sufficiently to allow 
 them to sink once more to the bottom. This is the 
 explanation given by Jonathan Otley, the old Lake 
 District guide (whose geological work has hardly 
 received the recognition which it merits), in a paper 
 published in the Lonsdale Magazine in 1820 (p. 15), 
 and there is very little doubt that it is substantially 
 correct. 
 
 Colour of Lakes. The charm of lake scenery de- 
 pends to a large extent on the limpidity of the water 
 and the varying play of colours upon the surface. 
 The transparency of the water is due to the deposi- 
 tion of sediment where the streams enter the lake, 
 leaving the main mass of the waters free from 
 sediment, except when violent floods bring very fine 
 particles into a lake of no great superficial extent. 
 
LAKES 199 
 
 The question of colour is more complex, and merits 
 some consideration, especially as much diversity of 
 opinion has arisen concerning the cause of colour in 
 certain lakes. Over and above the ever-varying play 
 of colour due to changes in the sky, we find that 
 certain lake waters possess a very definite hue ; the 
 intense blue of Geneva, for instance, is known to 
 everyone. 
 
 The water of lakes may be blue, green, yellow, or 
 absolutely colourless. M. Forel has constructed a 
 scale of colours for reference, made by mixing to- 
 gether ammoniated sulphate of copper and chromate 
 of potassium. The scale extends from I. to XL, I. 
 containing none of the chromate solution, while XI. 
 contains 65 per cent, of the chromate and only 35 
 of the copper sulphate. The colours from I. to IV. 
 of the scale are blue, those between V. and VIII. 
 green, and IX. to XL yellow. 
 
 Of blue lakes, we find in our own country two 
 tarns on Snowdon namely, Llyn - dur - Arddu and 
 Glaslyn of an intense indigo colour ; and the larger 
 Llyn Llydaw has much the same hue. In Switzer- 
 land, Geneva has already been referred to. There 
 are also several small lakes, as the Blaue Seeli, near 
 Kandersteg, and the Lac Bleu de Lucel, near Arolla. 
 The cause of this colour has been a subject for much 
 discussion. Sir H. Davy suggested that the waters 
 of Geneva owed their colour to the presence of 
 iodine ; and other writers have supposed that it was 
 due to minute particles of glacier mud. 
 
 It is now known that the true colour for distilled 
 water is blue. If distilled water be placed in a long 
 tube, and viewed through the length of the tube, it 
 will appear blue. Accordingly it is found that the 
 
200 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 water of the lakes just referred to is extremely pure, 
 being free from any appreciable amount of organic 
 matter, and also devoid of sediments. 
 
 In the Gazette de Lausanne for October, 1887, 
 Professor Forel describes the waters of the Lac 
 Bleu de Lucel, a lake about 200 feet long and 
 thirteen feet deep, fed by a spring which rises from 
 the ground just above the lake. He finds that the 
 waters of this lake are, so far as is known, the most 
 transparent of all sheets of water, and they are devoid 
 of life. I had the opportunity of seeing the lake in 
 sunshine, and also when the sky was completely 
 overcast, and under the latter conditions the colour 
 was exquisite. 
 
 The green colour may be due to reflection of light 
 from a sandy bottom through shallow water. Again, 
 solution of organic substances, such as humic and 
 ulmic acids derived from vegetable matter, may, as 
 shown by Forel, convert blue water into green, or 
 even into yellow or brown, when the water is sur- 
 rounded by peat mosses. This accounts for the 
 green colour of many of the upland tarns of our hill 
 regions, which frequently occur in association with 
 peat mosses due to their partial silting up. Again, 
 a green or yellow colour may be produced by 
 abundance of coloured microscopic organisms in the 
 water, as suggested by Delabecque in the Lac de 
 la Laudie, on the central plateau of France, which 
 has a colour corresponding with No. XL in Forel's 
 scale. 
 
 Professor Spring has shown that blue distilled 
 water rapidly loses its colour and becomes green, but 
 that the addition of a small proportion of bichloride 
 of mercury, which will destroy organisms, is sufficient 
 
LAKES 201 
 
 to preserve the blue colour indefinitely. Again, water 
 which does not contain organic impurities, but which 
 contains minute particles of colourless mud, as glacier 
 mud in suspension, gives a yellow tint to the water, 
 which, combined with its natural blue, produces a 
 green tint. To this cause he attributes the green 
 colour of Neuchatel and Constance. If the glacier 
 mud is very thick, the water will be rendered turbid 
 and grey, as seen where glacier streams pour into 
 a lake, or where, unfortunately, finely divided mud 
 is produced by mining operations, causing the grey- 
 ness which sullies the head of Ullswater. Lastly, 
 it has been observed that some lakes, which are 
 ordinarily green, occasionally become colourless, and 
 Professor Spring has shown that this change is pro- 
 duced by the introduction of a fine reddish mud, 
 coloured by oxide of iron, which neutralises the 
 green hue, and renders the lake for the time being 
 perfectly colourless. 
 
 On March 3Oth, 1894, about 11.30 a.m., I noticed 
 an interesting phenomenon on Windermere when 
 looking up the lake from among the islands of 
 Bowness Bay. The day was perfectly calm, and 
 the fells at the head of the lake were seen dimly 
 through a pearly blue haze. The sun was shining 
 brightly on the islands in the foreground, with their 
 graceful groups of birch, and on the light green 
 larches mixed with the darker firs on Furness Fells. 
 From the banks of the lake on either side a bar 
 of prismatic colours, glowing most vividly, stretched 
 out towards the centre, the red being next the 
 shore, and the violet towards the middle of the 
 lake. Looking about for an explanation, I found 
 that the water around the boat was glistening from 
 
202 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 myriad points, and noticed that countless organisms, 
 probably unicellular algae, were floating in the surface 
 waters. Each of these acted as a little prism, and 
 produced the iris bars which gave so strangely 
 beautiful an effect to the whole scene. 
 
 Effects due to mirage are often seen on lakes, 
 but it is beyond our purpose to describe them in 
 full. The fata morgana is often visible on Geneva, 
 especially in the spring-time. A full account of the 
 phenomenon will be found in Professor Forel's work 
 Le Leman (vol. ii., pp. 514^ seq^}. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 VOLCANOES 
 
 VOLCANIC hills and plateaux are produced by 
 accumulation of material which has been 
 brought from the earth's interior in a liquid or 
 fragmental condition upon the pre-existing surface 
 of the earth. It was formerly supposed that volcanic 
 hills were due to uplift of a blister-like mass of the 
 earth's crust, like the viscid bubbles which form 
 upon the surface of a plate of hot porridge ; but 
 study of volcanoes in all states of dissection has 
 abundantly proved that the hills are formed by 
 accumulation, and the old "elevation-crater theory" 
 has been abandoned. 
 
 To account for the extrusion of material in a 
 molten state on the earth's surface, we must take 
 three things into consideration, namely, the pro- 
 duction of the molten material, the formation of 
 lines or spots of weakness through which it is 
 extruded, and the force which brings the molten 
 matter to the surface; these we may refer to in 
 the above order. 
 
 If the earth has, as generally supposed, con- 
 solidated from a once fluid condition, it is possible 
 that some of the originally molten material has 
 remained unconsolidated ; but there is much evi- 
 dence that the greater part at any rate of the rocks 
 
 203 
 
204 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 which are poured out on to the earth's surface in 
 a molten condition have been solid, and have 
 become liquefied. Liquefaction may be brought 
 about in a solid rock by increase of temperature, 
 diminution of pressure, or alteration of the com- 
 position of the rock, thereby lowering its melting 
 point. At the surface of the earth the rocks are 
 solid owing to the low temperature which prevails 
 there. Observations have shown that the tem- 
 perature increases towards the interior, but so also 
 does the pressure, which tends to neutralise the 
 effects of heat, and to keep rocks solid which, 
 under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, would 
 be fused. At a certain depth masses of rock may 
 occur at a high temperature which are solid, but 
 so near to the fusing point that minor changes may 
 cause their liquefaction, and we may refer to the 
 principal changes which have been claimed as 
 capable of producing liquefaction. In the first place, 
 transference of heat from one rock to another may 
 produce liquefaction of a rock which was previously 
 below its fusing point. Such transference must take 
 place, but it is doubtful whether it can ever be a. 
 very potent factor in producing liquefaction. 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy long ago suggested that a 
 rise in temperature might occur as the result of the 
 heat generated by oxidation of masses of metals 
 of the alkalies enclosed among the rocks of the 
 interior ; he was afterwards led to abandon the 
 suggestion, but some recent writers have maintained 
 that oxidation of metals existing in the elementary 
 condition may cause evolution of sufficient heat to 
 produce liquefaction. Mr. Scrope called attention 
 to the effects which would be produced by formation 
 
VOLCANOES 205 
 
 of thick masses of sediment. It is supposed that 
 surfaces of equal temperature (isogeotherms) occur 
 approximately parallel to the surface of the earth. 
 An accumulation of some thousands of feet of 
 sediment would raise the isogeotherms correspond- 
 ingly, and in this way the temperature of rocks 
 previously in a solid state might be raised to their 
 fusing points. Mr. R. Mallet supposed that after 
 the crust of the earth became too rigid to adapt 
 itself to contraction by folding it would do so by 
 crushing, and that belts of crushed rock would be 
 formed, and that the friction due to the crushing 
 would generate heat sufficient to cause liquefaction. 
 
 Diminution of pressure might be produced by 
 denudation of great masses of overlying sediment 
 or by uplift of portions of the crust in domes and 
 arches, relieving the pressure beneath the centres 
 of the uplifts, or by actual fissuring of the earth's 
 crust. It must be noted that, though denudation 
 would remove the pressure, it would lower the 
 isogeotherms, and similarly accumulation of sedi- 
 ment, while raising the isogeotherms, would increase 
 the pressure. 
 
 Alteration of composition, causing lowering of the 
 fusing point, was first suggested by Professor Guthrie 
 as a means of producing fusion, and has been strongly 
 advocated by Professor Judd, especially to account 
 for certain phenomena connected with the great 
 eruption of Krakatoa in 1883. Guthrie observed 
 that certain salts were capable of forming unstable 
 compounds with water, which he termed cryohy- 
 drates, and he suggested that analogous compounds 
 might be formed out of some of the constituents 
 of rocks. These cryohydrates have a lower melting 
 
206 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 point than the corresponding anhydrous com- 
 pounds. 
 
 The capacity of these various processes to produce 
 the requisite fusion has been very fully discussed 
 in many works and memoirs. It is, of course, 
 impossible to enter here into the technicalities 
 requisite for the comprehension of the various 
 arguments, but enough has been said to show that 
 liquefaction may be produced in more than one 
 way, and the probability is that the complexities 
 of volcanic phenomena can only be accounted for 
 on the supposition that the causes which produce 
 liquefaction are also complex. 
 
 The production of planes or lines of weakness, 
 along which material may be extruded upon the 
 earth's surface, has been already referred to when 
 discussing the changes produced by movements of 
 the earth's crust ; it was then seen that fracture as 
 well as folding frequently resulted from movements 
 of the superficial covering of the earth. It now 
 remains for us to call attention to the distribution 
 of the planes of disruption, and to trace their 
 connection with the distribution of volcanic vents. 
 It has long been known that volcanoes are usually 
 developed along definite lines, specially well seen 
 in the case of the volcanoes which border the 
 western coast line of the New World, but also 
 easily traceable in other areas of vulcanicity. Now 
 the most important of these lines occur along the 
 septa of the great earth -waves, which are broken 
 across by gigantic fault-planes, and it is here that 
 volcanic activity is most rife. The reader will find 
 this connection between the distribution of volcanoes 
 and that of the great wave septa discussed in 
 
VOLCANOES 207 
 
 Professor Lapworth's presidential address to Section C 
 of the British Association at Edinburgh (1892), from 
 which the following sentences are quoted : 
 
 " If we draw a line completely round the globe, crossing 
 the Atlantic basin at its shallowest, between Cape Verde 
 and Cape San Roque, and continued in the direction of 
 Japan, where the Pacific is at its deepest, as the trace of a 
 great circle, we find that we have before us a crust fold 
 of the very highest and grandest order. We have one 
 mighty continental arch stretching from Japan to Chili, 
 broken medially by the sag of the Atlantic trough; and 
 we see that this great terrestrial arch stands directly opposed 
 to its natural complement, the great trough of the Pacific, 
 which is bent up in the middle by the mightiest of all the 
 submarine buckles of the earth-crust, on which stand the 
 oceanic islands of the Central Pacific. 
 
 "The course of this line which we have indicated as 
 forming our grandest terrestrial fold returns upon itself. 
 It is an endless fold, an endless band. . . . 
 
 "Such an endless fold, again, must have an endless 
 septum, which in the nature of things must cross it twice. 
 Need I point out . . . that if we unite the Old and New 
 Worlds and Australia with their intermediate sags of the 
 Atlantic and Indian Oceans as one imperial earth-arch, 
 and regard the unbroken watery expanse of the Pacific as 
 its complementary depression, the circular coastal band of 
 contrary surface flexure which lies between them should 
 constitute the moving master septum of the present earth- 
 crust ? This is the * volcanic girdle of the Pacific,' our 
 'terrestrial ring of fire.'" 
 
 The great volcanic belts, then, will run parallel 
 with our main coast-lines, forming the septa of the 
 great continent-building folds. Other belts will lie 
 along the septa of the mountain uplifts, giving rise 
 
208 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 to lines of volcanoes bordering mountain uplifts, or 
 will cause the formation of volcanoes along the 
 fissures which break up the monoclinal folds of a 
 plateau region. 
 
 Turning now to consideration of the manner in 
 which the material is brought to the surface, either 
 in a molten or in a fragmental condition, we are at 
 once struck with the active part played by steam in 
 many volcanic eruptions. The immense volumes of 
 steam which are sent forth from Vesuvius during an 
 eruption, which spread in the air with an outline 
 resembling that of a stone pine, have long been 
 familiar ; and similar phenomena presented by other 
 volcanoes prove that superheated water exists in the 
 rocks below the earth's surface to a considerable 
 extent, and this, when pressure is removed, is flashed 
 into steam. This steam is capable of exercising 
 great power in raising rocks, and it is obvious that 
 much of the fragmental matter is hurled out of 
 volcanoes as the result of explosions of steam, 
 though it is not quite so clear that molten rock is 
 forced out by the same agent. Nevertheless a large 
 number of observed facts go to prove that this does 
 actually occur. 1 
 
 The importance of steam as a factor in producing 
 volcanic phenomena is, perhaps, best shown by the 
 observations made by Mr. E. Whymper in the Andes. 
 When on the top of Chimborazo he witnessed an 
 eruption of Cotopaxi. 
 
 "At 5.40 a.m. two puffs of steam were emitted, and then 
 there was a pause. At 5.45 a column of inky blackness 
 
 1 On this subject the reader may consult Professor Judd's work on 
 Volcanoes, chap. ii. 
 
VOLCANOES 209 
 
 began to issue, and went up straight into the air with such 
 prodigious velocity that in less than a minute it had risen 
 20,000 feet above the rim of the crater. . . . The top of 
 the column . . . was nearly 40,000 feet above the level 
 of the sea. At that elevation it encountered a power- 
 ful wind blowing from the east, and was rapidly borne 
 towards the Pacific, remaining intensely black, seeming, to 
 spread very slightly, and presenting the appearance of a 
 gigantic ""] drawn upon an otherwise perfectly clear sky." 1 
 
 The column was formed of steam mixed with the 
 volcanic fragments, and Mr. Whymper calculates 
 " that, at least, two millions of tons must have been 
 ejected during this eruption." On another occasion, 
 when encamped on Cayambe, he " saw Cotopaxi 
 pouring out a prodigious volume of steam, which 
 boiled up a few hundred feet above the rim of its 
 crater, and then, being caught by a south-westerly 
 wind, was borne towards the north-east, almost up 
 to Cayambe. The bottom of this cloud was about 
 5000 feet above us ; it rose at least a mile high, and 
 spread over a width of several miles. ... I estimate 
 that on this occasion we saw a continuous body of 
 not less than sixty cubic miles of cloud formed from 
 steam. If this vast volume, instead of issuing from 
 a free vent, had found its passage barred, itself 
 imprisoned, Cotopaxi on that morning might have 
 been effaced, and the whole continent might have 
 quivered under an explosion rivalling or surpassing 
 the mighty catastrophe at Krakatoa." 2 
 
 But though steam clearly plays the principal part 
 
 1 The eruption is also of interest as bearing on the formation of 
 stratus clouds. 
 
 2 WHYMPER, E., Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator^ 
 chaps, vii. and xviii. 
 
 P 
 
210 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 in many volcanic eruptions, there are many other 
 cases where its action is as clearly secondary, and 
 some other agent must be sought which is capable of 
 raising rock from the earth's interior. 
 
 In areas where we find the rocks affected by 
 monoclinal faults we frequently find extensive sheets 
 of lava which yield evidence of having welled up 
 from the interior and spread out with a tranquillity 
 very far removed from the explosive violence of 
 ordinary volcanic eruptions, as, for instance, in the 
 plateau region of the western territories of North 
 America. We have already seen that a region like 
 that plateau region is composed of blocks tilted at 
 various angles as though they had sagged down 
 into a liquid mass beneath, and it is probable that 
 during the process of faulting some of the molten 
 matter below has been squeezed out through the 
 cracks and spread tranquilly over the earth's surface 
 above the fissure. Baron von Richthofen first main- 
 tained that such massive eruptions, as he named 
 them, or fissure eruptions, as they are sometimes 
 termed, had occurred. 
 
 It is, of course, possible that material may be 
 brought up by a combination of the two processes, 
 the sagging action of the earth's crust being aided 
 by the presence of superheated water in the molten 
 rock. 
 
 We have now considered the various processes 
 which are necessary for the production of volcanoes, 
 and may proceed to the consideration of the general 
 character of the accumulations which are built up as 
 the result of volcanic action. 
 
 The nature of the hills and plateaux which are 
 formed by volcanic agency depends primarily upon 
 
VOLCANOES 211 
 
 the character of the emitted and extruded material, 
 the violence of the action, and the character of the 
 vents. 
 
 It has already been noted that material is brought 
 out from volcanic vents in a molten or in a fragmental 
 condition, and accordingly any volcano may be 
 entirely formed of material in one or other of these 
 conditions or of the two kinds of material in vary- 
 ing proportions. Commencing with the consideration 
 of volcanic hills which are entirely composed of 
 consolidated molten rock, we shall find that the 
 outline of the hill very largely depends upon the 
 condition in which the molten matter existed when 
 it was extruded. We have seen that molten rocks 
 may be divided into two main groups, the acid and 
 the basic rocks, and that the latter are on the whole 
 in a condition which enables them to flow further 
 from the point or line of emission than the former, 
 and the height of volcanoes formed of basic lavas is 
 generally less when compared with the circumference 
 than that of those composed of acid lavas. Many 
 acid lavas, indeed, well up in a condition so viscid 
 that they form a dome-shaped elevation covering the 
 orifice, and marked with rugosities much resembling 
 the products of a guttering candle. The reader will 
 find descriptions of such domes, with illustrations, in 
 the fifth chapter of Prof. Judd's Volcanoes. One of 
 the best examples is the Puy de Sarcoui in the Au- 
 vergne district, of which the late Mr. Poulett Scrope 1 
 writes that " in figure it is completely a flattened and 
 rather elongated hemisphere, and is aptly compared 
 by the mountain-shepherds to a kettle placed bottom 
 upwards." Basic rocks often flow for a considerable 
 
 1 SCROPE, G. P., The Geology and Volcanoes of Central France* 
 
212 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 distance from the point of extrusion of the lavas. 
 Mr. Poulett Scrope suggested that the plain of the 
 Malpais in Mexico, which has a slope of about 6, 
 was formed by extrusion of sheets of lava from 
 points near its centre, each of these sheets gradually 
 thinning away from its source and thus giving rise to 
 a sloping surface. More striking examples, however, 
 are furnished by the four great volcanoes of Hawaii, 
 namely Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, Kilauea, and 
 Hualalai. An admirable monograph of these 
 volcanoes from the pen of Captain C. E. Button has 
 appeared in the Monographs of the U.S. Geological 
 Survey. 1 The mountains are composed of lava flows 
 of a basaltic character, sheet lying above sheet, and 
 there is a general absence of fragmental matter. 
 Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa approach 14,000 feet in 
 height, but " deep sea soundings in the vicinity have 
 recently disclosed the fact that these volcanic piles 
 are only the summits of gigantic masses rising 
 suddenly from the bottom of the Pacific. . . . Mauna 
 Loa and Mauna Kea, referred to their true bases at 
 the bottom of the Pacific, are . . . mountains not far 
 from 30,000 feet in height." Of the two Mauna Loa 
 is remarkable not only for its size it "is certainly 
 the king of modern volcanoes, no other in the world 
 approaches it in the vastness of its mass or in the 
 magnitude of its eruptive activity" but also for its 
 symmetrical outline and the gentle slopes of its sides, 
 which attain an angle not greater than 6. The 
 mountain is marked by the existence of a remarkable 
 crateriform cavity at its summit, to which allusion 
 will be made subsequently ; but this does not modify 
 the general outline of the mountain, which appears 
 
 1 DUTTON, C. E., Rept. U.S. Geological Survey, 1822-3. 
 
VOLCANOES 213 
 
 to be due to the gradual thinning out of the various 
 lava flows issuing from round this central point. 
 As denudation has produced little effect upon this 
 active volcano, we get an example of the true outline 
 of a volcanic mountain formed by gradual piling up 
 lava flows, sheet over sheet, which is a convex curve, 
 here approaching to flatness on account of the great 
 distance to which the individual lava streams have 
 flowed ; while in the hills formed of more viscid acid 
 lavas the curve is still a convex one, but very much 
 more pronounced, owing to the limited distance to 
 which the lava has flowed from the point of its 
 extrusion. When the volcanic hill is largely com- 
 posed of fragmental material the structure will be 
 different. If the volcano is a simple one, built up by 
 ejection of fragmental material round a single vent, 
 a conical hill will result, but the outline of the hill is 
 not that of a true cone. Professor Milne 1 has ex- 
 plained the reason for the existence of the actual 
 outlines possessed by cinder-cones, i.e., cones formed 
 of ejected fragmental material, and I have already 
 referred to his work when discussing the slope of 
 screes. He finds that many volcanoes built up of 
 fragmental materials possess a surface " which would 
 be produced by a simple logarithmic curve revolving 
 about an axis consequently such a heap would have 
 a slope diminishing from the top to the bottom" 
 thus generally resembling the curve produced by 
 stream erosion. This curvature, according to Milne, 
 would be produced by (i) "the tendency of a self- 
 supporting heap, under the influence of its own 
 
 1 MILNE, J., "On the Form of Volcanoes," Geol. Mag., Dec. 2, 
 vol. v., p. 337 ; and "Further Notes upon the Form of Volcanoes," 
 ibid., Dec. 2, vol. vi., p. 506. 
 
2i 4 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 weight, to spread outwards at the base this would 
 tend to give a logarithmic curvature " ; (ii) " the 
 tendency during the building up of a mountain of 
 the larger particles to roll further than the smaller 
 ones " ; (iii) the action of denudation. As he has 
 examined many volcanoes in which the material is 
 seldom found at a less angle than its proper angle of 
 repose, he maintains that denudation cannot have 
 played a very important part in determining the 
 slope of those particular volcanoes, which must 
 therefore owe their outline to the first two causes. 
 Milne further notes that any hard core of a volcano, 
 such as may be produced by ribs of once molten 
 rock consolidated in cracks, will tend to contract 
 the base of the mountain as compared with its 
 height, just as the shape of a pile of sand poured 
 upon a table will be altered if we first place a small 
 box upon the table. 
 
 It would appear, then, that the shape of a sym- 
 metrical volcanic hill formed round a central orifice 
 will be that of a plano-convex mass, with a circular 
 line around the base, if the volcano be formed of 
 emission of molten material, but that this will be 
 replaced by a circular mass, whose cross section 
 shows two logarithmic curves, ever increasing in 
 steepness towards the summit of the hill where they 
 meet, when the hill is formed by accumulation of 
 ejected fragments. (See Fig. 35 a) 
 
 We have now to consider various causes which 
 give rise to complications in the outline and structure 
 of volcanoes, and may in the first place take into 
 account the effect which is produced upon the 
 appearance of the volcano owing to the character 
 of the crater. It has been seen that in the case of 
 
VOLCANOES 
 
 215 
 
 volcanoes built up by emission of lava, the lava may 
 entirely seal up the orifice from which the emission 
 has taken place, so that no external sign of the 
 orifice is visible. When volcanic hills are formed 
 
 e 
 
 FIG. 35. 
 
 a Outline of volcano formed of fragmental rock piled round a 
 central orifice. 
 
 b Outline of volcano truncated by paroxysmal outburst. The 
 dotted line shows former height of hill. 
 
 c Cross-section through a Hawaiian volcano, with caldera. 
 
 d Volcano of type , with inner crater built up inside truncated 
 crater. 
 
 e Compound volcano formed across two vents (indicated by dotted 
 lines). The portion above the right-hand line has been removed by 
 paroxysmal explosion or engulfment. 
 
 of fragmental material, however, some of the 
 material falls back towards the orifice, and a 
 hollow is formed around the orifice like an inverted 
 cone, though having its slope determined in the same 
 manner as the outer slopes ; this hollow is the crater. 
 When a cone is built up as the result of ejection of 
 
216 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 fragmental materials, emitted with no great violence, 
 the crater need not be very large, and the diameter 
 of its upper rim need not therefore greatly modify 
 the general conical form of the hill, as seen from 
 a distance. The actual apex of the cone will appear 
 to be cut off, as shown in the case of the cone of 
 Cotopaxi, or that of Fusiyama, the latter so well 
 known from representations on Japanese fans and 
 other works of art, but the missing portion will form 
 a very small portion of the entire cone, and merely 
 gives the effect of a blunted point. In some circum- 
 stances, however, the crater becomes of very great 
 importance as modifying the general outline of the 
 volcano ; this is specially well seen where eruptions 
 of paroxysmal violence have occurred. In many 
 early accounts of eruptions of excessive violence 
 it is stated that the upper part of the volcano fell in, 
 but there is little doubt that, as in the case of 
 observed recent paroxysmal eruptions, it was not 
 engulfed, but blown into the air in small fragments, 
 which were dispersed far and wide around the 
 volcanic hill. An explosion of this character may 
 give rise to a truncated cone, containing a gigantic 
 basin-shaped crater within (see Fig. 35 $); the interior 
 hollow of Vesuvius before the great eruption which 
 destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum was of this 
 nature. The upper rim of the truncated volcano 
 may be fairly regular, or may be of great irregularity, 
 when from some points of view the volcanic character 
 of the hill will be entirely concealed. Should the 
 paroxysmal eruption which produced truncation be 
 succeeded by comparatively feeble outbursts, allow- 
 ing of fresh accumulation of ejected fragments, a 
 new cone will be built up within the old crater- 
 
VOLCANOES 217 
 
 ring, and a cone within a cone so formed, as has 
 happened with Vesuvius, where the modern cone is 
 half surrounded by the partly destroyed old crater- 
 ring, the surviving portion of which is known as 
 Monte Somma. This type is illustrated in Fig. 35 d. 
 
 Besides the ordinary craters, formed by rolling 
 back of fragments to the orifice, and those due to 
 paroxysmal explosions, there is another class of 
 crater, apparently due to sinking of the upper 
 portion of the volcano. This class is well repre- 
 sented in the volcanoes of Hawaii, and the. craters 
 of this type are spoken of as calderas. (See Fig. 
 35 c.) The best known is that of Kilauea, though 
 another occurs on the top of Mauna Loa, and a 
 gigantic though somewhat irregular one on the 
 summit of Haleakala, on the island of Maui. The 
 caldera of Kilauea is of a general elliptical shape, 
 with a longer diameter of three and a half miles, 
 and a shorter one of two and a half miles, sur- 
 rounded by precipitous cliffs and varying in altitude 
 from 300 to over 700 feet, according to the state of 
 its floor. Haleakala possesses a V-shaped caldera, 
 one limb of which is seven, and the other eight miles 
 long ; the precipitous walls rise to a height of 1 500 
 to 2000 feet above a plain from three to five miles 
 wide. Haleakala is no longer active, but the nature 
 of the eruptions of Kilauea is well known. When 
 empty the crater-floor is about 700 feet below the 
 rim. It consists of an undulating mass of black 
 rock, with a large pile of rocks near the centre. 
 From it issue jets of steam, and where a crack occurs, 
 the red glow of the molten rock is seen. But at 
 times the molten rock gradually rises towards the 
 rim of the crater until it is tapped at some point 
 
218 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 lower down the mountain, when the lava wells tran- 
 quilly out and flows for great distances until the floor 
 of the crater is once more reduced to its normal 
 level. Dutton quotes the following description given 
 by Lieutenant Wilkes of the appearances of the 
 crater when occupied by molten rock : 
 
 "All usual ideas of volcanic craters are dissipated upon 
 seeing this. There is no elevated cone, no igneous matter 
 or rocks ejected beyond the rim. The banks appear as if 
 built of massive blocks, which are in places clothed with 
 ferns nourished by the issuing vapours. What is wonder- 
 ful in the day becomes ten times more so at night. The 
 immense pool of cherry-red liquid lava in a state of violent 
 ebullition illuminates the whole expanse and flows in all 
 directions like water, while the illuminated cloud hangs 
 over it like a vast canopy." 
 
 There is no doubt that these calderas have origin- 
 ated in a manner different from that of ordinary 
 volcanic craters, and Dutton gives reasons for sup- 
 posing that they are due to successive sinking of 
 slices of the walls along the lines of fissure into the 
 molten mass below, a process which is still going 
 on, and has given rise to a series of fault scarps and 
 terraces around the sides of the crater. (See Fig. 
 
 35'*) 
 
 Further complications in the form of volcanoes 
 
 may be produced by the resistance of two or more 
 adjacent orifices when the materials ejected from 
 these coalesce to form a compound mountain, as has 
 occurred in the case of the double Monti Rossi on 
 the outskirts of Etna. Sartorius von Waltershausen 
 has given reasons for supposing that Etna itself 
 has been built up round two distinct axes of 
 
VOLCANOES 219 
 
 eruption, one coinciding with the present summit, 
 the other being situated about the centre of the 
 remarkable crateriform Val del Bove. 1 Owing to 
 the peculiar conditions we do not find two coalesced 
 hills, but a deep depression around the second axis, 
 namely, this Val del Bove. It is not clear how it 
 was formed. Lyell supposes it to have been pro- 
 duced by paroxysmal outbursts, but Button compares 
 it with the calderas of the Hawaiian volcanoes. (See 
 Fig. 35 , and Lyell, loc. cit., Fig. 71.) 
 
 There are many minor causes which tend to 
 produce a want of symmetry in volcanic hills. The 
 prevailing wind may cause more material to fall on 
 the leeward side of a cone, built up of fragmental 
 materials than on the windward side, and accord- 
 ingly the edge of the crater will be higher on one 
 side than on the other, and in the case of small 
 cones an appreciable amount of distortion may 
 be thus produced. Again, parasitic cones are often 
 formed upon the sides of larger volcanic hills, and 
 may interrupt the regularity of outline, though if 
 the primary hill be very large and the parasitic cones 
 small, their effect at a distance will not be material in 
 influencing the nature of the outline of the hill. 
 One side of a volcanic cone formed of fragmental 
 materials may be breached by a lava-flow, which 
 finds it easier to break through the mass of more 
 or less incoherent material than to rise to the lip 
 of the crater. A number of small cones the puys 
 of Auvergne are breached in this way, leaving a 
 semicircular cliff around the source of the lava-flow. 
 
 The nature of the lava itself often produces 
 marked effect upon the scenery of a volcanic district. 
 
 1 See LYELL, Sir C., Principles of Geology ', vol. ii., chap. xxvi. 
 
220 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Owing to the relative abundance of alkaline com- 
 pounds in the lavas and ashes, they frequently form 
 fertile soils upon weathering, and many ancient 
 lavas are covered by a luxuriant growth of vegeta- 
 tion, but the recent flow often presents a black, 
 forbidding surface, the nature of which will vary 
 according to the character of the lava, as is very well 
 seen in the case of the Hawaiian lavas, as described 
 by Button. Two forms of lava are found in Hawaii, 
 known to the natives by the names of "pahoehoe" and 
 " aa." The former is thus described by Button : 
 
 " Imagine an army of giants bringing to a common 
 dumping-ground enormous cauldrons of pitch and 
 turning them upside down, allowing the pitch to run 
 out, some running together, some being poured over 
 preceding discharges, and the whole being finally 
 left to solidify. The individuality of each vessel-full 
 of pitch might be half preserved, half obliterated. 
 The surface of the entire accumulation would be 
 embossed and rolling, by reason of the multiplicity 
 of the component masses, but each mass by itself 
 would be slightly wrinkled, yet on. the whole smooth, 
 involving no further impediment to progress over 
 it than the labour of going up and down the 
 smooth-surfaced hummocks." It is produced by the 
 surface solidifying while the interior of the flow is 
 still liquid. The superficial crust cracks in numerous 
 places, and little squirts of the fluid beneath are 
 ejected through the fissures, which spread out and 
 become quickly cooled, when the process is repeated. 
 The "aa" "consists mainly of clinkers, sometimes 
 detached, sometimes partially agglutinated together 
 with a bristling array of sharp, jagged, angular frag- 
 ments of a compact character projecting up through 
 
VOLCANOES 221 
 
 them. The aspect of one of these "aa" streams is 
 repellent to the last degree, and may without 
 exaggeration be termed horrible. For one who has 
 never seeij it, it is difficult to conceive such super- 
 lative roughness." The lava forming "aa" has the 
 same composition as that which gives rise to 
 " pahoehoe," and the difference is due to difference in 
 the nature of the cooling. The mass of lava which 
 forms "aa" is in a condition approaching consolidation, 
 and it moves very slowly. During the movement 
 "crushing strains of great intensity are set up 
 throughout the entire mass, and its behaviour 
 conforms strictly to that of viscous bodies. The 
 superficial portions in part yield plastically to the 
 strains, in part yield by crushing, splintering, and 
 fissuring. The result is a chaos of angular frag- 
 ments." 
 
 It has already been noted that difference of com- 
 position determines different rates of flow, and ac- 
 cordingly the surfaces of different kinds of lava vary 
 considerably, and we have every gradation, from the 
 comparatively smooth surfaces of some lavas, through 
 the ropy and coiled tops of others, to the rough 
 accumulation of clinkers which form the dreary "aa" 
 of Hawaii. 
 
 A few remarks concerning the atmospheric effects 
 produced during volcanic eruptions may not be out 
 of place. It is well known that the smoke and 
 flames of popular descriptions of volcanic eruptions 
 are not actually due to combustion, the "smoke" being 
 really dense volumes of discharged steam, which 
 condenses into thick clouds, often darkened by the 
 mixture of myriads of solid particles, while the 
 appearance of "flame" is due to the reflection of 
 
222 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the molten lava upon the clouds of condensed vapour. 
 The condensed vapour usually issues as a vertical 
 column, until it reaches a considerable altitude, when 
 it spreads out as cumulus or stratus clouds, or 
 varieties of these. Reference has already been made 
 to the "stone-pine" arrangement of the Vesuvian 
 vapour, and also to the remarkable mass ejected 
 from Cotopaxi, recorded by Whymper, which at first 
 formed a vertical column, then bent suddenly at right 
 angles and proceeded for miles in one direction as a 
 horizontal layer. The importance of the spread of 
 minute particles of solid material through the atmo- 
 sphere, in producing effects upon the nature of the 
 sunset colours, as shown in the case of the great 
 eruption of Krakatoa, has also been alluded to in 
 a previous chapter. 
 
 In some cases there is actual combustion of gas, 
 usually giving a pale, lambent flame, which produces 
 no very marked effect upon the scene. 
 
 The scenic effects of different eruptions will vary 
 considerably ; but a good idea of one may be ob- 
 tained by reading the following description of an 
 eruption of Kilauea in 1883, witnessed by the Rev. 
 W. Ellis, whose description of the scene is quoted by 
 Dutton, it being noted that some terms used in the 
 description are used in a very general sense. After 
 describing the caldera, he proceeds as follows: 
 
 " The bottom was covered with lava, and the south-east, 
 north-east, and northern parts were one vast flood of 
 burning matter in a state of terrific ebullition, rolling to 
 and fro its fiery surge and flaming billows. Fifty-one 
 conical islands of varied form and size, containing as 
 many craters, rose either around the edge or from the 
 surface of the burning lake, twenty-two constantly emitting 
 
VOLCANOES 223 
 
 columns of grey smoke or pyramids of brilliant flame, and 
 several of these at the same time vomiting from their 
 ignited mouths streams of lava, which rolled in blazing 
 torrents down their black indented sides into the boiling 
 mass below. . . . The grey, and in some places apparently 
 calcined, sides of the great crater before us, the fissures 
 which intersected the surface of the plain on which we 
 were standing, the long banks of sulphur upon the opposite 
 side of the abyss, the dense columns of vapour and smoke 
 that rose at the north and south end of the plain, together 
 with the range of steep rocks by which it was surrounded, 
 probably in some places 300 or 400 feet in perpendicular 
 height, presented an immense volcanic panorama, the effect 
 of which was greatly augmented by the constant roaring 
 of the vast furnaces below. . . . Between nine and ten 
 in the evening the dark clouds and lava fog, that since 
 the setting of the sun had hung over the volcano, gradually 
 cleared away ; and the fires of Kilauea, darting their fierce 
 light athwart the midnight gloom, unfolded a sight terrible 
 and sublime beyond all we had yet seen. 
 
 "The agitated mass of liquid lava, like a flood of 
 melted metal, raged with tumultuous whirl. The lively 
 flame that danced over its undulating surface, tinged with 
 sulphurous blue or glowing with mineral red, cast a broad 
 glare of dazzling light on the indented sides of the in- 
 sulated craters, whose roaring mouths, amidst rising flames 
 and eddying streams of fire, shot up at frequent intervals, 
 with very loud detonations, spherical masses of fusing lava 
 or bright, ignited stones." 
 
 The remarkable gentleness of the slopes of the 
 Hawaiian volcanoes has already been noticed. If 
 lavas possessing the liquidity of the Hawaiian lavas 
 issued for a considerable distance along the length 
 of a fissure, instead of from isolated points, the 
 flatness would be increased, and the products of 
 
224 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 vulcanicity instead of forming groups of hills would 
 give rise to extensive horizontal, or nearly horizontal, 
 plateaux. The massive eruptions of Richthofen are 
 supposed to have produced plateaux of this nature, 
 of which the best known are those of the Western 
 Territories of North America, of the Deccan of India, 
 of the Western Isles of Scotland, and the north-east 
 portion of Ireland, and of various islands to the 
 north of the Eurasian continent. Should the ground 
 be uneven at the commencement of volcanic activity, 
 the hollows will be filled with lava, and subsequent 
 streams will flow over the comparatively even surface 
 thus produced, sealing up the fissures from which the 
 lava issued, and giving rise to stretches of flat country, 
 through which rivers may flow in deep gorges and 
 canons, sufficiently narrow to prevent any inter- 
 ference with the general flatness of the prospect. 
 Here is a description of one of these plateaux by 
 the Snake River in Idaho, from the facile pen of Sir 
 Archibald Geikie 1 : 
 
 "We emerged from the mountains upon the great sea 
 of black lava, which seems to stretch inimitably west- 
 wards. With minds keenly excited by the incidents of 
 the journey, we rode for hours by the side of that apparently 
 boundless plain. Here and there a trachytic spur pro- 
 jected from the hills, succeeded now and then by a valley 
 up which the black flood of lava would stretch away unto 
 the high grounds. It was as if the great plain had been 
 filled with molten rock, which had kept its level, and 
 wound in and out along the bays and promontories of the 
 mountain slopes as a sheet of water would have done. 
 Copious springs and streams which issue from the 
 mountains are soon lost under the arid basalt. The 
 
 1 Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad^ No. xi. 
 
VOLCANOES 225 
 
 Snake River itself, however, has cut out a deep gorge 
 through the basalt down into the trachytic lavas under- 
 neath, but winds through the desert without watering it. 
 The precipitous walls of the canon show that the plain is 
 covered by a succession of parallel sheets of basalt to a 
 depth of several hundred feet. . . . Riding hour after hour 
 among these arid wastes, I became convinced that all 
 volcanic phenomena are not to be explained by the 
 ordinary conception of volcanoes, but that there is another 
 and grander type of volcanic action, where, instead of 
 issuing from a local vent, whether or not along a line of 
 fissure, and piling up a cone of lava and ashes around it, 
 the molten rock has risen in many fissures, accompanied 
 by the discharge of little or no fragmentary material, and 
 has welled forth so as to flood the lower ground with 
 successive horizontal sheets of basalt. Recent renewed 
 examination of the basalt plateaux and associated types 
 in the west of Scotland has assured me that this view of 
 their origin and connection, which first suggested itself to 
 my mind on the lava-plains of Idaho, furnishes the true 
 key to their history." 
 
 From the remarks made in the last paragraph, it 
 will be seen that volcanic action produces its effect 
 upon scenery even in areas where the volcanic forces 
 are no longer in action, and we may briefly consider 
 this effect 
 
 The fragmental material ejected from volcanic 
 vents, on account of its porosity, often resists denu- 
 dation for a considerable period, as proved by the 
 perfection of the puys of Auvergne, which are built 
 of fragmental material, but denudation sooner or 
 later produces marked effects upon the accumulations 
 of an extinct volcano, be these fragmental or con- 
 sisting of once molten rock. The tract of ground 
 Q 
 
226 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 formed of volcanic ejecta will be denuded in accord- 
 ance with the ordinary laws of denudation, but as 
 the volcanic rocks are often much more durable than 
 ordinary stratified rocks, they frequently stand out 
 after surrounding rocks have been worn away, giving 
 rise to hills and plateaux. Of this nature are many 
 of the Western Isles of Scotland. The portions 
 which have escaped denudation may be covered up 
 with sediment, and the latter may be again removed 
 ages subsequently to its accumulation, once more 
 exposing the volcanic mass to the action of surface 
 agencies, and if they resist this action more than the 
 surrounding sediments, they may again be formed 
 into hills long ages after the extinction of the volcanic 
 forces which produced them. The finest scenery of 
 Cumbria and Cambria largely owes its character to 
 the durability of volcanic rocks of great antiquity, 
 which, having been for ages buried, have once again 
 been exposed to the surface, and resisting denudation 
 more than the surrounding sediments, have stood out 
 as hill-masses, which thus owe their origin to ancient 
 volcanic action, though only very indirectly. It need 
 hardly be added that no traces of the original out- 
 lines of the volcano or volcanoes are preserved in 
 these circumstances. 
 
 Hot Springs and Geysers. Closely connected with 
 ordinary volcanic phenomena are those of many hot 
 springs, especially geysers, which are characteristic 
 of volcanic regions, the heat being supplied from 
 volcanic sources. Geysers differ from other hot 
 springs in that the water is thrown into the air in 
 the form of a fountain. There has been much dis- 
 cussion as to the exact conditions which are necessary 
 for the emission to take place, .but it is generally 
 
VOLCANOES 227 
 
 agreed that superheated water, flashing into steam 
 on the removal of pressure, is the active cause of the 
 phenomenon, and it is furthermore admitted that the 
 water becomes heated in the tube, which is connected 
 with the surface. Water gains admission from the 
 surface to the interior of the earth in a volcanic 
 district until it reaches a place where the temperature 
 is above its ordinary boiling point at no great 
 distance below the surface, frequently in the lower 
 portions of a still warm lava current which has long 
 solidified. The steam is forced up a fissure, and 
 gradually enlarges the sides of the fissure, forming 
 a pipe-shaped cavity. In this the water collects, 
 and the pressure of the superincumbent water is 
 sufficient to prevent the water below from boiling 
 at the ordinary boiling point, and accordingly it 
 becomes heated above iooC. In the meantime some 
 of the water above is evaporated and the pressure 
 lessened, until at last the diminution is sufficient to 
 allow the superheated water to flash into steam, 
 which violently expels the remaining water in the 
 pipe into the air, causing an eruption of the geyser. 
 The best-known geysers are those of Iceland, of the 
 Yellowstone National Park of North America, and 
 of the northern island of New Zealand. The " Old 
 Faithful " geyser of the Yellowstone Park ejects a 
 fountain of water to a height of over 100 feet about 
 every hour. The fact that there are differences in 
 action of geysers indicates that the exact cause of 
 eruption is not always the same. 
 
 Geysers and other hot springs are also of interest 
 to us on account of the accumulations which are 
 formed by their agency. The hot water percolating 
 through igneous rocks is capable of taking up various 
 
228 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 soluble substances, which it cannot hold in solution 
 when cool, and accordingly the substances are de- 
 posited around the springs in the form of sinter, 
 which, in the case of geysers, tend to form rings 
 enclosing a crater-shaped basin, in the centre of 
 which is the orifice from which the water is ejected, 
 and these rings may be built up to some height 
 above the original surface to form conical mounds 
 with the crateriform hollow in the centre, as seen 
 around Old Faithful and the Giant Geyser of the 
 Yellowstone Park. 
 
 When the springs issue upon the slope of a hill, 
 the remarkable sinter terraces of volcanic regions are 
 formed. The water flows down the hill, and upon 
 cooling deposits its dissolved material, as a terrace, 
 chiefly below the place from which it issues, but 
 eventually at the point of emergence, which may 
 then be sealed up, and the water will be compelled 
 to find a vent higher up the hill. The process is 
 repeated again and again, until a series of terraces 
 are formed one above the other on the hill-side, and 
 if a number of springs issue along a line these 
 terraces will extend for considerable distances and 
 hold up the water in a series of pools. The re- 
 searches of Mr. W. H. Weed have proved that 
 certain algae which are capable of existing in hot 
 water are largely responsible for the deposition of 
 the dissolved carbonate of lime or silica, so that the 
 process is not always a simple chemical one, but 
 partly organic. 1 The pink and white terraces of 
 Rotamahana, New Zealand, destroyed by the great 
 eruption of Tarawera in 1886, were the best 
 
 1 WEED, W. H., Ninth Annual Report U.S. Geol. Survey, 1889, 
 and American Journal of Science, vol. xxxvii., p. 351. 
 
VOLCANOES 229 
 
 examples of sinter terraces, but many exist in the 
 Yellowstone Park. The water often pours from the 
 basin of one terrace into that of the one beneath, 
 and permits of the formation of stalagmitic and 
 stalactitic growths, which often add to the remark- 
 able appearance of the terraces. The terraces vary 
 in colour from the purest white to various shades of 
 pink, orange, and brown, the colour being due to 
 compounds of iron mixed with the lime or silica. 
 Perhaps the most impressive are the marble-white 
 terraces, which support pools of pure water having 
 its characteristic bright blue tint. 
 
 Mud Volcanoes. In many volcanic and some non- 
 volcanic areas, various gases issue from the earth's 
 interior and throw up masses of mud, which form 
 cones with central craters sometimes to heights of 
 two or three hundred feet, which resemble miniature 
 volcanoes. Small mud-volcanoes are found in Sicily, 
 but some of the most important occur over a con- 
 siderable area in the basin of the Lower Indus. 
 
 Earthquakes. The effects of earthquakes may be 
 briefly touched upon in this place, as many earth- 
 quakes are clearly produced by volcanic action, 
 though others are as obviously not so caused. 
 Striking as are the effects of earthquakes, as bring- 
 ing about destruction of life and property, their 
 importance to the student of scenery is rather on 
 account of the assistance which they afford to other 
 agents, than because of any peculiar features to 
 which they themselves give rise. Besides elevating 
 and depressing tracts of country, and thus assisting 
 the slow secular movements of elevation and de- 
 pression, they frequently produce extensive gaping 
 fissures, which may remain open for a considerable 
 
230 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 period, and thus initiate new lines of drainage. 
 Again they are often the cause of landslips, and 
 shatter the rock in such a way as to accelerate the 
 action of the weather. They may give rise to lakes 
 by engulfment of portions of the earth's crust, or 
 by the formation of barriers owing to landslips, and 
 as these barriers are often incoherent they may be 
 unable to withstand the pressure of the water which 
 accumulates behind them, when the temporary lake 
 will burst, causing a disastrous flood, during which 
 much corrasion and transport may occur. 
 
 Submarine earthquakes often give rise to earth- 
 quake waves, which are much greater than ordinary 
 wind-waves, and accordingly more destructive, and 
 these waves will, therefore, materially assist the 
 ordinary marine agents in denuding the sea-coasts 
 of a tract of country which is affected by them. 
 During the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, the earth- 
 quake wave is stated to have been sixty feet high 
 at Cadiz. Many of the inland waters of Europe 
 were affected by waves due to the same earthquake. 
 
 Though the ruin produced by earthquakes is often 
 very apparent, the operation of the ordinary agents 
 is sufficient to heal the scars due to earthquake 
 action in a comparatively short time, and accord- 
 ingly, as above stated, no important scenic effects 
 can be directly ascribed to earthquake action. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 
 
 THE production of a comparatively level surface 
 in a district which has previously been marked 
 by very uneven ground, may be due either to denu- 
 dation or to deposition, or to a combination of the 
 two processes, and in these ways the minor plains 
 of the earth's surface are formed. But as the sea is 
 the great receptacle of deposit another event often 
 takes place, causing the formation of a plain, namely, 
 the uplift of the deposits which formerly existed 
 upon the sea-bottom ; when this uplift brings the 
 deposits above the surface of the ocean, and the 
 uplift is comparatively equable, a plain is the result, 
 and some of the most important plains which occupy 
 the earth's surface have been produced by uplift of 
 marine sediments. The terms plain and plateau 
 are used somewhat vaguely. A plain is in no case 
 absolutely level over large areas, and considerable 
 departure from an ideal level may exist, yet the area 
 may be spoken of as a plain, especially if it occurs 
 in a position which causes it to present a marked 
 contrast to an adjoining hill region, as the plain of 
 York, which is contrasted with the Yorkshire Wolds 
 on the one side and the moors on the other. Again, 
 a plateau is usually defined as an elevated plain, but 
 the amount of elevation necessary to turn a plain 
 
 231 
 
232 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 into a plateau cannot be stated, and the term plateau 
 is often applied to a tract which is not more elevated 
 than some other which would be termed a plain ; for 
 instance, if a very extensive tract of land sloped gently 
 upwards from sea-level to a height of 3000 or 4000 
 feet above the sea, the whole might well be termed a 
 plain, whereas if a small, flat level only 1000 to 2000 
 feet above the sea was markedly separated by steep 
 slopes from the adjoining low ground, it would be 
 called a plateau. Plateaux, and to a less extent 
 plains, are often traversed by river valleys of con- 
 siderable depth, and as the process of erosion goes 
 on, the portions left between the valleys become 
 more and more restricted, and a plateau will thus be 
 carved into isolated hills often flat-topped. It is, of 
 course, impossible to give any definite statement of 
 the exact amount of erosion necessary to make the 
 term plateau inapplicable to such a sculptured tract 
 of land which was originally flat. 
 
 Any of the denuding agents, subaerial or marine, 
 which are capable of corrasion and transport, are 
 capable of giving rise to plains by corrasion in places 
 and accumulation in others. The effects of wind, 
 ice, and the sea will be considered in subsequent 
 chapters, and we may here note the effect of rivers 
 in producing plains by corrasion and deposit. It 
 has already been seen that when a river has estab- 
 lished its base-level of corrasion, lateral corrasion 
 becomes effective, and the river commences to cut 
 sideways at its curves, giving rise to flat tracts of 
 planation, or, in other words, plains, which may be 
 further modified by deposition of alluvium upon 
 them. It has also been indicated that by lateral 
 corrasion one river may tap another, and in this 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 233 
 
 way the extent of a river plain may be largely 
 increased. These plains will, of course, not be 
 actually level, but will slope gently, though often 
 imperceptibly, downwards towards the sea. The 
 ultimate effect of this action, if unchecked, would 
 be the general degradation of a continent by river 
 action to form a peneplain, but as some checking 
 process often intervenes, these peneplains are always 
 restricted to portions of our continental tracts. 
 
 We have pointed out in a preceding chapter that, 
 when a consequent stream traverses alternating hard 
 and soft strata, the river valley tends to be widened 
 along the softer strata, and remains comparatively 
 narrow where the river traverses the harder rocks. 
 Furthermore, the base-level of corrasion will be 
 locally reached along the course over the softer 
 strata, while vertical corrasion still occurs among 
 the harder ones, and small plains will therefore tend 
 to arise over the softer rocks as the result of lateral 
 corrasion, often possessing a general elliptical shape, 
 and dying out where the river course is situated 
 upon hard rocks above and below. It will be 
 difficult to distinguish the alluvial tracts so produced 
 from small plains which have resulted from the 
 infilling of ancient lake-basins with sediment, in the 
 absence of direct proof of the fluviatile origin of 
 the alluvium, and it may be suspected that many 
 alluvial tracts which have been asserted to occupy 
 the sites of ancient lakes are really the result of 
 stream action only. 
 
 Many of our English rivers have formed fairly 
 extensive plains where they traverse soft rocks ; for 
 example, the Yorkshire Ouse, where it flows over 
 the Triassic strata of the Vale of York, the Great 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
234 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Ouse, in its course over the Jurassic clays of the 
 neighbourhood of Bedford, and the English Dee, 
 which also traverses the Triassic rocks in the lower 
 part of its course. 
 
 In the case of the large rivers of the continents, 
 these river-plains are often very extensive, and form 
 important features in the scenery of a continent. I 
 will mention one example, that of the plain of the 
 Mississippi, which has a length of over 600 miles 
 in a straight line from its commencement above the 
 junction of the Ohio to its termination at the river's 
 mouth. Leaving the delta out of account, the plain 
 above the head of the delta has a width of eighty 
 miles at the mouth of the White river, and it varies 
 between this and a minimum width of about thirty 
 miles. 
 
 A feature may be noticed in this place, which is 
 often of considerable importance in affecting the 
 scenery of a river valley, namely, the existence of 
 river- terraces upon the sides of the valley. If a river 
 after producing an alluvial plain is subsequently 
 enabled to corrade vertically, it deepens its valley, 
 and the sides of the old alluvial plains are often 
 left above the present river level as terraces. These 
 terraces may be formed more than once, and we 
 frequently see two or three terraces running along 
 the sides of the valley, and generally parallel to the 
 course of the stream. They usually have a flat 
 upper surface (that of the old alluvial plain of which 
 they were portions), and may slope down somewhat 
 steeply. As they are generally composed of porous 
 materials, and give a dry foundation and often a 
 copious water supply, early settlements were fre- 
 quently situated upon these terraces ; for instance, 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 235 
 
 some of the older parts of London are situated on 
 the gravel terraces which there border the river 
 Thames. 
 
 The mode of infilling of lakes by sediment and 
 their ultimate conversion into plains has been con- 
 sidered in Chapter XII. Scores of such plains often 
 mark the sites of former lakes in many regions, and 
 a lake district often possesses lakes which are only 
 a small percentage of those which, once existent, 
 have been destroyed by infilling of their basins. It 
 has been remarked above that there is considerable 
 resemblance between these infilled lakes and the 
 alluvial flats of certain reaches of rivers ; the former, 
 however, are more often marked by a covering of 
 peat-moss over the sedimentary deposits than are 
 the latter, for the shallow waters of the margin of 
 a partially filled up lake favour the growth of 
 vegetation, which rapidly gives rise to a layer 
 of soil rich in humus, in which vegetation continues 
 to flourish. Turbaries or peat-mosses marking the 
 sides of filled-in lakes are frequently encountered 
 in the upland regions of our hilly districts, and when 
 surrounded by frowning crags produce a peculiar 
 effect upon the scenery, especially if the lake be 
 not completely filled in, when a pool or pools of dark 
 brown water may be seen, often brightened by the 
 blossoms of many a water-loving plant, as the water- 
 lily and bog-bean, or the pale blue flowers on the 
 raceme of the water-lobelia. 
 
 Let us now proceed to the consideration of those 
 plains which are formed by the accumulation of 
 sediment in the sea, and the ultimate conversion of 
 the tract which receives this sediment into land, and 
 we may first deal with the river-delta. 
 
236 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 The primary cause of the formation of a delta, 
 whether in a lake or in the sea, is the check received 
 by the river current when it enters the larger body 
 of water. It has been seen that the transporting 
 power of a current, other things being equal, is 
 dependent upon its velocity, and as the velocity is 
 suddenly diminished when the river enters com- 
 paratively still water, the transported sediment is 
 deposited. In the case of the sea, should a marine 
 current of sufficient velocity to carry away the 
 material transported by the river sweep past the 
 river's mouth, the formation of a delta will be pre- 
 vented ; or should such a current exert its influence 
 subsequently to the formation of a delta, the further 
 growth of that delta will be stopped, as has hap- 
 pened with the delta of the river Nile. When the 
 river enters a narrow arm of the sea, as a fjord, the 
 shape of the deltaic tract of land will be determined 
 by the boundary walls of the fjord ; and we may get 
 tortuous and even branched strips of flat land 
 surrounded by comparatively high ground, which 
 originally formed the sides of the fjords, as seen, 
 for example, in the case of the ancient fjords of 
 Carentan, in France, and those near Christiansand, in 
 Norway. 1 As a general rule, the widening estuary 
 of a river becomes filled up, and then the delta 
 grows out with a convex front to the open water, 
 giving the familiar A -shaped form, in which the base 
 of the A possesses the convex curve. The reason 
 for the convex curve is as follows : The river de- 
 posits material on its floor, and during flood seasons- 
 on its banks, and accordingly the level of the river- 
 
 1 For figures of these see RECLUS' The Ocean, English edition, 
 Figs. 54 and 55. 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 237 
 
 bed becomes raised, until it breaks through its banks 
 and seeks a new course, when the same thing occurs. 
 Accordingly, in time, every part of the delta is 
 drained by the river, though the tendency of the 
 stream to keep its initial direction causes the 
 greatest amount of sediment to be deposited at the 
 point situated along the line of the general course 
 of the river, and there is less and less tendency for 
 deposition to occur, as one passes away from this 
 point on either side, the ideal resultant form being 
 that of the arc of a circle. There is a general, 
 though gentle, slope of the delta above the surface 
 of the water, and a more abrupt sigmoidal slope 
 below water, which will only affect the scenery in the 
 case of deltas which have been laid bare. In many 
 cases the actual outline of the delta is far more 
 irregular than that of the ideal delta. The sides of 
 the river current after it has entered the sea are not 
 so swift as the centre, and accordingly deposition 
 occurs more extensively at the sides, and two banks 
 of deposit may actually be raised out of the water 
 with the current flowing between them. When the 
 river has deserted this channel, the channel itself 
 will be silted up, and thus finger-shaped prolonga- 
 tions may extend into the sea beyond the general 
 terminations of the delta. Such finger-like exten- 
 sions are seen upon the delta of the Mississippi. 
 
 The diversion of streams is due not only to over- 
 flowing of banks during floods, but to obstruction 
 by sunken timber or " snags," or even by extensive 
 rafts of drift timber, which block the channels and 
 cause accumulation of sediment against the upper 
 sides. Hence we frequently find an intricate rami- 
 fication of the streams of deltas well shown in the 
 
238 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 compound delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. 
 In the low-lying ground of the deltas marshy con- 
 ditions often prevail, and accordingly an abundant 
 growth of marsh vegetation usually characterises 
 deltaic plains, the particular character of the vege- 
 tation depending upon the locality of the delta, and 
 being largely dependent upon climatic conditions. 
 The deltaic deposits of Greenland, due to the de- 
 position of glacier mud at the heads of the fjords, 
 are often devoid of vegetation, while parts of the 
 delta of the Ganges are "overrun with reeds, long 
 grass, the Tamarix Indica, and other shrubs, forming 
 impenetrable thickets, where the tiger, the rhinoceros, 
 the buffalo, deer, and other wild animals take shelter." 1 
 
 The formation of lake deltas has already been 
 considered ; they differ in no essential particular from 
 those formed along coast-lines, the main difference 
 being due to the absence of effective tidal action in 
 lakes, which affects the slopes of the subaqueous 
 portion of the delta. 
 
 In many regions, where numerous rivers reach the 
 sea along a limited tract of coast, we find a number 
 of coalescent deltas giving rise to extensive tracts 
 of new land, as, for instance, along the north-west 
 shores of the Adriatic. " Here," states Lyell, " from 
 the northern part of the gulf of Trieste, where the 
 Isonzo enters, down to the south of Ravenna, there 
 is an uninterrupted series of recent accessions of 
 land more than 100 miles in length, which within 
 the last 2000 years has increased from two to twenty 
 miles in breadth!' The same writer notes that "Adria 
 was a seaport in the time of Augustus, and had, in 
 
 1 LYELL, Sir. C., Principles of Geology, Eleventh Edition, vol. i., 
 chap. xix. 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 239 
 
 ancient times, given its name to the gulf; it is now 
 about twenty Italian miles inland. Ravenna was 
 also a seaport, and is now about four miles from 
 the main sea." l It is true that the rate of growth 
 of this deltaic strip has increased since artificial 
 banking of the lower portions of the river was 
 resorted to, but it took place with considerable 
 rapidity before this. The area of the great plain 
 of Northern Europe is being gradually increased 
 by the silting up of the sea margins by the detritus 
 brought down by the rivers in that region. 
 
 Another method of formation of flat land by 
 silting up of an area originally occupied by the 
 sea, is owing to the deposit of sea-silt, which has 
 not been brought down by the rivers of the neigh- 
 bourhood, but borne from a distance. The English 
 fenlands supply a good instance of a plain surface 
 produced in this manner. Their origin has been 
 discussed by Mr. S. B. J. Skertchly in the Geological 
 Survey Memoir, treating of the district, and also in 
 a work entitled The Fenland by that author and 
 Mr. S. H. Miller. Skertchly shows that the fenland 
 forms a portion of a bay which has been silted up, 
 the remaining part, the Wash, being still occupied 
 by the sea, and the silt which has converted the 
 former bay into land is not mud brought down by 
 the rivers of the district, but marine mud, largely 
 due to the wash of the Lincolnshire and Yorkshire 
 coasts, carried into the bay by the southward-moving 
 tides. The process of silting is still proceeding at 
 the south end of the Wash, but further south the 
 silt dovetails into the peat, which is due to vegetable 
 
 1 LYELL, Sir C., Principles of Geology, Eleventh Edition, vol. i., 
 chap, xviii. 
 
2 4 o SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 growth, and there is no doubt that peat has been 
 formed in some parts contemporaneously with silt 
 deposits in others. That earth-movement has par- 
 ticipated in the formation of the fens is shown by 
 the occurrence of buried forests below present tide- 
 level, but these movements are merely accessory, and 
 the deposit of silt and growth of peat upon it are 
 the essential factors in fen-formation. When the silt 
 has been raised to a height of about eight feet above 
 mean tide-level the glasswort (Salicornia herbaced] 
 begins to grow, and is only dry towards high water. 
 This glasswort, by checking the flow of the water, 
 assists in the deposition of the silt. When the flat 
 has increased to a height of about eleven feet above 
 mean tide-level it becomes covered with verdure, due 
 to plants of more terrestrial habit. 1 
 
 The actual peat is largely due to marsh vegetation, 
 and Skertchly gives reasons for supposing that the 
 forest growths which intervened at intervals occurred 
 during periods unfavourable for the accumulation of 
 peat. 2 The peat is not formed of Sphagnum, like 
 that of bogs, but consists chiefly of the decomposed 
 remains of various aquatic herbaceous plants." 2 
 
 According to Skertchly the peat in some places 
 is entirely made up of Hypnum fluitans. Other 
 plants which contribute to it are various rushes and 
 sedges, including Cladium mariscus, also the bladder- 
 wort, starwort, and arrowhead, while, in the shallow 
 waters of the meres, a calcareous marl was formed 
 by the growth of Chara. 
 
 The beauty of the fenland is the result of the 
 atmospheric conditions and the nature of the vegeta- 
 
 1 See The Fenland, p. 223. 
 
 8 BABINGTON, C. C, Flora of Cambridgeshire, p. xviii. 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 241 
 
 tion. The glorious sunrises and sunsets, and the 
 magnificence of the cloud effects have frequently 
 been described. The peculiar vegetation of the 
 fenland has nearly disappeared, though the flora 
 which once occupied the meres still brightens the 
 ponds and dikes which are scattered through the 
 cultivated tracts, and one piece of undrained fen, 
 Wicken Fen, yet survives to show the nature of 
 the former uncultivated plain. There one can still 
 roam through the sedges and rushes, and observe the 
 fronds of the marsh fern (Lastr&a thelypteris) and 
 the blossoms of many a fenland plant. The great 
 pit at Roslyn, near Ely, filled with water at the 
 bottom, gives some notion of the former appear- 
 ance of the fenland meres. Anyone looking over the 
 open spaces between the reeds from a boat, when the 
 banks are out of sight and the water is covered in 
 one place with the leaves and flowers of the yellow 
 and white water lilies, in another with the pale 
 yellow flowers of the bladderwort, and yet again 
 with the beautiful yellow blossoms of the Limnan- 
 themum, can well imagine that he is afloat on one of 
 the meres of the pristine fenland, and the knowledge 
 that the flat places of the earth may be filled with 
 beauty is here brought home to one in a striking 
 manner. 
 
 Marine deposits may give rise to plains as the 
 result of uplift, and these plains will not differ 
 markedly from those formed by silting up of 
 former sea-tracts, except that in all probability the 
 seaward slope will be somewhat greater. The coastal 
 plain of the east coast of North America is of this 
 nature, and it serves as a good example of this class 
 of plain. 
 R 
 
242 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 The last plains to be considered are those which 
 are termed plains of marine denudation. Their 
 mode of production will be more fully considered 
 when we discuss the operations of the sea at 
 length. It will be sufficient here to remark that 
 the erosive power of the sea is limited to the 
 superficial portion which is affected by waves 
 and currents, and as the depth to which these 
 operate is practically the same in all places, the 
 ultimate result of marine denudation is to give rise 
 to a comparatively level surface coinciding with the 
 downward limit of operation of the waves and 
 currents. This, if uplifted, will be a plain of marine 
 denudation, and it will differ from a peneplain mainly 
 in the absence of weathered material upon its surface, 
 whereas the peneplain will usually retain some of 
 the products of weathering upon the rocks which 
 underlie it. 
 
 The amount of the surface of the land which is 
 of the nature of plain is very great. A great tract 
 of plain extends from the western shores of Europe 
 to the Altai Mountains in Asia, unbroken save by 
 the Ural Mountains, and covering an area approach- 
 ing 5,000,000 square miles, or nearly one-third of the 
 Eurasian continent. As plains usually yield a soil 
 which is pre-eminently cultivable, it is found that 
 the population is extensively gathered upon the 
 plains, and much of their surface is actually under 
 cultivation. When uncultivated the scenery of a 
 plain depends largely on the nature of the vegeta- 
 tion. We find one plain differing considerably over 
 different portions of its surface, owing to change in 
 vegetation, and the names which are given to plains 
 are often determined to some extent by the character 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 243 
 
 of the prevalent vegetation. The rolling grass- 
 covered plains of North America are prairies, and 
 in some places savannahs ; the river plains of South 
 America, overflowed during the rainy season and 
 covered with grass, but dry during the periods of 
 drought, are called llanos ; in the same country the 
 forest-clad plains are known as selvas, as in the 
 basin of the Amazon ; the thistly and grassy plains 
 of Parana and La Plata, alternating with bogs and 
 often parched during the season of drought, are 
 pampas; in the Old World the belt of jungle between 
 Hindustan and the Himalayas, due to the detritus 
 brought down by the Himalayan rivers, is called 
 tarai ; the boggy flats of Siberia are tundras. The 
 tundras and pampas approach the condition of 
 deserts ; the amount of vegetation is in parts very 
 sparse, and there is a gradual passage into deserts. 
 
 The same plain may present different aspects in 
 different parts. Thus the great plain of Europe and 
 Siberia is cultivated river plain (polders) in one place, 
 sandy heath in another, wooded flats in a third, and 
 desert in a fourth. The most luxuriant vegetation 
 occurs on the plains in temperate regions, and in 
 sub-tropical regions supplied with abundant rain ; 
 in sub-tropical regions of drought, the amount of 
 vegetation rapidly declines, and the same is the case 
 in Arctic regions. In the latter the vegetation be- 
 comes stunted, and we find plains occupied by copses 
 of dwarf willows and birches rarely rising to a man's 
 height, or by grasses, mosses, and lichens, intermixed 
 with brightly flowering plants, often in cushion- 
 shaped masses. 
 
 Plateaux. The elevated tracts of country known 
 as plateaux may be due to (i) accumulation, (2) 
 
244 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 elevation of a pre-existing low-lying flat tract, or 
 (3) denudation of an elevated region to one level. 
 
 The principal plateaux of accumulation are due 
 to the outflow of very liquid lavas which accumulate 
 over one another in a series of sheets, each approach- 
 ing to a condition of perfect horizontality. The 
 great lava flows of the Deccan, in India, have pro- 
 duced a plateau of this character. The lava flows 
 of the Deccan, according to Messrs. Medlicott and 
 Blanford, have a thickness of about 6000 feet, and 
 occupy an area of about 200,000 square miles, giving 
 rise to plateaux of remarkable horizontality. Similar 
 plateaux are found among the Western Territories 
 of North America, as, for instance, in Idaho. As 
 the mode of origin of these lavas has already been 
 discussed, we need say no more concerning lava- 
 formed plateaux. 
 
 Typical plateaux formed by uplift are also found 
 among the slightly disturbed rocks of the North- 
 western Territories. The rocks of this region are 
 usually slightly inclined over wide areas, but broken 
 up into blocks by faults, or uplifted by the existence 
 of hogbacks, and accordingly we find plateaux " with 
 broken edges where they are bounded by faults, 
 flexed edges where they are bounded by monoclinal 
 flexures, and escarpments where they are bounded 
 by canons or lines of cliffs." 1 Powell figures a 
 series of plateaux north of the Grand Canon of 
 the Colorado. Of these, the most westerly, Shi-wits 
 plateau, is bounded on the west by a canon, on the 
 east by a fault ; the central one, the Kanab plateau, 
 is faulted on the west, and cut through by a canon in 
 the centre, and above it rises the Kaibab plateau, 
 1 POWELL, J. W., Geology of the Mista Mountains^ p. 14. 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 245 
 
 bounded on either side by a hogback or monoclinal 
 fold. In Figure 5 he gives a bird's-eye view of a 
 part of the Musinia zone of displacement, where 
 a tract of country is broken up into horizontal or 
 slightly sloping plateaux, each formed by a fractured 
 mass of the earth's crust, bounded by faults on all 
 sides. 
 
 Many of the great plateaux of the world, as that 
 of Central Asia, are also due to uplift, though no 
 doubt modified by denudation. In the case of these 
 plateaux the scale is so large that considerable 
 differences of level do not destroy the plateau-like 
 character of the whole. We may find them cut up 
 by deep valleys, and traversed by extensive mountain 
 chains, and yet the plateau-structure can be discerned 
 through these minor complications. 
 
 The uplifted area may be one which originally 
 possessed horizontality before its uplift, owing to 
 the accumulation of sediment, the formation of a 
 peneplain by subaerial denudation, or the formation 
 of a plain of marine denudation owing to the action 
 of the sea. In each case, if the upward movement 
 is one of sufficient extent to preserve a general 
 horizontality of the upraised block of earth's crust, a 
 plateau will result. 
 
 In the case of plateaux formed by denudation, as 
 in those due to accumulation and the greater number 
 of those originating in an uplift, general horizontality 
 of the strata is a necessary condition for the pro- 
 duction of the plateaux; and one need hardly observe 
 that uplift must precede or accompany denudation 
 in order that the strata may reach the required 
 height. Indeed, with plateaux, as with mountains, 
 though we can separate those due to uplift from 
 
246 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 those due to denudation, the two processes must 
 always take place ; and a plateau will be placed in 
 one or the other class, according as its salient 
 features are primarily produced by uplift or by 
 denudation. 
 
 Plateaux due to denudation are specially prone to 
 occur when a comparatively level plane of demarca- 
 tion separates overlying rocks, which are easily 
 denuded, from underlying ones which resist denuda- 
 tion. They very frequently occur on the upper 
 surfaces of limestone strata, which were succeeded 
 by ordinary mechanical sediments. It has already 
 been shown that limestones largely resist subaerial 
 denudation, owing to the absence of surface drainage, 
 and accordingly, while overlying mechanical sedi- 
 ments are cleared away by this kind of denudation, 
 the limestone is left practically intact, except as 
 regards minor changes. A considerable plateau of 
 limestone, cut up by the valleys of the Ribble, Dale 
 Beck, and some minor streams, ends in the neighbour- 
 hood of Settle, in Yorkshire. Some of the overlying 
 mechanical sediments have not yet been destroyed, 
 and stand up above the general limestone plateau, 
 forming the summits of Whernside, Ingleborough, 
 and Penyghent ; and from the top of any of these 
 hills the regularity of the limestone plateau may be 
 noted. The peculiar effect of weathering along joints, 
 giving rise to " clints," has already been described in 
 Chapter VIII. These clints are specially well shown 
 on the plateau of the Settle district. 
 
 Plateaux of denudation occurring on a larger scale 
 are often irregular and present many inequalities. 
 
 Owing to the elevation of plateaux they are liable 
 to be carved out by denudation to a greater extent 
 
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 247 
 
 than plains ; and as the strata of a plateau-region so 
 often approach horizontality, the hills which are 
 formed from a plateau by erosion are apt to be 
 tabular and flat-topped. Before the hill stage is 
 reached the plateau may be cut up by deep narrow 
 valleys, as in the case of the Colorado Region 
 of North America. These valleys are often invisible 
 until the traveller reaches their brinks ; and accord- 
 ingly the aspect of the plateau is that of a horizontal 
 tract of country, though that country may be actually 
 carved out to a considerable degree by the rivers 
 which traverse it. 
 
 As the valleys widen, the intervening tabular hills, 
 or mesas as they are termed in some parts of 
 America, become more and more pronounced, and 
 small isolated " outliers " standing away from the 
 main cliff form " buttes." 
 
 The ultimate result of subaerial denudation acting 
 upon a plateau, as upon a mountain district, will 
 be to reduce it to a peneplain. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 DESERTS 
 
 r I A HE effect of climate has been incidentally 
 JL mentioned more than once in the preceding 
 chapters, but we must now take into account the 
 influence of abnormal conditions of climate in 
 affecting the scenery of certain regions of the earth. 
 The principal conditions to which we must now pay 
 attention are those of exceptional drought and of 
 exceptional cold, and it is to the former that we 
 owe the existence of deserts, while to the latter are 
 due certain features which will be described in 
 subsequent chapters. 
 
 No area of the earth's surface is absolutely free 
 from precipitation of the aqueous vapour which is 
 held in the atmosphere, in the form of either rain 
 or snow, and desert regions are merely due to paucity 
 of rainfall and not to its actual non-occurrence. As 
 any inequality in the earth's surface causes vapour- 
 laden atmosphere to rise and become chilled, and 
 thereby renders it incapable of retaining so much 
 moisture as it could hold at a lower level, upland 
 regions are apt to be favoured with much rain, and 
 lowland regions are often comparatively dry. Hence, 
 other things being equal, desert conditions are more 
 liable to be developed in plains than in districts 
 marked by great inequalities of surface, and 
 
 248 
 
DESERTS 249 
 
 geographers have frequently treated of plains and 
 deserts as though they were very intimately 
 associated. But a district may be very uneven, 
 and if all the winds which blow over that district 
 carry air charged with very little aqueous vapour, 
 that vapour need not be deposited, even when the 
 ground rises to considerable elevations. Deserts, 
 then, though often coincident with plains, are also 
 frequently found in hilly regions, though even then 
 some of the processes which occur in desert regions, 
 which will be immediately described, tend to level 
 pre-existing inequalities. 
 
 Leaving out of account those barren regions which 
 owe their barrenness to the condensation of vapour 
 as snow and not as rain, we shall find that deserts 
 occur most frequently in sub -tropical regions. In 
 most tropical regions the rainfall during the rainy 
 season is excessive, and we require something besides 
 great heat for the existence of ordinary deserts, 
 something which greatly reduces the annual rainfall, 
 and produces long periods of drought. The con- 
 ditions favourable for the existence of deserts on a 
 large scale occur when an extensive mountain range 
 separates a large tract of continent from the pre- 
 vailing vapour-laden winds blowing from the ocean, 
 and these conditions are fulfilled in all our great 
 desert-regions. The vapour-laden winds strike the 
 seaward side of the mountains, are compelled to 
 rise, become chilled, and deposit a large quantity 
 of their aqueous vapour. They reach the lee side 
 of the mountains robbed of most of their moisture, 
 and as they then pass from higher to lower levels 
 they are able, when reaching the lowlands, to hold 
 much more moisture than they actually possess, and 
 
250 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 accordingly the rainfall is exceedingly limited. The 
 desert of Gobi in Asia is practically surrounded by 
 mountains, which drain the winds of their contained 
 moisture. The great Sahara Desert, occupying an 
 area about two-thirds of that of Europe, is also shut 
 off from the prevailing winds which cross expanses 
 of ocean by mountain ranges, as is likewise the 
 Kalahari Desert of South Africa. In North America 
 a desert region in the North-west Territories is prac- 
 tically surrounded by mountains ; in South America 
 a desert region exists in Chili and Peru to the west 
 of the Andes, for the moisture-laden winds there 
 blow from the east. In Central Australia, again, we 
 have a desert tract separated from the sea by 
 elevated land. 
 
 An examination of a map of existing deserts 
 shows that they are chiefly confined to a belt of 
 country lying between 20 and 45 on either side of 
 the equator, that is between the belt of tropical 
 rains and the regions of cold, and it is evident 
 from this distribution that, apart from local causes, 
 the deserts owe their existence to general meteor- 
 ological conditions. Should these conditions alter, 
 the distribution of deserts will be affected. At the 
 present day we have our desert-belts as well defined 
 as our glacial regions, but just as in past times 
 glaciation has affected areas which now enjoy a 
 genial climate, similar areas have formerly been 
 marked by desert conditions. In the northern belt 
 of deserts we find the desert area of Central Asia, 
 and that stretching from the west coast of Africa 
 into Arabia and Persia, and in the New World the 
 desert regions of the western territories of North 
 America. In the southern belt lie the Australian 
 
DESERTS 251 
 
 desert, the Kalahari desert of Africa, and the South 
 American desert tracts. 
 
 The scenery of deserts, as of other areas, is largely 
 determined by the agents of erosion and accumula- 
 tion, but the characteristic features are due to the 
 particular character of these agents in the desert 
 regions. There are four different kinds of deserts, 
 namely rock-deserts, gravel-deserts, sand-deserts, and 
 loam -deserts. In the rock-deserts the agents of 
 transportation are sufficiently powerful to remove 
 the results of disintegration of the rocks, leaving a 
 surface of bare rock ; in the others the disintegrated 
 material remains over the spot where disintegration 
 has occurred, or it has been accumulated by transport 
 from other regions, and the latter action is the cause 
 of the more important desert tracts being covered by 
 loose accumulations, for it is rare to find the material 
 remaining on the spot where it is disintegrated. 
 
 If a desert region has acquired its present characters 
 in geologically recent times, the present agents in 
 operation in that region may not have been able to 
 efface the features produced when other conditions 
 prevailed, and it is of importance to determine how 
 long an existing desert has possessed its present 
 conditions. This is not always an easy matter to 
 decide, but there is considerable reason for supposing 
 that at no distant period the rainfall of the desert 
 region of the North-western Territories of North 
 America was greater than it now is, while recent 
 research points to the prevalence of desert conditions 
 in the eastern part of the North African desert tract 
 through long periods of time. 
 
 It must also be borne in mind that the term desert 
 is not one which can be strictly defined ; a desert is a 
 
252 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 region where the rainfall is insufficient to allow of 
 the growth of much vegetation, but there is every 
 gradation from a desert region to one which we 
 are apt to consider as one which possesses normal 
 characters, and the amount of rainfall, though small 
 in all deserts, is much greater in some than in others. 
 Erosion of Deserts. The peculiar character of 
 deserts is not only directly dependent upon the 
 scarcity of rain, but also indirectly by its influence 
 upon vegetation, as pointed out by Gilbert in the 
 following passage 1 : 
 
 " Vegetation favours the disintegration of rocks, and 
 retards the transportation of the disintegrated material. 
 Where vegetation is profuse there is always an excess of 
 material awaiting transportation, and the limit to the rate of 
 erosion comes to be merely the limit to the rate of trans- 
 portation. And since the diversities of rock texture, such 
 as hardness and softness, affect only the rate of disentegra- 
 tion (weathering and corrasion) and not the rate of trans- 
 portation, these diversities do not affect the rate of erosion 
 in regions of profuse vegetation, and do not produce 
 corresponding diversities of form. 
 
 " On the other hand, where vegetation is scant or absent, 
 transportation and corrasion are favoured, while weathering 
 is retarded. There is no accumulation of disentegrated 
 material. 2 The rate of erosion is limited by the rate of 
 weathering, and that varies with the diversity of rock 
 texture. The soft are eaten away faster than the hard, and 
 the structure is embodied in the topographic forms. 
 
 "Thus a moist climate, by stimulating vegetation, pro- 
 duces a sculpture independent of diversities of rock texture, 
 and a dry climate by repressing vegetation produces a 
 sculpture dependent on those diversities." 
 
 1 GILBERT, G. K., Geology of the Henry Mountains^ p. 113. 
 
 2 That is, over the spot where the disintegration occurs. 
 
DESERTS 253 
 
 Owing to the character of desert climates rain and 
 rivers play a minor part in the determination of 
 desert features, and the main work of destruction 
 and transport is due to changes of temperature 
 acting directly, or indirectly in the form of wind. 
 Disintegration is mainly caused by change of tem- 
 perature, as already noted in Chapter VII., though 
 it is assisted by wind, and to a minor degree by 
 chemical weathering. 
 
 The changes of temperature cause the fracture 
 of the rock, owing to its alternate expansion and 
 contraction. Not only does the rock mass con- 
 tract and expand as a whole, but it is known 
 that expansion takes place in a crystal in different 
 degrees along different crystalline axes, and this no 
 doubt helps the fracture. The fracture is frequently 
 assisted, owing to the presence of salts in the rock. 
 Many rocks in desert regions were formerly de- 
 posited in the sea, and contain sea-salts, which, 
 owing to the dry conditions, have not been dissolved 
 or removed. These salts come to the surface, owing 
 to capillary action, and being hygroscopic, are dry in 
 the daytime and damp at night, and owing to the 
 alternate change from wet to dry conditions, the 
 rocks are cracked in much the same way as that in 
 which they are cracked by frost in higher latitudes. 1 
 
 Wind transports material, and produces much the 
 same results in nature as are produced artificially 
 by the sand-blast. Pebbles are gradually worn 
 down, often presenting edges, rocks may be striated, 
 and pebbles and rocks alike often have a polished 
 
 1 See WALTHER, J., Denudation in der Wuste, Abhandl. der 
 math.-phys. Classe der K. Sachs Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, bd. 
 xvi., Leipzig, 1891. 
 
254 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 appearance, as the result of the sand-blast. In the 
 gravel desert of Morocco Walther describes the area 
 as presenting a general varnished appearance, owing 
 to the action of the sand-blast upon the little pebbles 
 with which the desert is strewn. 
 
 The general absence of running water on the hills 
 of desert regions is indicated by the absence of the 
 characteristic curve of water erosion, and the pro- 
 duction of house-roof structure, as seen in the picture 
 of the Ras Muhammed desert in the Sinaitic Peninsula 
 figured in Plate III. of Walther's paper on the Coral 
 Reefs of that peninsula, and also in the outlines of 
 the hills in the same peninsula figured on p. 389 of 
 his paper on the " Denudation of Deserts." Another 
 feature of desert hills is the absence of accumulation 
 of loose material, such as screes and rainwash at the 
 foot of the hills the action of the wind being 
 sufficiently powerful to remove the material. The 
 mountains of deserts, therefore, have a character of 
 their own ; they differ from those of temperate 
 regions in the absence of the curve of water erosion, 
 and, although resembling those of Arctic lands in 
 the general straightness of their sides, they have 
 not the accumulation of loose material so fre- 
 quently found at the foot of the hills of frost-bound 
 regions. 
 
 The action of the wind removes the softer rocks, 
 leaving the harder ones behind, as noticed by Gilbert, 
 and also enlarges the lines of weakness, as joints and 
 planes of stratification. In areas composed of hori- 
 zontal strata, the soft rocks are removed, and the 
 area lowered to the level of a harder stratum, which 
 gives rise to a level plateau ; this in turn gets cut up, 
 and the whole region reduced to a lower level coin- 
 
DESERTS 255 
 
 cident with the surface of the next hard stratum, 
 and the process of levelling is continued in the 
 same way. One result of this weathering is to pro- 
 duce isolated columns, often undercut at the base, 
 and etched into different shapes by the wind acting 
 unequally upon rocks of different hardness, and 
 accordingly the detailed scenery of desert uplands 
 recalls that of a group of mountains composed of 
 dolomite. 
 
 The effect of the wind on a rock presenting vary- 
 ing degrees of hardness is well seen in that from 
 which the sphinx of Gizeh is carved out. The 
 lower part of the sphinx has been affected by wind 
 action, and as different parts of the rock differ in 
 hardness, owing to the infiltration of iron compounds 
 forming ring-shaped masses, the softer parts have 
 been etched by the wind, leaving the harder parts 
 outstanding in ring-shaped bands. 
 
 When rounded, hard masses occur in a rock on 
 a flat surface, they not only stand out from the 
 surrounding rock owing to the sand-blast, but a 
 ridge of rock which is protected by them is left on 
 the lee side, as shown by Walther in Fig. 55 of 
 his work on the Denudation of Deserts, where 
 manganese concretions in the Nubian sandstone of 
 the Sinaitic desert have caused the formation of 
 such ridges. 
 
 Certain outlines due to denudation are found on a 
 small scale in some desert regions, which present 
 difficulties with regard to their explanation. The 
 clayey deposits of the neighbourhood of the Henry 
 Mountains in the Colorado region, and the old 
 lacustrine deposits of the country around the salt 
 lakes of Utah and in parts of Wyoming, are known 
 
256 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 as " Bad Lands." " This expressive name has been 
 given to some of the strangest and, in many respects, 
 most repulsive scenery in the world. They are 
 tracts of irreclaimable barrenness, blasted and left for 
 ever lifeless and hideous." 1 Those of Wyoming are 
 carved into buttes and intervening depressions largely 
 by wind action, whereas near the Henry Mountains 
 rain has caused the development of very regular 
 water-ways, in which the Thalwegs present the 
 normal curve of stream denudation at the base, 
 whereas the summits of the ridges have a convex 
 curve, though the nature of the rock appears to be 
 the same at base and summit. Gilbert quotes these 
 Bad Land ridges as exceptions from the ordinary 
 law of water-erosion, which are as yet unexplained. 
 
 In some deserts, like that of Egypt, the flat ground 
 is carved out into butte-like elevations from six to 
 one hundred and fifty feet in height, known as 
 " Zeugen." They consist of soft rock with a layer of 
 hard rock at the summit, and beneath the hard cap 
 the soft rock is carved into slopes which resemble 
 the typical denudation curve, as shown in Fig. 36. 
 Nevertheless, according to Walther, running water 
 plays no part in their formation, as proved among 
 other things by their most frequent occurrence in 
 regions of least rainfall. He accounts for them on 
 the supposition that they are due to wind action, 
 assisted by chemical weathering. When a hollow 
 has once been formed by the wind, weathering comes 
 into play with different effectiveness on different 
 parts of the slope. Immediately below the hard cap 
 the rock retains what water it takes up, owing to the 
 shade of the overlying hard cap, and accordingly 
 
 1 GEIKIE, Sir A., Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad^ No. ix. 
 
DESERTS 257 
 
 chemical weathering is most pronounced there, and 
 the rock is rendered less coherent, and is easily 
 transported by the wind ; below this- the cap offers 
 less and less protection, and the removal of the rock 
 occurs in smaller and smaller quantity, until the 
 curve is produced and the hard cap overhangs. As 
 the shady side of the Zeuge is weathered to a greater 
 extent than the sunny side, the Zeuge becomes 
 crooked and the top breaks off, when all the soft 
 material is removed, and the process is commenced 
 
 FIG. 36. 
 Ideal section across a Zeuge. 
 
 afresh at a lower level with another soft stratum 
 surmounted by a hard one. 
 
 According to Walther, the influence of shade 
 causing water to remain in shady spots longer than 
 elsewhere, and thereby permitting chemical weather- 
 ing to occur more extensively in the shade, is also 
 responsible for the formation of extensive holes on 
 the general surface of a rock desert. When these 
 holes are once formed the shade in the interior 
 becomes more pronounced, and accordingly the 
 cavities grow wider as they proceed further down 
 beneath the general surface of the rock. 
 
 The fretted nature of wind-worn rocks in a desert 
 region is increased, owing to the production of a 
 peculiar brown crust, which has been noticed by 
 many writers, e.g. Messrs. Brindley and Floyer, 
 which gives a sameness of colouring to many 
 s 
 
258 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 deserts. This crust has generally been referred to 
 the effects of weathering, but Walther gives reasons 
 against its production by simple weathering action. 
 It consists mainly of peroxides of iron and manga- 
 nese, and rocks, like limestone, which do not contain 
 these substances are covered by it, equally with 
 those rocks which do contain them. 
 
 When cliffs of rock are covered with the brown 
 crust, it scales off in vertical strips in some un- 
 explained manner, possibly owing to the trickling of 
 rain-water. The exposed parts are influenced by 
 the denuding action of desert agents, as weathering 
 in the shade and the sand-blast, while the encrusted 
 parts resist this action. The first result is the pro- 
 duction of window-like recesses in the exposed parts. 
 As the backs of these recesses are in the shade, the 
 action goes on sideways behind the crust-protected 
 intervening parts, producing passages behind the 
 protected portions, which then remain as pillars 
 between the window-shaped apertures. Some of 
 these apertures are large enough for a man to enter 
 in a stooping position. 
 
 Again, when the upper part of an isolated butte 
 is covered by the brown crust, this encrusted portion 
 is protected, while the lower part is worn away, and 
 a mushroom-shaped pillar is the result. The stripping 
 of vertical patches of the crust on the head of the 
 mushroom allows of the formation of window-shaped 
 cavities on the sides of the head, and projecting 
 borders are frequently produced. Some of these 
 mushroom -shaped rocks observed by Walther were 
 over fifteen feet high, the brown summit occasionally 
 projecting about a yard beyond the white stalk. 
 
 The formation of valleys in desert regions is 
 
DESERTS 259 
 
 effected in more than one way. The buttes of the 
 Bad Lands of Wyoming are the outstanding portions 
 of rocks, which have been carved into small valleys 
 by the action of the wind, and Walther ascribes the 
 main part of the formation of the wadys of the 
 Egyptian desert to this cause, and believes that 
 water plays a very subordinate part in their pro- 
 duction, though the effects of the thunder showers 
 which occur there must not be overlooked. In some 
 desert regions, as that of Colorado, rainfall, though 
 slight, gives rise to streams and rivers which produce 
 the characteristic canons. Owing to absence of 
 vegetation, the water when it does fall is given off 
 rapidly and not slowly, and, accordingly, can effect 
 much transportation, and therefore corrasion, when 
 the declivity is sufficient, whereas owing to the 
 infrequency of rain, weathering is retarded. It is 
 in these regions that we find the steep-sided gorges 
 carved out of the arid plateaux, which are gradually 
 cut up into flat-topped mesas and buttes, of which 
 the sides are terraced by alternation of softer and 
 harder strata, and the softer strata are carved into 
 intricate forms. 
 
 "The water from the occasional rainfalls carves out 
 innumerable little sinuous washes, which, in descending, 
 come together, forming deep gullies. These keep on joining 
 others, until the main drainage course of the valleys is 
 reached. Between this network of washes are correspond- 
 ing ridges, which in a favourable light give to the mesa-face 
 the appearance of an elaborate and very artistic piece of 
 ornamental carving." l 
 
 1 The above quotation is from W. H. HOLMES' Geological Report of 
 the San Juan District ; Ninth Annual Report of the United States 
 Geological and Geographical Survey, p. 256. The structure is figured 
 in Plate XLI. of that work. 
 
260 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Accumulation in Deserts. The accumulations and 
 deposits of desert regions are formed in hollows of 
 the dry land and on the floors of inland lakes. The 
 most extensive accumulation of the dry land is 
 blown sand, which often covers great expanses of 
 a desert. The surface of the sand is often irregular, 
 owing to the formation of sand-hills or dunes, which 
 may occur with intervals of the underlying rock 
 showing between them, or may merely form the 
 summits of considerable thicknesses of blown sand. 
 If an obstacle exists in an area over which sand is 
 being blown, some of the sand will be arrested by the 
 obstacle and form a little heap around it, especially 
 if the wind varies in direction. Such obstacles are 
 often furnished by the sparsely-scattered plants 
 which can grow on a sandy tract. The sand 
 accumulates around these, the top of the plant 
 continues to grow above the sand, and eventually 
 a little mound of sand is produced, from the centre 
 of which the plant which caused the formation of 
 the hillock projects. If the plants are fairly abun- 
 dant a very characteristic appearance is presented 
 by the innumerable monticules, each possessing its 
 tuft of vegetation. Walther figures examples of these 
 hillocks (Neulinge), which have been formed around 
 tamarisks in the desert of the Sinaitic Peninsula. 
 
 Dunes of desert sand may be formed without 
 any obstacle other than that furnished by the sand 
 itself, as shown by Vaughan Cornish in a paper 
 which treats of the formation of different kinds of 
 dunes in detail, a paper from which many of the 
 facts recorded below are extracted. 1 Desert sand 
 
 1 CORNISH, V., "On the Formation of Sand-dunes," Geographical 
 Journal^ March, 1897. 
 
DESERTS 
 
 261 
 
 differs to some extent from the sand of coast sand- 
 hills or sand-dunes, in that the sand in the latter has 
 been largely sorted by sea action, while desert sand 
 contains particles of various sizes, from large grains 
 to particles of dust. The former act as obstacles, 
 and when the wind blows, the finer dust is heaped up 
 against the coarse grains and a " ripple-mark " is 
 formed on the surface of the sand ; these " ripple- 
 marks " do not differ materially from dunes save 
 in size. The structure of a dune is largely depend- 
 ent upon the eddy produced on the lee-side, as 
 shown in Figure 37 (after a figure by Cornish), 
 
 FIG. 37. 
 
 which represents a cross-section of two dunes and 
 the directions of the air currents. 
 
 The height from the crest of the dune to the 
 bottom of the trough in front is the amplitude of 
 the sand-wave and cannot strictly be spoken of as 
 the height of the dune, as part of the hollow is 
 produced by excavation and not by piling up ; it 
 is only when a dune rests upon rock below that we 
 can confidently speak of the height of a dune. The 
 windward slope in the central part is one which will 
 allow grains to be carried up by the wind ; the lower 
 part of the lee-slope is produced by excavation on 
 the part of the eddy, while higher up is a straighter 
 portion due to slipping of the incoherent grains, and 
 this slipping may also modify the base by producing 
 
262 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 a talus-slope. The descending air-current at the 
 crest of the windward slope rounds off the upper 
 part of that slope, and the lower part of the 
 windward slope is, like that of the lee-slope, ex- 
 cavated by the eddy. 
 
 " Thus the normal profile left by the rippling of 
 sand by wind has the following parts viz., a wind- 
 ward slope, consisting of a concave and convex curve, 
 and a lee-slope, consisting of a straight line and a 
 concave curve." 
 
 Reversible wind tends to turn the top of the dune, 
 and gives rise to a hill which is steep on the wind- 
 ward slope as well as on the lee side. 
 
 The dunes grow sideways as well as upwards, 
 owing to the opposition of the direct current by 
 an eddy. As the centre of the dune has a greater 
 height than the sides, the sides travel forwards more 
 rapidly than the centre, producing a crescent-shaped 
 mound with the horns pointing to leeward. This 
 is the form of the barchanes or medanos of many 
 desert regions. They may be produced by an 
 obstacle, or where part of a current of air is 
 relatively feebler than that in the immediate vicinity. 
 When the wind varies in direction these barchanes 
 may take very complex shapes, with many horn-like 
 projections pointing in different directions. 
 
 Dunes may, under different circumstances, lie 
 longitudinally or transversely to the direction of 
 the prevailing wind, the longitudinal type, as shown 
 by Dr. Blanford, being associated with wind of 
 greater force than that which determines the forma- 
 tion ofithe transverse type. 
 
 When stripes of wind of velocity different from 
 that of the wind on either side produce barchanes, 
 
DESERTS 263 
 
 and the amount of sand in the sand-shower sub- 
 sequently increases, the whole of the surface, except 
 the deep excavations on the lee side of the bar- 
 chanes, may be blurred or smoothed over, when 
 these excavations will be left on an otherwise level 
 surface of land as horseshoe-shaped hollows. Such 
 hollows, known as fuljes, occur in many deserts. 
 
 Dunes vary in height, but cannot grow to an in- 
 definite height, for the work of the wind at the 
 summits of the dunes is assisted by gravity, while 
 that of the eddy in the trough is opposed by gravity, 
 and accordingly, after a time, more sand is accumu- 
 lated in the troughs than can be piled up on the 
 crests. When this occurs the general height of the 
 desert is increased, and great thicknesses of sand 
 may be accumulated with the dunes upon their 
 upper surface. The highest dunes are not much 
 over 600 feet above the lowest parts of the troughs. 
 The character of one of these sand deserts, in which 
 the sand has been accumulated to a great thickness, 
 has been well described by Captain A. H. McMahon. 1 
 
 " Marching via Darband and Amir Chah, we kept to 
 the north of the Koh-i-Sultan, Damodun, and other 
 mountain ranges. At times our journey lay through wide, 
 open, level plains covered with black gravel, at others we 
 floundered our weary way through broad expanses of deep 
 sand-hills, which, near Amir Chah and other places, assumed 
 the proportions of formidable sand-mountains. All the 
 mountains we passed were apparently volcanic. . . . 
 These mountains are all being gradually covered up and 
 buried in sand, which is relentlessly creeping further and 
 further up their sides. Many are already completely 
 
 1 McMAHON, A. H., "The Southern Borders of Afghanistan," 
 Geographical Journal, April, 1897. 
 
264 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 buried, and a high mountain of sand marks their burial- 
 place. Others have their black peaks just appearing out 
 of the white expanse of sand-slopes. Here and there a 
 loftier mass still towers with its black crags high above the 
 devouring waste around, but the sand banked up on their 
 sides, in places sometimes 1000 or 2000 feet above the 
 level of their base, foretells a similar fate in store for them. 
 The general effect of the scene they present is weird and 
 unnatural in the extreme." 
 
 The pebbly deserts, like that referred to by Captain 
 McMahon as covered with black gravel, are in many 
 cases the residue of former sand deserts from which 
 the finer particles of sand have been subsequently 
 blown away. 
 
 In some regions, especially those which lie to 
 windward of areas which have formerly received 
 accumulations of fine glacial mud, the wind-borne 
 material consists of fine dust, which may be accumu- 
 lated upon plains or in the depressions between hill- 
 ranges, giving rise to steppes. When the steppes are 
 plains the surface is flat, but when the fine dust is 
 blown into depressions between hills the upper 
 surface of the dust forms a catenary curve. The 
 accumulations which have been formed in steppes 
 are known as loess, and there is evidence that in 
 geologically recent times steppe conditions, mark- 
 ing widespread dry climate, prevailed over much 
 more extensive areas than those which are now 
 characterised by them. 1 In many places the loess 
 has subsequently been carved by water action into 
 deep canon-like gorges, as in some parts of China. 
 
 1 For a discussion on the origin of the loess, see a paper by Baron 
 VON RICHTHOFEN, Geological Magazine, decade ii., vol. ix. (1882), 
 P- 293- 
 
DESERTS 265 
 
 Loam deserts frequently mark the sites of ancient 
 lakes, some of which possessed no outlet, as already 
 stated when noticing the character of some of 
 the Bad Lands of the western territories of North 
 America. These desert lakes often present features 
 of interest. If the rainfall be insufficient to fill a 
 depression to the height of the lowest point of out- 
 let from the depression, the lake will have no outlet 
 and its level will fluctuate, owing to variations in the 
 rainfall of the region, for much of the water is re- 
 moved by evaporation. Accordingly we find well- 
 marked shore lines accumulated where the surface 
 was fairly constant in height for a sufficient time 
 to allow of the accumulation of a beach. These 
 lines of beach form a striking feature on the hill-sides 
 around the Great Salt Lake of Utah and neigh- 
 bouring lakes of the same region, and they have 
 been frequently described and figured. 
 
 When complete desiccation of these lakes occurs 
 the salts which were in solution in the water are 
 deposited in crystalline sheets, often appearing like 
 surfaces of ice in the desert. Such tracts of salt 
 are found in the Shats of Algeria, and McMahon 
 describes similar expanses in the southern border- 
 lands of Afghanistan. 
 
 Accumulations of salt may, however, be formed in 
 desert regions without the formation of a lake. The 
 thundershowers of many deserts carry salt from the 
 rocks to a lower level, and as the water evaporates 
 the salt is left behind, and in this way sheets of salt 
 may accumulate in depressions. Again, it has been 
 seen that salt may be brought to the surface by 
 capillary action, and accordingly we find some deserts, 
 like the alkali deserts of North America, characterised 
 
266 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 by coatings of salt, which form a whitish crust upon 
 the surface of the ground. 1 
 
 A word may be said concerning the atmospheric 
 conditions of a desert region. Owing to the extra- 
 ordinary dryness of the atmosphere the traveller can 
 frequently see objects at great distances. Of the 
 desert on the borders of Afghanistan, Captain 
 McMahon writes, " The clear, dry, sparkling atmo- 
 sphere, the deep blue, cloudless skies of the greater 
 part of the year, and the almost boundless horizons 
 produce feelings of exhilaration and a sense of free- 
 dom which go far to make up for the shortcomings 
 of the country in other respects." 
 
 The mirage of the desert, like that of other regions, 
 as the polar areas, the English fenlands, and the 
 Lake of Geneva, is due to reflection from the surface 
 of a stratum of air, where originally horizontal 
 strata of different densities have been disturbed by 
 differential heating or cooling from underneath. 
 The reader who wishes for a fuller account of the 
 phenomena of mirage may consult a paper by 
 Professor Everett in Nature, November iQth and 
 2;th, 1874. 
 
 Sand-storms occur during the prevalence of strong 
 winds in desert regions. They may be due to 
 wind blowing in one direction over wide areas when 
 the sand is wafted on by the wind, and in these 
 conditions sand-dunes are formed and increased in 
 size. Some of the most remarkable and destructive 
 sand-storms are cyclonic whirls of comparatively 
 small size, which produce sand-pillars and cupola- 
 shaped masses of sand, often miles in diameter ; the 
 
 1 See GEIKIE, Sir A., Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad, 
 p. 240, fig. 25. 
 
DESERTS 267 
 
 general circular mass may be complicated by minor 
 spiral columns due to subsidiary spiral rotation 
 of the wind on the margin of the main cyclone. 
 
 It has already been stated that desert conditions 
 are largely due to the general absence of vegeta- 
 tion, but that which does exist in a desert has 
 a character of its own, and produces considerable 
 effect upon the scenery of those portions of desert 
 which are occupied by a scant growth of vegetation. 
 There are decided resemblances between the flora 
 of the desert and that of high alpine or of arctic 
 regions, and the resemblances are due to the existence 
 of similar physical conditions in desert and arctic 
 areas, namely, long periods of dryness alternating 
 with short periods when there is a considerable 
 supply of moisture. In arctic regions the dryness 
 is due to cold and wind, and the moisture is supplied 
 by melting of snow. In the desert the dryness is due 
 to heat and drought ; the moisture is supplied during 
 the short periods of rainfall and to some extent by 
 night dews. 
 
 One effect of desert climate is that the plants 
 occur in comparative isolation, often with considerable 
 intervals of barren ground intervening between indi- 
 vidual plants. Furthermore there is usually a special 
 modification of the leaves of the plants, which enables 
 them to resist the long periods of drought. The leaves 
 are often scaly, sword-shaped or tufted, occurring in 
 rosette-like growths ; sometimes they are modified 
 into thorns, and in some cases shoots devoid of leaves 
 are found. The prevailing colour of the desert plants 
 is grey-green, dirty green, or grey-white. Succulent 
 plants, however, are frequently found, and some deserts 
 possess a considerable variety of flowering plants. 
 
268 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 In the Egypt-Arabian desert the leaves of the 
 grasses are short and stiff; plants with shoots devoid 
 of leaves occur, as Ephedra ; in Tamarix the leaves 
 are modified into scales, and there are several thorny 
 plants. Many bulbous plants are found, and in 
 some parts flowering plants produce an effect upon 
 the scenery, thus the storksbill (Erodium) when in 
 flower gives a red hue to tracts where it grows. 
 
 The remarkable edible lichen Parmelia esculenta, 
 supposed to be the manna of the Scriptures, grows 
 in the desert from Central Asia to Algeria; fragments 
 of it are detached from the rocks by the wind, and 
 these fragments are blown into other places. 
 
 In the Kalahari desert of South Africa many of the 
 plants possess tubers mimicking stones. There are 
 many bulbous plants and various succulent plants, 
 as spurges (Euphorbiaceae) ; also xerophilous plants, 
 that is, plants which flourish in a dry climate, as 
 Mimosa and various Proteaceae. 
 
 In Australia parts of the desert are occupied by 
 the isolated stool-like masses of Triodia, there called 
 Spinifex, with a few needle-like spikes projecting, as 
 seen in the plate copied by permission of the author 
 and of the Council of the Geographical Society, from 
 a figure illustrating a paper by the Hon. D. W. 
 Carnegie, "Explorations of the Interior of Western 
 Australia." 1 
 
 In North America the deserts are rendered mono- 
 tonous by the prevalent sage-brush, consisting of 
 various species of Artemisia, especially A. tridentata. 
 An interesting feature of these deserts is the sudden 
 change from highlands, supplied with abundant water 
 and rich in vegetation, to desert lowlands. Mr. H. 
 
 1 Geographical Journal, March, 1898 (vol. xi.). 
 

DESERTS 269 
 
 Gannett thus speaks of the Uncompahgre plateau, in 
 the Grand River District 1 : 
 
 " Nowhere is the influence of vegetation on the character 
 of the vegetation more plainly marked than on this plateau. 
 In the interior, near the crest, the land is, to the Utes, one 
 flowing with milk and honey. Here are fine streams of 
 clear, cold water, beautiful aspen groves, the best of grass 
 in the greatest abundance, and a profusion of wild fruits 
 and berries, while the country is a perfect flower-garden. 
 This extends as low as 7000 feet, below which the scene 
 changes to one in all respects the reverse. Aspen gives 
 place to pifion and cedar ; the grasses, fruits, and flowers, to 
 sage, cacti, and bare rock. The streams become confined 
 in rocky canons, turn muddy and warm, and gradually 
 disappear. The game changes, black-tailed deer give place 
 to the white-tailed species. Grouse disappear, while rattle- 
 snakes and centipedes assert their proprietorship. In the 
 place of an open, rolling country, we enter a district traversed 
 by deep, narrow gorges, of abrupt precipices, a country 
 difficult in the extreme to traverse without a knowledge of 
 its few highways." 
 
 I have already quoted part of Sir A. Geikie's 
 description of the scenery of the North American 
 Bad Lands. Here is an additional extract from that 
 writer's account : 
 
 " There is a further feature which crowns the repulsive- 
 ness of the Bad Lands. There are no springs or streams. 
 Into the soil, parched by the fierce heats of a torrid summer, 
 the moisture of the subsoil ascends by capillary attraction, 
 carrying with it the saline solutions it has extracted from 
 the rocks. At the surface it is at once evaporated, leaving 
 behind a white crust or efflorescence, which covers the bare 
 ground and encrusts the pebbles strewn thereon. Vegeta- 
 
 1 Report U.S. Geological and Geographical Sitrvey, 1875, P- 34- 
 
270 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 tion wholly fails, save here and there a bunch of salt-weed or 
 a bush of the ubiquitous sage-brush, the parched livid green 
 of which serves only to increase the desolation of the 
 desert." 
 
 In these alkali deserts, and indeed in any desert 
 where there is a considerable amount of salt, the 
 flora frequently presents resemblances to that of the 
 salt-marshes around the sea-coast. Besides cacti and 
 spurges, which also grow in the sand deserts, we find 
 marsh-samphire (Salicornia), plantains (Plantagd), and 
 various representatives of the Chenopodiaceae or goose- 
 foot plants. 
 
 Oases occur wherever water issues from the ground 
 to a sufficient degree to support vegetation. The 
 water may be due to various causes, as relatively 
 large amount of rainfall in some localities, or course 
 of the underground water. The latter is probably 
 often a cause of oases, as indicated by their frequent 
 occurrence along definite lines, a distribution which 
 often determines the routes of caravans. Various 
 plants grow in these oases, including trees. In North 
 Africa the date-palm is the only indigenous tree, 
 though others have been introduced by man. 1 
 
 Though the production of desert features on a 
 large scale requires a dry climate, we find that an 
 imitation of many of the characteristic features of a 
 desert region may be developed in our own country 
 upon a small scale. The nature of the sand-dunes 
 of the coasts is similar in general characters to that 
 of the desert dunes, and some of the attributes of 
 
 1 For a fuller account of the vegetation of deserts the reader may 
 consult E. WARMING'S Lehrbuch der okologischen Pflanzengeographie, 
 Berlin, 1896. 
 
DESERTS 271 
 
 desert vegetation occur among the plants of our 
 coastal dunes. Tracts even more suggestive of sand 
 deserts are found in some parts of East Anglia, at 
 some distance from the sea, where the superficial 
 deposits are formed of incoherent sand, which is 
 readily blown about by the wind. 
 
 The alkaline and salt flats of desert regions have 
 some resemblances to the salt marshes which occur 
 in many of our estuaries ; they are particularly well 
 developed in the estuaries around Morecambe Bay, 
 though some of these have been modified by culti- 
 vation. It has already been stated that several of 
 the plants of salt-deserts, as Salicornia and Cheno- 
 podiaceae, are also found in these maritime salt 
 marshes. 
 
 Lastly we find simulation of rock deserts on a 
 small scale among the Yorkshire moors, where the 
 millstone grit, being very absorbent, frequently 
 engulfs the rain-water as it descends, thereby 
 limiting surface erosion by water, and causing 
 chemical weathering, effect of change of temperature 
 and wind to become dominant agents of sculpture. 
 It is in such regions (as already noted in Chapter 
 VIII.) that we find miniature representations of the 
 wind-worn rocks of deserts, as, for instance, the 
 Brimham Rocks, near Knaresborough, and the Cow 
 and Calf at Ilkley. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 
 
 A LTHOUGH it is in alpine and arctic regions 
 Ji\. that the scenic effects due to frost are most 
 striking, the effects of frost in a country like Britain, 
 under its present climatic conditions, are far from 
 insignificant 
 
 The first point to notice in connexion with frost is 
 the exceptional behaviour of water as it is cooled 
 down towards the freezing-point. It is well known 
 that water contracts when cooled until it possesses 
 a temperature of 39 Fahrenheit, when it expands, 
 and accordingly grows lighter. At a temperature 
 of 32 Fahrenheit, the freezing-point of fresh water, 
 the change from the liquid to the solid condition 
 is accompanied by a very considerable expansion 
 (about one-fourteenth of its volume). One notice- 
 able result of this expansion is the efficacy of frost 
 as an agent of disintegration of rocks, as described 
 in a preceding chapter. Another effect of great 
 significance from the scenic point of view is that, 
 owing to expansion occurring above freezing-point, 
 the top water, after its temperature is reduced to 
 39 Fahrenheit, becomes lighter, and therefore re- 
 mains on the surface, so that the surface water 
 freezes first, whereas, if contraction occurred as the 
 temperature was lowered to the freezing-point, the 
 
 272 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 273 
 
 cold water would continue to sink to the bottom, 
 and the whole of a water area would be gradually 
 lowered to freezing-point, and a lake might thus be 
 frozen solid, whereas, under the actual conditions 
 which exist, the ice is formed upon the surface, and 
 seldom extends to a very great depth in deep sheets 
 of water. 1 
 
 Water, like many other liquids, when consolidated, 
 assumes a crystalline condition, the crystals belonging 
 to systems termed by mineralogists the hexagonal 
 and rhombohedral systems, and the compound 
 crystals are also arranged in symmetrical shapes as 
 well exhibited in many snowflakes, which show 
 various six-rayed forms. The crystalline structure 
 may also be frequently seen in the products of hoar- 
 frost and in other cases where consolidation has taken 
 place under conditions favourable for the free growth 
 of the crystal-outlines, but even when invisible it is 
 there, for instance, in the ice on the surface of a pond, 
 as may be proved by suitable experiments. The 
 beautiful patterns seen on our windows on a frosty 
 morning owe their beauty to the consolidation of 
 water in a crystalline condition. We may here 
 briefly notice some of the processes resulting in 
 the formation of ice which give rise to minor or 
 transient effects upon scenery. 
 
 Hoar-frost is produced when the dew-point is 
 below freezing-point, when the aqueous vapour is not 
 condensed into minute drops of water, but the solid 
 form is assumed. Hoar-frost, like dew, forms best 
 on substances which are good radiators of heat, and 
 accordingly it is prone to be formed on vegetation, 
 
 1 The exceptional conditions controlling the formation of " ground- 
 ice," or " anchor ice," on the floors of water areas do not concern us, 
 T 
 
274 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 hence giving rise to the picturesque appearance 
 presented by trees which are laden with it. 
 
 Warm vapour-laden air coming in contact with 
 frozen ground may have its vapour condensed and 
 deposited in the solid form as "glazed frost" or 
 " verglas," which is specially remarkable when rain 
 falls. An interesting case of verglas is quoted from 
 the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy by 
 Dr. R. H. Scott, in his work on Elementary Meteor- 
 ology> chapter vii. In mountain regions very re- 
 markable effects are often produced, owing to the 
 formation of ice crystals which are deposited on 
 cold surfaces when a warm vapour-laden wind 
 strikes against them. Irregular blocks of stone 
 become covered with thick masses bristling with 
 crystalline projections, and often assume very bizarre 
 forms. This phenomenon may often be seen on our 
 own hills in the winter and early spring months, but 
 in higher latitudes or on higher altitudes it may be 
 observed in the summer months. Mr. Garwood 
 noticed a very striking case on Hornsund Tind, 
 Spitsbergen. The projections, some of which were 
 eighteen inches in length, grew out from a vertical 
 face of cliff during about three weeks of continuous 
 fog. 
 
 Ice is not only produced by contact of warm 
 moisture-laden air with cold ground, but by the 
 contact of cold air with warm ground. Owing to 
 the fact that the air is not directly heated by the 
 rays from the sun, but by the dark heat which is 
 given off from the earth, we often find the earth's 
 surface is warm when the temperature of the air 
 around is below freezing-point Accordingly any 
 snow or ice which is resting on the earth may be 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 275 
 
 melted, and if it is resting on a projecting surface 
 the water will flow down and hang as a drop on the 
 edge of the projection. The contact of the cold air 
 may cause this drop to freeze when it is at rest, and 
 the next water which descends will swathe this drop 
 with moisture, which, freezing in turn, will increase 
 the diameter of the frozen knob, while more water, 
 hanging from the extremity of the previously frozen 
 drop, will in turn freeze, thus lengthening the frozen 
 mass. By a continuation of the process an icicle is 
 formed, much as a stalactite of carbonate of lime is 
 formed under the arch of a bridge or on the roof of 
 a cavern. Large masses of pendent icicles are often 
 thus formed in the neighbourhood of waterfalls or at 
 the edges of overhanging banks of a stream. In 
 mountain regions, conditions favourable for their 
 formation occur in the interior of the fissures or 
 crevasses of glaciers, and also on the under surfaces 
 of snow cornices, the mode of formation of which 
 will be subsequently considered. 
 
 The effects of hailstorm, though often very de- 
 structive, are not of great interest to the student 
 of scenery, and we may now pass on to consider the 
 formation and mode of accumulation of snow. 
 
 Snow, as is well known, is not frozen rain; the snow- 
 flakes are formed from aqueous vapour by consolida- 
 tion before the vapour has given place to definite liquid 
 drops. Snow will collect at the door of a crowded 
 railway carriage containing foot-warmers, owing to the 
 consolidation of the aqueous vapour in the carriage 
 by the cold air coming through the apertures at the 
 sides of the door, without any perceptible liquid 
 water being formed previously, and the story of the 
 St. Petersburg ball, where snow began to fall in the 
 
276 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 overheated room when the windows were broken to 
 let in air, is often quoted. 
 
 The amount of snow which falls during a severe 
 storm is often exaggerated, as the thickness of drifted 
 snow is frequently taken as representing the thick- 
 ness of the actual fall. According to Dr. Scott 
 a foot of snow yields about an inch of rain, and as 
 a fall of three inches of rain in a day is a rare event 
 in most parts of our island, statements of the fall of 
 many feet of snow during one snowstorm must be 
 received with caution. 
 
 Snow is readily drifted by the wind, and collects 
 in places where the force of the wind is diminished, 
 so that a snowdrift may in many ways be compared 
 to a sand-dune ; not altogether, however, for Mr. 
 Cornish states in the discussion upon his paper on 
 " The Formation of Sand-dunes " that some observa- 
 tions which he has made " show curious differences 
 between the tactics of drifting snow and those of 
 blown sand." The effect of regelation, that property 
 of ice which causes two pieces to cohere when in 
 contact, must no doubt be taken into account when 
 discussing the causes for the actual outlines of 
 snowdrifts, as proved by the existence of snow 
 cornices, which are portions of drifted snow pro- 
 jecting over the leeward side of mountain-ridges and 
 summits, owing to the consolidation of the snow 
 particles. These snow cornices to some extent 
 record the existence of the wind eddies which are 
 formed on the leeward sides of obstacles ; they have 
 a convex curve at the top, arching over, and a 
 concave curve below where the eddy must exercise 
 a destructive effect. They may project many feet 
 beyond the actual rocky ridge of the mountain, 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 277 
 
 and when fringed with icicles form very remarkable 
 objects. 
 
 In some parts of the world snow is unknown, in 
 other parts it only falls at intervals in winter and 
 rapidly melts, while in other parts the snow lies 
 all the year round. The elevation at which the 
 annual amount of snowfall is just the same as the 
 annual amount of snow melted is known as the snow- 
 line, and above it are the regions of perpetual snow. 
 As is well known, the altitude of the snow-line varies 
 according to latitude, though local variations often 
 produce modifications ; nevertheless in any one 
 district the general level often approaches the 
 horizontal so nearly that when viewed from a 
 distance a horizontal straight line appears to be 
 ruled across the mountains above which is perpetual 
 snow, and below which there is practically none. 
 
 At the equator the snow-line has a height of about 
 16,000 feet, in the Alps it lies at about 9000 feet, 
 in Norway at 5000 feet, while at Spitsbergen it has 
 fallen to a few hundred feet above sea-level. It 
 must not be supposed, however, that all elevations 
 above the snow-line are covered with snow. When 
 the slope of the ground is very great the snow can 
 only lie in patches on the ledges and gentler slopes, 
 or collect in the couloirs and gullies. Thus it is that 
 many of the Alpine peaks, as the Matterhorn, rise 
 above the snow fields as rocky eminences, only 
 scarred here and there with snow. Owing to this, 
 and as the gullies and variations of slope are usually 
 dependent upon geological structure, we can often 
 learn much of the anatomy of a mountain by ob- 
 servation of the lie of the snow, and this is the 
 case also in regions below the snow-line if we 
 
278 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 examine them when snow has fallen. Thus the 
 direction of the main lines of stratification and 
 jointing is often indicated by lines of snow on a 
 mountain. Again, as certain rocks during the 
 melting of the snow absorb the water more quickly 
 than others, the snow will lie on these absorbent 
 rocks for a longer time than on other rocks, where 
 the water being left on the surface dissolves the 
 snow. Thus in early spring the western slopes of 
 the Pennine Chain facing the Eden Valley are often 
 marked by long horizontal bands of dark rock 
 practically devoid of snow, separated from one 
 another by snowy strips. These dark lines mark 
 the shales, which, owing to their impervious nature, 
 keep the water on the surface, while the intervening 
 white strips are beds of grit, which retain the snow, 
 though the grit slopes are often actually steeper than 
 those occupied by shale. 1 
 
 The effect of slope on the accumulation of snow 
 may be well illustrated by contrasting the snowy 
 dome of Mont Blanc with the rocky pinnacles of 
 its attendant Aiguilles, the latter being at an eleva- 
 tion inferior to that of the topmost dome. 
 
 Ice is often formed on mountain sides, adhering 
 to the rocks in extensive sheets, which lie at an 
 angle far greater than that at which loose snow 
 will repose. These ice slopes are well known to 
 Alpine climbers, and they often present a marked 
 feature in the scenery. 
 
 The snow-line being the elevation at which the 
 annual amount of snowfall 'is just the same as the 
 amount of snow melted, it follows that above the 
 
 1 For effect of joints in retaining snow, see Meddelelser oni Gronland^ 
 Part II., Plate VII. (facing p. 164). 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 279 
 
 snow -line more snow falls annually than is melted, 
 and accordingly the snow of one year would tend 
 to remain and be added to the snow of the preceding 
 year. Does this accumulation go on indefinitely? 
 If it did, the higher regions would in time become 
 buried in vast accumulations of snow. But there 
 are other ways besides actual melting by which the 
 heights are rid of an excess of snow. We have 
 seen that snow is not frozen rain, that the particles 
 are frozen before they form liquid drops, and similarly 
 snow may disappear without the production of 
 appreciable masses of water on the surface. During 
 a prolonged frost snow that has fallen before the 
 frost commenced, or at an early period of the setting 
 in of frosty conditions, may be observed to diminish, 
 and it may even disappear, without any appreciable 
 liquefaction, just as a mass of camphor does. The 
 process is known as sublimation, and owing to it 
 some snow is vaporised even above the snow line. 
 Again, on comparatively steep slopes, as the snow 
 accumulates, large masses may break off and fail 
 to a lower level as snow avalanches. These 
 avalanches are well known in mountain regions ; 
 their fall is very impressive, and the piled-up banks 
 of avalanche snow frequently form a marked feature 
 at the bases of the slopes from which they have 
 fallen. But just as the superabundant rain of upland 
 regions is carried to the lowlands by rivers, the 
 superabundant snow of highlands is chiefly brought 
 to a lower level by those icy rivers named glaciers, 
 the nature of which we must now consider. 
 
 In order that glaciers may exist, there must be 
 conditions in an area favourable for their formation, 
 and cold is the condition which naturally strikes one 
 
28o SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 as most important ; no glacier can be formed unless 
 the temperature is sufficiently low to allow of the 
 accumulation of a considerable quantity of snow. 
 Secondly, the amount of aqueous vapour which is 
 brought to the region from elsewhere must be large, 
 in order to supply material for the production of 
 snow. However cold a region may be, if it is also 
 dry there will be no appreciable snowfall, and 
 accordingly no glaciers. The importance of the 
 supply of aqueous vapour is well illustrated by the 
 Alaskan glaciers. The great glaciers of Alaska 
 occur in the south, where the warm, moisture-laden 
 winds of the Pacific Ocean strike the land, and are 
 responsible for a large snowfall, and not further to 
 the north, though it is colder, for there the winds 
 have been robbed of much of their aqueous vapour, 
 and blow over the colder tracts as dry winds. 
 Thirdly, the physical conditions must be favourable 
 for the accumulation of snow. It is clear that 
 glaciers or the snow necessary for their production 
 cannot form on a vertical cliff, and it is doubtful how 
 far the movement which characterises glaciers could 
 occur as the result of an accumulation of snow 
 formed on level ground. It is among the inequalities 
 of a mountainous region that we find the conditions 
 most favourable for the accumulation of snow which 
 will give rise to glaciers. 
 
 That glaciers move is well known to everyone, one 
 very significant indication of their movement being 
 furnished by the fact that they often descend far 
 below the snow-line. Herein lies one of the most 
 striking features of these ice-rivers from the point of 
 view of the student of scenery, for we frequently find 
 a marked contrast between the great tongue of ice 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 281 
 
 at the extremity of a glacier and its immediate 
 surroundings. The terminal face of the ice of the 
 Tasman glacier in New Zealand is about 700 feet 
 above sea level, and it "is hidden by a grove of 
 Pines, Ratas, Beeches, and arborescent Ferns in the 
 foreground." 1 
 
 As we ascend a glacier from its termination 
 toward the watershed, we find the lower part below 
 the snow-line devoid of snow and consisting of ice. 
 Higher up the ice is covered by unmelted snow, the 
 junction of the snowy and snowless portions being 
 sometimes irregular, though there is often a marked 
 contrast between the two portions as seen from a 
 distance. Proceeding still higher the glacier ice is 
 found to be replaced by a granular substance in- 
 termediate between snow and ice, known as neve or 
 firn, 2 and yet higher the neve gives place to ordinary 
 
 1 HOCHSTETTER'S New Zealand^ quoted by A. C. SEWARD, Fossil 
 Plants as Tests of Climate. Cambridge, 1892. 
 
 2 The following description of the appearance of a Swiss neve is 
 from the pen of Principal Forbes (Edinburgh Revieiv, April, 1842). 
 " The neve or firn is the unconsolidated glacier. As we approach 
 it the fissures of the glacier become generally rarer and always narrower. 
 The elevation above the sea being already very considerable, perhaps 
 8000 or 9000 English feet, the winter's snow lies all summer on the 
 surface of the ice, conceals the crevasses, and partly also the structure 
 of the matter of the glacier itself ; to discern which the snow must 
 be carefully removed. It is a frequent, perhaps a general, characteristic 
 of the transition from the glacier proper to the neve, that whilst 
 the former presents a convex surface the latter is concave, and inos- 
 culates insensibly into the snowy steeps which clothe the sides of the 
 upper glacier basins at these great heights. Magnificent is the prospect 
 which these firns sometimes present. The surface is smooth and 
 almost level, like an artificial floor stretched across a valley, whose 
 sides evidently descend to a great depth beneath. It is a real platform 
 to compare great things with small, it is a theatre with the pit 
 boarded over ; and what a theatre ! From that even, snowy carpet 
 of dazzling white rise hundreds of nameless peaks on either hand, 
 seeming to pierce a sky whose azure hue is so intense as to find no 
 
282 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 snow. How does the change from snow to nev and 
 from this to glacier ice take place? The formation 
 of neve from snow is sometimes stated to be due 
 partly to melting and recrystallisation of part of the 
 mass, and partly to pressure of overlying snow, but 
 the process does not appear to be quite so simple. 
 The neve is composed of grains, of which each grain 
 is a truly crystalline particle. 
 
 " Regarded from a distance the neve appears to be very 
 finely stratified, layers of comparatively pure blue ice 
 alternating with white ones. On close examination this 
 stratified appearance is seen to be practically wholly due 
 to the distribution in layers of countless imprisoned air- 
 bubbles. . . . After a fall of snow surface-melting leads 
 to the production of a mass of more or less spherical 
 granules of ice, the interstices between which are occupied 
 by air. Further accumulations of snow lead to pressure, 
 the granules are compressed, and much of the air may be 
 expelled. But under certain conditions of weather a 
 surface layer of snow may be melted, and, freezing again, 
 may form an impervious layer, and the adjacent air- 
 bubbles be unable to escape, even under the pressure 
 resulting from further falls of snow. Thus we have bands 
 of air-bubbles parallel with the surface, and alternating 
 with strata of blue ice which are comparatively free from 
 air. Meteorological conditions will have a great influence 
 upon the volume of air imprisoned." 1 
 
 match in nature save the gentian, which expands its lovely flowers 
 close to the glacier. The sides, scathed by lightning and torn by the 
 avalanche, scarcely permit a resting-place for the snow which accumu- 
 lates in dazzling wreaths only in its sheltered nooks. Each of these 
 pinnacles transported to an ordinary scene would seem one of nature's 
 grandest objects, whilst here it is lost amidst the crowd of its fellows." 
 1 R. M. DEELEY and G. FLETCHER, " The Structure of Glacier Ice 
 and its Bearing upon Glacier Motion," Geological Magazine , decade iv., 
 vol. ii. (1895), P- I 5 2 - 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 283 
 
 As the neVe passes into glacier ice, the stratifica- 
 tion is still preserved for some distance, though the 
 bubbles are gradually expelled owing to the pressure 
 by which the ice is affected. The neve grains grow, 
 according to Hagenbach, by the absorption of the 
 smaller grains by the larger ones; and at the end of 
 a glacier the grains may be of very great size. In 
 Spitsbergen " some of them in a block which had 
 fallen from the Booming Glacier were four inches in 
 diameter. These were much bigger than any we had 
 seen in Switzerland ; and the biggest that we re- 
 member recorded thence were some found by Forel 
 on the Aletsch glacier, which were as much as three 
 inches in diameter." l 
 
 Special attention is called to the glacier grains, 
 as they produce a very marked effect upon the 
 appearance of glacier ice. The boundaries of the 
 grains in the ice are usually extremely irregular. 
 Often they are arranged in roughly parallel layers 
 with their longer axes parallel to the layers, and 
 we thus find the peculiar veined or ribboned structure 
 of glacier ice, which has been compared to the 
 cleavage structure of slates, and appears to have been 
 produced in much the same way as the result of 
 pressure, producing a rearrangement of the particles, 
 or change of shape, accompanied by shear, which 
 gives rise to the lamination, or, as it might be termed, 
 cleavage. 
 
 It does not follow that because the Swiss glaciers 
 are produced by passage of snow into neve, and 
 of the latter into glacier ice, that all glaciers are so 
 
 1 E. J. GARWOOD and J. W. GREGORY, "Contributions to the 
 Glacial Geology of Spitsbergen," Quart. Journ. Geo. Sot., vol. liv., 
 p. 220. 
 
284 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 caused. According to Messrs. Garwood and Gregory 1 
 " many of the Spitsbergen glaciers do not drain 
 snow-fields, and the material of which they consist 
 passes directly into the condition of neve-ice and 
 glacier-ice. Thus at the head of nearly every glacier 
 pass that we crossed (for example, Fox Pass, Bolter 
 Pass, Flower Pass) we found no true neve or gathering 
 ground for snow. In some cases such glacier-ice 
 may have been formed by avalanches ; but at least 
 in one case this explanation is inadmissible, and we 
 were forced to the conclusion that under arctic 
 conditions snow may be converted into ice without 
 pressure, and that the existence of glaciers does not 
 necessarily postulate the existence of great snow- 
 fields." 
 
 The cause of movement of the glacier is a topic 
 which has given rise to much controversy. Many 
 theories of glacier motion have been suggested, some 
 of which assign gravitation as the primary cause of 
 the movement, while others maintain that the cause 
 is heat. The theories which regard heat as of 
 primary importance are those of Charpentier, 
 Agassiz, Moseley, and Croll, while those which lay 
 stress upon gravitation were enunciated by Saussure, 
 Rendu, J. D. Forbes, and Tyndall. The theory of 
 Forbes, which regards ice as a viscous substance, 
 and therefore capable of movement, is the one which 
 is generally accepted at the present day, and without 
 entering into any discussion as to the exact physical 
 conditions which constitute viscosity, it is sufficient 
 for our purpose to note that whether ice is, or is not, 
 strictly viscous, in the technical sense of the term, its 
 motion is similar to that of a viscous substance. 
 1 GARWOOD and GREGORY, loc. cit., p. 200. 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 285 
 
 The movement of ice as a viscous body does not, 
 of course, prevent the action of thrusting, and this 
 action undoubtedly produces minor effects in glacier 
 movement, as shown by Garvvood and Gregory in the 
 case of the Booming glacier of Spitsbergen. 
 
 A glacier then moves like a river, and like a river 
 its lower surface is retarded by friction against 
 its bed, and accordingly, as is well known, owing to 
 accurate measurements taken by many observers, 
 especially by Forbes, it moves faster at the surface 
 than at the bottom, and faster in the middle than at 
 the sides. Furthermore, other things being equal, it 
 moves faster on a steep incline than on a gentler 
 one. 
 
 Owing to the differential movement of glaciers 
 several phenomena are produced, which we may now 
 proceed to consider. In the first place, in the region 
 of nev the upper part often adheres to the underlying 
 rocks, while at a lower elevation, where the frozen 
 material is thicker, it is capable of freer movement, 
 and is dragged away from the more firmly attached 
 portion, and if the action takes place so quickly that 
 the ice cannot adjust itself to the new conditions by 
 re-arrangement of its particles the lower part is 
 separated from the higher by actual rupture, producing 
 a fissure at right angles to the direction of pull. 
 Such a fissure, which often runs for a considerable 
 distance on the sides of the higher peaks, is known 
 as a bergschrund. The fissure is inclined inwards 
 towards the higher part of the mountain. It may 
 be upwards of thirty feet in width. The bergschrund 
 is often partially choked with snow, and may have 
 cornices, as well as actual snow-bridges in places, 
 and the formation of icicles, in the manner previously 
 
286 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 described, is peculiarly favoured by the shaded state 
 of the interior of the bergschrund. Very often two 
 or more of these fissures are parallel to one another 
 at no great distance apart. They are often formed 
 in snow-filled gullies or couloirs, where the slope 
 suddenly changes. 
 
 The fissures which are seen in an ordinary glacier 
 are known as crevasses, and are of three kinds, namely, 
 transverse, longitudinal, and marginal. The trans- 
 verse crevasses are produced when the slope of the 
 glacier bed increases suddenly, so that the ice cannot 
 accommodate itself to its bed without cracking. In 
 other words, transverse crevasses are the result of an 
 " ice-fall," analogous to the waterfall of a river. Such 
 crevasses may be seen at the ice-fall of the glacier 
 below the Scerscen and Roseg, as shown in the plate. 
 The cracks are naturally at right angles to the 
 direction of movement of the ice, and accordingly 
 they are termed transverse. The broken ice is 
 carried over these steep portions slice after slice. 
 Local strain during the fall often causes further 
 fissuring, at an angle to the main crevasses, and 
 accordingly the ice may be broken up into fantastic 
 pinnacles known as sdracs. Below the ice-fall the 
 ice moves more slowly, and the more quickly moving 
 ice above is jammed against it. Furthermore the 
 ice over the fall tends to take a convex curve on the 
 surface, causing great tension of the upper portion, 
 while below the surface becomes concave, causing 
 compression of the upper portion. Owing to these 
 causes the crevasses formed at an ice-fall are sealed 
 up at no great distance below, though they are often 
 marked by superficial furrows separated by ridges for 
 some distance below the fall. It will be seen, there- 
 
ICEFALL ON GLACIER BELOW SCEKSCEN AND ROSEG ENGADINE 
 
 ft 
 
 ENGI.ACIAL RIVER, KING'S GLACIER, SPITSBERGE^ 
 
\ 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 287 
 
 fore, that though an ice-fall is constantly marked 
 by transverse crevasses, they are not the same 
 crevasses. As one set moves down, and gets sealed 
 up, another set is formed at the fall and takes its 
 place, and so the process goes on. Below these ice- 
 falls the veined structure is frequently found, and 
 Tyndall has spoken of them as structure-mills where 
 the veining is produced. 
 
 The longitudinal crevasses occur where the glacier- 
 bed is somewhat suddenly widened below a narrow 
 portion. Tension is here at right angles to the 
 direction in which it occurred at the ice-fall, owing 
 to the inability of the ice to adapt itself to its 
 widened bed without fissuring. 
 
 Marginal crevasses start at the sides of the glacier 
 and extend towards the middle, pointing up the 
 glacier towards the middle. They are produced 
 owing to the faster movement of the central portion 
 when compared with that of the sides. The 
 obliquity of the crevasses was first explained by Mr. 
 W. Hopkins, and a very clear explanation of it will 
 be found in Tyndall's Forms of Water, paragraphs 
 267-275. If we imagine a circular portion of ice at 
 the side of the glacier at any time, that circle as the 
 result of differential movement will be converted into 
 an ellipse, as shown in Fig. 38, where X X repre- 
 sents the rocky side of the glacier; the arrow points 
 down the glacier; I represents the original circle, and 
 2 the direction of inclination of the ellipse produced 
 by its distortion. The pressure will be greatest at 
 right angles to the longer axis of the ellipse, while 
 the greatest tension will be at right angles to the 
 direction of greatest pressure, and accordingly the 
 fissure will be produced along the direction of 
 
288 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the shorter diameter of the ellipse c d, which, 
 as will be seen in the figure, points obliquely 
 up the glacier towards its centre. Owing to the 
 coalescence of the marginal crevasses with trans- 
 verse crevasses in the centre of the glacier, curved 
 fissures are often seen, with their convexities pointing 
 up the glacier. 
 
 When glaciers spread into a fan-like form at 
 
 FIG. 38. 
 
 their extremities, as they sometimes do, the trans- 
 verse crevasses run in curves with their convexities 
 pointing downwards, and the longitudinal ones 
 become radial. 
 
 In very cold regions there is yet another way in 
 which crevasses may be formed. At a very low 
 temperature ice changes its physical characters, and 
 becomes very inelastic, and as it contracts as the 
 result of the lowering of the temperature, fissures 
 may be produced. Mr. K. J. V. Steenstrup found 
 that when ice was in this condition the mere pressure 
 of a needle was sufficient to splinter off large pieces 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 289 
 
 of ice in little fragments, which were thrown to some 
 distance with an explosive sound. 1 
 
 In considering the formation of crevasses only the 
 differential movement of the ice has been noticed. 
 The rate of movement of glaciers as a whole does 
 not directly affect our present line of inquiry : it is 
 sufficient to state that it varies in different glaciers 
 as well as in different portions of the same glacier. 
 Some glaciers only move a few inches per diem, 
 while in other cases a rate of several feet in a day 
 has been recorded. 
 
 In the upper parts of the glaciers, where the 
 underlying ice is concealed by snow, the crevasses 
 themselves are often concealed, or only revealed by 
 the presence of slight undulations noticeable by the 
 experienced ice-man. Further down the glacier they 
 are open to the light of day, though often, like the 
 bergschrund, crossed by snow-bridges ; while in the 
 lower reaches of the ice we may look down 
 unchecked into their blue depths, until they are lost 
 in the gloom of the interior. 
 
 The fact that many glaciers descend below the 
 snow-line has already been noticed, and mentioned 
 as one of the proofs of movement of a glacier, for 
 if the ice were not replenished from behind it would 
 be melted like the snow, and cease at the snow-line. 
 Owing to movement the process of replenishment 
 does go on, for the surface of the glacier is constantly 
 being lowered by melting or ablation, as it is termed, 
 and as it nevertheless often keeps the same general 
 height for considerable periods of time, in spite of 
 this ablation, it is perfectly clear that the com' 
 pensation for the melted portion is made by the 
 
 1 Meddekher om Gronland, part vi, 
 U 
 
2 9 o SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 addition of fresh material from the higher parts of 
 the ice-world. Owing to the heat received from the 
 rocks at the side of the glacier, ablation takes place 
 more quickly at the sides than towards the centre, 
 and accordingly a cross section of a glacier usually 
 presents a convex outline of the surface. 
 
 As the result of melting, runnels and streams of 
 water are often found on the surface of a glacier, 
 especially on a summer day. When traced down- 
 wards they frequently disappear, being swallowed by 
 the ice at a crevasse. Action takes place here similar 
 to that described when discussing the mode of forma- 
 tion of swallow-holes in a limestone district. The 
 water, often charged with rock-fragments, falls down 
 the crevasse with a gyratory movement and wears 
 out a cylindrical shaft, which may be excavated to 
 the base of the glacier. These shafts, known as 
 moulins, show the beautiful blue colour of ice, which 
 is also exhibited in the crevasses. As the ice moves 
 onwards, the crevasse, as before described, is sealed 
 up, and a fresh one formed in its place. The old 
 moulin is now deserted by the water, which excavates 
 another shaft in a place situated a little higher up 
 the glacier than the position now occupied by the 
 deserted one, and as a result of the continuation of 
 the process a line of several of these deserted moulins 
 may be found below the position occupied by the 
 active one. As a result of ablation and other 
 changes, they gradually become shallower, and finally 
 disappear. 
 
 The water which flows on the surface, and is 
 swallowed up by crevasses, ultimately finds its way 
 to the base of the ice, though as will be eventually 
 seen, some of it may flow in the ice for long distances 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 291 
 
 in englacial caverns before it finally reaches the 
 bottom. This englacial and subglacial running water 
 issues from the end of a glacier, often in a con- 
 siderable stream, giving rise to a terminal cavern, 
 frequently exhibiting the beautiful blue colour of the 
 ice. It is advisable to abstain from entering these 
 caverns without expert guidance, as the caverns are 
 enlarged by the detachment of large masses of ice 
 from the roof, -often without any preliminary warning. 
 
 We have hitherto regarded the ice of glaciers as 
 though it flowed onwards devoid of any burden, 
 though it is well known that much material is carried 
 down by many glaciers in the form of moraines, 
 and we may now proceed to consider the character 
 and mode of distribution of this material on and in 
 the ice. 
 
 The action of frost in splitting fragments from 
 the solid rocks has already been noticed, and it was 
 seen that these fragments, when the slope is steep, 
 roll down the hill-sides to the valley beneath. If the 
 bottom of that valley is occupied by a glacier many 
 of these stones will come to rest on the side of the 
 glacier, retaining the angular shape which they 
 possessed when split from the parent rock. The 
 angular fragments will descend upon some parts 
 of the glacier more frequently than on others, the 
 greatest number falling down gullies which are 
 spoken of as screes-shoots. But as the glacier 
 moves along, each portion of the side in turn passes 
 such a screes-shoot, and the material which is piled 
 upon it there is carried lower down, while the process 
 is going on afresh at the original place. Accordingly 
 every part of the glacier side becomes fringed with 
 an accumulation of loose blocks, giving rise to a 
 
292 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 lateral moraine upon either side of the ice-river. 
 When two tributary glaciers unite to form a single 
 ice-stream, the adjacent lateral moraines also unite, 
 and proceed down the centre of the main stream, 
 thus producing a medial moraine, and when a glacier, 
 as in the case of the Mer de Glace at Chamonix, 
 is formed by the union of many tributaries, a number 
 of medial moraines occupy the central portions of 
 its surface. Now a glacier, like a river, tends to 
 continue in its initial course, and when a bend occurs 
 in its bed, the line of most rapid motion is diverted 
 from the centre of the glacier towards the concave 
 curve, and the medial moraine is carried with it. 
 Consequently, when a glacier flows through a sinuous 
 valley, the sinuosities of the medial moraines are 
 greater than those of the actual valley, and the 
 peculiar serpentine appearance of the moraines is 
 emphasized. 
 
 The moraines on a glacier appear to consist of 
 great ridges composed of detritus, rising high above 
 the general level of the ice. This appearance is 
 deceptive ; the stones form a mere veneer upon the 
 surface of a ridge of ice, the icy ridge being due 
 to slighter ablation of the ice-surface beneath the 
 moraine, for as rock is a bad conductor of heat, the 
 ice beneath the moraine is protected from the rays of 
 the sun. 
 
 The formation of this ridge may go on to so great 
 an -extent that the slope becomes too steep for the 
 stones to rest on it, when they fall to either side, and 
 as this process goes on the original ice-ridge may be 
 melted, and replaced by a ridge on either side, which 
 may undergo the same process. In this way the 
 morainic material tends to wander laterally over the 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 293 
 
 glacier, and the lower portions of glaciers are thus 
 frequently covered with a mass of morainic matter 
 which may entirely conceal the ice beneath. 
 
 When a glacier shrinks for many years in succession, 
 as is the case with many Swiss glaciers, its general 
 level is lowered, and the former height of the ice 
 is marked by the original lateral moraines, while a 
 continuous slope at the angle of rest of the loose 
 material formed of the morainic material which was 
 stranded during the sinking of the ice-surface 
 stretches from the top of the old moraine to the 
 present level of the glacier, which may be some 
 hundreds of feet beneath it. 
 
 The medial moraines are sometimes engulfed by 
 crevasses, and then reappear at some distance from 
 the place where they were engulfed, owing to the 
 ablation of the surface. 
 
 A certain amount of material, such as stones, sand, 
 and very fine mud is carried beneath the ice, consti- 
 tuting the moraine prof onde ; it is chiefly of interest 
 to us on account of the effect it produces on the 
 underlying rocks, which will be noticed in a later 
 chapter. 
 
 At the termination of the glacier all the rocky 
 material which has been transported by the ice, 
 whether on its surface, in its substance, or beneath 
 it, is deposited to form a terminal moraine. As the 
 centre of the glacier, owing to its more rapid move- 
 ment, is carried further down than the sides before 
 it melts, the termination of the glacier is often con- 
 vex, with the convexity of the curve pointing down 
 the valley. Accordingly the terminal moraine tends 
 to assume a crescentic form, and if a glacier recedes, 
 and there are pauses in the recession, a considerable 
 
294 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 quantity of material accumulates at the end during 
 each of the pauses, and a number of crescents 
 of morainic material may be formed one behind 
 another. 
 
 The stream which issues from the glacier, and the 
 streamlets which course down the valley sides, often 
 issuing from the ends of minor glaciers, cause much 
 re-sorting of the morainic material, often filling up 
 inequalities of the valley, and giving rise to a fairly 
 uniform surface of fluvio-glacial deposit, which occurs 
 below the ends of many of the Alpine glaciers, while 
 ancient fluvio - glacial deposits laid down during 
 former extension of the ice, and subsequently de- 
 nuded in the centre by the river, form shelves on 
 the valley sides, frequently covered with a rich soil, 
 and accounting for the presence of many of the 
 Alpine pastures at considerable heights above the 
 present valley bottoms. 
 
 Owing to the surface -wandering of morainic 
 material, and other causes, detached fragments are 
 often found on the ice, which may be of any size 
 from blocks the size of a cottage down to the finest 
 particles of mud. The large blocks, like the moraines, 
 protect the ice beneath from the sun's rays. Accord- 
 ingly a large block is often found standing on a 
 pinnacle of ice, produced owing to this protective 
 action, forming what is known as a glacier-table. 
 This resembles to some extent the earth-pillars 
 of which we have before spoken, and still more 
 certain boulders which are sometimes found perched 
 upon pinnacles of limestone which they have pro- 
 tected from solution, as the celebrated blocks of 
 slate which rest on pinnacles of the mountain lime- 
 stone at Norber, near Settle, Yorkshire. As the 
 
FROST, SNOW, AND ICE 295 
 
 pinnacles of ice increase in height the sun gradually 
 diminishes their thickness, and in the Alps, the rays 
 being most powerful on the south side, the pinnacle 
 is melted away more rapidly on that side, and the 
 superincumbent capping-stone gradually acquires a 
 slant towards the south, when it slips off, and a new 
 table is formed, while the original pinnacle of ice 
 may remain to the north of it for some time, though 
 it is eventually melted. 
 
 Little collections of stone produce the same effect, 
 giving rise to cones of ice, such as are frequent upon 
 parts of the Corner Glacier. The stones slip from 
 these, as they do from moraines, when the slope of 
 the cone has become too great. In parts of Green- 
 land cones of this character occur with a height of 
 sixty feet. 
 
 When the particles are small a different effect is 
 produced. Rock, though a bad conductor, is a good 
 absorber of heat, and as these small particles are 
 thin the absorbed heat is partly conducted through 
 them and melts the ice beneath, and accordingly 
 small particles of stone gradually bore their way 
 down into the ice, leaving a little pool of water 
 above, and when they are abundant they produce 
 a very noticeable honeycombed appearance of the 
 surface of the glacier. 
 
 Lastly, we must notice the well-known dirt-bands 
 of glaciers, first observed by Forbes on the Mer de 
 Glace, which give such clear indication of glacier 
 movement. They originate below an ice-fall, where 
 the crevasses, though sealed up, give rise to alternate 
 transverse ridges and furrows on the surface of the 
 ice. Dirt is carried by wind and streamlets into 
 the furrows, and as the ice moves onwards the ridges 
 
296 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 disappear by ablation, but the dirt which has been 
 swept into the furrows still remains, and owing to 
 the more rapid movement of the central part of the 
 ice, assumes the familiar curved appearance, the 
 convexities of the curves pointing down the glacier. 
 The phenomena which have been described in the 
 present chapter may all be studied in the Alpine 
 regions of Switzerland, but there are many other 
 glaciated areas which present scenic features of 
 interest, sometimes of a different kind from those 
 occurring in Switzerland, sometimes similar in kind, 
 but on a larger scale. It will be convenient to 
 consider these, by a cursory examination of some 
 of the other glaciated regions of the world, and to 
 this we may devote another chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS OF VARIOUS 
 REGIONS 
 
 A7 OR WA F. The glaciers of Norway form the 
 subject of a special work by the late J. D. 
 Forbes, 1 who states that their conditions and struc- 
 ture are almost identical with those of Switzerland, 
 the main difference being the nature of the gather- 
 ing ground for the snows. In Switzerland the snow 
 collects at the heads of valleys, and by accumulation 
 forms glaciers, while in Norway it forms on vast 
 table-lands surrounded by mountain peaks, and the 
 glaciers escape through the passes which form the 
 notches to this mountainous ring surrounding each 
 snowy plateau ; accordingly the Norwegian glaciers 
 are smaller as compared with their snowfields than 
 are those of Switzerland. 
 
 A very beautiful glacier in Fjaerland, the Suphelle 
 Brae, is a good example of a type of glacier which 
 is also found in Switzerland, though not in so perfect 
 a degree as in the present case. It is known as a 
 rernanie glacier, and is not connected with the snow- 
 field, but is formed by the reconsolidation of masses 
 of ice precipitated as avalanches from a glacier above. 
 A figure of it will be found on Plate VII. of Forbes' 
 work. 
 
 1 FORBES, J. D., Norway and its Glaciers visited in 1851. Edinburgh, 
 
 1853. 
 
 297 
 
298 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Spitsbergen. An interesting paper by Messrs. 
 Garwood and Gregory on the glacial geology of 
 Spitsbergen, to which reference was made in the 
 last chapter, gives some details concerning the ice 
 of that region which are of interest to the student 
 of scenery. Some of the Spitsbergen glaciers are of 
 the Alpine type, 1 others present examples of what 
 is known as the piedmont type, which will be more 
 fully noticed when we consider the nature of some 
 of the Alaskan glaciers, while others are composed 
 of a series of confluent glaciers, for which the authors 
 adopt the name " inland ice-sheet," which has been 
 used in another sense for the great icy pall which 
 covers the interior of Greenland, which, however, they 
 prefer to speak of as an " ice-cap." 
 
 The most interesting feature of many of the Spits- 
 bergen glaciers is the nature of the termination or 
 snout. 
 
 The ordinary Alpine glacier ends in a tapering 
 snout curving somewhat gently down to the base, 
 and though this is found in the case of some of 
 the glaciers of Spitsbergen, many of them end in 
 a vertical face of ice, forming what is known as a 
 "Chinese wall," and having an overhanging cornice 
 at the top. The authors give reasons for supposing 
 that this is due to advancing ice, and that receding 
 glaciers have the characteristic Alpine termination. 
 The two kinds of ends are seen close together in 
 
 1 The Alpine glaciers, of course, differ from one another in detail, 
 and have been spoken of as belonging to the first and second orders. 
 There is no essential difference between them except that due to size 
 and sometimes to inclination of slope, but there is a marked contrast 
 between the large valley glaciers and the small glaciers adherent to the 
 slopes and faces of mountains hanging glaciers, as the latter are 
 termed. 
 
GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS 299 
 
 the case of the Booming and Baldhead Glaciers. 
 (See the plate.) Baldhead Glacier on the left of the 
 plate shows the tapering snout, while Booming 
 Glacier has a Chinese wall. Some of the advancing 
 glaciers have beneath the vertical face a talus of 
 fallen blocks, due to the more rapid advance of the 
 upper part of the ice, and the authors show that 
 the upper ice moves over the talus, which becomes 
 incorporated in the lower part of the glacier ; this 
 movement, owing to thrusting action, produces 
 planes of discontinuity, and so " the glacier advances 
 by an 'over-rolling' motion, the top layer falling 
 to the bottom, and then working upward over other 
 fallen masses." They further note that though the 
 lower part of the Booming Glacier is advancing, it 
 is diminishing near its source, "apparently owing 
 to a diminution of the snowfall at its head." Now 
 the upper surface of this glacier is saucer-shaped, 
 having a concave cross-section in place of the normal 
 convex one, and the authors believe that this shape 
 is due to subsidence, "owing to the melting and 
 solution of the lower layers of the ice." 
 
 Many of the Spitsbergen glaciers reach the sea 
 and give rise to icebergs, as for instance King's Bay 
 Glacier, represented in the frontispiece, from a photo- 
 graph by Mr. Garwood. The origin of these icebergs 
 will be considered when we discuss the nature of the 
 Greenland ice-cap. 
 
 Messrs. Garwood and Gregory also notice the 
 effect of marine ice as an agent of denudation. 
 The effect of land ice in this connection will be 
 considered in the next chapter, but it may be re- 
 marked here that as a means of polishing and 
 striating rocks, the authors saw no means of dis- 
 
300 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 criminating between the effects of glaciers and those 
 of floating ice. 
 
 Baron Nordenskjold describes some remarkable 
 features on the inland ice of North East Land, which 
 are termed glacier-canals. They have a depth of 
 forty feet in places, a breadth of from 30 to 
 100 feet, and mostly run parallel to one another, 
 with an interval of 300 feet only between adjoining 
 canals in places. The walls are very straight and 
 steep. Nordenskjold suggests that they are pro- 
 duced by faulting of the ice, due to alternate 
 contraction and expansion of the ice owing to 
 changes of temperature. 1 
 
 Alaska. Some of the Alaskan glaciers are of the 
 piedmont type, and have been described by Messrs. 
 I. C. Russell and H. P. Gushing. 2 The Muir Glacier, 
 described by Cushing, lies east of Mount Fairweather, 
 and ends in the Muir Inlet of the Pacific Ocean. 
 It lies in an amphitheatre, partly surrounded by a 
 semicircle of mountains, from which icy tributary 
 glaciers of the Alpine type pour, and give rise to a 
 great mass of nearly inert ice the piedmont glacier 
 having a breadth of from twelve to over fifteen miles. 
 As it approaches the inlet it is narrowed, and the ice 
 is forced through a gap less than three miles wide. 
 The inert ice is slowly rotting where it lies, and is 
 extremely smooth. Some of the tributaries are also 
 inert ; for instance, the Dirt Glacier, the lower part 
 of which is completely covered with debris. Two 
 valleys, namely, Main Valley and Berg Valley, 
 
 1 The Arctic Voyages of Adolf Erik Nordenskjold, 1858-1879; 
 London, 1879, p. 258, and figure on p. 259. 
 
 2 RUSSELL, I. C., Thirteenth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological 
 Survey, and GUSHING, H. P., American Geologist, 1891. 
 
THE 
 GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEE 3 
 
 contain ice in an extremely remarkable state, perKaps 
 foreshadowed by the upper part of Booming Glacier 
 in Spitsbergen. The glaciers occupying these valleys 
 are retreating at the heads instead of at the snouts 
 of the ice, the ice of Main Valley terminating ab- 
 ruptly, and holding up the waters of a lake which 
 occupies the head of the valley (as noticed in 
 Chapter XL), though Mount Young, the highest 
 mountain in the immediate vicinity, dominates the 
 valley head. Similarly the glacier in Berg Valley 
 holds up the waters of Berg Lake. The medial 
 moraines of these glaciers stretch right up to the 
 ice- cliffs overlooking the lakes, and there is therefore 
 no doubt that the ice once extended upwards and 
 has retreated from the valley heads. 
 
 The Malaspina Glacier, described by Russell, is 
 also a piedmont glacier, supplied by tributaries 
 descending from the Mount St. Elias range. The 
 average length of the glacier is from twenty to 
 twenty-five miles, but it has a breadth of about 
 seventy miles and an approximate area of 1500 
 square miles. It consists of a nearly horizontal 
 plateau of ice, the central portion being free from 
 moraines and deeply crevassed, and having a broadly 
 undulating surface. It possesses three principal 
 lobes, each being a piedmont expansion of a large 
 tributary glacier, and the lobes are separated by 
 medial moraines. Part of the ice reaches the sea 
 and forms icy cliffs, from which bergs break off, 
 but other parts are separated from the ocean by 
 a plain covered by glacio-marine, fluvio-glacial, and 
 glacial deposits, occupied by dense forests, and pitted 
 with morainic lakes. 
 
 The end of the Malaspina Glacier is largely covered 
 
302 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 with debris, due to spreading of morainic material in 
 the way previously described, and also to ablation. 
 Some parts of this moraine-covered portion of the 
 glacier are clothed with dense forests and under- 
 growth of alder, spruce, huckleberry, ferns, etc. It 
 is only on the inert or stagnant ice that these forests 
 grow. They extend in places to a distance of four 
 to five miles from the edge of the ice, and in many 
 places the ice below them is not less than 1000 feet 
 thick. 
 
 The inert, and partly inert ice of this glacier is 
 drained by an extensive system of englacial rivers, 
 forming caverns in the ice, which sometimes become 
 choked with debris, an occurrence of considerable 
 importance to the geologist. As the ice melts on the 
 surface, portions of these caverns may be exposed, 
 while intermediate portions are still arched over, 
 showing tunnels of ice. 
 
 Mr. Garwood has subsequently observed these en- 
 glacial rivers on the ice of Spitsbergen, and I am 
 able to give a reproduction of a photograph of one 
 of these in the accompanying plate. 
 
 It is interesting to notice that since glaciation 
 commenced in the region, earth movement, accom- 
 panied by faulting, has occurred to such an extent as 
 to raise portions of the glacio-marine deposits to a 
 height of over 2000 feet above sea-level. These 
 elevated parts (the Chaix Hills) projecting through 
 the ice, furnish admirable illustrations of the typical 
 mountain forms produced by the erosion of running 
 water. 
 
 Greenland. The great surface of inland ice of 
 Greenland, long known in a general way, has been 
 more carefully studied of recent years by Torell, 
 
GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS 303 
 
 Nordenskjold, Nansen, Chamberlain, Peary, and 
 Drygalski, among others ; but a systematic explora- 
 tion has been undertaken by a Danish Commission, 
 and the results published in a valuable series of re- 
 ports, entitled Meddelelser om Gronland, from which 
 most of the following account is abstracted. 
 
 The inland ice or ice-cap of Greenland is estimated 
 to occupy an area of about 20,000 square miles. It 
 appears to form a gently sloping plateau, the in- 
 clination of which, away from the coast, seldom 
 exceeds i for any distance, so that the surface 
 usually appears as a plain, as is well shown by Dr. 
 Nansen's transverse section, drawn to true scale 
 between Umivik and Ameralik Fjords. (See plate 
 at end of volume ii. of The First Crossing of Green- 
 land^) 
 
 As is well known, no rocky "divide" marks the 
 centre of the country along the line of traverse taken 
 by Nansen ; on the contrary, nothing but snow and 
 ice was seen after leaving the rocks of one coast 
 until those of the other were sighted, and the extreme 
 purity of the surface of the ice in other places where 
 it has been explored leads one to suppose that a 
 rocky " divide " is absent elsewhere. Next to extent 
 of ice, the absence of superficial morainic material on 
 the Greenland ice (save under exceptional circum- 
 stances to be noted presently) forms the great 
 contrast between it and that of the glaciers of a 
 country like Switzerland. The surface of the ice 
 is also in many places free from crevasses for con- 
 siderable distances, and accordingly the superficial 
 rivers of the Greenland inland ice often attain a great 
 size and volume, and when they do form moulins 
 these are of exceptional magnificence. Here is a 
 
304 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 description of this superficial drainage from Baron 
 Nordenskjold's pen. 1 
 
 " At a short distance from our turning-point we came to 
 a large, deep, and broad river flowing rapidly between its 
 blue banks of ice, which here were not discoloured by any 
 gravel, and which could not be crossed without a bridge. 
 As it cut off our return, we were at first somewhat dis- 
 concerted ; but we soon concluded that ... it must at no 
 great distance disappear under the ice. We therefore pro- 
 ceeded along its bank in the direction of the current, and 
 before long a distant roar indicated that our conjecture was 
 right. The whole immense mass of water here rushed 
 down a perpendicular cleft into the depths below. We 
 observed another smaller, but nevertheless very remarkable 
 waterfall the next day. . . . We saw, in fact, a pillar of 
 watery vapour rising from the ice at some distance from 
 our resting-place, and, as the spot was not far out of our 
 way, we steered our course by it in the hope of finding 
 judging from the height of the misty pillar a waterfall 
 still greater than that just described. We were mistaken ; 
 only a smaller yet tolerably large river rushed down from 
 the azure-blue cliffs to a depth from which no splashes re- 
 bounded to the mouth of the fall ; but there arose instead, 
 from another smaller hole in the ice, in the immediate 
 vicinity, an intermediate jet of water mixed with air, which, 
 carried hither and thither by the wind, wetted the surround- 
 ing ice-cliffs with its spray. We had thus here, in the 
 midst of the desert of inland-ice, a fountain, as far as we 
 could judge by the descriptions, very like the geysers which 
 in Iceland are produced by volcanic heat." 
 
 On this expedition Nordenskjold discovered a dust 
 of volcanic material on the surface of the ice, ac- 
 companied by a brown polycellular alga and other 
 
 1 NORDENSKJOLD, A. E. } loc. "/., p. 167. 
 
GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS 305 
 
 microscopic organisms. The powder, which he called 
 kryokonite, and the accompanying organisms form 
 " a most dangerous enemy to the mass of ice," owing 
 to the part which they play on the surface-melting. 
 " This plant (the alga) has no doubt played the same 
 part in our country; and we have it to thank, perhaps, 
 that the deserts of ice which formerly covered the 
 whole of Northern Europe and America have now 
 given place to shady woods and undulating corn- 
 fields." 
 
 Towards the coast the mountains gradually appear 
 above the ice, first as islets of rock (nunataks) pro- 
 jecting through the icy surface, lastly as con- 
 tinuous ridges separating the fjords, into which the 
 ice is finally discharged, as tongues which become 
 greatly fissured, broken up, and finally carried away 
 as icebergs. The ice towards its termination is often 
 fairly steep, though even then usually gently inclined 
 as compared with the surfaces of many Swiss glaciers. 
 In the region of nunataks the surface of the ice is 
 much fissured by transverse and longitudinal cre- 
 vasses, depending, like the crevasses of Swiss glaciers, 
 on inequalities of the bed of the ice ; and where the 
 ice can move in fan-shape, as in the case of the 
 tongue known as the Frederikshaab Glacier, the 
 crevasses are radial and tangential. Many very 
 striking coloured illustrations of the Greenland 
 crevasses are given in various numbers of the 
 Meddelelser. 
 
 Of the various nunataks which have been described 
 the most interesting are those of Jensen, situated 
 about forty-five miles inland, to the east of the 
 Frederikshaab Glacier. They form the summits of 
 mountains having a height of about 5000 feet above 
 
306 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 sea-level, and as the ice here is nearly as high, only 
 the summits project. It is of interest to note that 
 even these isolated pinnacles are partly clothed with 
 a characteristic arctic vegetation, twenty-six species 
 of plants having been found upon them, including 
 Oxyria renfonnis, Saxifraga oppositifolia. S. cernua, 
 S. nivalis, Papaver nudicaule, Draba alpina, Silene 
 acaulis y Cerastium alpinum var. lanatum, and Poten- 
 tilla nivea. 
 
 The ice is piled up on the inland side of the 
 nunataks, like water on the higher side of a stone 
 projecting above a river-surface, and a current of ice 
 sweeps round each side of the rocky barrier, some- 
 times leaving a hollow below the barrier, which 
 becomes filled with water, giving rise to a lake. 
 Small tongues of ice are forced through the passes 
 or cols between adjacent nunataks, and end on the 
 ice below. At the junction moraines are found, often 
 showing a crescentic outline (as well seen in the 
 nunataks of Dalager, not far from those of Jensen, 
 but nearer the coast). These moraines are of interest 
 on account of the general freedom of the Greenland 
 ice from moraine material, but also because their 
 character shows that they are portions of the moraine 
 profonde brought to the surface in exceptional cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 In some of the Greenland ice-masses, as well as in 
 those of Spitsbergen, stratified material is enclosed 
 in the ice, and, owing to the differential movement 
 of the ice, becomes faulted and also folded in a 
 remarkable way, sometimes recalling the bands of an 
 agate, as shown at the termination of the Njarartor- 
 suak glacier in the fjord of Umanak, figured in 
 Plate III. of the Fourth Part of the Meddelelser. 
 
GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS 307 
 
 Where the Greenland ice does not reach the sea, 
 but terminates on low ground, the country between it 
 and the sea often consists of a plain of fluvio-glacial 
 deposits, presenting an extremely dreary aspect, a 
 remark which may also be made of similarly formed 
 plains in Spitsbergen. At other times the plains are 
 due to accumulation of glacio-marine deposits, as, for 
 instance, a portion of that traversed by Nansen at 
 the head of the Ameralik Fjord after he had de- 
 scended from the inland ice at the conclusion of his 
 adventurous journey across Greenland. 
 
 We may here discuss the mode of formation of ice- 
 bergs, which break off glaciers in many places where 
 the latter reach the sea, as off parts of the Malaspina 
 Glacier, off many of the Spitsbergen glaciers, as shown 
 in Garwood's photograph of King's Bay Glacier (see 
 frontispiece), and especially off the tongues of ice 
 which project into the Greenland fjords. 
 
 It is now unquestionable that the fracture of the 
 ice to form icebergs does not always take place 
 owing to the same causes. In some cases, when 
 the glaciers are terminated by a vertical face, fracture 
 of the emerged part of the ice occurs, and gives rise 
 to small icebergs, which fall with a splash into the 
 water. In other cases, however, as in the ice of 
 Jacobshavn Fjord, owing to the buoyancy of the ice, 
 the ice of the central parts of the glacier floats on 
 the water, and gradually becomes broken up along 
 lines of crevasses, giving rise to a great quantity of 
 icebergs. Some of the bergs o^f Jacobshavn Fjord 
 were measured by Hammer. The highest was about 
 350 feet above sea-level, or more than 150 feet higher 
 than the upper edge of the glacier where it reaches 
 the sea. Others were about half this height. 
 
308 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 It is well known that when the berg is in a state 
 of stable equilibrium, by far the greater part of its 
 mass is below the level of the water. The proportion 
 of the submerged part to that above sea-level differs 
 according to the nature of the water, whether it is 
 salt or fresh, and according also to the character of 
 the ice. The proportion of emerged and submerged 
 ice in the case of frozen sea-water floating in sea- 
 water, is about I : 5'3, but that of glacier-ice in 
 sea-water is approximately I : 9. Accordingly ice- 
 bergs may easily be stranded on shoals, even where 
 the water is of some depth, hence the mass of icebergs 
 which are often found stranded on the banks of 
 Newfoundland, and on the shoal water which exists 
 between the east coast of Greenland and Iceland. 
 
 The submerged parts of bergs melt much more 
 rapidly than the emerged portions, and accordingly 
 icebergs frequently capsize after the submerged part 
 has been considerably melted. As the melting often 
 takes place in an apparently capricious manner, this 
 partly accounts for the fantastic forms which are 
 often assumed by icebergs. 
 
 Huge as are the icebergs produced by the 'calving' 
 of the Greenland ice-tongues, they are far exceeded 
 in size by the great tabular icebergs which are shed 
 from the almost unknown ice-cap of the Antarctic 
 regions, one of which has been recorded with a 
 circumference of two miles. 
 
 We may conclude this chapter with a few remarks 
 upon the colour of snow and ice. The white 
 appearance of snow, and of rough ice, is due to 
 reflection of the sun from innumerable surfaces, and 
 pure transparent ice, like water, is blue, as seen in the 
 crevasses and moulins of glaciers, where the ice is in 
 
GLACIERS AND ICE-SHEETS 309 
 
 a state of purity, and is not broken up. The surface 
 of snow and ice is often grey, owing to accumulation 
 of dirt, which naturally increases in amount as 
 evaporation or melting progresses. In some cases 
 ice has a green tint, as described by Forbes in the 
 case of the crevasses of the neve of the Viesch 
 Glacier, and Garwood informs me that the crevasses 
 of some of the icebergs of the Spitsbergen seas also 
 exhibit a green hue, which must be due to some 
 unexplained condition of the ice. Lastly, there is 
 the red snow, due to the occurrence of an alga 
 (Protococcus nivalis] upon the surface of the snow. 
 This often colours extensive tracts of snow, and is 
 especially noticeable when fresh snow has fallen over 
 the coloured snow, and anyone treads through the 
 new snow and exposes the coloured snow beneath, 
 giving rise to the appearance of flesh-coloured foot- 
 prints upon the white surface. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 THE SIGNS OF FORMER GLACIATION 
 
 ONE cannot learn much of a watch by an inspec- 
 tion of its outer case, and similarly the work 
 of existing glaciers is, to a large extent, concealed by 
 the mass of ice beneath which much of the work is 
 being carried on. I have, therefore, left the con- 
 sideration of the products of erosion of ice, and of 
 many of the effects produced by deposition and ac- 
 cumlation due to ice, to be taken up when we proceed 
 to an examination of areas once occupied by ice, 
 from which the ice has receded. It is true that 
 many of the effects which we now have to consider 
 may be noted at the termination of Alpine glaciers ; 
 but as they can also be observed, often on a more' 
 imposing scale, in regions more easily accessible to 
 us than that of the glaciers of Switzerland, and 
 especially than those of the ice-sheets of Spitsbergen 
 and of the inland ice of Greenland, it is convenient 
 to call attention to them when describing the results 
 of glaciation in regions from which the ice has long 
 since vanished. 
 
 The occurrence of an Ice Age, or Glacial Period, 
 in times which are geologically recent is so well 
 known, that it needs no further reference here save 
 to remark that, owing to its recency, our country and 
 other glaciated areas had already acquired physical 
 
 310 
 
FORMER GLACIATION 311 
 
 features differing in no essential respect from those 
 which they possess at the present day ; and accord- 
 ingly the influence of ice has been of minor import- 
 ance from a scenic point of view, merely modifying 
 here and there the main scenic features of an area 
 which have been produced owing to the operation 
 of other agents. 
 
 Signs of vanished glaciers in Britain were first 
 detected by Agassiz before the middle of the present 
 century, and his conclusions were afterwards verified 
 by Dean Buckland. These signs may be considered 
 under two heads, namely, features due to erosion, and 
 those due to accumulation. 
 
 Glacial Erosion. The signs of glacial erosion are 
 very characteristic, and, in ordinary circumstances, 
 readily recognisable. It is, however, even now a 
 subject of dispute as to whether ice is or is not a 
 very potent factor in producing erosion ; and although 
 it is easy to point to evidences of the erosive action 
 of ice, no example can be cited which would be 
 indisputably regarded as one of glacial erosion on a 
 very extensive scale. 
 
 The main results of glacial erosion are the round- 
 ing, smoothing, polishing, and striation of pre-exist- 
 ing rough surfaces. These results are due to the 
 passage of ice charged with rock fragments of various 
 sizes, from large boulders down to the finest particles 
 of dust, over its rocky bed. Owing to the great pres- 
 sure, the rocks of the bed become ground down and 
 smoothed, and if capable of receiving a polish, the 
 fine particles of matter carried by the ice act like 
 emery-powder, and produce a more or less polished 
 surface. The angular grains of quartz score fine 
 striations on the rock-face, and owing to the pressure 
 
312 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 and steady advance of the ice these striae are usually 
 of great regularity, many of them frequently running 
 parallel to one another, and each being straight, as 
 though formed with a ruler. Larger fragments of 
 rock produce larger grooves, sometimes several inches 
 in depth and width. 
 
 When a mass of rock projects above the surround- 
 ing ground, the ice of a glacier is pressed against 
 the side facing the direction from which the ice 
 comes, and this side undergoes the rounding and 
 smoothing processes. The other side is protected, to 
 some extent, from the action of the ice by the actual 
 mass of rock, and the ice passes over it without 
 rounding or smoothing it. This immunity from 
 erosion may be increased by the accumulation of 
 fragments broken from the other side, on the lee 
 side, and these may act as a cushion protecting the 
 rock beneath from the action of the ice. Further- 
 more, as Mr. P. F. Kendall has pointed out, the ice 
 on the lee side tends to tear away fragments of rock 
 from the parent mass, owing to the existence of 
 divisional planes, as planes of stratification and 
 cleavage, and especially of jointing, in the rock. 
 Accordingly a projecting rock, after being acted on 
 by a valley glacier, will be rounded and smoothed on 
 the side facing the head of the valley, and rough and 
 fractured on the side facing the lower end of the 
 valley, as shown in the accompanying diagram, in 
 which the dotted line indicates the original irregular 
 rocky mass, and the continuous line the outline which 
 results from glacial erosion. (Fig. 39.) Rocks which 
 have been subjected to glacial erosion, and have as- 
 sumed this appearance, are known as roches mou- 
 tonnfos, and show the most characteristic effects of 
 
FORMER GLACIATION 313 
 
 glacial erosion. The upland valleys of the hilly 
 districts of our own country of Cambria, Cumbria, 
 and the highlands of Scotland, for example show 
 these roches moutonnees in a very striking manner, 
 and the experienced eye looking down the valley will 
 readily note the contrast between the smoothed and 
 rounded rocks of the valley floor, and lower parts of 
 of the valley sides, and the jagged, frost-riven rocks 
 of the intervening ridges and upper portions of the 
 valley sides ; so that there is no difficulty in ascer- 
 taining the height to which the ice extended in the 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 
 case of a valley in which the effects of glaciation 
 have not been removed by subsequent denudation 
 by streams and atmospheric agents. It follows from 
 what has been said concerning the nature of roches 
 moutonnees, that this contrast will not be marked by 
 one looking up the valley, who is confronted with the 
 rough lee sides of the same roches moutonnees. The 
 nature of these ice-w r orn rocks will be seen in many 
 of the figures illustrating an article originally written 
 for Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, by the late Sir 
 Andrew Ramsay, and subsequently published separ- 
 ately under the title of The Old Glaciers of Switzer- 
 land and North Wales, where also the other effects of 
 glacier action are admirably described. 
 
3H SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 The tearing action noticed on a small scale at the 
 lower ends of roches moutonnees appears to be produced 
 on a much larger scale in the case of soft rocks, huge 
 fragments of these being torn from the bed of the ice 
 and transported for some distance, and in this way 
 irregular hollows of considerable size may be formed. 
 
 Though the power of ice as an erosive agent has, 
 as above remarked, been variously estimated, there 
 is no doubt that the valley glaciers which once occu- 
 pied our upland regions did little more than round 
 off the minor irregularities of the original rocky 
 surface. Pre-glacial escarpments may be often seen, 
 as, for instance, in the beautiful little valley of Cwm 
 Glas, on the side of Snowdon, and on the plateau in 
 which Sprinkling Tarn nestles on the north side of 
 Scawfell, where the original shape of the cliff formed 
 by weather and stream-action is distinctly preserved, 
 and the action of the ice has been merely that of 
 sand-paper, rounding off the edges of the pre-existing 
 cliffs. 
 
 Insignificant as the action of ice has been in many 
 places in directly producing erosion, the indirect 
 influence due to the large volume of water which 
 escapes from the glaciers, and especially the angular 
 nature of the material with which the water is 
 charged, must not be overlooked. Daubree called 
 attention to the angular nature of the grains of sand 
 with which glacier-streams are charged. This must 
 materially increase the corrasive action of the glacier- 
 streams, and it is no doubt owing to it, as suggested 
 in the eleventh chapter, that those narrow, tortuous 
 gorges known as " roflas " are so frequently formed 
 by the streams of glacier regions. 
 
 Another interesting result of water-erosion in a 
 
FORMER GLACIATION 315 
 
 district occupied by glaciers is the "giant's kettle," 
 which resembles a pothole produced by a river, but 
 is often on a larger scale, and is frequently found in 
 spots where ordinary river potholes are not formed. 
 The giant's kettle is formed at the base of a moulin, 
 and is the continuation downward into the rock of 
 the shaft penetrating the ice. It is produced by the 
 gyration of stones carried down the moulin by the 
 glacier-stream, and owing to the height of the fall 
 these giants' kettles are often of great depth. The 
 well-known glacier garden of Lucerne exhibits them 
 in great perfection, and instances are not unknown in 
 our own country, though they are often partly de- 
 stroyed by subsequent denudation, and still more 
 frequently filled up, partly by the stones which caused 
 their formation, more particularly, however, by the 
 material which has been subsequently introduced. 
 
 Glacial Accumulations and Deposits. The accumu- 
 lations and deposits which are due to ice are often 
 of very considerable importance, on account of the 
 effect which they produce on the scenery of a district. 
 The upland valleys of our own country are often 
 marked by the moraines which have been left behind 
 on the retreat of the ice, in the way described in a 
 previous chapter. The lateral moraines are naturally 
 cut up, to some extent, by the streams which flow 
 down the hill-sides, but the terminal moraines are 
 frequently seen, often presenting the characteristic 
 crescentic outlines, and consisting of hummocks com- 
 posed of incoherent sand, gravel, and boulders, 
 usually covered with vegetation. Special mention 
 may be made of the moraine by the side of Llyn 
 Llydaw, on Snowdon, of some extensive moraines in 
 Greenup Gill and in the Rosthwaite alluvial flat in 
 
316 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Borrowdale, Cumberland, and more particularly of 
 a moraine occurring beneath a crag, called Wolf 
 Crag, on the northern slope of the Helvellyn range, 
 which was formed by a small corrie-glacier. This 
 moraine, which was noticed by the late Mr. Clifton 
 Ward, is the most perfect moraine which the writer 
 has seen in this country, and it is well worth a 
 visit by those who are interested in glacial action. 
 Along the summit of it runs the old hill-road from 
 Patterdale to Keswick, and it may easily be reached 
 from the latter place. 
 
 It has been noted in another chapter that moraine- 
 like accumulations -may be formed at the foot of a 
 corrie by the sliding of material down snow-slopes, 
 and that moraines may be, to some extent, simulated 
 in other ways. 
 
 Another very interesting effect of glaciation is the 
 deposit of isolated blocks of rock, often of large size, 
 on the summits and sides of prominent elevations. 
 As the ice gradually recedes these blocks are left 
 stranded in places where they could not have rested 
 unless gently deposited. They are known as perched 
 blocks, and produce a very marked effect upon the 
 scenery of some valleys. They are especially notice- 
 able in the Pass of Llanberis, and it is somewhat 
 remarkable, as pointed out by Ward, that they are 
 comparatively rare in the Lake District. Many of 
 them occur, however, around Scawfell, especially on 
 the plateau below Great End. 
 
 Away from the regions 'formerly occupied by valley 
 glaciers we find extensive accumulations of glacial 
 origin, known as boulder-clay or till. This boulder- 
 clay usually consists of a clayey or sometimes of a 
 sandy matrix charged with angular and subangular 
 
FORMER GLACIATION 317 
 
 fragments (the latter often striated) of various sizes, 
 and the accumulation usually shows no signs of 
 stratification. Some of it is undoubtedly the result 
 of the melting of inland ice, and the deposit of the 
 material carried beneath, within, and in some cases 
 above the ice, upon the ground formerly occupied by 
 that ice. In other cases it may be a glacio-marine 
 deposit. Occasionally it has been laid down as 
 ridges, locally known as drumlins, but it often forms 
 an extensive deposit, the upper part of which is 
 roughly parallel to the original surface of the ground, 
 though minor inequalities are often concealed owing 
 to excessive accumulation of material within them, 
 and on account of this, as previously shown, exten- 
 sive changes in the direction of our river-drainages 
 have been brought about, and lakes have also been 
 produced in many cases. 
 
 On account of the character of the boulder-clay, it 
 frequently illustrates the nature of water-erosion, oc- 
 curring subsequently to its formation, in a very 
 marked manner. This is beautifully shown along 
 the Yorkshire coast, especially when boulder-clay 
 rests upon the chalk. The chalk has been worn 
 away along dominant planes of stratification and 
 jointing, but the more homogeneous boulder-clay 
 above has been carved into little hills and ridges, 
 showing the characteristic curves of water-erosion, 
 and the ridges are so sharp that they imitate on a 
 small scale the aretes of an alpine region. 
 
 The existence of ridges of incoherent material 
 which has been accumulated upon the original 
 surface, is very frequent in a region which has been 
 subjected to former glaciation. Two kinds of ridges 
 have already been noted, namely, the moraine and 
 
318 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 the drumlin. Other ridges consist of stratified 
 deposits of sand and gravel, and are spoken of 
 variously as kames, eskers, and asar, and to these 
 we must'now direct our attention. The terms kame 
 and esker have been applied somewhat loosely to 
 various kinds of ridges of stratified material, some of 
 which are almost certainly of fluviatile origin, formed 
 as ridges between two adjacent rivers, often, no doubt, 
 emanating from a retreating ice-mass. Others, how- 
 ever, cannot be explained in this way, and though 
 an attempt has been made to show that they are 
 of marine origin, all the evidence is against this 
 mode of their formation. Eskers of this nature are 
 specially well - developed in the central plain of 
 Ireland, and they resemble in all respects except 
 size the asar of Scandinavia. They frequently 
 ramify, and the tributary eskers join the main ones 
 as the tributaries of a river join the main stream. 
 Again, they often show the tortuous course of a 
 river, sometimes possessing actual loops. The steep 
 inclination of their sides, the general slope of the 
 strata at the sides in a direction parallel to the 
 surface of the ridge, and the frequent existence of 
 erratic blocks of glacial character on their summits 
 and sides, forbids the supposition that they were 
 produced by ordinary rivers, and suggests formation 
 by rivers which were confined at the sides by steep 
 walls which have since disappeared. Again, they 
 frequently run across irregularities of the ground, 
 sometimes actually traversing the present valleys 
 at right angles to their general directions, and 
 passing over the intervening ridges which separate 
 the valleys. For these and other reasons Hummel 
 maintained that they were the result of accumulation 
 
FORMER GLACIATION 319 
 
 in englacial streams, and Professor Sollas has sub- 
 sequently applied this view to account for the 
 principal eskers of the central plain of Ireland, 1 
 and it is certainly supported by the recent exam- 
 ination of the Malaspina glacier, which induced 
 Russell to adopt the same explanation, which, 
 indeed, accounts for all the peculiarities of esker- 
 formation and distribution. 
 
 The filling of hollows by boulder-clay is a potent 
 factor in giving rise to a plain surface, as the result 
 of the spread of boulder-clay over a pre-existing 
 irregular surface ; and the deposit of fluvio-glacial 
 materials forms a still more pronounced plain. 
 Reference has already been made to plains formed 
 in this manner in extra-British territories, but it is 
 a moot point how far some of our flats have been 
 produced by levelling of irregular surfaces by 
 fluvio-glacial deposit as opposed to true glacial 
 deposits, whether terrestrial or marine. There is no 
 doubt that some of the minor flats of an upland region 
 owe their character to the accumulation of fluvio- 
 glacial deposit, but the late Professor Carvill Lewis 
 maintained that much of the boulder-clay of the 
 Eastern and Midland Counties of England was also 
 of fluvio-glacial origin, a view which, though not 
 generally accepted, has by no means been disproved. 
 
 One other possible result of glaciation may be 
 noted. It is well known that many plants which 
 are found in alpine regions are still found lingering 
 in the upland regions of Britain. Among them may 
 be mentioned Saxifraga oppositifolia, Gentiana verna, 
 G. nivalis, Silene acaulis, and Lloydia serotina. Any- 
 one who has seen the first-mentioned plant on the 
 
 1 SOLLAS, W. J., _y. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., ser. 2, vol. v., p. 786. 
 
320 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 rocks of some of the recesses of Snowdonia, occurring 
 in great patches, with its reddish-purple flowers spread 
 over a considerable space in the early spring, or who 
 has seen the blossoms of the spring gentian, with 
 their exquisite blue colour, lighting up the slopes 
 of Teesdale, will admit that these flowers produce a 
 distinct effect upon the scene. It has been maintained 
 that these plants were distributed through the interven- 
 ing lowlands during the cold of the Ice Age, and that 
 on the amelioration of the climate they disappeared 
 from the lowlands, but lingered on in the uplands. 
 This explanation has, perhaps, not been completely 
 proved to be the true one, but it may be mentioned 
 as a possible cause of the existence in Britain of a 
 group of plants which exercises a strange fascination 
 on the mind of the botanist and of the lover of 
 mountain scenery. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE OCEANS 
 
 A "'ART from the play of colour upon the surface 
 of the ocean, and the variety presented by the 
 appearance of that surface, at one time glassy calm, 
 at another ruffled by the wind, or churned into foam 
 or spin-drift by the tempest, the effect of the present 
 oceans in influencing scenery is confined to the coast- 
 lines which form the ocean margins, and to these we 
 shall have to direct our attention more particularly. 
 
 Still water has comparatively little effect in chang- 
 ing the character of the surrounding land. A little 
 chemical solution of rocks no doubt takes place, but 
 it is a change which may be neglected for our present 
 purposes, and we must devote attention to the 
 changes which result from the ocean movements. 
 These movements are of three kinds, namely, waves, 
 tides, and currents, and each plays its part in modify- 
 ing the scenery of the earth's surface, waves being 
 specially effective as agents of erosion, while tides and 
 currents play the chief part in transporting material 
 which has already been eroded. 
 
 It is of importance to our inquiry that we should 
 obtain some notion of the true nature of a wave, and 
 a few words must, therefore, be here devoted to this 
 topic. A wave has been defined as "a system of 
 movements in which the several particles move to 
 Y 321 
 
322 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 and fro, or round and round, about definite points, in 
 such a manner as to produce the continued onward 
 transmission of a condition or series of conditions." 
 The reader will notice that the condition or con- 
 ditions are transmitted and not the particles. This 
 is well illustrated when the wind is blowing over a 
 hayfield or cornfield. The onward movement of the 
 waves is clearly seen, but it is equally clear that the 
 particles composing the blades of grass or corn do 
 not move on with the waves, each one returning to 
 its place after a wave has passed. Again, a cork 
 floating on the sea bobs up and down as the wave 
 passes, but there is no onward movement of the 
 cork, if it be floating where the water is deep some 
 distance from the land. As a matter of fact the cork 
 does not merely bob up and down, it describes a 
 circle, and a similar circle is described by a particle 
 of water on the surface during the passage of a wave. 
 A complete wave consists of a trough in front and 
 an arch behind, and a wave-length is the distance 
 from the crest of one arch to the crest of a succeeding 
 one, or from any point on one wave to that point 
 on the adjoining one which is moving in the same 
 manner, while the amplitude of the wave is the 
 vertical distance from the level of the wave crest to 
 that of the wave trough. Supposing a particle to be 
 situated in the centre of the front slope of an 
 advancing arch of the wave. This particle moves 
 forward through a quadrant of a circle till it is 
 situated on the summit of the crest, it then moves 
 backward through another quadrant, until situated 
 in the centre of the hinder slope of the advancing 
 arch, still backward through another quadrant, until 
 at the bottom of the trough of the succeeding wave, 
 
THE OCEANS 323 
 
 and then forward through a fourth quadrant, which 
 places it in the centre of the forward slope of the 
 advancing arch of this wave ; it has now moved 
 through a circle and reached its initial position. 
 
 Ordinary sea-waves are produced by wind blowing 
 on the surface, and owing to the friction the water 
 is thrown into a series of undulations, which may 
 travel onwards beyond the area in which they were 
 produced, with ever diminishing intensity ; they are 
 then known as ground-swell. Tidal waves, due to 
 the action of the sun and moon, differ from wind- 
 waves in their length, which is enormous as compared 
 with their amplitude, and accordingly particles are- 
 moved in flattened ellipses, and considerable forward 
 and backward movements of bodies of water occur 
 as tidal currents. When a tidal wave enters a 
 narrow estuary the arch of the wave is forced forward 
 upon the trough, giving rise to a bore or aegre, which 
 breaks upon the shore of the estuary, and accord- 
 ingly exercises effects comparable with those of 
 wind-waves, which will be presently discussed. These 
 bores are well known in many parts of the world, the 
 best known being those of the Bay of Fundy in 
 Nova Scotia, the Hooghly in north-western India, and 
 the Severn in our own country. When the tidal wave, 
 thus influenced by the shape of the coast, attains 
 different heights in two adjacent tracts of water 
 united by narrow straits, the difference of level is 
 atoned for by a current flowing through the straits 
 from the higher to the lower tract of water as a 
 race. As the tract which has the highest tide has 
 also the lowest, the direction of the race is reversed 
 with change of tide. The eddies produced along the 
 coasts in a race give rise to whirlpools like the well- 
 
324 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 known Maelstrom, and when the race is moving 
 against a wind the resultant waves are of exceptional 
 size and violence. 
 
 Ocean currents are produced in various ways. 
 Some, as already stated, are due to differences in the 
 height of the tide in adjoining areas. Others are 
 marked by differences of saltness of adjoining tracts 
 of water depending upon greater evaporation in one 
 place than another, as in the case of the surface 
 current flowing to the more saline waters of the 
 Mediterranean from the less salt Atlantic Ocean, 
 through the Straits of Gibraltar, or upon slight evapo- 
 ration which cannot remove the excessive amount of 
 fresh water poured in by rivers, as in the case of 
 the surface current which flows out of the fresher 
 Baltic to the more saline North Sea. The principal 
 oceanic currents which flow upon the surface are, as 
 is now generally agreed, due to surface winds. A 
 temporary wind produces a temporary current, a 
 periodical wind a periodical current, and a permanent 
 wind a permanent current. All of these currents 
 are important as transporting agents, which carry 
 denuded material from one place to another. 
 
 Having briefly considered the nature of the prin- 
 cipal agents of marine denudation, we may now turn 
 to an examination of their effects. The principal 
 work is the destruction of coast-lines and the re- 
 moval of this material (as well as of that which is 
 produced by the agents of subaerial denudation) to 
 other places, where it is deposited. 
 
 The most effective agents in denuding the coast- 
 line are the waves of the sea. It has been seen that 
 in the open ocean the effect of a wave is to give a 
 particle a circular motion and to restore it to its 
 
THE OCEANS 325 
 
 original position when the wave has passed. As the 
 wave reaches shallow water the lower part of the wave 
 is retarded by friction against the bottom and the 
 upper part moves over it, so that we find actual 
 onward translation of particles of a wave, whether an 
 ordinary wind- wave or one which belongs to the 
 ground-swell, and the upper part is often carried 
 forward until it breaks at the crest, causing a 
 " breaker." Any solid matter suspended in the water, 
 as a grain of sand or a pebble, likewise acquires this 
 motion of translation, becoming hurled forward, and 
 it is on account of these fragments of rock being 
 hurled against the coast-lines that much of the 
 waste of the coast is produced. 
 
 One often hears persons speaking glibly of waves 
 running "mountains high," but, as a matter of fact, 
 the greatest height attained by wind-waves does not 
 appear to exceed fifty feet in the open ocean, though 
 when the waves break masses of foam and splashes 
 of water are frequently carried to heights of over 
 100 feet. " During north-westerly gales the windows 
 of the Dunnet Head lighthouse, at a height of 
 upwards of 300 feet above high-water mark, are said 
 to be sometimes broken by stones swept up 
 the cliffs by the sheets of sea-water which then 
 deluge the building." 1 
 
 It is also important for us to have some idea of the 
 depth below the general surface of the water to 
 which the influence of these sea- waves extends. The 
 reason why this is important will appear in the 
 sequel, in the meantime it may be stated that the 
 wind-wave is a superficial phenomenon. Although 
 there is evidence of gentle movement being produced 
 
 1 GEIKIE, Sir A., Text Book of Geology, 3rd edition, p. 437. 
 
326 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 by waves to a depth of over 600 feet, the distance 
 below the surface at which waves can produce 
 appreciably erosive effect on hard rock is probably 
 very much less than this, and various statements 
 made by engineers seem to indicate that at a depth 
 of considerably less than 100 feet the erosive effect 
 of waves is practically unimportant. 
 
 The force of the waves has also been calculated 
 in many cases. " A single roller of the ground-swell, 
 twenty feet high, falls, according to Mr. Scott 
 Russell, with a pressure of about a ton on every 
 square foot. Mr. Thomas Stevenson conducted 
 some years ago a series of experiments on the 
 force of the breakers on the Atlantic and North 
 Sea coasts of Britain. The average force in summer 
 was found in the Atlantic to be 611 Ibs. per square 
 foot, while in the winter it was 2086 Ibs., or more 
 than three times as great On several occasions, 
 both in the Atlantic and North Sea, the winter 
 breakers were found to exert a pressure of three 
 tons per square foot, and at Dunbar as much as 
 three tons and a half." 1 
 
 In considering the effect of waves, the influence 
 of the comparatively rare, but exceptionally large, 
 earthquake waves which sometimes break upon 
 coasts must not be forgotten. They no doubt 
 largely assist the work of erosion in regions subject 
 to earthquakes. 
 
 That waves hurled against the coast-line with the 
 force which has been indicated above must produce 
 great destruction is obvious. Nevertheless, the 
 destruction is largely due, not to the water itself, 
 but to the solid matter which is held up by the 
 
 1 GEIKIE, Sir A., loc. cit. 
 
THE OCEANS 327 
 
 water. This solid matter, which normally forms a 
 beach, is not always present ; the mode of its 
 arrangement as beach-material will be considered 
 eventually. Where it is absent, as, for instance, 
 where the sea coast plunges suddenly down into 
 deep water, comparatively little erosion by wave 
 action may be produced. 
 
 An ideal uplift, as has been observed, would 
 consist of a tract of land having a convex surface 
 sloping from the centre seaward, and the curve 
 would be continued below sea-level ; there would be 
 
 b 
 
 FIG. 40. 
 
 no sea-cliff. In Fig. 4O, 1 let the line a b represent 
 part of such a land, s s being sea-level, and X X the 
 height above which the waves could not act. The 
 waves, charged with sand and pebbles, would 
 gradually wear away the land as shown by the 
 dotted lines, causing the upper part to overhang. 
 (They would also wear away material below sea- 
 level to the depth at which their erosive action 
 became ineffective, but this action we may for the 
 present ignore.) The overhanging portion could not 
 be prolonged indefinitely, and eventually the upper 
 part would fall away, giving rise to landslips. In 
 nature it is usually removed more gradually, for 
 reasons which will presently be stated. When the 
 overhanging part opq had fallen and been washed 
 
 1 The lines X X and s s should be horizontal in the figure. 
 
328 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 away, a sea-cliff, op r, would be produced, and the 
 process would go on as before. If, therefore, the 
 action of the sea-waves alone produced cliffs, we 
 should expect to find a coast-line marked by cliffs, 
 which overhang above the base in places, while in 
 other places, where the material had fallen and been 
 removed, there would be no overhanging. Now an 
 overhanging cliff is comparatively rare, and it is 
 obvious that some other operation or operations 
 besides the action of the waves are concerned with 
 the erosion of coast lines. 
 
 A good illustration of an overhanging cliff, under- 
 cut at the base by tEe waves, has recently been 
 furnished by Mr. C. W. Andrews in Christmas 
 Island, an island in the Indian Ocean. " The shore 
 terrace slopes gently down from the foot of the first 
 inland cliff to the sea-cliff, which is from fifty to 
 eighty or more feet high, and is often undercut by 
 the waves to a remarkable extent, so that it some- 
 times overhangs more than twenty feet." 1 
 
 On examining sea-cliffs we soon find that the out- 
 line of the cliff is largely determined by the nature and 
 trend of the divisional planes by which the rocks are 
 affected, especially the planes of stratification, and 
 more particularly the joints. When the joints are 
 inclined seawards a cliff is formed sloping towards 
 the sea (Fig. 41 a), if the joints are vertical, though 
 the cliff will probably not be vertical it will tend to 
 consist of a series of steps, portions of which ap- 
 proach vertically (Fig. 41 b), while if the joints are 
 inclined towards the land portions of the cliff may 
 actually overhang. (Fig. 41 c.) 
 
 1 ANDREWS, C. W., Geographical Journal, vol. xiii., No. I (Jan., 
 1899), p. 24 ; see also illustrations on pp. 23 and 27. 
 
THE OCEANS 
 
 329 
 
 The dependence of cliff outline upon joints is thus 
 well exhibited. 1 
 
 As the upper parts of these cliffs are frequently 
 above ordinary wave action, it is clear that their 
 outlines at the upper parts are not directly deter- 
 mined by this action, and inspection of the cliffs 
 will show that in many cases subaerial agents are 
 responsible for their backward wear. But in addition 
 to this there is another process which comes into 
 play in the formation of sea-cliffs, to which we 
 must briefly refer. The waves themselves wear 
 away material more easily when affected by divisonal 
 
 planes than when it is not so affected. Suppose the 
 cliff in Fig. 42 has a plane of stratification or an 
 easily denuded stratum s, below high tide level hh, 
 and above the level of low tide. The rock will be 
 more easily denuded along this plane of weakness, 
 and a cavern may be worn out, as shown by the 
 shaded portion c. Such caves will be specially prone 
 to occur where downward joints, traversing the cliffs 
 vertically, coincide with a stratification plane at the 
 base, and they are very numerous around sea-coasts. 
 If another joint j be encountered after the cave has 
 been worn some distance inward, the erosive action 
 
 1 On this subject the reader may well consult an article by Sir A. 
 Geikie on " The Old Man of Hoy," in his Geological Sketches at Home 
 and Abroad, p. 26. 
 
330 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 will be facilitated by it, and an upward extension of 
 the cavern will be here formed, as shown by the 
 shaded portion c '. This may grow upward until it 
 reaches the surface, when during high tide the water 
 will be forced up, and issue on the surface of the 
 cliff some distance away from the edge as a jet of 
 water. This is a blow-hole or puffing-hole, and 
 these blow-holes are often found behind high cliffs, 
 even some way from the edge. Many of them occur 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 
 round the Irish coast, as indicated in the following 
 description given by the late Professor J. B. Jukes in 
 his Mamial of Geology : 
 
 " At the promontory of Loop Head, Mr. Marcus Keane 
 has observed that considerable blocks of rock have been 
 blown into the air on the formation of one of these 
 puffing-holes, and that large holes, opening down into 
 cavernous gullies, lead from one cove to another, behind 
 bold headlands of over a hundred feet in height, showing 
 how the land is undermined by the sea, and headlands 
 gradually made into islands. One such square precipitous 
 
THE OCEANS 331 
 
 island, which is now at least twenty yards from the main- 
 land, was said by the farmer who held the ground to have 
 been accessible by a twelve-foot plank when he was a boy. 
 Mr. W. L. Wilson, late of the Geological Survey of Ire- 
 land, found in the far part of the promontory between 
 Bantry and Dunmanus Bays, dark holes in the fields some 
 distance back from the edge of the cliffs, looking down 
 into which the sea might be dimly seen washing back- 
 wards and forwards in the narrow caverns below. In 
 County Kerry, Ballybunnion Head is completely under- 
 mined by caverns, into which the sea enters from both 
 sides. The whole coast of Clare, and of the Arran Islands, 
 is a succession of precipitous cliffs with vertical faces, the 
 result of the sea acting on the large cuboidal joints that 
 traverse the rocks. The celebrated rocks of Moher in that 
 county, which rise with a perfectly vertical face to heights 
 of more than 600 feet, afford magnificent examples of the 
 way in which the ocean takes advantage of the joint 
 structure to cut back into the land, however lofty or how- 
 ever hard and unyielding it may apparently be." 
 
 Much of the erosive action above described is due 
 to the compression of air, when the waves enter the 
 cave at high water. In Fig. 42 the cave c being full 
 of water, when a wave comes in, the water in the 
 part c rises and compresses the air above, and this 
 sudden compression may force off a great mass of 
 rock between the joint j and the face of the cliff. 
 
 The dominant joints which run down the face of 
 a cliff facilitate erosion, and determine the formation 
 of the narrow chimneys which often seam the faces 
 of a cliff. 
 
 When a mass of rock juts out as a promontory, 
 a cavern may be drilled through this promontory, 
 and on enlargement an arch will be formed. Such 
 
332 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 arches are frequently found on our coast-lines, as for 
 instance, on the Durham coast, that of the Isle of 
 Wight, and that of Pembrokeshire. If the top of 
 the arch falls in, an isolated " stack " or " needle " is 
 formed, or the same may be due to the cutting 
 through of a promontory along a vertical plane of 
 weakness, without the preliminary formation of the 
 arch. Examples of this are furnished by the Needles 
 of the Isle of Wight, and the more remarkable 
 Eligug Stacks carved out of the mountain limestone 
 of the Pembrokeshire coast. 
 
 When the land is composed of soft rocks, sub- 
 aerial erosion may produce a gentle slope above, just 
 as it does inland, and then the sea -cliff is absent. 
 This is seen in many parts of the east coast of 
 England, which is largely composed of soft rocks, 
 but even these, when devoid of divisional planes and 
 composed of stiff clay, may give rise to cliffs, as in 
 many places where the coast consists of boulder- 
 clay. 
 
 When the strata dip gently towards the sea, and 
 porous strata rest on impervious, the conditions are 
 favourable for landslips, just as they are inland, and 
 accordingly landslips may and do occur in these 
 circumstances, like that which recently took place 
 at Sandgate, or the more classic one of Axmouth, 
 in Dorsetshire, which produced a very marked effect 
 upon the scenery, owing to the way in which the 
 fallen mass became fissured and displaced. 
 
 It has been observed that the denuded material 
 may or may not accumulate at the margin of the 
 land to form beaches. If beaches are formed, their 
 existence for some time facilitates erosion, as they 
 furnish material which may be hurled by the waves 
 
THE OCEANS 333 
 
 against the land behind, but if the amount of material 
 which accumulates is excessive, it acts as a break- 
 water, and retards erosion, instead of facilitating it. 
 
 We have now considered the formation of the 
 sea-cliff with its attendant phenomena of chimneys, 
 caverns, blow-holes, arches, stacks and needles, 
 and are in a position to proceed to a considera- 
 tion of the character of coast-lines as a whole 
 and the way in which they are partly dependent 
 upon the transport of material by the action of 
 currents. In order to do this we must pay some 
 attention to the mode of formation of beaches, which 
 has only been alluded to in very general terms. 
 Two important memoirs upon beaches have ap- 
 peared, in which the student will find much informa- 
 tion concerning their detailed structure, one by 
 Dr. G. K. Gilbert, " On the Topographical Features 
 of Lake Shores," 1 and the other by Mr. Vaughan 
 Cornish, "On Sea Beaches and Sandbanks." 2 
 
 The first point to notice in the formation of a 
 beach is the sorting of the material. It is generally 
 known that the coarse material is mainly deposited 
 near the shore, and the finer out to sea, and the 
 explanation which is usually given to account for 
 this is that the fragments are dropped according 
 to their size and weight. Though this is true, it is 
 by no means the whole truth, and many other causes 
 contribute to the sorting, to some of which reference 
 must be made, though the student should consult 
 Mr. Cornish's paper for full details. When a wave 
 
 1 GILBERT, G. K., Fifth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological 
 Survey. 
 
 a CORNISH, V., Geographical Journal^ vol. xi. (1898), No. 5, 
 p. 528, and No 6, p. 628. 
 
334 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 breaks upon the shore, the forward velocity of the 
 crest of the wave is greater than the backward 
 velocity of the under part. The latter is often 
 spoken of as undertow, though there are really two 
 distinct movements. Now if the velocity of the on- 
 shore movement be sufficient to carry forward sand 
 and pebbles, and that of the off-shore movement be 
 sufficient to carry sand and not pebbles, the pebbles 
 will be deposited on the beach, and the sand carried 
 back. Again, when a pebble-beach is formed, much 
 of the water percolates through the pebbles on its 
 way back, and is unable to carry pebbles with it. 
 The sand, kept in suspension for a considerable period 
 by eddies, is often carried some way out, and owing 
 to its inertia is borne for some distance onward, 
 when the current is checked or turned, and settles 
 in sandbanks. All the fragments, whether of pebble, 
 sand, or mud, are moved while raised from the 
 bottom by the eddies which are set up during the 
 passage of waves. With the heavier pebbles, the 
 period of lifting is short, with sand longer, but with 
 mud so long that, according to Mr. Cornish, the mud 
 forms an emulsion in the water, and "the transit of 
 mud down the slope from the shore is not due to the 
 action of gravity," but "the principal factor in de- 
 termining the well-known direction of mud-transport 
 is the diminution of intensity of bottom agitation 
 from the shallows to the depths." 
 
 The cross section of a beach is often very com- 
 plicated, small beaches being frequently superposed 
 upon the larger ones, but the general profile of a 
 beach as seen in cross-section is a flattened sigmoidal 
 curve. 
 
 More important from the scenic point of view than 
 
THE OCEANS 335 
 
 the varieties of structure of a beach (which are fully 
 considered in Mr. Cornish's paper) is the wandering 
 of beach-materials along shore, which is determined 
 by currents, whether tidal or due to the prevailing 
 winds. A wind blowing towards the shore, and not 
 at right angles to the direction of the coast, sets up 
 a current which, when it reaches the coast, moves 
 along it, parallel to its direction and in the general 
 direction of the wind which caused it. Owing to 
 this current the beach-material is gradually carried 
 along the shore, and if the coast-outline is com- 
 paratively regular, the pebbles are swept along the 
 pre-existing coast-line. When there is a deep in- 
 dentation, however, the material is carried onward, 
 owing to inertia, and builds up a shingle spit, which 
 may be eventually carried right across a bay and 
 convert it into a lagoon, or may be carried from 
 mainland to island, or vice versa, or both, eventually 
 converting the island into a peninsula, as has hap- 
 pened in the case of the Isle of Portland, which is 
 now connected with the mainland by the Chesil 
 Beach. 
 
 It will be seen, therefore, that if conditions remain 
 uniform the tendency of the onward travel of shingle 
 is to simplify coast-lines by obliteration of the in- 
 dentations of the coast, which will usually be found 
 on examination to owe their existence to subaerial 
 denudation followed by depression. 
 
 Inspection of a map of many areas shows the 
 frequent tendency of the coast-line to assume the 
 form of a series of concave curves or bays, separated 
 from one another by headlands or salient points, 
 which are often, though by no means universally, 
 formed by the meeting of two concave curves. If we 
 
336 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 examine a map of England, we shall find these con- 
 cave curves on a large scale, usually modified by the 
 existence of minor bays along the line of each larger 
 one. An examination of the geological structure of 
 the country points to the conclusion that the larger 
 bays were formed when the area was at a different 
 level to that at which it now is, but this is a point 
 which cannot be discussed here. The concave curve 
 of the minor bays is that which produces so very 
 marked an influence upon the scenery of many 
 seaside localities, and we may briefly consider the 
 cause of these concave curves, which are character- 
 istic of lake-shores, as shown by Gilbert, as well as 
 of those of the ocean. 
 
 The primary cause of alternating embayments 
 and salient points is to be sought for by an ex- 
 amination of the geological structure of the region 
 adjoining the coast-line. It is usually found that 
 the dominant headlands or salient points owe their 
 existence to resistance of the rocks of which they 
 are composed to the agents of erosion, while the 
 embayments are marked by the occurrence of more 
 easily eroded rock in or towards the centres. 
 Thus the great bay which extends (modified by 
 many a minor indentation) from Cumberland to the 
 north coast of Anglesea, has its limiting salients 
 formed in the durable rocks of those districts, and 
 the centre of the embayment occurs in the soft 
 Triassic rocks of Lancashire and Cheshire ; the bay 
 extending from the south of Carnarvonshire to Pem- 
 brokeshire has its salients formed of the slaty rocks 
 which are associated with hard igneous rocks, while 
 the centre of the embayment in Cardigan is in rocks 
 which are not penetrated by these hard igneous ribs ; 
 
THE OCEANS 337 
 
 and, to give one more example, the bay between the 
 Start and the Bill of Portland has its salients formed 
 of the hard Devonian rocks on one hand and the 
 hard Oolites on the other, while the centre is com- 
 posed of soft Triassic, Liassic, and Cretaceous rocks. 
 
 In the case of bays formed in inland lakes, where 
 the power of the waves is small as compared with 
 that of sea-waves, the formation of the hollows which 
 ultimately give rise to bays is often primarily due to 
 subaerial erosion (a point which should be taken into 
 account when considering the origin of lakes), and 
 this is the case to some extent with many bays along 
 the sea-coast, though here the action of the waves is 
 often sufficient to produce marked erosion in the 
 centres of the bays. 
 
 On a small scale, as has already been seen, the 
 waves of the sea are capable of fretting the coast 
 into irregular shapes, but it is perfectly clear that if 
 a soft rock coming to the shore as a narrow strip be 
 worn away, a time must come when the indentation 
 penetrates so far inland as compared with its width 
 that the water will be calm even during storms, and 
 accordingly the erosion is checked, until the harder 
 rocks on either side are worn away to a sufficient 
 extent to allow of further removal of the soft rock, 
 and beach material will tend to accumulate in these 
 hollowed-out portions ; so that as the result of differen- 
 tial wear and of accumulation in places, inequalities 
 of the coast-line gradually disappear, and there is 
 a tendency to development of a regular curved outline 
 between the salient points. 1 
 
 1 In some cases the salient points are replaced by convex curves, as, 
 for instance, that which occurs on the Norfolk coast. A blunted fore- 
 land is due to scour off the original point, 
 z 
 
338 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 The action of the on-shore currents may be in 
 many ways compared with that of a river, if we 
 compare the horizontal action of the former with the 
 vertical action of the latter. It has already been 
 remarked that in some cases the amount of shingle 
 which collects on a foreshore is sufficient to check 
 denudation, and there must be a point where neither 
 denudation of the land nor deposition of shingle takes 
 place. Any pre-existing indentation will produce 
 slack-water and cause deposition of shingle, while 
 any projection will tend to be cut away and recede 
 backward, until eventually a marine denudation curve 
 will be formed by deposition in embayments and 
 denudation on salient points until equilibrium is 
 established. The curve will differ from the denuda- 
 tive curve of running water, in being horizontal 
 instead of vertical, and will sweep from one salient 
 point to another, just as the denudation curve sweeps 
 from ridge to ridge. 1 In rare cases the conditions 
 are such as to allow of the growth of salient points 
 by deposition. They are spoken of as " cuspate fore- 
 lands," the term foreland being used by American 
 geographers to denote the flat ground formed by 
 deposition in front of the original coast -line. A 
 good example of such a cuspate foreland is Dunge- 
 ness, which has been described by Mr. Cornish and 
 also by Dr. T. P. Gulliver. 2 
 
 1 It must be noted that the existence of a stable beach does not 
 imply that the land is not undergoing denudation. As Mr. Cornish 
 observes, " The erosion of the sea-bottom seaward of the beach, which 
 is really a slow waste of the land, pushes landward the proper and 
 stable position of the beach. Thus, unless shingle be supplied in such 
 quantity as to produce a shingle ness or foreland, the barrier is not 
 fixed in position, although it be stable." 
 
 2 GULLIVER, T. P., Geographical 'Journal ', May, 1897. 
 
THE OCEANS 339 
 
 Should a coast be subjected to marine action with- 
 out further change, the salients will gradually become 
 eroded and the embayments filled, and the curvature 
 will thereby diminish, until a state of equilibrium is 
 attained. Before this equilibrium has been attained 
 it will be approached more closely when other con- 
 ditions are similar, if the difference of hardness of 
 the rocks is not very marked. 
 
 In a country like our own additional complication 
 is introduced by change in the relative level of land 
 and sea in comparatively recent times. A movement 
 of upheaval will give rise to a simple coast -line 
 formed largely of sediment, upon which denudation 
 will operate, but our country has recently undergone 
 a movement of depression, and this renders condi- 
 tions much more complex. Inequalities have been 
 produced by subaerial denudation, and the hollows 
 excavated by subaerial agents when submerged give 
 rise to indentations of the coast which are occupied 
 by the sea, and if the indentations are very long they 
 may exist for a considerable time before they are 
 destroyed or cut off by the formation of shingle 
 barriers across the mouths, especially if the water is 
 very deep at the mouth. To this cause we owe the 
 great indentation of our western coasts, the sea-lochs 
 of Scotland, the corresponding loughs of Ireland, 
 and the long, winding estuaries of Wales, Devon, and 
 Cornwall ; and the fjords of Norway and of Green- 
 land are due to the same thing. Many of our 
 smaller bays which occur along the line of the larger 
 may have been initiated in the same way. 
 
 For instance, on the south-west coast of Anglesea, 
 which forms part of the great bay between Holyhead 
 and Bardsea Island, we find several bays Cymmeran 
 
340 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Bay, Aberffraw Bay, Malldraeth Bay, and, I may add, 
 Carnarvon Bay which at present present the normal 
 concave curve, but the heads are filled in with shingle 
 banks, blown sand, and marsh accumulation, and the 
 outline of the original land is so irregular that it 
 seems almost certain that it owes its origin to sub- 
 aerial action, while in each case an important river 
 runs into the bay (except in Carnarvon Bay, where 
 the former river is now occupied by the south-western 
 part of the Menai Straits). 1 
 
 A few words concerning the formation of sand- 
 banks may be of interest on account of the import- 
 ance which they play upon the scenery of a coast at 
 sunrise and sunset. The condition under which sand 
 is deposited has already been briefly noted. Tidal 
 movement produces a series of vibrating segments of 
 water, which Mr. Cornish believes to be elongated 
 ellipses, and nodes occur between the segments along 
 which sand is deposited, especially along those nodes 
 which separate the ellipses and lie parallel with their 
 longer axes, thus producing longitudinal sandbanks. 
 
 1 The origin of fjords is now generally admitted to be due to occu- 
 pation by the sea of hollows originally formed by subaerial erosion. 
 Various explanations have been offered to account for the original 
 formation of the hollows, but any cause which produces a hollow on 
 the land will naturally give rise to an indentation of the coast-line 
 when that hollow is occupied by the sea. Professor Brogger has 
 written an elaborate paper on the Christiania Fjord (Nyt Magazin for 
 Naturvidenskabeme, 1886) in which he shows that the fjord lies in a 
 broken anticline, affected by faults, which have let down softer rocks 
 against harder ones, and that the softer rocks have been eroded by sub- 
 aerial agencies in such a way that the major lines of the fjord coin- 
 cide closely with the major faults, and in many cases the minor lines 
 similarly coincide with minor faults. The same thing is observable to 
 some extent on the north shore of Morecambe Bay with its estuaries. 
 The coast-lines of the fjords of Western Greenland have been largely 
 determined by erosion along the major joint-planes. 
 
THE OCEANS 341 
 
 " Such are the sandbanks parallel to the shore, which 
 are numerous off the coasts from Flamborough Head 
 to the South Foreland, and from Calais, at least, as 
 far as the Zuyder Zee. These sandbanks are parallel 
 to the main run of the along-shore tidal currents." 
 Other sandbanks are formed on the lee side of head- 
 lands, " of which the Skerries shoal, eastward of Start 
 Point, and the Shambles shoal, eastward of Port- 
 land Bill," are examples. Mr. Cornish terms these 
 " banner sandbanks," inasmuch as they resemble 
 cloud-banners in being formed by a moving current, 
 their permanence being due to fresh supply of sand 
 to compensate for the loss. Sand-bars off river- 
 mouths are usually stated to be due to the checking 
 of the river - current when it enters the sea, but 
 Mr. Cornish gives reasons for supposing that the 
 action is not quite so simple, and is probably due 
 to the motions which attend the mixing of the 
 waters. 
 
 Hitherto we have considered chiefly the action of 
 the sea along the actual shore-line, though we have 
 noted that there is erosion on the seaward side of 
 the beach accumulations. It has already been stated 
 that the downward trend of this erosion is limited by 
 the depth at which wave-action is efficacious as an 
 agent of erosion, and that this depth is slight, 
 although it probably varies somewhat according to 
 the character of the waves. As the variations will 
 not be great in the same locality, the ultimate result 
 of marine erosion as the sea encroaches upon the 
 land will be to reduce the destroyed land to the 
 level at which the waves cannot any longer exert an 
 erosive influence, that is to a level of at most a few 
 score fathoms below the ocean surface. Such a 
 
342 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 levelled tract is known as a plain of marine denuda- 
 tion^ and its importance is well known to the geologist. 
 To us it is important, because if upheaved by a gentle 
 and extensive uplift it will give rise to a continental 
 plain, thus adding another and very important cause 
 to those which we have already considered as respon- 
 sible for the formation of plains. 
 
 It has already been noted that the marine deposits 
 when laid down, present a fairly level upper surface, 
 which may be spoken of as a plain of marine deposi- 
 tion, and the upheaval of these plains of deposit 
 furnishes yet another class of continental plains. 
 
 Oceanic Islands. Islands are produced in the ocean 
 in various ways. Many of them were originally 
 portions of continents which have been separated 
 at different times as the result of denudation or of 
 depression of intervening tracts, or by a combination 
 of the two processes. Others are due to upheaval 
 of parts of the sea-floor, which, if continued, may 
 result in the coalescence of the island with an adjoin- 
 ing continent. Others, again, are due to accumu- 
 lation, either of detrital material derived from the 
 denudation of continents, or of volcanic matter, or 
 of the hard parts of organisms. 
 
 Islands which have been separated from the 
 continents present the same features of coast-line 
 as do the continental tracts. An island, like a con- 
 tinent, when undergoing submergence, is marked by 
 fjord-like indentations of the coast-line, if the original 
 slopes were steep. In this way has been produced 
 the very remarkable shape of the island of Celebes, 
 which is the relic of a mass of land of greater 
 extent, much of which has been submerged. 
 
 Islands formed by upheaval are frequently found 
 

 THE OCEANS 343 
 
 along lines of uplift, and run in linear groups, the 
 line being often a curved one, with the concavity 
 facing an adjoining continent. Such islands are 
 known as festoon islands, and are the tops of uplifts, 
 which as the process is continued may give rise to 
 a continuous tract of land, and finally may be added 
 to the adjoining continent. Examples of festoon 
 islands are furnished by the West Indies and Japan 
 and Sagalien Island. 
 
 Those islands which are formed by deposit of 
 material derived from denudation of the land are 
 usually low-lying, and are readily destroyed when 
 conditions change, allowing of denudation to take 
 place where deposition occurred previously. From 
 a scenic point of view they are of little interest. 
 
 Islands which are wholly composed of volcanic 
 rocks commence as submarine shoals, and if the 
 action of the waves is not sufficiently strong to 
 check the growth of the volcano above the water 
 an island is formed. A large number of oceanic 
 islands are of volcanic origin. When a volcanic 
 island has been affected by paroxysmal eruptions, 
 which have reduced the lower part of the crater to 
 a depth below sea-level, and the sea has communica- 
 tion with the interior, we may have an island with 
 a central lagoon of water communicating with the 
 ocean by one channel, as was once, though erroneously, 
 stated to be the case with Barren Island in the Bay 
 of Bengal ; the Lago del Bagno in Ischia fills an old 
 crater, and has been converted into a harbour, but by 
 artificial means. Other craters which are filled by 
 the sea open to the ocean by several passages, for 
 the old crater-ring has had gaps formed in various 
 places. Thus the Archipelago of Santorin in the 
 
344 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 Eastern Mediterranean consists of the three islands 
 Thera, Therasia and Aspronisi, enclosing a roughly 
 circular lagoon, in the centre of which rise the small 
 Kaimenis, islands formed by minor cones in the 
 middle of the ancient truncated cone, and Krakatoa 
 forms a similar ring, consisting of the main island 
 and Verlaten and Lang Islands. 
 
 There remain the coral islands, which have always 
 exercised a fascination in the minds of travellers and 
 those who are interested in scenery, on account of 
 their nature and surroundings, and much attention 
 has been directed to them during recent years, on 
 account of the discussion which has arisen concerning 
 their origin. It is unnecessary to enter into any 
 detail concerning this discussion in a work like the 
 present, all that we can do is to note the general 
 characters of coral reefs, and briefly allude to their 
 formation. It is well known that three kinds of 
 reef are found, which differ in their character. 
 Fringing reefs consist of a fringe of organically- 
 formed limestone, adhering to the side of an island 
 usually composed of volcanic rock. Barrier reefs, 
 or encircling reefs as those which encircle an island 
 are termed, may extend along part of a continental 
 mass, as the Great Barrier Reef which runs for iioo 
 miles off the north coast of Australia, or may surround, 
 or partly surround, an island. They are characterised 
 by the existence of a tract of water often of con- 
 siderable depth lying between them and the land 
 to which they form a barrier ; when this is an island 
 the water between the barrier and the island forms 
 a lagoon. Lastly atolls are ring-shaped masses of 
 coral surrounding a lagoon, with no island in the 
 centre of the lagoon. The ring may be, and often 
 
THE OCEANS 345 
 
 is, very irregular, and though frequently approaching 
 the form of a circle, often approximates to that of 
 an ellipse. These coral-reefs are found only in clear 
 seas, and in tropical or sub-tropical regions, and the 
 fact that the distribution of reef-building corals is 
 limited by temperature is further proved by the 
 discovery that reef-building corals have a vertical 
 limit ; it was formerly stated that they could not 
 flourish at a depth exceeding thirty fathoms, but 
 they have been found at a greater depth, and their 
 exact downward limit seems to be still undetermined. 1 
 
 The rim of rock which forms the foundation of 
 the island, and lies below high-water mark, is largely 
 composed of various kinds of corals, both massive 
 and branching, but calcareous nullipores also con- 
 tribute very largely to its substance in many places. 
 The actual islands, which lie on this submarine 
 foundation, are composed of fragments piled up by 
 the waves to form a beach, and cemented owing to 
 the solvent action of percolating water. Between the 
 islands are usually a number of passages, in the 
 case of barrier reefs and atolls, which connect the 
 lagoon with the open ocean. At low water con- 
 siderable tracts of coral-rock with a flat surface are 
 often exposed and extend some way seawards ; they 
 are usually terminated by very steep slopes, often 
 extending downwards to great depths. 
 
 As these coral islands often rise from very deep 
 
 1 The structure and characters of coral-reefs are described in 
 DARWIN'S Coral Reefs and J. D. DANA'S Corals and Coral Islands ; 
 beautiful illustrations of the appearance of coral-reefs accompany 
 Mr. Savile Kent's work on the Great Barrier Reef; and an account of 
 Sir J. Murray's views will be found in a paper by him in Nature, 
 vol. xxii., p. 351. 
 

 346 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 parts of the ocean, and as the reef-forming coral has 
 a downward limit not far removed from the surface, 
 it becomes of importance to determine how the 
 islands were formed. According to Darwin, atolls 
 usually commenced as fringing reefs, and owing to 
 depression of the island, and the building up of the 
 corals in a nearly vertical direction, the outer margin 
 of the reef gradually grew away from the island, 
 and owing to the unfavourable state of the inner 
 part of the reef for coral-growth, a lagoon was 
 formed. When the island in the lagoon finally sank 
 the barrier reef was converted into an atoll. Sir J. 
 Murray, on the other hand, supposes that submarine 
 platforms are raised by volcanic action and the 
 accumulation of the tests of pelagic organisms floating 
 in the upper waters of the ocean to the height of 
 the downward limit of coral formation, when corals 
 begin to build reefs. The inner portions of these 
 reefs will be unfavourable to coral growth, and owing 
 to this and to solution a lagoon will be formed. 
 Fragments broken off by the waves will roll down 
 the outer slope and raise portions of it to the 
 requisite height for coral-growth, and the reef- 
 forming corals will extend outwards upon this 
 raised portion. Thus Murray considers that the 
 atoll does not grow from a barrier reef, but practically 
 commences as an atoll, and that as the outer part of 
 the reef expands outwards on the fallen blocks, the 
 lagoon also expands by solution in fact that an atoll 
 commences as a small ring, which gradually grows 
 in diameter, the width of the actual islets practically 
 remaining constant during the process. It must be 
 noted that Darwin actually took into consideration 
 this mode of formation of atolls, and rejected it as 
 
THE OCEANS 347 
 
 inapplicable to the larger number of atolls on account 
 of what he conceived to be the improbability of the 
 formation of the requisite number of submarine 
 platforms raised to the required height without 
 emerging to the surface of the ocean. The relative 
 applicability of the two theories to explain atoll 
 formation is a matter which is still sub judice, but 
 the words of Professor Huxley, quoted by Professor 
 Judd, in a discussion to a recent paper at the 
 Geographical Society, probably express the truth of 
 the matter. Professor Judd remarked that he had 
 been discussing the question with Professor Huxley, 
 and that the latter observed, " I am convinced, from 
 all that is being done now, that we shall not find 
 any simple, easy explanation of all coral-reefs ; that 
 the study of coral-reefs is one of the very greatest 
 complexity ; that the conditions under which they 
 were formed would have varied greatly in different 
 cases ; and that one theory of their origin will 
 probably not be found to suit all the cases " ; and, 
 adds Professor Judd, " I think that the experience 
 of the last few years will tend to convince everyone 
 of the truth of this observation." 
 
 The peculiar scenery of a coral-reef encircling a 
 lagoon is dependent upon the dazzling whiteness of 
 the beach, formed of broken calcareous fragments, 
 upon the contrast between the still waters of the 
 lagoon and the surge which breaks on the outer part 
 of the reef, and upon the character of the vegetation, 
 which soon springs up, owing to the seeds trans- 
 ported by the ocean, or probably more frequently 
 by birds, which germinate, and grow into plants 
 which gradually give rise to a soil capable of 
 supporting the luxuriant vegetation which is so 
 
348 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 frequently met with on, and forms so marked a 
 character of, these coral islets. 
 
 Raised Sea-Margins. As the result of uplift, or 
 it may be in some cases of the retirement of the 
 sea, the features which were noticed in the last 
 chapter as characteristic of the action of the sea 
 along the sea-coast, are often found some distance 
 inland. We meet with raised sea-cliffs, frequently 
 pierced by sea-caverns, and in other places with 
 raised beaches. Each of these often forms a marked 
 feature in the scenery of a district. Beginning with 
 the cliffs raised cliffs may be found on many 
 parts of our coast, especially on the western side, 
 far removed from the wash of the waves of the 
 present ocean. They are frequently separated from 
 the present cliff by a nearly flat or gently sloping 
 terrace, which may be a plain of marine denudation, 
 or a plain of deposition, or one due to the deposition 
 of a thin deposit of sediment upon a plain of denu- 
 dation. Of this nature are many of the carses of 
 Scotland, well seen along the estuary of the Clyde, 
 and frequently backed by the old sea-cliffs. When 
 surrounding an island these carses give the isle a 
 very characteristic appearance, the raised interior 
 being surrounded by a low, flat terrace standing 
 above a small modern cliff, as in the case of Great 
 and Little Cumbrae, on the Clyde estuary. Among 
 coral islands raised reefs often take the place of the 
 sea- cliffs, and the ancient lagoon may be formed on 
 the landward side of these reefs as a depression, 
 as recently described by Mr. Andrews in the case 
 of Christmas Island. 1 
 
 Raised beaches are very frequent, and often give 
 1 ANDREWS, C. W., Geographical Journal, loc. cit t 
 
THE OCEANS 349 
 
 rise to terraced lines, resembling in general aspect 
 those Parallel Roads of Glenroy to which reference 
 has been already made. They are frequent along 
 the coast of Scotland, often rising terrace above 
 terrace to heights of 100 feet above present sea-level. 
 In Norway they are frequently seen running in 
 parallel lines around the fjords, and a magnificent 
 series of terraces is found surrounding the shores of 
 the White Sea. Some of the most remarkable of 
 these terraces exist in South America, where they 
 have been very fully described by Darwin. 1 They 
 occur, with well-marked features, to heights of over 
 300 feet above sea-level, and have been found at 
 intervals along the Atlantic coast from Tierra del 
 Fuego for a distance of 1180 miles northward, and 
 along the Pacific coast have been traced for a distance 
 0^2075 miles. For a length of 775 miles they occur 
 on both sides of the Continent in the same latitude. 
 In Greenland, again, these raised beaches have been 
 described on the western coast, and they are also 
 found in New Zealand and in many other areas. 
 
 Marine Vegetation. The marine algae, which have 
 a prevalent olive-brown or olive-green hue, though 
 many are red or violet, often produce a considerable 
 effect upon marine scenery. At low water our shores 
 are often seen to be densely clad with masses of 
 algae, and they may be seen waving on the shallows 
 when a boat passes over them, many of them being 
 buoyed up by the vesicles which they possess. In 
 the southern polar seas grows the gigantic Macro- 
 cystis pyrifera, which sometimes attains a length of 
 over 500 yards. 
 
 In addition to the algae found around the coasts, 
 
 1 Geological Observations^ p. 232. 
 
350 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 attached to the sea-bottom, are others which float 
 freely in the water, as the well-known Sargassum 
 bacciferum, or gulf-weed, of which detached masses 
 cover thousands of square miles of the oceans in 
 those great central " whirls " of quiet water which lie 
 inside, and are due to the circulating masses of 
 oceanic water which, in the northern hemisphere, 
 move in the direction of the hands of a clock, and 
 in the southern hemisphere in the contrary direction. 
 The best known of these areas is the Sargasso Sea, 
 in the North Atlantic, though similar accumulations 
 of " weed " and other flotsam are also formed in 
 the Pacific Ocean, and form the home of countless 
 animals, some of which are attached to the " weed," 
 while others float and swim among it. 
 
 Ice in the Ocean. We have already considered the 
 mode of formation of icebergs, and made brief allu- 
 sion to the pack-ice of Spitsbergen, but it yet remains 
 to make a few remarks concerning this ice and its 
 formation. The. water on the coasts of Arctic 
 regions freezes in winter, and forms a coating at- 
 tached to the coasts known as coast-ice. It forms 
 on the surface and beneath, and often attains a great 
 thickness. Material falls on to it from cliffs, and is 
 frozen into it when it forms against beaches, and 
 when the ice breaks up in spring it floats away, trans- 
 porting this material and depositing it elsewhere. 
 
 Further, the whole surface of great tracts of the 
 ocean freezes in the winter in Arctic regions, and 
 breaks up on the approach of summer along exten- 
 sive lines of fissure, the detached portions floating off 
 as ice-floes. These floes are often formed of great 
 sheets of ice reared up edgewise, and piled up one 
 on the top of the other to form pack-ice. It is this 
 
THE OCEANS 351 
 
 pack-ice which, forced through the narrow straits of 
 Spitsbergen and elsewhere by currents and races of 
 great velocity, and often of considerable constancy 
 of direction, gives rise to those rounded and striated 
 rocks which, in the present state of our knowledge, 
 it is difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish from 
 the rounded, smoothed, and striated rocks which have 
 acquired their present shape as the result of the 
 action of land-ice. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 AN attempt has been made in the foregoing 
 chapters to show that the various scenic 
 features of the earth's surface were produced by the 
 operation of agents, whose mode of action is familiar 
 to us. We need not invoke the aid of any 
 mysterious force, in order to account for these 
 features ; allow a sufficient amount of time, and the 
 sea will receive enough sediment to supply material 
 for the formation of fresh continents, the forces 
 which are at work on the earth's interior will elevate 
 these sediments above the level of the sea, convert- 
 ing them into dry land, and the incessant action of 
 the sculpturing tools, of wind, rain, frost, rivers, 
 glaciers, sea-waves, and the like, will carve out the 
 continents into those shapes whose origin it has 
 been our task to consider. The nature of these 
 changes and their effects are so clearly understood 
 that they have become the ^very alphabet of modern 
 geological science, but there is yet much work to 
 be done in working out the details, and also in 
 discussing the causes of many of the changes. 
 
 As the student of scenery pursues his inquiries 
 into the origin of the earth's features, he will find 
 that he is led into many by-paths, of whose 
 existence he was previously unaware. Roaming 
 
 352 
 
CONCLUSION 353 
 
 among the sand-dunes of the coast, he is first led 
 to inquire how the sand was heaped up to form 
 the crescentic ridges, but when he has done this he 
 will not be content until he has gained some know- 
 ledge of the history of the individual sand-grains, 
 and here he will find a story so strange that it seems 
 at first well nigh incredible. The grain was perhaps 
 brought into existence as a grain long, long ages 
 ago, upon the consolidation of a mass of molten 
 rock deep down within the bowels of the earth. 
 The crystalline forces which called it into being 
 were capable of giving it a shape as definite as the 
 form of a living organism, but the conditions were 
 perhaps unfavourable for the assumption of that 
 shape. Ages roll by, and the grain is locked up 
 in the earth's interior, until the slow upheaval of 
 part of the crust, and the removal by denudation 
 of the exterior of that crust, expose it upon the 
 surface. Acidulated water may corrode it, fragments 
 of it may be chipped off during its passage down 
 some river to the sea, and it may be deposited in 
 its altered form at the sea-bottom, perhaps to be 
 uplifted and again denuded time after time. In its 
 present state on the dune it may become rounded 
 by friction against other grains when blown along 
 by the wind, until it has been materially reduced 
 in size. We can destroy it now, as a grain of sand, 
 by immersing it in an acid which will dissolve silica 
 it would be killed but if we do not thus destroy 
 it the crystalline forces which called it into existence 
 may act upon it at some future time under circum- 
 stances favourable to its completion as a crystal of 
 definite outline. After long ages of unfavourable 
 existence it will then have attained its full growth, 
 2 A 
 
354 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 and its decay may be prolonged through ages as vast 
 as those which have been required for its growth. 
 There are thus many analogies between the growth 
 and decay of a crystal and the growth and decay 
 of an organism ; but how insignificant is the period 
 of duration of the organism as compared with that 
 of the crystal ! Another grain we may discover 
 composed of a fragment of an organism, or fragments 
 of many organisms, and we are thus led to inquire 
 into the, life of the globe in past times. We may 
 discover that the apparently structureless limestone 
 which, after accumulating to a thickness of thousands 
 of feet on the ocean floor, has been reared up and 
 sculptured into mighty hills and strange pinnacles, 
 is a mosaic composed of particles so small that they 
 can only be seen beneath the microscope, and yet 
 each particle consists of the exquisitely ornate shell 
 of a lovely creature which once existed in a long- 
 departed ocean. We thus learn that the present 
 earth-features are but records of a brief period ; that 
 past periods have succeeded one another before the 
 present, each marked by features of the earth's 
 surface,' in many respects similar to those which are 
 at present in being, but each probably characterised 
 by something belonging to the period, which never 
 occurred before and will never occur again. One is 
 thus led to pass in review in one's imagination the 
 whole of the earth's history, from the time when 
 the earth was a formless nebula, to a later period 
 when it was a molten mass ; yet later, when, though 
 solid, it was a lifeless desert ; and so through the long 
 ages of geological time until one arrives at the 
 contemplation of the present condition of things. 
 And the future? The geologist has no direct 
 
CONCLUSION 355 
 
 evidence of the beginning of things. When the first 
 sediments of which we have any certain knowledge 
 were deposited, the condition of the earth had in 
 many ways approximated so nearly to existing con- 
 ditions that we feel that the time that had elapsed 
 before this was enormous as compared with the time 
 which has since passed by, vast as this must be. 
 And, as the geologist has no direct knowledge of 
 the beginning of things, he sees no signs of an 
 approaching end ; he turns to the physicist and 
 astronomer for information of the death of the earth 
 as of its birth. But he sees no reason for supposing 
 that that death is imminent ; the earth's surface may 
 be sculptured and upheaved through long aeons of 
 time to come before the end. 
 
 But let us leave this subject of geological time, 
 a subject so awe-inspiring that the brain reels when 
 contemplating it too closely, and turn to take a last 
 look at the condition of things as they now are. 
 
 We have noted a difference in the operation of the 
 dominant agents which give rise to the varied scenic 
 features of the earth's surface, when we study different 
 parts of the earth's surface. The desert, the sea- 
 coast, the arctic uplands, the river-plain, each has its 
 own particular features. Now some of these features 
 are due to climatic conditions, and we accordingly 
 find definite types of scenery which are apt to occur 
 in similar latitudes. We may divide the earth's 
 surface into seven belts, namely, the tropical belt, the 
 north and south sub-tropical belts, the north and south 
 temperate belts, and the arctic and antarctic belts. 
 
 Commencing with the tropical belt, we find that 
 its characteristic features are largely dependent upon 
 the excessive rainfall, which is due to the great 
 
356 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 evaporation caused by the sun's heat in equatorial 
 regions. This rainfall, combined with the heat, is 
 favourable for the growth of luxuriant vegetation, 
 and accordingly the tropical zone is specially marked 
 by its extensive forests, and these in turn, for reasons 
 which we have already given, tend to produce a 
 certain sameness of outline in the country, which is 
 not greatly diversified by the work of erosive agents, 
 as is the case with countries which are not so 
 extensively covered with vegetation. 
 
 Many people have exaggerated ideas of the beauty 
 of tropical vegetation, and I am tempted to quote 
 Mr. A. R. Wallace's descriptions of the tropical 
 forests of South America : l "The beauty of the palm- 
 trees can scarcely be too highly drawn ; they are 
 peculiarly characteristic of the tropics, and their 
 varied and elegant forms, their beautiful foliage, and 
 their fruits .... give them a never-failing interest 
 to the naturalist, and to all who are familiar with 
 descriptions of the countries where they most abound. 
 The rest of the vegetation was hardly what I 
 expected. We found many beautiful flowers and 
 climbing plants, but there are also many places which 
 are just as weedy in their appearance as in our own 
 bleak climate." And again, " A few forest trees were 
 .... in blossom ; and it was a truly magnificent 
 sight to behold a great tree covered with one mass of 
 flowers, and to hear the deep, distant hum of millions 
 of insects gathered together to enjoy the honeyed 
 feast. But all is out of reach of the curious and 
 admiring naturalist. It is only over the outside of 
 the great dome of verdure exposed to the vertical 
 rays of the sun that flowers are produced, and on 
 
 1 WALLACE, A. R., Travels on the Amazon , chaps, i. and ii. 
 
CONCLUSION 357 
 
 many of these trees there is not a single blossom to 
 be found at a less height than a hundred feet. The 
 whole glory of these forests could only be seen by 
 sailing gently in a balloon over the undulating 
 flowery surface above ; such a treat is perhaps re- 
 served for the traveller of a future age." 
 
 It is in the sub-tropical belts, as has already been 
 stated, that the main deserts of the earth's surface 
 occur, and present characters which have been con- 
 sidered in the chapter devoted to the desert-regions. 
 It is not to be supposed that the whole of the 
 sub-tropical regions are occupied by desert, any more 
 than that the whole of the tropical belt is covered by 
 forest-growth, but when the physical conditions are 
 such as are necessary for the existence of deserts, 
 the sub -tropical climate specially favours desert 
 formation. 
 
 In these desert regions, the operation of agents in 
 a dry way is very marked, and the scenic features are 
 largely due to change of temperature, and the action 
 of wind. 
 
 In the temperate belts, the climate is of a nature 
 specially suited for cultivation, and accordingly it is in 
 these regions that man has most thickly congregated, 
 and has produced most influence upon the scenery 
 of the earth's surface, owing to the modifications 
 brought about by his labours. In these belts, owing 
 to the abundant rainfall, denudation is usually carried 
 on in the wet way, especially by streams and rivers, 
 but, owing to the less dense growth of vegetation, as 
 compared with that of tropical regions, the effect of 
 denudation is to produce greater superficial inequali- 
 ties than those which are carved out in the forest- 
 clad belt on either side of the equator. 
 
358 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 In the arctic and antarctic regions, the scenery is 
 essentially affected, so far as sculpture is concerned, 
 by the action of frost. It is in these regions that the 
 house-roof type of mountain with straight sides is 
 carved out with greatest frequency. 
 
 The above remarks concerning the influence of 
 climate have been inserted, because we are too prone 
 to consider the physical features of our own area 
 to be typical of those which are found elsewhere, 
 and to overlook the fact that climatic conditions 
 play so important a role in the production of scenic 
 features that different belts of the earth's surface 
 have different kinds of scenery, partly due directly 
 to difference in the character of the vegetation, and 
 partly indirectly to the same difference, but partly 
 also to the difference in the relative importance of 
 the different denuding agents as sculpturing tools. 
 
 Allusion has just been made to the influence of 
 man in modifying the scenery of the earth's surface. 
 Perhaps too marked a contrast has been drawn 
 between the work of man and of other animals in 
 affecting the appearance of the outer surface of the 
 globe, as indicated by the use of the expression 
 "natural " scenery, and by talk of "artificial" changes 
 made therein ; some writers indeed speak of the 
 work of man as though it generally tended to mar 
 the aspect of a country. When speaking enthusias- 
 tically to a Scotch boatman of the beautiful hill 
 scenery of the north end of the Isle of Arran, I was 
 at first somewhat surprised at his remark that I 
 should see the flatter south end with its cornfields ; 
 I was not prepared for the influence of contrast 
 with the normal surroundings, in determining a 
 man's ideas of what is beautiful. Anyone who had 
 
CONCLUSION 359 
 
 journeyed long in a desert region would no doubt 
 be more profoundly affected by the sight of the 
 cultivated fields of our own country, with the rustic 
 cottages nestling here and there among their orchards, 
 than by the finest " natural " scenery in the world. 
 Nevertheless, one would regret the obliteration of all 
 "natural" scenery, even if it were replaced by a 
 harmonious substitute, due to the labours of man. 
 Much more does one regret the mutilation of a 
 district rich in natural beauty, by works which pro- 
 duce a feeling of discord works which are often 
 wrought, not for the general advantage of man, but 
 for the sake of benefiting the pockets of greedy 
 speculators to the extent of a few pounds. And yet 
 this mutilation of some of the fairest scenes of our 
 own country has proceeded, and is proceeding, un- 
 noticed save for the words of regret of a few lovers 
 of Nature, whose protests are, alas ! unheeded by the 
 great mass of our countrymen. America has its 
 National Park set aside for ever, as a thing of beauty, 
 owing to the far-sighted intelligence of its legislators. 
 We too have our exquisite jewels of natural beauty, 
 jewels so exquisite that they are prized not only by 
 hosts of our own countrymen, but by others who 
 come from afar to gaze at them. Devon and Corn- 
 wall, Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, and perhaps, 
 above all, the Lake District of Cumberland and West- 
 morland, are glorious possessions of the English 
 people, where the jaded dweller in towns may find 
 an exceeding great peace. Do we appreciate these 
 as we should ? Alas ! the very stones cry out against 
 us. The two lakes of Llanberis, things of beauty at 
 a time within the recollection of the present genera- 
 tion, are now receptacles of slate rubbish, extracted 
 
360 SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF SCENERY 
 
 from the adjoining hills, which are marked by scars 
 that cannot be effaced till long ages have rolled by. 
 One of the most beautiful upland hollows of Wales, 
 which nestles under the glorious precipice of Snow- 
 don, has been sadly despoiled for the sake of a few 
 pounds of copper ore ; the curved bays of Thirlmere 
 effect of wave-lapping along the beach for many a 
 long day are replaced by angular indentations of 
 the banks of a reservoir, made to supply the thirsty 
 folk of a large town. This conversion of lake into 
 reservoir is justifiable on the ground of necessity, but 
 who can look without indignation on the unsightly 
 heaps of slate refuse which have sullied the beauty 
 of that fair valley which was the chosen home of 
 Wordsworth ? 
 
 The library of Alexandria was burnt down, and 
 men have not ceased to bewail its loss, though the 
 chief thoughts of men which were embodied in its 
 tomes have doubtless been since recorded. The work 
 of nature is being daily mutilated, and men look upon 
 the havoc with indifference. Man can here destroy, 
 but he cannot replace. Ages ago the almost 
 structureless masses of jelly living in a bygone 
 ocean, built up an exquisite mosaic of rock, formed 
 with almost inconceivable slowness. Other ages pass 
 away, and the delicate graving tools of Nature carve 
 out this rock into spiry pinnacles and impending 
 cliffs, wreathed with ivy and roses and many another 
 plant. Then comes man, and with a few pounds of 
 gunpowder destroys this work of ages in a moment, 
 and the white cliffs of Derbyshire are marked by 
 a hideous, indelible scar. 
 
 Will this go on always, and will the English people 
 look on with indifference while their glorious heritage, 
 
CONCLUSION 361 
 
 due to the toil of Nature's servants through the count- 
 less aeons of geological time, is slowly but surely 
 squandered ? Let us hope not ; let us rather believe 
 that the time is now at hand when the national im- 
 portance of the question of our natural scenery will 
 be fully appreciated, and when the study of natural 
 scenery will be looked upon as one of the most 
 beneficial of our means of education. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
INDEX 
 
 A. 
 
 Ablation, 289. 
 
 Accumulation, Mountains of, 55. 
 
 Acid rocks, 99. 
 
 ^Egre, 323. 
 
 Agassiz, A., 311. 
 
 Aiguilles, 91. 
 
 Aitken, J., 32. 
 
 Alkali deserts, 265, 270. 
 
 Alluvial cones, 137, 142. 
 
 flats, 132, 196, 233, 235. 
 
 Alpine type of mountains, 62, 63. 
 Andrews, C. W. , 328. 
 Antecedent drainage, 144. 
 Anticline, 14. 
 Anti-cyclone, 43. 
 Asar, 318. 
 
 Ashes, Volcanic, 225. 
 Atmosphere, 29-45. 
 Atolls, 344, 346, 347. 
 Attributes of scenery, 2-7. 
 Avalanches of rock, 196. 
 of snow, 279. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bad Lands, 256, 269. 
 
 Ball, J., 30. 
 
 Barchanes, 262. 
 
 Bars, 341. 
 
 Basalt, 99. 
 
 Base-line (of erosion), 84, 86. 
 
 Basic rocks, 99. 
 
 Basin (of strata), 14. 
 
 Bays, 192, 193, 335. 
 
 Beaches of lakes, 188, 194, 265. 
 
 sea, 332-335. 
 
 raised, 348. 
 
 Beaver- dams, 164. 
 
 363 
 
 Beheaded rivers, 142. 
 
 Belloc, E., 196. 
 
 Bergschrund, 285. 
 
 Blanford, W. T., 145, 244, 262. 
 
 Blocs perches, 316. 
 
 Blow-holes, 330. 
 
 Bonney, T. G., 186. 
 
 Bore, 323. 
 
 Boulder-clay, 316-319. 
 
 Breakers, 325. 
 
 Broads, 165. 
 
 Brogger, W. C., 340. 
 
 Browne, G. F., 157. 
 
 Buckland, W., 311. 
 
 Buttes, 247, 256, 258, 259. 
 
 C. 
 
 Calderas, 217, 218. 
 Canons, 129, 259. 
 Carses, 348. 
 Cascades, 150. 
 Caves, IS3-I57. 
 
 in glaciers, 291, 302. 
 
 Sea, 329, 330. 
 
 Chinese walls, 298. 
 Cinder-cones, 213, 214. 
 Circumdenudation, Mountains of, 
 
 55- 
 
 Cirques, 75. 
 Cirrus, 33, 37, 3 8 - 
 Cleavage-planes, 18. 
 Cliffs, Subaqueous, 190. 
 
 of erosion, 193. 
 
 Sea, 3 2 7-332. 
 
 Climate, Effect of, 355-358. 
 Glints, 1 08, 246. 
 Clouds, 31-45. 
 
 Classification of, 32. 
 
 Collingwood, W. G., 22. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Colour, Effect of, 4. 
 
 in the sky, 29. 
 
 of lakes, 198-201. 
 
 of ice, 308. 
 
 Cols, 75-77. 
 
 in meteorology, 43. 
 
 Columnar structure, 103. 
 
 Combes, 75. 
 
 Consequent river-systems, 139. 
 
 streams, 121. 
 
 Continents, Structure of, 46-54. 
 Contraction theory, 47. 
 Coral-islands, 344-348. 
 Cornish, V., 260, 276, 333, 338- 
 
 34I-. 
 Corrasion, 81-84. 
 
 Lateral, 130. 
 
 Crater lakes, 181, 188. 
 Craters, 214-219. 
 Crevasses, 286-289. 
 Cumulus, 33, 34. 
 Currents of ocean, 324. 
 Gushing, H. P., 162, 185, 300. 
 Cuts-off, 165. 
 Cwms, 75. 
 Cyclones, 40-43. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dana, J. D., 345. 
 
 Darwin, C., 345, 349- 
 
 Daubree, A., 314. 
 
 Davis, W. M., 97, 121, 124, 139, 
 
 142, 145, 147- 
 Davy, Sir H., 199, 204. 
 Dawkins, W. B., 152. 
 Deeley, R. M., 282. 
 Dela Beche, Sir H., 115. 
 Delabecque, A., 158, 163, 170, 
 
 171, 173, 175, 181, 182, 184, 
 
 186, 191, 196, 200. 
 Deltas, 236-238. 
 
 of lakes, 194-196. 
 
 Denudation, 70. 
 
 Processes of, 80. 
 
 Derivative rocks, 9. 
 Deserts, 248-271. 
 Desor, E., 172. 
 Dewar, J., 30. 
 Dip-slope, 124. 
 Dirt-bands, 295. 
 
 Diversion of river-drainage, 140- 
 
 143- 
 
 Dolomite mountains, 108, 109. 
 Domes, Drainage of, 78. 
 
 Volcanic, 211. 
 
 of strata, 14. 
 Drumlins, 217. 
 Dry deltas, 137, 168, 196. 
 Dunes, 260-264, 2 7- 
 Dutton, C. E., 212, 218, 220. 
 Dykes, 100. 
 
 E. 
 
 Earth-pillars, 128, 129. 
 Earthquakes, 229, 230. 
 Ellis, W., 222. 
 Englacial rivers, 302. 
 Escarpments, 124. 
 Eskers, 318. 
 Etangs, 164. 
 Everett, Professor, 266. 
 
 F. 
 
 Falaises, 164. 
 Fan-structure, 63. 
 Fata morgana, 202. 
 Faulted mountains, 65-69. 
 Fault-planes, 17. 
 
 Influence of, 109. 
 
 Fens, 239-241. 
 
 Firn, 281. 
 
 Fissure-eruptions, 224, 225. 
 
 Fjords, 236, 339. 
 
 Fletcher, G., 282. 
 
 Floating islands, 198. 
 
 Floe-ice, 350. 
 
 Fluvio-glacial deposits, 294, 307. 
 
 Folded mountains, 59-65. 
 
 strata, 14. 
 
 Foliation-planes, 19. 
 
 Forbes, J. D., 167, 281, 284, 
 
 285, 295, 297. 
 Forel, F. A., 158, 191, 199, 200, 
 
 202. 
 
 Forelands, 338. 
 Frost, 89, 90, 92, 272-274. 
 263. 
 
INDEX 
 
 365 
 
 G. 
 
 Garwood, E. J., 175, 274, 283, 
 
 298, 299, 302. 
 Geikie, Sir A., 92, 164, 224, 266, 
 
 269, 325, 329- 
 Gemmellaro, M., 120. 
 Geysers, 226, 229. 
 Giants' kettles, 315. 
 Gilbert, G. K., 60, 69, 71, 122, 
 
 139, 140, 143, 145, 147, 178, 
 
 179, '82, 252, 254, 333. 
 Gilpm, W., 119. 
 Glacier-canals, 300. 
 Glacieres, 157. 
 Glaciers, 279-320. 
 
 Movement of, 284. 
 
 Remanies, 297. 
 
 Erosion by, 311-315. 
 
 Glacier-tables, 294. 
 
 Gorges, 118. 
 
 Granite, 99. 
 
 Gregory, J. W., 165, 166, 177, 
 
 283, 298, 299. 
 Gulliver, T. P., 338. 
 Guthrie, Professor, 205. 
 
 H. 
 
 Heim, A, 62, 180. 
 Herschel, J., 34. 
 Hoar-frost, 273. 
 Hogbacks, 14, 64. 
 Holmes, W. H., 259. 
 Hopkins, W., 287. 
 House-roof structure, 90, 254. 
 Howard, L., 32. 
 Hummel, D. , 318. 
 Huxley, T. H., 347. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ice, 272-320, 350, 351. 
 Icebergs, 307, 308. 
 Ice-cap, 298. 
 
 of Greenland, 303-307. 
 
 Ice-sheet, 298. 
 Icicles, 275. 
 Igneous rocks, 9, 98. 
 Inclination of slopes, 114-117. 
 Islands in lakes, 197, 198. 
 
 Islands, Oceanic, 342-348. 
 
 Volcanic, 343, 344. 
 
 Coral, 344, 348. 
 
 J- 
 
 Joint-planes, 16. 
 
 Judd, J. W., 179, 181, 205, 208, 
 
 211, 347- 
 Jukes,J. B., 330. 
 
 ; K. 
 
 Kames, 318. 
 Kendall, P. F., 3(2. 
 Kent, S , 345. 
 Kettle-holes, 159. 
 Kornerup, A., 90, 91. 
 Kryokonite, 305. 
 
 Laccolite, 60, 100. 
 Lagoons, 335, 344. 
 Lakes, 158, 202. 
 
 without outlet, 265. 
 
 Lamination, Planes of, 12. 
 
 Landslips, 163, 230, 332. 
 
 Lapworth, C., 48, 62, 207. 
 
 Lava, 219-221. 
 
 Lewis, H. G., 319. 
 
 Ley, C., 33-35, 44. 
 
 Limestone, Influence of, 107-109, 
 
 246. 
 
 Livingstone, D., 92. 
 Llanos, 24.3. 
 Lochs, Sea, 339. 
 Loess, 264. 
 Lubbock, Sir J., 186. 
 Lyell, Sir C., 118, 120, 128, 132, 
 
 150, 176, 219, 238. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mallet, R., 205. 
 
 Massive eruptions, 224, 225. 
 
 Master-joints, 1 6. 
 
 McMahon, A. H., 263, 264, 266. 
 
 Medanos, 262. 
 
3 66 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Medlicott, H., 145, 244. 
 
 Meres, 159, 174, 186. 
 
 Mesas, 247. 
 
 Metamorphic rocks, 10. 
 
 Mill, H. R., 158, 184, 189, 193, 
 
 194, 197. 
 
 Miller, S. H., 239. 
 Milne, J., 96, 213. 
 Mirage, 2O2t 266. 
 Moels, 87. * 
 Monadnocks, 147. 
 Monoclinal faults, 66. 
 Monocline, 14. 
 Moraine lakes, 159. 
 Moraines, 292-295, 306, 315, 316. 
 Mortillet, G. de,' 183. 
 Moulins, 290, 303. 
 Mountain-range, 62. 
 Mountains, 55-112. 
 
 of deserts, 254. 
 
 Movements, Effect of, 7. 
 Mud-volcanoes, 229. 
 Murray, Sir J., 345. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nansen, F., 303. 
 
 Needles, 332. 
 
 Neulinge, 260. 
 
 Neve, 281. 
 
 Nimbus, 33. 
 
 Nordenskjold, Baron A. E., 300. 
 
 Nunataks, 305, 306. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oases, 270. 
 
 Obsequent streams, 124. 
 Oceans, 46-54* 32I-35 1 - 
 Oldham, R. D., 180, 185. 
 Osier, A. F., 33, 36. 
 Otley, J., 198. 
 Outcrop, 13. 
 Overfault, 66. 
 Overfold, 66. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pack-ice, 350. 
 
 Pampas, 243. 
 
 Parallel roads of Glen Roy, 162. 
 
 Parasitic cones, 219. 
 
 Passes, 75-77. 
 
 Peat-mosses, 171, 197, 235. 
 
 Penck, A., 173. 
 
 Peneplains, 97, 247. 
 
 Perched blocks, 316. 
 
 Piedmont glaciers, 298, 300, 301. 
 
 Plains, 231-243, 319, 342. 
 
 Planation, 145. 
 
 Planes of lamination, 12. 
 
 Planes of stratification, 12. 
 
 Plateaux, 231, 243-247. 
 
 Polders, 243. 
 
 Ponding, 143, 176. 
 
 Potholes, 1 1 8, 153. 
 
 Powell, J. W., 67, 145, 244. 
 
 Prairies, 243. 
 
 Puffing-holes, 330. 
 
 Puys, 219. 
 
 Pyramidal hills, no. 
 
 Q- 
 
 Quartz-veins, 109. 
 
 R. 
 
 Race, 323. 
 Ramsay, Sir A. C., 115, 176, 183, 
 
 3i3- 
 
 Reclus, E., 236. 
 Reefs, Coral, 344-348- 
 Reid, C., 153. 
 
 Richthofen, Baron von, 210, 264. 
 Rivers, erosion of, 80, 232. 
 
 Deposits, 232. 
 
 River-terraces, 234. 
 
 Roches moutonnees, 312, 313. 
 
 Rock-basins, 181-187. 
 
 Rock-structure, II. 
 
 Influence of, on denudation, 
 
 97- 
 
 Rock-texture, n. 
 Roflas, 172, 314. 
 Ruskin, J., 3, 4, 6, 19. 
 Russell, I. C., 178, 300. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sand-banks, 334, 340, 341. 
 Sand-dunes, 260-264, 270. 
 
INDEX 
 
 367 
 
 Sand-pillars, 266. 
 
 Sand-storms, 266. 
 
 Sandstone hills, 105-107. 
 
 Savannahs, 243. 
 
 Schist-hills, 104, 105. 
 
 Scott, R. H., 33, 34, 45 2 74, 276. 
 
 Screes, 90, 96, 168, 196. 
 
 Scrope, G. P., 182, 204, 211, 212. 
 
 S-curve (of rivers), 131. 
 
 Selvas, 243. 
 
 Septum (of fold), 48, 49. 
 
 Shales, Influence of, 107, 134. 
 
 Sheets (of igneous rock), 100. 
 
 Shores, of lakes, 188, 191-197. 
 
 Sigmoidal folds, 66. 
 
 Sills, 100. 
 
 Sinter-terraces, 228, 229. 
 
 Size, effect of, 3. 
 
 Skertchly, S. B. J., 239. 
 
 Slate-hills, 105. 
 
 Smith, E. A., 177. 
 
 Snow, 275-279. 
 
 Cornices of, 276. 
 
 Red, 309. 
 
 Snowflakes, 273. 
 
 Snow-line, 277. 
 
 Sollas, W. J., 319- 
 
 Spencer,]. W., I79> J 9O. 
 
 Spring, Professor, 200, 201. 
 
 Springs, 73. 
 
 Hot, 226-229. 
 
 Stacks, 332. 
 
 Stalactites, 155. 
 
 Stalagmite, 155. 
 
 Steenstrup, K. J. V., 288. 
 
 Steppes, 264. 
 
 Strahan, A., 119. 
 
 Stratification-planes, 12. 
 
 Stratified rocks, 10. 
 
 Stratus, 33, 35-37- 
 
 Striation (glacial), 311, 3 I2 > 35 1 - 
 
 Subsequent streams, 121. 
 
 Superinduced drainage, 144. 
 
 Swallow-holes, 153, 154, 1 73- 
 Symmetrical mountains, 64. 
 Syncline, 14. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tarai, 243. 
 Tarns, 166. 
 Terraced hills, 103. 
 
 Terraces, River, 234. 
 Texture, Effect of, 7. 
 Thalweg, 126. 
 Thunderstorms, 44. 
 Thrust-faults, 66. 
 Till, 316. 
 Tors, 103. 
 Transportation, 81. 
 Tundras, 243. 
 Turbary, 197, 235. * 
 Tyndall, J., 24, 34, 287, 
 
 U. 
 
 Uinta type, 64. 
 Unconformity, 51. 
 Underground rivers, 152-157. 
 Unsymmetrical mountains, 64. 
 Upheaval, Mountains of, 55, 58- 
 69. 
 
 V. 
 
 Valleys, 113-157. 
 
 Classification of, 113. 
 
 Vallot, J. , 196. 
 
 Vegetation on mountains, in, 
 
 112. 
 
 in lakes, 197, 235. 
 
 on deltas, 238. 
 
 of fens, 240, 241. 
 
 in arctic regions, 243. 
 
 of deserts, 267-270. 
 
 on glaciers, 302, 304, 309. 
 
 on nunataks, 306. 
 
 alpine, 319. 
 
 marine, 349, 350. 
 
 Verglas, 274. 
 Volcanoes, 203-230. 
 
 Mud, 229. 
 
 V-shaped depression, 43. 
 Vulcanicity, Causes of, 203-210. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wadys, 259. 
 Wallace, A. R., 356. 
 Waltershausen, S. von, 218. 
 Walther, J., 253-258, 260. 
 Ward, J. C, 102, 184, 316. 
 Warming, E., 270. 
 
3 68 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Warping, 175. 
 Waterfalls, 147-152. 
 Watersheds, 52, 54, 71-80. 
 Watts, W. W., 169. 
 Waves, 321. 
 
 Erosion by, 324-332, 337. 
 
 Weathering, 81. 
 Weed, W. H., 228. 
 Whirlpools, 323. 
 Whymper, E., 114, 208, 209. 
 
 Wilkes, Lieutenant, 218. 
 Wind, Action of, 93, 182, 219. 
 Wordsworth, W., 3, 5, 6. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xerophilous plants, 268. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zeugen, 256, 257. 
 
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16 
 
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18 
 
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20 
 
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MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 21 
 
 Travel, Adventure and Topography 
 
 SvenHedin. THROUGH ASIA. By 
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MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
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26 
 
 MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 long been a classic with sportsmen, and 
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28 
 
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 33 
 
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 nature, with a most ingeniously con- 
 structed plot. Mr. Hope has drawn the 
 contrasts of his women with marvellous 
 subtlety and delicacy.' Times. 
 THE KING'S MIRROR. Third 
 Edition. 
 
 ' In elegance, delicacy, and tact it ranks 
 with the best of his novels, while in the 
 wide range of its portraiture and the 
 subtilty of its analysis it surpasses all his 
 earlier ventures. ' Spectator. 
 QU ISANTE. Third Edition. 
 ' The book is notable for a very high liter- 
 ary quality, and an impress of power 
 and mastery on every page.' Daily 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Gilbert Parker's Novels 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. each. 
 
 PIERRE AND HIS PEOPLE. 
 
 Fifth Edition. 
 
 1 Stories happily conceived and finely ex- 
 ecuted. There is strength and genius in 
 Mr. Parker's style.' Daily Telegraph. 
 
 MRS. FALCHION. Fourth Edition. 
 ' A splendid study of character.' 
 
 A thenceum, 
 
 THE TRANSLATION OF A 
 
 SAVAGE. 
 
 'The plot is original and one difficult to 
 work out ; but Mr. Parker has done it 
 with great skill and delicacy. ' 
 
 Daily Chronicle. 
 
 THE TRAIL OF THE SWORD. 
 
 Illustrated. Seventh Edition. 
 ' A rousing and dramatic tale. A book like 
 this, in which swords flash, great sur- 
 prises are undertaken, and daring deeds 
 done, in which men and women live and 
 love in the old passionate way, is a joy 
 inexpressible.' Daily Chronicle. 
 
 WHEN VALMOND CAME TO 
 
 PONTIAC: The Story of a Lost 
 
 Napoleon. Fifth Edition. 
 
 1 Here we find romance real, breathing, 
 
 living romance. The character of Val- 
 
 mond is drawn unerringly.' Pall Mall 
 Gazette. 
 
 AN ADVENTURER OF THE 
 NORTH : The Last Adventures of 
 ' Pretty Pierre. ' Second Edition. 
 ' The present book is full of fine and mov- 
 ing stories of the great North, and it 
 will add to Mr. Parker's already high 
 reputation. 'Glasgow Herald. 
 THE SEATS OF THE MIGHTY. 
 Illustrated. Eleventh Edition. 
 Mr. Parker has produced a really fine 
 
 historical novel.' Athenceum, 
 ' A great book.' Black and White. 
 THE BATTLE OF THE STRONG : 
 a Romance of Two Kingdoms. 
 Illustrated. Fourth Edition. 
 ' Nothing more vigorous or more human has 
 come from Mr. Gilbert Parker than this 
 novel. It has all the graphic power of 
 his last book, with truer feeling for the 
 romance, both of human life and wild 
 nature." Literature. 
 THE POMP OF THE LAVILET- 
 
 TES. Second Edition, y. 6d. 
 'Unforced pathos, and a deeper know- 
 ledge of human nature than Mr. Parker 
 has ever displayed before.' Pall Mall 
 Gazette. 
 
34 
 
 MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 S. Baring Gould's Novels 
 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. each. 
 
 ARMINELL. Fifth Edition. 
 
 URITH. Fifth Edition. 
 
 IN THE ROAR OF THE SEA. 
 
 Seventh Edition. 
 MRS. CURGENVEN OF CURGEN- 
 
 VEN. Fourth Edition. 
 CHEAP JACK ZITA. Fourth Edition. 
 THE QUEEN OF LOVE. Fifth 
 
 Edition. 
 MARGERY OF QU ETHER. Third 
 
 Edition. 
 
 JACQUETTA. Third Edition. 
 KITTY ALONE. Fifth Edition. 
 NOI^MI. Illustrated. Fourth Edition. 
 
 THE BROOM-SQUIRE. Illustrated. 
 Fourth Edition. 
 
 THE PENNYCOMEQUICKS 
 Third Edition. 
 
 DARTMOOR IDYLLS. 
 
 GUAVAS THE TINNER. Illus- 
 trated. Second Edition. 
 
 BLADYS. Illustrated. Second Edition. 
 
 DOMITIA. Illustrated. Second Edi- 
 tion. 
 
 PABO THE PRIEST. 
 
 WINEFRED. Illustrated. Second 
 Edition. 
 
 THE FROBISHERS. 
 
 Conan Doyle. ROUND THE RED 
 LAMP. By A. CONAN DOYLE. 
 Seventh Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 'The book is far and away the best view 
 that has been vouchsafed us behind the 
 scenes of the consulting-room.' Illus- 
 trated London News. 
 
 Stanley Weyman. UNDER THE 
 RED ROBE. By STANLEY WEY- 
 MAN, Author of ' A Gentleman of 
 France.' With Illustrations by R. C. 
 WOODVILLE. Sixteenth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 1 Every one who reads books at all must 
 read this thrilling romance, from the 
 first page of which to the last the breath- 
 less reader is haled along. An inspira- 
 tion of manliness and courage.' Daily 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Lucas Malet. THE WAGES OF 
 SIN. By LUCAS MALET. Thir- 
 teenth Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 Lucas Malet. THE CARISSIMA. 
 By LUCAS MALET, Author of ' The 
 Wages of Sin,' etc. Fourth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Lucas Malet. THE GATELESS 
 BARRIER, By LUCAS MALET, 
 Author of 'The Wages of Sin.' 
 Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' The story is told with a sense of style and a 
 dramatic vigour that makes it a pleasure 
 to read. The workmanship arouses en- 
 thusiasm. ' Times. 
 
 W. W. Jacobs. A MASTER OF 
 CRAFT. By W. W. JACOBS, 
 
 Author of ' Many Cargoes. ' Illus- 
 trated. Fourth Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 1 Can be unreservedly recommended to all 
 who have not lost their appetite for 
 wholesome laughter. ' Spectator. 
 'The best humorous book published for 
 
 many a day.' Black and White. 
 W. W. Jacobs. MANY CARGOES. 
 By W. W. JACOBS. Twenty-fifth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. 
 W.W.Jacobs. SEA URCHINS. By 
 W. W. JACOBS. Crown 8vo. 3*. 6d. 
 EdnaLyaU. DERRICK VAUGHAN, 
 NOVELIST. 42nd thousand. By 
 EDNA LYALL. Crown 8vo. y &d. 
 George Gissing. THE TOWN TRA- 
 VELLER. By GEORGE GISSING, 
 Author of ' Demos,' ' In the Year of 
 Jubilee,' etc. Second Edition. Cr. 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' It is a bright and witty book above all 
 things. Polly Sparkes is a splendid bit 
 of work.' Pall Mall Gazette. 
 ' The spirit of Dickens is in it. ' Bookman. 
 George Gissing. THE CROWN OF 
 LIFE. By GEORGE GISSING, Author 
 of 'Demos,' 'The Town Traveller,' 
 etc. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 Henry James. THE SOFT SIDE. 
 By HENRY JAMES, Author of ' What 
 Maisie Knew.' Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' The amazing cleverness marks the great 
 worker. ' Speaker. 
 
MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 35 
 
 H. James. THE SACRED FOUNT. 
 By HENRY JAMES, Author of ' What 
 Maisie Knew.' Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 " The Sacred Fount" is only for the few, 
 but they will .prize it highly, for it is 
 worthy of its illustrious author.' Pall 
 Mall Gazette. 
 
 S. E. Crockett. LOCHINVAR. By 
 S. R. CROCKETT, Author of 'The 
 Raiders, 1 etc. Illustrated. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 1 Full of gallantry and pathos, of the clash 
 of arms, and brightened by episodes 
 of humour and love.' Westminster 
 Gazette. 
 
 S. R. Crockett. THE STANDARD 
 BEARER. By S. R. CROCKETT. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 'A delightful tale.' Speaker. 
 ' Mr. Crockett at his best.' Literature. 
 Arthur Morrison. TALES OF 
 MEAN STREETS. By ARTHUR 
 MORRISON. Fifth Edition. Cr. 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Told with consummate art and extra- 
 ordinary detail. In the true humanity 
 of the book lies its justification, the 
 permanence of its interest, and its in- 
 dubitable triumph.' Athenceum. 
 'A great book. The author's method is 
 amazingly effective, and produces a 
 thrilling sense of reality. The writer 
 lays upon us a master hand. The book 
 is s_imply appalling and irresistible in 
 its interest. It is humorous also ; with- 
 out humour it would not make the mark 
 it is certain to make.' World. 
 
 Arthur Morrison. A CHILD OF 
 THE JAGO. By ARTHUR MORRI- 
 SON. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 1 The book is a masterpiece.' Pall Mall 
 
 Gazette. 
 
 ' Told with great vigour and powerful sim- 
 plicity.' Athenceum. 
 
 Arthur Morrison. TO LONDON 
 
 TOWN. By ARTHUR MORRISON, 
 
 Author of 'Tales of Mean Streets,' 
 
 etc. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 1 We have idyllic pictures, woodland scenes 
 
 full of tenderness and grace. . . . This 
 
 is the new Mr. Arthur Morrison gracious 
 
 and tender, sympathetic and human.' 
 
 Daily Telegraph. 
 
 Arthur Morrison. CUNNING 
 MURRELL. By ARTHUR MOR- 
 RISON, Author of 'A Child of the 
 Jago,' etc. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 'The plot hangs admirably. The dialogue 
 
 is perfect.' Daily Mail. 
 'Admirable. . . . Delightful humorous 
 
 relief ... a most artistic and satis- 
 factory achievement.' Spectator. 
 
 MaxPemberton. THE FOOTSTEPS 
 OF A THRONE. By MAX PEM- 
 BERTON. Illustrated. Second Edi- 
 tion. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' A story of pure adventure, with a sensa- 
 tion on every page.' Daily Mail. 
 
 M. Sutherland. ONE HOUR AND 
 
 THE NEXT. By THE DUCHESS 
 
 OF SUTHERLAND. Third Edition, 
 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 'Passionate, vivid, dramatic.' Literature. 
 
 Mrs. Clifford. A FLASH OF 
 SUMMER. By Mrs. W. K. CLIF- 
 FORD, Author of 'Aunt Anne,' etc. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' The story is a very beautiful one, exquis- 
 itely told.' Speaker. 
 
 Emily Lawless. HURRISH. By the 
 Honble. EMILY LAWLESS, Author of 
 'MaelchOj'etc. Fifth Edition. Cr. 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Emily Lawless. MAELCHO : a Six- 
 teenth Century Romance. By the 
 Honble. EMILY LAWLESS. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' A really great book." Spectator. 
 
 Emily Lawless. TRAITS AND 
 CONFIDENCES. By the Honble. 
 EMILY LAWLESS. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Eden Phillpotts. LYING P R O- 
 PHETS. By EDEN PHILLPOTTS. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Eden Phillpotts. CHILDREN OF 
 THE MIST. By EDEN PHILLPOTTS. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Eden Phillpotts. THE HUMAN 
 BOY. By EDEN PHILLPOTTS, Author 
 of 'Children of the Mist. 1 With a 
 Frontispiece. Fourth Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' Mr. Phillpotts knows exactly what school- 
 boys do, and can lay bare their inmost 
 thoughts; likewise he shows an all-per- 
 vading sense of humour.' Academy. 
 
 Eden Phillpotts. SONS OF THE 
 MORNING. By EDEN PHILL- 
 POTTS, Author of 'The Children of 
 the Mist." Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 6s. 
 'A book of strange power and fascination.' 
 
 Morning Post. 
 ' Inimitable humour.' Daily Graphic, 
 
MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 Jane Barlow. A CREEL OF IRISH 
 STORIES. By JANE BARLOW, 
 Author of 'Irish Idylls.' Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' Vivid and singularly real.' Scotsman. 
 
 Jane Barlow. FROM THE EAST 
 UNTO THE WEST. By JANE 
 BARLOW. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 J. H. Findlater. THE GREEN 
 GRAVES OF BALGOWRIE. By 
 JANE H. FINDLATER. Fourth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' A powerful and vivid story." Standard. 
 1 A beautiful story, sad and strange as truth 
 
 itself.' Vanity Fair. 
 'A singularly original, clever, and beautiful 
 
 story. ' Guardian. 
 1 Reveals to us a new writer of undoubted 
 
 faculty and reserve force.' Spectator. 
 , affecting, 
 
 and 
 
 'An exquisite idyll, delicate, 
 beautiful.' Black and White. 
 
 J. H. Findlater. A DAUGHTER 
 OF STRIFE. By JANE H. FIND- 
 LATER. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 J. H. Findlater. RACHEL. By 
 JANE H. FINDLATER. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 1 A not unworthy successor to " The Green 
 Graves of Balgowrie." ' Critic. 
 
 J. H. and Mary Findlater. TALES 
 THAT ARE TOLD. By JANE H. 
 FINDLATER, and MARY FINDLATER. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 'Delightful and graceful stories for which 
 we have the warmest welcome.' 
 Literature. 
 
 Mary Findlater. A NARROW WAY. 
 
 By MARY FINDLATER, Author of 
 
 'Over the Hills.' Third Edition. 
 
 Crown Bvo. 6s. 
 
 ' A wholesome, thoughtful, and interesting 
 
 novel." Morning' Post. 
 ' Singularly pleasant, full of quiet humour 
 and tender sympathy. ' Manchester 
 Guardian. 
 
 Mary Findlater. OVER THE 
 
 HILLS. By MARY FINDLATER. 
 
 Second Edition. Cr. 8vc. 6s. 
 
 ' A strong and wise book of deep insight and 
 
 unflinching truth.' Birmingham Post. 
 
 Mary Findlater. BETTY MUS- 
 
 GRAVE. By MARY FINDLATER. 
 
 Second Edition. Crown 8va. 6s. 
 
 ' Handled with dignity and delicacy. . . . 
 
 A most touching story.' Spectator. 
 
 Alfred Ollivant. OWD BOB, THE 
 
 GREY DOG OF KENMUIR. By 
 
 ALFRED OLLIVANT. Fourth Edition. 
 
 Cr. &vo. 6s. 
 
 'Weird, thrilling, strikingly graphic.' 
 
 Punch. 
 
 1 We admire this book. . . . It is one to read 
 with admiration and to praise with en- 
 thusiasm. ' Bookman. 
 
 ' It is a fine, open-air, blood-stirring book, 
 to be enjoyed by every man and woman 
 to whom a dog is dear.' Literature. 
 
 B. M. Croker. PEGGY OF THE 
 BARTONS. By B. M. CROKER, 
 Author of 'Diana Barrington. ' 
 Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' Mrs. Croker excels in the admirably simple, 
 easy, and direct flow of her narrative, the 
 briskness of her dialogue, and the geni- 
 ality of her portraiture." Spectator. 
 
 B. M. Croker. A STATE SECRET. 
 By B. M. CROKER, Author of ' Peggy 
 of the Bartons, ' etc. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 ' Full of humour, and always fresh and 
 
 pleasing. ' Daily Express. 
 ' Ingenious, humorous, pretty, pathetic.' 
 
 World. 
 
 H. G. Wells. THE STOLEN BA- 
 CILLUS, and other Stories. By 
 H. G. WELLS. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' The impressions of a very striking imagina- 
 tion.' Saturday Review. 
 
 H. G. Wells. THE PLATTNER 
 STORY AND OTHERS. By H, G. 
 WELLS. Second Edition. Cr. 8vo. 
 6s. 
 
 ' Weird and mysterious, they seem to hold 
 the reader as by a magic spell. 1 Scots- 
 man. 
 
 Sara Jeannette Duncan. A VOYAGE 
 OF CONSOLATION. By SARA 
 JEANNETTE DUNCAN, Author of ' An 
 American Girl in London.' Illus- 
 trated. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 ' The dialogue is full of wit.' Globe. 
 
 Sara Jeannette Duncan. THE PATH 
 OF A STAR. By SARA JEANNETTE 
 DUNCAN, Author of ' A Voyage of 
 Consolation.' Illustrated. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 C. F. Keary. THE JOURNALIST. 
 By C. F. KEARY. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 
MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 37 
 
 W. E. Norris. MATTHEW AUSTIN. 
 By W. E. NORRIS, Author of ' Made- 
 moiselle de Mersac,' etc. Fourth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' An intellectually satisfactory and morally 
 bracing novel.' Daily Telegraph. 
 
 W.E. Norris. HIS GRACE. ByW. E. 
 
 NORRIS. Third Edition. Cr. 8vo. 
 
 6s. 
 W. E. Norris. THE DESPOTIC 
 
 LADY AND OTHERS. By W. E. 
 
 NORRIS. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 W. E. Norris. CLARISSA FURIOSA. 
 
 By W. E. NORRIS. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 1 As a story it is admirable, as ajeu d 'esprit 
 it is capital, as a lay sermon studded 
 with gems of wit and wisdom it is a 
 model.' The World. 
 
 W. E. Norris. GILES INGILBY. By 
 W. E. NORRIS. Illustrated. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 1 Interesting, wholesome, and charmingly 
 written. 1 Glasgow Herald. 
 
 W. E. Norris. AN OCTAVE. By 
 W. E. NORRIS. Second Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 W. Clark Russell. MY DANISH 
 SWEETHEART. By W. CLARK 
 RUSSELL. Illustrated. Fourth 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 Robert Barr. IN THE MIDST OF 
 
 ALARMS. By ROBERT BARR. 
 
 Third Edition. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' A book which has abundantly satisfied us 
 
 byits capital humour.' Daily Chronicle. 
 
 Robert Barr. THE MUTABLE 
 MANY. By ROBERT BARR. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' Very much the best novel that Mr. Barr 
 has yet given us. There is much insight 
 in it, and much excellent humour.' 
 Daily Chronicle. 
 
 Robert Barr. THE COUNTESS 
 TEKLA. By ROBERT BARR. Third 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 'Of these mediaeval romances, which are 
 now gaining ground, "The Countess 
 Tekla" is the very best we have seen. 
 The story is written in clear English, 
 and a picturesque, moving style. 1 Pall 
 Mall Gazette. 
 
 Robert Barr. THE STRONG ARM. 
 By ROBERT BARR, Author of 'The 
 Countess Tekla.' Illustrated. Second 
 Edition. 8z/0. 6^. 
 
 C. J. Cutcliffe Hyne. PRINCE 
 RUPERT THE BUCCANEER. 
 By C. J. CUTCLIFFE HYNE, Author 
 of 'Captain Kettle.' With 8 Illus- 
 trations by G. GRENVILLE MANTON. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 A narrative of the romantic adventures of 
 the famous Prince Rupert, and of his 
 exploits in the Spanish Indies after the 
 Cromwellian wars. 
 
 Mrs. Dudeney. THE THIRD 
 FLOOR. By Mrs. DUDENEY, 
 Author of 'Folly Corner.' Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' One of the brightest, wittiest, and most 
 entertaining novels published this 
 spring.' Sketch. 
 
 Andrew Balfour. BY STROKE OF 
 SWORD. By A. BALFOUR. Illus- 
 trated. Fourth Edition. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 ' A recital of thrilling interest, told with 
 unflagging vigour. ' Globe. 
 
 Andrew Balfour. TO ARMS! By 
 ANDREW BALFOUR. Illustrated. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 1 The marvellous perils through which Allan 
 passes are told in powerful and lively 
 fashion. 'Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 Andrew Balfour. VENGEANCE IS 
 MINE. By ANDREW BALFOUR, 
 Author of 'By Stroke of Sword.' 
 Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' A vigorous piece of work, well written, and 
 abounding in stirring incidents." Glas- 
 gow Herald. 
 
 R. Hichens. BYEWAYS. By ROBERT 
 HICHENS. Author of 'Flames,' etc. 
 Second Edition. Cr. 8vo. 6s. 
 1 The work is undeniably that of a man of 
 striking imagination.' Daily News. 
 
 R. Hichens. TONGUES OF 
 CONSCIENCE. By ROBERT 
 HICHENS, Author of 'Flames.' 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' Of a strange, haunting quality. ' Glasgow 
 Herald. 
 
 Stephen Crane. WOUNDS IN 
 THE RAIN. WAR STORIES. By 
 STEPHEN CRANE, Author of ' The 
 Red Badge of Courage.' Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 ' A fascinating volume.' Spectator. 
 
MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 Dorothea Gerard. THE CON- 
 QUEST OF LONDON. By 
 DOROTHEA GERARD, Author of 
 'Lady Baby." Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo. 6s. 
 
 ' Bright and entertaining.' Spectator. 
 1 Highly entertaining and enjoyable.' 
 Scotsman, 
 
 Dorothea Gerard. THE SUPREME 
 CRIME. By DOROTHEA GERARD. 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
 1 One of the very best plots we have met 
 with in recent fiction, and handled with 
 
 that quiet unerring realism which always 
 distinguishes the author's best work.' 
 Academy. 
 
 C. F. Goss. THE REDEMPTION 
 OF DAVID CORSON. By C. F. 
 Goss. Third Edition. Crown %vo. 6s. 
 ' Dramatic instinct and a vigorous imagina- 
 tion mark this soul history of a Quaker 
 mystic. ' A thentzum. 
 1 A really fine book. 1 Public Opinion. 
 'A powerful and original book, and un- 
 usually striking.' Pilot. 
 ' Worthy to stand high in the ranks of 
 modern fiction.' Literature. 
 
 OTHER SIX-SHILLING NOVELS 
 
 Crown 8v0. 
 
 A SECRETARY OF LEGATION. 
 
 By HOPE DAWLISH. 
 THE SALVATION SEEKERS. By 
 
 NOEL AINSLIE. 
 STRANGE HAPPENINGS. By W. 
 
 CLARK RUSSELL and other Authors. 
 THE BLACK WOLF'S BREED. 
 
 By HARRIS DICKSON. Illustrated. 
 
 Second Edition. 
 BELINDA FITZWARREN. By the 
 
 EARL OF IDDESLEIGH. 
 DERWENT'S HORSE. By VICTOR 
 
 ROUSSEAU. 
 ANNE MAULEVERER. By Mrs. 
 
 CAFFYN (Iota). 
 
 SIREN CITY. By BENJAMIN SWIFT. 
 AN ENGLISHMAN. By MARY L. 
 
 PENDERED. 
 THE PLUNDERERS. By MORLEY 
 
 ROBERTS. 
 THE HUMAN INTEREST. By 
 
 VIOLET HUNT. 
 THE KING OF ANDAMAN: A 
 
 Saviour of Society. By J. MAC- 
 
 LAREN COBBAN. 
 
 THE ANGEL OF THE COVE- 
 NANT. By J. MACLAREN COBBAN. 
 IN THE DAY OF ADVERSITY. 
 
 By J. BLOUNDELLE- BURTON. 
 DENOUNCED. By J. BLOUNDELLE- 
 
 BURTON. 
 
 THE CLASH OF ARMS. By J. 
 
 BLOUNDELLE-BURTON. 
 ACROSS THE SALT SEAS. By J. 
 
 BLOUNDELLE-BURTON. 
 
 SERVANTS OF SIN. By J. BLOUN- 
 DELLE-BURTON. 
 PATH AND GOAL. Second Edition. 
 
 By ADA CAMBRIDGE. 
 THE SEEN AND THE UNSEEN. 
 
 By RICHARD MARSH. 
 MARVELS AND MYSTERIES. By 
 
 RICHARD MARSH. 
 ELMSLIE'S DRAG-NET. By E. H. 
 
 STRAIN. 
 A FOREST OFFICER. By Mrs. 
 
 PENNY. 
 THE WHITE HECATOMB. By 
 
 W. C. SCULLY. 
 BETWEEN SUN AND SAND. By 
 
 W. C. SCULLY. 
 SIR ROBERT'S FORTUNE. By 
 
 Mrs. OLIPHANT. 
 THE TWO MARYS. By Mrs. 
 
 OLIPHANT. 
 THE LADY'S WALK. By Mrs. 
 
 OLIPHANT. 
 
 MIRRY-ANN. By NORMA LORIMER. 
 JOSIAH'S WIFE. By NORMA 
 
 LORIMER. 
 
 THE STRONG GOD CIRCUM- 
 STANCE. By HELEN SHIPTON. 
 CHRISTALLA. By ESME STUART. 
 THE DESPATCH RIDER. By 
 
 ERNEST GLANVILLE 
 AN ENEMY TO THE KING. By 
 
 R. N. STEPHENS. 
 A GENTLEMAN PLAYER. By 
 
 R. N. STEPHENS. 
 
MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE 
 
 THE PATHS OF THE PRUDENT. 
 By J. S. FLETCHER. 
 
 THE BUILDERS. By J. S. 
 FLETCHER. 
 
 DANIEL WHYTE. By A. J. DAW- 
 SON. 
 
 THE CAPSINA. By E. F. BENSON. 
 
 DODO : A DETAIL OF THE DAY. 
 By E. F. BENSON. 
 
 THE VINTAGE. By E. F. BENSON. 
 Illustrated by G. P. JACOMB-HOOD. 
 
 ROSE A CHARLITTE. By MAR- 
 SHALL SAUNDERS. 
 
 WILLOW BRAKE. By R. MURRAY 
 
 GlLCHRIST. 
 
 THINGS THAT HAVE HAP- 
 PENED. By DOROTHEA GERARD. 
 
 LONE PINE: A ROMANCE OF 
 MEXICAN LIFE. By R. B. 
 
 TOWNSHEND. 
 
 WILT THOU HAVE THIS 
 
 WOMAN? By J. MACLAREN 
 
 COBBAN. 
 A PASSIONATE PILGRIM. By 
 
 PERCY WHITE. 
 SECRETARY TO BAYNE, M.P. 
 
 By W. PETT RIDGE. 
 ADRIAN ROME. By E. DAWSON 
 
 and A. MOORE. 
 GALLIA. By MENIE MURIEL 
 
 DOWIE. 
 THE CROOK OF THE BOUGH. 
 
 By MENIE MURIEL DOWIE. 
 A BUSINESS IN GREAT WATERS. 
 
 By JULIAN CORBETT. 
 MISS ERIN. By M. E. FRANCIS. 
 ANANIAS. By the Hon. Mrs. ALAN 
 
 BRODRICK. 
 CORRAGEEN IN '98. By Mrs. 
 
 ORPEN. 
 THE PLUNDER PIT. By J. KEIGH- 
 
 LEY SNOWDEN. 
 
 CROSS TRAILS. By VICTOR WAITE. 
 SUCCESSORS TO THE TITLE. 
 
 By Mrs. WALFORD. 
 KIRKHAM'S FLND. By MARY 
 
 GAUNT. 
 
 DEADMAN'S. By MARY GAUNT. 
 CAPTAIN JACOBUS : A ROMANCE 
 
 OF THE ROAD. By L. COPE CORN- 
 FORD. 
 
 SONS OF ADVERSITY. By L. COPE 
 
 CORNFORD. 
 
 THE KING OF ALBERIA. By 
 
 LAURA DAINTREY. 
 THE DAUGHTER OF ALOUETTE. 
 
 By MARY A. OWEN. 
 CHILDREN OF THIS WORLD. 
 
 By ELLEN F. PINSENT. 
 AN ELECTRIC SPARK. By G. 
 
 MANVILLE FENN. 
 UNDER SHADOW OF THE 
 
 MISSION. By L. S. McCHESNEY. 
 THE SPECULATORS. By J. F. 
 
 BREWER. 
 THE SPIRIT OF STORM. By 
 
 RONALD Ross. 
 THE QUEENSBERRY CUP. By 
 
 CLIVE P. WOLLEY. 
 A HOME IN INVERESK. By T. 
 
 L. PATON. 
 MISS ARMSTRONG'S AND 
 
 OTHER CIRCUMSTANCES. By 
 
 JOHN DAVIDSON. 
 DR. CONGALTON'S LEGACY. By 
 
 HENRY JOHNSTON. 
 TIME AND THE WOMAN. By 
 
 RICHARD PRYCE. 
 THIS MAN'S DOMINION. By the 
 
 Author of A High Little World.' 
 DIOGENES OF LONDON. By H. 
 
 B. MARRIOTT WATSON. 
 THE STONE DRAGON. By 
 
 R. MURRAY GILCHRIST. 
 A VICAR'S WIFE. By EVELYN 
 
 DICKINSON. 
 
 ELSA. By E. M'QUEEN GRAY. 
 THE SINGER OF MARLY. By I. 
 
 HOOPER. 
 THE FALL OF THE SPARROW. 
 
 By M. C. BALFOUR. 
 A SERIOUS COMEDY. By HERBERT 
 
 MORRAH. 
 
 THE FAITHFUL CITY. By 
 
 HERBERT MORRAH. 
 IN THE GREAT DEEP. By J. A. 
 
 BARRY. 
 BIJLI, THE DANCER. By JAMES 
 
 BLYTHE PATTON. 
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