GIFT or P'^CFESSOR C.A. KIFDIDI U.S. GIFT OF PfiOFESSas C.A. :(3FJ/0 CONTENTS FAGB, CHAPTER I. Outfit to take abroad 3 CHAPTER II. Boats, Rafts, and Make-shift Floats 91 CHAPTER III. Working in Metals 192 CHAPTER IV. Huts and Houses 268 CHAPTER V. Extempore Bridges and Makeshifts for Crossing Rivers or Ravines . 317 CHAPTER VI. Timber and its Utilisation 355 CHAPTER VII. Sledges and Sledge Travellers 394 CHAPTER Vni. Boots, Shoes, and Sandals 412 CHAPTER IX. Waggons and other Wheeled Vehicles 432 CHAPTER X. Harness and Pack Animals 457 CHAPTER XI. Cattle Marking 47 M21GmS IV Contents. PAGE CHAPTER XII. Hints on Hygeens and Camels 483 CHAPTER XIII. Water, and the Sap of Plants 491 CHAPTER XIV. Camp Cookery 635 CHAPTER XV. Fish and Amphibious Animals 585 CHAPTER XVI. Poisoned Weapons, Akrows, Spears, &c. 61P CHAPTER XVII. Tracking, Hunting, and Trapping 628 CHAPTER XVIII. Palanquins, Stretchers, Ambulances, &c 682 CHAPTER XIX. On Sketching and Painting under the ordinary Difficulties of Travel 716 CHAPTER XX. The Estimation of Distances and Hints on Field Observing CHAPTER XXI. Hints to Explorers on Collecting and Preserving Objects of Natural History 761 CHAPTER XXII. Ropes and Twine 788 CHAPTER XXIII. Bush Veterinary Surgery and Medicine 798 Appendix Index 815 DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. Swinging the Packs of the Nokth Australian Expedition | OVER A Branch of Jasper Creek, Victoria River, 1856 i Camp Scene in Africa To face page 55 Boat Building on the Logier River 125 Sending Line from Wreck to Lee Shore by means of a Kite , . 185 Lead Smelting in the Forest 228 Searching for Gold 251 Indian Lodges 309 The Treatment op Timber by Steam and Saw 376 Sledging o\'er Rough Ice 402 The Wilson Mule Waggon (United States of America) . . . 448 Group of Harness 465 Indian Well 508 Hippopotamus Trap 613 Traps for Small Game 673 Various Modes of Carrying the Sick or Wounded .... 688 SJjitts antr €):p^trutits CAMP LIPE, TRAVEL, AND EXPLORATION. IlSrTRODUOTION. Like two voyagers returned from a long cruise in far-off seas, we throw together our joint gleanings in many lands. These do not consist of jewels, gems, gold, or furs ; no piles of costly merchandise do we lay at the reader's feet as offerings from distant climes, but simply the experiences of two roving Englishmen who have roughed it. By those who have to pass through a campaign, travel wild countries, or explore little known regions, sliiffcs must be made, and expedients of many kinds had recourse to, of which the inexperienced in such matters would but little dream. As necessity is the mother of invention, so is self-reliance the father of its practical application, and it is with a strong desire (by explaining how constantly recurring wants may be overcome, and apparently hopeless difficulties surmounted) to strengthen that quality in those who roam that we write this volume. In our travels and adventures we have not been associated, the paths trodden by us being widely separated. Whilst one was exploring in the wilds of North Australia, the other was dwelling in a canvas-covered hole in the earth before Sebastopol. The scenes change ; Southern and Tropical Africa is visited by the late Australian traveller, whilst the 2 SIn'fff! (Old E.vpedlents of Crimea, with its rugged liills and wild ravines, is exchanged for the jungles of Central India by the other. So the two barques have drifted here and there on the world^s tide, but are anchored side by side, and have compared logs at last; and if amongst the heterogeneous odds and ends therein contained the reader can find the aid he seeks, our shifts and expedients will not have been made in vain. Camp Life, Train/, and E.qjiorafion. CHAPTER I. OUTFIT TO TAKE ABROAD. In dealing with this portion of our subject we can but geueralise, as the destination of the traveller and the objects he has in view will materially modify the nature and extent of his equipment. The military officer who is bound on a long march, through a comparatively wild country, needs a very different outfit from that which a hunter or trader of experience would procure for himself before starting for the home of the elephant and the savage. The man who, with his wife and family, seeks a new home beyond the border line which divides the unreclaimed wilderness from civilised society, needs an infinitely more voluminous store of requisites — not to say comforts — than the small band of hardy explorers or hunter naturalists, who, with horse, mule, pack and rifle, wend their way over prairies and mountains without path, and thread the forests and thickets where no traveller has penetrated. There are other members of the human family who prefer prosecuting their wanderings alone, carry all their worldly possessions with them, and whose equipment is usually of a particularly simple and practical character. The sea, the inland lake, and the rivers flowing through little known regions, each have their explorers, for whose use a variety of contrivances are needed. Some of these are best made at home ; others it will be found most convenient to prepare in the locahties in which their aid are required ; whilst at times adverse circumstances will render it necessary to improvise rough and ready apphances to save life and prolong its duration when saved. We shall therefore endeavour to give such hints and directions as will enable our readers who intend visiting far-off countries . ° Equipmeut to select such matters as may be best purchased to be purchased T^ 1 T T • 1 1 i" Engldiid. before quittmg England, and to avoid encumber- ing themselves with useless impedimenta. As we have first made b2 4 Shifts and Ex/pedients of mention of the military officer about to depart on service, we will suppose that ho is in Loudon, or any other largo town, gathering together his traps for a start. We will then accompany him on his shopping expeditions, and give him a few hints as to what will prove most useful. On matters of uniform we can have nothing to say further than to advise, as we do in every case of purchase, that it bo obtained from some tradesman of well-established reputation. The raiment calculated to meet the requirements of refined society, when the uniform is for the time cast aside, must also bo left to the dictates of the prevailing mode and the good taste of the wearer. Where fashion and the dress regulations of the army end there do wo begin, and as flannel is, perhaps, the most important as an article of under clothing, we will first make a few remarks on shirts of that material, of which plenty should be taken. First, then, have them made to measure from flannel which has been previously well shrunk, of thoroughly good quality, of medium substance, and unobtrusive Shirt makin"- pattern or colour. It will be well to order them of and clotluug. g^tra length, both of sleeve and body, so as to allow for the shrinkage which is certain to take place after a few washings, in spite of all precautions. Two breast pockets should bo made in each. These are very convenient for holding a variety of small matters when no waistcoat is worn. For outer clothing nothing can surpass good heather-coloured tweed, or Waterford frieze, for ordinary wear; jackets of shooting-coat pattern, made with plenty of pockets, formed from much stronger materials than are usually made use of by tailors for that purpose, will be found most useful for knocking about in. One or two pairs of trousers may be strapped up the inside and bottoms of the legs with leather, after the cavalry rough-rider pattern. A pair or two of Oxford cord hunting breeches will also be found useful to wear with long boots, with ankle jacks and gaiters. The waistcoats should be cut rather long, made with four pockets, two breast and two bottom. All these should have flaps or " salt-box " covers to them. Each half of the waistcoat, from about the level of the bottom button and button-hole to where the back is joined in, should bo lined with a strip of leather. A long loose gaberdine of woollen stufl", made to button up the front, and Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 5 secured round tlie waist by a long narrow scarf or " cummerbund," is an immense comfort in camp or quarters, let tlie climate be hot or cold. A good supply of reddish-brown woollen socks should be laid in ; a moderate number of long stockings, of the same material, to wear with the breeches ; and a few dozen pairs of the "heelless cotton'* socks, for use on board ship, or when the weather is hot ; nothing can be more agreeable to wear, except silk, and the cost is a mere trifle when compared to that of other hosiery. White cotton pocket hand- kerchiefs, as a rule, last their owners very much longer than silk, being less tempting to native servants or followers. Braces should be always ordered of the saddler, and made from the material used for the surcingles of racehorses. One pair of these lasts longer than half-a- dozen of the flimsy afiairs usually sold ready made. There are those who dispense with braces, find great relief by the practice, and wear an ordinary waist-belt instead ; but to some persons much discomfort is caused by so doing. A soft felt hat, with a moderately wide brim, is a convenient head dress in most temperate climates. "With the head gear made use of in the tropics and the far north we shall have to speak hereafter. The best gloves for general and moderately rough usage are those sold under the name of driving gloves. They should be obtained of the regular glover, and have buckskin let in between the fingers. A pair of common hedging gloves well repays the trouble of taking, when the brush of the thicket has to be handled and firewood arranged. Take a blue cloth pilot coat, cut long enough to reach just below the knees ; have it lined throughout with woollen material : let the pockets be made extra strong, and order the „ d . li et buttons to be large, of black horn, and sewn and . 1 -I 1 ■. -. -. 1 mi 1 r. 1 ^ india-rubber garments. on with double -waxed thread. The left hand breast pocket should be deep and lined with leather, as it not un- frequently becomes a resting-place for the revolver when you do not wish to make an ostentatious display of it. Get a couple of real Scotch caps, such as the Highland shepherds wear ; nothing can equal them for sleeping in when camping out, and they form a most con- venient head-covering for camp use, or when the sun is not too powerful. Get from some sailors' outfitter a regular seagoing sou'- fi Slii/ls II 11(1 l Boots and shoes, low heels, and broad heel seats ; several pairs of shooting boots of the regular ankle-jack gamekeeper's pattern, tipped at toe and heel. A pair or two of high shoes made from soft undressed russet leather will be found very useful to wear instead of slippers, or for camp use when the ground is dry. A pair of Cording's wading boots will be found invaluable. They occupy little space, are comparatively light, and keep the legs and feet dry and warm when nothing else will. The late Mr. Wheelwright — better known in the sporting and scientific world as the " Old Bush- man " — thus speaks of them in a communication to the Field : " I can add the testimony of five years' experience to all you can say in their favour. For wading, flight shooting, boat fishing or punting, and all winter water work, they are invaluable. They are a little too heavy for a hard day's walking, and soon cut through in the leg or foot among stakes or bushes ; but use them carefully, and they will be found by far the best water boots ever made. They are very warm, stand a long while, are perfectly water-tight to the last, and they have this advan- tage over a leather boot — they want no dressing. Only never keep them near a fire. I lost three or four pairs in the bush by neglecting to draw them ofi' before I lay down for the night before a camp fire. And what is worth all the rest, they never get hard, but are always as easy to draw off and on as a glove." It will be well also to provide two or three pairs of brown leather shooting boots without heels and with single soles, free from nails, and flexible enough to admit of the wearer walking softly and with perfect freedom. Foot gear, adapted to the nature of most countries to which the traveller is likely to proceed, will be fully described when bush shoe- making is under consideration. It will be well also to procure from a saddler a good supply of boot- laces. These should be cut straight and in the way of the gi-aiu of the hide. The white leather used by carters for mending their harness is by far the best for the purpose. Strips of this cut to about the eighth of an inch square, and well greased with mutton suet, are next to 8 Shifts and ExpedientH of indestractiblo, and arc available for all sorts of purposes apart from that of laciug boots or shoes. Slightly burning or roasting the ends in the caudle or fire hardens them sufficiently to pass freely through the lace holes without a tag. Trunks and Boxes. For ordinary travel the solid leather buUock trunks, of regulation size, will be found both convenient and durable. All strap guides, loops, and handles must be riveted as well as sewn to the body of the tru«k. Spare keys should also be fitted to the locks. In countries TWO BOXES ON ENDS OF POLE. where it is customary for baggage to be carried by porters through narrow bush paths, and where destructive insects are numerous, we recommend the use of sheet copper boxes, 16in. long, 12in. wide, and 12iu. deep, made with copper wire strengthening rods, worked in the edges of the plates or sheets. King handles, also of copper, should be fitted to both sides and ends, as iron when wet would corrode the copper. These serve to pass straps, cords, or lashings through. In making these boxes great care should be taken to fit the joints and cover so as to render them rainproof. The insides should bo tinned just as coppersmiths tin cooking pots. The above ilhislratiou will serve to show the manner in which one porter Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 9 carries two of tliese cases, which, to be transported in this way, should not, with their contents, weigh over 201b. each. If one box is carried, as shown in the annexed engraving, from 351b. to 401b. weight may be placed in it. Boxes for Cape waggon travelling should be about 3ft. long by 16in. wide and deep. They are best made of well- seasoned Memel deal, lin. thick, dovetailed and angle plated. Such packing cases as are taken will require lining ; thin sheet lead is convenient for this purpose, as it serves for bullet-making when the boxes are taken on shore. BESTING POLE FOR BURDENS ON TUE ZAMBESI. Shooting Gear. To the traveller whose means of transport confine him to the possession of one gun, we say, without hesitation, purchase a plain, strong, muzzle-loading, double-barrelled smoothbore of 11 or 12 gauge. Length of barrel, 2ft. 6in., weight S^lb. without the ramrod, a front action bar, side locks, and ramrod pipes large enough to carry a rod of extra large size and power. Two pairs of spare nipples, and one pair of fitted main springs, in addition to those in the locks. A bell-metal or iron spherical bullet mould must be selected with the greatest care, as it by no means follows that because the figure 12 or 11 is stamped on it, that, Hke a wadding punch, it is calculated for a gun of the same gauge. Our plan, when about to purchase a new mould, is to form, with beeswax, heated in warm water or before the fire, a ball, and to trim, mould, and finally to roll it on a polished table under the hand, until, when placed on a piece of thin, soft, greased kid, and gently BuUets. 10 Shifts unatTitJ- it is beyond the reach of ordinary instruments. To meet this, Captain C. George, R.N., of the Royal Geographical Society, has invented a very beautiful little instrument, in the form of a double box sextant. 28 Shifts and Expedients of and the object of wMcli is either to take two angles at one observation, by referring two distant objects to a common centre, and completing at once a perfect triangle, or, by the increased power of the instru- ment, to take any required angle that may be too great for those in ordinary use. The instrument is best described as being a special arrangement of two sextants placed one over the other. Each sextant is complete in all its essential details, and, if so required, can be detached and separately used. The " Improved Double Sextant " is capable of being applied to the following uses : — (1.) To the measurement of angles of nearly double the arc which can be measured by the ordinary sextant. (2.) To the simultaneous measurement of two angles. (3.) To laying out a direct line between any two objects, thus acting as a substitute for a Raper's instrument. (4.) To laying out curves for railways, harbour works, &c., &c. (5.) It can be used as an optical square. (G.) It can be used as a dip-sector. (7.) It can be used on shipboard to measure the supplement of the meridian altitude, in cases were the land intervenes between the observer and the direct meridional horizon. (8.) It can be used on shore with the artificial horizon in obtaining altitudes of objects near the zenith. (9.) It is also available as two distinct sextants, one of which can be used in case of the other being damaged, or one can be used by an assistant, and the other retained by the observer. A pocket compass is now made in which the northern half is black with white points, and the southern white with black points ; the advantage of which by night or twilight is obvious. We prefer that the card should travel with the magnet, as all the points then come naturally into position, and the excessive liveliness of the needle which renders a rapid observation so difficult is obviated. We have carried a pocket compass with a swivel ring, so that it could be worn on the left thumb, while we held the note book and kept the right hand free for writing or guiding the horse. It is easier to make pencil notes on Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 29 horseback than in a waggon. For the proper registration of the time and distance travelled, a good well-going hunting watch is necessary ; and if it has a black dial and white figures so much the better. This will serve sufficiently well for taking time in the observation of lunar distances. Unless under very exceptional circumstances it would be useless for an explorer to trouble himself with a chronometer. A good binocular field glass for day and night will be found useful. We give a sketch of a very convenient arrangement made for us by Mr. Casella, in which the roof of the artificial horizon, slung with its point downward in a leather case, with pieces of tin let in to protect the glass from injury, was filled up with a block of light cedar, with hollows Portable observatory. PORTABLE OBSERVATORY. cut in it for the reception of the pocket sextant, iron-stoppered bottle of mercury and funnel cap, prismatic compass, note book with tables of declination cut from Hannay and Dietrichsen's Almanac pasted in it, pencil, skin of chamois leather, and over all the horizon trough. Lieutenant Skead, R.N., who accompanied the expedition to the Zambesi, frequently used it, and called it " a portable observatory." If the traveller intends to be long absent, he should supply himself with the Nautical Almanac for three years in advance, as well as with Norie^s or Raper'a Epitome, or Kerigan's Navigation. In addition to the instruments we have described, triangular compasses axe very useful 30 Shifts and Expedients of for taking the exact relative position of three points, and sliding beam compasses for long distances. Proportional compasses are also very TRIANGULAR BEAM COMPASSES. useful in plotting the result of observations ; we were accustomed to pin down half a dozen sheets over each other on the drawing board, and with a fine needle point prick the course through the whole of them ; then by underlaying them with semi-carbonic paper, and writing the names on the upper sheet with a HHH. pencil, three or even more copies at a time might be obtained, the number, of course, depending much on the thinness of the paper we worked on. (See accom- panying illustration.) Bear in mind that what an explorer wants is the means of approximately laying down his course and distance travelled, and his latitude precisely; the sextant and Measurement of artificial horizon will do the last within a mile, distances. rj^j^^ compass will give the course very nearly if he walks or rides ; no instrument can be perfectly depended on. A pedometer will do for short distances, but when he becomes weary it counts liis feeble steps just as it did his vigorous strides at the beginning, and thus shows more than the truth. If wheel carriages can be used, take a trochiameter, and contrive if possible to have the Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 31 wheel on which it is fixed exactly five yards in circumference ; it saves no end of trouble if there are no odd half inches to calculate. For mapping, do not take a case of instruments unless they are really good; have rather a few good ones wrapped in a chamois skin, a small ivory rule on which the eighths of an inch serve for miles, a pair of good dividing compasses, a good circular protractor transparent marked, from to 360, a small parallel rule, HHH. pencils, a cake of blue for rivers, and carmine for roads, with a couple of sable pencils and a fine incorrodible metallic pen, will enable you to make a very complete and reliable map. In the map room of the Royal Geographical Society a small selection of practical works is kept, a list of which, by the courtesy of Captain C. George, we are enabled to insert here. It is as follows : — The Traveller's Library. Astronomy. Outlines of Astronomy. Sir J. Herschel, Bart. (Longman and Co. 1858.) 11*. Astronomy and General Physics. W. Whewell. (W. Pickering. 1857.) 4s. Illustrated London Astronomy. J. R. Hind. (Ligram and Co. 1853.) Is. Qd. Handbook — Descriptive and Practical Astronomy. G. F. Chambers. (J. Murray. 1861.) 10s. Elements of Plane Astronomy. J. Brinkley, D.D. (Hodges and Smith. 1845.) 6s. Orbs of Heaven; Planetary and Stellar Worlds. O. M. Mitchell. (N. Cooke. 1856.) 2s. M. Navigation. Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Rev. J. Inman. (Rivingtons. 1862.) 6s. 3d. Complete Epitome of Practical Navigation. (J. W. Norie. 1864.) 14s. [N.B. The latest edition should be asked for.] Lunar Time Tables. J. Gordon. (Imray. 1853.) 7s. Handbook for the Stars. H. W. Jeans. (Levey, Robson, and Co. 1848.) 3a. 6d. Mathematics., Trigonometry., and Spherics. Manual of Mathematical Tables. Galbraith and Houghton. (Longman and Co. 1860.) 2s. Mathematical Tracts. G. B. Airy. (J. W. Parker. 1842.) 9s. 6d. Treatise on Practical Mensuration. A. Nesbit. (Longman and Co. 1864.) 5s. id. Practical Litroduction to Spherics and Nautical Astronomy. P. Kelly, LL.D. (Baldwin and Co. 1822.) 7s. Treatise on Trigonometry. G. B. Airy. (Griffin and Co. 1855.) 2s. Sd. For Travellers. What to Observe ; or, Travelling Remembrancer. Col. Jackson. Revised by Dr. Norton Shaw. (Houlston and Wright. 1861.) 9s. 6d. 32 Shifts cmd Expedients of Oeodesy and Surveying, Military, Nautical, and Land Surveying. Treatise on Military Surveying. Lieut. Col. Jackson. (Allen and Co. 18G0.) 12s. Outline of Method of conducting a Trigonometrical Survey. Col. Frome. (Weale. 1862.) lO.v. (jd. Practical Geodesy. J. W. Williams. (Parker and Son. 1835.) Is. M. Trigonometrical Surveying, Levelling, and Engineering. W. Galbraith. (Black- wood and Son. 1842.) 6s. 9J. Engineering Field Notes on Parish and llailway Surveying and Levelling. H. J. Castle. (Simpkin and Co. 1847.) 8s. Practice of Engineering Field Work. W. D. HaskoU. (Atchley and Co. 1858.) 17s. 6f/. Treatise on Nautical Surveyings. Com. Belcher. (Richardson. 1835.) 12s. Weights and Measures. Weights and Measures of All Nations. W. Woolhouse. (Virtue Bros. 1863.) Is. M. Foreign Measures and their English Values. R. C. Carrington. (Potter. 1864.) Construction of Maps. Manual of Map-making. A. Jamieson. (Fullarton. 1846.) 2s. Manual of Topographical Drawing. Lieut. R. Smith. (J. Wiley. 1854.) 5s. Projection of the Sphere. Projection and Calculation of the Sphere, S. M. Saxby. (Longman and Co. 1861.) 4s. M. Use of Instruments. Treatise on Principal Mathematical and Drawing Instruments. F. Willianis. (Weale. 1857.) 3s. 2d. The Sextant and its Applications. Simms. (Troughton and Simms. 1858.) 4s. 6c?. Treatise on Mathematical Instruments. J. Heather. (Virtue Bros. 1863.) Is. Geography. Geography Generalised. R. Sullivan. (Longman and Co. 1863.) 2s. In addition to these, every one ouglit to possess the Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry, which is a series of papers written for the direction of explorers by men of the highest standing in various sciences ; and no better general work can be recommended. Horse Equipment. A good roomy hunting saddle, turned out as only an experienced English maker can, or, at any rate, so far as our experience has gone, ever does, we look on as the very perfection of that on which a horseman should sit ; and we strongly advise every one leaving England for any country in which he has to ride. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 33 to provide himself with at least one. The various saddles used abroad will be described farther on. It will be requisite to have a number of " Ds " fastened on in the most convenient situations for attaching by straps the various matters which it is at times requisite to carry. Two soft leather holsters should be fitted to the front, and a wallet (see engraving), made to rest behind the ojff saddle flap and thigh of the rider, suspended by straps from Ds sewn firmly on for that purpose. At the rear of the saddle should also be attached a double row of Ds for the purpose of securing a sort of leather cover or envelope (see engraving), within which, when on the march, the head and heel ropes, with their pins, are secured. The mode of using these, as well as " knee hal- ters," &c., will be described when treating on that subject. Two "numdahs," or saddle cloths, should accompany the saddle. The best we have seen of late are composed of a thick species of felt; but, during the most rapid and fatiguing forced marches through Central India, at the korth aust. time of the mutiny, we used two of quilted cotton of native manufactm-e, which were put on alternately, one getting dry whilst the other was becoming saturated with perspiration from the horse, and so, by a constant change of these, avoiding one of the worst misfortunes that can befall the horse of the traveller through a wild country, viz., " a sore back." The skin of the klip springer, prepared with the hair on. ILIAN EXPEDITION SADDLE NAMAQUA GUN BUCKET. 34 Shifts and Expedients of forms an admirable numdah. Saddles are greatly protected during rough travel, and their durability much increased, by having cases made for them of soft " russet " leather, or that which is infinitely better, when it can be obtained, " saumber skin/^ We have had covers for all our saddles made of it, to protect the pig skin from the tremendous thorns of tropical forests, as well as the numerous other sources of injury to which saddles are liable. The stirrup-iron should be of large size, so as to admit of the free passage in and out of a thick boot with some mud or clay about it. Two or three pairs of substantial hunting spurs, with wide straps, will be found the most reliable kind of " persuader .'' The most useful bridle we ever had . was of the " shifting bead collar pattern," so constructed that, by unbuckling a pair of side straps, both bits, with the reins attached, came off, leaving a strong head collar, with a chin strap, on which was an iron ring for a coil of rope to be suspended from, as shown in the illustration on page 37. Numerous opinions exist touching " bits," and much diversity of opinion must remain after all the arguments which have from time to time been expended on the subject ; as the temperaments of horses and men vary, and as the peculiar purposes to which the horse, in the number of phases or conditions in which he is called on to minister to the wants and pleasures of his master, are changed, so will some modification of the means used for his control and direction be required. Pall-mall is one place and the forest another ; and it by no means follows, because the equipment one has used with English huntere in an English hunting-field has been found all that could be desired, that native bred or colonial horses, ridden in pursuit of game, require no other. We do not think it would be profitable to the reader to enter here on a description of the bits used by various nations and tribes. We advise as nearly as possible adhering in this, as well as in many other customs, to the mode adopted by the particular race or nation amongst whom the traveller may chance to sojourn. Still, we recommend him to take out from England (besides the bit fitted on the head collar bridle, which may be a plain strong snaflae) two " segun- dras " of medium power. Have no more buckles in either heads or reins than are absolutely needed. Nothing tends to weaken a bridle so Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 35 much, during the exposure consequent on an outdoor life, as the rusting out of buckles and the breaking or pulling through of their tongues — both sources of endless trouble and annoyance. For simple and efficient equipment both for pack and saddle horses we do not know a better model than that adopted by Augustus C, Gregory, Commander of the North Australian Expedition, and now Gold Medallist of the Royal Geographical Society, with whom we had the honour of serving from 1855 to 1857. The pack saddles, elaborately constructed in England, which we took out to him were at once condemned for two reasons ; first, that they were unnecessarily heavy, and next that the points of suspension for the load were so high that the least swaying of the saddle would severely wring the horse's back. The large flaps were saved as a reserve of usefal leather for emergencies, and the thick felt saddle cloths were gladly appropi'iated to their proper use; but the complicated arrangement of wood and u'on, combining the undesirable quahties of weakness, weight, and inconvenience, was left in store to await the sale of surplus equipment on our return. The pack saddle, made under the direction of Mr. Gregory, consisted simply of two boards of Australian cedar, about twenty inches long by seven broad, incHned at such an angle as to sit fairly on the horse's ribs, and at such a distance from each other that the spine should remain uninjured between them. These were connected by two stout bows of iron, l|in. broad by fin. thick, arching well clear of the horse's back, and having on each side hooks firmly riveted into them for the suspension of the bags in which our provisions, &c., were stowed. The crupper was buckled round the aftermost bow, and the straps for the attachment of the breasting, breeching, and girths were screwed on the outside of the cedar planks. We hope the illustration on the next page is sufficiently clear to indicate the position of these without further description ; it will l)e seen that the girths cross each other as they pass under the belly. A pair of pads, sufficiently large to prevent not only the saddle but also the packs chafing the horse, were attached to the boards by thongs passing through holes bored in either end, so that upon occasion we could easily remove them to re-arrange the stuffing, and d2 30 Shifts and Expedients of tio tliom again in tlioir places. One of the tliick felted saddle cloths befoi*o mentioned was invaluable as an additional protection. The form of the bags will also be readily understood by a glance at the frontispiece. They were of stout canvas, as wide as one breadth of the material, and the ends were formed by a pear-shaped piece let in, and strongly roped round the seams ; the loops at the upper part were bound with leather, and iron cringles or grummets were let in, by which to hang them on the hooks. No other fastening was used, so that if a horse fell in the rugged mountain paths, or JUTH AUSTRALIAN EXPEDITION PACKHOKSE EQUIPMENT. in fording a rough and swollen torrent, it was an advantage to him to shake off his bags at once, while we were generally able to fish them up again before even such perishable stores as sugar could be reached by water, through the pack and double bags of canvas in which we kept them. Nothing whatever was allowed to be fastened to the bows above the suspension hooks ; indeed there was a general order that the horse should carry nothing that was not contained in the side bags. The smaller bags for flour, sugar, and other stores, were also the length of one breadth of canvas. One end was formed by a circular piece of canvas about eight inches in diameter, and the other was left to be Camp Life, Travel, and Explwation. 37 closed wlieii they were filled. The inner bag wa3 of plain canvas^ and this was covered by another that had been well saturated with boiled linseed oil ; these held about fifty pounds of flour, &c., and in each flour bag two ^Ib. tins of gunpowder were kept jperfectly secure from fire or water ; we generally ate the flour as fast as we wanted the powder. Each pair of side bags was num- bered, and carefully balanced one against the other, the stowage of each being from seventy to seventy- five pounds, so that the total load of the horse should not much exceed 1601b. All the horses were furnished with a stout headstall and halter, which may be readily understood from the above engraving, and to which, when requisite, the bit and bridle could be buckled by short straps attached to the ring for that purpose. Our riding saddles were provided with stout Ds, the straps of which were not stitched to the leather, but either firmly screwed into the wood, or passed round the frame of the saddle. Three of these in front served to receive the straps for buckling on "the swag," or a couple of stout red or blue blankets, which, with the extra shirt and trowsers serving as a pillow, formed our sole bedding. This was formed into a roll a little more than 3ft. long, and Gin. diameter, and carefully adjusted so as to arch well clear of the horse^s withers. In front of the saddle bar, on the ofi" side, was a stout ring, through which passed the slings of the gun bucket, which was made quite roomy enough to allow a double barrel to be withdrawn or again inserted without trouble, and was kept from collapsing by a ring of iron stitched into its upper edge ; and the tedious process of unbuckling the strap usually passed round and round the grip of the gun stock was obviated by the very simple spring and swivel catch shown in the sketch. It may be mentioned that we found the spring bar a very con- venient arrangement, and only once wo lost a stii-rup leather when a 38 Shi/I. "i and E.cjjedieids of rider had dismounted to allow his horse to descend more easily a difiicult hill; but for such contingencies spare stirrups, &c., had been provided by the commander. Two Ds on either side supported such saddle pouches as were required ; wo preferred the nearly square form shown in the sketch of saddle on page 36, as being more roomy, con- taining in one the quarto sketch book actually in use, and in the other, a store of paper, &c., for further supply. Small loops, the attachment of which is just indicated on the inside of one of these bags, led forward for the girth to pass through and keep the pouches from flapping. Some of us carried a valise, such as is separately represented, and others would make a roll of spare clothing; but it was imperative on all that nothing whatever should be allowed to rest on the horse's spine, but should be padded or otherwise arranged so as to pass clear over it. The hobbles were formed of a band of stout leather, double the required width, turned up and stitched so as to form a flat edge and a round one. In use, the sewn edige was always uppermost, so that the fetlock might not be chafed. They were connected by a short chain, having a swivel in the centre, and a double hook at each end, the hooks having holes pierced in their extremities for the reception of thongs, by which one end of each hobble was moused or secured from falling ofl". The hobbles were carried on the ofl" side of the saddle, behind the pouches ; and were not unfrequently balanced by the pan- nikin and tin quart, so essential to an Australian, that Henry, our commander's brother, declared his conviction that no one could become a successful traveller till he reduced his equipment to a clasp knife and a quart pot. Bells were hung to the headstalls of the horses most apt to stray, but thongs were fastened to the clappers, that they might be tied up during the day's march. Our personal equipment consisted of a brown leather waist-belt, with snake fastening, carrying a small ammunition pouch, a revolver, and a compass ; the naturalist, geologist, botanist, or artist adding to this such instruments as they required. Some few of us favoured braces, but with the majority they were at a discount. A cabbage- tree hat, or one of soft felt, a striped cotton shirt for fine weather, serge for wet, moleskin trowsers, light woollen socks, and ankle boots, completing our general costume. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 39 Some hundred fathoms of small rope formed an essential portion of our equipment, the use of which will be best understood on reference to the frontispiece (which illustrates an expedient strictly within the range of actual travel,, and is here introduced chiefly to show the form of pack-saddle bag which we found convenient, and can, therefore, recommend to intending explorers) . This shift will hereafter be more fully described when we have to treat of those which must be impro- vised by every traveller on such emergencies. An excellent method of carrying the gun on horse or ox back we have seen in common use among the semi-civihsed Hottentots' of Namaqua land; it consists simply of a bag or bucket of tolerably stout leather, large enough to con- tain the stock of the gun butt downward, nearly as far as the lock ; V.MAgUA, WITH GUN, OS RIDIKG OX. it can be fastened to the saddle in exactly the same manner as that in use among us, or it can be fastened to the saddle bar on the near side and thrown over to the off. It is generally made of the softened but untanned leather of the country, and fastened by a thong and noose where we should, for more convenience and neatness, use a buckle. Its merits are that the gun lies easily before the thigh, pointing upward behind the right arm, so that an accidental discharge, if such a thing were possible, could hurt no one ; it is easily removed by shifting the arm within and lifting it from the bag without the trouble of casting off any secondary fastening ; and 40 Shifts and Expedients of above all, it is impossible that oven in tlie roughest riding the charge could bo jerked forward in the barrel to the imminent danger of bursting it, as wo ourselves have witnessed at the first discharge, where the gun has been carried mu55zle downwards. The illustration below :e>auMJ. shows another very convenient form of gun sling, which we have found to answer admirably. When in use, the muzzles of the gun are above the left shoulder, and the stock behind the right thigh. By bring- ing the right hand back the toggle securing the loop round the grip is instantly released, when the gun drops into the right hand, releasing itself from the ring by its own weight, and is ready for instant use. Cutlery. Do not be induced to encumber yourself with one of those ornamented, highly polished, useless abominations popularly known as hunting knives; they are worse than useless, and only serve to exasperate the owner. For general rough and ready work, nothing is better than a strong well-made butcher^s knife. The blade should be continued through the handle, which is formed by pinning two cheeks of hard wood or horn together. The hand grip should be long, and the steel sufficiently soft to bo cut by a common hand saw file; and we strongly recommend our readers to apply the file test to every cutting tool they provide themselves with, as the hard woods of tropical countries cause endless breakages and notchings when highly- tempered instruments are made use of. In the purchase of a pocket knife, choose one that is small enough to bo a constant companion; Cam}) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 41 one, or at most two blades -will be found sufficient for one handle. A very convenient description of knife is to be met with in most hard- ware shops. The handle is straight and flat. A stout stick-cutting blade is at one end of the haft, and a strong scalpel-shaped pen blade at the other. The miniature tool chests sold under the name of pocket knives to emigrants are jacks of all trades in their way, having all sorts of supposed capabilities, associated with a general ten- dency to uselessness. A pair of stout large bowed scissors will be found very useful, as well as a small piece of Turkey or Washita oilstone. This should have a little wooden box with a sHde cover made for it, in order to preserve it from breakage. A few tools, well selected, can scarcely be dispensed with. The following list we can recommend, but our readers must of course be guided as to the number they will take by the purposes of their proposed journey : — Small hand axe, felling axe (American pattern) . Belt tomahawk. Hand saw (medium size). Three chisels (fin., ^in., and jin.), and one cold chisel. Three gouges (of the same sizes as the chisels) . Three gimblets (from ten-penny nail size downwards). Six bradawls (assorted), to fit in one boxwood handle. Six saddler's awls, ditto ditto. Six shoemaker's awls, ditto ditto. One ^in. shell auger (without handle) . One screw driver (^in). One engineer's riveting hammer (^Ib). One pair of carpenter's pincers. One pair of strong pliers (bell-hanger's pattern) . Three hand-saw files (one rat-tail ; one flat ; one half-round) , 42 Shifts and Expedients of Ouo rasp, ono soldering bolt, one pair of tin snips, ingot of solder, a lump of rosin, and small ladle for lead melting. A few nails, screws, pump tacks, and coils of copper and iron wire, will be found useful. Billhook, as in illustration. One or more billhooks will be found of great value when traversing the tangled thickets, for dividing vines, lianas, briars, and entangled branches. We have found the following form of hook extremely powerful, and capable of cutting through most formidable impediments. The following illustration represents the two sides of the hook, which, as will be seen on examination, are not alike. The near side of the blade, or that which would. Billhooks. when the instrument is used by a right-handed man, lay towards the left, is slightly hollowed, and the edge, instead of being- bevelled, remains perfectly flush with it, like the front of a very large gouge. The off-side edge is bevelled, and exactly like that of a chisel. The plate of the blade should be lOin. long, and stouter at the back than most ordinary English billhooks. Instead of terminating in a tang or spill, the metal should be continued throughout the handle as far as the point at which the curved knob at its end is carved out. Handles for these hooks are best made from natural-grown sticks of suitable bend. The wood must be tough, strong, durable, and well seasoned. When nearly finished, a saw Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 43 cut must be made the exact length of the continuation of metal from the blade, and this must be opened and widened with a flat file until the plate fits exactly in it. A strong wide ring must now be driven on at the upper end, and three stout soft iron pins passed through both the wood and iron of the handle, riveting the ends securely in counter- sunk holes prepared for their reception. The handle may now be finished, and made to fit the grip of the hand by the use of the rasp, and some pieces of broken glass as scrapers. The temper of these tools must be regulated by the file test. Leather sheaths should be made for them, with guide straps for the belt to go through. All the small tools can be conveniently packed and carried in a leather or canvas hold-all. This is merely a lone: strip ^ • , , , • 1 . •.-,,. Toolhold-aU. oi either canvas or leather, with longitudinal bands sewn on the inside. The tools are arranged side by side under these, and then rolled up and tied carefully together with a wide tape string. All the edge tools should be tempered or let down to meet the file test, ground and set, before being finally packed. The axe handle should be of well-seasoned hickory, and so made as to admit of being knocked forward through the eye of the blade, and so removed from it, as shown in the illustration of the group of tools on the next page. A grooved strip of wood should be fitted to the edge of the saw, in order to pre- serve the teeth and keep the blade straight. A leather bag may be also made for it with advantage. To those who do not require such tools as we have described, and yet wish to provide themselves with a very few, of small size, we can confidently recommend the following 44 Shifts and Expedients of arrangement. Order from a tin-plate worker a stout, wire-edged tin box, with wire hinges. Let it be 7in. long, rortable tool chest. ^.^^ ^.^^^ ^^^ ^lin. deep. In this, several small files, one or two small chisels, a number of both straight and curved awl blades, a screw driver, hammer head, pliers, a few sail needles, a small hand vice, a watchmaker's drill and bits, a jointed blowpipe, some bits of solder, a little lump of resin, bits of brass and copper wire, some pieces of watchspring for cutting metal, a narrow cold chisel, and several other odds and ends, may be con- veniently stowed away. A watch-spring saw needs no teeth ; it is only requisite to occasionally run the face of a file from end to end, flat on the edge, as if in the act of blunting it, to renew its cutting power. A gun barrel, or a bar of iron the thickness of a walking- stick, can be cut through in an inconceivably short time with one of those little instruments, aided by a little sweet oil. Camp Furniture. The best camp bed we ever possessed was made on the stretcher principle. The side bars were of birch wood, and ferruled in _ , the centre, so as to admit of their being: taken into four Beds. ° lengths. The legs, also of birchwood, shut and opened like two pairs of scissors. The centre piece of the bed was of stout canvas, sewn into pipes at the sides, through which the side bars passed. The head of the bed was formed by fixing Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 45 two uprights in holes made for tliem^ and then fixing a cross bar on their ends to keep them in place. A very thin cocoa-fibro mattress, cocoa-fibre pillow, and three thoroughly good brown blankets, are conveniently "packed in a painted canvas bag, with the framework of the bed. Camp beds, of endless variety, are sold by all outfitters ; but we describe that mentioned above as having stood the test of no ordinary wear and tear most satisfactorily. The various modes by which beds, hammocks, and litters are extemporised by travellers will be fully dealt with when that subject comes under con- sideration. In this section of our work we merely point out that which is best purchased at home, leaving the multiphcation of the various objects, in some measure, to the judgment of the intending traveller. '^> ," V ' ) A hammock is a very luxurious sort of bed, but most people are alarmed by the very elaborate system of clews and rings by which it is suspended, and in very deed, even with the meet Hammock, scrupulous cleanhness, these are apt, in places where vermin abound, to harbour a great many ; but this might be avoided by having the canvas 10ft. or 12ft. long, and gathering it at the ends so as to dispense with clews altogether. It would then have the advantage that, when it could not be sus- pended, it might be folded as a double sheet upon the ground to lay the rest of the bedding on. A hammock can be slung in very unpromising places. We were accustomed to keep two (washed, clews 46 Shifts and E.i-pedients of and all, every fortnight), strotclicd to a bamboo pole, wliicli we slung from the beams overhead. One end mny bo fastened to a tree or to the waggon wheel, and the rope attached to the other may pass over forked sticks sot up as shears, and lead to a tent peg driven firmly into the ground. A sheet may be thrown over the pole or ridge rope, to serve as a tent or curtain. It is a very favourite plan in South Africa to have the blanket covered on both sides with chintz or printed cotton, Wrtippcr, quilted to it. This keeps it clean for a long time, and makes it much more efficient as a coverlet. Most countries have some peculiar wrapper of their own, as the buffalo robe of North America, the opossum rug of Australia, or the Vel Komboars or sheepskin blanket of the Cape colony. We have used as a pillow an inflated swimming belt, but in all cases when india-rubber goods are used, they must be kept from much exposure to the sun, and, above all, from contact with grease. We have had a waterproof overcoat so heated when folded away that we could not again open it ; but one of these lined with calico, and covered with thin non-adhesive stuff, we should think would be useful. The following statement will serve to show approximately the nature and quantity of stores, &c., required for an expedition such as that to which we were attached in Australia : — The Party. — Commander, A. C. Grregory; Assistant, H. C. Gregory; Geologist, J. G. Wilson ; Artist and Storekeeper, T. Baines ; Surgeon and Naturalist, J. E. Elsey ; Botanist, F. Midler ; Collector, Natural History, &c., — Flood ; Overseer, J. Phibbs ; Farrier and Smith ; Harness-maker ; Stockmen, European (9) ; Shepherds, Native (2) — Total, 21. Provisions, 8fc. for 18 mo ?i^/is.— 17,0001b. flour, 50001b. salt pork, 20001b. bacon, 20001b. preserved fresh meat in 61b. tins, 28001b. rice, 25001b. sugar, 4001b. tea, 3501b. tobacco, 3501b. soap, 501b. pepper, 5001b. salt, 100 galls, vinegar, 300 sheep, 2001b. sago, 640 pints peas, 2 cwt. coffee, 5001b. lime juice, 6 galls, lamp oil, lib. cotton wick, 3 cwt. preserved potatoes. Land Conveyance. — 50 horses, 35 pack saddles, 15 riding saddles. Camp Life, Travel, and Eayploration. 47 50 horse blankets, 800 fathoms tether rope l^in. and 2in., 20 horse bells with straps, 100 pair hobbles, 3 light horse drays; 3 sets harness, 3 horses each; 50 spare girths, 50yds. strong girth web, 50 bridles, 10 pair holster bags, 10 pair stirrup leathers, 5 pair stuTup irons, 40 pair canvas pack-saddle bags, 100 straps, 200 buckles, 4 leather water bags, 20 pair spurs, 1501b. leather for repairs, 600 horseshoes and nails, 240 provision bags, 300 yds. canvas, 201b. sewing twine, 100 needles, 6 palms, 24 saddler's awls, 48 balls hemp, ^Ib. bristles, 61b. resin, 61b. beeswax, 12 hanks small cord, 6 currycombs and brushes, 25 tether swivels. Arms and Ammunition. — 16 double guns, 4 rifles, 10 revolvers, 10 pistols, 2001b. gunpowder, 10001b. shot and lead, 30,000 percussion caps, 20 belts and pouches, 15 gun buckets, straps, locks, spare nipples, moulds, punches, 4 ladles, powder flasks, shot pouches, &c., for each gun. Camp Furniture. — 5 tents 8ft. square calico, 150 yds. calico, 12 camp kettles (^ to 3 galls.), 6 doz. pannikins, 4 doz. tin dishes (small), 1 doz. large, 4 doz. knives and forks, 4 doz. iron spoons, 6 frying pans, 6 leather buckets, 6 water kegs (6, 4, and 2 galls.), 6 spades, 4 socket shovels, 4 pickaxes, 2 spring balances (25 and 501b.), 1 steelyard (1501b.), 1 sheep net (150 yds.). Instruments. — 2 sextants (5in. and 6in.), 2 box do., 2 artificial horizons, 101b. mercury in 2 iron bottles, 4 prismatic compasses, 11 pocket compasses, spare cards and glasses for compasses, 3 aneroid barometers, 4 thermometers to 180°, 2 telescopes, 1 duplex watch, 1 lever watch, 1 case drawing instruments ; 2 pocket cases, pillar com- pass, and protractor ; surveying chain and arrows, 2 measuring tapes, 1 drawing board (30 x 40 inches), 2 pocket lenses. Stationery and Nautical Tables. Tools. — 1 portable forge, 1 anvil (i cwt.), 2 hammers and set of tongs, 101b. cast steel, lUb. bUster steel, 1001b. bar and rod iron, 3 smiths' files, 3 large axes (American), 6 small do. ; 1 large tool chest. Clothing. — 120 pair moleskin trowsers, 120 serge shirts, 120 cotton shirts, 60 pair boots, 40 oiled calico capes, 40 hats (Manilla), 40 blankets. Artists' Materials. 48 Sliifts and Expedients of Miscellaneous. — 5 yds. mosquito net, green ; 500 fish-hooks, 25 fisliing-lines, 2 gross matches, 1 gross tobacco-pipes ; 2 strong cases, or instruments, stationery, &c. j 8 doz. pocket-knives, 8 doz. pocket- combs, 20 yds. red serge for presents to blacks, 201b. iron wire, 51b. brass ditto, grindstone and spindle, cofFoe-mill, 3 iron saucepans, 2 iron kettles, 6 galls, linseed oil, 6 pints olive oil, 21b. red lead, 231b. alum, lib. borax. Forage for Horses and Sheep from Moreton Bay to Victoria River, 2200 miles, at 14 i^is:^t CAPE-WAGGON TEN while the mast is used as a ridge pole, and the sail drawn across them ; there is, however, the objection that the blades of the oars if projecting upward will hold wind, and they should therefore bo " feathered '' toward the quarter whence it may be expected to blow; but never forget that the making of a tent is only a secondary and exceptional use for a boat's gear ; if the sail is chafed or cut, its proper usefulness will be much deteriorated; and if the oars arc allowed to sag or bend, by undue strain, they become worse Camj) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 61 than useless. You can no more pull effectively with a warped or twisted oar than you can shoot well with a crooked gun. In a boat voyage on a river, or where you can make fast and shelter your boat at night, if you set up two stanchions three or four feet higher than the gunwale, one at the after and another at the bow thwart, and then make fast a line to the ringbolt in the stern post, and lead it over the stanchions to the other ring in the stem, it will form a ridge rope on which the boat's awning with the yards or stretchers removed may be laid, and the sides sloped down tent fashion to the gunwales, and made fast either to the rowlocks or, still better, to a stout line passed tightly all round the boat outside of and just below the gunwale streak. If you build a hut, and have not time or material to make it weather proof, the tent may with great advantage be pitched as a lining to it, and it is wonderful what effective shelter may be obtained from very imperfect hutting done in this manner. We have frequently heard of officers and men setting up their tents or marquees, then building the framework of their hut over them, covering it roughly, and finishing at their leisure, so that, by the time the tents have been worn out, very efficient thatched houses have taken their places. We should think that a bell tent (such as may be purchased at any town where military stores are kept), cut in half, and supplemented with a couple of squares of canvas, eylet-holed at two inches or more from the edge, so as to lace between the two halves of the bell tent, and used as a double-pole tent, either with a ridge pole or with a rope extended at either end as a stay, would form a very commo- dious habitation, and would be specially useful where the number of occupants is subject to changes. When a tent is to be occupied for any length of time, it will be ad- visable to dig a hole in the earth to pitch it over, doing so not only adds materially to the space inside the tent, but makes it much fittine uu more comfortable to reside in, from the shelter afforded by °^ *^"*'- the sides of the excavation. Many of the huts built by the Russian soldiers in the neighbourhood of Sebastopol were sunk to a very great depth, being in fact merely large holes in the earth with roofs to them. The roofs were of poles thickly laid over with brushwood, and then G2 Shifts and E.i'pedientx of covered witli earth, Hglit was admitted tln-ougli holes in the low fraiiK work of the sides, oiled paper being used as a substitute for glasi About 2ft. Gin. will be found a good depth for the excavation for a ordinary military tent to stand over. In digging it see that the sidt are cut down evenly, and that the bottom is level. If planks can t procured to floor and line it so much the better. Some persons lea\ a round bank of earth in the middle for the pole to rest on, but w much prefer fixing a log of wood, cut from a tree trunk, in the centre ( the floor. The habitation we formed for ourselves in the Crimea, whe encamped before Sebastopol, was thus arranged. We first made a hoi SECTION OF I IMEAN TEXT. in the earth a little less than the diameter of the bottom of the tent, ar of the depth before referred to ; we then made a pit in the cent about 18in. in depth. In this we sank the lower end of a piece old tree trunk, 4ft. long and 7in. in diameter. In its upper surfa we cut with a gouge a cup-hke cavity. We then nailed a spii strapping of forage hoop round a boat mast we were fortuna enough to hunt out at Balaklava ; we then rounded the lower end as to make it loosely fit into the cup on the head of the block. T bell or upper portion of an old tent was then raised on our mast te Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 63 pole, and over it our own new and complete tent, forming so to speak a double roof, liaving- about a couple of inches of space between the two surfaces of canvas. This, by holding a certain portion of air, added in an extraordinary degree to its sheltering properties. We next dug a deep drain completely round the tent, and placed a quantity of broken stones in its bottom. An old wooden packing case was then let in, by digging into one of the sides of the excavation immediately under the doorway. This not 'only answered the purpose of a step to enter by, but formed an excellent storehole for all sorts of stray matters. The pipe from a small Maltese stove was carried out through the earth, and discharged its smoke outside a low wall of rough stones which encircled the tent. We drove two strong posts deeply into the earth beside the door, across their tops we nailed a strong bar, which served to hitch horses to, rest gun against, &c. ; whilst across their lower portions we stretched a piece of forage hoop, edge upwards, to perform the part of a bootscraper. Towards the end of the war we were enabled to procure plank enough to both floor and line the tent throughout, thereby adding much to our comfort. The lining is carried out by placing boards the height of the side banks on their ends, all round the tent, like the staves of a barrel, and then nailing the flooring- boards here and there fast to them. The upper ends are kept in their places by nailing short battens of wood across the joints. The illustration on page 62 is a section of the tent referred to, and shows the mamier in which many of the aiTangements described are made. Many tents we have seen have been dug out to a sufficient depth to admit of a sort of cellar or lower room being formed ; this can only be done at the expense of much trouble and labour. The arauge- ment of the interior of a tent admits of the exercise of a considerable amount of ingenuity. Cart, waggon, or gun wheels are extremely useful, both for forming a secure base for the pole to rest on, and for a table and gun rack. The tent pole, as shown in the engraving on the next page, rests on one wheel, whilst it passes through the centre of the nave of another. The hooks for hanging various objects from are formed by the natural branches of the tree from which the pole has been made. We seldom make use of the ferruled pole furnished with the tent when we have young forest trees at hand ; 64 Shifts and Expedients of in the absence of these, the conventional deal stick servos to fall ])nck on. THE UTILIZATION OF WHEELS. Tent peg. Much of the efficiency of a tent depends on the way in which it is pitched. An experienced hand will so adjust his pegs and lines, that the gale of wind which prostrates the canvas houses of the inex- perienced, passes his harmlessly by. Much has been said and written in praise of iron tent pegs, and, under some circumstances, they may be found highly useful, but there are very serious objections to their use in wild countries. If of sufficient size and length to be efficient, their weight becomes a matter of considerable importance. Their value to natives is so great that to prevent loss by theft is next to impossible ; added to which, it is almost certain that one or two will be left in the ground, every now and then, on striking camp. We therefore prefer wooden pegs, made from some tough sound wood. Burn the points in the fire in order to harden them, and keep a good stock always on hand. The timber of the oriental plane makes excellent tent pegs. A strong and useful form of peg is shown in the annexed illustration. The mallet used for driving the pegs should be made of some heavy and hard wood, such as mimosa or baubul thorn. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 65 The handle should be made larger at one end than the other, so that it may be removed from the head of the mallet, just as the axe handles before described are separated from the blades. It not unfrequently happens, during tropical rains, or in sandy soil, that pegs di'ivcn in the ordinary way will not hold. It then becomes necessary to dig a moderately deep pit at the point at which the peg jsio^es of securing should stand. Bind together a small faggot of *^^* ropes, &c. brushwood, reeds, or weed stalks; fasten a loop of rope or thong to it long enough to come 3in. or 4in. above the level of the pit where the faggot is buried. Place your prepared faggot in the bottom of the pit crosswise, and then well stamp in the earth over it. A bag of sand, a, stone, or a bundle of old hide answers the same MODES OF SECURIXG TENT-POLE AKD ROPES IN LOOSE GROUND. purpose. In rough stormy weather, it is sometimes necessary to hack your pegs ; this is done by driving in an additional one in a line with the first, and then forming a couple of half hitches with the tent rope over its head. It was a common practice in the Crimea to employ an old Russian bayonet in this way, driving it into the earth until the curved neck alone remained above the surface for the hitch to pass round. All tent ropes should be relaxed on the approach of rain, or the tightened cord will, in all probability, draw the pegs, and thus allow the wet canvas to come flapping down about your ears, causing no end of discomfort and confusion. A tent may be securely pitched, even on the sands of the desert, by laying a waggon wheel flat on the G6 tlkifts and Edfedients of ground, fixing tlic pole over the hole through which the axle passes on the head of a plug driven far enough into it to prevent the pole from passing through; secure your ropes to bags of sand buried in the manner before described, and no ordinaiy weather will blow down a tent thus arranged. In selecting a spot on which to pitch your tent much will depend on the period of time you are likely to spend in the locality. The nature of the country through which you are passing will also influence the choice. When travelling onwards, and merely resting for one or two days at a time, a diy, raised, level spot, in the vicinity of wood, grass, and water, may safely be selected. Do not. Selection of ground ^.owever, encamp too dose to water in countries for tent pitching. ^Jiere venomous snakes are met with, as they generally congregate where it is to be found most abundantly. It is not wise, either in Australia or Texas, to encamp beneath certain trees, as the branches at times drop suddenly off and fall with a crash to the earth. In India or Africa we have always sought the friendly shade afforded by some wide-spreading forest giant, as we have never known an instance of " branch-fall '' in those countries. In clearing the ground of stray stones, tufts of weeds, &c., look well about for holes in the earth, and, when any are discovered, stamp suitable stones or pieces of broken wood well into them. Eeptiles of many kinds are not unfrequently found in these underground burrows. We have found a large square of tarpauling invaluable as a tent carpet. When about to set up your tent for a long sojourn additional precautions are requisite. See well to the lay of the land as regards the flood level of the nearest river or lake ; the stray bits of driftwood and weeds washed into the branches of waterside trees will be a useful guide. See that no flags or rushes are growing near your proposed resting-place, as they are certain indications of a boggy soil, unfit for camping on. Choose, if possible, an elevated position, well above the influence of the miasma and night mists of the low grounds and rivers. We have often seen a slightly raised hill standing bare and island-like in a sea of humid vapour. See also that no dry grass is allowed to stand in the vicinity of the camp, lest it should be ignited by a stray spark or a hostile native. Camp Life, Travel, and E.vploration. 67 Umbrella tent. Canvas buckets. but )refer to A stout carriage umbrella, with a curtain of 3ft. 6iu. buttoned or laced round the edge, would make a very convenient shelter for one person. If the curtains were gored so as to give more room below, two persons might sleep under it comfortably. An extra joint would be required to give sufficient length to the handle. A similar frame made proportionately strong, and with a curtain or wall of six or seven feet, might be found useful in cases where the height of a bell-tent or marquee is objectionable. Malacca cane would be a good material for such a frame. We have heard of an adventurous American traveller who had his umbrella tent made of starred and striped material, so that he might be always under the protection of his country^s flag. Stout canvas buckets answer very well to carry water in for almost any distance, and if stiffly roped will retain their form when filled, and collapse when empty ; if a little flour is rubbed into the canvas, it will render them somewhat tighter, and will not materially affect the taste of the water, take the stoutest canvas. Keep it perfectly clean, and trust solely to the natural contraction of the threads when wet, to thicken up and tighten the material so as to render it for all practical pur- poses nearly waterproof. India-rubber bags, especially if carried into a hot sun, and not quite full, always make the water taste badly. When we sei-ved on the North Australian expedition, we always had a canvas bucket hanging in the door- way of the hut, just shaded and exposed to a free current of air. The partial evaporation through its sides kept the water deliciously cool. If the traveller can afford such a luxury, and is likely to have plenty of tent room, and a sufficient train of well ordered and obedient servitors, we should advise him by all means to take plenty of mosquito net, gauze or tarletan, green or blue. This should be suspended around his bed so as to form an inner tent, pervious in every direction to the cooling breeze, but having no aperture whatever by which a single insect could gain admittance. p2 CANVAS BUCKET. Mosquito nets. 68 Shifts and Eitpedients of If tlie nights are cool, so that he can bear plenty of bedclothing, the face alone may be protected by the net ; but if they are likely to be warm, so that he lies with the thinnest possible coverlet, and frequently throws off even that, it must be large enough to inclose the whole bed, and bo tucked in or otherwise secured all round ; in all cases it must be capacious enough to give him plenty of room to sleep, without touching its sides, for if an unfortunate Hmb should by any accident touch the gauze, the infinitesimal tormentors would assuredly not neglect to improve their opportunity. The net may be simply a large square, a portion of the centre may be gathered in the hand, and a cord knotted to it by which to suspend it from above, while the edges are brought round and tucked under the mattrass. If two points of suspension, one near the head and the other at the feet, can be obtained, with a light rod or ridge pole between them, the material may be used to more advantage, and it may, if convenient, be distended by a hoop, square or oblong frame of light canes or twigs, lashed together with a bit of cord. We had one when in India, cut, and stitched into a cone, or crinoline shape, suspended from above, and tucked around under our bedding, and found it exceedingly serviceable — of course, when the real hard work comes on, all these luxuries go to the rear ; but it is wise to enjoy them when you can. In many parts of the world, we might say in all, where flies are found, dense swarms are sure to seek the shelter of the traveller's tent, causing endless annoyance to the inmates by settling on, or buzzing about, their faces, hands, or the work they may be doing — drinking up every drop of moisture from the angles of the eyes, inserting their pro- bosces into any cut or open sore on the hands for the same purpose. Odds and Ends. There are a number of articles which, although not strictly found under cither of the heads we have before dealt with, will be found of verv considerable service in wild countries. A The ditty bag. "^ " diffi/ Ixvj " should be made of some tough strong material, such as fustian, velveteen, or canvas. It should contain a large assortment of needles, especially of the larger and stouter Camp Life, Travel, and E.cploration. 69 sizes ; half-a-dozen medium-sized sail needles, tliree roping needles, two packiug needles, half-a-dozen duck needles, sailmaker's thimble and palm, sail hook, rubber, and piercer; roping, sail, and duck twine. (Learn how to use the palm from a sailor on the voyage.) A dozen skeins of black thread, ditto brown ; one dozen skeins of carpet thi-ead, brown ; six slips of black silk, six white ditto ; six hanks of worsted, the colour of the socks and shirts. All these skeins should be wound off on cards, as endless entanglements follow the attempts made by the inexperienced to use thread from the uncut skein. We also advise winding on cards, as cut thread is not so well ad&pted, from the number of short lengths in it, for splicing broken fishing-rod joints, &c. A few reels of strong white sewing cotton, a little bag of buttons of all sorts, a lump of beeswax, six pieces of strong tape, a packet of pins, a bodkin, and a pair of strong large bowed scissors. A little ingenuity will enable the traveller to perform an endless number of repairs with the contents of a bag thus furnished. The more needles you can take the better, as they are at all times eagerly sought after by natives. A small pair of common bellows can be bought for about a shilling. Do not fail to provide at least one of these useful contrivances. It is perfectly surprising to note the number of valuable ends they serve to answer. Stubborn fires, formed of saturated brushwood and damp moss, are, by their aid, forced into a blaze, when ordinary coaxing and fanning only produced suffocating smoke and grievous loss of temper. The fine sand and almost impal- pable dust which, in some regions, finds its way in some strange manner into your very gun locks is best removed by the aid of your bellows. Laid flat on the knees a capital board for writing, drawing, or the examination of minute objects, is formed. When cutting out leather thongs with the knife, or fashioning raw hide covers for various things, they may be used for a cutting-board. When snatching a hasty meal at the camp fire at early dawn, before starting on the march or hunt, we do not sit on the damp earth, but usually place our bellows on the ground and sit on that. Most of our small job work, such as fileiug, soldering, fish-hook tying, and tackle making, is per- formed on the ever-ready surface of the bellows ; and when small objects 70 Shiftti and Kvpodients of of irou or steel require heating, either to be worked, tempered, or case- hardened, a hole in the ground, a little charcoal and dry cow dung, by the aid of the bellows, enables us to extemporise a small forge. Larger forges will be described when smithes work comes under consideration. Do not on any account be induced to encumber yourself with what is called a " canteen," a contrivance which is in our opinion much hke the mauy-bladed knife we have before referred to. A Canteens. . ,... in-r^ few months smce, when the expedition m search of Dr. Livingstone was about being sent to Lake Nyassa, two contrivances for cooking were brought to the Royal Geographical Society for approval, and of these, were they to be used by a man who would take proper care of them, we could only speak in terms of unqualified praise. But they were declined simply because it would be impossible to teach a native cook how to use them, and it would be easier to give him a fathom of calico to buy half-a-dozen earthen pots, and to buy more when these were broken. It is, no doubt, vastly ingenious to make a pepper dredge fit into a tea-canister which belongs in the teapot, which in turn should go into the saucepan, only unfortunately the class of persons to whom utensils of this kind are usually entrusted in wild countries are slow to appreciate mechanical puzzles, and usually throw the whole lot into the first bag they can get, when the spout of the teapot gets knocked off", and the pepper becomes hopelessly amalgamated with the tea, to the decided detriment of both. Rather provide yourself with a few plain useful articles for table use. In giving a list of these. Table necessaries. we will suppose that one person has to be catered for : a well-made strong quart tin pot, with both hook and handle, is better for making tea in than the conventional teapot j it is also useful for an endless number of other cooking purposes. A knife, fork, and spoon, should be packed in a leather hold-all, like that filled with small tools, which we have ah-eady represented on page 43. The knife and fork should have the steel of their blades carried through the handles in a flat plate, to which the cheeks of the haft are riveted ; those made with tangs arc always shifting round or coming out from being washed iu hot water or placed in the sun ; the spoon should be of iron, table- Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 71 spoon size. We have, on more than one occasion, had to melt lead in ours for bullet making, which could not be done if it had been made of any other metal. Get two small wooden bowls, such as bankers keep gold in, take them to a tin-plate worker's, and have narrow copper hoops let into the wood just below the edges, this prevents splitting. Nothing is equal to these for drinking hot tea out of; metal cups of all sorts scald the lips if the tea is moderately heated, and earthenware vessels are too liable to be broken. A half-pint horn cup will be found very useful, and is next to indestructible. We have one which we extemporised from an old Russian powder horn we picked up in the Redan. This has travelled many thousands of miles with us since its conversion, and is just as capable of containing good liquor as ever. A fryinar-pan is worth anything to a . . -, n , n I ,, ,f ,1 Pots and pans, campaigner ; fish, flesh, or fowl are all equally well cooked in it. Coffee can be roasted, pancakes made, stews prepared, and a whole host of useful ofiices performed. Do not forget your frying- pan. It is a good plan to have a " parasol joint," as it is called, made in the handle close to the pan, this will, by bending the handle a little, admit of its being folded across the pan, and thus more easily stowed away. It may be well to observe, perhaps, that the " parasol joint" is formed by cutting two slots in the divided ends, fitting in a short plate, running two rivet-pins through them, and then sliding a ferrule over the joint, which keeps it stiS". Take two dinner plates of enamelled iron ; these are best kept with the hold-all, in a flat leather pouch with par- titions. A leather loop, or D, at each corner enables you to attach the plate pouch to either your own or the pack saddle. Have a tin canister made; it should be of cylindrical form, and should have a division in the middle, a cover at each end, and be capable of holding 2oz. of gi'ound pepper and 4oz. of fine salt. The most useful kind of cooking pot we know is the common cast- iron crock of Meg Merrilies pattern. Use it with moderate care, and it will last a lifetime. A wooden cover is easily fitted to it in event of the iron pot lid being lost ; and should by any misfortune one of the legs get broken off, and a hole made in the bottom of the crock, a good thick pledget of cotton cloth di'awn through it will stop the leak, and remain unconsumed during the boiling process. Bread, meat, birds, 72 Shifts and Expedients of fish^ vegetables,, or fruit can be baked readily in or under the crock, as will be seen when bush cookery is treated on. It is also useful for a variety of other purposes, as will be seen as the work proceeds — take a crock, therefore, by all means. An all-blaze pan is another most useful utensil. It is thus made : Have two deep copper bowls made of a size sufficient to hold about three pints each. These should each have two lugs or handles riveted to them, and a flange raised round the edges should admit of the mouths of the two bowls fitting closely into each other like a box and its cover. The insides must be tinned in the usual manner, and the handles so adjusted that when the two bowls are joined they are opposite to each other and near enough together to be lashed fast with twine. The formula for pre- paring food by the use of these pans will be given under the head '' Camp Cookery.^-' A leather bucket, such as firemen use, will also be found of great service for an endless number of purposes. We invariably carried, when in Central India, a miniature bucket composed of leather, attached to the pack saddle ; it held a quart, and by the use of twenty yards of ordinary sea-fishing line, which was always coiled away in it, we have often been enabled to obtain water from deep native wells when other travellers not so provided have been des- titute of this priceless treasure. In some portions of the East, the weUs are very deep and narrow, so that, without some such contrivance as the above, it is impossible to reach their contents. When collecting specimens of natural history in Turkey, we were on one occasion in much distress for want of water, and after a long search discovered one of these tantalising excavations. There lay the longed-for fluid, glittering like silver down below, but far too deep to reach without some shift or expedient, so we betook ourselves to the sea beach, which was not far ofi", to see what good fortune would cast in our way. An empty univalve shell, not unlike that of an overgrown whelk, soon rewarded our search ; we fixed a stick across its mouth, dragged forth the trailing vines and creepers from a neighbouring thicket, knotted them together, fastened on our shell in company with a goodly stone to give it weight, lowered away briskly, drew up cautiously, and thus treated the parched palate and di-y tongue to that Camp Life, Travel, and Exjploration. 73 wliich they so much needed. Again and again did our good sea shell travel up and down until, having satisfied the cravings of nature, we resumed our journey; and to the sea shell and vine are we indebted for the design of our miniature bucket and cord which now invariably accompany us on our wanderings. We advise, therefore, that one common fire bucket of leatlicr, and one to contain a quart be provided. Guttapercha buckets are very neat and pleasant to look at, but the sun of the tropics has an awkward habit of causing their bottoms to fall out ; we, on one occasion, saw six rendered perfectly unserviceable in one day from this cause. Get a good stock of leather straps and buckles of different sizes from a saddler, these are useful for a variety of purposes. It will be well also to provide a goodly number of padlocks, of two sizes ; let the largest be " iron rim," say three inches in diameter, and the smaller size of brass, such as are sold at one shilling each — sixpenny ones are useless ; keep one key for each size attached to your watch guard, and carefully lock away all the rest. A butcher's steel, of good quality, is well worth taking. A selection of fishing gear, too, is of the greatest value, of this subject we shall treat at length under the head " Fishing." A corkscrew should be provided, the best pattern we know is that in which the worm fits by a screw into a hollow tube. When requii-ed for use, the tube is passed through a flat ring in other odds the end of the shank, and forms a cross handle ; screws ^ ^ of this kind are conveniently carried in the waistcoat pocket. Tin boxes of wax vesta matches are exceedingly useful; take a good number of these ; get also a tube and cap " strike-a-light" with a chain, striker, bit of agate, and spare cotton cord slow match. Medicine and Dressings for Wounds. On one of Nelson's boat expeditions up a tropical river, the medical chest was unanimously •voted a piece of lumber; but, before the arduous voyage had been completed, the only regret Medical was that sufficient medicine had not been taken. An stores. unmanly fear of fever, or other sickness, would probably aid in bringing it on, but reasonable precaution ought never to be neglected. 71. Shifts and Expedients of Many countries have an unenviable notoriety for the prevalence of peculiar and local diseases : some are perfect hotbeds of fever in various forms; and wounds from gunshot, sharp-edged tools or weapons, bruised and fractured bones, are casualties that may befall the traveller in any country, and therefore a few articles for the dressing of these should certainly find a place among his stores. In case of wounds, cleanliness and repeated washing in cold or tepid water as may be best for the particular case, is the most generally successful treatment, and for this purpose plenty of sponge or flannel should be provided; the sponges should be of moderate size, perfectly clean from grit or bits of shell, close grained, and soft. Flannel is a good substitute ; but if a piece of either is used for washing an unhealthy wound on one person, it should never again be used upon another, as it might convey infection, and, indeed, it would be much safer to destroy it utterly. Lint is, of course, well known to be one of the best coverings for an injured part, and a good supply ought to be taken as, although the underclothing, or sometimes even the bedding, of the party, may supply bandages, very few travellers going on a serious exploration in a wild country would think of taking linen shirts, while sheets would be equally scarce among their bedding. Cambric or lawn handkerchiefs would be good substitutes. Calico, for bandages or rollers, would be more likely to be at hand in some parts of Africa, such as the Portuguese stations on the Zambesi, or at Great Fish Bay, where a wrapper of six feet square forms the dross of the native who borders on the possessions of the white man ; while in Kafirland or Damaraland, where soft untanned leather is the prevailing dress, it would be less certain to form any considerable part of the equipment. Adhesive plasters. — Of these perhaps common diachylon is the best ; but in a hot country, like Africa, we have seen a roll of it soften during the journey, and, in exemplification of its name, sticking so fast tog(>thcr that it looked more like a field marshal's baton than anything else, and the spreading out of it again into a sheet was a hopeless tusk. It would therefore be better to carry the diachylon in a Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 75 gallipot, and spread it wlien required on thin cotton. Isinglass and com-t plaster are useful for keeping clean small hurts — the fluid obtained by boiling tendons in water spread on silk makes a very useful plaster — though, in trifling cases, we are in favour of letting the coagulated blood form the natural covering while the cut heals up beneath it. Cerate, which may, on occasion, be made of beeswax and pure fat or oil, in such proportions as the temperature of the country may require, is very useful, spread on lint or linen, as a cooling ointment for sores that require to be kept soft. Spongio pilene, a material composed of small fragments of sponge, attached to a backing of india-rubber sheeting, will be found valuable in applying hot or cold water to injured surfaces. It can be cut with readiness to any required size or shape. During the Zambesi expedition. Dr. Kii'k was provided with a good store of gutta-percha tissue, in sheets, for the purpose of covering poultices, moist applications, &c. The tissue should be cut much larger than the lint or other material, the moisture of which is to be confined. Other sheets were of various thicknesses, from that of writing paper up to cardboard or millboard, so as to give support, if necessary, as well as covering. He also carried gutta-percha splints for the leg or arm, properly fitted, for inside or outside, right or left ; and cases might occur in which the possession of one of these, at the moment it was required, would be invaluable. They packed very easily one within the other, occupying little more room than so many flat sheets. Millboard in strips, 18in. long and 6in. wide, for leg splints, or 15in. by 4in. for the arm, would stow easily, and by moistening would be easily moulded on the hmb of a healthy person to the shape required. A few bandages, 3in. wide and 6ft. or 8ft. long, should be kept rolled up in the medicine chest ; but if a store of cahco is earned, there is no need to tear off" more till they are wanted. (N.B. They should always be torn — not cut.) It is not to be expected that every traveller should carry or be able to use the formidable array of deadly looking keen-edged knives, of saws, and other instru- ments of torture ; nevcrthelc:?s, it would be prudent that a smidl 70 Shifts and Exjjedientt; of selection slioiild bo taken, and wo extract from a clever little work, " First Help in Accidents/' the following list : — Lint, Small sponge. Suture needles. Compressors, Tourniquet, Lancet, Rollers, Scissors, Dressing forceps. Sticking plaster. Tenaculum, Scalpel. Silk, Small pocket cases containing all the requisite instruments are to be obtained of any surgical instrument maker. Among medicines quinine stands pre-eminent as an effectual, thougli perhaps not always an infallible, febrifuge ; it is, however, so excellent a tonic that its moderate and occasional use may safely be recommended, and we do not know of a better remedy in case of fever. It is best dissolved in wine, if the traveller should be fortunate enough to be able to carry any. It may be given in rum or other spirit, which is more portable and Hkely to be at hand, and which is also useful for preserving insects ; but if a man wants any peace while passing through most wild countries, or is doubtful of his own powers of self-denial, we would recommend him to convert all his wine into a strong solution of quinine before starting, and to do the same with half his rum or spirit of wine, having the rest strongly methylated for use, either in a spirit lamp or preservation of specimens. Let both these be labelled with a death's head and cross bones, such as is used by chemists in the Cape and other countries, where many of the native population cannot read, or do not understand, English, to signify poison. A proportion of wine or spirit may, of course, be reserved for prudent and moderate use, as a glass, or even a bottle judiciously given may go very fur to gain the good will of a native chief, or to induce either the proper servants or occasional assistants of the traveller to work heartily in helping him out of some difficulty. We have generally found a good pannikin of hot coffee accepted readily enough by the people after a long night journey ; but there are times when a fire could not be made, and a drop of spirit, imparting a momentary sensation of warmth, even il It produces no other good effect, has, at least, that of showing that Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 77 their employer cares for them, and does what he can to cheer them after their labour. In most tropical rivers there are extensive deltas, intersected with nethke labyrinths of shallow impracticable channels, alternated with shoals, which the advanced guard of mangroves is just reclaiming from the sea, and where tangled, dank, and unwholesome wildernesses and swamps are formed, there fever, in its most deadly forms, is sure to prevail. The delta of the Zambesi is also a place of danger from this cause ; and persons of a full stout habit are said, and we believe with some reason, to be more liable to fever than others of a spare and meagre build ; indeed, the Portuguese, when they see a well-framed athletic man, in prime condition, enter the river, prophetically mark him as one of the first victims. We have ourselves suffered severely and continuously from this malady, which generally came on with a cold shivering or ague, and was succeeded by the fever, accompanied by intense perspiration, prostration of strength, nausea and inability to eat, or even to retain the necessary medicine or coohng di-ink ; an immoderately exaggerated idea of the length of time ; short uneasy slumbers, disturbed by incongruous dreams — generally of some diffi- culty previously experienced — or total want of sleep, total failure of memory, and in bad cases delirium while awake. When the "Pearl" first entered the Zambesi Dr. Kirk ordered that a glass of spirit with quinine in it should be served to the men every morning ; and we would frequently, as the large doses adminis- tered were intensely bitter, make up the quinine into pills, with choco- late or cocoa paste, or sometimes place the quinine powder diy on the tongue, and then swallow a copious draught of water to wash it down. We give, first. Dr. Livingstone's remedy for fever ; but, useful and efi'ective as it really is, we cannot say, from experience, that it is infallible ; and the fatahty among the gentlemen of the mission proves that we do not, as yet, possess a remedy for the fever that will supply the place of a sufficient and generous diet, total cessation of exposure to the malaria, and removal to a more elevated and healthy country, even though it be but a few hours' journey from the infected district. The doctor's receipt is as follows : — 78 Shifts and E.qjedienfs of "Liny.'iiite, 12tli of September, 1855. " A pill composed of three or four grains of resin of jalap, three or four of calomel, and an equal number of quinine; a drop or two of tincture of cardamoms to dissolve the resin to form the bolus. " I have had a great many cases in hand, and never met with a single case of failure ; it ought not to purge ; the quantity of resin must be regulated to produce only a gentle movement, which, when felt, is accompanied by perspiration and a sound sleep. A check to this perspiration has, in my own experience, given rise to vomiting large quantities of pure blood." In another letter : — " We make a pill of equal parts of resin of jalap, calomel, rhubarb, and quinine ; say for a powerful man eight grains of resin of jalap, eight grains of calomel, four or six grains of rhubarb, and four or six grains of quinine; make the whole into pills with tincture of carda- moms. This relieves the very worst cases in a few hours. " We then give quinine till the system is affected with cinchonism*, the calomel is removed at once from the system, and, curiously enough, decreasing doses serve. In some of us half a grain of the mass produces as much effect as twenty-four grains did at first." A friend in Capetown, who had travelled in the Brazils, gave us the following receipt, used, we believe, by an Italian doctor ; there he tells us it was efficacious, but we have not had opportunity to put it to the test : — " To one bottle of water add 36grs. of sulphate of quinine, 2 tea- spoonfuls of Epsom salts, 34 drops of sulphuric acid, and 40 drops of ether; this mixture is called antiperiodic water; a wine-glassful three times a day as soon as the first symptoms are perceived, and continued for three or four days after recovery. If delirious, an injection of 1 tablespoonful of vinegar to 10 of this water." Warburg's fever drops are well spoken of. Very large doses of quinine are given in India and Africa, sixteen or twenty grains at a time ; and we have frequently taken in powder as much as would lie upon a shilling. Singing in the cai-s. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploratioii. 79 Sometimes violent exertion, producing perspiration and exhaustion, if practised in time, may avert an attack. We liave heard of a doctor visiting a man when the shivering fit was about to come on, who locked the door, mixed two glasses of stiff hot grog, put on the gloves, and engaged his patient in a boxing match, which, at least, for that time averted the fever. We do not give our unqualified recommendation of this treatment ; but we have often found that, during a period of severe and long sustained labour, we have remained in health, but that an attack of fever has accompanied the reaction induced by an intermission of the work. Simple aperients should be taken; we have used Cockle's anti- bilious pills, salts, senna, or jalap; and their opposites in case of diarrhoea. With a little opium and a bit of carpenter's chalk, we have been able to give almost marvellous relief to a poor coloured woman in excruciating agony. Take a good supply of Glilorodyne. Opium both in gum and tincture. A few drops of the latter, placed within the eyelids of those suffering from snow blindness, often prove of the greatest advantage ; chloroform must be used with caution ; still, in cases of great suffer- ing, it is worth while to try it. We have known one " exceedingly severe case of illness in which messengers had to be sent to every white man within 240 miles for medicines, and letters were written on the chance that some passing vessel might take them to a port whence by some other agency a supply of drugs might be forwarded. Emetics, which are commonly sold in doses, white and grey, and of different degrees of strength. Sudorijics — among which we have used Dover's powders as a con- venient form. Eyewashes. — Weak solutions, sulphate of zinc and diacetate of lead, or weak brandy and water, may be used. It may be needful to carry a small quantity of blistering plaster — or rather the materials of which to make it — soft wash-leather, ointment of Spanish fly, &c., or mustard. Tincture of arnica, used in the proportion of one part tincture to eight parts water, is a valuable application for strains or contusions. 80 Shifts and Expedients of Ghjc.erme, or cold cream, may bo used as cooling applications to irritated surfaces. Efft'rvt'xeinq i^owders. — The blue paper contains carbonate of soda, ;30oTS.; tlio white, tartaric acid, 25grs. lib. of carbonate of soda, and IS^oz. of tartaric acid, make 256 powders of each sort; or, Uoz. of carbonate of soda, and 3oz. of tartarised soda, packed in blue, and 7drs. of tartaric acid, in white, will make twelve sets. All salts must be kept in bottles closely stoppered, and only put in paper for immediate use. Antlscorhuiics. — Almost any vegetable ; plenty of sugar ; fresh fruit ; dried tamarinds ; good lime juice, vinegar, or citric acid ; raw potatoes, with the strong earthy taste as fresh as possible ; the pulp of the cream of tartar tree or Baobab in Africa, or of the Gouty-stem {Adansonia Gregorii) in Australia. Dr. Kane, in his Arctic voyages, found fresh raw meat a remedy. It will be well for the traveller to limit his equipment to a few simple and really useful medicines, of which a sufficient supply for the maladies to be expected in the country he is bound for should be taken. A complicated assortment would serve only to confuse him, and it is better even to trust solely to nature than to tamper unskil- fully with dangerous remedies. Poisoning, whether from accident or otherwise, should always be provided for, and it will be well to be supplied with a few Poisons and antidotes. Some poisons are best ejected by vomiting — antidotes. draughts of salt or mustard and warm water, half a wine- glassful of ipecacuanha wine, or a glassful of warm water with twenty or thirty grains of sulphate of zinc. Antimonial preparations, as tartar emetic, are too depressing, and not controllable. In others, the action on the stomach may be diminished by mucilagiuous or oily drinks, as milk, barley water, white of egg, and salad oil. For poisonous acids use no emetics; alkaline remedies are proper. Soda or potash in water, given plentifully; carbonate of magnesia, Dinneford's solution, common whitening, or chalk in water, followed by some mucilaginous fluid, as milk or barley water. Camp Life, Travel, and Eqihrafion. 81 Against alkalies, as potash^ soda, &c,, acids must be iTSod — diluted vinegar, citric or tartaric acid, lemon juice or sour beerj soothing drinks as before, after the poison has been neutralised. For metallic poisons an emetic may generally be tried. For arsenic, avoid emetics. Take a mixture of milk and lime water, or soda water in equal quantities. Light magnesia diffused in water may be taken. Common animal charcoal may be tried. For corrosive sublimate give white of egg and plenty of milk ; if eggs are not at hand, use flour mixed with water. Vorjetahle irritants. — Give an early emetic and demulcent drinks. Narcotic poisons. — Opium. Give an emetic; pour cold water on the head and neck and shoulders ; place mustard poultices on the calves of the legs or feet; give hot strong coffee and free air; keep the patient moving till drowsiness passes off, Prussic acid in small doses. — Give ammonia or strong coffee ; pour cold water on head and chest, rubbing dry with warm towels, and give free air ; in large doses no treatment will avail. Strychnine. — In Australia, South Africa, and some other countries strychnine is extensively used ; and a correspondent thus writes in the Field concerning it : — " It sometimes happens that dogs are poisoned, accidentally or otherwise, by nux-vomica, or its alkaloid. It may not, therefore, be useless to inform the reader what treatment should be adopted in such a case. The poison acts very rapidly, tetanus comes on, and the dog soon dies, exhausted by the violence of the fits. If the poison have only been just taken, and no fits have occurred, the best remedy is tannin, in the form of pounded galls, or the areca-nut powder so much used in kennels. But if the dog be already seized with teta- nus, the only remedy is the permanganate of potash. I have found, in several experiments on animals, that, when once the tetanic spasm has set in, permanganate of potash is the only remedy giving any chance of recoveiy ; if administered in time it is most successful. Condy's fluid, now so much used in the stable and kennel, is the most convenient form for its administration. A wineglassful of Condy's fluid, sb'ghtly diluted, may be given. During the treatment the dog must be kept quiet, and touched as little as possible. This treatment, which has never yet been siiggested (to my knowledge), I beg to offer to 82 Shifts and E.rpedients of those readers wlio may bo iu need of it; but I cannot speak of its effects on the human subject." Alrohol ill r.irrs.-^. — Evacuation of the stomach, followed by hot coffee, external stimulants and friction. S'lfocdti'on III gases, 8fc. — Removal to pure air, cold water on face and chest, artificial inducement of respiration, friction of sm'fi^ce, followed by hot coffee or brandy and water. Animal jyoisons — stings of insects, snake-bites, &c. — If a sting remains in the wound, extract it, and apply a strong wash of ammonia in spirit or water, or, in its absence, warm oil ; if faintness follows, some stimulant, as brandy and water, may be given freely for snake-bites ; in addition to this cauterise the wound with nitric acid or a white-hot iron. The trappers of America place great dependance on strong whisky; if great exertion can be maintained, so as to produce excessive fatigue and perspiration, the system may throw off the poison. In the Cape colony an antidote for snake-bites is sold under the name of Croft's Tincture of Life. This was analysed, when we were in Grahamstown, by the faculty, and the ingredients they found were pronounced good ; but there were others wliich the maker would not reveal. We have seen several testimonials as to its efficacy. The medical men, however, arranged a case somewhat larger than a fifty- likeness carte-de-visite album, containing lancet, ligature, cupping- glass, a bottle of ammonia, lint, and a piece of lunar caustic ; but it was much too large to be carried about by any traveller in expectation of being bitten by a snake. We therefore took a small tin vesta match box, put a lancet, small bottle of ammonia, lunar caustic, in a stoppered bottle, Unt, and ligatare in it, and kept it m the waggon. We are happy to say we never had to put It to the test, for we were never bitten by a serpent. Sometimes a httle judicious humouring of the patient does as much good as medicine. In the Bushman country around Lake Ngami, where the entrails of the Ngwa or poisonous grub are used to give such fatal effect to the insignificHut-looking arrows, a small plant with a yellow star-like ""•vcr, called the Kola-hnrlhrr, is used as an antidote. Fat is also Gamj) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 83 rubbed into the wound and also given internally till tbe effect of the poison is neutralised. The snake-stone of India, if it has any good qualities, seems to owe them entirely to its absorbent properties, and these would be more efficiently performed by scarification and the cupping glass. Ipecacuanha, applied as a poultice, has been by some considered a most valuable antidote to snake-bites. This antidote is equally effective in the stings of scorpions and other venomous reptiles. The fiction of the cup of rhinoceros horn, which caused all poisonous drink to effervesce and bubble over, is so firmly believed, that we have known a Cape trader offer to di'ink any poison we could give him out of such a cup ; but we declined the experiment. A preparation of the guaco plant is highly esteemed on the Spanish main as an antidote against bites of snakes of all kinds. Acetic acid rubbed on the wound caused by the bite of scorpions or centipedes is very efficacious. In the absence of this, chewed tobacco is often made use of; but the natives are of opinion that the scorpion infficting the wound crushed between two stones and laid on the injured part is a certain remedy, and, from what we have been enabled to learn from them on the subject, there seems to be some foundation for the belief. The imaginary ailments of natives are neither few nor far between ; but it is not at all times wise to disregard them. We have known our followers come, night after night, ° ^ Imaguiary with small sicknesses, when we had but a few doses ailments of of fever mixture left, and, by some chance or other, a little currie powder. Now, had we sent away a man with his "httle sickness," he would have been reaUy ill next morning. We therefore looked as wise as possible, felt his pulse, looked at his tongue, read a paragraph or two, and sent him to boil some water and bring it to us; we then carefully measured out a spoonful of currie powder, mixed it, saw him drink it off, and sent him to make himself as warm as he could till next 84 Skiff a and Expedients of Horse Medicines and Farrier^s Stores. If an expedition is about to be undertaken whore the services of many horses or mules are required^ a Hst of medicine stores should be furnished for them, which may bo approximately as follows, the quan- tities being arranged for twenty animals for six months : — Raw linseed oil, 4 galls. Linseed meal, 81b. Olive oil, 2 galls. Compound tincture of myi^rh and Spirits of nitre, ether, 41b. aloes, 21b. Nitrate of potash, 61b. Calomel, loz. Barbadoes aloes, 21b. Nitrate of silver, ^oz. Potassio tartrate of antimony, lib. Sulphate of copper, 21b. Camphor, lib. Alum, 21b. Ginger, in powder, 61b. Sugar of lead, lib. Palm oil, 61b. Sulphate of iron, 21b. Tincture of opium, 41b. Powdered gentian, 41b. Spirits of ammonia, 41b. Prepared chalk, 61b. Spirits of turpentine, 1 gall. Stockholm tar, 101b. Cantharides, in powder, lib. Tow, 61b. Lard, 61b. Old flannel and sheeting for bandages, two or three sponges, a packet of pins, a hank of fine twine, six pieces of coarse tape, a pestle and mortar, set of scales and weights, palate knife, graduated measure, a quire of whitey-brown paper, two pairs of scissors, one straight and the other curved ; a drenching-horn, phleam, lancet (horse size), glyster syringe (quart size), and blood can. Hoof picker, searcher, drawing knife, buffer, pincers, shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, and set of hobbles. The use of these matters will be treated on under the head of " Veterinary Surgery." Lamps, Lights, and Lanterns. About the most simple and effective lamp we have ever seen is that used by the Portuguese at Tette, in their illuminations; it consists of a shallow pan of clay, as big as the palm of the hand, slightly baked, or, perhaps, merely sun- ilrifd— to contain the oil— a spoonful of salt is tied up in a piece Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 85 MAKE-SHIFT L.4 of rag, the ends being left just long enough for a wick, and this cheap and simple arrangement serves all the purposes of out-door illumination. Sticks about three feet high, with their upper ends cleft into three parts, which are kept open by the insertion of a wedge, are planted in lines along the streets, and the lamps supported on these, or ranged along the porticoes or fences of the various houses, burn brightly and steadily for many hours, defying even a tolerably stiff breeze to blow them out. The oil used is that of the ground nut, which, beside being cheap and plen- tiful, is so pure that it may be used for almost any purpose, scarcely an article of food in Tette being prepared without it ; in fact, the nut itself, which may be eaten plain, roasted, treated as a '' confect " in various ways, or infused as a substitute for coffee, contains so much essential oil that it will burn for more than a minute with as bright a flame as a good candle ; when arranged one over the other on a stick or wire they give a good permanent light. It is often necessary, however, for the traveller to supply himself with light when the grease at his command is neither liquid enough to rise through the fibres of a wick, nor hard enough to be moulded into a candle. In this case, the wick should be allowed to rest on and overhang a little the sides of the vessel used as a lamp — a cup of earthenware, a common tin cap box, or even a bit of tin or sheet iron bent up will answer well enough ; the flame soon heats the side suflSciently to melt a portion of the fat, and a constant supply is thus kept up as the wick requires it. Almost anything will serve as a wick — a bit of old rag, or the flax-like fibres of the various plants used as cordage by the natives ; strips of bark beaten to separate the fibres, or even small twigs may be used ; rushes with enough of the outer covering removed to expose 86 Shifts and Expedients of tlie pith, wliilo ou one side a strip of bark is left sufficiently strong to support it, arc also worth looking to in case of need ; but it is best to be provided with a sufficiency of cotton which is cheap, easily carried, and useful for many other purposes. If possible, a good supply of the best sperm candles, or others of material not likely to bo affected by changes of climate, should be carried. On the Australian expedition, we used Price's vegetable wax candles; and some of these — after having twice crossed the line, gone round Aus- tralia and part of the Indian archipelago, and made the circuit of the globe — are now in Kew Museum in as good condition as when they were issued from the factory. The common bull's-eye or police lamp is very useful if only required by one person for a specific purpose, such as reading off a sextant after observation of a star, but it does not diffuse light enough for general purposes. In fact, if wood is plentiful, a roaring fire will give greater facility for reading, writing, or such other occupations as are likely to employ a traveller's evening than anything else. If you want warmth, let your fire be on the ground and sit round it ; if you want light to work by, make it on a slight elevation, say from eighteen inches to two feet high. If you want wood, and your native attendants, when called on, make excuses, or Jem tells Sambo and Sambo tells the old woman to fetch wood for the master, do not put yourself to the trouble of scolding them, but take the wood off their fire and put it on your own, and let them settle whose duty it is to bring more. Experto erode. A horn lantern is good " to keep the light from going out ;" but then, perhaps, the operator may desire that the light should not be so literally "kept in ;" and it is said that a piece of rag dipped in salt and water, and wrapped round a candle, will answer the purpose of preserving it from extinction in windy weather without lessening its illuminating powers. This, however, requires continuous attention, ui order that it may be cut down as the candle burns low. The Ksfiuimaux lamp is a piece of soft stone with a shght groove along the front edge ; in this is laid a wick of moss or other material, and, the heat imparted to the stone being quite sufficient to melt til.' fat laid on it, it is fed with very little trouble. One wlio has made a turnip lantern in his youth will seldom be at a Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 87 loss to extemporise a skelter for his bit of candle, A calabash or gourd, with perforations to allow the passage of the light, covered or not with oiled calico or paper; a worn-out pannikin or preserved meat tin ; the body of a quart bottle, the more transparent the better ; or, what is best of all, one of the oblong tins in which fancy biscuits are generally sold, will answer admirably ; the polished surface of the latter serving also as a powerful reflector. We had one of these slung from the roof of the waggon, the bowl of a broken ladle was secured in the bottom of it, and with a bit of cotton wick and a few pieces of hard fat, a light steady enough to work by was secured for the evening ; the common forecastle lamp used on board our merchant- men is a useful form, and the shadowless railway lamp we found very servicable, as long as the glass could be preserved. We have constructed a very powerful reflecting lamp from a largo sheet of tin, nearly two feet in height, curved round so as to form half a cylinder, six or eight inches in diameter ; about eight inches from its base, we made a shelf to sustain the oil lamp, and a socket to contain the candle if we should be fortunate enough to have one, and behind this we aiTanged a couple of sixpenny trade looking-glasses at an angle of 90° with each other, and by the light thus thrown forward we were able to write or sketch with facility during many hours of the weary night. (See p. 85.) A lamp commonly used in India is a tumbler half full of water with oil on the top, and a wick wrapped round a stone or bit of lead, with its end projecting above the oil ; but it has this disadvantage, that rats may upset the glass while drinking the oil, carry off the burning- wick, and so expose the house to great danger. A float may easily be made of bottle wire and three bits of cork, in which half an -inch of wick is enough to last all night. It is often desirable to make candles, and for this purpose the hard fat and tallow of any animal that may be killed should be preserv^ed, that is, if it can be spared from the no less important purpose of greasing the axles; or beeswax, if it can be obtained, may be used either in combination ^vith it or separately. If you wish to make dip candles, take a sufficient number of strands tAvice the length 3-ou require, twist them slightly and double them, and let the 88 Sliifts and E.vpedlcnfs of parts twist together ; ])ass a small rod tlirougli the " bights " of as many of these wicks as you find convenient, say half a dozen ; take a bucket- ful of hot water, throw the fat or wax in, and it will soon melt and float upon the surface ; let the wicks absorb as much as they will, straighten and let them harden ; then, holding the rod by the end left for that purpose, dip them quickly to their full length, withdi-aw and allow tlieui to cool, and repeat the operation till your candles attain the desired size. If you have fat enough you may have half a dozen or moi'o sets of wicks and can keep on dipping in rotation, thus allowing each plenty of time to cool before its turn comes round again. If you aspire to mould candles, nothing is better for your purpose than a piece off the end of a gun-barrel — and very few African hunters make a journey without shortening some lengthy weapon by eight or ten inches. In this case, pass a small stick an inch or two in length through the bight of the wick, bring the end out through the " mould " and make it fast to another, or pass it through a gun wad or section of a cork, so as to stretch it fairly and evenly in the centre, and stop the lower end ; then pour in the tallow or wax, and, when cool, warm the mould slightly and the candle will draw out. In some countries wood may be found sufficiently resinous to be used as candles, but a supply of sticks cut to a convenient size must be prepared and a rest of some sort contrived so that they may be easily placed in it or withdrawn when nearly burnt out ; the angle they ought to make with the horizon varies with the quality of the wood, if very combustible they may bo set nearly upright, if less so they must be more nearly horizontal. All candles, however, waste rapidly unless screened from the wind, if the traveller can carry a spring burner, this inconvenience is in a great measure obviated ; but often this is impossible, and he must make the best shelter he can with a bit of bent tin, a joint of bamboo, or whatever material may be at hand. If the candles have to be packed in bags where stowage is of importance, and cases must be thrown away, it is best to cut them in two, as the risk of breakage is uiueh reduced by the diminution of their length; in cutting them the knifo should be warmed slightly, as it divides them without chipping off fragments. In lighting the lower half, if you have wax vestas, and Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 89 stick one of tliem in alongside the wick that has been cut^ you avoid the necessity of cutting down the wax to expose the end, and so may save three quarters of an inch of candle. We have seen the Malays, in the Island of Timor, take a soft porous stick, or the pith of a peculiar rush, and then wrap round it a coating; of beeswax, to serve as a torch or candle. ^ ' . . . Torches. The natives of the shores of British Columbia and Vancouver Island use a fish known as the Eulachon, or North- West Capelin, as a source of light. The leaf of the cocoa-nut palm possesses strong illuminating power. The pine knot and birch bark of North America and Canada are extensively used for giving light in deer-hunting, fish-spearing, and on other occasions. The bog deal of Ireland is also used. The Damaras, who have a custom of obtaining their fire only from that kept burning at the hut of their chief, carry with them dry flakes of "Kraal mist^^ or cattle droppings, ignited and held between the forks of a cleft stick ; and the Indian matchlock men carry fire in the same way. The mussalchees or torch-bearers of Central India, who commonly accompany troops during night marches, use long sausage- shaped roUs of cotton cloth; the ends of these they from time to time moisten with oil poured from a vessel carried for the purpose. The hill guides usually employ large splinters cut from the Deodar cedar. In Mexico, the brilliant fire-flies are sometimes caught and used for giving a temporary light : the direction of a letter, or the points of a compass, may be read by them. The sparks from a flint and steel, a bit of quartz, sulphuret of iron or agate, and a pocket knife, will give light enough to read the compass, or to form a night signal. There are many very nice arrangements for the purpose of light giving and cooking, which may be obtained from any military outfitter ; but their chief defect is, that they will only answer their purpose under tolerably convenient cii-cumstances, and become useless when the real hard work of travel begins. Travellers, both on sea and land, often requii-e to cook a small allowance of cofiee or tea when, from severity of weather, scarcity of fuel, or the impossibility of halting long enough, it is 90 Shifts and E.vpedieuis of impossible to kindle a fire iu any of the ordinary methods, and frequently when, from the pitching of a small vessel or the jolting of a waggon, it would be dangerous to use a spirit lamp, an Etna, or an uncovered fire of any kind. Under these circumstances we should think the principle of internal heat, as applied in the llussiau samovar or tea urn, might be successfully adopted. This, with various modifications in outward form, may be described as a small furnace for burning wood or charcoal in that part which serves as the base of the urn, with a funnel or stove pipe, wide at the bottom, but tapering rather sharply upward, leading straight up through the water, and having at top a] telescope joint, by which the funnel can be lengthened and the draught increased when requisite. Our own idea is to have an upright cylinder of copper tinned inside, and from about a couple of inches above the lower part of this an internal cone, like an inverted funnel, exactly fitting the cylinder at its lower edge, and tapering up to a small aperture at top. A double floor would be let into the cylinder about an inch from its base, so that it might be set upon a plank without danger from the fire. The cover would have a central hole for the funnel or smoke pipe to rise through ; a small lip spout would serve to pour off the water, and ring handles, with chains long enough to obviate all danger, would serve to suspend it from the waggon roof, or from the ''""'■"" beams of a small vessel, while others on either side would help to stay and steady it. A broad cap or roof of copper hooked on to links of the chains an inch or two above the end of the smoke pipe would prevent any possible risk from fire reaching any woodwork from which the samovar might be suspended. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 91 OMAPTER II. BOATS, EAFTS, AND IMAKE-SHIFT FLOATS. In traversing wild countries,, or examining their coasts, lakes, or rivers, boats of some kind are indispensably necessary. Tbe traveller may, perhaps, be fortunate enough to possess one or more sound and sea- worthy. More frequently, however, it will be his lot to have either some sun-di"ied leaky craft, crank canoe, or unstable raft, on which to entrust his life and equipment, when his ingenuity and powers of resource must be exercised in order to successfully contend with the various shortcomings and failings he will certainly discover. If a boat be very leaky, and is so rotten as not to be reparable by ordinary means, cover the whole bottom with canvas to above the water line, and paint it, she will then be perfectly tight, and also very much strengthened and protected against external injury. Should the canvas even be left unpainted, it will be found to reduce the leakage very considerably. Turn the boat bottom upwards, take a breadth of canvas stopping Iccoky for each side, or, if one breadth be not wide enough, boats, increase it as much as necessary by stitching on another. Lay one edge of this against the keel, just below the garboard streak ; fasten it with copper tacks, or if with iron pump tacks, dip them previously in thick white paint, varnish or boiled oil, to prevent them rusting the canvas. Wet the canvas, and stretch it tightly, tacking it on the stem and stern post, so as just to cover the insertion of the planking ; then stretch the upper edge to the mould- ing, just below the wash-streak, and nail it on there. It might, if necessary, be carried right up to the gunwale ; but, in this case, it must be defended by a moulding or ribband of plank from chafing against the side of a vessel or pier. In the case of a gig, or long sharp boat, the canvas will give or stretch suflficiently to adapt it to the required form ; Ijut in one with a short bluff bow and stern, it must be 92 Shifts and E.rpcdients of fitted either by neatly folding the parts necessary to bo reduced^ or by cutting and stitching it to the shape required. If a small boat crowded with passengers has to leave a wreck in a heavy sea^ she may be preserved from sinking or overturning by lashing across tho gunwales a couple of oars (cut, if there is time for it, to a suitable length), and fastening to them, outside the boat, Makc-sliift ^^^^ small water-casks or breakers ; these would somewhat outrigger, ixjjpede her progress, but buoyancy and safety, and not swift sailing, are the chief requisites in leaving a wreck. Breakers lashed under the thwarts, or bow and stern sheets, are sometimes used ; but, though they impart buoyancy to a water logged boat, they take up room, and do not give the additional stability which is afforded when they are placed outside. SK.S AS OUTRIGGERS. The cumbrous mass of spars, water-casks, and other stores, which want of stowage under hatches often forces small vessels to carry upon Rafts ^^^^' ™^^ ^^^^^^ ^® converted into a perfectly safe and buoyant raft, ready for instant use on an emergency, by the follo\ving arrangement of the lashings. The spars, amongst which will generally be found one fit to make a topmast, another for a lower yard, and, perhaps, one or two more of cc,ual length, are laid fore and aft on either side the main hatch; the water-ciusks, perhaps half a dozen on each side, are lashed to them; while tho space between is occupied by the long boat, and, perhaps, one or two casks of meat or other stores, the whole being secured Ccmip Life, Travel, and E.i'plorafion. 93 to the deck ; but all this floating power is neitlier connected in itself, nor easily detachable from the sinking vessel. It would not be much more difficult, when securing the row of casks and spars on either side the hatch, to connect all these by short spars lashed across the ends, as shown in the cngi-aving, with a couple more crossing near the bow and stern of the long boat, and bearing others passing fore and aft beneath her bilge, to which she might be secured by lashings perfectly independent of the gripes by which she is fastened to the deck. Indeed, the chief requisite is to keep all the lashings that connect the parts perfectly clear of those which hold the raft to the vessel, so that, in case of need, it could at once be cut clear, and allowed to float bodily off from the sinking hull. We have stated the absolutely necessary points as simply as possible; but many improvements might easily be suggested, such as the four casks, at the ends, being pointed like conical buoys, so as to ofier less resistance to progress through the water ; or that in two or more of the aftermost casks a quantity of salt or preserved meat, biscuit, or groceries should be kept in store for any emergency. The smaller spars, of which there are generally plenty on board, might be crossed upon this framework, so as to make a platform, and a studding-sail spread over woiild prevent small things dropping through, or help to support the crew or passengers. 94 Shifts and Expedients of The boat, however leaky or battered, would always be a place of security aud comparative comfort for the ladies or children, as the power of floatation would be in the spars and casks. We believe the Spaniards always endeavour to secure a boat on any raft they arc obliged to make, using her, no matter how much she may be stove or broken, as a place of rest or refuge for the helpless or the weary. It would be superfluous to give directions for the rigging of a mast or steering apparatus. Seamen in emergencies would improvise these according to the means at hand. Two or three small spars set up as a triangle would carry sail, where, perhaps, a mast could not be stepped ; and the oars of the long boat, assisted by the trimming of such sail as could be set, would be most likely the readiest appliances for steering. Sometimes the '' bridge " of a paddle steamer is made like a caisson, and shipped in grooves, so as to float off should the vessel sink. Small craft trading in the Indian islands, which carry a quantity of bamboo as small spars, are thus provided wdth a natural substitute for life-buoys, and a material for constructing rafts, or rendering boats, though leaky as so many sieves, perfectly unsinkable. Rafts of the large hollow stems of the bamboo are frequently used by fishermen in the Indian archipelago. It may, perhaps, be of Httle use to suggest that before a vessel leaves port attention should be given to the means of saving life should she go down at sea. The possible foundering of a seaworthy vessel is about the last thing a sailor thinks of ; he trusts more to his presence of mind and ready application of the means at hand. Nevertheless, provision against danger would cast no imputation on their manhness. The law compels a proportionate number of boats to the complement of crew or passengers. Some owners provide cork belts or jackets for the men, with mattrasses, pillows, or cushions of cork, for the berths or sofas in the cabin ; and it would bo well if every passenger making a sea voyage were to provide liimself, and each of those depending on him, with a life-belt, either of cork or of inflatable material, and likewise see that these were not stowed away in chests below the hatches, but kept at hand in the berths so as to bo available when wanted ; and also that their use was perfectly understood by thosi> fur whom they were provided. Gamp Life, Tracel, and Ed'jjioraflon. 95 We have seen a waistcoat with inflatable lining carried far into the interior by one of the boldest elephant hunters in South Africa ; and it is stated that, after the sinking of the ill-fatod steamer "Arctic/^ some of the passengers provided with belts floated on the surface of the Atlantic for some days, giving, with a kind of desperate humour, the names of difierent hotels to the piece of floating wreck at which they had " put up last night," or intended to do so for the next. It is a pity that none of the waterproof materials at present in use are comfortable in ordinary wear, so that some common article of dress, as a neck -tie, a belt, or sash, might be made so as to be inflatable when an accident occurs. Of all that we know at present, we should say the most effective, s.imple, and secure from damage, is the ordinary cork jacket, of the pattern supplied by the Life-boat Institution ; it is sufficiently buoyant, does not impede the exertions of the wearer, and cannot be damaged by collision with rocks or other hard objects. Perhaps the circular life-buoy now in common use is as good as any, but it requires some address and strength on the part of the swimmer to s:et it over his head to its proper place beneath his arms ; ^ , ^ ^ t' f Life-buoys. it also lies low on the water when thrown overboard, and if at any distance is not easily seen by the swimmer or by the boat's crew who eventually go to his assistance. In the navy a breaker or small cask is used, with a staff" six or eight feet long passed through it, the lower end projects say three feet, and is loaded with lead ; the upper will stand from four to six feet above the water, carrying a small red flag by day, or a port-fire by night. The slings of the buoy are brought up to the taff'rail and looped over a small pin, which is withdrawn by pulling the trigger of a gun lock, and a quick match led to this at night serves at the same time to ignite the port-fire, so that the swimmer, the boat's crew, and the commander of the vessel, have a conspicuous object to make for and are so prevented from losing each other. In larger vessels, we believe, two breakers are used, connected by saddle-shaped iron bars ; these enable one, or perhaps two men to sit, with their shoulders considerably above the sm-face ; while beckets of rope all round would enable a greater nunibor, say the crew of a Or> SInff./ capsized boat, to support tlicmselvcs with a fail- clianco of safety. The size, however, of a life-buoy must always be Hmited. It is mostly required to save one person who has fallen overboard; and, though perhaps sufficient to support more, it should never be so large as to be dangerous or inconvenient when taken into the boat put out in a heavy and dangerous gale to the rescue. Several fixthoms of small line should bo and often are attached to the buoy, so that if it is let go in time the swimmer may catch it, and be saved without the necessity of lowering a boat. We have seen a " life line" of coir or cocoa-nut fibre, which is very buoyant, success- fully veered away to an overladen and endangered boat at a considerable distance, when a hempen rope, which sinks by its own weight, would have been of no service. Nearly similar in principle to this last-named life-buoy is the cala])ash float, described by Dr. Barth as being used by the natives of CaM ■ 1 fl Central Africa; it is simply a bar or plank of light wood, so laced to the bottom of two large calabashes, that a man sitting on the bar, as he would upon a saddle, will sink about waist deep, and may use his hands to paddle himself across the stream. Our illustration shows how any buoyant article in the traveller's possession might be used in this manner. The boxes shown on I>p. 8 and 9 are designed expressly for such emergencies. Small water ' vatjies," barrels, or tin cans, wooden boxes, even though somewhat Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 97 leaky, wrapped in canvas or two or three thicknesses of calico, which need not be cut, would become sufficiently tight for a short voyage. To make a reed boat, take reeds of any length you wish, a foot or two more than half the length of your boat, lay them lengthwise on level ground, with their small ends toward REED BOAT. the ends of your intended boat, and their butts overlapping each other by a foot or two ; take cord or other material for lashing, and inter- weave it with the reeds till the part in the centre resembles a flat cheese-mat, then bend it round the hoop which you intend for the midship frame. Insert smaller frames toward each end, and finally gather up the ends of the reeds into a point, cover this with some waterproof material, oiled caHco or canvas, &c., or canvas simply pasted with flour and water, and you will have a boat buoyant and more or less durable according to the strength of the material. About 1844 we made such a boat in Cape Town, using what are there called Spanish reeds, which run between 10ft. and 15ft. in length, three quarters or an inch in their greatest diameter, tolerably strong and very buoyant ; these were lashed on wooden barrel hoops with a light deal keel and gunwale, and covered with two thicknesses of oiled calico. There was no leakage, and om* Httle skiff was so light that with the assistance of a friend we easily carried her to and from the house in which she was built. We often ventured beyond the shipping 98 Shifts and Expedients of anchored in Tabic Bay, our guns being Bocured by lanyards to the boat in case of accident. On parts of the Nile where reeds abound, the natives make them up into bundles of perhaps Sin. or lOin. in diameter at the larger end, and tapering almost to nothing at the Reed raft. smaller ; three or four of these are fastened side by side, their points are made to curve up a little, and they form a portable and convenient vessel for crossing the river or conveying small cargoes of grain or other produce to market. The stoutest part of the fan-shaped leaf of the doum palm is used as a paddle. The float is not a heavy load for one man, when carried over- land, and one supported by a forked stick, or three or four with their larger ends set on the ground and the smaller resting against each other, form very good sun-shades, or huts to protect the inmates against more inclement weather. KKF.I) RAFT AS rsEI> OX THE NILE. We have seen very useful and commodious rafts made by cutting very large quantities of marsh reeds, fastening them up roughly in bundles, laying these side by side, and then arranging another layer of bundles across the lower tier. A few vines, or twisted reed bands, servo to keep the l)undles in their places, whilst a thick layer of loose reeds on the top makes a level surface for the traveller and his baggage to rest on. As the lower reeds become saturated with water others can be cut, and add.d to the top. Long river voyages, floating Cam}) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 99 witli the stream, have been accomplished on rafts of this description. Bamboo canes, when they can be obtained in sufficient number, form excellent rafts. They are also extremely valuable as outriggers, and outrigger beams for canoes, adding greatly to their stability. In other parts, where reeds are not so common, floats of wood are used as an assistance to swimmers. When swimming our horses over many of the wide and rapid rivers of Central India, the natives who were employed in guiding the animals, first swam across with them without any artificial assistance, and then returned for others with billets of a peculiarly light wood held between their left arms and sides, under the shoulders ; with these appliances, they floated with extraordinary buoyancy, and made rapid progress across the stream. The inflated skins or intestines of animals, hollow gourds, earthen pots, bladders, or bundles of bark, may be used as aids in crossing rivers where canoes or rafts cannot be constructed. On some of the great Indian rivers, large dish-shaped boats are used for the conveyance of horses or cattle. A boat of this descrip- tion is very quickly made by first forming a basket- 1 T /. 1^11 1 T 1 • Cattle boat. shaped framework of bamboo, here and there mter- woven ; this is securely lashed together with strips of raw hide, twisted cane, or common cord. When completed, the basket, or frame, is turned upside down, on the ground, pegged fast with hooked pegs cut from the branches of the nearest tree, and then covered with raw bullock hides, which are sewn fast to the frame, and to each other, grease being well rubbed into the seams. When complete, the boat is not unlike a common tea-saucer — measures between fourteen and fifteen feet in diameter, and is about two feet eight inches deep; made to these dimensions, the hide boat will safely carry from three to fom' tons of cargo. There is no possibility of upsetting it. When horses or bullocks have to bo conveyed in contrivances of this kind, it will be necessary to lay branches of trees, and a good layer of reeds, or sedge grass, on the bottoms, in order to prevent the animals from thrusting their hoofs through the hides. The water-draught of hide boats is surprisingly slight, from five to eight inches being sufficient to float one with a full load on board. H 2 100 Skiff »• and Expedients of Long-handlecl sliovel-sliaped paddles are used to propel them with, and a store of raw hide, and some tallow, and an eyed awl, or large needle, for patching, enables the boat voyager to execute with expedition all the repairs his leather craft may need. All hide-covered boats, or floats, should be occasionally placed bottom upwards, on shore, to dry, in order to render the skins more durable. The coracle, so much used by Welsh fishermen, is made much after the same fashion. A smooth level piece of turf being chosen, the frame-sticks, just such as coopers use for making into Coracle. . .,,..„ hoops, are bent and mterwoven until the requisite form of the frame has been arrived at, the bottom being upwards. The edge, which afterwards becomes the gunwale, is formed by making a border of hazel-wand basket-work, the ends of the frame-sticks are trimmed off even with this, and a covering of Russia duck, or light canvas, is neatly sewn over all. The coracle is then paid over with tar, or some other water-proofing material; one thwart, or seat, is secured from each end to the framework, holes are made in this for a leather strap to pass through, which enables the fisherman to carry his coracle on his back. A single- bladcd paddle, like a baker's oven pile, is used to paddle with. Some considerable practice is needed to enable a new hand to conduct, or, as it is called, drive a coracle — not a little caution is required in both getting in or out. It is best, if possible, to depart from some shallow sand-spit, or gravel bed, where the coracle may bo shoved off into deeper water, after the tyro has taken his seat, and established the proper balance. In landing, it will be well to observe the same caution until practice and experience give the confidence and dexterity which they alone can confer. There is a peculiar stroke of the paddle much used in coracle driving, to which the canoe man seldom has recourse. This is gained by turning the left arm round the handle of the paddle, until the hand is a short distance above the blade, and the shaft rests against the shoulder. The paddle blade is then worked in a figure-of-eight direction. The size of skin or canvas-covered boats will usually be deter- mnu'd by the available amount of skin or covering material. Any waggon ox requires 8ft. of room to work in, and his skin would i Ga7)ip Life, Travel, and Exploration. 101 Skin boat. give a square of leather of very little over 6ft. ; the African buffalo would be about the same, the eland somewhat larger, the black or brindled gnoo^ the koodoo^ and some of the larger ante- lopes, rather less. Suppose you have two ox skins ; cut them straight across where the neck is at its widest, and let the natives or waggon-drivers stitch them together with strong sinews or thongs of hide, using a round awl or piercer, to make a round hole that will close again, and not a sharp-edged one that will cut the hide and so leave holes that will afterwards become leaks. The sheet should be kept damp, not wet, by spreading ox-dung or damp earth upon it till the frame is ready. Suppose it now to be 12ft. long and Gft. wide ; you may make your boat of from oft. to 4ft. in width, and 10ft. /:^^m. wide, and three with the spare piece mentioned above for the stringers and ribbands, while the Hin. plank, by careful adaptation of the requisite curves, would cut for the four stems and stern posts. Or equal to G deals, say 2 galls, boiled linseed oil, in tin cans of 1 gall, each 4 galls, raw linseed oil, in tin cans of 1 gall, each 281b. white lead, in iron kegs of 71b. each 1411). rod ditto ditto ditto (The cans and kegs will be useful as cooking or water vessels when emptied.) S(»lb. resin 27 12 18 S 4 12 16 14 7 10 Gamp Life, Travel, and E.qjJoratum. MS £ *'. d. 6 paint-bruslies and tools assorted ... ... ... ... GO Tinsmitli^s small shears or snips ... ... ... ... 46 Engineer's hammer ... ... ... ... ... ... 4G 6 punches^ from ^in. to |in. ... ... ... ... ... 90 2 screw-drivers, large and small ... ... ... ... 36 2 screw-wrenches ... ... ... ... ... ... 90 1 ^in. auger ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 1 bi'ace, and set of bits, including rymers, countersinks, and bits for metal 31b. brass screws, assorted, up to 3in. ... ... ... 9 3 pieces unbleached calico, double width, for lug sails, awning, &c. 12 copper or composition cringles, small sizes, for sails and"^ J various purposes Manilla rope, 10 fathoms, 3in., for mooring ... Ditto 50 fathoms, l^in. }-2 00 Ditto 50 fathoms, lin., for running gear, &c. }= If the boat be built of iron the same size — Forty sheets of plain iron, 2ft. by 6ft., at 4. sun.!' r-^_^- property belonging to mer- ^^^^|\^^^&^^^^^i^ chants and travellers. When '^^%^^^S^^^^^^^^^ any person of rank or wealth ^^ jil^i^ descends the river in this inflated floats. fashion, small huts are constructed on the raft, by covering a common wooden ^Hakht,^' or bedstead of the country, with a hood formed of reeds and lined with felt. In these huts the travellers live and sleep during the journey. The poorer passengers seek shade or warmth by burying themselves amongst bales of goods and other merchandise, and sit patiently, almost in one position, until they reach their destination. They carry with them a small earthen " mangal,^^ or chafing-dish, containing a charcoal fire, which serves to light their pipes and to cook their coffee and food. The only real danger to be apprehended on the river is from the Arabs, who, when the country is in a disturbed state, invariably attack and pillage the rafts. " The raftmen guide their rude vessels by long oars — straight poles, at the end of which a few split canes are fastened by a piece of twine. They skilfully avoid the rapids, and, seated on the bales of goods, work continually, even in the hottest sun. They will seldom travel after dark before reaching Tekrit, on account of the rocks and shoals which abound in the upper part of the river; but when they have passed that place they resign themselves, night and day, to the sluggish stream. During the floods in the spring, or after violent rains, small rafts may float from Mosul to Baghdad in about eighty -four hours ; but the large rafts are generally six or seven days in performing the 154 Shifts and Expedients of voyage. In summer, and wlien the river is low, they are frequently nearly a month in reaching their destination. When the rafts have been unloaded, they are broken up, and the beams, wood, and twigs are sold at a considerable profit, forming one of the principal branches of trade between Mosul and Baghdad. The skins are washed and after- wards rubbed with a preparation of pounded pomegranate skins, to keep them from cracking and rotting. They are then brought back, either upon the shoulders of the raftmen or upon donkeys, to Mosul or Tekrit, where the men engaged in navigation of the Tigris usually reside." In one of the sculptures thus brought to our own country by the energetic traveller, an army is represented crossing a river, and the soldiers are supported each by an inflated goatskin held under the chest, while one of the legs being led upwards to the swimmer's mouth enables % him to keep it distended, should any air - ' " ""~^ escape. In making these bags, the only sewing necessary is at the aperture through which the animal is skinned ; the neck, cut close to the head, may be tightly bound up with a thong, and an over-hand knot cast in the three legs ; the fourth being left with a tube for re-inflation. Sir Samuel Baker says, when speaking of crossing the Atbara River, " I had eight inflated skins attached to the bedstead, on which I lashed our large circular sponging bath, 3ft. Sin. in diameter. This was perfectly safe for my wife, and dry for the baggage j the water- tight iron box that contained the gunpowder was towed as a pinnace behind the raft. Four hippopotamus hunters harnessed themselves as tug steamers, and there were relays of swimmers. The raft answered well, and would support about 3001b. ; the sponging bath would carry 1901b. Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of the United States service, is the American portable inventor of a very useful form of portable boat. It was used in several expeditions, in Oregon and VVashnigton territory, with much advantage. It is thus described :— " It consists of an exceedingly light framework of thin and narrow boards, in lengths suitable for packing, connected by hinges, the different sections folding into so small a compass as to be conveniently Gamjp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 155 carried upon mules. The frame is covered with a sheet of stout cotton canvas or duck^ secured to the gunwales with a cord running diagonally back, and put through eyelet holes in the upper edge. When first placed in the water_, the boat leaks a httle, but the canvas soon swells, so as to make it sufiiciently tight for all practical purposes. The great advantage to be derived from the use of this boat is, that it is so compact and portable as to be admirably adapted to the require- ments of campaigning in a country where the streams are hable to rise above a fordable depth, and where the allowance of transportation is small. It may be put together or taken apart and packed in a very few minutes, and one mule sufl&ces to transport a boat, with all its appurtenances, capable of sustaining ten men. Should the canvas become torn, it is easily repaired by putting on a patch, and it does not rot or crack, like india-rubber or gutta-percha ; moreover it is not affected by changes of climate or temperature," 7:.A?-'nV COLLAPSIBLE LOaT. We have not seen Colonel Buchanan's boat, but we remember one perhaps not very dissimilar, it was, in fact, a collapsible boat — the gun- wales, the keel, and all the intermediate pieces being Collapsible exactly alike, and made of fin. plank from 4in. to 6in. ^^**- wide ; these were hinged together at the two ends, just as are the frames of the oval reticules, and covered with stout canvas ; the thwarts have hinges below the centre, from which also the third board, serving as a stanchion, reaches downward to rest upon the keel. There is a ring- bolt near the centre of each of the midship thwarts, and when the boat 156 Shifts and Expedients of is hoisted out of tlio water by tackles at either end, a couple of small lines from these rings jerk up the centre of the thwarts and allow the gunwales and all the corresponding boards on either side to fall down beside the keel, as shown in the upper figure of our illustration (p. 155) . There are also ring-bolts to the gunwales, and a couple of lines from these are held fast while the boat is lowered ; the gunwales rise, and a man sitting upon the thwarts presses them into their place and the boat assumes its proper shape : of course the segments of plank below the gunwales have to be cut a little shorter at each end as they come nearer to the keel, or the boat would not shut up on its hinges. A boat 4ft. wide would collapse into a width of not more than 1ft. Such a frame could be readily taken to pieces by withdrawing the bolts of the hinges, and if each piece, supposing the boat to be 4ft. wide and 16ft. long were hinged in its centre, it would not be much too long to carry on a mule, except the country were more than ordi- narily diflScult, when it might be hinged in three lengths. At the meeting of the British Association, in Birmingham, we saw some model boats of good form, but with very little projection of keel or stem or stern post, so that one might be fitted into the other without rising more than a few inches above the gunwale of the first; the thwarts of the lower one are stowed between the two very conveniently, and three or four may be thus packed, the uppermost, however, retaining all her fittings in readiness for immediate use. The aborigines of many countries make use of the bark of certain trees for the purpose of canoe building. The most important of these is the canoe birch {Betula papyracea) ; its range may be estimated at 37° north to 43° south. Trees of this description not unfrequently grow to 70ft. in height, and are propor- tionately thick, so that sheets of bark of very large size can be readily stripped from them. The bark canoes of the Canadians and Indian traders are often of a very large size. In the absence of forest conservators, economic considerations go for very little. It may be convenient, when canoe building or repairing is the object, to "fall" the tree, and, in doing so, care must be taken that the bark shall not be rent or bruised, either by fracture of the tree or by billing across a rock or stump, while Camp Life, Travel, and E.tfploraHon. 157 the log ought to He with both ends somewhat supported, so that the required sheet of bark may not be crushed between it and the ground. Perhaps it will be found generally easier to detach the bark while the tree is standing, and in this case a cut must be made all round the tree at the lower end of the sheet ; the most perfect side should be left for the bottom of the canoe, and the longitudinal sHt should be so made as to cut right through any defective portion which may thus be cut out with the least possible waste of material. If the tree has an inclination, it will be easier work to make the slit on the upper side. The bark should be detached by broad round-edged spuds of soft wood, thrust gently and cautiously between it and the tree ; and it may also be previously loosened by striking it with a broad log or mallet on the outside, taking care not to break its texture. Steps may be cut in the wood to stand in, and hand-holds also as the work proceeds ; and the lower part of the bark should be made fast with cord or slips of bark, passed loosely round, so that it may not swing clear of the tree and split the upper part before it is finally detached. .; CANADIAN BARK CANOE. The sheet should now be taken to a plot of level ground, carefully spread out "snth the inside downward, and the outside should be cleaned from any knots, excrescences, or hard and brittle Canadian bark layers that increase its weight without adding to canoe, its strength; and it should then be cut nearly to the form shown in the sketch (Fig, 1). A sufficient number of ribs or hoops of 158 Shifts and Expedients of liglit flexible wood should be provided, and great care should be taken, in bending it, not to split or unduly to force any part so as to make an unsightly protuberance, which would also most probably become a leak. The holes should be carefully bored along the edges that come in contact, and they may be sewn with fibres from the roots of pine trees or from small cedar twigs, and rendered water-tight by the use of pine-tree gum. Flexible poles or laths are then stitched in for gunwales or thwart stringers, and the canoe is more or less taste- fully trimmed ofi" and ornamented, according to the taste of the builder, as in Fig. 2 (p. 157). Nothing can be lighter or handier than these canoes, but their very lightness and want of " hold on the water " makes them difficult for Englishmen to handle until experience has been their instructor. Canoes of this description are wonderfully buoyant, and draw very Queen Charlotte's Island little water ; and, when managed by skilful canoe. hands, few boats are more reliable. Our friend, Mr. F. Poole, who has spent many years among the Indians of BIRCH BABK CANOE OF QUEEN CHARLOTTE'S ISLAND. North-West America, and is a canoeman of no ordinary skill, has recently completed a tour of extraordinary extent and interest, paddling fearlessly, and alone, far out to sea. The dimensions of the canoe he uses, which was made expressly for him by the Indians of Queen Charlotte's Island, are as follows : Length, 15ft. ; width across beam, 3ift.; depth, 15in. ; weight, 1001b. In her Mr. Poole started from Liverpool, paddling to New Brighton, from thence to Southport, Blackpool, Fleetwood, Button Suiuls, Whitehaven, Kirkcudbright, Whitehorn, Port William and Glen Luce. From thence by the use of wheels— two pairs of which, com- Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 159 posed of irou;, mounted on iron axles, are kept, until required, stowed away in the canoe — ]\Ir. Poole proceeded overland to Stranraer ; from thence paddled along the coast and up the river to Glasgow; then by canal to Grangemouth, and by sea to Leith. For two nights and the greater part of two days Mr. Poole was out of sight of land, and the voyage was prosecuted dui-ing the prevalence of the equinoctial gales. Such of our readers as may contemplate canoe voyaging will do well to borrow a few hints from Mr. Poole's equipment, A power- ful bulPs-eye lamp was always carried, lashed fast to the stem at night, and a mariner's compass was provided to steer by. The wheels before referred to are extremely useful in many ways. They are like those of an ordinary perambulator, only of hght wrought iron ; they are Ift. in diameter; the axle is also of wi'ought iron, fin. square, and long enough to carry the wheels clear of the canoe's sides when mounted on them. To travel the canoe on dry laud, the axles, each covered with a strong common pillow, are brought under the fore and after portions of the canoe, like the axles of a long narrow carriage. Rope lashings are now brought from the thwarts down to the axle bars, through which iron belaying pins pass ; these keep the lashings from shifting, and keep all secure when the canoe is pushed or drawn onwards. The wheels are an immense assistance in beaching the canoe and getting her above high- water mark, when there is but one voyager. Tliey also serve as ballast, and arc useful for a number of camping and make-shift purposes. The paddle shown in the accompanying illus- tration, kindly furnished by Mr. Poole, is of the exact form requisite to obtain perfect efficiency. It is composed of red cedar, and is exactly one-tenth, diminished scale. 160 Shiff:^ and Rqmlionh of The bark of the cedar {Thuja giganfea) is also much used by certain Indians of North- West America for canoe building ; but the form usually made from it differs materially from that just described. The cedar-bark canoes are in shape much like some of our iron-clad rams, having projecting lEDARBARK fANOB. beaks, or prows, almost in a line with their keels. The Indian paddling one of these frail craft, sits, or rather squats, at one extreme end of the bottom, which has the effect of tilting the bow end up in the air, burying the stern end deeply in the water. The sharp tail-like point thus immersed seems to impart speed and capability of evolution to a remarkable degree ; much practice is required before the exact poise and adjustment of weight are acquired. The Indians, who half live in their canoes, manage them with extraordinary dexterity, ascend and descend rapid rivers, and cross wide stretches of lake fearlessly. The form of these canoes, and of the bark sheet used for making them, is shown in the above illustration. The mode of Gamp Life, Travel, and E-rplorafiui IC.I SHOE CANOE. sinking the stern of a canoe is also had recourse to by the Rockingham Bay savages, who manage the so-called shoe canoe with much skill. The frame is of rough wicker-work, the covering of hide, and the two short shovel- shaped paddles made use of are -> shown in our illustration. A canoe of this kind is very easily made, and is not difficult to manage. We have just seen a small canoe sent from Terra del Fuego by the Governor of the Falkland Islands to the Royal Geographical Society. It is small, and was paddled by a girl eight years of age ; it is chiefly interesting as showing how small pieces of bark maybe utilised. It is about 8ft. long, 22in. wide, and 18in. or 20in. deep ; the centrepiece of the bottom is nearly 3ft. long and lOin. wide, and to this are stitched two pieces, each about 4ft. long, tapering to a point, and curving upward to a high peak at either end. The sides are pieces of bark nearly 8ft. long and 18in. deep, straight on the upper edge, and cut to the curve of the bottom on the lower. The whole are stitched together with wood fibre, for which sometimes strips of whalebone are substituted, and caulked with the fibre of the wihl celery. The boat is kept in shape by ribs of winter bark twigs, not Fuegian canoe. -i^ FUEOIAJJ CANOE. thicker than the little finger, and packed closely side by side througli the whole length ; nine small sticks lashed athwart the gunwales keep them in their proper shape, and a sheet of bark midships serves to 162 Shifts and Ki'pedicnts of sustain a patch of clay on which to keep a small fire. A bundle of weapons of the chase accompany this canoe. The spears are pointed with bone, and the barbed one used for fish and cetaceans is only shipped loosely into the shaft, to which it is attached by a lanyard, so as to remain fast during the struggles of the animal ; while that used for birds is serrated, and is firmly fastened into the shaft. The tea-tree bark is sometimes used in Australia for canoes. We have seen a length of it roughly tied up at the ends, and strengthened Australian '''' ^^^tle by poles along the gvimvales, in use at Moreton bark canoe. Bay, as shown in our illustration. It is just possible to make the bark of the gum tree answer the purpose in the absence of &T better material. We have often searched in Africa for a tree with bark nt to make a canoe of, but never succeeded in finding one. Along the eastern coast of Australia, especially towards Torres Strait, Ave fre- quently fell in with canoes, some with outriggers and others double. They were generally long straight logs, of very Httle breadth or depth; and the advantage of this seemed to be that though the ripple would frequently wash into them, yet, if they pitched ever so httle, their great length and shallowness would tilt out the greater portion of the water. The outriggers were mostly logs of wood sliJirpcncd a( cither end, and with pegs set up m them, so that the Camp Life, Travel, and ExpJoraiion, 103 outrigger beams iniglit not dip into tlio water and impede tlie motion of the canoe. When we reached the Victoria River we found that the natives were accustomed to support themselves in crossing on logs of the light mangrove wood, either singly or tied up in bundles. The part near Long canoes. the roots seemed to be the favourite, as the stumps of the roots formed pegs on which to hang their spears, skins, or other possessions. The wood of the milk bush, which is about half the specific gravity of cork, is much used by the natives of equatorial Africa for the above purpose. At Shupanga, on the Zambesi, we have seen dug-out canoes, 50ft. long and about 5ft. wide and deep ; at all events, a tall man standing beside them did not stoop much when he rested his arms upon the gunwale. These were hollowed and roughly shaped in their native forests, and hauled along nearly thirty miles, on rollers, by the long rope-like stems of the vines and creepers common in tropical forests. They were made only for the Portuguese. The upper part of the bows expanded into a platform sufficiently large for the chief boatman to stand on, while the stern was cut into an imitation of a run and dead wood, with a couple of holes in the after part, to which a rudder was secured by lashings. Nothing can be better for hollowing a canoe than the adze, but our Kroomen used a broad spud or chisel on a staff about 6ft. long, driven in a manner which -will be best understood by 164 Shifts and FijcpedientH of a glance at tlie statue of " Micliaol overthrowing Satan." The Krooman's method of baling is characteristic. Should the canoe fill, all hands jump overboard, seize the gunwales, and sally her fore and aft till the water flies out at either end and leaves her absolutely free. We have seen a canoeman, near Lake Ngami, walk to one end of his leaky craft and, thus depressing it, cause the water to flow towards him, when, making his broad foot do duty for a scoop, by a succession of vigorous kicks, he soon had his canoe as free as he desired. In many parts of the world, boats of almost any size are built without metal fastenings, and the Massoolah boat of Madras may be taken as a fair type of those which are sewn or laced together. It will be seen in our illustration, copied by permission from a model in the United Service Museum, that the bottom boards are flat and form an oval elongated and pointed at the ends_, so that the side planks curve naturally to meet the stem and stern-joost, and give the boat an easy sheer. They are sewn together with coir yarn (or cocoa-nut husk fibre), the stitches crossing over a wadding of coir or straw, which presses on the seam and prevents much leakage. They are very elastic and give Massoolah boats. MASSOOLAH BOATS. to the shock as they take the ground in the surf, which runs scmetimos nearly 16ft. high; they are from 30ft. to 35ft. long, 10ft. «.r lift, wide, and Vft. or 8ft. in depth; they pull double banked, Cam_p Life, Travel, and Exploration. 165 Xorweg-ian boats. U4^ six oars on a side, made of long rough poles with oval pieces of board lashed on the ends; they are steered by an oar. Our illustration shows also the catamaran or log float, on which the natives will pass to and from the shore when no other craft, not even the Massoolah boat, would venture. It must bo remembered, however, that the men are themselves nearly amphibious, and care as little for being washed off their rafts as so many frogs; while the letters or small parcels they carry are kept dry only by being worn in a kind of oil-cloth turban. We have seen very nice boats built in Norway with dowels instead of nails ; they were clinker built, and the dowels were about \\\\., or fully as thick as the planking. A number of rods, from 3ft. to 4ft. long, are planed up to the required size, and cut into lengths say, when two thicknesses of Mn, plank are to be clinched, to l^in., or, when the two planks and a timber of perhaps lin. are to be fastened, to 2^in., so that both ends may project a little beyond the wood they are to fasten ; the dowel is then split at each end with a sharp chisel, taking care that the cut is made at right angles to the gTain of the plank or rib, w^edges are driven in, and the end, being slightly spread out by the use of the clinch hammer, is trimmed off not too close ; the wedges should be all neatly cut with a fine saw, and by sawing them in breadths from a board, and then splitting them to the required size, labour may be greatly economised. The holes should be bored with a sharp centre- bit ; and if the dowels fit tightly the wedges may be dispensed with, as the ends will spread sufiicieutly under the clinch hammer without breaking the grain. In building, if any difficulty should be found in di*awing doAvn the end of the plank to the stem, it will be advisable, after having fitted it carefully, to slack up the centre, let the end come to its pla'ce, fasten it, and then again bend the plank downwards. In some boats, especially in the navy, the planks do not run fore and aft, but two 166 Shifts and Expedients of thiu layers are crossed over each other diagonally, and clinched together ; this leaves the outside perfectly smooth, and is perhaps the strongest known method of boat building. In planing up the edges of planks, &c., it is absolutely necessary to have a vice of some kind, and nothing is better than a tree vice, unless you have a blacksmith's. Saw off a young tree from 6in. to Sin. thick, at about 3^ft. from the ground; saw the stump down the middle as low as you can; bind the lower part tightly with thongs of raw hide to prevent its splitting, then insert wedges to open the upper part, put your planks in, withdraw the wedges, and it will hold tight enough. It is as well to cut the upper part of the opening sufficiently wide to admit an inch plank, as short pieces can easily be put in to fill up should you wish to hold a thinner one. We have already mentioned "the principle on which Mr. E. D. Young's portable steel boat for the Livingstone Search Expedition was built; and although, as we then said, none but a skilled workman could hope to turn up the edges of a curved sheet of metal, we think the principle might be applied to a flat-bottomed boat by merely snipping the flanges at the turn of the bilge, and bending upward the sides at any convenient angle ; by cutting these more and more diagonally from the centre, the boat Portable steel boat. 7~/i 0//f'ii^ might bo tapered to each end — not, indeed, in a true curve, but in a succession of short straight lines, which would tolerably represent one. The number of pieces composing the " Search " — i\\e boat used in the expedition sent in quest of Dr. Livingstone— were as follows : Gamp Life, Travel, and JExploratlon. Kn American life raft. Thirty-six side pieces of steel, eacli being a load for one man ; the midship piece required 2 ; the stern piece, 3 ; the bow piece, 3 ; the mast, 2 ; the boom, 2 ; the sails, 2 ; chain cable, 6 ; anchor, 1 ; and the whole with provisions, luggage, &c., made up 180 loads. Captain Faulkner, who, as a volunteer, accompanied Mr. Young on the Search Expedition, has determined on returning with a party of ardent hunters and explorers, and an engineer, to Lake Nyassa, and for this purpose an iron steamer has been built 50ft. long, S^ft. deep, and 11 ^ft. broad. The little craft, appropriately named the "Faugh-a- ballagh," is composed of 75 sections, put together with 8000 screws, so that she may be carried, as was the " Search," past the rapids and cataracts of the Shire River. The American life raft "Nonpareil," which recently made the voyage across the Atlantic, may be taken as a successful application of the tubular system. It will be seen that she was constructed of three parallel inflatable tubes, covered with stout canvas, connected by breadths of the same, and with a rectangular frame laid over all to support the masts and rudder fittings; but the sketch is introduced here also to show the use of the droge, by which the little craft may in efiect be anchored in the open sea, or at least may have her drift effectually checked, while the sea itself is broken before it reaches her. The droge in the present instance is of canvas, stretched on a large hoop vnih. four lines, so attached to its circumference that when the strain comes on it it stands vertically in the water, and opposes the resistance of its entire surface. The oars or mast, and sails of a boat, will also answer this purpose ; and we have heard of one instance in which the imperilled crew added also a number of the skins of freshly-killed seals, the oil working out of which calmed the water for a considerable distance. It is necessary to watch the length of the sea, so that the boat may be veered as far from the di'oge or raft as it will serve to protect her 108 Shifts and E.qiedietds of against tho breaking waves. Wo liavc heard the captain of a vessel say that he would never incur the risk of wearing in a gale, but would rather sacrifice some spar or piece of lumber to bring the ship's head to the wind. In doing this, the hawser would be carried round from the droge on the weather bow, under the bobstays and bowsprit rigging to the lee bow, and finally to the quarter ; the droge would be thrown ovei', sufficient line paid out, and then held on to till the ship's head came to the wind ; the strain would be then changed for a moment to the lee bow, and then to the quarter, whence it would be cut away as the ship fell off upon the other tack. A spar held by a hawser and bridle, with a stout sail bent to it — the clews, or lower corners, being weighted with shot, lead, or iron, to make them heavy — forms an excellent droge for a small craft to lie to under. Although this subject may seem almost beyond the province of our work, it is by no means improbable that explorers may have to turn Temporary repairs their attention to it, or that shipwrecked crews, or vessels. dwellers on a lonely coast, may have to repair or build small craft for themselves. We have seen first-class waggons built by missionaries, and others have built vessels ; and the reader may remember with advantage the description given by Ulysses of his laying down side by side ten or a dozen pine trees more or less smoothed off as a foundation on which to build his upper works. During the progress of the North Australian Expedition, we were ascending tho Victoria River with our little schooner,- the " Tom Tough." There was little or no wind, and with the boat ahead towing and the lead going wo were drifting up with a strong flood-tide, and the captain, elated by success, and anxious to make the most of his oppor- tunity, kept going onward instead of prudently anchoring while the tide was still rising. In consequence of this, when the vessel touched the ground, there was no subsequent rise of water to float her off; indeed, it was remarked that the water began to fall while the tide was still running upward, and she was left at low water on the 27th of Septem- ber, 1855, on a mud bank, with her bows uncomfortably propped up by a projecting rock. Gam}) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 109 On the 29tli she floated ; but the flood-tide was so nearly done, that we had no time to choose an anchorage, and the schooner grounding with the ebb, parted her chain cable and heeled over with the force of the tide till we could barely stand upon her decks. Day after day the schooner drifted to and fro upon this sand-bank, sometimes moving a length or two, and sometimes only a few feet during a tide ; the sand scoui-ed out from beneath her bow and stern, leaving holes witji 6ft. or more of water there, while hillocks accumu- lated under her in midship ; and the sand seemed to travel so evenly with her, that the usual criterion — a hand lead, allowed to trail upon the ground — was of no service in enabling us to estimate the distance she had moved. On the 10th of October the decks had rifted, the combings of the main hatch had started up, the starboard side between the masts Avas hogged up 18in., and at the turn of the bilge, where the floor timbers join the ribs, one of the planks had split for loft, or more, leaving spaces into which the flat hand might easily be passed. We laid broad strips of blanket and sheepskin well tarred on the principal rents, and nailed thin planks over them (Fig. 8, p. 170), but in another day or two she was just as bad on the other side ; her stem was peaked into the air, while her bows dipped about 7ft. into a hole, the water pouring out of the fresh rifted planking as the tide fell. The mainmast rose up through the partners, so that we were obliged to slack ofi" the rigging, and it became a question whether the stanchion under the main hatch should be knocked away to prevent its bursting up the deck, or whether it should remain so that the strength of the deck might keep the bottom a httle longer from breaking. On the 25th we again floated, after nearly a month of straining to and fro upon the sand-banks, and drifted rather than navigated the vessel up to the camp we had established below Steep-head. Captain Gourlay -with his crew, and some of the expedition men, found suitable trees some little distance up the river at Timber Creek, which, however, after a rather exciting adventure with some wandering natives, acquired the name of Cut-Stick Creek instead. Two long heavy gum trees as straight as possible were selected, 170 8hifts and Expedients of brought to the vessel, and laid as sister keelsons (Fig. 2) alongside the real one, which, as well as all the original framework, is marked Fig. 1 in our illustration. Three or four pair of heavy crooks, each repre- senting the half of a floor timber (Fig. 3), were then laid on the inner skin, with the inner ends abutting on the sister keelson, and the outer reaching up above the junction of the ribs with the floor heads. Heavy riders (Fig. 4) were placed upon them crossing the three keelsons, and were secured by clamps (Fig. 5) made of the tires of our dray wheels, which we had no hope of being able to put to their proper use. Being now above the rise and fall of the tide we could not beach the vessel, and, therefore, the frame could only be bolted to the true HTjSOOVJ^ sides above the water line (Fig. 6), but it was pressed down upon the bottom not only by its own weight but by stanchions (Fig. 7) between it and the deck beams. The schooner being detained for repairs, it was decided to under- take an expedition to the Albert River in the long boat ; and thus, by reaching Mr. Gregory in time to assure him that a vessel was coming, prevent his starting for the colony with insufficient supplies ; Mr. George Phibbs, the overseer of the expedition, and Mr. Graham, the mate of the " Messenger," volunteering for the trip, we com- menced our preparations. The boat was cleaned, repainted, the leaks stopped; and two inflatable tubes were made, each of them of one piece of canvas, 14ft. long, lined with waterproofed cahco, folded so that the two sides should come together, a rope along the seam, with Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 171 eyes turned in at the corners, to make it fast by, and, with one of the screw valves from our worn-out boat (p. 48), let into the after end, to receive the nozzle of the bellows. These we at first intended to stretch beneath the thwarts, inside, but eventually laced them outside each gunwale, where they were less in the way, and, when kept in a state of semi-inflation, projected sufficiently to prevent a great deal of the»ripple of the sea washing into the boat, and this advantage we made the most of when we were fairly at sea, by fitting light bamboo stanchions forward, and securing the tubes to them, so as to make a kind of raised wash streak round the bows. We left the vessel on the 23rd of October off New Year's Island, and at first had fine weather with good working breezes, but in a few days strong adverse gales came on. On the 2nd of November we worked all day clawing off a lee shore, the sea raging furiously over the shallow bottom ; but our boat, though only 18ft. long and 6ft. beam, behaved well, and we weathered the rocks by less than a quarter of a mile after sunset. Darkness came on at once, and, as we dare not run in for BOAT FITTCU WITH INFLAlbD TUBts shelter, we made the boat snug and hove to under foresail and mainsail all night. We ran through between the Crocodile islands, the crest of the short sea behind us foaming around our quarters, while our 172 Shifts and E.q)edients of bowsprit was actually dipping in the next, and began to fear that we should have to pass the islands without finding a shelter, when Phibbs volunteered to swim ashore. We let go our carronade as an anchor, and ran in to the full length of the line ; he sprang overboard, and with some difficulty reached the shore, where he soon found a quiet little nook to which he beckoned us to steer. We will only add that on the 17th of November, after having sailed nearly 750 miles, we reached the mouth of the Albert River, in the Gulf of Carpentaria. We cannot dismiss the subject of boats without appending a few remarks on such simple forms of sails as are likely to be of Sails and their service in such small craft as a traveller might substitutes. possess, and we shall take, as the maximum, one of those swift and handy fore and aft schooners in which the Americans push their trade in all quarters of the world. Each lower mast and topmast would most likely be in one piece, combining great strength with neatness, and obviating the necessity for much staying. The bowsprit is also of a single piece ; the sails are a jib from the foremast head to the bowsprit end, a forestaysail set to the stem head, a foresail and mainsail on gaffs made to lower when the sail is reefed or taken in ; the foot of the mainsail is always extended by a boom, and that of the foresail sometimes ; if they are laced to the boom, as in the yacht " America,^^ which had booms even to the foot of her jibs, the sails sit flatter and better on a wind, but if they are not, there is the advantage of being able to reduce the sails without the trouble of reefing, by tricing up the foot ; gaff topsails may be either jib-headed, like the fore, or on a gaff, like the main, in Fig. 1. The mainstay causes some little difiiculty; if it goes from mast to mast, the tack and sheet of the fore gaff topsail must be passed over to leeward of it when the vessel goes about ; if it leads down to the deck there must be two parts, one on each side the foresail, and the lee one ought to bo slacked, and the weather one set up on each tack. If a foreyard, or rather a cross-jack, is carried, a flying squaresail, half the width of the yard, may be sent up on the weather side, and a topsail may be set lu the same manner, the fore and aft sails supplying canvas enough on the lee .side. Cam.}) Life, Travd, and Exploration. 173 The cutter (No. 2) has a jib^ a foresail on the stay^ and a mainsail ; the jib topsail runs with grummets on the topmast stay, but the lialyards only reach the lowermast head ; a lug-headed gaff topsail gives opportunity for a greater spread of canvas. The boat (No. 3) is rigged with foresail and spi-itsail. An eye in the peak of the latter receives the upper point of the sprit, while the lower end is set into the eye of a snorter, a bight of rope passing round the mast and tightened chiefly by the strain of the sail upon it. Sometimes it is pushed up by hand while the sail shakes, so as to set it properly up, but it is better to have a small tackle as seen on page 171 to set it up with. No. 4 has shoulder-of-mutton sails, the peaks of which are bent on to small taper yards which slide up and down on and abaft the lower masts like gunter topmasts ; this facilitates the reefing of the sails, and also the setting of the jib from the foremast head. No. 5 is a lugger, the yards are slung in the thirds, the shortest and thickest arm is forward, and the longest tapers aft ; the foremost leach of the sail is very strongly roped, so that the tack holds down the forearm and elevates the peak. Sometimes in well-manned vessels the lugs are dipped so as to pass to leeward of the mast whenever they go about, and in this case the tack may be bowsed down considerably in front of the mast and a large sail carried ; but in short-handed craft the tacks are brought down to the mast, and the foresail and mizen are set on one side and the mainsail on the other, and are not dipped. 174 Shifts and Expedients of The after leach of the jib must be cut so as to go clear of the foreyard, the topmasts to slide abaft the lower masts ; and there is always some difficulty in setting a fore topsail^ as there must either be a double tack to pass the sail over the jib halyard in going about^ or its fore leach must remain to leeward of it. The lateen (No. 6) has triangular sails with very long taper yards, the head and fore leach becoming one ; indeed, if there be any distinct fore leach, the sail becomes an ill-shaped lug, and not a lateen. The masts are somewhat short; sometimes mere stumps, but then the halyards and the tacks must be enormously strong to counterpoise the immense length of the yard. The proa sail (Figs. 7 and 8, p. 173), a triangle spread upon two bamboos, hitched upon a stump mast in small boats, we have described at p. 135. No. 9 is a modification of it, by which a boat sets jib and mainsail in one, the angle formed by the yard and boom becomes more acute at each reef as indicated by the lines. It would be difficult, however, to work the boat without a small mizen to help her round in staying. No. 10 is the shoulder-of-mutton sail, set on a single taper yard or mast. Palm leaves are sometimes used as sails ; our sketch represents three or more cocoanut leaves, so woven together as to present a surface to receive the wind. Blankets and articles of clothing are used in emergencies. Oars are set up, and a boat will gather considerable way under them. Planks, the broader and flatter the better, are excellent substitutes, and may be trimmed at pleasure. It must not be forgotten that, however graceful in art and poetry the bellying canvas may be, the chief object of the sailmaker is to get it " to sit like a board.^' Reefin" of sails Sometimes when a sail is split, or otherwise rendered from the sides. unserviceable, it is desirable to use another for a substitute without spoihng it by cutting. We remember reading of a vessel in which the topsail was split in a heavy gale ; a spare foresail was got out and stout bands sewed on it, from the clews to the reef-band, diminishing upwards to the width the topsail head ought to be; cyolot holes were worked in, points or lacings ', 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' < : 1" •\'V^\' Camp Life, Travel, and ExiAoraiion. 175 inserted, and the sail, thus reduced, sent up to do duty as a topsail. Captain (now Admiral Sir E.) Belcher, when in command of H.M.S. " Sulphur,^' made use of a very clever expedient for imparting motion to his vessel when the wind failed. He constructed a couple of bolts, with stout umbrella framework covered with canvas at their heads, and with their butts so thickened as to fit loosely into the bow guns. A line was attached to each butt, and one was given in charge to the port and the other to the starboard watch ; the first was fired to a good distance ahead, and as soon as the line was hauled upon the frame expanded and opposed its full resistance, so that, as it could not be drawn backwards through the water, the vessel must begin to move. Before this was hauled in the next was fired, the ship would increase her rate of progress, and, the impetus being once acquired, she would "hold her way," so that eventually the men would have little more to do than gather in the slack of the line. No sailor likes the inaction of a calm, and besides this the captain had judged rightly in exciting the emulation of his men by giving one to each watch, and further stimulating it by an occasional glass of grog to the hardest 176 Shifts and Expedients of working side, so that tho cry of the port watch would be, " Haul away, and run her up to tho umbrella before the starbowlines get theirs laid out,'^ and vice versa, till sometimes a speed of four knots an hour was obtained. Thus was the good ship hauled out of many a belt of calms, and brought into the region of the winds, which might be only a few miles distant, while other vessels not so provided might have lain becalmed for weeks ; and not only this, but her position in a bay or anchorage could be shifted at pleasure, and she became almost inde- pendent of wind or extraneous assistance by this ingenious expedient. Paddles worked by mill sails have been proposed ; but of these it will be sufficient to remark that the power of the paddles to drive the vessel's head to wind will be less than that of the wind to drive her backward by the full amount of all that is expended in overcoming the friction of the machinery ; in every other position the wind on the sails would do its work without the paddles. A Prussian vessel, with the leaks gaining on her and her crew exhausted, was saved by lashing a spar across the mainmast, with one end projecting overboard with a barrel half full Hints in emergencies. of water fast to it, so as to rise and fall with the sea. The pump brakes were made fast to the spar, and the vessel was thus kept afloat, while the crew were relieved from their labour. A boat has been known to come ashore safe through a heavy sea by means of a handful of oil judiciously thrown over by one of the men whenever a wave threatened to break near her ; and Captain Basil Hull relates how one of his boats was hove to all night under a droge of all her spars and sails and two or three seal skins, the oil of which working out calmed the water for a considerable distance. Instances of this kind might be indefinitely multiplied ; but we note only a few as suggestions. No amount that we could give would supply the want of presence of mind and the ready power of adapting the means at hand to the emergency. Our space will not allow us to go into all the details of boat saihng, hut wo must find room for one or two general rules. In seeking to land through breakers, which must always be effected by the oars, wait just outside them till you find the heaviest roller coming in ; then give way and c-omc in upon it, witli your boat's bow all but overhanging Life, Travel, and Exploration. 177 its crest, and, as it lands, you jump out and haul your boat beyond the power of its reflux. Some crews are in the habit of giving two or three powerful strokes just before they reach the shore, and then pitching their oars simultaneously as far from them as possible, picking them up again when they have secured their boat. It is well, however, to know that there is no current to set the oars out to sea before doing this. In coming off face the breakers boldly, but judiciously watch the smaller waves, and give her good way through them. Keep your boat^s head on to the sea, and never let her take a breaker more than two points on either bow. Trim the sails so that when brought to the wind the boat will very nearly steer herself, and she will attain her utmost speed. The action of the rudder has always a shghtly-retarding influence, but if there is any want of balance let it be on the side of ardency or tendency to fly up in the wind, so that she may carry a little weather helm rather than want helping up by a lee one, and thus, in case of sudden squalls, the boat will, as if by instinct, obey the first touch of the lee helm, and, shaking the wind out of her sails, will right herself. The main sheet of an open boat should never be made fast, but held either by the steersman, or some one near him, in readiness to ease ofl". A squall seldom comes so suddenly that the first puff", if well watched, will not help the boat into the wind before the full strength comes ; but on the coast of Australia we have known a squall come so suddenly through the dead calm of the night that it struck us at once like a blow from a sledge-hammer, and, though we had taken all the usual precautions, the sea was pouring like a jet-black cataract flecked with diamonds over 8ft. of the lee gunwale before the boat came to the wind; and we would say, therefore, if there is not an air to bring the boat's head up when you expect a squall, help her with the sweep of an oar into the best position to receive it. If you want to carry on sail do not attempt to stiSen the boat by making all the crew sit to windward ; for, should the mast break, as is not unlikely with the increased strain, nothing can prevent her capsizing ; let them sit in the bottom. In the way of ballast, nothing N 178 Shifts and Expedients of can be better than bags nearly filled with fresh water. They will assume the form of any place you want to stow them in, and will not sink the boat if she should fill; in fact, being lighter than salt water, they would impart a trifling buoyancy. The loss of the rudder, an accident which is by no means so unfrequent at sea as may be imagined, involves also, for a time at least. Temporary ^^^ ^°^^ ^^ control over the vessel's course. Even in rudders. ^}^q open Sea this must be attended with considerable peril; but when it happens in the vicinity of rocks or shoals, and the vessel has not sea-room, the danger becomes appalling. The careful and vigilant trimming of the sails is the readiest means of regaining command of the vessel, and we believe the •■^ Wager" was extricated from a most perilous position by this alone; but it is a work of immense labour, and harasses the crew severely. A stream cable payed out astern, and veered to either quarter, is sometimes used ; or, if the accident should occur in moderate weather, by striking on a bar, the jolly boat with the plug out may be lowered and towed astern, but both these plans check the speed of the vessel, and are only useful when they can be made to impede one side more than the other; and that this is not the true principle of steering is known to every butcher's boy, who apologises for wearing but one spur by saying " if one side of his horse goes the other must." The rudder may be considered as a continuation of the keel, capable of moving on a hinge to an angle of 22^° on either side, and when the vessel moves forward, and the helm, for instance, is put to port, the water impinging on the starboard side of the rudder is reflected from it at an equal square to that of its incidence, and the resulting force tends to drive the stern to port and incline the head to starboard. But as the force acts in the direction of a line midway between the angles of incidence and of reflection, it has also a retarding tendency, and if the helm were put over to an angle of 45'=^ the greater part of the power would be expended in stopping rather than in steering the vessel. If a ship could bo made so flexible as to be converted like a fish iuto the segment of a circle either way at pleasure, the very perfection of steering would bo attained, and the rudder is merely the Ijcst imitation of this that can be devised. Omijy Life, Travel, and Exploratmi. 179 Our illustration shows ouo expedient for the remedy of the mis- fortunes we have named. A warp or cable is faked down upon the deck in lengths equal to that of the required rudder^ all the parts are then so closely pressed together that it resembles a board of the required breadth ; it is then stiffened by longitudinal and cross bars, a weight is attached to the bottom, and a tiller projects aft, from the extremity of which the steering tackles (a) lead in over each quarter. When lowered into its place, the heel is confined to the stern-post by chains or hawsers leading to the gangway on either side, and in the present instance ropes are reeved through the gudgeons on the stern- post. Sometimes two parts of the cable are left longer than the rest to come up the rudder trunk and form the neck of the rudder, a short spar passed through the bight on deck serves to suspend the whole. Very frequently, however, when the rudder goes, the gudgeons, and perhaps also part of the stern-post, are carried away, and it then N 2 180 Shifts and Expedients of becomes necessary to devise some plan which shall supply their loss. Several expedients are given in the Nautical Magazine for 1836^ and from these we extract two or three examples. A spar, such as the spanker-boom or jibboom, is first passed over the stern, secured to the centre of the tafiFrail by temporary " partners," and to the heel of the stern-post by stout guys leading forward to the gangways on either side ; the gaff is then fitted on this, just as it would be on a mast, and one of the smallest and stoutest storm staysails is laced, with the head downwards, to the upright spar, and also to the gaff, the foot of the sail being cut off, if it be too large. It is then hauled down to the lower end by a halyard previously reeved, and the gaff, which should go a little below the surface of the water, is hoisted until the sail sits " as flat " as a board. If greater power is thought necessary, the outer end of the gaff can be sawn vertically down the centre, and boards chnched in, as shown in the sketch (Fig. 3) ; or either the sail or boards might be used separately. The ship is steered by guys leading from near the end of the gaff over each quarter. Sometimes the principle of the steering oar is adopted : a spar, with planks fastened on its outer end, is got over, and the foremost end is fitted to the stern by ring-bolts or lashings, so as to allow it to work freely without too much play. The outer end is kept down either by a lower guy or by a 4T/i£urufl, piece of pig ballast or other weight; and if a topping-lift be attached, leading to a boom over the stern and thence to the mizcu topmast-head, the oar may be lifted out of the water when one GoAnp Life, Travel, and Exjjloration. 181 stroke has been completed, carried back again to the other side, and thus bring the ship's head round by a succession of sweeps. Sometimes it is necessary to make a temporary stern-post, and the spare lower cap (which, however, we may remark, is generally stowed away where it is least likely to be found on an emergency) can be fitted on this by enlarging the masthead hole and securing it, as before, by lower guys. A topmast, with its heel upwards, may be passed down through it, and such additional spars or planking bolted on as will give the needful increase of breadth. The surface should be as smooth as circumstances permit, so that the water may glance off readily; the fid-hole will then receive the tiller, but the spar must be well banded or lashed round to prevent its splitting with the strain, or perhaps breaking off where the sheave- hole weakens it. The captain of our battered little vessel had always some rough and ready expedient at his finger-ends. When one of the iron davits of the quarter boat was bent by a collision, he extem- Scarfing or fishing porised a forge with some pig ballast, on deck, °^ broken spars. and, though the planks beneath were somewhat scorched, he ren- dered the davit again effective. Once, when running before the wind, the mainsail jibed in consequence of careless steering, and the boom, being fastened by a 'Hazy guy," a slovenly shift a little too common among us, broke short off; however, a good stout plank was found, cut into four pieces, which were laid round the fractured part so as to inclose it in a kind of packing-case, of which the four sides did not meet at their edges ; wooldiugs of rope were passed round at intervals and tightened by driving in wedges, and the boom, though somewhat clumsy, was again fit for duty. (Seo illustration.) 182 Shifts and Ed-pedients of If a spar, with both ends alike, breaks at either end, a very neat and effective scarf may bo made by sawing it down the centre and reversing the two parts, end for end, so that the fracture in one half may come against the unbroken part of the other, as in our sketch (p. 181). If the fracture is long, there may be no need for that unsightly appendage called a fish, and, even if it is short, a very small one will serve the purpose. If a mast breaks, much above the deck, it may be again used, with little or no diminution of its strength, by reversing it, and stepping what used to be the masthead upon the keel- son, so that the fractured part may come below the deck, while that which was the heel is shaped and fitted to become the head. It will be evident from the sketches we give that in a ship with a very deep hold, where very nearly half the mast is below the deck, this plan is more likely to be of service than in a shallow one, where the part below bears but a small proportion to that above. As a substitute or as an auxiliary to the common sails, or as Kites. means of sending up a signal or effecting communication between a ship and a lee shore, a kite of sufficient power would frequently be useful. Every voyager knows how frequently all the lower and larger sails of a vessel arc becalmed, the uppermost and smallest catching only a gentle air, while at a little height above them the wind, as indicated by the fleecy clouds, may be blowing much more briskly. In this case, when even the flying kites, as the upper sails are figuratively called, have become useless, real kites flymg at a sufficient olovation would do good service ; and even though the wind might not bo fair, still so long as it was a little abaft the beam the vessel might be steered to her course. One thing must be kept in mind, and that is, that when it has once fallen calm below the kites cannot be raised to the breeze that i.s blowing above, therefore it would be well either to scud them up before the breeze fiuls, or at least to send up in propara- Camp Life, Travel, and Exjyloration. 183 tiou a small one, to the line of wliicli the larger could be hitched^ and jerked clear when it had been carried to a sufficient altitude. A kite of 12ft. in height spreads about 50ft. square of canvas, and will pull, in a fresh breeze, with a strength of about 2001b., if the height were doubled the strength would, of course, be fourfold ; and as it would act as a lifting or buoyant instead of a depressing sail, the only risk in " carrying on " would be the parting of the line connect- ing it with the vessel ; on this account it would be the best possible form of sail to rig in an open and over-crowded boat when leaving a wreck, for its tendency would be to lift the bows over the seas instead of depressing them. And even if a man about to risk the passage by swimming from a stranded ship to a lee shore could send up a small kite, such as he could make with a cotton shirt, a couple of sticks, and a few fathoms of fishing line, it would most likely buoy him over the crests of the breakers in which he would otherwise be overwhelmed. But the greatest objection to the general use of the kite is, that in the- usual mode of flying we have no command of it except that of letting it go higher or hauhng it in at the risk of breaking the line ; this has been met by a very ingenious invention, and although it is patented, we think that we may do the public some service, and Mr, Pocock, the patentee, no harm, by describing it. rOCOCK'3 KITE. The common form uf kite is best. The standard is made into two or three equal lengths, connected cither by fishing-rod, by tent-pole, or by 184 Shifts and Expedients of parasol joints ; the wings have hinges at the head of the standard^ and, if largo, joints in each pinion. The flight band consists of two lines, the uppermost of which has an eye upon it through which the lower, called the brace line, reeves, and both come down to the hand of the con- ductor, and by those the deviation of the standard from the perpen- dicular is controlled. By hauling on the brace line the surface is opposed fairly to the full strength of the wind (Fig. 1) ; by slackening it the kite floats more horizontally, allowing the wind to pass gently beneath it, so that even in the strongest gale the power may be regu- lated at pleasure (Fig. 3). The power may be increased by backing the first with a second kite as in Fig. 2, all the lines of the second kite being made fast to their corresponding places on the first, so that both assume the same relative position in all cases. Two smaller lines from the wings, also passing through eyes on the upper line, act as braces by which to trim the kite upon a wind; and it appears from a diagram given by the inventor that a vessel braced sharp up will lie within about five and a half points of the wind, or as close as most vessels can with their usual sails, and, there- fore, may turn to windward. With a kite the operation of tacking would be very easy. Even should the boat not answer her helm, the kite line taken aft would bring her head up to the wind, and, being carried round on the other quarter, and again forward to its proper place, would help her to her proper course ; and in manoeuvring the absence of masts would be an advantage rather than not. A carriage with the fore wheels capable of being turned by a tiller would also turn to windward, and the draught power might be increased at pleasure by backing one kite with another, the connecting lines all being fastened in their proper places, as in the illustration (p. 183), so that whatever change of position was imparted to the lowermost kite might be also assumed by all that were harnessed to it. Signals by day or night might be sent up with great facihty by hitching the halyard block upon any part of the kite line, when the flags or lanterns might be sent far above any spars or sails that could obstruct the view of them. In case of shipwreck, even a common kite extemporined with the roughest materials would very generally be useful. ^^ licn the ship is on a lee shore, a common kite, flown fi'om on board, Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 185 could not fail to bring a line to land, and, with this communication onco established, all hands could probably be saved. Their own boat might be veered ashore, or the men sling themselves with grummets and warp themselves hand over hand ; or if passengers are on board, a cot or hammock, slung to notched blocks running on a hawser with a line to haul it back to the vessel, and one to bring it again towards tho shore, might be employed. But with kites rigged as we have described, there would have been a greater chance of safety, for they may be braced to fly three and a half points either way from the direction of the wind, and if they are employed to carry a grapnel or small kedge, they may be braced and veered within a limit of seven points of the compass towards a suitable spot ; may be lowered gradually by the slacking of the brace line, and, if the hold is not good, again elevated by hauling it in, to drop the anchor in a more suitable spot. In our full-page illustration the extemporised kite is not so completely rigged, but the flight line is led through a block, so that the wrecked crew could make fast to one end a stronger line ; and, having hauled that through, could next bend on a sufficiently stout hawser. The inventor states that he has travelled in a carriage, at twenty miles per hour ; that a boat so di'awn outsailed the speediest vessels of the usual rig; that a lady ascended to a height of a hundred yards ; and that his son, with a 30ft. kite, scaled a clift 200ft. high. Tho main and brace line of a kite of this size were ^in. in diameter, the braces (proper) were somewhat smaller. The discovery that a statue once stood on Pompey^s Pillar was made by some merchant captains who ascended it by means of a line carried over by a kite. The canoe or boat voyager should at all times pay particular attention to the instructions which foretell the approach of storms ; these are not at all times so unmistakable as to enable him to surely ^ 1 • T r ^ • ^ i-iii Wcatlier sigus. count on the kind of day or mght which he has to pass through ; still, the remarks of the late Admiral Fitzroy, pubHshed by the Board of Trade, are of much practical value : "Whether clear or cloudy, a rosy sky at sunset presages fine 186 Shifts and Ej'jyediGnts of weather; a red sky in the morning, bad weather, or much wind (perhaps rain) ; a grey sky in the morning, fine weather ; a high dawn, wind j a low dawn, fair weather. Soft-looking or delicate cloads fore- tell fine weather, with moderate or light breezes ; hard-edged oily- looking clouds, wind. A dark, gloomy blue sky is windy ; but a light, bright blue sky indicates fine weather. Generally, the softer the clouds look, the less wind (but, perhaps, more rain) may be expected ; and the harder, more 'greasy,' rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the comiug wind will prove. Also, a bright yellow sky at sunset presages wind ; a pale yellow, wet ; and thus, by the prevalence of red, yellow, or grey tints, the coming weather may be foretold very nearly, indeed, if aided by instruments, almost exactly. Small inky -looking clouds foretell rain ; light scud-clouds driving across heavy masses show wind and rain ; but, if alone, may indicate wind only. High upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or stars, in a direction difierent from that of the lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, foretell a change of wind. When sea-birds fly out early, and far to seaward, moderate wind and fair weather may be expected ; when they hang about the land, or over it, sometimes flying inland, expect a strong wind with stormy weather. There arc other signs of a coming change in the weather known less generally than may be desirable, and, therefore, worth notice ; such as when birds of long flight, rooks, swallows, or others, hang about home, or fly up and down or low — ^rain or wind may be expected. Also, when animals seek sheltered places, instead of spreading over their usual range ; when pigs carry straw to their sties ; when smoke from chimneys does not ascend readily (or straight upwards during calm), an unfavoui-able change is probable. Dew is an indication of fine weather : so is fog. Neither of these two formations occur under an overcast sky, or when there is much wind. One sees fog occasionally rolled away, as it were, by wind, but seldom or never formed while it is blowing.*' The traveller will not unfrequently wish to render sailcloth, W;itLriiroofin<^ duck, calico, and other materials water-proof; few handy methods surpass that of the Chinese. They proceed as follows: to every ounce of melted white wax is added Oamp Life, Travel, and Eicploration. 187 one quart of spirits of turpentine. The mixture must be stirred with a stick until quite cold, when the material to be treated is thoroughly dipped, allowed to drain out, and then finally hung by the corners in a current of air to dry. In making common tarpaulins it is well to soak the canvas thoroughly in sea-water before laying on the dressing, and as the water evaporates the tar penetrates the fabric. In Africa we used the acrid milky juice of the Euphorhium, mixed with a little boiled oil, on calico. It was very flexible, and perfectly protected a common open packing-case, with books and papers, on the deck of the vessel from the Cape to London. Boiled Unseed oil, when allowed to soak into linen or cotton cloth, much increases its power of resisting the action of water. To those who are engaged in boat expeditions, researches along the sea-coast, or lake investigations, it is of the greatest importance to be able to see far down into the depths below; The deep-water glass, as, for example, for the recovery of sunken seals, which often go to the bottom like lead when struck dead by a shot, the examination of rocks, and the detection of lost objects. The late Mr. Wheelwright gives such a thoroughly practical account of his deep- water glass that we insert it in his own words : "^ I have had a Little experience myself in seal-shooting off our north-west coast, and when I first began I had the mortification of seeing many a seal which I had shot stone dead go down like a plummet, and we lost him. But after- wards we used a seal-glass, a kind of machine very similar to a small hand-churn, like a bucket, about one yard high, tapering towards the top, about 9in. wide at the top and 18in. at the bottom. Of course the top was open, and in the middle of the bottom was fitted a square piece of glass (I believe common window glass) . As soon as a seal sunk dead, we cast over a small buoy, kept in its place by a grapnel, as near the spot where the seal sank as possible, and then we examined the bottom after this fashion : We sunk the glass over the boat's side (just where we fiincied the dead seal lay) into the water, within about two inches of the top (glass downwards), and by steadily looking down through the httlc glass window we could distinctly see the bottom of the sea and what lay on it. As soon as wc saw the dead seal we 188 Shifts and Expedients of hooked him up with a lino and a drag. I don^t know what is the greatest depth of Avater in which such a glass is available, and it is now some time since I used one ; but I am sure I have often seen a dead seal lying in eight or ten fathoms ; and just round the rocks where we shot the seals the water was never very deep, but still we rarely could see the bottom with the naked eye. I do not beheve the glass at all has any magnifying properties, but I suppose the focus of vision is better concentrated below the surface of the waves in the comparatively still water. I was at this time living with one of the Customs' officers on the coast, who often used such a glass with great success in finding kegs that were sunk by smugglers off this coast. Our remarks and directions concerning the various means which may be had recourse to for traversing rivers, lakes, and the sea would Treatment of the ^® incomplete without instructions for the restora- apparently drowned, ^^q^ ^f ^j^g apparently drowned. None that can be drawn up are more perfect than those given by the authority of the Eoyal Lifeboat Institution, which were published, with some of the following remarks, in the Field newspaper some short time since : — " Hanging the body up by the heels to drain out the water which is supposed to have been swallowed, is not one of the least injurious of the popular expedients in cases of suspended animation, and it is, in itself, sufficient to keep up the engorgement of the brain, which is one of the chief dangers to be apprehended. So, also, warm baths, tobacco smoke, and other depressing influences, should be strictly prohibited j and also that horrible practice of rolling the body over and over, which is so frequently adopted by those who are ignorant of its effects. The Royal National Lifeboat Institution and Humane Society constantly circulate printed papers containing cautions against the adoption of these expedients ; but, unfortunately, they are seldom to be met with when they are wanted, and, on that account, we venture to impress upon our readers the importance of making them- selves intimately acquainted not only with the objectionable practices to which we have alluded, but also with the methods which scientific men are agi-eod upon as those most Ukely to restore the circulation and respiration. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 189 " In the first place, it may be observed that for several hours after the submersion all hope of recovery should not be given up, unless it is declared by a medical man of experience that life is extinct. The signs by which this opinion may be formed are pretty clear to him, but by an ordinary spectator they are" liable to be mistaken, since they are all more or less comparative in their nature. When, however, for half an hour there is not the slightest evidence of breathing, or of the action of the heart — when the eyelids are half closed, with the pupils turned upwards and dilated, the jaws clenched, and the fingers semi- contracted — there is httle doubt about the result, especially if the tongue is partially protruded, and the lips and nostrils are covered with frothy mucus. The temperature of the body is often not a rehable sign, because that is kept up by artificial means; but if, in spite of those, and in addition to the existence of the above symptoms, the coldness of the surface is very manifest, even if there is no medical authority for the relaxation of all efibrts at restoration, it can serve little purpose to persevere. Still it is better to err on the safe side, and in this country there is seldom a long interval of doubt. " But supposing a body to be brought out of the watei', it becomes a question, What shall be done ? Shall it be taken to the nearest house, or at once be treated on the spot ? The answer is, proceed at once in the open air, whether on shore or afloat, and lose not a moment in the attempt to restore hreatJiing, and keep up the temperature of the body by the application of dry heat. The first of these is the main object, and the second must be for a short time sacrificed to it, but only for a few minutes, after which the two objects must be jointly pursued. These efibrts must be continued energetically till they are either found to be successful, or declared to be useless. Should the breathing be restored, the circulation should next be encouraged by rubbing the limbs in the direction of the heart, with firm and steady pressure, and with the aid, if possible, of warm flannels or silk hand- kerchiefs, protected by a blanket over all. Beyond these general d^ections, however, it is necessary to give others more minute, aud this will be best done in the words used in the printed directions of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, which are given in a succinct tabular form, and should be hung up in every public place near which 190 Skiffs and ExjycJionts of accidental drowniug is at all likely to occur.' follow : TO RESTORE BREATHING. To clear the Throat. 1. Placo the patient on thcf floor or ground with his face downwards, and ono of his arms under the forehead, in which position all fluids will escape by the mouth, and tho tongue itself will fall forward, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. Assist this operation by wiping and cleansing the mouth. 2. If satisfactory breathing commences, adopt the treatment described below to promote warmth and natural breathing. If there bo only slight breathing, or no breath- ing, or if it fail, then — To excite Breathing — 3. Turn the patient well and instantly on tho side, and — 4. Excite the nostrils with snuff, harts- horn, smelling salts, or tickle tho throat with a feather, &c., if they are at hand. Rub the chest and face warm, and dash cold water on it. 5. If there be no success, lose not a moment, but instantly To imitate Breathing — 6. Replace the patient on the face, raising and supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress. 7. Turu the body very gently on the side and a little beyond, and then briskly on the face, Ijack again ; repeating these measures deliberately, efficiently, and perseveriugly These directions are as TO PREVENT ANY FURTHER DIMINUTION OP WARMTH. N.B.— These efforts must be made very cau- tiously, and must not bo such as to promote Warmth and circulation rajndly ; for if circula- tion is induced before breathing has been re- stored, the life of the patient will bo en- dangered. No other effect, therefore, should bo sought from them, than the prevention of evaporation, and its re- sult, the diminution of the warmth of the body. 1. Expose the face, neck, and chest, except in severe weather (such as heavy rain, frost, or snow) . 2. Dry the face, neck, and chest, as soon as possible with handker- chiefs or anything at hand; and then dry the hands and feet. Camp Life, Travel, and ETploration. 191 3. As soon as a blan- ket or other covering can bo obtained^ strip the body; but if no covering can be imme- diately procured, take dry clothing from tlio bystanders^ dry and re- clothe the body, taking care nbt to interfere with the efforts to re- store breathing. about fifteen times in the minute, or once every four seconds, occasionally varying the side : \Jnj placing the patient on the chest, the weight of the body forces the air out ; when turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and air enters the chest."] 8. On each occasion that the body is replaced on the face, make uniform but efficient pressure with brisk movement, on the back between and below the shoulder- blades or bones on each side, removing the pressure immediately before turning the body on the side : [the first measure increases the expiration, the second commences inspiration.'] *;};* The result is — Respiration or Natural Breathing ; and, if not too late. Life. Cautions. 1. Be particularly careful to prevent per- sons crowding round the body. 2. Avoid all rough usage and turning tlie body on the back. 3. Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet. N.B. The directions are printed in parallel columns to avoid con- fusion, and to insure that the efforts to obtain both objects shall bo carried on at the same time. 192 Shifts and Expedients of CHAPTER- III. WORKING IN METALS. It would be of great advantage to every traveller if before starting on an expedition he were to spend a few bours in learning from a blacksmith how to weld together two pieces of iron, and from a tinman how to solder tin or copper. In the absence of this experience, a man who is determined to help himself need not despair of success if he will bear in mind that the chief essentials in both cases are proper heat, strict cleanliness, and sufficient quickness of manipulation without hurry. If the traveller possesses a portable forge, it is most likely he will have learned how to use it before starting ; if not, he may in many countries. South Africa especially, find almost in every tribe some native who could make one ; or if not, he might adopt some of the expedients described under that head. His first care should be to see that his fire burns clearly and with suffit^ient intensity, and this he may aid by occasionally dashing in a little water, which, by the decomposition of the gases, will increase the heat under the direct blast, while the surplus, falling on the surrounding coal, will prevent the fire spreading farther than is requisite. The broken ends of the iron to be rejoined should then be placed in the fire, one of them in the centre of the heat, and the other near enough to acquire a preparatory warmth ; the first, heated to a bright orange red, should bo taken out and thickened by stamping the broken point upon the anvil till it is considerably shorter than before ; if the heat is sufficient, the scarf, or smooth diagonal surface which is to form one part of the welded joint, may bo worked upon it ; if not, it must be returned to the fire v,diilc the other part is taken out and driven up in the same manner. In using the hammer, some care is noodful to proportion the force of the blow to the size and comparative heat of the metal you are working, and also to turn the Carap Life, Travel, and Exploration. 193 iron under the hammer so that each stroke shall help to consolidate the mass instead of splitting it into fibres. When the surfaces of the scarf are worked smooth, fair, and perfectly free from scales or dirt of any kind, place them side by side in the fire and bring them to an intense white heat, so that when drawn forth they may almost spontaneously give off small white sparks. We would add a caution against bm-ning the iron, or partially fusing it, by too much heat, but we do not think a traveller with an extempore forge is in much danger of doing this. The anvil should now be perfectly clean ; the " smith,^' with his hammer ready in his right hand, should grasp with his left one of the pieces while his attendant draws out the other and lays it with the scarfed side uppermost on the anvil ; prompt action without hurry is now the one thing needful : the smith withdraws his piece, lays it with its scarf turned downwards on that of the assistant's, and with one decisive stroke of the hand-hammer unites them ; a few more smart and rapid strokes while the iron is slightly turned to and fro to receive them properly, complete the union ; and when the first heat is lost the iron is again put into the fire, and the joint which, owing to the thickening and shortening previously described, should present a clumsy appearance, may be trimmed and hammered down to its proper dimensions, the iron, if this is neatly done, having lost but little of its original length; and it is now for the operator to judge whether he will restore this by beating the metal a little thinner or sacrifice a little of it for the sake of retaining the original thickness. Among the Kafirs a rock is most frequently used for an anvil, and a smaller stone for a hammer. The West Africans use a conical block of iron, about the size and shape of the link extin- guishers, some of which may yet be seen before old houses in London. The work has, in consequence, a slightly indented appearance, which distinguishes it from the smooth-faced hammer-work of England ; but their weapons are of excellent metal, and so flexible, that they will almost tie in a knot rather than break. The Abyssinians also use weapons of this temper ; for they say if a steel sword breaks, who can mend it, but if it bends we can sit on it and straighten it. We have often made very good knives for skinning or cutting up animals from the handles of broken gridirons, frying-pans, stout hoop, 194 Shiftfi and Expedients of or other bits of iron. Brokeu slieep-shears are also excellent substi- tutes. The hoop iron used to bind the bundles of compressed hay Scrap and issued to troop horses can be made use of for an hoop iron, i^nmeuse number of useful purposes. The walls of many of the stables we erected in the Crimea were composed entirely of this material, closely interwoven, Kke basketwork. Excellent gabions can be made from it, as can the framework of hut roofs. A piece a couple of yards long, doubled forward and back in zigzag form, makes an excellent gridiron. Short pieces, straightened out by hammering, form useful make-shift knife blades for the use of native servants. Tent poles are greatly strengthened by having a spiral strapping of this iron nailed to them. Saws for cutting or rather fretting blocks of stone can be made by stretching a strip of this material edgewise in a wooden frame, aided by water, sharp sand, and a suitable balance weight, such as marble masons use. Excellent eel traps are made by arranging long strips of hoop for a body, and then securing them by small nails, as rivets, to hoops made from the same material. Eel traps will be fully described under the head of ''Fishing." We once made a complete set of bars for the bottom and front of a camp stove entirely of forage hoop iron, made a scraper for the door, a set of hooks for a gun rack, and a set of cross hooks to hang meat on. Never heedlessly throw away forage iron. Trimming and filing up are matters which may be left very much to the taste and opportunities of the traveller, but it should be remembered that, cceteris ])arihus, a neatly finished piece of work, besides being more satisfactory to the eye, is in itself stronger, as the inequalities, flakes, flaws, or roughnesses of the surface, which, under any strain, might form the commencement of a fracture, are removed ; and besides this, especially in wet climates, a well smoothed piece of work is less liable to rust in patches than one of unequal surface. If you intend to file- finish your work, remember to let it cool slowly, and do not harden it by immersion in water. In some cases incisions may bo required, too sharp or clean to be The use of cold or of ^ut with a file, and, if proper care bo taken, a fine, sharp, joiner's chisel maybe used without more injury than may be set right by fresh grinding it; it is advisable, however. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 195 first to render the angle at whicli tlie edge is set a little more obtuse, so as to lessen the danger of flawing it, taking care at the same time to keep it as keen as possible. In all expeditions in which wheeled vehicles are used, nothing causes more trouble than the loosening of the tires, owing to the shrinking of the woodwork, and possibly some slight Tires expansion of the metal, from the heavy pressure on ^^^ wheels, the rough roads, as well as from the intense heat of a tropical climate. If sufficient skill be available, the proper course is to cut and shorten the tire, for all other make-shifts have the disadvantage either of being insecure, or positively injurious to the fabric of the wheel. Supposing the shortening to be determined on, the tire must be taken off, and if, as is frequently the case, it be fastened with rivets through the felloes, the clinch on the inner ends of the bolts must be first cut or filed away, the " washers ^^ or iron rings taken off, and the rivets themselves driven back with a long punch or drift pin ; the '' band " or tire will then either fall off or require but a few blows to detach it. The streaks used to protect the wheels of field artiUery guns and waggons are removed and replaced separately. It is impossible to measure the relative circumference of the felloes and the inner side of the band without an instrument similar to the perambulator; i. e. a wheel or disc of wood or metal, mounted on a handle. A chalk mark is made on the felloe and a corresponding one on the edge of the disc ; the two are set together, and the disc — say 1ft. 6in. in cii'cumference — will then revolve perhaps ten and a half times in going round the hinder wheel of a Cape waggon of about 5ft. diameter. As soon as the disc has again reached the starting point another chalk mark is to be made upon it, and the distance between the two marks on the disc, say 9in., is to be added to the number of revolu- tions counted ; it is then to be applied to the inner side of the band, the ten revolutions counted ofi", the additional 9in. to be run, and the distance between the starting point and the finish of its course is the amount by which the band is too long. Some judgment is required to decide whether more or less than this piece shall be taken out. If the wheel looks very firm and close in its joints, perhaps a little less should be cut, as the overlapping of the weld will take up a trifle — especially if o2 196 Shifts and Expedients of it be not very skilfully and neatly done ; if the wheel is loose and the spokes not. firmly shouldered up to the nave, a little more may be taken away; and in this case it is proper to estimate whether the felloes will close up sufficiently to force the spokes home upon the nave ; if not, the ends of four or more felloes opposite each other should be cut a trifle shorter with a fine tenon saw, great care being taken not to cut the dowels by which the ends of the felloes are kept true to each other. A smooth, hard place must now be sought out, on which the wheel can be laid flat, the front downwards, a hole being dug, if necessary, for the reception of the nave ; flat stones, plates of iron, or slabs of hard wood, laid evenly under the circumference, would be of advantage when the shortened band is to be driven on. The next essentials are plenty of water and abundance of heating power. The ends of the band must now be heated, and the smith will bevel off each of them, one from the inside and the other from the out, so as to form the scarf; an attendant or two holding the band, as he directs, upon the anvil. The tire should now be reversed, and the curvature increased by resting it on two points of suppox't and striking heavily between them on its inner surface till the scarfed ends close upon and begin to overlap each other. It is again placed in the fire with the ends equally exposed to the intense heat, and at the proper moment is lifted out by two attendants and promptly, but carefully, placed upon the anvil; a few smart decisive blows are given, and the joint is made. The hammer man now comes to the assistance of the smith and consolidates it by striking alternate blows with the " sledge," under his direction. The circumference is again tried with the revolving disc, and if it be too short, as it ought rather to be, it is again heated and hammered out, the weld, if this be rightly done, gaining solidity in the process. The band is then laid upon the ground and a fire of wood, dry cow dung, or other material made, so as to heat it to redness through its whole circumference. It is then lifted by tongs or other means (if hooks are used they must bo applied from the outside), and placed upon the wheel, and, as quickly as possible, hammered down nearly into its true position. The workmen will soon find what '' smoke to the eyes " is like, but they must disregard this, and, before the wood is too much burned away, quantities of cold water must be dashed on, Oamjp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 197 the hammer men all the while beating down the shrinking band to a level with the felloes ; before it is quite cold the wheel should be caught up and brought to the anvil, or a smooth rock, where the tire is faced up true to the felloe front by heavy blows, and finally cooled off and tightened by another deluge of cold water. Everything depends upon prompt action ; and the tiring of a set of waggon wheels at some out station is really an exciting event, at which all hands are required to work with a will. Not unfrequently the " schammel-bolt " or perch-bolt will give way in the grip, and if this flaw be detected in time, and the bolt be long enough, the evil day may be staved ofi" by removing Repair of perch- it, boring a hole through the "buik" plank or floor ^*^^*®- of the waggon, right above, and dropping the bolt down through it so that its head remains Sin. or 4in. higher than before, and the nip is brought upon a fresh place, as shown by the dotted line above H (p. 216). For small work, the " reim schoen," or di-ag, turned up upon a block of wood, will form a very decent anvil; and the next essential is a vice, which ought to be as large and powerful as Extempore anvila can be carried. A weak inefficient vice is worse than ^^^ '^^'^'^^• useless. The means of attaching it ought also to be good, for if it is not firmly fixed no work can be properly finished in it. No part of the waggon ought to be used as a holdfast for the vice, unless indeed it were properly fitted with iron guards for that purpose before starting, for the claws and screw-bolts would speedily tear and split the wood, and only damage the vehicle to no purpose. It would generally be better to cut down a convenient tree, leaving a stump about S^ft. high, and in this to cut a niche, partly to let the vice in : it might then be secured by hoops of iron, if available, such as the nave bands, or anything similar, tightened with wedges, and lashed in its place by thongs of raw hide, which, when they dry, acquire almost the rigidity of iron. If the vice cannot be fixed firmly, it is better to cut with the saw a deep groove down into the solid stump, and, having inserted the iron you wish to file, to tighten it with wedges, screws, lashings, or such other appliances as you may have at hand (p. 166). 198 Shifts and Expedients of The tapping of screws ou bolts or nuts, especially if of any size, requires that the work be firmly held; but we should rather advise that duplicate bolts and nuts of the principal sizes used in waggon ■y^ork — ^iu., fin., |in., and lin. — be carried, as a set of taps and dies could not bo had even in Cape Town for much less than £5, and an unskilled hand would be more likely to break the instruments than use them to advantage. For the smaller sizes, suitable for gun- locks, &c., a plate and set of taps might advantageously be carried. Sometimes a bolt, rod of iron, or a gun-barrel, has to be cut off to a given length, and the most convenient way of doing this is to file Cutting bolts and ^ ^'^^ ^^ small teeth upon the back of a handsaw, gun-barrels. ^^^ with it to saw ofi" the superfluous iron : the first illustration shows the manner of cutting the teeth, and their exact size and shape. Always put in a bit of copper, lead, or leather- to protect the gun-barrels from the grip of the vice. It may, perhaps. be well to remark here, that nearly all Russian saws are made to cut backwards, and all the gun breech-screws made in that country are cut the reverse way to ours. Camp Life, Travel, and E.cjjIurattoii. 199 For repairs of guns, it is well to have sufficient wire of different thicknesses ; but when a hardened pivot is required, a broken gimlet or a bradawl will often supply the material ; and we have before now earned a goat or sheep for dinner by supplying in this manner some deficiency in the arms brought to the white man to be repaired. It is convenient to buy a musket-lock or two before starting, and to save all sorts of screws, tumblers, springs, &c., out of old locks. We were once asked, far away in Namaqualand, to perform no less a service for a friend than to put a new hammer on his gun. Modest disclaimers of ability were not received, and there Avas nothing left but to do our best. We found a bit of flat iron, which, fortu- nately, had a hole in it : this wo first squared up with a small " three- square" file, and then fitting it to the tumbler, and making sure that the flat surface of the hammer should strike upon the nipple, laboriously cut and filed away the intermediate parts, and before morning the hammer was fixed. Mr. Rae, the engineer of the Zambesi expedition, proceeded more scientifically; ho employed a native to weld up a quantity of iron hooping into a plate quite thick and large enough to make the hammer, then, drawing the outline, he bored small holes close together all round it, broke off the superfluous iron, and finished with the file. On one occasion we were unfortunate enough to break the little S-shaped bridle which connects the claw of the mainspring with the arm of the tumbler. Most of our readers will remember that this portion of a gun-lock is of a most peculiar form, being not only S-shaped, but flat-cheeked and T-ended. Notwithstanding the apparently com- plicated nature of the undertaking, a nev/ one had to be made ; so we proceeded as follows : — One of our small mining picks chanced to have an iron wedge (which had originally been cut from an old patten iron) in the handle. This we softened in the fire, worked into form on the head of an upturned hammer with one of smaller size, and then roughly finished it up with a handsaw file. The screw hole had then to be made, and, as we had no drill, we took the scissors from our fishing-book, ground down the point on our bit of Turkey hone, tempered it in the candle, and then, by dint of hard laboiir and persistent boring, made a hole through the end of the bridle. We then gave our work a few finishing 200 Shifts and Expedients of touches, tied it np iu a bit of old leather, heated it in the fire, plunged it in water to case-harden, and then secured it in the lock, where it performed its work well until we parted with the gun so repaired. Most of tho hunters in South Africa find that ivory, from its agreeable creamy white, is better adapted for the '' korel," or front sight of a gun, than the polished metal used for that '" " ° "^ ' purpose by the maker. Sometimes the sight is accidontally lost,, and has to be replaced; but more frequently the dazzling bit of metal is purposely knocked off. A broad flat groove, say ^in. broad, or as wide as a handsaw file, and ijjin. deep, is cut across the midrib of the gun (Fig. 1), and the edges of this are under cut, either with a sharp-edged file, or, if the operator iA^nM . is expert in the use of tools, with a chisel and mallet. A piece of ivory (Fig. 3), cut so that the grain runs with the length of the ban'el, and with an elevated ridge left in the centre, is then fitted tightly in, adjusted as nearly as possible, and the metal clinched down upon it ; then the cen- tral ridge is filed on either side until, by occasionally firing at a mark, the gun is found to shoot without lateral deviation. It should, in the beginning, be considerably too high, and should then be filed down so a3 to carry the bullet point blank to its mark at a hundred yards. If the back sight is lost, cut a notch across the midrib as before, and fashion a piece of iron (Fig. 2) to the same shape as you did your ivury, only let the elevated ridge in this case be across the barrel. File Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 201 a notch in the centre, and leave the iron a little wider than the rib, so that it may admit of being driven a little to either side, and the superfluous metal filed off when the adjustment is nearly perfected. Mark it, and take it out to do this ; then put it in again, clinch it, and test it by firing at a mark. Figs. 4 and 5 represent the position of the two sights. If the gun shoots to the right, shift the back sight (Fig. 6) to the left and the front sight (Fig. 7) to the right ; if to the left, shift the back sight (Fig. 8) to the right, and the front one (Fig. 9) to the left. If the gun shoots too low, file down the front sight ; if too high, file down the notch of the back sight. In one of our own rifles the front sight was, as usual in military pat- terns, based on the block of iron which forms the check for the bayonet (Fig. 11). We did not remove this, but cut behind it a very shallow groove an inch broad, and in this fixed and soldered a piece of iron with a longi- tudinal groove, to carry a knife- edged sight of ivory, as seen in Fig. 10. For night shooting, we used the only sixpence to be found amongst our party; bending and polishing it and clinching it on to a saddle of zinc painted black. Holes were punched in this for leather thongs, and in front was a notch cut to fit the actual sight, and so insure the central position of the silver one when in use (Fig. 13). By day the saddle was turned beneath the barrel (Fig. 12), and the little flat thongs of antelope hide i: CJTCH PCE^ <77/'i OOtvtCA 202 Shifts and Expedients of were not at all in the way. With guns not of mihtary pattern the sight could not so conveniently be turned under, but would have to be removed by day ; but we should think a broad silver sight might be fixed on a steel spring on the rib behind the sight, with a broad ring to slip over and keep it down by day, as in Fig. 15, or to draw back and let it rise into view by night as in Fig. 14 (p. 201). For the same purpose our late friend, C. J. Andersson, used to wrap a bit of white paper round the muzzle of his gun, pinching it up in the centre, or laying a cord under it to give it a little elevation (Fig. 16). As a protection, and also for the contrast of the colours, the Dutch, and many of the English colonists, stitch very tightly over all a bit of skin from the inside of the elephant's ear (Fig. 1 7) . This is very fine, exceedingly strong, and, when rubbed with a little grease, intensely black ; it is then very carefully cut, to allow the front sight to appear through, and left to dry. Another advantage of this plan is, that it corrects the errors often caused by the mirage or refraction of the sun's rays from the polished barrel, which, especially in the tropics, causes the object aimed at to become indistinct, to assume the appear- ance of motion, and to be seen sometimes considerably above its true position, thereby causing the marksman to miss by shooting over it. No wise traveller ever encumbers himself with a long sword or bayonet of ordinary pattern ; but every one carries a sheath knife, of from Sheath knives ^^^- ^^ 12in. in the blade; and the handle of this or bayonets. ought to be made so that it may fix as a bayonet on his gun. We have seen natives considerably astonished by this sudden conversion of our gun into a spear to kill a wounded animal. If the knife handle were simply made round, so as to stick into the barrel, like the bayonet of old times, it would be better than nothing ; but if the side-springs were generally adopted, it might be well to arm our troops, intended for service in wild countries, with a good serviceable sheath knife, of Sin. or lOin. in the blade, to be used for general purposes, and fixed as a bayonet when wanted, rather than with the orthodox triangular needle, that is only of use in opportunities that occur but rarely. We remember a party of a certain line regiment coming upon a number of Hottentots, when their ofl&cer ordered them to fix bayonets, forgetting for the moment that as usual they had been Oamjp Life, Travel, and Exjploration. 203 left at home — just as were the swords and steel scabbards of the Cape Corps — lest their rattling should give warning to the crafty foe. It is a common custom in India, when real work has to be done, to throw aside the steel scabbards and replace them with wooden ones, which have the double advantage of being noiseless and a preservative to the edge of the sword. We have heard a man of the Rifle Brigade say, he should not fear even though lost in the bush. " Shoot the first Kafir that attacks you," said he, " and arm yourself with his assegai, and no other will come near you." Our allies, the Fingoes, in the war of 1850-53, generally carried one or more assegais, using the shaft as a ramrod, or holding two of them crosswise in the left hand as a rest for the mus- ^^ ^^~i^- Jl ket. The Kafirs, when hard pressed, retain the largest _^__^ »_^ assegai, and, breaking off the flBP ^^SSSSt^^i^ \ i! i shaft, use it as a sword or dagger. The contest is often prolonged by picking up the assegais thrown by the other party, and sending them back again. To prevent this, sometimes a tribe, bent on a sharp decisive conflict, will cut the shaft half through, so that it may break when it strikes, and become useless to the enemy. The Dutch Boer sits down, ^j;i5' rests his elbows on his knees," and j; extending his left arm, with the ramrod grasped firmly and planted on the ground, obtains an almost immovable rest for his heavy roer. Many of them shoot from the left shoulder, and some few can shoot from either shoulder equally well — an immense advantage if a man oi; horseback is surrounded by enemies. THE ArSEOAI GUN REST. 204 Shifts and Expedients of In an out-of-the way corner of Central India we were so unfortunate as to lose our watch-key — the last of three. This we replaced as Watch-key follows : We first routed out a piece of soft steel about to make. ^j^g gj^e of a small black-lead pencil. After filing off one end perfectly flush, we placed it in the fire, whilst we pre- pared the square end of a saddler^s awl by grinding it to the exact size of the key-square of the fusee of the watch. When the steel was heated to a cherry red, we fixed it upright in the vice, and then supporting the bit of awl with a pair of pliers we, with a light hammer, drove it a fair distance into the steel bar. When it cooled^ it was reheated, and the bit of awl di'iven deeper, until a square hole of sufficient depth was formed. The bar was then filed down to the size of the key-hole of the watch. The requisite length was then cut off; the end flattened out for a thumb-piece ; and a hole drilled in it to pass a thin strip of tendon through, A few finishing touches were given with a fine file ; the work was heated to a blue heat on a bit of red-hot iron, and was then dropped into a cup of water. So we made our watch-key, which did its work well thi^ough about 4000 miles of travelling, and was as good as new when we returned to England with it hanging at our whip-cord watch-guard. In all cases in which heat is required for iron work care should be taken that the fire is perfectly clear, especially if it has been previously used for melting lead, when any dross or other Tools, to temper. extraneous matter should be scrupulously cleared out. Sulphur iu auy form is most destructive. It would be well that the operator should learn before starting how to work up and fresh temper a cold chisel, or punch, or even to make one if needful out of a broken file or rasp ; of course, the punch is round, square, or octagonal, according to circumstances, and generally flat at the end to drive back the nail or bolt that is to be withdrawn. Sometimes a tapered point on a triangular instrument, such as a handsaw file, with the edges sharpened, is useful for driving into a broken nipple, and by turning it against the sun to extract it when sufficient hold has not been left for the usual nipple key. The cold chisel is first forged to a chisel edge, more or less finely tapering according to the strength required, the two sides forming an angle of about 15° to 20° with each other; the cantlo is then filed or ground till its sides form an angle of from Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 205 45° to 90° ; it is theii heated to a cherry red, and dipped in water cautiously at first, being frequently taken out and watched during the process till it assumes a pale straw colour, a deeper tint or even a deep blue or purple, according to the degree of hardness required, and is finally ground sharp upon a stone with plenty of cold water. Small tools may be tempered by laying them on a piece of red-hot iron, such as a bit of waggon-wheel tire ; the changing colours should be watched, and when the desired tint appears the tool may be plunged into water. Should it be too hard the temper may be reduced by dry grinding; when a temper not quite so hard and less liable to fly is required, it may be given by cooling the steel in grease or oil. The tools carried for this purpose must vary according to the means of conveyance. On the North Austrahan Expedition we had a portable forge, which remained at the main camp, but on our inland journeys with packed horses we took as many horse-shoes as were thought requisite, a small hand hammer, a pair of tongs, a few files, rasps and punches, and a supply of nails. It not unfrequently happens that some object, such as a fish- hook, key, portion of a gun-lock, or gun furniture, will require being so treated as to harden the surface whilst toughness Caae-hardemng. of texture is retained. This process is known as case-hardening, which is, as its name implies, one by which a hard case or crust is formed over the surfaces of the articles operated on. There are numerous instruments and contrivances in constant use in the construction of which the toughness of iron combined with the hardness of steel, communicated by the process about to be described, is taken advantage of. Gun furniture, fish-hooks, and handcufis are examples, the latter most remarkedly so, as, were they composed of ordinary iron, nothing would be more easy than to file or saw them through; if of steel, a blow with a stone, or any other heavy substance, would break them as though made of earthenware. When case-hardened neither of these devices is available. Too hard to cut, too tough to break, the metal is all that can be desired. Having fashioned, filed up, and finished the article or articles in hand, procure a fair quantity of leather cuttings, orhorsehoof parings. These should be roasted crisp, and pounded up until a sufficient quantity of coarse powder is obtained to bury the " work " 206 SMfU and Expedients of when laid in a littlo iron box, which can be conveniently made by doubling up the edges and ends of a bit of sheet iron. In the absence of iron, clay may be used to form the box. This, when filled and gently pressed down, must be placed, when diy, in a clear bright fire, and heated up to a blood red heat, at which temperature it should be allowed to remain for a short time, taking care not to increase it. The box and its contents may then be withdrawn with the tongs, and thrown into a pail of cold water. The work may, when cold, be washed and brushed clean, made thoroughly dry, oiled, and put aside for use. Ferrocyanide of potassium is also extensively used for case-hardening, being either sprinkled over the work when hot, or mixed with some convenient substance, such as dried cow dung, and placed in the box ; but, unless in the hands of those accustomed to use it, the surfaces of the work at times become '' pitted " from the contact of stray particles of the salt. Professor Church gives the following directions for covering the surfaces of metallic objects with a film of platinum : " Dissolve in loz. To platinise iron, ^f distilled water 60grs. of bichloride of platinum ^^- and 60grs. of pure honey. Add to the above solu- tion |oz. of spirits of wine, and |oz. of ether. The mixed liquids, if not quite clear, must be filtered through a piece of white blotting- paper. The objects to be platinised, wliich may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or brass, are to be thoroughly cleaned by washing them in soda, then in water. When they have been dried they require heating over a lamp to a heat below redness. For this purpose they may be suspended, by means of a fine wire, over a spirit or an oil lamp, in such a way as not to touch the flame. Suddenly, before they have had time to cool, the objects are to be completely plunged beneath the surface of the platinising liquid. One immersion for a single minute generally sufiices, but the process may bo repeated if necessary, care being taken to wash and diy the pieces operated upon before re-heating them. The composition of the solution may vary considerably, and yet good results be obtained. Sometimes the addition of more honey improves it ; sometimes the pro- portion of bichloride of platinum may be increased or diminished with advantage. Indeed, it will be found that the appearance of the platinum Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 207 film deposited upon the objects may be altered by changing the propor- tion of the bichloride present. The solution may be used several times; gradually, however, it loses all its platinum, the place of this element being taken by the iron or copper dissolved ofi* the immersed objects." If the film of platinum deposited by this method is found to be permanently adherent, the plan promises to be very valuable. It would be a great boon to travellers in warm, damp countries to be able to protect iron and steel articles by so simple a process. In the same article Professor Church describes a new and very simple plan of inlaying iron with silver, and also for enamelling metals with different colours. Both these processes really come within the scope of amateurs, and we can strongly recommend the entire paper to those interested in the chemical arts. We may now appropriately mention a few examples where this platinising process seems to furnish desii*able results. Articles made of iron or steel — watch-chains, seals, sword-handles, keys, and similar useful or ornamental objects — are greatly improved in appearance, and, moreover, preserved from all chance of rusting, by this treatment. The colour of the platinum film is of a neutral greyish black, and it often shows at the same time a faint iridescence. Iron or steel which has been inlaid with gold or silver, forming what is known as damascene work, is greatly improved by platinising. Neither the gold nor the silver are in the least degree affected, and they wiU be found to afford a better contrast with the colour of the platinised than with that of the original iron. Iron which has become deeply rusted cannot be platinised by our process. In order, however, to preserve from further destruction objects of steel or iron having an archaeological or to preserve iron artistic interest, a very excellent plan may be used ^^°"^ rusting, as a substitute. The purest white paraffine is to be melted in a clean pan, and maintained at about the temperature of boiling water. The rusted and corroded specimens are to be immersed in this paraffine bath till they cease to froth from escape of moisture. They are then withdrawn, wrapped in blotting-paper, and kept in a warm place till the excess of paraffine has been absorbed. The objects thus treated, while preserved from further decay, do not acquire that disagreeable 208 Shifts and Expedients of greasy aspect wliicli the varuish ordinarily lased imparts. We have been obliged to tar our saw blades^ which was very inconvenient in working, but this was better than having them spoiled by rust. If the traveller has a waggon, as in South Africa, he may either carry a portable forge or trust to finding natives capable of building one and supplying bellows of their own manufacture. Smith's tools. If he thinks the weight of a small anvil too great, he should carry a heavy sledge hammer, which will serve as an anvil for ordinary purposes; two hand hammers of different weights; half-a-dozen pair of tongs, of such form and size as will enable him conveniently to hold the different sizes of work he may find necessary to do; at least a dozen files or more — square, flat, half-round, or rat-tail; and of these the temper should never be destroyed by working with them on iron that has not yet become cool, though occasionally time may be saved by using a worn-out file to work on iron while it is yet hot and comparatively soft ; cold chisels of difierent sizes, from small ones of ^in. or ^in. wide, to be tapped with a small hand hammer, to others of l^in., to be held by pieces of rod iron coiled roimd them, or still better by rods of osier, and to be struck with the sledge hammer ; if there is an anvil, of course a chisel to fix upright in the hole provided will be taken with it ; punches of various sizes, and a stock and set of drills for boring holes up to ^in. in diameter, with rymers, or tapering four-edged tools for gradually enlarging them, and countersinks for letting in the heads of screws, &c., to the surface level. For small work, such as gun-locks, &c., an Archimedean drill and set of bits are very convenient, a hand- vice and set of gunsmith's small files — triangular, square, flat, half-round, round, and knife-edged — should accompany them. A traveller will frequently have occasion either for his own servants or for the natives of the country to put " fresh fire " into the pan cover -, , . of a musket: for this purpose nothing is better Muskets, to repair. r r o than the blade of an old saw, the thinner the better; a piece is broken off", softened and filed down to the exact size; it is then bent so as to fit the face of the pan-cover, and IS bound on to it by several turns of iron wire, not dra^vn so tightly but that bits of copper wire may be thrust beneath them all Oa7np Life, Travel, and E.eploration. 209 round the edges that are to be joined ; borax^ dissolved in water^ is now laid on witb an old brush, and, if necessary, small lumps are also added, and the whole is placed in the fire and heated till the copper melts and brazes the two parts firmly together ; let it cool slowly, finish it carefully with the file, heat it to a dull red, and temper by cooling it in water. Half-ciyilised Hottentots frequently do this. The snoek-hook used in Table Bay is a bit of brass wire as thick as a quill and 7iu. long; the point is filed sharp, and the barb is merely such a triangular notch as might be Fish-hooks, to made with a handsaw file. It is not bent in a true make, sweeping curve, like our fish-hooks, but turned sharply up at about 2in. from the point, so that when the lip is pierced, it slips at once into the sharp bend of the hook, and the struggles of the fish are less likely to break it than they would be if it afibrded the leverage that the usual form of fish-hook gives. (See Fig. 20, p. 211.) Fish-hooks can be made by taking a wire or rod of the required size and softening it by heating it to a bright red and letting it cool very slowly in sawdust or leaving it till the fire dies out ; let the soft end abut against something solid, and, with a sharp chisel and mallet, make a deep cut at such an angle as to form the barb ; file up the point, heat it again, and bend it round a stick of the proper size so that the curve may be true. We have, before now, broken up a gridiron at the galley fire, and with a hook thus formed from one of the bars caught a j'ouug shark, whose flesh formed a very desirable addition to our fare. On another occasion, while exploring a branch of- the Victoria River, in North Australia, we halted, as usual, at noon, with scanty rations, which Mr. Gregox'y improved by taking from his hat a stout sewing needle, softening it in the fire, and bending it into a fish-hook, baited with grasshoppers ; a few strands of thread made a sufficiently strong Hne, a small saphng formed a rod, and, in a few minutes, he had caught three fish, resembling mullet, nearly 18in. long. The needle had done good service, but was too precious to be throwni away, so Mr. Gregory carefully restored it to its pristine straightness, tempered it, and again stuck it in his hat, to be used, when required, for its legitimate purpose. p 210 Shifts and Expedients of It is rather curious that with brass the softening process is the very i*everse of that we use with iron. Heat a bit of brass and plunge it Brass and its i^^^ cold water, and, with a sharp knife or chisel, treatment. y^^ j^g^y. carve it almost like pewter; heat it again when finished, let it cool slowly, and it becomes as hard as before. A traveller in Africa should be well provided with brass, the best form being that of stout wire as thick as stair carpet rods ; this will serve for many useful purposes : hooks, rings, ramrods for guns, or almost anything can be made of it. While, in lengths sufficient to make armlets, it is always a convenient medium of barter, or payment for the services of the natives, who, though they will give nothing for hollow lacquered curtain rings, will always appreciate solid metal, that may be cut, worn away, or broken, and remains the same throughout. To tin copper : first clean the surface carefully by rubbing it with sandpaper or stone, or washing it with diluted nitric acid or aquafortis ; heat it till it is rather too warm to handle, by Tinning copper. -. xi, placing a hot iron or pan oi fire under the part to be tinned; rub on, with a feather, a little hydrochloric acid (commonly called spirits of salt) with zinc dissolved in it ; then, with a soldering bolt previously rubbed on sal-ammoniac, touch the bit of tin you hold upon the copper, and, as you melt it, spread it evenly with a bit of rag over the surface you wish to tin ; this ought to be done with the insides of all copper vessels that are to be used for containing liquids or for cooking, and also for the edges of sheets that are afterwards to be soldered together. Even if the edges were to be riveted, it would still be advisable to tin them, as they might then also be soldered by slightly heating them and running a little tin into the joint, by means of the heated bolt rubbed on sal-ammoniac, as before. Small iron nails, tacks, fish-hooks, &c., are protected from the effects of rust by tinning. The process is carried out as follows : — First cleanse the objects to be operated on in diluted sulphuric acid, then place them with broken fragments of tin and sal-ammoniac in an earthenware bottle over a strong charcoal fire. When the coating of tin is found to be complete, they are first washed in clean water, and then dried in hot bran or sawdust. Cam^) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 211 A very strong joint may be made by turning up, say ^in., more or less, of the edge of one sheet (Fig. 1), then laying in it the edge of the other (Fig. 2), and turning up the edges of both sheet metal, (Fig. 3) ; then, keeping the joint pressed down, lift ^^ J°"^- up the second sheet as you would open a book, and press it out flat and open (Fig. 4). You cannot make this joint in the two edges of the same sheet, turned round upon each other (Fig. 5), unless you first nearly flatten the two parts (Fig. 6), when they may be doubled upon each other, and the sheet restored to its cylindrical form by the insertion of any pointed cylinder, such as, for instance, the horn of the anvil or a block of wood rounded and tapered at the end (Fig. 7) . Suppose it is required to make a pan- nikin, this joint, whether previously tinned so that it may be soldered or not, is the only proper one, but the corners should previously have been cut away, so that only a single or, at most, a slightly overlapping double thickness may be left at top and bottom (Fig. 8) . The bottom edge is now turned outwards by gently tapping it on the block or anvil edge with a hammer till it resembles a narrow flange (Fig. 9). A circular piece is now cut for the bottom so much larger as to allow a rim to be turned up all round (Fig. 10), and to admit the flange within it (Fig. 11) ; then setting it flat upon the anvil, and forcing into it a block of wood that has been cut perfectly to fit it, cHuch down the rim of the bottom upon the flange (Fig. 12), and turn them both up against p 2 212 Shifts and E.r.pedienU of he side together (Fig. 13). The top edge may now be rolled over n the same maunor, and it will give additional strength if the rim is strengthened by the insertion of a piece of wire. If the foregoing joints have been carefully made you will have a water-tight and, what is more, a fireproof pannikin with or without the aid of solder, and a handle can be riveted on or not just as suits your convenience. One great advantage of the folded joint is, that if it is not too tightly hammered down, the parts will slide freely on each other, and advan- tage may be taken of this for making an opening in one side of a can- nister to be closed by a sliding lid ; or, if you are making a pannikin or other vessel, and your metal is not large enough to make the whole circumference in one piece, cut a small strip (Fig. 14) of the breadth you wish the joint, say ^-jn. or jin., and fold the edge of the metal twice over it (Fig. 15), then draw it out; do the same with the other edge, and also with the edges of the piece you intend to insert (Fig. 16), and you may then, with a little care, slip the parts together, and clinch down the joints as closely as you wish (Fig. 17). If the corners have previously been snipped off, or smoothed with a file, it will considerably increase the facility of doing this. During the North Australian Expedition, when Mr. Gregory was preparing for the journey from the Victoria River to the Albert, in the Utilisation of Grulf of Carpentaria, he collected all the emptied pre- meat tin cases, gerved meat tins, and burning off the old paint by placing them above the forge fire, smoothed down the tin upon the surface with a piece of greasy rag, trimmed up the ragged edges, and, in most cases, obtained sheets of tinned iron nearly equal to new; from these he made pannikins of graduated sizes, in fact a nest of them, one fitting into the other from the largest to the least, thus securing comfort and convenience to his party, and utilising material which many persons would have thrown away as useless. In opening a packing case lined with tin, care should be taken to cut the edges as clean as possible, for not only are ragged points liable to tear the hands very disagreeably, but if you wish to make use of the tm m any other manner, it is of great importance that it should be kept quite clean, flat, and free from unsightly wrinkles; a smooth •sheet of tin may bo cut, turned, or bent almost at will, but if it has Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 213 previously been wrinkled, it is absolutely impossible to restore it to flatness, and to make a true joirlt in it is as much out of the ques- tion as to write freely on note paper fall of unsightly folds or creases. For cutting tin or other sheet metal, a pair of small tin snips, say Sin. or 9in. in total length, will be found exceedingly useful : stout copper or sheet-ii'on may be cut with them. To make plates or dishes of sheet iron or other metal, cut out a disc or oval, of the size you wish, and then draw a line parallel to the edge all round it (Fig. 18); then draw lines radi- Dishes and plates, ating from the centre, like points on a compass card, *^ make, as many as you please, say twelve, which will divide each quarter into three parts, answering to the hours on a clock face. Make a small hollow across the end of a block of wood, the stem of the nearest small tree cut off at a convenient length for instance, lay the edge of your plate on it with one of the radiating lines corresponding with the hollow ; strike it with the edge of your hammer till you have ■slightly indented it, do the same on the opposite side, and then with the other two quarters ; repeat this all round, and you will have a very neat and useful plate, with scolloped edges like the patty pans usually sold by tinmen (Fig. 19). A few rivets of various sizes, of iron, tin, and copper, should be taken ; but, if the work is to be exposed to the action of the water, care should be taken not to fasten iron sheets with copper rivets, as the action of the metals on each other will be most destructive. Tin rivets may be used to fasten any other metal where great strength is not required, and they are very advantageous for many purposes, as handles of tin or copper pannikins. By these we mean rivets of tin, not of iron tinned over, which also are useful, but not so easily worked. To extemporise a forge and bellows, the natives of Africa and India, who invariably squat down to their work, simply make their fire on the ground, which is previously smoothed and clayed Make -shift forge over ; behind this is raised a bank or fence of clay, ^^"^ bellows, perforated for the admission of a tube, either of wood of the bark of a small tree, or of the horn of an ox, or other large animal. Their bellows are variously formed, but in every instance a pair are used, being worked alternately, one with the right hand and the other 214 Shifts and Expedienfs of with the left, so as to keep up a continuous blast. They are gene- rally formed of goat or antelope skins of about the same size, which are skinned off as '' sacks/' 5-'^ ''■ .'"^ ?: and braiied or softened in the usual manner. The sack is made by catting the skin of the animal along the inside of the thighs, and then, with- out making any other in- cision, stripping it over the fore part of the body, the head being previously cut off, the skin of the legs is sewn or knotted up to prevent the escape of air. In one of the hinder legs of each bag- is fitted a smaller tube, frequently of gemsbok horn, and to the sides of the aperture of the neck are sewn two pieces of stick with loops upon them for the insertion in one of the thumbs, and in the other of the fingers, so that by expanding the hand the neck can be opened while it is raised to inflate the bag, and closed up by grasping it tightly when it is pressed down to force the stream of air upon the fire ; then by inflating and compressing the bags alternately, the primary object of a continuous and sufficient supply of air is obtained. There are various modifications of form, in some of which more or less wood is very ingeniously used ; but as the power of the whole depends entirely on the amount of air that can be inclosed in and forcibly expelled from the skin bags, we think the foregoing descrip- tion will suflEiciontly answer the purpose. If the traveller wishes — as an Englishman generally does — to stand up to his work, he can build up for his forge a square of rough stones, and then smooth over the top with a mixture of cattle dung and clay, of which last anthills broken np afford the finest quality ; or if the hills are sufficiently large, he njay at once smooth off the top (jf one and shape the embankment in the rear. But in this case he will also have to raise another platform, not only to carry his bellows, but for the blower to sit upon ; for we doubt whether a native in the wilderness could bo prevailed upon to blow tlicm in any other position. Cam}) Idfe, Trauel, and Expl/mdion. 215 One of the most important portions of a waggon, and at the same time one most liable to damage, is the axle, and it is therefore of vital consequence that the traveller should understand properly how to set about repairing it. Suppose it be necessary to condemn the broken axle and make a new one ; the first care is to seek out a tree of good hard wood — " kameel doom" {Acacia giraffce) is about the best a tra- veller is generally likely to find, though many other varieties may be used) — and in thinly wooded countries this may imply a day or more spent in searching for miles around, for the trunk should be of tolerably straight grain, solid, and capable of afibrding a log 6ft. or 7ft. in length, lOin. in depth, and 4iu. in thickness. A yoke of oxen may be sent to draw it home, and it should then be truly, however roughly, squared up to the above dimensions. The size of the aperture in the nave, both at the back and front of the wheel, should then be taken, they will generally be about 4in., tapering to 3in. or 2^in. ; the length of the arm will probably be from 14in. to 16in. In cutting the arm nothing is to be tapered ofi" from the front (Fig. 1) or from the lower part (Fig. 2), all the taper being cut from above and from behind, so that the wheels may incline a little inward in front and below, and if the axle arms should bend a little with the weight of cargo and with the forward draught, they may only have a tendency to resume a true position. The arms should be carefully lined off in accordance with these rules, and in cutting the shoulder (Fig. 3) it should be squared, not from the edge of the axle, but from a line (dotted in the illustration) drawn along the centre of the arm, so that the back of the nave may bear truly against it. In cutting the shoulder be sure not to weaken the arm by letting the saw go, however little, beyond the prope)- depth, for where so great a pressure has to be borne the slightest cut would become the beginning of a fracture. ^Vheu the arms have been cut and roughly rounded by saw and adze or axe, trim them with the spoke-shave, and occasionally try on the wheel, whirling it round to test the truthfulness of the work — there is almost sure to be sufficient grease or tar left in it to mark all the undue projections, and to leave clean the hollows on the arm, and the marks should be carefully 216 Shifts and Expedients of examined that you may know what parts require to be trimmed away. It is now time to take oflf the iron work from the condemned axle ; and sufficient notice should be taken of every piece^ to know exactly to what portion of the wood- work it is to be restored, for much extra difficulty is occa- sioned by any uncertainty on this point. Bolts, though of the same apparent size, should not be transferred at random from one side to the other, and every nut, when once removed, should be scrupu- lously restored to the indi- vidual bolt it belongs to. These injunctions may seem needlessly strict ; but we speak from experience, and if the reader has to attempt the work now under consideration he will do well to attend as strictly to them. The iron skeins, or friction guards (Fig. 4), should be removed from the arms of the old axle and carefully let into the corresponding ones of the new ; and when nearly fitted they may be slightly heated so as to char and smooth the bed for themselves, as well as to grip more tightly, in cooling, the wood they are meant to protect. Before fastening them with their proper bolts the wheels should be tried on to ascertain that they have been truly fitted. If, as is most frequently the case, the new axle is a front one, it Va ir-<^'^ Note. — ^The sketch above shows, on one side, the kap tent, or properly-biiilt roof, and on the other, the wattled substitute, o is the front of the "kadcl," or swinging- bed h'ame.; L, 8, M, on the next page, are the yokes, skeis, and trek gear, drawn to the scale given at the side. Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 217 must now be fitted under the rest of the fore " stell " or " carriage" (h)^ the holes for the connecting bolts and perch-bolt marked and truly bored, and the clamps which bind it to the upper portion heated, driven into their place, and tightened by being suddenly cooled with water. Sometimes, when it is not necessary, or wood sufficiently large cannot be procured, to make a new axle, a new arm (i) may be let in, and this should be scarfed and checked in, and the inner end (Fig. 5), which reaches nearly to the centre of the axle, cut, not square, but diagonally across, so that the after side is some- what longer than the front, and this, preventing the inner end from coming forward, will also counteract the natural tendency of the draught to force the arm backward. If the longitudinal cut (Fig. 6) for the scarf is also made not square across, but a little inclined upwards in front, it will also help to resist the backward pressure of the wheel. No fastening beyond the bolt which passes through the quarter of the axle and the band at the shoulder is absolutely necessary for the fixing of a new arm. We have, upon one occasion, not only made a new axle, but when, from unsoundness of timber, a new arm was necessary, have put in one on which the heavily-loaded waggon ran nearly 1000 miles; and besides this, the fore "tong" (j), or socket in which the dissel-boom or pole (k) works being much broken, we cut off the jaws on either side, and fitted new ones in a manner that will be much better understood by the above 218 Shifts and Fjxi)edients of sketch than by description ; and these, after running from the Zambesi to Otjimbengae, were still so firm that the professional waggon- wright, deemed it necessary only to secure them by the addition of a couple of bands put on hot, and shrunk down on them with water. Frequently the " dissel-boom " or pole will break, but the cutting and fitting of a new one is too simple a matter to need much more Repairing instruction than a careful inspection of the old one will poles. afibrd ; it was our practice, however, to bore a hole per- pendicularly downward behind the dissel-bolt (Fig. 7), and by means of a ^in, bolt and nut, tightly screwed, preserve the pole from splitting when subjected to a heavy strain. Mr. Reeder, whom we met near the Zambesi, showed us a very ingenious plan of staying the dissel-boom when the fore tong was weakened. Chapman went out and shot a rhinoceros, and Reeder first nailed a chock upon the dissel-boom, and fixed on it a grummet of rhi- noceros hide as tight as possible, then, taking a long, stout strip of the same, he hitched the middle of it on in front of the grummet, leading the parts to each side of the splinter bar, and thence under the axle to the bolts behind it, where the ends were thinned off sufficiently to admit of their being easily made fast. These stays did not come forward enough to gall the after oxen. The great virtue of raw hide is that, instead of slackening like rope when it dries, it shrinks, and becomes as hard as iron. Suppose a dissel-boom sprung where another could not be pro- cured, the skin from the leg of an ox, or a wild animal of corresponding size — say a buffalo or quagga — drawn on while wet and allowed to dry, would make the joint firmer even than the unfractured part (Fig. 8). The skin from the tail of an ox will, in the same manner, mend a broken waggon whip ; and that of a calf s tail is in like manner used by the Kafirs to bind the part where the iron of their assegais or light javelins is inserted into the shaft. Quagga skin, indeed, is especially used for this purpose, and hardly for any other, as it is so rigid that the ordinary means for softening leather are of no avail. Sometimes the Dutch farmers use the skin, just as it is stripped off, as a jar or barrel to hold corn or other produce. ^ *ong journey over rough roads and in an intensely hot country, like Africa in the dry season, will tell upon the best-made wheels, and Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 219 the spokes and tires will become loose most frequently where it is impossible properly to rectify the defect. In such cases a number of wedges of dry, straight-grained wood must be pre- -j^g repair pared, and for this purpose some box or packing- °^ wheels. case, made of deal, must be sacrificed, as it will be almost impossible to procure anything so suitable in the bush; the plank must be cut into pieces between 3in. and 4in. long, and, if these are again sawn diagonally along their length, material will be saved by the production of two wedges, where only one could have been made by the whittling process. These must be driven tightly in from back and front, between the felloe and the tire, and as equally as possible all round the wheel; if they are then wetted with, and allowed to absorb, a strong solution of salt in water, they will swell, and will not again shrink as they would if wetted with water only. We knew one very practical Englishman who used to soak his wedges in salt and water before driving them in, but what he gained by thus previously swelling them we never were able to learn. If the spokes become loose in the nave Ihe temporary remedy is to cut two stout bars, in length just equal to the diameter of the wheel ; half check them so as to give them a better hold on the felloe ; lay them parallel to each other on the front of the wheel, one on each side the nave, and bind every spoke as firmly as possible to them with thongs of raw hide, taking care to keep the lashings quite close to the centre of the wheel ; the drying up of the thongs will dML i£d:t^' ^^~ «(j\ ouna . 220 Shifts and Ed.jjedients of shrink tliem so mucli that the fabric of the wheel will be as firmly bound together as if clamped with iron. If a spoke be broken, cut a new one much thicker than the rest, half check it on to the back of the felloe, and lot the other end abut upon the nave, filling up nearly the space between the sound spokes on either side ; it should need to be driven in tightly, and, when in position, should be secured by thongs of raw hide, both at the nave and at the felloe, to sticks laid across the front of the spokes on either side, and securely lashed to them. Lead is useful for a multitude of purposes ; its great specific gravity, and the ease with which it can be melted, cut, hammered, moulded, and Lead and ^^^^y render it especially valuable as a handy metal. Our its uses, space will not admit of our giving more than a few of the most noteworthy purposes to which it can be applied by the hunter and explorer. Projectiles of all sizes can be made from it, from the ponderous cannon shot to the small sizes used by the hunter naturalist. Round shot for artillery, of excellent quality, can be manufactured from lead; and there is no doubt that for certain purposes it is far superior to the iron missiles in general use, the cheapness Cannon shot. „ , , . , , . . ^ . ^ of the latter material being its great recommendation. It will sometimes happen in wild countries that although regular cannon balls are not obtainable lead is, and to make round shot from it two or three methods may be adopted. The first is to form a ball from well- mixed clay, or carve one from wood, of size to fit the bore of the piece easily, but not too loosely. The clay ball will require thorough drying in the sun or before a slow fire before use. The wooden one will merely require sprinkling over with fine ashes from the camp fire to fit it for use. Two large calabashes, wooden boxes, bowls, or cooking pots, are now to be rather more than filled with well-kneaded clay, which has been carefully freed from stones or grit, pressing it well down with a flat board until it is quite even at the surface and is perfectly compact. The clay round the edges of the two clay holders must now be trimmed off" with a knife even with the sides of the holders, but projecting about an inch beyond the brim. The surface of each is now to be sprinkled with very fine ashes, and the ball pressed into the centre of the clay until it is lialf imbedded. It is then to be carefully removed, and Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 221 pressed in like manner on the other holder. The ball is then taken out and laid aside^ the two holders being allowed to dry slowly^ care being taken that the clay is not cracked by the too sudden application of heat. When thoroughly dry, the vessels or holders are to be placed mouth to mouth, and so fitted, by scraping the clay, that the two indentations formed by the ball fit exactly facing each other ; when this has been done, a funnel-shaped inlet must be cut for the admission of the molten lead. The two holders may now be put together, secured with a lashing of cord or strips of hide, and the metal run in at the inlet. Some time must be allowed to elapse before the mould is disturbed, or the lead will not have sufficiently settled to admit of the shot being removed without injury to the apparatus. The tail of lead formed by the inlet serves to lift the shot out by, and is then cut off flush with the surface. A number of balls may with care be made with the same pair of holders, only the greatest caution is needed in this, as with all other operations in which molten lead is used, to guard against the pre- sence of moisture in the mould, or most serious accidents will happen. We were busily engaged one night over the camp fire casting heavy bullets for our large smooth bore, making use of an iron ladle for the lead, and a large pair of iron moulds for the balls. These had become rather hot and were laid aside to cool ; and whilst this was doing, as the lead was beginning to run rather short, we started for the tent to get more, desiring one of the Indians, who was keeping up the fire and generally aiding in the operations, to go on casting so soon as the moulds were cool. That no time might be lost, our dusky assistant plunged the hot mould in a pot of water, closed it up, and proceeded to pour in the charge of heated metal, when a violent explosion instantly took place, scattering the boiling lead broadcast over the naked legs and bodies of the unfortunate natives, sending the ladle one way, the mould another, and causing a perfect panic and dire dismay throughout the party. Soft stones of many kinds can be conveniently made use of for casting in, taking two of equal size, scooping out the cavity in each stone of the form inteuded to be given to the casting, and then cutting an inlet. Common Bath scoui'ing bricks answer this purpose admirably. We constantly use them for casting fishing leads, plummets, bodies for 222 . Shifts and Expedients of artificial baits, &c. &c. Two bricks, or portions of brick, are made use of. The surfaces are rendered smooth by rubbing them together. The intended cavity is then marked with a sharp point on each half, and scooped neatly out with a knifo, chisel, or other convenient instru- ment ; when finished, notched, and the inlet cut, the two halves are tied together with tape and the lead poured in. Objects of six or seven pounds weight can be made by the use of two common scouring bricks. Balls of large size are often made in the East by hammering square masses of lead, or iron, on an anvil until sufficiently round for use. Great labour and no little skill are required to perform the operation, which after all leads to very unsatisfactory results, the balls being rough and untrue, corresponding with the interiors of the barrels they are intended to be fired from. We have seen heavy stones and bits of iron covered with lead fired from the most unpromising looking matchlocks, which, somehow or another, deliver their charge with greater force and accuracy than would be anticipated on a first examination. The best moulds for casting bullets of all sizes and forms are those made from gun-metal, bronze, or brass. A buck-shot mould of either of these materials will be found of great value. We have one which has proved on many occasions of the greatest service ; it is constructed to contain two rows Buck-shot mould. of cavities for the shot, seven in each row, one above the other; so that when the groove leading to the inlets is filled with lead, and all the cavities are charged, the second row is turned upwards and treated in the same manner. The shot, when cold, are cut from their necks with a knife or strong pair of scissors, and are then fit for use. They should be about the size of common peas, and a charge of them from a large powerful gun is tremendously effective ; they are extremely useful for deer jumping, antelope shooting, wild goose or bustard stalking. At very short distances, and in close encounter with a large animal, they may be used with destructive effect, but must be only considered in the light of a makeshift when the true large game of the forest has to be dealt with. Against attacking hordes of savages, in a bush fight, or canoe encounter, they are invaluable. The charge must be propor- tioned to the size of the guns ; those of heavy metal and large bore generally deliver them best. Camp Life, Travel, and ExjAoration. 223 Slugs are to be made by filling a box or large pot with fine clean sand, forcing it down tight, and then with a smooth round stick, about the size of a small pencil, making a number of holes from the surface to the bottom of the vessel or receiver in which the sand has been placed. When as many are made as the space will admit of, pour the molten lead steadily into them until they are filled ; when cold, the sand can be thrown out, and the leaden rods or pencils separated from it. These, when laid on a board in rows, can be cut up into short junks by placing a strong knife on thein, and striking it on the back with any convenient instrument. Thick sheets of lead are cut up into dice in much the same manner. These are usually shaken about in a tin box or an iron pot, in order to round off the corners. The manufacture of shot by the amateur, although not quite as easy of accomplishment as the preparation of slugs, may be, with the exercise of a little ingenuity, successfully carried ^ T . 1 1 .„ fehot, to make, out ; and although the produce of his labours will not equal the perfect spheres produced by the professional shot manufacturer, by the aid of his costly tower, yet it will be good enough for the description of shooting he will be likely to obtain in situations where the making of shot is rendered necessary. We were driven to the necessity of devising the plan we are about to describe by the impossibility of obtaining shot, coupled with the urgent want of that to be procured with it. Thus is the operation to be conducted : — A piece of iron, such as horse-shoes are made from, is to be obtained if possible, if not, any other piece of iron, about 2ft. long and of moderate width and thickness, will answer the purpose. About an inch from the end of this drill a wide-mouthed, funnel-shaped hole, of the form known as a countersink, until within about the eighth of an inch of going through the bar ; then, with a drill about the size of a knitting-needle, extend the hole quite through ; next, get a piece of dry plank, about 3ft. long, and in it, with a handsaw, cut as many longitudinal cuts as the width of the board will admit of, making them a little over the eighth of an inch deep and the thickness of the saw wide. The board, when placed slightly on the incline, must bo so treated with a charge of molten lead that all the cuts are filled with it from the upper end ; the result will 224 Shifts and Expedients of be the formation of a great number of long lead wires. These are to be taken from the grooves and fresh batches run, until as many pounds have been made as it is intended to make shot. A preserved-meat tin, or an ordinary tin pot, must now be about one-third filled with water, and the remaining two-thirds filled up with oil ; the pot must be placed on a jolate or dish, in order to catch any oil which may run over as the work proceeds. The end of the iron bar which has the hole in it is now to be placed in the fire and heated to a bright-red heat : when the other end, round which a piece of cloth may be bound, is grasped with the left hand, and the bar quickly withdrawn from the fire, struck smartly against some solid body, in order to remove adhering dust and ashes, and then held with the wide mouth of the hole upward, a short ^»-^ distance above the surface of ihe uii m the pot. A lead wire is now to be quickly taken up in the right hand and its end pressed well down into the hole (as shown in the above illustration) ; if the iron is well heated, the wire will melt away very rapidly and run in a succes- sion of drops into the oil : wire after wire is to be thus melted, until the iron requires reheating. (It is a good plan to have two or more irons at work, but it is not essential.) This wire-melting process must be continued until all the stock has been expended, when the soHd contents of the pot may be taken out. If the operation of droppiiig has been properly performed the result will be shot of about three sizes— No. 7, No. 4, and duck shot. Certain conditional circum- Oamp Life, Travel, and Ed-phration. 225 stances somewhat alter these sizes^ but approximately they are to be expected, and a certain number more or less tailed will generally be found amongst the rest. To separate the three sizes of round shot two flat tin boxes or empty sardine tins are required. With a piece of nail filed down, so as to make a hole the size to just let No. 7 shot through, punch a number of holes in the bottom of one of the boxes, so as to make a sort of sieve of it ; then with another nail make holes in the bottom of the second box, just large enough to let your No. 4 through. When these are prepared, wash your mixed shot in water, with wood ashes in it; this removes all the oil in the form of soap. The shot, when dry, is ready for sifting Avith the boxes. The first box lets only No. 7 or a size or so smaller through, keeping back the No. 4. The second box lets the No. 4 tlrrough, retaining the duck shot. Each size may now have its own respective iailers, or pear-shaped shot, mixed with it ; these can be got rid of by allowing the shot to ruii down over a sloping board, when the round shot run straight to the bottom, whilst the tailers run off at the sides, and can be collected to melt up again. Plates of lead for writing inscriptions on can be cast by turning up the edges of a piece of sheet copper, iron, or tin, just high enough to form a sort of shallow tray to hold the molten lead. In ^ga^ plates, the absence of sheet metal, the surface of a box of sand, ^ make, or a flat stone with a little wall of clay round it, may be made use of. Lead pencils, for rough carpenter^s work, can be made by filling joints of small cane, marsh reeds, or weed stalks, with melted lead, and then pointing them with a knife. The handles j^^ad pencils and of stock whips and some other implements are ^^^ck whip handles, weighted, and prevented from splitting, by having lead run into them ; some of the former are occasionally very elaborately ornamented. The operation is performed by first cutting out the intended pattern on the handle with a sharp-pointed knife or other instrument, taking care that the cutting penetrates the wood deeply, that the form of the groove is slightly undercut, and that each ring of the pattern communicates with the one below it. The first ring on the stick must have an inlet made in it ; strips of stout brown paper are now, after being slightly moistened and touched over with paste, rolled round the stick, layer after 226 SJiifts and Expedients of liyer in spiral foi'm, until its whole length has been thickly covered like the case of a rocket. When tlioroughly dry the lead is run in at the inlet, and when cold the paper can be stripped off, and the handle finished oft' and polished with sand-paper or a bit of fish-skin. Indentations in the sides of gun or rifle barrels can be taken out by the following process : — Take the barrel out of the stock ; cut a cork Braised giHi-barrels, ^^ ^^ *» ^^ the muzzle tightly, and then to repau-. force it down three inches, ram in about a quarter of an inch of dry powdered clay on the cork, twist a cloth dipped in cold water several times round the barrel in order to prevent the rib from becoming' unsoldered by heat, and then fill up the space above the clay with molten hardened lead. (See " To harden bullets," p. 228.) You will then have a metal plug exactly fitting the barrel. Remove the cork and clay, and fashion from strong hard wood a rod just long enough to reach a few inches beyond the indentation. A bar of iron is now to be heated to a red heat, and placed against the indented spot on the outside of the ban-el; the wet cloth being at the same time wound above and below it. The metal plug is now to bo forced down the tube with the rod until it rests on the obstruction, when a few bloAvs with a piece of heavy wood on the upper end of the rod will generally pass the plug onwards by forcing the tube back to its proper position. It will be well to reverse ends with the plug and force it up and down several times, until it travels quite freely past the point of obstruction. Rifle shells may be extemporised by having little tin tubes the length of the conical bullet and the size of the gun nipple made. Make-shift These, when their ends have been plugged with wood, rifle shells, ^^q placed one by one in the mould, held upright by a bit of very fine brass wire, and the lead cast round them, so that the lead at the base of the bullet may extend beyond the end of the tube and cover it. The thin end of the tube should project just a trifle beyond the apex of the cone, as a rest for the c;ip. The wooden plug at this end is now taken out; the tube filled with the best sporting powder, and a strong, well made per- cussion-cap put on the tube, and secured there with strong varnish, sealing-wax, or pitch. Tlie loading of a breech-loader with these is accomplishi'd with no danger, but with a nmzzle-loadcr the very greatest Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 227 caution is required. The end of tlie ramrod or loading stick should be very deeply countersunk, in order to take all pressure off the cap; and even witli this precaution it is well to make use of an overhanging branch of a tree to place the rod against, whilst the rifle is thrust muzzle upwards until the ball is home. Shells somewhat on this pi'in- ciple were first brought into notice by the late General Jacob, of the Scindc Irregular Horse. They are tremendously destructive when skilfully used : destroying large animals by exploding in them, and blowing up magazines of gunpowder at all but incredible distances ; but we have known them explode outside the elephant and other large pachyderms, thus failing completely in the object they were used for. Mr. Metford's improvement on the Jacob shell is worthy of remark. Finding that it did not always explode, he mixed equal parts of chlorate of potass and sulphate of antimony ; the two can be mixed on a plate with a hone paper-cutter or a quill pen. The more they are mixed, the more sensitive is their detonating power. The bullets are moulded with a hole from point nearly to base, as for Jacob's shells, but no copper tube is used. The powder is filled in with a quill to the top, and settled down by a few taps of the base of the bullet on a table, and the end is then stopped with wax. But it is very questionable whether, in close encounter with large animals, it is not better, after all, to rely on the more certain effects of heavy balls of ordinary construction, with strong charges of powder behind them. With the numerous improvements in rifle shells we cannot deal, as many of them are too complex in their component parts for a wan- dering hunter or explorer to be able to imitate successfully. Small ladles or iron spoons are usually used to melt lead in, but, in the absence of these, bullets and other small matters may be cast in the following manner, which is a ladles, spoons, and (• •. j^ J.1 T T A ,^,'^^^ other substitutes, favourite one amongst the Indians : — ■ A piece of dry hard wood^ about IGin. long, Sin. broad, and 2in. thick, is prepared ; on one end of this a spoon-shaped cavity, with a lip- shaped groove in the end, is made ; in the bottom of this a few red- hot wood embers from the fire are placed on these same fragments of flattened lead, and on the lead some good-sized pieces of red-hot embers. A bit of bark is now twisted into a blow-pipe, from which a Q 2 228 Shifts and Ex-pedients of steady stream of air is directed to the miniature furnace, which almost instantly melts the load, and fits it for running by the lip into the mould, just as it would from a spoon. Clean, excellent bullets are to be made in this way. It sometimes happens that lead ore or galena is discovered. Lead as a metal, except in very rare instances, is not found in a native or mal- leable form ; and as the ore is a sulphuret, brittle, and Lead ore smelting. . easily pulverised, some method must be had recourse to in order to smelt and render it fit for use. Some Indians do it in the following manner : — -After reducing a large quantity of the ore to powder, between heavy stones, they seek out a hollow tree stump, clear out the bottom flush with the ground, and dig a pit just outside it. Then on the bottom or floor of the stump a thick layer of dry wood is placed, evenly on this a layer of the powdered ore, then another layer of wood, then one of ore, and so on until the stump is quite full. A small hole is then chopped with a tomahawk through the side of the stump, level with the ground and opposite the pit. Through this orifice fire is introduced, and the stump soon becomes a mass of glow- ing heat as the air rushes in at the hole at the bottom ; so fast as the galena (which is usually very pure) is reduced to melted lead it trickles through the interstices of the heated pile, and runs out into the pit, where it is allowed to settle and cool. The Dutch-Africans like to have their bullets of such a size that when one is put into a clean barrel it passes slowly down without rattling, the slight noise of the escaping air being heard as it descends. In a skirmish they load very quickly ; the powder is poured from the large ox-horn into the hollow of the hand, and thence into the gun : a number of bullets are held in the mouth, one is dropped in, and the moisture cakes the powder round and holds it in its place with a very sliglit tap from the ramrod, or sometimes perhaps without ; though we hould never advise any one to incur so great a risk of bursting his gun. For such game as the elephant or rhinoceros the hunters harden their bullets with a little tin— not more than one-tenth ; if too much is rp , , , ,. added it makes the bullet brittle, and detracts from its specific gravity ; it should be just hard enough to sliow a slight indentation when bitten. The lead must Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 529 be first melted as requiring the greater heat, and the tin added afterwards. Type metal, or worn-out type from printing offices, is much used for this purpose ; but quicksilver, which, from its own great specific gravity, does not detract from the weight of the bullet, is the best alloy. Sir S. Baker says : — "The lead is melted in a pot, which is kept at red heat. Enough to make three or four bullets is taken in a smaller ladle, and one-tenth of quicksilver added and stirred into it with a bit of iron, as if the quicksilver is exposed to the great heat of the larger pot it will soon evaporate. The rifle bullets used in the army, being compressed instead of cast, are hard enough without alloy ; and in breech-loaders, where the bullet has to pass through a barrel which is generally a trifle smaller than the chamber, it would be unsafe to harden it too much." The Fingoes and Kafirs cut a small piece off" two bullets, so as to produce flat surfaces (Fig. 1) ; then, while the lead is still clean, press them strongly together, giving them a half turn to expel the air and bring them perfectly in contact. They will adhere so strongly as to bear thi-owing on the ground, and when fired at a hundred yards will separate only a few inches. A bullet cleft very nearly through with two cuts, so that it spreads into four parts (Fig. 2), makes a fearful wound at close quarters— a conical cut from its base (Fig. 3) particularly so. Sometimes two bullets arc connected by a bit of bell wire rolled up spirally as a spring (Fig. -1). 230 Sldftti iDid E.vpedicnts of We have seen bundles of nails bound together with wire by the rebel Hottentots in imitation of" conical bullets. The Kafirs use bits of the legs of iron pots. Some of the native hunters use iron bullets, or rather bolts twice as long as their diameter; but they creep so close that they cannot miss, and follow the wounded animal till he dies, so that they always recover their bullet. Bullet moulds may be extemporised in many ways. Two shallow boxes may be made and filled with loam or clay, much as the moulds Extemporisino- for cannon shot, before described, are made (of which bullet moulds, jg^g^ j^q material is better than a pounded anthill), and the surface of the lower one must be smooth. A piece of stiff paper pierced with holes the size of the bullet laid on it, and as many bullets as convenient pressed half way into the clay, the other half must then be pressed down upon it, and when nearly dry the bullets must be taken out, holes made through to the outer surface, on which a small channel should be cut, so that the lead may run to the entrance and not waste itself by spreading. Most likely the mould would be damaged after two or three castings, but it is easy to make a new one. The Dutch boers frequently use blocks of steatite or soapstone, with half the bullet cut into each, and pegs or projections on one half, with corresponding hollows in the other, keep the two parts in true position (Fig, 5) . In Sydney we required a conical bullet mould ; and, as such things were not generally kept for sale, we engaged a founder to make a solid block of brass, as in Fig. 6, and in this to bore a cylindro- conical hole, point downwards, about |in. deeper than the length of the bullet ; another piece was made with a handle at one end, and at the other a projection (Fig. 7), to fit into the block and give the form of the hollow back of the bullet ; a hole was bored through this a little smaller above than below, so that when the superfluous lead was cut off the bullet would como away with a tail about lin. long, tapering to the end ; this was easily cut off with proper pincers ; there was a small notch cut up the side of the inserted block so as to allow of the escape of air as the lead was poured in. In some conical moulds the lead is pom-ed in from the side, and in others from the point. We do not approve of eiiher of these methods. The greatest hardness, weight, and density Camp Life, Travel, and Explorat'ivii. 'J31 should be at tlie point, and tliorefore this should be downward in tie mould, while the metal is poured in at the base. Of course the great range acquired by some of our most perfect rifles with cylinder conical bullets is an immense advantage, for if animals cannot be approached they may be shot at long ranges ; and very frequently during the last Kafir v/ar, while parties with the common musket have been defending themselves against savages who occupied almost impregnable positions, those among the colonists who possessed long ranged rifles would occupy a hill perhaps a couple of thousand yards off, and send bullets among the enemy with quite sufficient accuracy to create a very uncomfortable feeling of insecurity. A very favourite form of gun was a double -barrel, with one barrel rifled, and very carefully sighted for long ranges, and the other plain, and capable of throwing a good charge of buck shot, which we have seen very effectively used at thirty or forty yards. When the elephant hunters lie at the water by night, and shoot at very close quarters, they find that a sharp-pointed conical with very high velocity, pierces so suddenly and sharply, that the animal feels no shock to the nervous system, and gets away for many miles, and dies beyond their reach. They therefore choose a short, smooth-bore gun, with a very large round bullet. We have seen them as large as half a pound; and this, with a comparatively small charge of powder, say 9drs. or lOdrs., bruises rather than pierces, communicating such a shock to tlie adjacent parts that the creature is stunned as well as wounded, and is not able to make those marvellous last efforts that in the former case would enable him at least to die in peace far out of reach of his pursuers. We, after a fair trial of the conical ball in India, abandoned it on account of the quantity of wounded game lost, and returned to the old spherical projectile. Improvements in guns are long before they are generally adopted in wild and distant countries. The old flint musket is to this day the favoured weapon of most of the border tribes of South Africa, America, and the East; it will shoot quite well enough for them, and, if of mihtary make, it lasts a long time in comparatively good order. Percussion guns found their way very slowly even among 232 Shifts and Expedients of tho Dutch colonists; many admitted their superiority, but there was always the uncertainty of being able to obtain a supply of caps, and, in the same way, many excellent forms of breech-loaders cannot be adopted by persons travelling or residing far from civilisation, because complicated and expensive cartridges are required, and when the supply runs short the gun is useless. And sometimes, because however perfect the gun may be while well taken care of, its delicate adjustments soon give way under the rough wear and tear of actual hard service. The advantages of facility in reloading, especially on horseback, or while running after or away from the game or enemy, are so great that if a bi-eech-loader can be made sufficiently strong and simple in all its parts, capable of being used as a muzzle-loader on emergencies, or with cartridges so simple that a person of ordinary skill can make them for himself, it will surely commend itself to men whose lives, in many cases, depend upon the effectiveness of theii- guns. It would be invidious in us to compare the merits of the various forms. We have already mentioned the satisfaction with which we used the single-barrelled Wilson breech-loader, the simplicity and strength of which, combined with facility of loading, were all that could be desired, unless, indeed, it were made self-capping, which we believe could easily be done. A metal breech-plug, to be inserted when required, converts it into a muzzle-loader ; but then a smaller size of bullet must be used, and the cartridges are so simple and inexpensive, that we found it more easy to make them on the spot. The materials required were a few sheets of tissue paper, a quantity of felt wads, tolerably stout, half of them the exact size of the bore, and the rest a little smaller. A piece of tin of the form and size indicated by the diagonal lines (Fig. 1) in our illustration was Cartridge making. . used as a pattern by which to cut the paper. The straight edge that was to surround the bullet, and the farthest diagonal side, were touched with a little gum, gathered from the nearest mimosa. A small cylinder of wood (Fig. 3) was then taken by the knob, in the left hand, and, with the right, the hollow base of the bullet (Fig. 2) was fitted on to tho convex end, laid fairly on the paper (Fig. 6) and rolled forv/ard until the cartridge case was formed. The wood was then with- drawn, and tho paper, adhering to the bullet, left to dry. When a Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 533 sufficient number were completed^ they were set upright in any con- venient trough, or in a block of wood (Fig. 7), 3in. deep, bored with holes of the proper size (Fig. 11). The charge of powder was poured into each and covered with a small disc of card or paper. One of the small wads, saturated with grease, was next put in (Fig. 8), the superfluous paper folded down on it (Fig. 9), and a full-sized Avad was then affixed to the TZPi ewnju end with a drop of gum (Fig. 10). The tissue paper was quite strong enough to confine the powder, and a military cap, of fair average quality, never failed to drive the fire through it to the charge. We found it best to saturate our wads by melting, or rather heating, our hardest fat nearly to boiling point, throwing them in and letting them absorb as much as possible, and then spreading them out on a clean surface to cool. Of course we carried a couple of wad punches of the proper size in case our supply should run short. In making a cartridge for a muzzle- loading rifle, the wooden roller should have a hollow to receive the point of the bullet ; the bullet is placed on the paper with the base towards the right hand, just so far within the edge as to allow a wad to be put behind, and the paper turned down over it. The powder is then measured into the case on the point, and, in loading, the 234 Shift;i and Expedients of powder ia first poured into the gun, then the bullet is reversed and the paper torn oflf before it is rammed down. It is questionable, however, whether any form of single-barrelled rifle or shot gun can compete with a double barrel for general usefulness and efficiency. Whilst on the subject of cartridges, it may not be amiss to refer to the tallow cartridges used for shot guns. They add greatly to the length of range, and are extremely valuable for wildfowl shooting. The following communication to the Field newspaper will serve to explain the mode to be observed in their manufacture : — " A represents a piece of common cartridge paper ; B a roller of boxwood, or any hard wood, turned to the size to admit the paper A Grease cartridges, being rolled once round it, and then fitting into, to make. ^]^q chamber C ; C a chamber turned out of a solid piece of wood, the chamber to be the exact size of bore of gun the cartridges are intended for. To make the cartridges, cut a piece of paper in the shape of the drawing A, cutting the top to the width requisite, to allow the paper at top to overlap nearly a quarter of an inch; then gum the edge of the paper to about 1 ! i ! i 1 c the eighth of an inch, as marked by the dotted line on the drawing A. Place the roller B on to the paper at D, and roll up firmly ; wind round it a little thread, to keep the paper from slipping. In a few minutes it will be dry. You can then push the roller out of the case, and proceed in the same way till you have enough cases. Secondly, take the roller and return it to the case, excepting that you leave the roller exposed at the top, say for 16-gauge about fin.; place the case and roller in the chamber, bottom upwards, then take some fine strong twine and place round as in drawing No. 1. When drawn tight, tie firmly, and it will appear as in No. 2 : then reverse the roller and case. Gamjj Life, Travel, and Ex-ploration. 235 y No. 1 f a?. \ bringing tlie tied end down to bottom of chamber, press down hard to flatten the bottom of case, draw out the roller, pour into the case some melted tallow of about the consistency of cream, and then put in your charge of shot, having sufficient quantity of tallow to just cover the shot. Put by until cool ; when set firm, place on the top of the tallow a leather wad (the size for 16-gauge cartridge will be 18-gauge). Any leather not too thick will do, and you can cut the wads out with a punch. Turn down the case neatly over the leather wad, and make fast with sealing-wax. When load- ing place the tied end of cartridge next to the powder. These direc- tions are for both muzzle and breech-loaders, the only difference being in the roller, which for muzzle-loaders must be made ^in. smaller at the bottom end, as marked by the dots in drawing B. After a Httle practice the cartridges do not take long to make.'' Wherever the means of transport will permit, take plenty of Ely's wire cartridges, but when they cannot be obtained, a make- shift form, well adapted for general use, may be made as follows : — Prepare a stick, about 18in. long, by rounding it carefully and making it fit the bore of your gun loosely. Round this take two or three turns of oiled silk, such as chemists sell. Then draw off the end of the stick tube enough to hold the charge of shot and admit of two ties being made round it. Now, with a piece of fine twine, put on the first tie close to the stick ; then put in your charge of shot, and when it is shaken into place, put the other tie on the outer end, just as sausage skins are secured. The cartridge is now complete, and can be cut off next the stick, when you proceed as before until all the tube has been used. We manufactured a great number of these in Tartary, and found them hard-hitting and durable. We usually carried a waistcoat pocket full of them, and rammed one down on each charge of powder without any wad between the cartridge and powdei', but always placed one over the cartridge, in order to prevent it from rising in the barrel. Cartridges Makeshift cartridges. 236 8hifts and Exjpedients of of this description kill considerably farther than a loose charge, and are exceedingly handy when shooting from the horse's back. "We, with loz. of No. 4, killed in this way, near Phoros Pass, an eagle, which we gave Captain Blackiston, B.A., who, we believe, deposited it in the Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich. The fingers of old kid gloves should always be kept, as they serve as excellent covers both for shot and ball. Shot will require one tie to keep it in ; balls will remain in without fastening. A little grease or oil should be smeared over them when first made. On many occasions we have been obliged to fire shot from a rifle, for the purpose of obtaining birds, when the smooth-bores were not at hand. Either the oiled silk or glove-finger cartridge Hints on firearms. . is very far sviperior to a loose charge. In loading ordinary guns with loose shot, it sometimes happens that a few grains get dropped into the loaded barrel between the ramrod head and the barrel. When this happens, invert the gun, pass the rod upwards, and the shot will fall out, when the rod can be withdrawn. The ramrod will also at times get firmly fixed in a foul barrel, and defy every ordinary efibrt to get it out. A little water, spirit, or any other fluid poured down the barrel almost instantly releases it. Should a gun or rifle miss fire, or be exposed for any time to damp, cut a small peg of dry, soft wood, hammer it well down into the nipple, cut it off" flush, put on a new cap, and pull the trigger, when the weapon is almost certain to go off". We first saw this plan in use among the Sardinian Bersigliari, and have since found it answer perfectly. When hunting through wet jungles, or the reeds of the marsh, percussion caps can be rendered almost waterproof by melting a Little beeswax on a piece of tin and then dipping the mouth of each separate cap in it. These, when cold, are set aside for use. When placed on the nipple, the wax forms a shield between the cap and nipple, which prevents the water from working its way up. All vegetable oil used about gun-locks should be prepared as follows : — Partly fill a common vial with oil, throw in a half charge of shot, hang it in the air with the coi'k out, and in a few days drain off all the clear oil from the top for use. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 237 Spirits of turpentine, when it can be procured, is very valuable for cleaning the interiors of guns, pistols, and rifles. When water is used, wash the barrels out thoroughly with cold water. Gun cleaning, making use of a tough wooden rod with a number of notches at the end. Round this a piece of woollen cloth may be twisted until of a size to act as a sucker in the barrel. Woollen is better than tow, linen, or cotton, as there is no danger of ignitable threads being left behind, and it can be used repeatedly by washing and drying it. When the barrels are thoroughly clean, fill them with boiling water. When this has all ■ run off through the nipple holes, commence with a fresh strip of cloth to dry out the barrels, which must be held in a folded cloth, in order to guard the hand from the heat of the water. When quite dry, and before the barrels are cold, finish off with a little spirits of turpentine. Lead may be removed by the use of a little quicksilver. The cleaning of fire-arms in a wild country is a matter of the very greatest importance, and should never be entrusted to servants, unless, from long service and great experience, they may be implicitly depended on. Even with such followers about us, we always, however fatigued, clean our own guns. It not unfrequently happens that white men residing alone or in small communities in the vicinity of numerous and powerful native tribes possess cannon of some kind or other, generally small signal guns from merchant ships, perhaps recovered from wrecks upon the coast, or field-pieces abandoned as not worth the trouble of bringing away when some military outpost has ceased to be occupied. During 1863 and 1864 the barbarous and desultory war between the Namaqua Hottentots and the Damaras, whom they had so long oppressed, was keeping the country in a state of ^c J r o .1 INIounting cannon. alarm for many hundred miles around, and we were requested to take charge of a couple of brass yacht guns. It was necessary to mount them, so that they might be easily moved from point to point on the plain around the village ; and for this purpose we took for each the hinder wheels and axle of a Cape waggon, inserting a pole to serve as the " trail " into the socket of the " lang-wageu " in the centre of the axle; we then took a plank of stinkwood, 1ft. wide. 238 Sh!fL9 and E,rperlin)if>i of 81 n. thick, and about 4ffc. long. About 1ft. from the foremost end a stent bolt passed through it and the centre of the axle so as to let it work fro(>ly, the after end was tapered to a point and travelled on a quadrant, aiiade from the felloe of an after wheel. On this, as a swivel bed, we bolted down a pair of cheeks of 2in. stinkwood to carry the guns. The quoins and wedges ran in grooves, formed by lin. slips of stinkwood nailed upon the bed, to which they were secured by lanyards of raw hide ; the boxes for ammunition on either side were covered with raw hide, and that containing the powder was thickly lined with green baize ; the matches were kept in a small box in front of the gun-carriage ; the fuze-holder was made from the segment of a hollow brass curtain ring fixed to a handle of hard wood ; the fuze itself was a strip of calico lin. broad, doubled and loosely twisted into a two-stranded rope ; it was steeped in a solution of gunpowder, and the colour indicated its strength — light grey was slow match, and dark grey was quick. As we did not contemplate moving the guns farther than necessary for the defence of the village, we made no provision for yoking draught oxen, but this could easily have been done if needed. It was enough for our purpose to provide man ropes, one pair behind the gun and one before, so that, either in advance or retreat, its muzzle might be towards the enemy. The bullets were all tied up in calico, with wads made by cutting off sections of soft deal rods, and cartridges of twelve or fourteen musket balls or fifty revolver bullets were made up. One use to which one of our guns was put is shown in the illus- tration. We were asked to repair the clock, but this is always difficult, and it is uncertain how long it may go cor- Timc guns. rectly afterwards. We therefore erected a frame over the gnu, and fitted the lens of a camera on an axle placed due east and west, so that it could turn in the plane of the meridian, and so be adapted to the sun's gradual change of declination. Below tlie lens we fitted a piece of tin with its edges turned down- wards, to hold a piece of quick match, a strip of calico, steeped in a strong solution of gunpowder, beneath it ; a small slit in the tin was thou so adjusted as to let the focus of liglit fall tlirongh it exactly at Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 239 12 o'clock; a small clip of tin confined the other end of the match over the vent. The moment of noon was announced with a regularity that no clock in our possession could have attained ; and one great advantage was, that if by the interposition of a cloud, which would not happen once in nine months, the gun should fail to fire at the proper moment, it could not go wrong, for the speck of light would pass the narrow slit, and no discharge would take place till the next day. The absence of the cap squares of a guu can be remedied by lashing the metal firmly down to the carriage with a raw hide rope, and then twisting* it up tight with a stick, as shown in the above illustration ; 240 Shifts and Expedients of which also exhibits the mode of raising a gun by making use of the trail as a lever. A heavy gun may be mounted by letting its muzzle into a hole in the ground while the carriage is run under it. During the continuance of the Damara and Hottentot war we Percussion caps '^^^'^ becoming exceedingly short of percussion caps, and substitutes. ^^^ were obliged not only very carefully to hus- band the few that were left, but to turn our attention to the manufacture of substitutes. The tips of Congreve matches, with the wood cut to a point so as to stick in the nipple of the gun, proved very effective, but were liable to be brushed or shaken off, or to become damp if carried for any length of time before firing. We, therefore, first inclosed the end of the match in the shell of an expended cap, and finding this answer, we dissolved the composition, and put a drop into the cap without the wood ; we then dissolved it ofi" a whole box of matches at a time, and with a camel-hair pencil put small drops into as many cap shells as it would serve. This answered admirably ; but our next fear was that the supply of matches would run short, and therefore, drawing on our own artificial horizon for the quicksilver, on the photographic stores for nitric acid, and on our friends, the missionaries, for a supply of alcohol from their natural-history department, we set about the manufacture of fulminate of mercury according to the following recipe : — Dissolve 10 grs. of mercury in 1| oz., by measure, of nitric acid; the solution is poured cold into 2 oz., by measure, of alcohol in a glass vessel, and gentle heat is applied till effervescence is excited, though it ordinarily comes on at common temperatures, a white vapour undulates on the surface, and a powder is gradually precipitated, which is immediately to be collected in a filter, well washed, and cautiously dried. It detonates by gentle heat or slight friction. Two grains and a half, with one-sixth of gun- powder, form the quantity for one percussion cap. We used a conical twist of blotting-paper for the filter, and mixed the fulminate, while still moist, with a small palette knife upon a plate with the gun- powder, treating it very gently, and in small quantities. We collected all the shells of expended caps, and for new ones cut out a cross of thin copper ; then, making a hole in a piece of iron and a punch the size of the uippl(% wo di'ovo the centre of tlie cross in, and the shell Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 241 was formed. Stiff cartridge-paper stiffened with gum would have answered for dry weather,, but would not have been secure against wet. The block -houses erected by the Hudson^s Bay Company, as depots and forts in connection with the fur trade, usually have guns mounted in them. Brass field guns and howitzers are also Brass guns and their at times to be met with at the border stations of charges. wild countries, and it may, therefore, be well to know the charges and ranges of the ordinary kinds, which are as follows : BRASS FIELD GUJfS. 6-POUNDER Gun. Weight, 6c\vt. Service Charge, liLi?. Ranges. Elevation. Round Shot. Shrapnel. Case. Lengtli of fuse. P.B. 310 100 •3 r 470 450 15(1 4 1 020 600 200 5 H 760 710 2.50 G 2 890 820 300 7 ^ 1000 920 s 3 1100 1020 9 H 1190 1110 — 1 4 1280 1180 1 4^ 1370 1250 5 1450 1.320 — — H 1530 1380 — — 6 1600 1440 — — 9-POUNDER Gun. Weight, 13-5c\vt. Service Charge, 2ii.R. Ranges. Elevation. Round Shot. Shrapnel. Case. Length of fuse. P.B. 300 150 _ '»r 500 — 200 — 1 680 670 250 H 830 800 300 •4 2 960 910 — •5 2| 1080 1020 — •6 3 1190 1120 — •/ 3^ 1300 1220 — •8 4 1400 1320 — •9 ■ 4i 1500 1410 — •9 5 1590 1500 — •0 H 1680 1590 — 1-0 6 1760 1680 — 242 Shifts and Expedients of BRASS HOWITZERS. 12-POirNDER Howitzer. Weight, 6-5cwt. Service Charge, I^lb. Ranges. Elevation. Common Shell. Shrapnel. Case. Length of fuse. P.B. 200 100 or 310 — 150 — 1 420 400 200 •3 1^ 530 620 250 •4 2 630 630 300 •o 1* 715 800 725 820 •6 3 •7 8^ 885 910 •8 4 970 1000 Ricochet. •9 H 1050 1090 1-0 5" 1135 1180 Charge 6oz., el. -7° 600 11 ^ 1220 1270 ,, 8oz., „ -6 600 1-2 6 1290 1350 „ lOoz., „ -5 bUO 1-3 24-POUNDER Howitzer. Weight, 12-5cwt. Service Charge, 2alb. Ranges. Elevation. Common Shell. Shrapnel. Case. Length of fuse. P.B. 270 150 or 390 200 __ I 520 500 250 •3 1* 640 630 300 •4 2 760 760 •5 l^ 860 870 •6 3 960 980 •7 n 1060 1090 •8 4 1160 1200 Ricochet. •9 H 1260 1300 1-0 5 1350 1400 See Table B. 1-1 H 1440 1500 1-2 6 1520 1600 Table B. Ricochet. 24-POUNDER Howitzer. Ricochet. 24-POUNDER Howitzer. Charge. Elevation. Pitch. Charge. Elevation. Pitch. oz. deg. oz. deg. 6 7-5 400 12 5-25 9 4-38 — 14 5- — 8 9- 500 9 7-75 600 . 10 7-5 12 6-5 11 6- 16 4-75 m 5-5 — 1 Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 243 Cartridges for either brass or iron guus are best made of some woollen material ; trade serge or old blanketing answers very well for the purpose. Bags should be made a little Cartridges and wads less than the bore, and into these the charge ^^^' cannon, of powder is to be poured. A piece of woollen thread, double worsted, or twine should now be used to close the end of the bag, after which it is to be passed two or three times round the bag, giving it at the same time a compact cylindrical form by rolling on a board or table under the hand. Passing the thread through the substance of the cartridge aids mu.ch in keeping its form and facilitates loading. A cartridge needle should be used to perform this operation. This needle can be easily made from a piece of stout copper or brass wire. Flatten out one end, drill or punch a hole in it to form the eye, and file the other end sharp for a point. Fourteen inches is a con- venient length for a cartridge needle. It is said that a sailor's wife enabled a British vessel to continue a long and desperate fight by pillaging the officers' quarters of all the stockings she could find, and handing them up to be filled for cartridges. The intestines of animals, according to their size, would make as good cartridge cases as could be desired. Wads may be made of picked oakum twisted in a flat spiral to the proper size of the bore, when they are made to retain their shape by being secured here and there with fine tmne passed through with the needle. In the absence of oakum, wooden wads may be made by first spokeshaving a stout pole to the size of the bore, and then sawing it up into convenient lengths. Old guns which have been laid by will not uncommonly be found spiked, by having a common nail driven into the vent. If efficient tools are at hand this may be drilled G^ms to unspike and out, if not, put a charge of powder in the gun, '^^P' bore a gimlet hole in one of your wooden wads, through which pass a loosely-twisted string well impregnated with dissolved gunpowder, and afterwards dried. Cut the end of your prepared string just at the muzzle of the gun, light it, and get out of the way, when the explosion, which soon takes place, will not unfrequently expel the spike. A gun which has had its trunnions knocked off, with a view to rendering it useless, may be made nearly as effective as ever by cutting with the axe r2 214 SJdfls and Expedimts of or adzo a bed for it in a ntout piece of log, of sncli a form that the cascabel of tlio gun and the breech end are rather more than half buried in solid wood. The log may now be trimmed off to convenient dimcn.sions, and all made secure by a lashing of wet raw hide rope, which rests in a broad shallow notch cut in the log to receive it. The gun and its bed are thus, as the rope dries, held together by a material little less rigid than iron. The bed log and gun may now bo mounted by placing a very strong round bar of hard tough wood across the sHde or carriage imme- diately below where the trunnions would have rested. This receives a deep semicircular notch, cut to exactly correspond with it on the under side of the bed log. The gun can now be elevated and depressed in the usual manner by placing wedges under the log. The common mode of priming a gun from a flask or horn, when there are no percussion or friction tubes to be obtained, is, to say the least of it, inconvenient and dangerous. It is far better to keep on hand a few priming cups. These are made as follows : Priming cups, to make. From the joints of a bamboo cut a number of little cups, the bottoms being formed by the knots of the cane ; in the centre of the bottom bore a hole, with a gimlet or red hot wire, large enough to admit a piece of marsh reed, hollow cane, weed stalk, or quill, about Sin. long, and small enough in diameter to pass down into the vent of the gun easily; stop the small end with a bit of molted sealing-wax ; secure the large end in the cup by the same agency. The cup becomes now a sort of funnel, through which common fine sporting powder should be poured until both tube and cup are full, when a piece of oiled paper is strained over the top of the cup like the head of a drum, and is tied fast with twine. When the gun is to be fired, the cartridge is pierced in the usual way with the priming wire. The tube of the priming cup is now to be inserted at the mouth of the vent, and pressed down until the bottom of the cup rests on the metal of the gun, when on the port fire or linstock being applied, the paper lid is instantly burned through, and the gun discharged. In windy weather, heavy tropical rains, or at night, these cups are extremely useful. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 245 A cannon, of very tolerable efficiency for close quarters, and sluf or bullet charges, may bo made by boriug a bole partly tbrougb a piece of tougli strong log, with a pump auger; . IMakeshif t firearms, bore a vent with a gimlet, put on one or two hoops or rings of iron or raw hide, and the gun is ready for use. We have seen several of these, which were effectually used during the rebellion in Canada, In 1838, at the siege of Herat, Mahomed Shah brought up a quantity of metal on the backs of camels, and had a heavy bronze gun cast, and completely finished before the town ; and when the siege was raised the king had his gun sawn to pieces and taken to Teheran. Shah Abbas, of Ispahan, had a heavy piece of artillery, but said it would delay his march, and he would much rather carry metal on camels and cast artillery before the enemy^s town. During the Indian mutiny, the rebels pulled down the telegraph- posts which had iron tube sockets fitted to them in order to keep off the white ants. These sockets were taken ofi", and vents drilled in them. They were then loaded with powder, and charges of slugs made from doubled up and hammered pieces of the telegraph wire. We have seen a piece of common iron gas-pipe, a piece of wood, and a few bits of sheet copper, converted into a very formidable matchlock pistol. In our Australian boat voyage we had a small lib. swivel carro- nade. We jammed a polo about 6ft. long into the fork of the swivel, and had wo met any of the Malay trepang fishers, who go in companies of a hundred or more, wo should have made the swivel- bolt fast to the bowsprit just outside the stem of our boat, and, letting the trail rest on the mast thwart, have defended ourselves with heavy charges of musket bullets. Of course the fishers might have been friendly, or, if not, the knowledge that we had a gun would have made them so, and we should not in any case have been the aggressors. Light guns mounted on di-omcdaries or camels are valuable for the defence of caravans, &c. The Afghans first used these in an emergency against the Persians. A number of pivoted -j^g Zemboureks, or arquebuses were mounted on the saddles of dromedary iirtiUcry. dromedaries, which were taught tu kneel while the pieces were fired 246 Shifts and Expedients of from their backs. The Persians, profiting by the lessons of their defeat, also organised a similar force, the guns weighing not more than 751b. The saddle was originally constructed of two-forked branches connected by wooden bars, and if the gun was slightly overloaded the recoil would injure the fittings, and disturb the animal; but subse- quently the saddle was much improved, and wheels were added, so that it might be taken from the animaPs back and used as a field gun. It will be seen that the stafi" of the bannerol carries a little tent, and this covers the ammunition bags. A skin of water hangs under the belly of the camel. The Persians have sought out with eagerness and perseverance the best form of artillery to be carried on the backs of animals ; and, as it seems that dromedaries have been successfully imported into America and Australia, it may be of advantage to know that they are capable of being utilised in this way. Other animals, perhaps oxen, might be trained to carry smaller guns. Very efficient common case shot can be made by filling empty preserved-meat tins with rifle or pistol balls. A bag of cooper's iron hoop rivets is a very favourite charge among the South-Sea whalers. Round shot can be made as directed under the head "Lead, and its Uses.'' Extempore grenades can be made from empty soda-water bottles or old ink jars. On one occasion we made a number from the latter Grenafles and rocket vessels by filhng them with a mixtm*e of buck f^liot and strong sporting powder; stoppers of wood were tlien fitted hy notching the upper ends, and fastening Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 247 them down with wire, like the corks of champagne bottles, a gimlet hole was then bored in each, and a few inches of quick match put in. When the fuse has been lighted, these vessels are either hurled from the hand or fired from large powerful cross-tows, when they, by exploding in full flight or on the ground, cause no trifling confusion among an undisciplined enemy, a pack of wolves, or a sounder of hog in a cactus brake. An unarmed merchantman was chased by a pirate galley ; she hove to, and pretended to surrender, but two men stood at the gangway with a cask of powder. As soon as the long low open boat came alongside they threw it into her, and the cook, running out of the galley, threw a shovelful of hot coals after it. The ship forged ahead before the smoke had cleared away, and escaped, leaving the desperadoes to their fate. Large arrows tipped with strong paper cases, such as are made for rockets, only choked at the bottom, become most formidable projectiles. The cases are partly filled with powder, a wad, with a hole in it, is rammed down on the charge, a quill is put in the hole, about thirty buck shot are deposited round the quill, which is filled with meal powder. The case and quill head are then capped with paper which has been soaked in dissolved gunpowder or nitre. Arrows thus made are to be fired from powerful hand-bows, after the match has been lighted. In the true rocket arrow the touchpaper is ignited just before the arrow is fixed in the bow, and it is shot just before the fire reaches the composition; the combustion then aids the flight rather than retards it. The head is strongly barbed, so that it may not easily be drawn from thatched roofs, &c. ; the Chinese and Indian tribes often use these. It sometimes happens that the hunter or explorer has, like many members of the Algerian, Tartar, and Mongolian tribes, to turn gun- powder manufactm'er. To make gunpowder Gunpowder, to make, three ingredients are requisite : viz., saltpetre (nitrate of potash), sulphur, and charcoal. The two former ingi-e- dients should form a part of the equipment of an expedition (see "Farrier's Stores," p. 84). Still, where such stores are not carried, sulphur and saltpetre are usually to be obtained, more or less 248 Shijts and Expedients of pure, from the natives of all but the most uufrequontcd and isolated countries. The saltpetre will require recrystallisatiou, wliicli is carried out as follows : Take equal quantities, by measure, of the saltpetre and boiling watei', stir them well about with a stick xmtil all the lumps are thoroughly dissolved; strain the resulting fluid through a coarse cloth in order to get i-id of sticks, chips, and stones, and set it aside to crystallise; when the process is complete drain the water from the crystals, set them to dry on a skin or a cloth. The sulphur, if in lumps as imported, will require purification by melting. This operation must be conducted over a very slow fire, and immediately the mass becomes liquid in the pot it should be put to stand for a few minutes in hot wood ashes in order that impurities may settle to the bottom. The neck of the vessel may then be held fast in a twisted stick, and the contents poured dexterously out into a convenient mould imtil the sediment at the bottom, which is useless, is left. Flour of sulphur will not require this treatment. The charcoal (see " Charcoal Burning," p. 2G7) should, for gunpowder making, be prepared from some light, clean-grained wood. In this country willow, withy, alder, hazel, linden, &c., are held in high esteem for the purpose; but in wild countries the nearest approach to these within reach should be obtained. The three ingredients must be first separately ground, either in a native quern or stone hand- mill, between two conveniently-formed stones, or in an extempore pestle and mortar, until reduced to perfect powder, quite free from lumps or grit. The three powders are to be now weighed out carefully in the following proportions : One part sulphur, one part charcoal, and six parts saltpetre. Mix these on a skin pegged out on the ground, and rub the mixture together with the palms of the hands until most intimately and thoroughly blended ; then, with an empty percussion-cap box or drinking cup, measure your mixture, and for every ten cups or boxes of powder put down a stone or make a mark, and for every mark put aside a cup full of warm water, so that you have just one-tenth of fluid. This you sprinkle with a bunch of feathers or grass, a little at a time, on the powders, until, by constant and persistent working and kneading, a smooth homogeneous paste is formed. Two well-selected stones much fiicilitate this stage of the Gamjp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 249 process; one should be large and flat, the other water-rounded and oval; in fact, a water-worn pebble of about 21b, weight. By sitting on the stretched skin with the flat stone between the logs, the water and sprinkler at the side, and tho pebble between the hands, the paste can be efiectually worked up ; and it is well to bear in mind that on the perfect homogeneity of this paste depends, in great measure, the quality of the gunpowder. Tho paste — or devil as it is sometimes called — being thoroughly elaborated, make square flat cakes of it Gin. square and 2in. thick, and wrap them compactly up in cotton cloth or old sheeting fom* or five times doubled ; then stitch up a stout hide bag just large enough to contain all your cakes and their coverings when built in compactly one on the other, and sow up tho opoiiiug; tlien, with a chisel, scoop out a cavity in the end of a log just deep enough to half bury your case of cakes; then, with the aid of a neighbomnng tree, and a few suitable pieces of wood, which are easily fashioned with the axe, prepare such a press as is shown in the above illustration. The weight should be increased gradually, and the pressure intensified until the cakes are pressed into compact masses. Tho coverings are now to be removed, and then tho process of corning begins, and the help of a corning sieve is required. This is made as follows : Make a wide stout hoop of any pliant wood, and over one of its edges stretch a head of parchment, like that of a banjo, nail or lace it on wet, and when dry it will Ijccome pi.rfcctly tight, like the head of a tambourine. 250 Shiftn and Expedients of Now, take a very small-sized key, file off tlie wards and bow, starpen the lower edges round the tube with the file until it is conrerted into a sharp hollow punch. Turn your tambourine upside down on a smooth- faced log of suitable size, and, with a small hammer and your little punch, proceed to perforate the parchment until the head is covered with small round holes. Now fashion from any dry, hard, heavy wood aflat disc l^in, thick and 4^in. in diameter; this, with the broken cake, is put in the sieve and rattled about forward and back until the small broken granular fragments are in numbers forced through the holes in the parchment, and fall on the skin stretched to receive them. It will be found that among the grains thus formed there will be a certain quantity of fine dust ; this can be separated by sweeping the grains over a sloping board on which flannel has been stretched, the grains pass on, the dust remains amongst the fibres of the wool, and can be collected to work up again. The granules can now be placed in a little wooden box and shaken about until rubbed smooth against each other. To finish them ofi" it is well to place a large sheet of iron, copper, tin, or any other metal over a pot of boiling-hot water, thi'ow the now all-but-finished gunpowder on the plate and stir it about until completely diy. A clean frying-pan is by no means a bad instrument for powder drying ; take care that it is only placed on hot water, and not subjected to fire heat, or a blow-up will probably follow. Too much caution cannot be used after the powder has been subjected to the granulating process ; before that there is little to fear, after it a great deal. In travelling through little known or comparatively undescribed countries, it will be well for the experienced traveller to closely investigate and carefully study the geology of Geology for travellers. the region he is passing through ; outcropping rocks and the stones of the river beds should be closely investi- gated. Sand should be gathered on the borders of the deep pools, dried, spread out on paper, and examined under the lens. Thus will the formation of inaccessible mountain regions be often brought to light. The winter ices and spring floods, by breaking up and dis- integrating the rocks they flow through, gradually, by friction and the grinding power of water-moved boulders, reduce the detritus Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 251 which accompanies them to sand, more or less ponderous according to the metalHc elements of which it is formed. Thus, by the breaking up of quartz veins by the agencies just referred to, gold is released from its matrix to enrich the sands and shingle beds of certain rivers. Alluvial tin is in the same way set free in grains and nodules from the granitic or other formations in which it resides, and, water borne, travels onward until arrested by some deep pit or crevice in the river bed, where it remains until disturbed by floods of more than ordinary magnitude, or the pick and shovel of the miner. Our space will not admit of our dealing at length with the indications of gold or other metals, or of the regions in which the precious metals and gems are to be sought. We shall, therefore, content ourselves by giving a few plain, and we trust practical, hints for the finding and identi- fication of such metals, stones, &c., as the traveller Metals, to identify, is likely to meet with. Fii-st in importance we class gold; and, although precarious and uncertain in the bulk of its deposits, is more generally distributed throughout the earth's surface than any other metal. Clay slate formations, traversed by iron-stained quartz dykes, are well worth investigating; and most of the streams which flow through such forma- Hints to gold tions will be found, on careful examination, more or ^^^''^ ^^^" less auriferous. In prospecting a stream, or river bed, choose localities where the stream, after a sharp descending run, has impinged against a perpendicular bank, forming an eddy before flowing onward. Dig away boldly all the top deposit until the bed rock is reached. Kout out all the depressions, crevices, and holes in this, scooping up all the clay, gravel, and grit they may contain. Place all this in convenient quantities in a broad shallow metal pan or dish, add water to it, rub it about briskly with the hand, pour away all the dirty water, add more, shake it about, give a sweep- ing rotatory motion to your pan, pick out all large lumps of stone or quartz, giving a sharp look at the latter; still add water, and work the pan until nothing but fine clear sand remains in it. A dexterous rolling, tilting motion is given by the initiated, which at once clears away the baser fragments, and reveals the " colour," as the gold dust is called by the minert>. A broad shovel is at times used some- 252 Shift a and Expedients of what in the same manner, the handle being held as shown in the full-page illustration " Searching for Gold/' when the process is called vannint]:. To carry out a regular system of investigation among quartz reefs, mineral veins, and metalliferous rocks, certain tools and appliances IVIininff and miners' "^^^ ^® needed — picks of Cornish pattern, such *^'^^' as is represented in the above illustration, sets of steel borers, with cockscomb ends, sets of steel gads or wedges, borer, steel and gad steel in bars, blasting powder, safety match in coils, some heavy hammers, a portable forge (such as is here represented), set of smith's tools, sliovel blades, spare pick -heads, and hilts of ash, &c. When it is deemed requisite to blast a portion Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 253 of rock, tlie borer and hammer are used much as sho-WTi in the annexed illustration. One man, sitting on the ground, holds the borer upright and turns it freely I'ound, whilst his assistant i /- ~ strikes it with the hammer. A little water dropped from time to time down the hole keeps the bit cool, and facilitates the operation. As sludge collects, it is removed with a species of scraper, fashioned from the end of an iron bar. A small rod or stick, with, its end fibres frayed and set up like a mop, is used for drying out the hole. Should it be in wet ground, where moisture remains in spite of swabbing out, a cartridge composed of tallowed cotton or oiled paper, may be used to inclose th.e powder in. According to the old-fashioned plan, which some miners still follow, a long pointed copper rod or needle was pressed into the charge after it had been rammed into the bottom of the hole. Eound this rod clay, pulverised clay, slate, &c., was closely packed, and driven with a copper tamping rod until the hole was compactly filled up. The needle was now withdrawn, and a match, composed of a long marsh reed filled with mealed powder, thrust down the orifice until the charge was reached, when the upper end was held in its place by clay. A bit of rag, smeared with moistened powder, was attached to the head of the reed, which, when fired, burned long enough to afford time for the miners to shelter themselves from the effects of the explosion. Since the introduction of the so-called patent safety match, it has been with great advantage substituted for the reed ; the burning of this C/^-'^i^-' 254 SJiifts and Expedients of matcli or fuse is generally so uniform, that it lias only to be cut according to the distance between the hole and the place of shelter. Even this great improvement in the means of ignition falls very short of exploding by voltaic electricity, which should always, when practicable, be had recourse to. The wandering miner and explorer will, however, seldom be able to avail himself of its valuable aid, or the use of gun cotton or nitrate of glycerine, which agents have of late been much lauded as substitutes for gunpowder in mining operations. It not unfrequently happens that diamonds and other precious stones are found in river beds, and such other localities as miners are in the habit of examining. We therefore offer a few hints and directions for the identification of these in their rough state, as given by Professor Tennant : '^ Fig. 1 is an octahedron ; Fig*. 2 an octahedron having six planes on the edges ; Fig. 3, dodecahedron with rhombic faces ; Precious stones to Figs. 4, 5, and 6 are rarer forms. Out of 1000 identify. diamonds I have generally found about one of the form of Fig. 6 ; about ten like Fig. 5 ; fifty like Fig. 4 ; and the remainder like 1, 2, 3, in about an eqiial proportion. With regard to the size and weight of diamonds, 500 out of 1000 which came in the same parcel were found smaller than Fig. 1, which is the exact size of a diamond weighing half a carat ; 300 were of the size 3, 4, 5, and 6 — Oarrfp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 255 none of these exceeded a carat in weight ; eighty of the size 2 weighed a carat and a half; only one was as large as Fig. 16 — this weighed 24 carats. The remainder varied from 2 to 20 carats^ a carat being equal to three grains and one-sixth troy. Fig. 7 consists of a con- glomerated mass of quartz pebbles rounded through having been water-worn^ a crystal of diamond, the size of a small pea, and various grains of gold, the whole cemented together by oxide of iron. This specimen is peculiarly interesting at the present time, as showing the association of diamonds with gold. In 1844 a slave was searching for gold in the bed of a river in the province of Bahia, and discovered dia- monds. It being a new locality for diamonds, 297,000 carats were collected in two years, which produced upwards of 300,000L I see no reason why diamonds should not be found in Australia, Canada, California, as well as in those other gold districts from which they have hitherto been obtained. The value of the most inferior diamonds, unfit for jewellery, is 50L per ounce. Could they be found in sufficient abundance to be sold at hi. per ounce, the benefit to the arts would be incalculable. Not only would the seal engraver, watchmaker, lapidary, glazier, &c., be able to procure them at easier prices, but numerous substances would be rendered useful which at present cannot be profitably worked owing to the high price of diamonds. " Figs. 8 to 11 represent four crystals of corundum. This substance is commonly found in six-sided prismatic crystals, and frequently terminated at each end by six-sided pyramids. When transparent, and of a blue colour, it is known in jewellery as the sapphire ; when merely of a red colour, it is called Oriental ruby ; and when this colour is of a rich depth, the stone is more valuable than even the diamond. ''Figs. 12 to 14. Three crystals of spinel-ruby. It is of various shades of red, and is easily distinguished from corundum by the peculiarity of its crystalline form and inferior hardness. " Figs. 15 and 16. Crystals of garnet. These are chiefly found in the form of the rhombic dodecahedi'on ; are occasionally of a beautiful red colour ; when semi-transparent, are called by the jewellers " carbuncles." They are of comparatively httle value. "Figs. 17 and 18. Two rhombic prisms of topaz. It is found in rivers, frequently with all the edges and angles of the original crystal 256 Shifts and Expeclients of worn off, and prosonting a round appearance, in whicli state it is often mistaken for tlio diamond, owing to tlie colour and specific gravity of eacli being tlie same. It may, liowcvcr, easily be distinguislied from it by tlie difference of tlie hardness and fracture. The diamond yields readily to mcclianical division parallel to all tbe planes of tlie regular octaliedron, tlie topaz only at riglit angles to tlie axis of tlie crystal. " Fig. 20. Tourmaline. A crystal having six sides, deeply striated in the longitudinal direction, and terminated by a three-sided pyramid ; colour varying from black to brown and green. Transparent specimens are useful to the philosopher in experiments on polarised light. "Fig. 21. Crystal of transparent quartz or " rock crystal," fre- quently called a " diamond •" in the mining districts, as " Bristol diamond," a " Cornish diamond," &c. The crystal represented by this figure was brought from California by a person who refused 200?. for it, under the impression that it was a real diamond, because it scratched glass and could not be scratched with a file. Its real value, however, is not more than 2s. Qd. Fig. 22. Beryl, presents a six-sided prism, and is usually of a green colour." When substances are found which are supposed to be precious stones, the file test should be at once applied ; if the teeth of the instrument " bite," as it is called, or cut into the substance, it will be at once fair to infer that some inferior mineral has been discovered. The bit of sapphire from the case may also be called into use, and if the stone you have found is of white colour, and a corner of your sapphire bites or scratches it, there is no hope of its being a diamond. If on weighing it the specific gravity of the specimen is found to be less than 3'9, it -will not turn out to be a ruby or sapphire. The application of heat is another test, as if no electricity is manifested it will not turn out to be a gargoon or a topaz. If, on testing it on your piece of flint glass, the surface of that is bitten by the specimen, it will probably be found to be either rock crystal, quartz, or per- chance beryl. The rivers of many countries, our own amongst the number, not nnfrequently contain large mussel-like Eivcr pearls, to find. ^ J o shells ; these are the fresh-water pearl mussels {TJnio margarififems), and the pearls which these at times contain are Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 257 of considerable value^ and well repay being looked for when the rivers are low. "All is not gold that glitters." Sulpburet of iron and yellow mica are not nnfrequently mistaken by tlio inexperienced for gold, and we liave not nnfrequently kad some little diflSculty in convincing tke sanguine discoverer of Ms error. Sulpkuret of iron, pyrites, or tke mundio of tke miners, is a brigkt yellow glittering mineral, wkick sometimes kas gold associated witk it. Tke differences between it and gold are sufficiently marked. Strike tke suspected fragment on a kard substance witk a kammer, and if " mundic,'^ it at once becomes reduced to minute fragments, wkilst gold would bo only skgktly flattened. Grold is malleable ; mundic is not. Gold can be cut witk tke pocket-knife just as easily as copper ; mundic resists tke knife, turns its edge, and will strike fire against its back, giving out sulpkurous fumes. Mundic, after being made red kot, is attracted by tke magnet; gold never is. Hot nitric acid causes it to decompose witk muck effervescence, leaving suck spangles of gold as it may contain free in tke bottom of tke test tube. Grold dust is readily taken up by qu.icksilver ; mundic is not. Yellow mica is so muck ligkter tkan gold tkat its comparative want of ponderability skould at once distinguisk it ; a small portion placed on an iron bar, and keated in tke fire to redness^ becomes, on cooling, flakey and lustreless, wkilst gold would remain unaltered ; it floats on tke surface of mercury, refusing to unite witk it, wkilst gold is immediately converted into an amalgam. Sulpkuret of copper, or copper ore as it is usually called, breaks freely under tke kammer, but can be cut easily witk tke knife, only instead of producing a solid metallic ckip it crumbles into powder, just as soft stone or ckalk would. Alluvial tin can in no case be mistaken for either gold, silver, or copper. It is dark coloured, breaks into poAvdcr under tke kammer, and is exceedingly ponderous. Witk tke so-called rosin and wood tin we cannot deal kere, as tke explorer is not very likely to find tkcm. Minute fragments of stream tin are to be easily distinguisked from small bits of iron ore by first beating tkem red kot, and tken subjecting tkem to tke magnet ; iron will be attracted, tin will not. Many wild countries produce iron ore of remarkable purity, and a number of native tribes, by a rougk system of smelting, contrive 258 Shifts and Expedients of to obtain enovig-li metal for tlio manufacture of their weapons, imple- ments, &c. The greater the purity of the metal, the less difficulty will be experienced in dealing with it. Should Iron ore, to smelt. • i n t the explorer at any time be called on to smelt a little iron ore, he may proceed as follows : Build a turret-shaped furnace, proportioned to the quantity of ore to be treated, line it with ant-hill clay, or common clay and sand, leaving a hole in the front near the bottom, which has a temporary stopper of clay placed in it, and another orifice about 2ft. up the back for the air blast to enter at. Either a large pair of double bellows, compressible skin air-bags, such as we have before described, or blowing cylinders, such as are represented in the annexed illustration, must be set up at a convenient dis- tance from the back of the furnace. These cylinders are used by the inhabitants of New Guineainstead of bellows, and answer remarkably well. They are composed of two hollow tree trunks, placed side by side ; a wooden tube, which serves to let the air out, unites them ; and a man or boy sits on the tops of the tubes, and works alternately up and down a couple of mop-shaped pistons, which are made from poles armed at the ends with bundles of fibre, feathers, or dry grass, ^ so adjusted that they expand on being thrust down and collapse on being dra\^ai up. As one pistcju man gets fatigued, another takes his place ; thus a continuous stream of air is kept up. Whatever method of blast I Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 259 19 decided im, it must be so arranged as to be continuous and powerful. Wlien the interior of tlie furnace is quite dry, tlirow in a good quantity of well-burned charcoal; then a layer of split dry wood until it reaches about 1ft. above the entrance of the blast ; then another layer of charcoal and dry cow dung a few inches deep ; then sprinkle in loosely a layer of broken iron ore, mixed with a little limestone if you can get it ; then another layer of charcoal and dry cow dung, and another of ore ; and so on until the furnace is all but full, only one layer of wood being used. Now through the blast entrance introduce some well-ignited and' glowing embers from your fire ; put in the tube of your blast, which may be of baked clay ; lute it fast in its place, so as to prevent any escape of air; and proceed to blow, when your furnace will soon be in a state of active ignition and glow. Keep up the blast steadily, and as the contents of the furnace sink down add to them from above layer by layer as before directed, until it is considered that enough metal has been cast in. So soon as it is thought probable that the iron has melted, a small portion of the clay of the tap-hole may be removed with an iron bar, when, if in a sufficiently fluxed condition, the iron will run freely out into long shallow pits dug to receive it. The iron thus procured is called bloom, and has to be heated in pieces in the forge fire, and thoroughly roasted and thumped about until it is soft and tough enough for general use. The natives do not as a rule wait for their iron to flow, but open the furnace when it cools down, and then drag out such bloom as may have settled to the bottom. Excellent steel is made from iron thus procured by the natives of the hill districts of India, by putting it in small earthen crucibles with charcoal, rice, chafi*, peroxide of manganese, and green leaves. These pots are then luted down with clay, and placed in a clay furnace heated with dry cow dung and charcoal. Here they remain for a considerable time, when the fire is allowed to burn out ; the pots are then, when cool, removed, and the steel taken out to be fashioned by the hand of the smith into any form required. We have used a great deal of both iron and steel prepared as above described, and found both of admirable quality. A common horse-shoe magnet, such as can be bought for a s 2 200 Shifts and Expedients of mere trifle at any toyshop_, y/ill bo found very useful for extract- Chemical tests for "ig particles of iron from other mineral. When- minerals, ^y^j, ^]^q means of transport will admit, it is well to take a small compact case of simple appliances, tests, and reagents. The whole, by a little ingenuity, may be easily packed in a solid leather case very little larger than an ordinary sandwich box. Its contents should be as follows : Small glass- stoppered and capped bottle of nitric acid, ditto hydi'ochloric acid, ditto liq. ammonia, ditto quicksilver, small corked bottles of ferro- cyanide of potassium, bi-chromate of potash, fused borax, and common salt ', a small jointed blowpipe, a pair of forceps, a small pair of scales, fitted for taking specific gi-avities, and a set of weights, a bit of flint glass, a piece of sapphire, which can be obtained from any lapidary; half a dozen test tubes to nest one witliin the other ; half a dozen old watch glasses, to be obtained for a few pence from any watchmaker ; half a dozen narrow strips of window glass, cut to a thickness little greater than stout wire, and 5in. long (these are for stirring up hot acids, &c.) ; a piece of stout copper wire, shaped like the figure 9, to hold the watch glasses on whilst they are over the lamp or candle flame ; a small fijie file and a few narrow sHps of well burnt light charcoal; a common wire cigar-holder, to hold the test tubes in whilst heated ; and a very small binght-faced hammer, such as watch- makers use. It is truly astonishing how much qualitative analysis can be carried out with these comparatively limited means. We will suppose that a little bag of sand has been obtained ; that it shows, on being spread out, a number of particles of a glittering yellow sub- stance, as well as black-coloured grains, mixed withi common quartz and minute fragments of stone. We first place our sand on a sheet of white paper, and with our pocket lens have a thorough examination of the various constituents. Should any grains of sufficient size and questionable character present themselves, they may be at once taken up on the moistened point of a pin. If one of them should look like gold, place it on some hard substance and give it a blow with your hammer. If it flattens without powdering, drop it into one of your test tubes, pour in a little nitric acid, and hold it in the flame until it boils thoroughly. If your particle gives off a train of minute bubbles and gi-adually dissolves. Cwmp Life, Travel, and Explm'ation. 261 pom* a little of the contents of your tube into two separate watch glasses placed side by side, add a little water to each. Add a little common salt to No. 1 ; if the particle is silver, you will at once have a thick white precipitate — chloride of silver. Drop a few drops of your liquor ammonia into No. 2 ; and if copper, the beautiful and well-marked blue colour of ammonuret of copper will at once appear. Should the particle have crushed under the blow, it is probably either sulphuret of iron or copper ore. To distinguish these two substances when in a minute state of division, proceed with the acid as just described, and test one watch glass with a small fragment of ferrocyanide of potassium, when, if sulphuret of iron or "mundic," you will have a dense cloud of Prussian blue in your watch glass. Treat the other with your liquor ammonia, and you will have the same brilliant ammonuret of copper colour as if the particle had been native or malleable copper. Having satisfied ourselves as to the selected par- ticles — for should the flattened grain resist the action of the hot acid and remain bright, it is surely gold — wo place our sand on a shovel, and hold it there until the whole is red hot ; it may then be taken from the fire, and allowed to cool on the shovel. The magnet will now take out all the bits of iron. Now with a hammer-face or smooth water- worn pebble proceed to crush all the substances on the shovel fine. Then at the nearest stream of water, or in a large tub, carefully van and wash your sample until all the earthy and worthless matters have been washed away; then the practised eye will instantly distinguish the gold, if any. The utterly inexperienced may, however, be deceived by remaining fragments of mundic or copper ore before referred to ; there- fore, to make assurance doubly sure, let him dry his washed metal poAvder on the shovel over the fire, then carefully place it in a small, clean, dry vial-bottle with a little quicksilver. Shake and rattle it well about until all the particles have been brought well in contact with the mercury. Such fragments as it will not take up are not gold ; but to find that which it has converted into an amalgam, place the mercury in a piece of clean chamois leather, press it carefully, and the mercury will force its way in minute globules through the leather, leaving the gold in a soft mass within. This, by being heated to redness, th^ow3 off" the remaining quicksilver, and can be estimated as gold. Silver will also 2G2 Shifts and Expedieids of amalgamato with mercury, but can always be distinguished from gold by the nitric acid and salt test before described. Lead ore is rarely mis- taken for anything else, its peculiar colour, cubical form of crystalli- sation, and gravity being generally sufficient to identify it. A small quantity, reduced to a fine powder and mixed with a little fused borax, readily fuses on a charcoal slip before the blowpipe, and is then ordinary lead. The silver often associated with lead ores can alone be estimated by a regular assay, requiring the use of crucibles, cupels, furnace, &c. Sulphuret of antimony, although massive and somewhat lead-coloured, leaves a thick rough deposit on the charcoal, and fuses into a brittle crystalline regulus, in no way resembling lead. Small specimens of galena, or lead ore, should always be preserved for future investigation, as it is at times extremely rich in silver, whilst at others a mere trace only remains. We have analysed lead ore from Cornwall which yielded between 90oz. and lOOoz. of silver to the ton, whilst other samples, raised in Wisconsin, although yielding 85 per cent, of lead, did not contain enough silver to render its extrac- tion remunerative. The points of distinction between minerals and metals we have thus been briefly laying down do not properly apply to the investigations of the regular gold-digger, but are mainly intended for the use of those who are engaged in exploration and research. The professed gold-seeker, as a rule, casts all aside save the one great centre of his hopes and pursuit. He, in his prospecting expeditions, makes use of the broad shallow metal pan shown in the illustration which represents '' Searching for Gold.^^ The quantity of gold brought to light by its aid guides him in his choice of a locality. If it is considered rich enough, he, with his mates, sinks down to " the, pay dirt," or deposit containing the gold ; this is either washed out at once on the cradle, or piled in heaps for future treatment. With gold quartz -crushing, amalgamation on a large scale, or the washing down (^f drift by hydraulic power and the use of flumes as practised in California, we cannot deal here, as the appliances are far more com- plicated and ponderous than the mere traveller could carry with him. It sometimes happens that imposition is attempted in far-oflf lands, and imitation gold ornaments offered to the traveller. To test the quality of these, it will be requisite to have a bit of black terra- Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 263 cotta pot, or a fragment of any hard smootti black stone. Rub the suspected ornament on this until a metallic streak is left, dip one of your bits of glass rod in your nitric acid, T -I p 1 B^se metal, to detect. and let a drop or two fall on the track left by the metal. If of base material, the particles will rapidly turn green and dissolve ; if gold, they will remain unchanged ; and if an alloy, the combined metal will be removed, and the gold will remain stationary on the black surface. The exact standard of mixture or combination can only be arrived at by the use of a set of touch-needles, which are rubbed and compared with the doubtful marks on the stone. There are many situations in which stone may be advantageously used for the erection of houses, forts, or defensible depots. On the discovery of a bed of rock adapted for the pur- ^, *^ btone, to quarry, pose, the head or covering earth should be removed, either by the agency of water obtained by diverting some neigh- bouring stream for the purpose, or by digging with the spade or shovel. Careful examination will now generally disclose veins or seams traversing the stone, such of these as run in favom-able direc- tions should be selected, and the gads or wedges before described had recourse to. It is well to have, at least, a dozen of these for stone splitting. They should be about 5in. long, l^in. wide, and iin. thick, tapering to the edge, which should not be too sharp. All gads should be made of the best gad steel, carefully pointed and tempered. In entering the gads, it wiU be well to insert them in the selected seam at about 1ft. apart ; then, with the hea^^ hammer or pick- head, strike each gad a blow or two in succession, which will serve to open the seam, and not unfrequently detach the required fragment. When large square or oblong blocks are requu-ed, it is weU to first mai-k out the size required on the rock with the pick's point, and then with either the borer before described, or a jumping bar (of form shown in the annexed illustration), drill a row of holes about Sin. apart on the line before marked out, in depth proportioned to the intended thickness of the stone, in each hole should be placed a pair of gad cheeks — these are pieces of half-rouud ii-on bar. The rounded sides rest against the sides 264 Shifts and Expedients of of the holes as the gad is driven between the flat surfaces,, thus forcing open the grain of the rock without breaking away the sides of the holes bj gad clinching. As in the former case^ each gad is gradually driven home until the line of holes run into one long fissure and the block is detached. In bi'eaking out flat slabs of comparatively thin stone, it will be found a good plan, after measuring and marking the size decided on, to sink a shallow groove either with the pick's point or a stonecutter's chisel across the extreme length of the slab ; then, by inserting the gads at the outer face or edge of the deposit, the slab will not only be raised but evenly broken off. Fire is a most powerful agent and aid in stone-breaking, especially when assisted by water. The huge and massive boulder of rock which bids defiance to the sledge-hammer may very soon be reduced to fragments by making a strong fire round it, and, when thoroughly heated, throwing buckets of water over it. Some Indians are particularly clever in the art of stone dividing. They build a double wall of clay the whole length of the stone. The treatment of leaving about six inches of bare rock between stone. them. They then lay more clay on the outsides of the walls, nearly the width of the stone. Then between the walls of clay they make a long line of fire with dry cow dung and chips of hard, dry wood. An incredibly short space of time elapses before the division of the stone is completed, when the fire is carefully extinguished with earth or sand, and the stone allowed to cool. Rocks, so placed as to prevent recourse being had to either of the expedients described, may be split out by the action of a small charge of powder, fired, as before directed, in a hole made by the jumping bar. To drill a hole with this no hammer man is required, but the weight of the protuberance on the instrument, when aided by a jumping and rotatory motion, is sufiicient to cut away the rock. Water swab, shell scraper, &c., are used with these implements, just as they are with the miner's borer, which can bo used in confined spaces and under outlying works, where the jumper would bo useless. A crowbar or two will be found very useful for lifting out broken pieces of stone, &c. There is also an instru- ment much used in America called a " canthook," which is hero Camjp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 265 represented. It is extremely valuable for moving both stones of large size and logs of unwieldy dimensions. The handle, or lever, is made of tough, well-seasoned timber, and is usually from 6ft. to 7ft. long. The claw is of sound, tough, wrought iron, and proportioned in weight and spread to the bodies it is applied to. Two or three sizes of claws fit one handle, just as a dentist's key is adapted to the size of the tooth it is to grasp. An oblong square hole is cut through the lever for the claw's end to pass through, and a stout iron pin, with a hole in the end for a split stop to go into, keeps the claw at its proper point of adjustment. The boulder claw is another most useful implement. It is used for turning over and rolling out large boulders of rock, lifting out logs, &c. These claws, and the chains and rings to which they are attached, should be made of the best Swedish iron ; the claw point should be of T^na^-ru^ THE BOULUEK CLAW. gad steel, welded in. The form of the hook or claw is very impor- tant, as, if not turned to the exact bend, it will not grip or hold. The above illustrations will serve to show both the form of the claw and its mode of action when in use. When water settles in a comparatively shallow pit, too large to bo conveniently emptied by the aid of buckets, a very simple form of pump will be found useful. Nail foiu- long planks together 266 Shifts and Expedients of in the form of a narrow square box or tube^ say Ifb. square ; now procure a stout pole a little longer than the box^ nail a flat board to one end of it just as a table is ISIiners' pump, to make. , , . attached to its stand, cut away the edges until it fits the box loosely, then nail a bordering of old boot leather or hide round the edges until it fits tight enough to suck ; cut a large square hole in it, and fasten over this with tacks a piece of tapping leather or raw hide backed with wood for a valve ; bore a hole in the upper end of the pole to put a cross handle through ; bore an auger hole through the lower end of your box about 1ft. from the opening, and through this drive a stout stick to keep the sucker from coming too far down; your pump is now complete. Place it in a slightly slanting direction in the pond, and secure it with a crooked stick driven in by its side ; push the sucker to the bottom, pour a bucket of water or so in to make it draw, and you will, by working the piston steadily up and down, soon have the water pouring in a flood over the upper edge of the box, where it can be caught in a hollow log or a pit lined with clay. One of these box pumps is shown in the full page illustration " Searching for Gold." The traveller will find it extremely useful to be able to manufacture his own charcoal. There are several methods by which he can do this, all depending on the same general principles. Charcoal burning. Pieces of wood of suitable length and convenient size are prepared. We show here the most efiective arrangements. The pile, when evenly and com- pletely built up, is covered with turf and a little sand or earth — / ^^^?^Bii^^^i^ %~ leaving one fair-sized orifice as a r-^ draught hole. Fire is introduced either at the bottom of the pile through a hole left for it, or dropped down through the space "" left by the withdrawal of the centre •■ l^.v--; ~ •• ' post. The orifices of all charcoal pits or chambers should remain open until the fire has become well distributed through the mass of wood, but should be covered with Camp Life, Travel, and Exjiloratic 267 a stopper of turf or clay directly the light grey smoke of active com- bustion shows itself. The contents of the pile may from time to time be tested by removing a small portion of the stopping or covering turf and inserting a hooked iron rod^ by the aid of which a sample of the baking may be withdrawn for examination. Immediately on being satisfied that the charcoal has been sufficiently burned^ more earth, turf, sand, &c., should be heaped on the top of the pile, until every crevice is stopped completely. The fire will then soon die out, and the contents of the pile can be removed. We also represent a con- trivance for preparing charcoal for gunpowder making. A small cask has one head removed, a stout pole run through the bung-hole, and is then evenly packed with selected billets of light suitable wood. (See "Gun- powder, to make," p. 247.) The head is then replaced, the cask covered with well- worked clay, and then sunk in a pit prepared for its recep- tion. The pole is then with- di-awn, and a good quantity of red-hot embers thrown down the hole. The cask, after being used for charcoal making, is very useful for an oven, as will be shown when cookery is under consideration. 268 Shifts and Expedients of CHAPTER IV. Timber fellinf HUTS AND HOUSES. Befoee proceeding to give directions for building huts and houses, it may not be amiss to give a few bints on felling trees. Hints they can only be, as it is just as impossible to teach the art of wielding the backwoodsman's axe by writing as it is to communicate the faculty of tracking wild animals through the forest by verbal directions. Experience and close observation are the only two true masters in both cases ; still, we may be enabled to give such general directions as may save our readers from some of the humiliating predicaments we have seen the inexperienced wood-chopper placed in. Nothing is more common than to see one of this class hopelessly pinching his axe at every cut, from having commenced his chop too narrow. The length of the chop, or chip as it is sometimes called, will, of course, depend on the size of the tree ; but in all cases it should be made in a long wedge form, as shown in the annexed illustration. By cutting in this way, the surface of the stump is left as level as a planed board, and the log which is sepa- rated from it has, when it falls, a wedge-shajied end. It will, in most cases, be found that the tree which you are about to fell will lean more or less in one direction. Station yourself, axe in hand, on the bide towards which the ti'ee leans ; then measure your I fb OUj^ U Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 269 distance by placing the edge of your axe on the centre of tlie boll of tlie tree, at such, a height from the ground that the axe lays in a straight and true line according to the stature of the axe man. The check or flange at the end of the axe helve should rest in the hands as the arms are extended towards the tree. This will give the distance at which the axe blade may be best brought to bear on the tree trunk. In delivering the cuts, which should follow the distance test, the axe should be dexterously and powerfully whirled round the head ; some- times obliquely from above downwards, and at others in a straight and direct sweep across the line of the log. The horizontal form of the lower cut and the wedge shape of the upper will be thus pre- served until the tree is half cut through, when exactly the same system of operation should be followed out on the side of the tree opposite to that on which the first incision was made. On the second chop being nearly completed, the tree will fall directly away from the axe man in the line of its inclination. On all the tops, lops, and branches being removed, and the log cleared from suiTounding impediments, it may become a question as to what purpose it is to be apphed. If it is of gi-eat length, and comparatively short pieces are required, the process known as " logging up " must be had recourse to. This is carried out as follows : After measuring the length of the log, and dividing it into the requisite number of pieces by marking it with the axe, stand rv^_ on the tree trunk, with your feet pointing across the grain of the wood, then with your axe proceed to cut two sloping or wedge-shaped cuts, as shown in the annexed illus- tration, carrying them into the log until half through it; then face about, and make two on the other side, which, when finished, should meet the others at their widest diameter, which will be that of the tree. Some settlers in wild countries burn down the trees in order to save labour; others girdle them. To perform this latter 270 Shifts and Expedients of process, it is necessary to cut a wide band of bark from the butt of tlie tree near tlio ground. This prcyents the sap from ascending, and thus quickly destroys vegetation. Where timber is scarce and valuable, the cross-cut saw may be made to aid the axe, and the tree taken off almost level with the ground. It sometimes, although not frequently, happens that trees are found too large to be felled by the axe or saw. This was the case with the so-called " big tree," one of the " mammoth trees" of California. It was felled by boring a complete circle of holes round and into its immense trunk with augers. Five men were occupied during twenty-two days in completing the final overthrow of the tree, which was effected, after all the holes had converged, by the introduction of a number of wedges. Its period of growth was estimated at 3000 years ; it measured 302ft. high, and was 96ft. in circumference at the butt. The bark measured nearly 1ft. in thickness. The quality, strength, and durability of timber are much influenced by the season of the year in which it is felled. In all temperate When to cut regions the autumn or winter season should be tuuber. chosen, as at that time little sap is flowing through the vessels of the tree. In this country it but too often happens that well-grown oak timber is all but sacrificed in order that the bark may be procured. Early spring, the season for bark rending, is the very worst that could by any possibility be chosen for cutting timber. Charged as it is with vegetable juices, rich in saccharine matter and albumen, the seeds of dry rot and decay are carried with it, which no after treatment will serve to eradicate. In tropical climates it is well to fell such timber as is intended to be kept for future use at the end of the dry season and before the setting in of the rains; all logs intended for rails, posts, &c., should be split up, immediately after felling, into the rough forms of the objects into which, when fully seasoned, they will be converted. The bark should be all stripped off, and the rough timber placed under cover in such a situa- tion as will admit of light and air penetrating freely through it. Timber cut and thus treated one season, should not be used until the next. The durability of seasoned timber is infinitely greater than that of green. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 271 For efficient timber splitting, a set of thoroughly well-made and correctly-formed iron wedges, and a number of equally well-shaped wooden wedges or gluts, are needed. The iron wedges Timber to should be made of the very best tough iron, tipped ^P^^*" with gad steel, as in the form of the annexed illustration. All the edges and corners should be slightly rounded off in order to give freedom in driving ; the length, from head to point, should be lOin., the width across the wedge 2^in., and the thickness of metal across the edge at the head 2in. Some judgment is required in tempering wedges, as they must be hard enough at the point to prevent bending, and yet not hard enough to break. The file test is as good as any. The edge of the wedge point should never be hammered thin before tempering, but left rather thick to be reduced to the proper degree of sharpness on the grinding stone. The wooden gluts are usually considerably larger than the iron wedges ; these are to be made from hard, tough, well- seasoned timber — round stout poles are convenient for making them. The proper lengths, which are mainly dependent on the size of the logs to be operated on, are sawn off. The sides or cheeks of these pieces are then chopped off with the axe in approximately true wedge form, an even surface and exact pitch is afterwards given to them with a cooper's drawing knife or a spoke shave. Wedges, whether of u'on or wood, should never be driven with an iron hammer. A wedging beetle, of form shown in the accompanying illustration, should be always made use of. The hardest and toughest wood to be obtained should be used to form the head; the ends are usually hooped T\ath flat iron rings, and the handle fashioned from some tough elastic wood, such as ash or hickory. Scarcely any two men use the same size beetle, but the following will be found fair average dimensions from which to make one: Length of beetle head 9in., binding hoops Uiu. wide and |in. thick, diameter of beetle head 5^in., length of handle 2ft. Sin. Great care should be taken in fitting in the handle, as it is 272 Sh'fis and Expedients of essential to the efficiency of the instrument that it and the head should be exactly true with each other. A slightly flattened handle lies in the hand more compactly, and works more freely, than a per- fectly round one. Nearly all logs split best from the small or crown end towards the butt. If it is intended to divide the log into four pieces, the wedges must be inserted as shown in the annexed illustration (a), if into three they are placed as at B. When rails, &c., are to bo made, the log must be divided into quarters, by first making a cross-shaped cut in the end of the log, and striking the back of the axe with the beetle until the edge enters deep enough to afford a hold for the iron wedges. Longitudinal cuts with the axe are now to be made, the whole length of the log corresponding with the cross. The wedges, gluts, and beetle do the rest when the latter implement is properly wielded. Logs for shingle making are quartered much in the same way, only instead of being split out in the full length, the log is cut up into short lengths before quar- tering. The shingles may be 15in. long by 9in. wide, and in form like that represented in the above illustration. The axe and beetle may be used for splitting off these wooden flakes, but the lath render's froe is a far more convenient instrument for the purpose. The diagrams in the next page will serve to show the mode by which the long log quarters are split up into rails, &c. Some Camp Life, Travel, and Exx>loration. 273 particular species of tree will split witliout the aid of wedo-os ; the axo alone being used to cleave them. Two axe men attack a log, one chops in his axe blade in the line of grain, the other follows behind and chops in his, when the first man becomes the second, and so on until the cut is complete and the log is split. Such posts as are intended to be driven into the earth require accurate and careful pointing. Each cheek of the timber should be smoothly and evenly sloped off to about the proportion shown in the illustration representing the wedge. The centre of the post will thus become the point. The accompanying illustration represents a log clip for holding a post whilst undergoing the process of pointing. The side wedge holds the post securely in the notched piece of log laid to receive it. A camp, garden, or cattle inclosure may be easily and expeditiously fenced in by either of the plans show n in the following illustrations. The first system of railing consists in driving double posts into the earth at equal distances, and then dropping trimmed poles and pieces of wood or stones alternately between them. A wooden pin driven through the heads of both posts at each nip keeps all compact and secure. To erect a fence by the second plan, posts are driven into the ground singly, in the position shown in the diagram on the next page, and then poles are laid with their '^ ..^.^-^^^^ and the hut is thatched with reeds, grass, or whatever may be the favourite or most convenient material of the country. In Kafirland the huts are hemispherical, like beehives, or rather like inverted bowls, slightly flattened on the top. The thatching is very neatly and compactly done, and generally small ropes of grass are carried many times round and round outside the hut, and laced with smaller strips through the thatching to the inner frame. The floor is nicely clayed with a compost of ^^ kraal mist " or cattle dung, and the fine clay of ant-hills broken up and well mixed. Sometimes the inner wall for 2ft. or 3ft. high is plastered with the same, and pumpkin seeds stuck into it in fanciful patterns, and picked off again, when the clay is dry, leaving a glazed film sparkling in the hollow. In one of our sketching trips through Kafirland in 1848 we had been advised by Captain Roper, of the Rifle Brigade, who commanded at the Buffalo Mouth, always to go to a hut or village at night, as should any accident befall us our '' spoor " could be traced, and the owner of the hut or headman of the village be held responsible ; while, on the con- trary, should we sleep in the bush, and our horse be stolen, and the thieves act on the principle that " dead men tell no tales," it would be very long before we were missed, and tracing might be impossible. There is one fault in these Kafir huts. They resemble an inverted bowl ; the door is cut out of the edge, and there is no other aperture 280 Shifts and Expedients of whatever. The consequence is that if one stands up his lower extremities may be absolutely chilled, while from the waist upward ho is immersed in a bath of smoke or heated air ; and when the fire has gone low, and the intensely cold air of the early morning fills the lower part, driving the warm air above the level of the dooi-way, the sleeper is glad to wrap himself more closely in his mantle. In countries where stratified rocks, as sandstone, &c., which split easily into flat slabs, abound, huts are frequently built of stone. A circle of blocks is laid on the ground, then another on them, with the edges projecting a little inward, so that the circumference of each course is less than that of the one immediately beneath it ; a large slab covers the top, and finishes the building. Such _^ huts are found in the north- "^ ' "^ 7r=^-*>^-'^" eastern part of the Free State in South Africa, formerly the Orange River Sovereignty. Among the various Bechuaua tribes in and beyond the Free State, the building of a hut is a more elaborate and artistic affair ; in fact, it deserves rather to be called a house, consisting, as it does, of walls and a roof perfectly distinct from each other. In its simplest form it consists of a row of stakes from 4ft. to 7ft, high, set up in a circular form, and of a conical roof, the frame of which is mostly made separately on the ground, and then lifted into its place, and bound firmly upon the upright wall. In the larger huts a smaller concentric circle of stakes (of course much longer than the first, as they have to reach the roof at a higher point) forms an inner chamber, and generally the eaves of the roof are extended, so as to form also a verandah, or shade, all round ; and, besides this, there will be a larger circular wall inclosing a courtyard, frequently of considerable dimensions. Sometimes, as on the Lower Zambesi, the row of stakes forming the outer wall of the house is plastered round with a broad central hori- zontal band of rod or yellow clay, leaving about a third above and below Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 281 it open for ventilation, and sometimes the whole is elaborately smoothed with a mixture of the fine clay of broken ant-hills and cattle dung, which, being left of its natural colour, has the appearance of a light greyish stone. All this is performed by the women, who put it down and smooth it with their hands, finishing not only the house, but the outer walls and even the floor of the courtyard, v/ith so much nicety that, as good housewives say at home, " you might eat off it." Raised seats are generally built in the form of segments of a circle, and these are as carefully smoothed over as the rest. The hut of a Bechuana chief at Yaal River was a model of neatness in its way ; the walls had been marked oS" into blocks, zigzag lines had been traced on them, and uncouth patterns were painted in black or coloured clay I lUEF'S ilCT, VAAU lUVEil. over the low door of his inner chamber, which, hung round witli antelope skins, was, as he said, very nice and warm — in fact, insuficr- ably hot. The outer apartment was oft. or 4ft. broad, and ran all round the inner. The part nearest the door served as a reception room, and the remoter regions were used for the stowage of rough skins, household gear, the musket and ammunition, and large pots and calabashes of outchulla or native beer, which kept up a constant simmering as it fermented, and to the taste seemed very like .spoiled 282 "" Shifts and E.v/pedients of vinegar. Largo frames arc made of wattled work, and coated with clay till they resemble capacious jars ; in these the corn is stored, small roofs are raised over them, and the timber around is wastefuUy heaped up to form a kind of shelter from the sun for the chief and council to sit under. The hartebeeste hut shown in the full-page camp scene in Kafir- land, mostly used by colonial Hottentots, is simple and easy enough to make. It has one straight side, and one lean-to, and derives its name from its resemblance to the sloping back of the animal. The huts of the Damaras are generally of very rude construction. A circle of sticks is planted in the ground, and the tops bent over and lashed together, generally with their own bark ; they are then roughly wattled, and plastered over with clay and "kraal mist.'^ Rain so seldom falls that they seem to take no precaution against it, preferring rather to risk the few drenching showers of the wet season than to take the trouble of making their huts waterproof. Sometimes the hides of the few cattle they slaughter are spread over their huts, and kept in their places by stones or heavy poles laid on them. In one respect only they have an advantage over the Kafir hut, and that is, the smoke escapes through the cracks and interstices of the roof. Internally there may be a dried hide to sit or sleep on, an earthen pot for cooking, a calabash or two, or a bambuse or wooden bowl for milk or water ; two or three skins stripped oS whole, as sacks for " uintjies^^ or earth nuts ; and it may be an axe, of Ovampo, or more rarely of European, manufacture. The box made of stifi" leather, in which they carry grease and red ochre, may also be here ; but, with the exception of their cattle, the Damaras seldom possess much more property than can be carried on the person. The huts of the Berg Damaras are still more primitive ; and sometimes they seek no other shelter than c)no or two small bushes, the lower f^ branches of which are cut away, while the upper ones are brought together and interwoven — others being added if needful — and grass thrown loosely over all. Indeed, small trees, with the lower branches cleared away, and the upper ones drawn together and interlaced, form very convenient Camjy Life, Travel, and Exploration. 283 liuts or arbours. The Becliuana women, in making a kraal, beat the mimosa branches on the ground till they flatten them into a fan-like form, then they plant them side by side and interlace the branches. The Namaqua Hottentots, the Makobas or canoemen of the Bo-tlet-te River, and many of the Bechuana tribes in the Orange Eiver Sovoreig-nty and elsewhere, build hemispherical frames of flexible wands, and cover them with mats of rushes like cheese mats. These are very neatly made. The Hottentots use flat awls, 18in. or 20in. long, for this purpose, but the Makoba awl is not more than 5in. or 6in. Small thongs of dressed antelope skin, or cords twisted from the fibres of diS'erent plants, are used for sewing the mats. These might be easily made by a traveller needing them, and he could best do it by having two or three needles of any convenient length, from 4in. or 5in. to 20in. ; they should be flattened at the point, and pierced with an eye to carry the cord on which the reeds are strung. The most convenient method would be to fix the needles upright at the proper distance from each other, and then press upon them as many rushes as their length would allow ; these, with the strings drawn through, should then be removed, and a fresh set threaded on, care being taken to see that the strings are kept clear, so that they reeve consecutively through all the rushes, and make a smooth uniform mat. Generally, however, it will be found that, where the proper materials grow, the natives will make and sell them cheaply enough. ISIats of this description are much used by the natives of North-West America in hut building ; the needles used in that country are not unfrcqucntly 5ft. long. It often becomes necessary for the traveller, if he contemplates a stay of a few mouths, or even weeks, in any one place, to build his 284 Shifts and Expedients of own hut; and it is as well that this should be, if possible, some- what superior in size and form to the dwellings of the natives Crook and prono' around him. If the nature of the ground and house, to build. ^i^Q materials at hand will admit of it, this may as well be a house regularly walled and roofed, and at least the four corner posts, as well as the two which support the gables, should be firmly let into the ground. If care is taken to cut all these with a fork, so that the ridge pole of the roof may rest in the forks of the gable poles, and the wall plates in those of the four corner posts, the building will be much stronger, and the work greatly facilitated. The rafters may also have forks, which can rest upon the wall plate, but this would leave the thickest part of the branches upward ; a little labour in thinning them off would remedy this, or they might, in favourable localities, be so chosen that it would be of very little consequence. Every alternate rafter should be reversed, so that its forks might help to support the battens. All the poles forming the side walls should have forks to help to support the wall plate, and those which form the sides of the doors or windows should be so selected that smaller forks, at the proper height, would serve to receive the sills of the door and windows. Such a frame as this would present the greatest amount of strength and firmness with the least possible necessity for lashing, pegging, or other fastening. The sketch of the framework of a house indicates the manner in Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 285 which the forks and branches may be used to the best advantage. If trees of proper size are abundant, tho builder will be able to choose them so as to suit their places, with as much regularity as indicated in the drawing; if not, he must make the best of the materials. The smaller fi-amework beside it represents that of a hut we built at Depot Creek. We set up three forked poles as a triangle at either end, laid a ridge pole between them, and lashed it firmly there. Eafters and battens were added, and we stripped off large sheets of tea-tree bark {Eucalyptus melaleuca ?) to cover it. We also obtained some of the white-barked red-gum tree {Eucalyptus resinifcra) ; but this is more brittle, and did not answer so well. The roof may be covered with the reed mats already spoken of, one or two thicknesses of which, if the roof has a pitch of not less than 45°, will suffice to keep out rain ; or it may be thatched with grass, reeds, or the broad leaves of the fan palm — remembering that, whatever material is used, it will cast off water much better if the point of the leaf is downward. The lowest course will be laid and securely fastened first j then the next, overlapping it ; and so on to the top. This may be done by simply lashing the stalks of each course to the proper batten ; or a thatching needle may be made of wood, smooth and flat, an inch or more in breadth, and pierced near the point with an eye to carry the lashing. The inner bark of many trees, though unfit to make cord which is to remain permanently flexible, will answer very well for this purpose; for if stripped as required, and used while still wet, it will tie in any knot, and bcai- straining tightly. It will hold well enough when dry, though it would not again bear working up, on account of its brittleness. The leaves of the Phonnium 286 Shifts and Expedients of tenax, of New Zealand, wliich grow mncli like tlioso of tlio common flag, arc very generally used in that country, just as they are gathered, for binding various matters. Excellent twine, thread, cloth, and rope are made from the fibre, as will be seen as our work proceeds. The walls may be filled up, according to taste or necessity, with mats or reeds ; or, if permanent shelter from bad weather is required, nothing is better than wattle and daub, and if the wattling is carefully done, and good clay or broken ant-hills and " kraal mist " used for the daub, a very neat job may be made of it. We have shared the hut of a sergeant of Sappers in the forest of the Pierie Hills in Kafirland, where he had a clay hearth, and wattle and daub chimney, and, though a roaring fire was kept up, he did not anticipate any danger. He had charge of a party who were cutting timber, and one noble " yellow wood " they had just felled was no less than 7ft. diameter at its base. The bush vines hung in long straight lines, like ropes from the upper branches of this tree ; and on one of these, 60ft. or 80ft. long, and not more than an inch thick, the sergeant, who was a heavy man, raised himself, and swung to and fro without fear of breaking it. In fact, these vines may be used while green for many of the purposes of rope or cord. We have disentangled nearly 30ft., as fine and almost as tough as a small fishing line, from the forest in front of the Victoria Falls, and rolled it into a small coil ; but once dry, it becomes brittle, and cannot be straightened. Some of these vines bear fruit, which, though not equal to the cultivated grape, is by no means to bo despised. When looking for a spot along the banks of the Zambesi on which to establish a camp and rebuild our boat, in September, 1862, Ave wore warned by the natives who came to meet us against the pretty little sequestered spots beside the tributary rivulets, as they were certain to be infested by mosquitoes. Wc, therefore, having in view also the probability of being obliged to stay far into the unhealthy season, tried back about a mile, and selected a limestone spur which had a small valley between it and the higher range in its rear. This we named Logier Hill, after our old and steadfast friend in Cape Town ; and, setting to work with a keen American felling axe, cut down the thorns and brushwood on the top, while the people Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 287 assisted us in cutting or dragging the fallen bushes to the verge. Three mimosas, which were in a good position, we left standing, and added one for the fourth corner post. Then select- ing flexible branches, we framed upon the ground ' an oval of corresponding size; on this with lighter poles (most of them the young straight branches of the "kookom boyou," a gigantic sterculia in general appearance, somewhat resembling the baobab), we framed a roof similar in form to that of a marquee, using for lashings the inner bark, stripped from the branches just mentioned. To lift this, as its weight was considerable in pro- portion to its strength, and all the people were away collecting poles or grass for the completion of our huts, was rather difficult, but we had fortunately a small coil of manilla line and a few blocks. With two of these we made a tackle, and lifting one side of the roof 2ft., supported it by a forked branch while we raised the rest, shoring it in the same manner all round, and then lifting it again and supporting it on longer forks till it was high enough to be fastened securely in its place. AVe placed forked uprights under it at proper intervals, but as the eaves projected considerably we did not find it necessary to close in the walls, but when the rain came on laid fresh poles upon the roof and thatched it with grass and reeds to the ground. For central supports we took two forked poles, and instead of setting them upright at the 288 Shifts and Expedients of two ends of tlio ridge polo gained additional rigidity by crossing them like an X, and lashing them together in the centre. At one end, raised upon forks above ISin. high, we made a platform of small poles as straight as we could get them to serve for a bed, and when a buffalo Avas shot spread over it the dried hide to level it a little more. This platform was continued all round between the uprights and tho eaves, and various stores were laid on it. One advantage here was the immunity from the ravages of the white ant, which is seldom found in a limestone country. But as the rainy season came on hosts of the destructive little white-shouldered beetle that feeds on skins, preserved hides, and specimens of all kinds — seeming rather to enjoy arsenic soap and other preservatives — ravaged everything made of untanned leather ; while other kinds, larger and still more unpleasant to the eye and touch, would actually commence eating the velschoens off our feet during the short meal time. We should have preferred reeds for thatching, as when laid at a suiUcient angle, say anything above 45°, they cast off water perfectly, although if laid at a lower angle they might be by no means water- proof. Of course the cut ends of the stems must be upward, and the leaves pointing down, or the water will be retained, and allowed to leak through instead of being thrown off; and this rule holds good when grass or such like material is used. If the roof of the hut be conical, the ends may simply be brought up and tied tightly together, or they may be worked into an ornamental form like those of the Bechuana (see p. 281). If it has a ridge as ours had, it must be covered with a horizontal layer, sufficiently thick to keep the water from insinuating itself between the meeting of the two sides. In our own house we stretched the sails of our boat and calico tent within the roof to keep off any leakage during heavy showers, and added fresh poles and grass to the outside. Sir Eichard Glyn, who visited the hill after we had been compelled to abandon it, and who returned to England before us, reported that our house was the strongest building of the kind he had ever seen. In countries like the Indian islands, where bamboo can be obtained in any quantity and of any size, from a reed fit for a lady's arrow to one big enough for the mast of a small sloop, it is easy enough Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 289 to build a house ; tlie extreme strength and lightness of the material, with its glossy surface and neat and uniform appearance, rendering it in every sense most valuable for such purposes. Bamboos, for Poles of uniform size may be planted closely so as buildmg. to form a wall, or pillars may be placed more or less apart, and mats or blinds of smaller reeds, or larger ones split up, may occupy the intervals. Balconies, strong and sufficiently ornamental, may be formed; and the eaves of the roof may be made to project to any distance, so as to form an effectual verandah ; while palisades or fences of any form or height may be constructed ad lihitum. Bamboo, from its polished siliceous covering, is, externally at least, proof against the ravages of the white ant, which destroys without mercy all the softer kinds of wood and vegetable or animal fibre, whether in the form of boxes, furniture, books, clothing, speci- mens of natural history or botany, drawings, or articles of necessity or luxury of any kind. If thunderstorms are frequent or dangerous, a glass bottle on the highest point of the roof will act as a non-conductor, and may not unfrequently avert the flash that might otherwise destroy the building. It is not always, however, effectual. Doors or gates may be made as closely worked or as open as may be desired ; and, while upon this subject, it Doors and gates, to may be as well to mention a very convenient make and hang, way of hanging them in the absence of regular hinges. The hinge side of the door or gate should be a standard of some strength, to which all the rest is frained and securely fastened with pegs or lashings ; round this and the corresponding doorpost a strap or thong of leather or cord should be passed in figure of 8 fashion to form each hinge, or it may simply be passed round both and " seized " between them with smaller cords. This, however, will not hold the door with sufficient stiffness to let it swing true and easily ; therefore, take a common ale or porter bottle, bury it neck downwards in the ground, leave the lower end of the standard somewhat longer than the door, point it a little, and insert it in the hollow at the bottom of the bottle — the gate will swing fairly on such a pivot, as it never gets out of order, and it may almost bo said will never wear out. u 290 Shifts and Fnrpodients of Tho gate itself (Fig. 1) may bo built of rotigli brandies — one tolerably stout limb, for tho liingo or swinging side, should have a good branch projecting from its lower part diagonally upwards to the upper part of tho latch side ; another fork, with its branches as nearly at right angles as possible, will form the latch side and top rail ; and a third will make the lower one. Never be in a hurry to trim off small branches ; generally they will weave in and add to the strength ; and, if not^ they are easily cut off afterwards. Wlien the posts are set up on the ground, it is as well to char the ends as a protection against damp or wood-destroy- ing insects ; cut notches near the ends, and in them wedge good heavy stones — they will keep the posts firm, and in countries whore there is frost nothing else can prevent their rising out of the ground. We found this arrangement very valuable in the Crimea. It is not necessary that the bottle should be whole ; if the " cup " under the bottom is perfect, the broken edges of the sides will give it addi- tional firmness. In Fig. 2 the gate post has a fork, and another on the branch serving as the top rail makes tho upper hinge. One of the other branches has a fork projecting from the lower angle and working on the gate post as a cuttcr^s gaff does on tho mast. This is easy to make, can be unshipped at a moment's notice, and hung up again as readily. Fig. 3 is a more regularly made gate on the same principle. The top rail has a hole Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 291 working on the tliinned upper part of the gate post, which is pierced with holes, and has a peg so that the gates may be raised or lowered as required ; the lower part works on the gaflf principle. It is generally desirable to hang a gate so that it may shut of itself after it has been opened ; and to ensure this, if iron hook and staple hinges can be had, let the hook of the upper hinge project a little farther from the gate post than the lower one, as in Fig. 5. If it is requisite that the gate should remain open — which is sometimes, though not often, the case — the upper hook should project less than the lower, as in Fig. 4. Generally, if the hinges be equal, the gate will hang in whatever position it may be left ; but if the post inclines from the perpendicular to right or left, the gate will swing to the same side. Very good standards for fences may be made by cutting half mortices in the opposite sides of a squared log, 4ft. or 5ft. long, as in Fig. 6, then cutting it into planks, and, before these are quite detached, sawing it down in the direction of the diagonal line ; a pair of these are matched together, as in Fig. 7, and the lower end morticed into a flat plank so far as to let one hole come below it to receive a key to fix it there. The horizontal plank should rest upon a short log at each end, and it may be held in place by a couple of notched pegs driven into the ground. Many of the natives of South Africa are very handy at building rough stone walls ; but they require an overseer to insure the proper binding of the stones as they are laid. Some of their "Waiis, to own countrymen may be found with skill enough for "^""• this. It is no use to build up two fair faces, as in Fig. 8, and then fill up the middle with loose stones — their weight would be sure to force out the sides and bring down the whole structure ; but large flat stones should be chosen, as in Fig. 9, to reacli either quite through the wall, or at least so far that the stones on the other side may meet and have a bond with them. Such walls, miles in length, are built without cement of any kind. If galvanised iron wire is to be used for fencing, to support upright rails, it is a good plan to have two rail-heads fixed at the proper distance, and to make the turns of the wii-e on these to insui-e each loop being equidistant, as in Fig. 10. o2 292 Sldfts and Tlxpcdienis of Chalk liucs and measuring Hues of all kinds suffer from being coiled or rolled up by hand — turns and kinks are put on or taken out of them ; and it is much better to have reels, either like the log-reel of a ship, or like Fig. 11 (see p. 290), where a peg in the circumference of the disc serves as the crank by which to wind it up. Effective screens can be readily extemporised with planks of any kind and ropes ; the simplest plan is to double the rope, making one Plank screens P^^^ somewhat longer than the breadth of all the to make. planks to be used, and leaving whatever spare end may be upon the other to hoist the screen by when finished. The first plank is laid in the bight of the rope, the two parts of which are then crossed and the next plank laid between them ; they are crossed again for the third plank, and so on till all are inclosed. If there is not an eye on the shorter end of the rope, make a bow-line knot or two half hitches on it (see " Knots and Hitches "), and pass the longer end through ; then lead the spare line at each end of your screen over the forks of trees, or sheer legs, or whatever support you mean to use, and hoist away simultaneously and carefully ; for this arrangement, though perfectly strong and secure while every part remains in its proper place, is most easily disarranged ; and in fact the great advan- tage of it is that, when no longer required, it can be shaken to pieces like a house of cards, leaving neither holes or imperfections in the planks nor kinks or knots in the rope. We have shown the boards rather far apart in our illustration for the sake of distinctness, they will lie closer, but they must always be separate by more than the thickness of the rope. They may be made to lie closer by omitting to cross the ropes and " stopping" them together with small cord, as in Fig. 2 ; or a perfectly Aveather-proof wall with overlapping edges may be obtained by looping the rope into a chain, as in Fig. 3, taking care to make the Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 293 lower link well fast^ for on this the security of the whole depends. To take this to pieces nothing more is necessary than to slip each loop off the end of the plank ; let go the fastening of the lower end, and all the links of the rope chain will shake out. Great firmness may be im- parted to any of these arrange- ments by placing a small pole inside, and secm'ing every plank to it by successive hitches of a smaller line, as in Fig, 4 ; or, if stouter poles be used, the walls may be built up in this manner, commencing from the bottom plank and fastening the upper ones as you go on. Each plan will have its advantages under peculiar circumstances. In the Indian islands, large hollow bamboos are either split into three or four parts, making somewhat rounded narrow planks, or an incision is made in the side of the cane, when it is opened out, laid flat, pressed, and converted into a single plank. Movable screens of considerable size are made in the same manner as in Figs. 1 and 2 already referred to. A shelf is easily made by piercing holes in the four corners of a plank, passing lines through, and suspending it to a beam. A very neat set of bookshelves may be obtained by doubling ]\rakcshift two cords of sufficient length, working an eye in the ^ ^ ^'-'^" bight of each, passing the ends down through the holes in the first plank, and turning double knots on them, so that it hangs fairly; then passing them through the next and knotting them, and suc- cessively through as many more planks as you require shelves. We have seen houses built by traders or missionaries almost entirely of reeds, some of which grow from 10ft. to 20ft. long and more than lin. thick. Bundles of these, with the thin ends R^ed houses, screens, and butts reversed, and overlapping each other and sheds, so as to equaUse their strength as much as possible, are laid on the ground to serve for top, bottom, and centre battens; then 294 SJdftb- and Expodients of across tliosc tlio reeds are distributed iu two or three layers, according' to the required thickness of the wall; other battens are laid on the upper side to correspond with those below, and the cords — slips of bark, palm leaf, twisted grass rope, or thin and flexible forest creepers — are passed through to bind the whole tightly together. If a number of these are made say 12ft. or 15ft. square, they may easily be arranged on the framework of a house, or set up as a continuous fence. A trench is dug about 1ft. deep, the sci'een inserted in it, the earth well pressed down, and support is given either by shores, if needful, or by the next screen forming an angle with the first. If the wood of the country is more available for making hurdles, they can be used in the same manner. We have had very excellent temporary stables and sheds erected in Central India, com- posed entirely of poles, cords, and grass, forming what is called " chupper " screens. These are formed by laying together double poles;' in the space left be- tween these poles long tufts of r^ jungle gi'ass are arranged, until the whole frame is filled up, when the sticks or poles, being tightly drawn together with cord, the grass is nipped between them, as shown in the above illustration. When in the Tartar country, we saw a number of very comfortable huts made by cutting out a kind of notch in the hill side. The space thus formed was first framed over with strong poles, and then covered with brushwood; a layer of turf covered all, and soon took root, forming feeding grounds for whole families of goats, which walked about on the houses quite at home. The fronts of these hill dwellings were composed of wicker work, plastered with clay. Logs were hollowed out by the Tartars almost as thin as paper, when their ends were stopped with clay. In these the bees laid up their stores of honey, which was taken as required, without disturbing the industrious swarm in the next log. CamjJ Life, Travel, and Exploration. 295 The annexed illustration represents one of tliese huts find :i pile of bee logs. During the Kafir war we visited the homestead of a Scottish farmer, who, although upon the very border, had gallantly determined to stand his groiuid, and to that end he had built a small Defensible farm- defensible tower; the flat roof covered with raw houses. hides, and surrounded by a loopholed parapet, and the only door fronted by a solid shield of brickwork, with a small aperture on one side, so that an enemy attempting to enter must do it in a stooping position, and before he could turn and straighten himself in the doorway, must present his head in the most convenient possible position to have it split by the defenders, A large water cask was kept filled in the fort, and even should the enemy gain possession of the lower room the women and children could still be tolerably safe in the upper, except from random shots fired upwards through the floor, and which of course could be returned in the same manner from above. Against fire their only defence lay in the supply of water we have already mentioned, but care was taken to have nothing inflammable in the lower room. There was no staii-case ; the ladder would be drawn up through the trap. The beams and flooring would require a considerable blaze to ignite theui, and against any quantity of 296 Shifts and EAUJedients of material being brouglit in for that purpose the defenders relied upon their rifles, or no less deadly smooth bores, loaded with loopers or buck shot. Blockhouse, among military edifices, is, as its name impHes, a building constructed chiefly of timber. If alone, it constitutes an independent fort; if formed in the interior of a field- Blockliouse. , . , work, it becomes a retrenchment or redoubt, and serves to protect the defenders from the inclemency of the weather when the work is occupied during a considerable time, or to prolong the defence when the work is attacked, and after it is taken to enable the garrison to obtain a capitulation. When the blockhouse is to be employed only as a retrenchment, its plan is generally a simple rectangle, and its walls consist of a single row of piles placed upright in the ground. These are pierced with loopholes at the distance of 3ft. from each other, in order that the building may be defended by a fire of rifles from within. The roof is formed by laying timbers horizontally across the inclosed area and covering them with fascines and earth. The interior breadth of the building may be from 18ft. to 20ft., in order to allow a passage between the two rows of bed- steads. These are placed with their heads to the side walls, and serve as stages on which the men may stand to fire through the loopholes when the latter are much elevated above the floor. In a mountainous country the blockhouse possesses great advantages over an ordinary field fort, inasmuch as the interior of the latter would be incessantly ploughed up by the fire of artillery directed into it by the enemy from the surrounding heights. Here, then, the blockhouse may with propriety be constructed as an independent work ; its plan may have re-entering angles, or be in the form of a cross, in order to allow the faces to be defended by flanking fires from the rifles and revolvers from within ; and the walls may be thick enough to resist even the shot from 9-pounder guns. For this purpose they must be made by planting parallel to each other, at a distance of 3ft. or 4ft., two rows of strong piles, those in each row being close together, and the interval between the rows being filled with earth up to the height of the loop- holes, which should never be immediately under the roof of the building. The roof must be made shell proof, as before ; but it has Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 297 been recommended, wlien the work is not overlooked by the enemy, and when its breadth will permit, to have the piles forming the side walls long enough to arise above the roof, and, either alone or with a mass of earth behind them, to serve as a parapet. Where blockhouses have to be constructed among hostile or doubtful Indian tribes, who are not the possessors of artillery, the fascine and earth roof and double rows of piles may bo easily and safely dispensed with. Logs, squared with the axe and laid on each other, may be sub- stituted for piles with advantage, as the labour of planting firmly in the earth so many ponderous beams of wood is considerable. It is well, in building a blockhouse, to construct a raised breastwork of small logs round the margin of the roof; these may be roughly squared and doweled together with short wooden pins. The roof itself should, after shinghng, have a goodly layer of sand, earth, or raw hides laid over it in order to guard against the fire-tipped arrows of hostile savages. A few auger holes here and there serve to carry ofi" rain water or melted snow, and the log breastwork can be both loopholcd and fired over with ease. Frontier blockhouses are usually built of squared logs of timber dowelled together ; loopholes are made for firing rifles through, and portholes for one or two iron guns. Some frontier posts are merely squares of heavy log palisades, with all the requisite offices and build- ings erected within them. A banquet runs from end to end of each side of the square in order that the defenders may command the attacking force. All trees and bushes within long shooting range are carefully removed so that there shall be no cover. Bands of travellers in Africa not unfrequently so arrange their waggons as to form substantial defences against the attacks of hostile natives. We have often assisted in forming these -Waggon biirgs, so-called "waggon burgs." They are made as to make, follows : One waggon, with all the women, children, and ammu- nition, is placed in the centre. Others arc drawn up, each with its inner fore wheel nearly touching the outer hind wheel of the one before it, and forming just such an angle with it that the dozen or thereabouts of vehicles form an almost perfect circle, their poles and 298 Shifts and Expedients of trek gear extending on the outside, so that the oxen can again be yoked to each without disorder or confusion. There is room inside for the horses and cattle beside the defenders ; and, should danger be immi- nent, the waggons can be locked together by the drag chains, and all rfto^fi^ the interstices choked with thorn bushes, the stems of which thrust inward would be securely fastened by pegs driven into the ground, or by lashing branches, cut short for the purpose, to the inner wheels, or by " reims" or thongs reeved through the bifurcations ; while the tangled branches would oppose a barrier that no enemy could force in the face of the bullets or the small shot that would be poured through. The gear of the oxen would also be brought in and used in strengthening the defences. In rendering a farmhouse defensible regard must be had to the character of the expected enemy. In countries like South Africa, Farm and village where the main object of the Kafir is the acqui- to fortify. sition of cattle, the house ought to command and protect the kraal, the fence of which will often of itself form a shelter for the crafty foe. It is usually circular, as this form is most easily made, and will inclose the greatest number of cattle, with a given amount of material ; but, if it were made triangular, with bastions on the two angles nearest, the guns of the defenders would sweep the other two sides, their fire crossing at the farthest Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 299 angle;, and leaving no place for an enemy to conceal liimself. Tho house itself, with its outbuildings^ should if possible be in the form of a square, inclosing as large a courtyard as is convenient for the accommodation of the defenders and their allies, and on emergencies for their horses, with a few sheep or oxen. If there be a spring or well in it so much the better ; a ledge or bank, 18in. or 2ft. high, should run along the inside of the wall, so that the loopholes may be too high for the enemy to look in at or fire through ; and there should be small chambers projecting from the angles, or at least from two diagonally opposite loopholed, so that each can enfilade two sides of the wall. But perhaps it will be better, instead of describing an ideal defen- sible homestead, to give an example of a real one, which, though not quite perfect in a military view, was as nearly so as the accommodation required for the traffic and the work carried on there would allow. Our illustration is a plan, drawn from memory, of the village of JTllENCHED VILLAGE OF OBJIMBBNGUE. Objimbengue, to the south of which (Fig. 1) is the flat sandy bed, 400yds. wide, of the Swakop River, filled only during tho flooded season, but in the dry retaining a vast amount of water beneath the sand, while a little rivulet represented by the faint Hne appears here and there upon the surface. Fig. 2 is a low bank or foreshore, overgrown with wild tamarisks or dabbie bushes, and partly cleared for a garden (Fig. 3) in which is a well, and used in other places for corn land, care being taken to reap the crop before there is any possibility of its being swept away by the floods of the next season. 300 Shifts and Expedients of On the east of tlie village is a small tributary, generally dry, callec the Artip (Fig, 4), and beyond this, and the limits of the picture would be the Mission House of Regterveldt and the Damara village with its curious entrenchments scattered without order, but not witliou great judgment, over the face of the hill wherever a few men coulc find a place to shoot from. The trench (Fig. 5), fronted by the mounc of earth thrown out of it, and by a breastwork of dabbie logs, mad( by the Damaras, formed the outer line of defence of his homestead and he could in emergency have depended on a thousand men t( man it. Fig. 6 is the opening for the southern road leading across the river from the country of the hostile Namaquas. Fig. 7, the roac leading from Walvisch Bay ; and Fig. 8, the continuation of it towarc Lake Ngami, and Fig. 9 is the steep edge, 15ft. or 20ft. high, of th( plain, on which the village is built. Fig. 10 is a small breastwork foi a brass 1 -pounder gun commanding the southern road, and Fig. 11 for another sweeping the open space to the south-east, where, in fact an attack actually took place. The guns were, however, usually kepi beside the house, where one served as a time gun, and they coulc easily be moved whenever they were wanted. Fig. 12 was a dwelling- house ; the central space is open and would serve as a shelter foi native fugitives, for horses, sheep, and a few of the most valuable working oxen ; the front is composed of a voor-house or entrance-hall usually occupied for general family purposes and reception of visitors and before it is a verandah. At each angle are rooms used as sitting or bed chambers ; on the western side are spare chambers for the reception of guests ; in the rear are kitchen, bath-room, and other offices ; and on the east are store-rooms and the entrance gate. Fig. 13 is the wheehvrighi and waggon maker's shop; Fig. 14, the smithy; Fig. 15, the sawpit; Fig. 10, the tiring plate; Fig. 17, small trenches witt angular mounds before them, commanding the eastern gate of the village ; Fig. 18, the graveyard ; Fig. 19, the workmen's cottages \ Fig. 20, the slaughter-house and waggon-shed ; the walls of all these buildings being musket-proof, and the windows more or less con- venient for firing from. Figs. 21 and 22 are stoutly stockaded cattle kraals; they were both square, but the triangular outline of Fig. 21 Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 301 sliows what would be gained in defensibility and lost in accommodation by adopting that form ; Fig. 22 has small " scherms " at the angles protected by the fire from the house, and commanding the other two sides ; Fig. 23 is a storehouse, adding but little to the strength of the position, but indispensable for its use. The dotted lines indicate the directions of effective fire from the dwelling-house. In most frontier villages the church, as the most substantial building, is used as a place of refuge, and as a last stronghold against savage assailants; and on the east coast, the natives, when they throw up a rough tower of defence, always call it by the Portuguese name, " Egregia,^' or church. We have seen the church at Shiloh converted into a very pretty little fortification by one of our own engineer officers. Bastions churches were raised at the angles of the outer wall, the building itself *^ fortify, was unthatched, and a breastwork, with loopholes, raised upon the walls. We have known friends who have had to entrench their waggons for months among tribes whose friendship was dubious ; and they seemed to prefer that, especially for a night attack, or for a sentry^s accom- modation, the embankment should be behind the trench, and not before it, so that they might look from the very edge of the pit and see the dark figure of an approaching enemy against the sky, whilst they would be invisible against the mound behind them ; whereas, if the mound were in front, they would have to raise their heads to look over it, and an enemy^ creeping close to the ground, would be absolutely invisible, and would, moreover, be able to see clearly the elevated figure of the sentry. We have on several occasions been asked to di-aw plans for churches on remote stations, and for defensible farmhouses; in the former case, regard must be had to the nature of the j^nssion churches, materials at the disposal of the missionary, to rl^ns for building, the number of the congregation he wishes to accommodate, and also to the number and skill of the assistants, whether European or native, he can employ or persuade to join in the work. Generally, it is better so to draw the plan that a portion of the church may be commenced, and sufficiently furnished for almost immediate use : while the remainder is left to be finished as the congregation 802 Shifts and Expedients of increases^ and as tlio tribo become moro and more alivo to the benefit conferred on them by religion and civilisation. Some regard must also be bad to the doctrinal views of the missionary requiring the plan. If, as is frequently required^ the men and women of the congrega- tion aro to be separately seated, the best form is that of the Greek cross, and the seats of the men must be placed in one arm and those of the women in the other; while the position of the pulpit, with its back against the angle of the other two, gives every individual a fair oppor- tunity of seeing and hearing the minister. Where this regulation does not prevail, the Latin cross is the best form ; the longest limb lying east and west affords space for the con- gregation and the preacher. The wings or shorter limbs on the north and south give very great support to the walls, and serve for vestries or other offices ; the tower and porch at the eastern end form the con- tinuation of the longer limb, and it should also be capable of increase if necessary, by the addition of a smaller continuation at the western end. In this case, too, it is the part intended for the congregation that should be first built. It is most probable that the materials would bo rough unhewn surface stones, for powder to blast out more solid material would be expensive. Tools for quarrying would be unattain- able, and men with skill or industry to work them even still more so, while ant-hill clay would be the only available cement, unless the erection should be in a limestone district, or near a beach, where shells in abundance could be procured and burnt into lime. Bricks are often made, but they are frequently of inferior clay, and often merely sun-dried, or inefficiently burned, and are in no case equal to the well-squared and hardened article known by the same name in England. It would, therefore, be prudent not to make the walls more than 10ft. or 15ft. in height, and to allow at least 2ft. of thickness at the base for every 10ft. of height, and even then they ought to be sup- ported by buttresses not more than 20ft. apart ; the top should not be less than 12in. or 15iu. in width, and if good planks for wall plates cannot be procured, thoy ought to be rather more to allow for the proper bedding in of rough substitutes. The roof must have a pitch of 45° to enable it to throw off water in the rainy season, and Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 803 eacli rafter must be two-thirds the width of the building to the out- Bide of the walls, and so much more as is required for the projection of the eaves. If, therefore, rafters can be procured 20ft. in length, of which 2ft. are required for projection, this will leave 18ft., and the possible width of the church may be found by adding half the length of the rafter thus— 18+9 = 27— 27ft. to the outside of the walls, or about 24ft. in the clear ; this, with 4ft. of passage down the centre will give two benches of 10ft. capable of accommodating six persons each. Each sitter ought to have 3ft. of space from front to rear, although it is possible to sit in 2ft. ; thus, a space of GOft. would accommodate a congregation of 240 or 360 persons, according to the room allowed. In many cases the fitting-up of benches may be deferred, as the natives will sit naturally on the ground, or will bring their own seats with them. At least 15ft. or 20ft. ought to be reserved for the pulpit and the communion table, and this would give an aisle of 80ft. long by 24ft. wide. A high gable and Gothic window is dovibtless a great ornament to a church, but it would be dangerous to build the wall 15ft. higher for that purpose ; and it is much better, therefore, to make the end no higher than the sides, and let the roof incline at an angle of 45° instead of having a gable end. The windows must be small, and it is better to make them lancet-shaped and narrow ; if the buttresses are 20ft. apart there may be two windows, 2ft. wide between each. The rafters ought not to come over the windows, even if the wall plates be good, but ought to rest on the solid space between them. The rafters are half checked at each end to the cross-beam and let into checks on the king-post; thus (Fig. 1) struts to the beam will considerably strengthen them, and if these are fitted into checks nailed on instead of being mortised or half checked in, the strength will not be impaired. T.facu-n^ 304 Shifts and Expedients of Fig. 2 shows more clearly the manner in wliicli the square ends of the rafters abut on the king-post. If it should be desirable to avoid having cross-beams the rafters may be framed as in Fig. 3; but unless this is very substantially done the weight of the roof is apt to expand them and force the walls outward. We, there- fore, advise the common form, at least until the assistance of skilled workmen can be procured. The upper part of the king-posts may be a forked branch, and the ridge pole will lie very nicely in this. In extemporising rough frame-houses in dry countries, the foun- dation is a matter of small importance ; generally, when the ground is Makeshift houses cleared, a place sufficiently hard and smooth, foundations, and fences, ^^^j ^ i^^^Iq elevated SO that rain may not flood the house, is easily found. But sometimes a foundation must be formed, not only to afford a support to the fabric, but to raise the floor above the influence of damp or of low-lying noxious vapours. We have heard of barges or vessels being grounded and houses built upon them, and have in fact seen instances of this as well as of the deck houses being removed from wrecks and set up, sometimes raised on low walls, forming very comfortable habitations ashore, and of tents being set up as roofs over walls of rough stone. We have heard of the foundations of a house in San Francisco being laid with the 2 lib. -sized oblong boxes of tobacco with wliicli the market had been glutted. In Cape Town, when meat was a few halfpence a pound, we have seen bullocks^ heads used as stop-gaps in the fences near Green Point. The cores of bullocks' horns are not unffequently used for the same purpose in this country. In Wahnisch Bay we saw bags of coarse salt used as part of the foundation of the original wooden shed in which, notwithstanding its lowly appearance, many a traveller has found so hospitable a reception. We wondered a little at first at the use of such a material on a beach overflowing for miles at every spring tide, but found it was pro- tected from actual contact with the sea by an embankment of sand, supported by posts and planking. Rain would not occur perhaps once in two years, and the fresh water from the Kuisip overspread the flats so rarely that such a contingency was hardly taken into account. The Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 305 bags and their contents seemed to be in a normal state of dampness, but did not appear to waste in consequence of it. Wlien more commodious bouses were required, the samphire, that formed the only vegetation on the flats, was collected by the Hottentot women, spread in layers alternated with sand well trodden down into it until mounds were formed about 4ft. high. On one of these a store was erected of corrugated iron, and on another the Rhenish missionaries built a wooden house they had brought out in frame, so solid and substantial, as to prove that timber in the land it came from was of far less value than metal or any other material. Perhaps for parties who can afford the carriage, corrugated galvanised iron houses offer as convenient a method as any of obtaining accommodation sufficiently permanent, and yet easily removable. The rigidity imparted by the corrugation could not be attained by any thickening of plain sheets, while scarcely more room is required in packing ; for although one sheet of plain iron occupies much less room than one of corrugated, the sheets of the latter fit so closely one upon the other that a dozen or twenty require not much more space than one. Dr. Livingstone took a house of this kind to the Zambesi in 1858 ; it formed a very efficient shelter for our stores on Expedition Island, but, as we never made any permanent camp beyond the Portuguese town of Tette, it was not again required. The sheets, however, used separately or together in any number according to the weight they were to support, formed excellent bases for tables, beds, settees, as well as benches, raised a few inches from the floor, on which to store such things as we wished to preserve from the white ants. At Tette, on the Zambesi, there are ridges running parallel to the banks of the river, with hollows between them, which may have served as supplementary channels during extraordinary Buildings of the floods; and, to avoid the low-lying malaria, Portuguese in Africa, which is of greater specific gravity than common air, the Portu- guese colonists erect their houses on these ridges. The hollows serve as streets or roadways, and also as channels to- carry off the deadly exhalations, which, being heavier than air, naturally seek the lowest level. The dwelling rooms are also further elevated X 30G Shifts and Exfedie^its of by being built over a basement, wliicli serves as a store-room, the elevation of a few feet frequently making all tlie difference between the chance of catching fever and of escaping it. In these store-rooms they build isolated platforms about 3ft. high, on forked posts of hard wood, which are carefully swept every morning, while salt is strewed around their base to prevent the white ants approaching. Probably tar or turpentine would have the same effect, but in remote regions these are not always at command. The tarred wood of our iron house was never touched ; and the camphor wood of India is valued very much on account of its immunity from their attacks. When the Portuguese on the Zambesi build large houses that are to be divided into rooms, they build into the central and side walls a row of pillars, into the thickness of which stout poles are built, with the forks left upon them, and perhaps other rows of pillars without the connecting walls are built for the verandah. Dr. Kirk, when consulted as to the best method of colonising the Shire, or Sheeree River, gave it as his opinion that the estates lying low in the fertile valleys should be cultivated by natives only (who in their own country do not seem susceptible to the deadly influence of fever, though when removed to another locality that is not perceptibly worse, they are as liable to be attacked as Europeans), and that the proprietors should have their residences upon the hills, as far as possible above the level of the malaria, with a small military force at their disposal, to keep order when necessary among the inhabitants of the valley. This certainly appears to be the only feasible plan of occupying such a country with any benefit to the various parties concerned. An Indian cottage, on the banks of the Rio Negro, has been thus described : — " The main supports are trunks of some forest tree^ of POBTUGUBSE HO0SE— ZAMBESI RITER. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 307 heavy and durable wood -, but the light rafters are the straight, cylindri- cal, and uniform stems of the Jard palm. The roof is thatched with the larffe triansfular leaves of the Carana palm in regular , ,,-.•,. ? Rio Negro huts, alternate rows, neatly bound with sipos or forest creepers. The door is a frame of thin strips of wood neatly thatched over. It is of the split stems of the Pashiuba palm. In one comer is a heavy harpoon for cow-fish ; it is of the black wood of the Pashiuba barri- guda. By its side is a blo^vpipe, 10ft. or 12ft. long, and a Httle quiver of small poisoned arrows hangs near it. With these the Indian pro- cures birds for food or for gay feathers, or shoots the hog or tapir j and it is from the stem and spines of two palms that they are made. His great bassoon-like musical instruments are of palm stems ; the cloth to wrap his valued feather ornaments is a fibrous palm spathe, and the rude chest for his treasures is woven from palm leaves. His hammock, his bowstring, and his fishing line are fibres of palm leaves ; the first from the miriti, and the other two from the tucum. The comb on his head is the hard bark of a palm. He makes fish-hooks of the spines, or uses them to puncture on his skin the peculiar markings of his tribe. His children eat the agreeable red and yellow fruit of the pupunha or peach palm, and from the assai he has prepared and ofiers you a favourite drink. A carefully-suspended gourd contains oij from the fruit of another, and the long elastic-plaited cylinder used for squeezing dry the mandiocca pulp to make his bread is of the bark of one of the singular climbing palms which alone can resist for any considerable time the action of the poisonous juice. In each of these cases a species is chosen adapted to the special object to which it is to be applied, and often having different uses which no other plant can serve so well." The arboreal dwellings of the Horaforo tribe in New Guinea have been thus described by Dr. J. Coulter: — "Against each tree rested a notched pole, and at a whistle from the chief, answered by hundreds of similar sounds in every direction, natives with flambeaux flitted down the poles till Papuan tree houses, the whole forest was brilliantly illuminated. In fact, they had their houses, or rather nests, in the trees, and when they retired for the night the pole was hauled up to prevent surprise. x2 308 Shifts and Expedients of PAPUAN THEE HOUSE. These abodes were made by thinning away some of the branches, and laying horizontal poles on others sufficiently stout to bear thera ; the uprights are cut with forks, which rest on the lower branches, while their upper ends are lashed with cocoa-nut fibre to those above ; the sides are formed by bamboos lashed closely together; the roofing is also of cane covered by sheets of thick bark sewed together, and perfectly proof against the heavy rains. The flooring is laid with split bamboos and light wood, and the walls are lined with stout matting, which gives sufficient shelter against the piercing winds. The shape varies according to the spread of the tree ; sometimes when they extend all round an extensive house is made to inclose the whole tree; the smallest will measure 16ft. square, but sometimes they are longer and less wide ; and when the whole tree is built in they are three times as large. They are perfectly safe, for the lower branches are as thick as an ordinary tree.^' The lodges of the North-American Indians are perhaps the most convenient residences which could be devised for people of their American nomadic habits. The lodge poles, or supports, are Indian lodges, ^^^^die from tough durable wood, well-grown young saplings being selected for the purpose. On the line of march they are, by fiistening them to a sort of pad, secured on each side of a horse, or even dog. The ends trail on the ground like the skids of a sledge, and are packed with various odds and ends, which are prevented from falling off by cross-bars and a lashing of hide or twisted bark rope, as shown in the full-page illustration. When the camp is about being formed, the poles are freed from their attachments and set up in a circle, forming an irregular cone, the apex of which consists of the converging and collected ends of the poles, through which the smoke escapes. The lodge covers are made from prepared skins, on which are depicted, in rough outline, some of the most noteworthy achievements and events in the life of the owner. The lower borders of the skin covers are secured to the ground with Camp Life, Travel, and ExjjI oration. 309 pegs, whilst thongs are made use of for binding the poles in places and uniting the skins. The tracks of the trailing lodge poles in the sand, or across the plains, may be looked on by the traveller as peaceful indications, as, where the lodge gear is, the squaws and papooses will be found. On the war path all such impedimenta are left behind in some place of safety. The full-page illustration, representing " Indian Lodges/' will serve to explain the manner in which dwelling places of this description are set up. Some of the natives of Terra del Fuego construct small but tolerably comfortable huts from straight trimmed poles ; these are arranged in a shallow pit, the exact size of the Fuegeau rjole floor of the intended hut 3 they are arranged side houses, by side in conical form, the tops of all the poles being brought together become self-supporting. All the interstices, except those where the heads of the poles come together (which form exits for the smoke), are filled in tightly with a mixture of clay and thick soft moss. Huts thus built will resist the action of the heaviest storms, and are tolerably dry. Peat, when cut in slabs or blocks, makes a valuable building material. We once built a shooting house, or rather hut, near the banks of a large river ^vith this substance. We thatched it with reeds laid over willow poles. The door was made of wicker work covered with clay ; the hinges were twisted willows. The window was made of oiled paper ; the fireplace was plastered with clay, and we mounted a small barrel in Ueu of a chimney pot. The fuel used was peat, so there was no danger of its taking fire. In a continuous Arctic winter the usual relations of fluids and solids are so completely changed that entirely new necessities arise, accompanied by as novel means for supplying them. Huttiug in the Water, either for drinking or other purposes, is as Arctic regions, scarce as in the driest parts of India or Africa ; for though in tem- perate countries it may be a luxury to let a piece of ice melt in the mouth, the expenditure of animal heat in thawing a mouthful of snow in the Arctic regions would be greater than even the most robust constitution could afibrd. 310 Shifts and Expedients of Water, in fact, unless kept in constant agitation, loses its fluidity. A sheet of ice is as dry as a piece of glass, and snow seems to have no more moisture in it than the dust of the highway on a Derby day. Owing to this quality snow does not accumulate on small surfaces elevated and exposed to the wind. Captain Parry found that from the roof of his vessel a fresh breeze invariably carried off any snow that had settled on it in calm weather, and also from the masts, yards, sails and rigging. His opinion is that in high latitudes the less the ship is dismantled the better, for the frost does not hurt the gear, and no harm can occur from thawing till the season for refitting arrives. Should you at any time be so situated as to be compelled to winter on board ship in the Arctic regions, it will be well to follow the plan pursued by Dr. Kane to render his ship and cabin as cold proof as possible. He procured large quantities of moss and turf, with which the quarter- deck was thickly covered. Down below he inclosed a space about 18ft. square, and packed the walls forming it, from floor to ceiling, with the same materials. The floor was carefully cavilked with plaster of Paris and common paste, on this was laid a stratum of Manilla oakum 2in. thick, and over this deposit a canvas carpet was spread. The entrance was from the hold, by a long moss-lined passage or tunnel, formed after the manner in which the Esquimaux arrange the " topsut," or rabbit- burrow like passage which leads to their huts, as shown in the illustra- tions at pp. 313 and 315, A number of doors and curtains were then constructed at such points as afforded a chance for the ingress of cold. This moss nest, or den, was constructed to accommodate ten men. The outside of tho ship was banked up with moss, and over that a thick bank of snow was made. The snow, indeed, when lying in proper thickness, and sufficiently compressed, forms tho best possible material for building. Cold as it is in itself, it seems to act as a non-conductor of heat ; and if an internal structure, however slight, can be set up, the thicker the outer wall of snow is made the better. Captain Parry's men pro- ceeded in the following manner : In banking the snow against the ship's sides, a wall of sufficient height was built about 4ft. from them, and loose snow was thrown in till it covered nearly the whole of the Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 311 upper works ; about 8m. of snow was also laid on the decks and hatches, and above this a layer of sand cemented by water, for the double purpose of preventing the escape of heat from below, and saving the planks from being rifted by the frost ; and the waste heat of the galley fire was utilised by making the funnel pass up through a tank, which was kept filled with snow, thus without any extra fuel producing 65galls. of water per diem. A wall of snow, 12ft. high, was built at a distance of 25yds. all round the ship, to afford a com- fortable shelter from the wind. It is also essential to make and keep always clear of ice a ' fire-hole,' from which water can be procured at any moment in case of need. The observatory was built on shore : first of planking lined with canvas, with a layer of turf outside, and completed by an extra thickness of solid slabs of snow; it was flat-roofed, and as small as possible, the instrument room being 8ft. square, and the working room 5ft. by 8ft., thus economising either natural or artificial heat. In fact, it seems that the primary object in building a house is to make the actual dwelling room as small as possible, and the passage to it so long and narrow, that it requires almost a long journey to reach the external air. Dr. Hayes describes a snow house, or rather cave, dug by an Esquimaux in a snow drift that had collected in a sheltered hollow. He dug downward first about 5ft., then horizontally about lOft. more, tossing the detached snow blocks out behind him, and then began to excavate his cavexm, to which, when finished, he built a doorway just large enough to crawl through. The floor was covered with a layer of stones, and then with several layers of reindeer skins ; the walls were also hung with skins ; two native lamps lighted, a skin hung across the doorway, and he and his family were " at home,'' the temperature soon rising to the freezing point. The doctor's temporary encampments were thus formed : A pit is dug 18ft. long by 8ft. wide and 4ft. deep ; over the top are placed the oars to support the sledge ; over the sledge is the boat's sail^ and on that is thrown loose snow. In one end of this den is a small entrance hole, closed with blocks of snow ; over the floor is a strip of india-rubber cloth ; over this two bufialo skins, between which the whole party of twelve j)ack themselves as closely as possible, the only change of 312 Shifts and Expedients of costume being to take off the boots and stockings and replace tbem with sleeping bose of reindeer skin, A pot of hot coffee, or a basb of dried meat and preserved potatoe, cooked over a lamp of oil or alcohol, forming the repast, of which the most estimable quality is its warmth. Captain Parry, being rather surprised at the short time in which an Esquimaux village sprung up near the vessel, induced some of the natives to build a hut, and found that two or three hours were enough to complete the establishment. The only materials are snow and ice, the latter being only used for windows. A number of slabs of compact snow, 6in. or 7in. thick and 2ft. long, are cut and laid edgewise in a circle, on a level spot, covered with snow, from 8ft. to 15ft. in diameter ; on this is a second tier, sloping a Httle inward, each slab made to fit sow HUT— ARCTIC closely by running a knife along its edges, the top is then smoothed off with the knife, and the builder, standing in the centre, receives the slabs for the successive tiers from the men outside. When the walls arc 4ft. or 5ft. high they begin to lean inward, so that it appears as if the blocks laid on them would fall ; but the workman still goes on raising and closing in the hemispherical walls, and when they have become too high for the slabs to be handed over to him he cuts a hole at the bottom with his knife and has them passed through. The dome is often 9ft. or 10ft. high, and it is carefully finished by the men outside dropping the nicely rounded block that serves as a keystone, Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 313 to be received and fitted by the man witbin. The outside workers heap snow round tbe foundations, and carefully stop up any accidental holes between the blocks. The builder lets himself out by cutting an arch 3ft. high and 2|ft. wide, and from this they construct two passages — end to end — each 10ft. or 12ft. long and 4ft. or 5ft. high, the lowest being next the hut, as shown in the outhne ground plan. The roofs of these passages are sometimes arched, and at others covered with flat slabs. If a single apartment is required the hut is now complete, but if several families are to reside together the passage is made common to all, the first hut becoming a kind of antechamber, and is commonly a little smaller than the rest, which are entered by arched doors 5ft. high. Sometimes the ground plan assumes the form of a cross, as in the instance we now illus- trate. A hole is cut into the side of each compartment, and a circular plate of ice Sin. or 4in. thick, and 2ft. in diameter, let into it. The light is like that trans- mitted through ground glass, and is quite sufficient. A bank of snow, 24ft. high, round the interior of each room, except near the door, forms the bed and fireplace, the former occupying the sides and the latter the end opposite the door. The beds are made by covering the snow with a layer of stones, on which are spare paddles, tent poles, whalebone, pieces of network, and a quantity of birch twigs, reindeer skins in profusion are heaped on these, creating not only a comfortable but a luxurious resting place. The fireplace is a shallow vessel of stone, the wick is of moss rubbed dry between the hands, disposed along the straight edge for about 18in., it suppHes itself from a long strip of blubber hung near enough to be melted gradually, and drop slowly into the hollow of the stone ; over the lamp is a network, on which wet boots or mittens are usually J feetT.R. GROUND PLAS OF SNOW HCT. 314 Shifts and Expedients of laid. Frequently there are two other lamps in the corners next the door, for no married woman or widow can be without her separate fire. With all the lamps lighted, and the room full of people and dogs, the thermometer on the net over the fire stands at 58°j 2ft. or 3ft. away it falls to 32°, close to the wall it is 23°, the temperature of the open air being at the same time 25° below zero. If the temperature is raised higher than this, the melting of the roof causes great inconvenience ; but when an inclination to drip is observed, a patch of cold snow is plastered on to absorb the superfluous heat. In the time between the extreme cold of winter, and the season when it is possible to live in tents, the natives suSer much from this melting of their walls. The cooking is done in pots of hollowed stone {lapis ollaris), slung over the lamps. Many of these are cracked, but are joined by lacings of sinew, or rivets of copper, iron, or lead, which, with a sufiicient coating of dirt, makes them again watertight. Their knives are sometimes of ivory, but the best are of iron, obtained from the Hudson's Bay Company. They procure fire by striking two pieces of iron pyrites over a leather case with dried moss in it, and a little floss from the seed of the ground wiUow helps to convey the flame to a bit of oiled wick — sometimes the wick for the lamp is made of asbestos. At times, especially in the commencement of the winter, the huts are built of ice instead of snow. They approximate to a circular form, but from the flatness of the material necessarily present a number of flat sides and obtuse angles. They are cemented entirely with snow and water, and roofed with skins, which are replaced by snow as winter advances. The entering tunnels are also of slabs of ice, as are the kennels for bitches and puppies. The skin canoes are propped up on slabs of ice high enough to be out of the reach of the dogs. The semi-transparency of the walls give these huts a strange efiect, and some of our later voyagers have called them crystal palaces; but aU the purity, either of ice or snow, disappears, and whatever cleanliness the Esquimaux possess is forced upon them by the annual thawing of their houses. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 315 The summer tents are made of several seal or walrus skins, the former without the hair, and the latter with the thick outer coat taken ESQUIMAUX HUT OF ICE SLABS. off, and the rest shaved down so thin as to admit light through them. They are irregularly sewn together, forming a kind of oval bag, supported in the middle by a pole of several deers^ horns or bones of other animals lashed together. On the top of this is a cross or T-piece, which serves to extend the top of the tent, 6ft. or 7ft. from the ground the lower part of the tent polo rests loosely on a large stone, from which any accident will knock it off. The borders of the skins are kept down by stones laid on them, and the top is stayed by a thong on the outer side, stretching to a heavy stone at some distance. The door is merely two flaps, one of which overlaps the other, secured by another stone. Sometimes a little shelter from the wind is given by an outer wall of stone. If a larger tent is required, two of these bags are made to overlap at the edges, and are set up with a couple of poles. The accumulation of seal and wabus flesh and blubber during the summer months makes these habitations disgustingly filthy ; but it ia to be remembered that the great necessity of the Esquimaux is to keep himself warm, and he cannot afford to lower the temperature of his skin by washing off the grease and dirt which encrust it. 316 Shifts and Expedients of On one experimental trip Captain Parry was compelled by a sndden decrease of temperature to shelter his party in a small tent. They attempted to warm themselves by smoking, and fomid the temperature at their feet to be 1° below zero, while overhead the smoke had raised it to + 7°, the outer air being — 5°, soon falling to — 15°. It was then found possible to dig a kind of cavern in the snow, the spade beiijg lent as a favour to the men who most required to warm them- selves, a small fire and a pot of soup were made, and by confining the smoke and hot air the temperature was raised to + 20°, while outside it was — 25°. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 317 CHAPTER V. EXTEMPORE BEIDGES AND MAKESHIFTS FOR CROSSING RIVERS OR RAVINES. The solitary traveller in a wild country will be very rarely compelled to construct his own bridge, for, as a general rule, he will only have to pass once, or at most to return by the same route. The labour of making a bridge would be greater, and more time would be lost, than by seeking for a practicable passage at some distant point, or, in case a river was the impediment, forming a float of some kind. There are, however, occasions when there is no alternative but bridge -making, as when exploring expeditions, accompanied by pack animals, or a field force on the march, have rivers, swamps, ravines, or, perchance, rotten ice, to pass over. Where there is not water enough to float a canoe, but where there is sufficient to cause the formation of deep pools and dangerous mire, over which few ani- Swamp roads, mals used for the conveyance of baggage could pass ^^ make, without the aid of some artificial footway, narrow deep channels may be very often rendered comparatively easy to cross by filling them up with bundles of brushwood or marsh reeds. We were constantly in the habit, when engaged in making forced marches through Central India, of making use of the stalks of the recently cut juhari for this purpose. Unsafe ice can be rendered firm and secure by strewing a thick layer of reeds over it, and then throwing water enough to cause the whole to freeze into a com- pact mass. Before, however, proceeding to describe the various modes usually had recourse to for rendering trees available for bridging purposes, it will be well to give a few plain and practical directions for ascertaining the width of rivers, ravines, and the arms of swamps, without the aid of scientific instruments, and also for finding, by makeshift modes, the altitude of trees. 318 Shifts and Expedients of To FIND THE Width of a River without Instruments. Fig. 1. If you have a pocket compass, and the river runs, say east and west, and you are on the south side, choose a well-defined tree. A, or other object on the opposite shore, and bring it to bear north of you ; mark your position by putting in a stake or peg, B, turn to one side, say the left, and walk west- ward till A bears north-east, which will be the case at C ; then C B will be exactly equal to B A, or the breadth of the river, because from the point C, A will bear north-east, and B will bear east, subtending an angle of 45°, and as the line C B is east, and B A is north, they sub- tend an angle of 90°, or a right angle, and must be of equal length ; the triangle you have formed being the half of a square, divided by a diagonal hue from corner to corner. If you have room repeat this by walking east till A bears north- west from D ; and if the first operation has been correctly performed, the second will confirm it ; or if the first be in error, it is likely that the second will be exactly as much in error the opposite way, and the mean of the two observations wiU be approximately correct. Fig. 2. If you have not a compass, choose A as before, set in a stake at B, and prolong the line to C ; then on this line erect a perpendicular by looping a cord on the stake at C, and with a sharpened peg held at the other end of it draw- ing the arc, D B ; then, making D and E equidistant from B, draw through these three points the V? Jiv line D B E F : on this line retire a ' TB toward F till A and B form an angle of 45°, which may be measured either by folding a square of paper diagonally, or by pegging out a piece of string divided into two lengths of 24in. and one of 32in. See that the longest or diagonal side Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 319 bears truly upon A, and one of the shorter sides on B, which will take place at the point F, then F B will be equal to B A, or the breadth of the river. Repeat this also if the ground allows, on the opposite side Gr, and take the mean of the two observations. The correctness of all these observations may be greatly increased by resting your rifle on each successive point, and carefully sighting all the lines with it. Fig. 3. Another excellent and simple plan is — choose A ; sot in B ; from B erect the perpendicular B C, C D, divided equally at C ; from D erect the perpendicular D E ; retire along it till the stake C bears truly upon A, which will be at F, then F D will equal B A. Fig. 4. If the river bank is so curved that you cannot draw BCD at right angles, you have two alternatives. If there is plenty of room retire as far as you please from the bank before planting the stake B, and deduct from the result the distance you retire from the bank. Or, if there is not room, you may draw B C D, as in Fig. 4, diagonally, and contrive to keep D E as nearly parallel to A B as you can ; but any defect in paralleHsm will greatly affect the correctness of your measurement, as will be evident from the dotted lino G. Fig. 5. If the river is wide, choose A as before ; set in B, and retire any measured distance, say 6yds., to C ; then from B and C erect perpendiculars of equal length, and draw the square B C, D E ; test it by stretching a cord from corner to corner ; then, prolonging the line C E, bring the stake D in one with A, and produce the line A D till 320 Shifts and Exjjedients of TB, it intersects C E at F ; then divide F E into six parts, measure as many of them as you can on the line E D, and you will find as many of them as there are yards on the line B A ; therefore, in the present instance, 11yds. will be the breadth of the river, and one may be deducted because the marks are not close to the edge of the banks ; or say, as E F is to E D so is B D to B A. Fig. 6. To erect a perpendicular on a given point on any line, measure equal distances on either side ; set in pegs, loop a cord on them alternately, and strike two arcs, their intersec- tion will be perpendicular to the given point. To cross the end of a line by another at right angles, set a peg some distance back, loop a cord on it, and strike an arc. Measure equal distances from the end of your given line to the arc, then a line drawn through the three points will be at right angles to the first. A scale of equal parts may be made by folding a slip of paper in half, then folding each part in half, and so subdividing- it as much as you wish, but do not fold it in half, and then double the two parts to get the quarters at one operation, and then double the four parts to get the eighths, or you will find them come out very unequally. A measuring tape may be made by taking a narrow white tape, say ^in., and winding it on a slip of card barely an inch wide, just so little spirally that each turn may not half cover the preceding one, then carefully blacken the edges, and, when you unwind the tape, mark every twelfth inch with figures to denote feet, and every sixth with an extra line. A square is made by taking a sheet of paper, folding the corner down so that the edge of the end coincides with the edge of the side, and then cutting off the superfluous length, each corner of the square is an angle of 90°, i. e., a right angle or a quarter of the compass, say from north to east. The diagonal fold makes at each corner an angle of 45", or four points of the compass, say from north to north-east ; fold this again, and it will give 22 1°, or two points of the compass, from north to north-north-east, and this may again be subdivided if needful. Camp Life, Travel, and E,q)loration. 321 We have often tried the breadth of rivers by firing a rifle ball at some well-defined mark on the other side, with the sight adjusted to 100yds. or more, according to the estimated distance, and noticing whether the ball reached beyond or fell short of the mark. The habit of doing this very greatly corrects and assists the eye in forming estimates of distance. A good stone thrower ought to know the range he can make with pebbles of different sizes. If a native is near buy one of his least valued arrows or spears, and got him to throw it across, and then ask him to throw a similar one on ground where you can recover it and measure the distance, but never ask a savage to throw away weapons of the chase for nothing. In calm weather, we have fired a rifle ball, with its utmost range, on the surface of a lake, and have counted seconds from the time we saw the splash till we heard the sound of its fall. Sound travels 1142ft. in a second, or about a statute mile in 4| seconds, or a geographical mile — or rather one minute of latitude, or of longitude on the equator — in 5| seconds. To FIND, WITHOUT INSTRUMENTS, THE HeIGHT OP A TrEE OR OTHER Object, whose Base is accessible. Fig. 1. Fold down a square of paper from corner to corner, and you will obtain a triangle, of which two of the sides form a right angle, and the third, or diagonal, forms an angle of 45*^ with each of them (see next page). Make a mark upon the tree 5ft., or the height of your eye, from the ground, and retire from the tree till, holding the paper steadily with one short side horizontal and the other vertical, you can take sight along its lower edge at the mark, and along the diagonal side at the topmost branches; then pace or measure the distance from the tree, add 5ft. for the height of the eye, and you will have the height of the tree ; l^ecauso, if the two angles of the diagonal be 45°, the base and the perpendicular must be equal. A piece of thin board, with pins set in at each angle to serve as sights, would be better than the paper, but is not so readily extemporised. If you split the end of a wand so as to hold the paper or board quite up to the height of your Y 322 Shifts and Ea'peiUents qf eye, it will g-ivo additional steadiness. The observer in our illustra- tion is unavoidably represented a little too near liis work, but he is probably taking the height of the first bifurcation, which is often more important than the height of the tree. FINDING THE HEIGHT OF A TREE BT RIFLE OR FOLDED PAPER. Fig. 2. Or, sticking a branch into the ground, select one of its forks, or lash on a cross piece which shall pass through the trigger guard behind the trigger, so that the gun may be about the height of your eye when you aim horizontally at the mark on the tree, the trigger finger grasp- ing the stick for greater steadiness. Take another stick, with a fork or cross rest of equal height with the first, and connect them by a smaller stick of any length, say 18in. or 2ft., and at exactly the same height above the lower rest lash another on the second stick, so that, the base and perpendicular being equal, the gun, when its muzzle is laid on the higher rest, shall form exactly an angle of 45° with its hne when previously laid upon the lower one. Now retire until from the lower rest you can sight the mark upon the tree, and from the upper its highest branches ; then the distance from your pivot stick, plus 5ft., will be the height of the tree. Our illustration pur- posely shows this operation in the simplest possible form; .but the frame might be steadied by lashing on other cross bars (X fashion), and a friend to help in moving it to a greater or less distance from the tree would greatly assist the observer. It would be inconvenient to make this observation kneeling. A telescope, a long sti-aight Canqy Life, Travel, and Exploration. 323 reed, a roll of paper, or a straiglit tube of any material, will answer almost as well as tlie rifle. Even a clasp knife (Fig. 3), with, a bit of reed stuck into tlie handle where the point should reach, and resting on the point of the half-opened blade, is better than nothing. ' If the ground is perfectly level, and you have a looking-glass, lay it down and level it by setting on it a basin full of water ; retire till you see the top of the tree reflected in it, then if your distance from the mirror equals the height of your eye, the distance from the mirror to the tree will be equal to its height. In perfectly calm weather the basin of water will do without the mirror, or a shallow pool or river will give an approximation ; but, as the ground is always depressed where water settles, there will be some uncertainty about the height of the eye, which will more or less vitiate the observation, and this will also be the case if thirsty animals rush in to disturb it, as in our sketch. Or if the sun or moon is shining, set up a stick, and watch till its shadow is equal to its height, or note when your own shadow equals your height, and the height of the tree and the length of its shadow will also be equal. But, as it may not be always convenient to wait for this moment, the height of the tree may be found by pro- portion. If the stick is oft. and its shadow 7ft., then if the shadow of the tree be 70ft., its height will be 50ft. ; or if in looking at its reflection in the mirror, the height of your eye be 5ft., and the distance 8ft., then if the distance from the mirror to the tree be 80ft., its height is 50ft. In either of the first two methods the same rule must be observed ; the paper may be folded to a greater angle if you cannot get far enough from the tree, or a smaller one if you must go farther, and the same with the elevation of the rifle. In these cases, carefully measure the base and perpen- dicular of your smaller angle, and say, " as the base of the small angle is to its perpendicular, so is the distance from the tree to its height." Thus, as in Fig. 4 on next page, if the distance between the two rests is 2ft. and the elevation of the rifle 1ft., the distance from the tree must be equal to double its height. 324 Shifts and Expedients of All these observations will apply to any object of wbich tbe highest point is perpondicnlar to the accessible base^ such as a precipice, the wall of a fortj or the gable end of a house, but not to the peak of a mountain, two or three miles beyond its base, nor to the pitched roof of a house seen sideways, nor to the spire of a LL church, or flagstaff on the cen- "o- 4- tral tower of a castle, unless the doors of these buildings be opened so that you can continue to measure your base to a point exactly beneath that which yon have taken the angular height. Still, if the base be not accessible, it is not iinpossible to measure the height, for the distance of the object may be taken by any of the plans for ascertaining the breadth of a river, or any of the above methods may be performed twice over, as in Fig. 5 j first, at any convenient distance, b, and secondly, at a measured distance, c, nearer to or farther from the object; and the easiest way of obtaining the result is to lay down on paper the obtained angles, d} ^) f} and g, h, ?", in due proportion to the measured distance, h, c, between them ; ^.n then from them to protract the angle, d, g, a, and continuing the base line, find on it the point j, from which a perpendicular would meet the top of the object, a. The distance, h, c, being known, that of the base, h, j, and the height of the tree, j, a, will be best found by measurement of equal parts, but bear in mind that the result can only be an approximation to truth, for every additional operation involves an increase of possible error. In passing extensive marsh tracks, few expedients surpass the so-called American cordway, the subject of the illustration on p. 325. It is constructed as follows from the description of material usually abounding in marsh tracks : Trees and poles of almost any description Avill be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 325 them into three classes — ground i^oles, cross poles, and strinycrs. The ground poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross poles are comparatively short lengths; and lay across the ground poles with their CORDWAY AND ONE-TREE BRIDGE. ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together, and then secured and bound do^vn by the stringers which lay on them. A treenail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nip- ping the cross poles tightly. The ends of the ground poles and stringers may be either scarfed and treenailed, or laid side by side and tied with withies or strips of suitable bark. It will be seen, on examining the illustration, that where the roadway ends a bridge begins. This is of the description known as a one-tree bridge, and is made as follows : Select a tree of suflScient length to reach, when One-troe bridge, felled, across the stream, and of fair average to make, girth, say 9ft. -, fell it with the axe in the manner before directed, and then walk out on the trunk and cut away all the branches from the upper surface ; then log it up into lengths of about 10ft. a sufficient number of transverse pieces to reach, when placed side by side, from one end of the bridge log to the other. Then in the centre of each of these make a shallow notch by delivering right and left cuts with the axe. Next with your auger bore two holes as wide apart as tho diameter of the bridge log will admit of. Lay your transverse piece on the main log, so that it shall rest in the form of a 326 Shiftb- and Expedients of true cross, with the notcli in the centre resting on the main log ; then, whilst keeping the cross piece steady with one foot, bore down the auger holes about a foot into the solid timber. Treenails (see " Treenails, to make ") are then to be placed in the holes and driven home with a mallet or the head of the axe. Another fonn of tree-nailed bridge, calculated for Yevj wet or dangerously swampy ground, is formed by laying down two lines of Swamp bridge stouter ground logs than those used to form the to make. cc cordway " just described, scarfing and tree-nailing the ends together as they are laid down. The transverse bars for the footway have a right and left chip taken out each end from the surface which is to lay next the ground log. They are then bored with the auger, one hole at each end being sufficient. They are then placed closely side by side. One man completes the hole which passes down into the log, whilst another drives home the treenails, as shown in the annexed illustration. Earth or sand thrown with a shovel 4s 1^5 f,l«-a 'J TBEE-NAILED SWAMP BRIDGE, between the cross pieces increases the stability of the arrangement. Treenails have been, and will be, frequently mentioned in the course of this work ; it .will, therefore, be well here to give directions for Treenails, making and using them. To the shipwright they are invaluable, as by their aid he unites the various planks timbers made use of in the carrying out of his art. In to make and Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 327 England they are usually made from straight-graiued oak, which, after being sawn into proper lengths, is split up into the z'ough form of the required treenail. This, after being faced and hewn with the adze, is passed through a double-handed cutting instrument known as a treenail tool. A skilfully-handled axe, a spokeshave, or a drawing knife, will, although less expeditiously, produce with ease well rounded and serviceable treenails. In wild countries any tough straight- gi'ained wood may be selected for treenail making. For bridge and roadway work pine wood will answer the purpose very fairly. A dead log is best when it can be obtained for making these wooden holdfasts. Cut it up into pieces the length of the proposed treenail, chop off the bark, and split them into either three or four (as directed at p. 272), according to the size of the log ; then, with the froe or axe, split them into rough squares the length of the required treenail, round off the curves and corners, chop off the edges at the end, so that it may enter the auger hole freely, and the treenail is ready for use- Rivers which are too wide to be crossed by the one-tree bridge, and yet of inconsiderable breadth, may be crossed by the use of the gabion bridge, which is thus constructed : First, Qabion bridge prepare as many strong wicker gabions as the width ^^ make, of the stream will render necessary. About 14ft. apart will be found a convenient distance to place them. Their height will depend on the depth of the water. Three feet at least should be allowed between the surface of the stream and the upper edge of the gabion. Where suitable poles and sticks for gabion making cannot be obtained trees should be felled and split up, as for rails (see p. 273). The bars thus obtained should be cut up into pi'oper lengths, and, by the use of the axe and auger, converted into large deep crates, such as are used for packing earthenware. These are made by boring rows of auger holes in strong wooden bars, and then driving the sharpened ends of the lesser bars into them until the crate is finished, no nails or metal fastenings being required. Whether the crate or gabion is used, the principle of construction observed in making the bridge is the same. The first gabion, after being secured to the end of a stout rope, is launched from the bank, and then guided, end upward, by the aid of forked setting poles, to 328 Shifts mid EcqjvdiGids of its proper position. Stones, pebbles, or pieces of broken rock, are now cast pell-mell by band into tbe open mouth of tbe gabion, wbich is held down by the setting pole until fixed in its position by the weight of the mass within it. When quite full two or three stout poles are laid side by side for a man to walk over. He takes up his station on the gabion, and aids in arranging the ends of two side logs which are pushed out to him from the shore, and placed wide enough apart to give sufficient width to the intended bridge. Transverse bars formed of split logs are now rapidly treenailed on, as J ;> o^''i.4^ «.« niON ]!RI b^own ni the accompany mg illustration. The second gabion is now launched from the first, the stone collectors with bags and baskets walk out, cast their loads, and return for more, proceeding in the same manner until the bridge is finished. When travelling among the Tartars we had on more than one occasion to pass our mules and horses Tartar brido-es, ^"^sr rather insecure-looking bridges formed by the to make. natives. They were alike in construction, and were made by laying three long strong poles, or rather small tree trunks, side by side from bank to bank. Across these alternately (butt-end and top), as shown in the engraving on next page, was laid a close row of tightly-bound bundles or faggots of small brush- wood. On these bundles of twigs large flat slabs of turf, grass sitlo upward, were placed and stamped compactly down, forming serviceable and really good bridge ways. A small river can be Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. OM-^M TARTAR POLE AND FAGGOT BHIDGE. easily crossed by men ou foot by simply felling a tree of sufficient girth and length across it. Should there be a number of packs or loads to pass across, it will c\_ be well, if the party is a '^^-*^ — large one, to so station men ^-^*™^^'- along the tree trunk that they can pass the bundles or articles from hand to hand, just as firemen hand buckets of water, thus sav- ing unnecessary labour. A rope stretched across greatly aids the men in keeping their balance. We, on one occasion, when encamped on the banks of a large Indian river, were called on to provide for the immediate transport of a battery of field guns, waggons, horses, &c., to Extempore jetty, the opposite side. Some large native boats were *° ^^*^- procured, but they, even when empty, drew so much water, that they could not be made to approach within some distance of the shore. We therefore felled two trees, which fortunately stood side by side, letting their crowns fall from the bank, well out into the stream. We soon foraged out three large dug-out canoes, which were concealed among the reeds hard by. These, with our own axe, and those of two stalwart - limber gunners, we split into lengths of uneven plank. "WTiilst we were doing this, a party had been at work forcing do^^'n large \\Ci\Yy branches between the two tree trunks, and on these compactly-bound foggots of brushwood (which a number of natives attached to the expedition prepared close at hand) were rammed and stamped down. The boards procured by cutting up the canoes were arranged side by side on this bed, their ends being secured by burden ropes knotted together and hitched over them, as shown at Fig. 1, p. 292. We now employed the natives in throwing buckets and bags of earth and sand thickly over and between the planks. Over this extempore jetty — which reached out to the boats, on some of which platforms had been erected — all our battery, consisting of two 12 -pounder howitzers, and 830 8hijls and Expedients of four 6-pounder guns, with all their equipment, passed in perfect safety. The work was not commenced until late in the afternoon, and all had crossed long before morning. It not unfrequently happens that there is greater difficulty in transporting the baggage of an expedition across a river than in Extempore getting over the men and animals. This was the baggage derrick, ^^^^q ^j^ ^j^q following instance. We were exploring the Victoria River, in North Australia, when we came to a branch of one of its tributaries (Jasper Creek) so much swollen that it was unsafe to attempt crossing it with loaded horses. We found, however, a passage to an island, on which stood a couple of tall overhanging gum trees. We had with us several fathoms of Manilla line, about |in. in diameter, this was passed over a fork of one of the highest and most projecting branches. Mr. Gregory swung himself across, we followed; and while our head stockman, with a fatigue party of five horses, brought the packs to the island, one man lifted the pack that had been bent on to the line as high as possible ; another gave an extra pull upon the other part to lift it as clear of the water as possible during its passage, letting go by the run as it swung to the other shore, where one of the party stood ready to catch the pack, while we, making a sharp run with a small line, helped it across, and checked any tendency to swing back again. In this manner we brought over a ton and a half of provisions and stores in between two and three hours ; the unloaded horses found a practicable ford a little higher up. Sometimes the interlacing of overhanging branches answered our purpose ; or we found it possible to fell a tree so that its head r£j.^Q might fall on the other shore, or into the water pointing footways, ^p stream, so that it would drift and jam against the opposite bank. On another occasion, coming to the Lua, a tributary of the Zambesi, rushing through a narrow place, we went to the edge of the forest, and with a small tomahawk cut down the best tree we could find, and, assisted by three or four Makololo, carried it to the brink, raised it, and let it fall across. In many of the colonial streams it is necessary to provide the means of passage, for the fords may be inconveniently far Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 831 apart. In such cases the general expedient is to purchase the chain cables of some "wrecked ship^ and stretch them across, securing the ends either to stout posts or bars wedged chain brido-es into clefts in the rocks, or to tolerably broad *° construct, surfaces of timber buried 6ft. or 8ft. in the earth. Of course strong purchases are required to stretch the chains, especially if the distance between the river banks is great ; but the buyer would most likely take care also to provide himself, when he obtained the chains, with a pair of large double blocks with iron-hooked straps, and twenty or thirty fathoms of stout rope ; so that, when such a tackle is hooked on, and the fall made fast to the trek gear of a span of well-trained oxen, the chain must come or something give way. Two parts of the chain must be stretched so as to assume perfectly parallel curves, and on these the planks for the roadway are laid, the lashings passing conveniently through the links and preventing any possibihty of slipping; other chains or ropes are stretched as hand- rails, and for the supports of these it is a good j^lan to cut young trees, say 12ft. long, sling them about 4ft. from the top, and fasten them to the chain, so that the upper part will support the rope, while the 8ft. of butt hanging below serves as a counterpoise to keep it upright. This, however, must depend on the height of the bridge ; for if the water catches any part of it during the rainy season, there is great danger of the whole being swept away; and it is therefore advisable to make all the fittings as Hght as is consistent -svith the safety of passengers, so that in case of extraordinary floods they may be swept off before they communicate strain enough to break the chain — just as the masts of a vessel ought to be of such strength as to be carried away before they capsize the ship. We have seen a bridge built of planks and trestles, very sHghtly fastened together, but every part was moored by a long line to one or other of the banks. The whole affair would go to pieces when the floods came, and when they subsided the pieces were hauled in, and the bridge reconstructed. In broader rivers the chain is carried across, and a barge is built with a wiach at either end, round the barrels of which y\j bridges a turn of the chain is taken ; the waggon about to cross ^^^ femes, is drawn upon the platform by two or more of its own oxen, the 332 8hiff.'i and Ex^pedients of winches are hove round, and the oxen draw the waggon up the other shore, without even having been unyoked during the passage. In strong rapid streams an anchor and cable is laid high up the stream, and the lower end terminates in a bridle. The boat is alike at either end, and when about to leave the shore the end of the bridle which happens to be forward is gathered in^ while the after one is some- what slackened. The boat shoots over to the other shore, and is kept FLYING FERRIES. there by the force of the stream, so long as the bridle nearest the bank keeps her head more up than the farther one allows her stem to be. To bring her back again, haul in that which is farthest from the shore ; slack off the other, and she will recross the river as if of her own volition. The same may bo effected by means of the rudder. Have a short mast, to which the cable is attached just high enough to clear the heads of passengers, &c., and about one-fourth or one-third from the bows. Then, if the boat be lying on the right bank of the river, her port side will be to the shore ; and as long as the helm is to starboard, or away from the shore, the rudder will incline the boat's head inward, and the force of the stream will keep her there. But put the helm aport, her head will fall off, she will shoot over to the left bank, and remain there. In fact, this flying bridge, or feny — for it par- takes of the nature of both — acts in the water on the very same pi-inciple that a kite does in the air. The line beinor made fast, not to the stem Cam/p Life, Travel, and Ecvploration. 333 of the boat, but to a point about one-tbird aft, would allow her to ride straight on end with the stream only so long as by careful steering her head was kept exactly to it ; but the moment an inclination is made, by putting the helm, say "aport," the boat's head inclines to star- .rv, ROPE FERBY. board ; she receives the stream upon her port side, which should make an angle of about 22° with the line of the current, and she at once sheers to starboard or to the left bank — remembering always that, in speaking of a river, the observer is supposed to face down stream, and the banks are named as they are on his right or left hand. A wire rope ferry of this kind is stretched across the united rivers " Moola Moola " and " Moola Moota," near Poena. We have crossed by it often, and found it to answer admirably. Sometimes it may be of importance to bridge a ravine, which, though not impassable for an active man, is difficult for average passengers. The first requisite is to get a line across. If the nearest bank is a precipice a man may be lowered down with a rope, and he may then climb the opposite cliff, taking the rope with him ; but if the farthest bank is precipitous also the case is more difficult, as the rope will not help him to ascend. Perhaps by walking up or down the bed of the gorge while his friends above follow him with the rope, he may find a practicable route ; or another party may be sent many miles up or down to find a crossing, and, by lowering another rope, haul him up with the first still fast. 334 SMfts and Expedients of If neither of these plans is possible, a stone or leaden weight may Line slin;/- in the rock, and to the top of this post a swivel crutch, which holds the trunnions of a long projecting arm, like that of an Egyptian well lever, to the small end of which a rope and cross-bar are securely fastened. To the short, heavy end, several more ropes are attached, by which when the person to be landed has either grasped the cross-bar, or seated himself on it, the contrivance is at once raised aloft, and turned steadily but rapidly inward, when by easing off, the man is allowed to drop easily to his feet on solid ground. There used to bo Landing derrick. so DEUUICK. 850 SJiifts and Expedients of such a contrivance as this at St. Helena, by the aid of which we have often landed. The illustration on p. 349 will serve to show how the apparatus is managed and constructed. A barrel, stoutly lashed with rope, fitted with a seat, and cut away at the side, so as to admit of the traveller sitting in it, as in a chair, is used for ladies or invalids^ who are slung in it at the end of the arm, and hauled in as above described. Sometimes it is necessary to construct bridges of boats; and these are often works of great magnitude, requiring a considerable amount of material, especially when an army with artillery Bridges of boats. and baggage waggons has to cross. Whether large or small, the method of proceeding must be nearly the same. First, a number of stout beams must be collected, sufficient to make a double line across the river, with their ends over- lapping each other by more than the breadth of the boats that are to support them. The boats should be brought to the shore and moored a little above the site of the intended bridge. If anchors are pro- curable, they should be laid at regular intervals across the river ; a buoy should be attached to the end of each cable, and a small line should lead from the farthest to each nearer one in succession, till they are all connected with the shore. A substantial frame of beams should be constructed at the edge of the bank, and a boat brought alongside it riding by the first cable, and secu.red by a temporary mooring to the shore. Two beams must be launched across her near the head and stern, and firmly lashed to the thwarts and stringers. The boat must now be swung out to the full extent of the beams ; the second cable must be laid hold of, and the first cast off and hauled to shore for the next boat, which is dropped down stream under the shore end of the beams, which are laid upon her gunwales and made fast there ; while two others are pushed from the shore and fastened to her as the first pair were to the first boat. Intermediate beams, if requisite, can be laid, and planking lashed or pinned upon them so as to complete that part of the platform. Then other beams and plank- ing, sufficient for a similar platform, should be brought on board, for the purpose of finishing the bridge when this pair of boats reaches the other shore. The outermost boat should now pick up the third cable. Cam]) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 351 and pass the second to the inner one ; while the first cable should be taken by a third boat, which will drop down between the others and the shore, to receive her portion of the platform ; and so on in succes- EXPEDIENTS yon BOAT BniDGES. sion until the bridge, completed as it goes on, extends so nearly to the other shore that the loose material carried by the first pair of boats serves to complete the connection. Anchors may be extemporised from forked branches of trees — the harder and heavier the better. These should have stones or iron lashed to them, in order to give weight. Several forks should be left on the main stem, and pointed to insure their holding. If charred in the fire, so much the better, as their durability and strength are much increased by the process. If there is but one fork, care must be taken .so to balance the anchor with the stone below and the cable above, or a stock lashed across, that this fork or arm shall be sure to take the ground. The bridge may be also shored against the stream by branches, wi!h their forks taking the beams, while their lower en^s, weighted by stones, rest against the bed of the river. Stones are of no use as anchors, as they lose so much of their specific gi-a\4ty when immersed ; but if a heavy stone can be dropped beyond a cleft in the rock, as in our sketch, it will hold well. If no anchors or substitutes can be had, the cables may be ma^e fast to a stout tree as far up the stream as possible; and being brought in upon the inner bow of each boat, she will take the stream upon that 852 Shifts and Expedients of side and be forced outward, Tlie rudder^ if she has one, will assist ii this, but it is not material, as she can be kept at the proper angle b} making the foremost beam a little longer than the after one. If the bridge is constructed so low down the river as to be withii the ebb and flow of the tide, anchors are indispensable, and each boai must bo moored head and stern, as sho"wn in one of the examples ii our illustration ; or, if there be but one cable to hold her against th( ebb, shores may be set so as to counteract the influence of the flood unless a great rise and fall, or violent rush at the turn of the tide should render it unsafe to use them. If boats cannot be had, tAvo o] three large casks, placed end to end and firmly lashed to poles laic parallel to their length, may be used at each junction of the beams ; o: if a number of small ones can be obtained, they may be collected withii a triangular frame of poles ; but in any case each float must be suffi- ciently buoyant to keep the bridge at least 3ft. clear of the water, i there is any current ; if there is none, the platform may even touch th( water, and be partially sustained by it. In our sketch we have omittec all but a small portion of the planking, in order to show more clear!;} the manner of connectinar the framework. CARRYING FRAME AND PARBUCKLING LOO. In some parts of India and China very heavy weights ar( carried by an ingenious framework of bamboo. A stout pole is Carrying, rolling, and crossed at its ends by two lighter ones, anc parbuckling heavy spars. ^^ ^f ^^^^^ ^^^-^ ^^ ^^.^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^, which is again crossed by smaller ones 2in. or Sin. in diameter and 6ft Gnmj) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 353 or 8ft. long ; the sixteen ends of these are raised on the shoulders of as many men ; the weight is slung to the centre of the larger beam, and borne with ease and comfort on the elastic frame. In our illustration (p. 352), two gangs of coohes are represented can-ying a tree, but more could be emjDloyed if requisite. For rolling, the tree should be cleared of projecting stumps as much as possible ; long skids should be placed under it, and if the ends from which the tree is to be rolled can be elevated by wedges or otherwise, so as to make an inclined plane for it to roll down so much the better ; at all events, get the thick end under the tree and let the thin end be in the direction that you wish to roll it. Parbuckhng is effected by making fast the end of a line to a stump or other holdfast in the required direction, then bringing the end of the line under the log, and taking one or more clear turns, bringing the end back over it and hauhng on. A few hands judiciously using handspikes or levers will greatly assist this oijeration. There are times when the principle of the common step-ladder might be advantageously remembered ; and a traveller who expected to have much climbing might have one of those in which a groove , . . , „ , -, -, T , Ladders, is run m the mside of each standard, and the rungs, working on pivots, are shut up into it, the whole forming a light and compact pole, which a man might easily carry on his shoulder. It would, however, be cheaper and better to purchase this at home than to make it abroad. A rope and batten ladder is more easily made. The rope is doubled, an eye is turned in to the bight, holes are bored in the ends of the steps or rungs, the ends of the rope are passed through, and double knots turned on to keep each step in place. A light ladder, either of this kind or that previously described, with a coil of rope to fling over the lower branches, would enable a botanist or collector of birds or insects to cHmb many trees otherwise inaccessible. In case of fire in a town, if anything — say the end of a sofa or part of a bed frame — could be projected only 1ft. or 2ft. from a window, and weighted by a chest of drawers on its -. . , -. /. -. 1 Ml T ■ Fire-escapes, mner end, it would form what persons imskiUed m climbing so much require — a clear point of departure; and the blankets, sheets, and coverlets torn into strips of not less than 4in. or Gin. wide, and twisted into a two-stranded rope, could be A A 35i Shifts and Expedients of fastened to this and used — first, to lower the more helpless persons into the street, and, finally, for the active to glide down by. It would be too much to expect, as has been proposed, that every house should have a coil of rope, but it is well to remember that if there be only a ball of string it may serve to haul up stronger lines, brought by volunteers from without. If infants are to be lowered, it is better to put them in a bag than to tie a rope round their bodies ; a couple of pillow cases would be strong enough, and there would be no fear of sufibcation during the minute or two of their descent. A man may tie a child on his back or descend with it in his arms, but it is much safer to lower it separately. If flames are bursting from the windows beneath, perhaps the rope may be taken to the next lower story of the opposite house so as to avoid the danger of burning the rope or scorching those who descend. Of regular fire-escapes we need say nothing, as where they are provided competent persons, very frequently seamen, are appointed to work them ; but it is well to bear in mind that, as the property of flame and heated air is to ascend, a man creeping close to the floor may often traverse in safety a chamber the upper part of which is impracticable. A towel or piece of sheeting dipped in water and tied round the mouth and nose will prevent heated smoke and particles of burning matter from entering the air passages, and thus enable a person to struggle for life in situations where sufibcation would be inevitable -without some such expedient for its preservation. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 355 CHAPTER VI. TIMBEK AND ITS UTILISATION. We have before stated tliat timber sliould never, except in cases of emergency, be felled with the sap in it ; still, during the vicissitudes of rough travel, it will frequently happen that, in , ^ 1 ^ rr ^ Extraction of sap. order to execute repairs imperatively needed, the trees must be cut down, hewn into form, and made use of at once. When this is done, the object will be to get rid of the sap which fills all the minute pores and tubes of the wood as quickly as possible. To do this, a trench, proportioned in length and depth to the quantity and size of the timber to be treated, must be dug in the earth. Lay in the logs, after denuding them of their lateral branches, fill the trench with water, and let them soak in it whilst you build a strong hard wood fire. When this is thoronghly ignited throw a number of large heavy stones into it, and as they become red hot withdraw them with twisted sticks, and throw them into the trench until the water boils actively. Continue to do this until there are a number of heated stones in the already boiling sludge ; throw then a thick layer of clay, turf, and earth, over the whole mass, and leave it to steam and stew for the night. A large log, intended for the axle of a waggon or other heavy work, may be, with advan- tage, subjected to a second application of the same process, when it will be found much more tough and durable than if converted with the raw sap in it. Before proceeding to fell a growing tree for immediate use, it is well to search carefully about for a dead storm-cast trunk of the kind required, which will, as a rule, be found in tolerable Seasoning wood, condition. When a depot is formed, or a pomt selected as a rendezvous, it is advisable to fell a few trees, and let them lay in store, so to speak, until they are wanted. Cutting A a2 356 Sliiff.i and Ex.pedionU uf a deep notch round tlie wliole circumference of a trec^ and letting it stand until required for use^ much improves the quality of the wood. When practicable^ and time will allow, it is well to leave logs of timber intended for seasoning to soak in rivers, lakes, or arms of the sea; but it is wise, at the same time, to ascertain, by the examination of pieces of wood which have fallen accidentally into the water, whether any of the creatures addicted to timber boring are found in the locality. The rivers flowing into the Black Sea abound with the Teredo navalis, or ship worm, to such an extent that floating logs very shortly become so perforated as to be perfectly useless except for firewood. Much of the timber we obtained in that part of the world was defective on account of the depredations of this pest, whose range, unfortunately, is a pretty wide one ; and his works, and those of other borers, are therefore to be jealously looked for in the neighbourhood of a proposed salt or brackish water timber pond. In countries where hot springs are met with, they may be utilised for timber seasoning and other purposes. Sticks or poles in- tended for bending into ox bows, or other curved forms, should be placed either in boiling water or the hot embers of the camp fire until thoroughly heated through. They may then, after being properly shaped, be tied in the required form with cords, and hung in the air to dry. Several long crooked sticks may be straightened at once by forcing them side by side into the holloAV of a large bamboo cane from which all the knots, except that at one end, have been removed. When a sufficient number of sticks are arranged in the cane, place it mouth upwards, and fill it to the brim with boiling water. When the first charge is cold add a second, and so on until the sticks have been about an hour in their hot bath. They can now bo forced separately into smaller bamboos without water, or lashed between battens of stiff" wood until cold, when such small irregularities and curves as remain may be removed by heating the part requiring treatment over the fire and carefully straightening it over the knee. Nearly all the spear handles, whether of cane or forest wood, found among wild tribes are straightened and rendered fit for use by the agency of fire. Strong and perfectly straight tubes for blow-pipes, &c., are formed by inserting a small cane into the Camp Life, Travel, and Ex^jI oration. 357 hollow of a larger one and turning it round till any deviation from the straight line in one counteracts that of the other. The elegant curve given to many of the bows found among the Northern Indians is given by first heating them in the camp fire, and then, after bending them carefully to the desired shape, keeping the curves in position by the aid of thongs. "We have one of these bows now, which was even charred in the course of making, but has never lost its contour ar elasticity. The bending of ships' . . ... Stecuniiig log. planks is effected by a process very similar in principle. In the absence of a properly constructed steaming chamber, the planks of a makeshift vessel may be efficiently steamed in the follow- ing manner. A long hollow log should be set horizontally on trestles of convenient height, one end must be stopped with a plug, and the other have a tight wooden stopper and cross-bar fitted to it. When the required number of j)lanks are thrust down the log, steam is admitted through a bamboo, or hollow tube of wood, from a large covered cauldron placed on a fire beneath the log. All the joints of the bamboo should be luted fast with clay, and kept tight until the planks are sufficiently steamed for bending, when they are di-agged out with wooden tongs, and put in place on the vessel. The full page illustration shows the mode of using a gteamiug log. Wood, which does not require straie-hteniug, is rendered Hardening wood. much more hard and durable than it would other- wise be by the action of carefully applied fire-heat. The clubs and g-rubbing sticks of natives are generally foriified in this way. Spear, arrow, and blow-pipe darts have their points so hardened by the action of heat, that they more closely resemble the texture of bone than aught else, and perforate almost as readily as sharpened iron. We have seen the tough, dense scales of a large fish penetrated with the greatest facility by a spear prepared in this way. Flat strips or laths of bamboo cut to a fine edge, and fire- hardened, are used by many of the inhabitants of the islands of the Eastern seas as substitutes for knives ; some of these truly makeshift blades are as keen as surgical instruments, and are at times used in the performance of minor operations of sm-gery. Many of the trees of tropical countries will be found to possess heart wood o58 SJiifts and Expedients of of great strength and density, whilst the outside or " sap " is light coloured, weak, and next to useless. In such cases, all the outside layer of timber should be cut away with the axe or adze. Hard wood. r. t i • and the central core alone made use of. In selecting poles or sticks for purposes where toughness and durability are matters of importance always, when practicable, take young seedling trees. Next in quality to these are the shoots which spring up from the under- ground roots of large trees. When either of these kinds are intended to be put aside to season, they should be pulled up by the roots rather than cut ; the earth may be beaten out from among the fibres by striking the roots of the sticks together ; they can then be hung in an airy place to dry : late in the autumn or in the winter are the best seasons for rooting up saplings. In countries where the larch fir grows abundantly, a number of tall young trees will be found from some cause to have Larch trees. . , ^ ^ . died as they stand, to have withered and become per- fectly dry. These will be found extremely tough and weU seasoned. Bamboos must be selected according to the purpose they are intended for. The female bamboo, as it is called, is remarkable for the largeness of the cavities placed between the internodes ; Bamboos. this quality renders it buoyant, light, and well adapted for splitting up into planks. We have seen a very large bamboo slit from end to end by making one long cut in the side. The cane is heated and carefully opened. The knots are then all smoothed ofi", when the hollow shell is laid between boards on which heavy stones are placed, until it is pressed perfectly flat, and becomes a bamboo board. The knots of large female bamboos make excellent pails or water vessels. A joint of bamboo cut longitudinally in half, and supported on feet formed from another joint of the same cane, after the manner of a pen tray, makes a most convenient receptacle for pins, steel pens, pencils, sail needles, and a host of other matters which are required to lay parallel to each other. Water pipes, for irrigation, can be made from a train of canes with their ends thrust into each other, and secured by transverse pegs, as at Fig. 1, on opposite page. All long bamboos, intended for pipes or tubes, must have their internodes removed. This we used Camp Lifti, Travel, and Exploratioii. 859 to do aa follows : We prepared some short pieces of round bar iron of a size just to fit the bore of the canes easily. We then pointed one end of the iron chunk and sloped the upper end, by hammering on the anvil, to a wedge form. Through the centre of the upper edge we punched a hole, through which we passed a wire long enough to reach the entire length of the cane to be treated. The chunk was then heated red hot in the fire and dropped down, like a bucket in a well, on the first knot, through which it would rapidly burn. It was then lowered away until it reached the second knot, and so on until all were entirely removed. When the chunk became cooled by contact with the wood, it was reheated and entered again. Fig. 2 shows the form of the knot chunk, &c. Excellent tar buckets (Fig, 3) or water pails (Fig. 4) BAMBOO PIPES, BUCKETS, ETC. are to be made from the ends of large cane joints. Boxes for wheel grease (Fig. 5), drinking cups, boxes, and a whole host of other recep- tacles for various matters, solid and fluid, are made from the same material. The mode of cutting and bending bamboos is shown by Figs, from 6 to 13. In Eastern countries one occasionally meets with speci- mens of the female bamboo of such gigantic proportions and huge growth that no little wonder is excited as to the mode of cultivation had recourse to in their production. We were for a long time quite at a loss for a solution of the mystery, but at length discovered that among the stools or root clumps of the canes one of promising appearance was by the natives seloclcd for treatment. This was dug up and carefully replanted in a favourable locality. All the shoots which sprout up 360 Shifts and Expedients of save one are cut away. This is allowed to grow up until it lias reached a fair average size. It is then cut off to within about 6in. of the ground, leaving a hollow projecting stump. Into the bore of the cane thus left, a mixture of sulphur and stable litter is tightly rammed, just as you would charge a hole for blasting or would load a gun. For a period of three years every shoot which shows above the ground is cut away. The best shoot of the fourth year is allowed to grow to its full altitude and bulk, which at times is truly prodigious, leading to the false conclusion that some cane of peculiar species was the subject of wonder and investigation. From, the lesser members of the bamboo family water- wheels, bows, arrows, spear heads, paper, bow strings, pens, baskets, brooms, brushes, shoulder poles, buckets, masts, spars for boats, &c., are made. The male bamboo differs from the female in having scarcely any cavity running through it. Canes of this description are peculiarly well adapted for the handles of hog spears, waggon whip handles, and a multitude of other purposes where great strength and elasticity are required. The cocoa-nut palm is a tree which, on the score of use- fulness, is perhaps second to none. On the uses of its fruit, leaves, gum, fibre, and sap we shall have more to say further Cocoa-nut palni. on in our work. The wood is extensively used for canoe building. It is hewn into form by the small sharp adzes of the islanders. Clamps are left on the inside and bored through. Dowels of hard wood are inserted in the edges, and the planks are sewn together with rattan or fibre of the cocoa-nut husk, while the timbers are bound to the clamps by lashings of the same material, as shown in the full page illustration. Much of the coir, or cocoa fibre, used in the manu- facture of this and other descriptions of twine, and for caulking seams and crevices in the canoes when finished, is obtained by the natives of the islands which dot the Eastern seas and Pacific Ocean from the underground burrows of the great cocoa-nut-eating crab {Birgns latro), whose subterraneous workings are at certain seasons abun- dantly stored with this useful material, which is sometimes hooked out with long flexible sticks armed with a species of barb, and at others procured by digging out the crab, nest and all. Canoe paddles and clubs are often made from the stalk of the cocoa palm. A great number of useful and almost indispensable articles called Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 361 into daily use by the traveller and explorer can be made from wood. Swivels of one kind or another are in constant demand, as the ropes used for tethering animals would without their aid soon become . masses of hopeless entanglement. A very neat . . _. ^ . . AVooden swivels, and useful form is shown m i ig. 1 ; it consists of two bars of flexible wood^ bent by steaming or otherwise into the requisite curve. The parts which form the neck of a are WOODEN SWIVELS. thinned off, but the ends are left of their full thickness j the neck of h is also left thick, and in each of its parts a groove is cut, forming a hollow through which a passes ; h is then closed by a lashing, and the swivel is ready for use. Fig. 2 is very effective, and easily made. A bit of wood has three holes bored in it; a short piece of rope is passed through the end holes, and double knots turned upon its ends. This forms a "bridle;" and, if it is requisite to attach a longer line, this should not be looped through so that one cord may saw upon the other, as at c, but properly hitched, as shown at d. The other line is passed through the central hole ; and it will work more easily and wear out less quickly if a small ring or washer [f) of hard wood or sole leather is put on before the knot is turned upon its end. Fig. 3 is a plain form of swivel, and easily made, but is apt to chafe the rope. Fig. 4 is a very neat and useful form. A longitudinal hole is bored in a block of wood, two larger ones are bored across it, and with a knife or chisel these are cut into one large opening ; the cuds of the lines 862 Shifts and Expedients of are passed iu towards the centre, washers are put on, the knots ai made, and the swivel is complete. Fig. 5 is a useful pattern The swivel is made of the joint of a fir tree, and any number o lines may be hooked on to it. The collar is made of two parts, lashed together and suspended from each end ; the washer is also in two parts, like the collar. Fig. 6 is easily made with two pieces of wire. Fig. 7 would form either a crutch for a rowing or sculling oar, or a swivel rest for a gun or telescope, &c. Fig. 8 is a rod of flexible wood, with the two ends passed through the collar and fore-locked, leaving the loop to turn freely. Fig. 9 is simply a broad-headed nail passed through a piece of wood, and with its point bent into a hook : a washer of iron saves wear and tear. This is very similar to the swivels used by rope- makers. The common flail swivel is excellent for many purposes. Sometimes it is made with two pieces of stout hide or sole leather, shaped like Fig. 1 . One of these is turned so that the narrow part in the middle forms a loop ; while the broad ends are nailed, tightly stitched, or lashed to the thick or swing- ing arm of the flail (Fig. 3) ; the other piece, being linked through this loop, is also bent till the broad ends meet; and their edges are then securely stitched to- gether so as to form a collar, which works freely on the handle (Fig. 2), at the end of which is a knob to prevent the collar slipping oS". Occasionally two flexible rods (withies) are bent for this purpose : one is firmly fastened by a leather band nailed or lashed to the extremity of the swinging arm (Fig. 5) ; the other has small knobs left on its ends to prevent the leather collar slipping off", and this works freely on the handle (Fig. 4). Either of these arrangements may be thrown out of gear by taking hold of the knob and drawing the thin end of the handle out of the collar. A slice of bullock's horn, shaped as Fig. 1, after softening it iu hot water, makes an excellent collar. FLAIL SWIVELS. Gam}) Life, Travel, and Exploration. 363 Every travellei' ought to carry with him the means of measuring feet and inches, and as instruments for that purpose are so cheap and portable there is hardly any excuse for being without ExteniTjorary something of the kind. We have a httle waistcoat- measurements, pocket ivory rule, folding into lengths of 3in., and occupying no more room than a small penknife, and with this, even if an elephant were killed, we could mark off 5ft. or more upon a stem of grass, and use it as a measuring rod, with the little rule ready for the fractional parts. We had at one time half-a-dozen rules (sold at a penny each), 3ft. in length, and folding on pivot joints into lengths of 6in., and they were quite correct enough for common carpentry. Tape lines for 6ft. or 12ft. may be had in cases not larger than a Geneva watch. Chester- man^s patent, shutting with a spring, is a good form. And even if a traveller should (as he may often be obliged to do) disburden himself of every incumbrance, he ought to have inches marked upon something he is sure to carry with him, say upon the ramrod of his gun, or perhaps on the rib of the gun itself; but let this be done neatly by a skilled workman before leaving home, for we should esteem the com- panion of the chase too highly to let it be recklessly disfigured. The inside of the waist-belt may be marked also in inches. It is at all times well to know the length of the different joints of the limbs. Suppose the nail-joint of the forefinger be lin., the next joint will be Ijin., the next 2in., and from the knuckle to the wrist 4in. ; in this case the finger is bent, so that each joint may be measured separately, though when held straight the distance from the tip of the forefinger to the wrist would be only 7in. The span with thumb and forefinger would be 8in., and with the thumb and any of the other three 9iu., or equal to the length of the foot ; from the wrist to the elbow would be lOin., and from elbow to forefinger 17in., and from collar-bone to forefinger 2ft. 8in., height to the middle of the kneecap 18in. From the elbow to the forefinger is usually called a cubit, but it is seldom strictly so, a cubit being ISin. In like manner the full stretch of the extended arms is called a fathom, but it is generally somewhat less, a fathom being 6ft. ; and in paying Africans with calico, we found it best to let every man measure off his own fathom, even though he protruded his chest aud threw back his arms to the utmost, he generally took a trifle less, 36i Shifts and Expedients of and was much better pleased tliau if we had measured it strictly with a rule. If a man stands with his back to a flat wall, and extends his arms, his fathom will be nearly equal to his own height ; but if he tries to measure the girth of a tree by placing his breast against it, and as it were embracing it, he will find his fathom many inches short, and on an average perhaps not more than 5ft. The Dutch farmers at the Cape clench both fists, making the extended thumbs meet, and they call the whole 1ft., when it is sometimes nearer 15in. ; and an elephant measured in this manner would be reported unduly small were it not that they also measure from the edge of the foot round the curv,e of the shoulder to the wither - instead of taking a straight line, so that one error nearly balances the other. This is a very useful measure, ^ ^ but every man should grasp a foot rule, as in our sketch, and ascertain for himself how much his thumbs overlap in doing so. The step is commonly supposed to be 3ft., and the pace 5ft., but this is a most uncertain mode of mea- surement; a man may step 3ft., measuring from the heel of one foot to the toe of the other, but even if he does so two steps must be less than 6ft. by the length of his own foot, and very few men can take with any correctness a hundred consecutive steps or paces. Besides which so many travellers confound the terms step and pace that it is impossible to tell which they mean; it is much better, therefore, to use the word yards and to measure them by a military pace stick ; this may be two light sticks like a walking-cane sawed down the middle and riveted at the head like a pair of compasses; then if, at 1ft. from the joint, a stick of 1ft. in length be fastened across the opened legs they will form an equilateral triangle, and the points will be 3ft. apart ; with these, used like a pair of compasses, a man may measure oS" 100yds. almost as fast as he could walk it, and would be certain of his distance. A forked branch cut on the spot and trimmed, so that the ends are 3ft. apart, answers the same purpose. FIST MEASURE AND PACING STICK. Camjy Life, Travel, and Exploration. 365 For measuring a base for rough triangulation, a fishing line of lOOft. is easily carried; three measurements will give 100yds., and six will give as mauy fathoms. 120 fathoms is a cable's length, a common and useful unit in maritime surveying. To measure successive lengths let your line have a little stray end beyond the marks, and as the hanks are usually sold in lengths of 120ft., an over- hand knot may be turned, 10ft. from each end, to mark the 100ft. Stick a perfectly smooth peg in the ground, without projecting head or catch of any kind, make a loop in the end of your line, and put it over the peg, carry out the lOOffc. and put in another peg, then jerk the line upward, and you will cause a wave to run along it which will lift it off the end of the first peg (Fig. 1) ; but, as a permanent loop might catch thorns or pro- jecting branches, it is well to make it with a hitch (Fig. 2), so that it may shake out as it comes ojff the peg, and leave -^ only a free end to be hauled in. Several hitches, or a sheep- shank (Fig. 3), might be used for this purpose, but probably none would answer better than the signal halyard hitch (Fig. 4), and with this the end may be made fast to any convenient tree or bush that stands fairly in the line you wish to measure. Pass the end twice round the branch or peg, then taking the end and a small bight of the measuring part, hitch them as if you were going to tie a reef knot, pull the first hitch tight, but do not complete the knot by making the second hitch; this will hold quite fast enough, and a slight jerk will be sufficient to set it free when you wish to haul in the end. Hitch it to another branch, and so in succession you may measure any number of lengths you wish, taking care always to keep the several pegs or points of fastening in a straight line. A measuring line should merely be straight upon the ground, and never be subjected to any tension, still less should it be lifted HITCHES ON MEASURING LINK. 3GG Shifts and Expedients of up and then stretched to a straight hno in the air; slopsellers know this when they ask sailors to hokl up a length of serge while it is being measured^ but any experienced hand meets this by insisting that his cloth be laid fairly on the deck and measured there. The first stop in diminishing the labour of dragging a heavy body along the ground is to put rollers underneath it^ and the use of these To make or build ^^ exemplified in the earliest Assyrian monuments ; wheels. j^^^ these are left behind as the mass moves onward, and have to be constantly carried forward and replaced beneath. The next step is to connect them with the mass, or with the carriage supporting it, by axles, forming either integral parts of the rollers and turning with them, or by fixed axles, on which the rollers or wheels revolve. It is probable that many of the ancient vehicles were sup- ported on axles revolving with the wheels; but we now only retain this form in that of the wheelbarrow, and the simplest way of making this, where timber is cheap and plentiful, is to cut a log of sufiicient length, then to saw or chop down the ends so as to leave a disc of sufficient size and thickness in the centre, with two arms projecting from it to form its axle, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The barrow itself may upon occasion be made of a forked tree, of which the single part is thick enough to have a space cut in it to receive the wheel, while the two branches serve as the handles, and minor ones from them perhaps answer the purpose of legs ; otherwise a rough frame, as shown in our sketch, may be built, and pegged or treenailed together. viL '^^^ // ^/Jf^^^'^ ^^^ Mexico, Chili, Tartary and elsewhere, rough discs of timber (Fig. 1) are sawed or chopped ofi" from large trees. A hole is made in the centre to receive the axle. These wheels answer well enough for countries where time is of no value, mercy to draught oxen unthought of, and where the inhabitants would rather hear a dry wheel grate on its axletree than take the trouble to grease it. "Evil spirits dread a creaking wheel," say they, and so the primitive contrivance is allowed to revolve noisily. A wheel of this kind might be made much more efficient by leaving a nave or boss in the centre, sheathed with hard SOLID LOG WHEELS. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 367 wood or raw hide, and by binding it with the latter material let into a groove cut round the circumference in place of a tire ; an endless band cut out of the hide of a rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephant, or giraffe, put on wet, and allowed to shrink and dry before it was much used, would be almost everlasting. A very neat and serviceable barrow wheel may be thus built : Take a piece of deal 4in. wide. Sin, thick, and 14in. long ; set a pair of compasses to a radius of Sin. ; and, fixing the centre leg 4in. from the block, describe on it the segment of a circle ; draw this on both sides, and cut the block truly to the outline; then saw it down into six thicknesses of somewhat less than |in. ; lay three of these together, so that their chords form an equilateral triangle, each angle being 60°, and their seg- ments will complete the circum- ference of a true circle. Then take the other three, and lay them on so that the centre of each shall cover the ends wheel boilt in segments. of each pair of the lower series ; then bore holes and screw or nail them together (inch copper boat nails, with rooves for clenching them, are the best for this purpose), and you will have a wheel fin. thick, and 16in, diameter. Take a lin. bar of wood Sin. broad, half check it into the opposite triangles where there is but one thickness of wood, strengthen it by bars from the other angles, bore a hole in the centre, and insert an axle of hard wood or iron. If you have a piece of iron hoop, reduce it, and rivet the ends together, so that it forms a tire that will just not go on -, punch half a dozen holes in at intervals, heat it, put it on quickly, hammer it into place, and cool it with water ; then put nails or screws through the holes, to keep it from working off, or tire it as before with an endless band of raw hide ; or bore holes through it lin. or 2in. apart all round, at about lin. from the edge, and lace thongs of raw hide through these and round the edge, so as to preserve it from spHtting, or being worn by contact with the ground. 368 Shifts and Expedients of To build a waggon wheel, clear a smooth place upon a floor, levelled with ant-hill clay, or preferably smooth planked. Take a ^in. straight-edged batten of rather more than 5ft. in lengthy and oin. or 4in. in width ; clench or screw a cross piece on this, so as to form a boss in the centre, as in the figure on next page j and through this, at the edge of the batten, bore a hole with a bradawl, which being also bored into the floor forms a pivot for it to work on. At lin. from the centre, bore a hole, through which a pencil or a pointed scoring iron can be passed, to draw the first circle for the bore of the nave. At 4^in. bore another, to mark the circumference of the nave. If a front wheel is required, bore two holes at 15in. and 18in. for the inner and outer circum- ference of the felloes, or make them at 2ft. 2^in. and 2ft. Gin. for a hind wheel. Having drawn these circles, decide upon the number of spokes you intend to use, which will most likely be eight or ten for a fore wheel and twelve or fourteen for a hinder, such as is shown in our example (Fig. 1). Divide 360, the number of degrees in a circle, by the number of spokes, thus — 360° divided by 8 is 45° ; in like manner, 10 spokes would form angles of 36°, 12 of 30°, and 16 of 22^°. To obtain these angles, strike a circle on a good-sized sheet of writing or cartridge paper ; fold it across the centre, exactly in half, open it and fold it in half the other way, taking care that the two parts of the previous fold perfectly coincide with each other; you will thus have angles of 90°, which may be called north, south, east, and west. Fold it again between every two of these, and you will obtain angles of 45° ; these again divided will give angles of 22^°; and the next subdivision would THE CONSTRUCTION OF A WAGOON WHEEL. give the thirty-two points of the compass, equal to llj° each. To obtain angles of 10°, divide each angle of 90° into three parts, and subdivide each of them into three. The strong lines in our next figure indicate angles of 22 i° for a sixteen-spoke wheel, and the faint lines Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 369 angles of 10°. Our diagram of the wheel was drawn with a bit of card cut to the exact size shown in our figure, pivoted on one pin, while the point of an h h pencil was passed through other pin- holes to draw the circumference. If two of these lines should come very close together, it will be seen that the pin-holes are not pierced in the same radial line, or they would break one into the other ; but by placing them a little on either side concentric circles can be drawn as closely as requisite. Now, cut a piece of thin board or stiff paper to the angle at which the spokes are to be set — in this instance 22|° — and with the aid of your straight-edge draw a line across, through the centre, to both sides of the circumference of your wheel ; draw another across this at right angles, and test the lines by trying whether each quarter will contain four times the mould you have cut to the angle of 22^° ; then draw two other lines of 45°, and subdivide each space into the required angles of 22^'^. Suppose your spokes are to be lin. thick, withdraw the bradawl that has served you as a pivot, and bore two holes, each ^in. from the central line, and, pivoting the batten on each of these in succession, you will be able to draw the lines showing the thickness of your spokes, a, the original line still indicating the direction of their centre. Then divide the circumference of your felloe into eight segments of 45°, and draw short lines across it as at d (p. 368), to indicate the length of the felloe pieces, each of which must contain one pair of spokes, while its ends come fairly in the centre of the space between two others. Take a thin piece of board and cut a mould for the felloe pieces, marking on it the lines for the dowel holes, d, and those for the insertion of the spokes, c. Then in like manner cut a board with a circumference of 9in. as a mould for the nave, and on it draw the lines which mark the mortices for the insertion of the spokes, b. The nave should be turned of some good solid even-grained wood, not too hard ; elm is well calculated for the purpose. It is generally 9in. or lOiu. long, and it should have a hole lin. in diameter through its centre. A narrow pit, 3ft. in depth, is dug, and two stout beams, 9in. apart, B B 370 SJiifts and Expodients of laid along its odgcs ; a lin. rod of iron is passed througli the liolc in the nave^ wliicli, with its iron bands already driven on, is placed between tlio beams, supported by tbe ends of the rod which rest upon them (stout trestles, oft. high, are sometimes used instead of the pit) . In one of the beams at the back of the nave is a stout upright, with a line marked upon it as a guide in boring the holes truly. To turn a nave to the proper form without the assistance of a turning lathe, the following makeshift contrivance will be found useful and efficient. Fit up four strong planks, or a Naves, to turn. -, ^ f ^ • i strong stool, of form shown m the accompanying illustration. Cut out two upright checks, which must be fitted by mortices to the upper surface of the stool. Then make a T rest, IV'I ^ and fit it in the centre of the stool, in one of a train of square holes cut behind the line of the cheeks. The block of wood intended to form the nave must have an ordinary auger hole bored through its true centre, and in this must be firmly wedged an iron bar, with a crank or handle bent at one end ; this bar rests on bearings prepared for it in the cheeks, one bearing is formed by boring a hole just large enough to let the plain end of the bar through, and the other by sawing out a deep notch for the handle end to drop into, when it is prevented from becoming displaced by a pin passed in above it. Tho man about to officiate as turner sits astride on the stool, presses a long- handled gouge or chisel by tho action of his shoulder firmly down on the rest, with its cutting edge against the nave log, which is turned 1 Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 371 steadily round by an assistant wlio lias charge of the handle ; the whole operation being conducted much on the principle of tool grind- ing, only that the motion of the log is always towards the man who manages the chisel. The rest is advanced as the log decreases in diameter. If the wheel is to have what is called a dish^ cut a small piece of wood (Fig. 3, p. 368) to the angle at which the spokes are to project forward; and, having marked off all the mortices, which will be Jin. wide by l^in. long, take a brace and fin. bit, or a fin. screw auger, and bore two holes in the space marked for each mortice, as in Fig. 2, taking care to centre most accurately the spot at which the point of your bit or auger is inserted, and to keep its true direction by the aid of the upright line and the small angled board. The mortices will then be finished with a fin. mortice chisel and mallet. The holes in the felloe (Fig. 4) will be bored at the same angle with a lin. auger ; for, as the spoke will be l^in. from back to front, there will be shoulder enough in those directions without weakening it by cutting a shoulder on the sides. Of course, the shoulders, both at the felloe and at the nave, will be cut to the same angle at which the holes are bored. The tenon should bo less than 3in. in length, so that it may allow of the subsequent boring of a 3in. hole in the nave to receive the bush or iron sheathing in which the axle turns ; and in like manner the ends inserted in the felloes should be less than 3in. long, so that they may not receive any pressure from the tire. Fig. 5 shows the centreing of the felloe ends to bore the dowel holes. Now, resting the nave on its iron rod upon the beams of the pit or trestles, drive in the first spoke, testing it by the upright line and by your angled board. Then, boring a hole in your upright, drive in a peg and cut it off at such a length that the first spoke may just touch it in passing. Drive in all the other spokes so that they also touch the end of the peg, and then in the end of each spoke make a cut lin. deep, with a fine tenon saw, to receive a wedge of hard wood when the wheel is built. Then in one end of each felloe drive a dowel (d) rather stiffly, but so that it does not bottom in the hole ; leave half its length projecting. Take a screw clamp and compress two of the spokes together till their ends will enter the holes in one felloe piece ; drive it about | in. on, and slack B B 2 372 Shifts and Expedients of off the clamp. If you have not a clamp, pass three or four turns of rope or thong round the two spokes, and twist them tightly with a hammer handle or other lover. Do the same with the next pair, and fit on the next felloe piece, taking care that it receives fairly the dowel of the first. Proceed in this manner all round, then look carefully to the fair insertion of all the spoke ends and dowels, and, being satisfied of this, keep the wheel turning slowly, and strike the felloe pieces homeward by smart blows of a mallet as each spoke passes you. When they are all fairly home, drive in the wedges to the spoke ends, trim ofi" the felloe as neatly as you wish, insert the bush in the nave, and have the wheel tired in the manner described at pp. 195, 196. A ship's wheel differs from that of a waggon in being, not a roller moving freely on its axle and supporting the carriage and its load, but To make a rather a series of levers arranged as spokes, connected steering wheel. ^^^ supported by the felloe for the purpose of turning the axle and gathering in or slacking off on either side the ropes or chains by which the tiller is moved; the spokes, therefore, project Gin. or Sin. beyond the circum- ference of the felloe, and are smoothed and rounded off so as to be easily and conveniently grasped by the steersman's hand. The diameter of the felloe should not be less than 30in., or it will not give sufiicient leverage ; nor more than 4ft., or a man cannot command it easily. Neither the nave nor the felloe are made solid, but are built up in the following manner : The lines of circumference are traced, and the angles of the spokes set off in the manner already described. A disc of hard wood 9in. in circumference, about 2in. thick, and with a hole Sin. square in its centre, is laid upon the floor. The spokes are arranged on this, and sci'ewed or clenched firmly to it; the interstices are then filled up, and another disc of similar size is screwed or clenched over all to form the front. The bush, or axle Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 373 box, wliich of course is square, is fitted iu, and an ornamental boss, gene- rally covered witb brass, is screwed over to conceal it. The felloe pieces are Sin. or 4in. broad, and lin. thick : the back pieces are laid so that their centres come upon the spokes and their ends between ; the next set, exactly as thick as the spokes, are laid in the intervals ; and the front pieces are laid so that their ends meet upon the spokes, where they are generally confined by an ornamental lozenge, a cross, or an oval of brass, screwed down upon them. The axle is supported in a true fore and aft line by a couple of stancheons, with bushes for it to work in ; and on some part of it, behind the wheel, is fixed the drum, over which the tiller chains or hide ropes are passed with two or three turns, so that as one is gathered in by a turn of the wheel, the other may be slacked off. A windlass may be of any size, from that of the old cross- bow, to one fitted to weigh the anchor of a vessel, although in large ships the capstan is thought to afford the best and T , r. n • T • . « Windlass, steadiest means of applying the continuous exertions of the men. A windlass may be roughly formed by setting up a couple of forked logs, or still better, if possible, choosing two forked trees firmly rooted in the proper place, and laying across them another log, thinned off as much as possible where it rests in the forks, to reduce the friction without too much impairing the strength. The central part ought to have paul notches cut in it, and a heavy paul log may be hinged or pivoted to a stout staple, nearly level with the ground, so that its end, acting as a "paul," catches the paul notches and prevents the windlass giving way to the strain of the cable while the men are shifting their handspikes. The barrel of the windlass ought to be chopped or adzed down to an octa- gonal form (expressively though erroneously called 8-square), and holes should be morticed right through in each face so that each man, without change of position, should have eight opportunities of inserting hisj handspike. A Spanish windlass may be extemporised with the boat's oars. Two of them are lashed together as sheers with legs of unequal length, the longer leg being in the direction of the strain. A paii* are set up in each side of the boat and lashed to the thwarts, care being taken to put some piece of wood or other dunnage under the ends, so that they may not hurt the planking. Another oar is now laid across. 374 Shifts and Expedieyits of with its loom resting in tiie forks ; a grummet strop or a short piece of rope is made fast to the middle of each of the boat's stretchers ; if the end is frayed out, so much the better. The end is applied to the loom of the oar that represents the windlass, and the stretcher is turned WINDLASS, round and round it until the rope tightens so much as to make it an efficient handspike. It should then be '' stopped " in position with a bit of yarn. If there is a davit in the boat, the buoy rope is carried over the sheave, three or four turns are passed over the "windlass oar" and the end is carried forward and held by one of the boat's crew, who gathers in all he can and loses none as the men heave round. When the boat's stern is hove down as low in the water as is prudent, all the men go in the bow, and sometimes jump there, to jerk the anchor from the ground. The gunner's capstan is made by sinking one end of a waggon or gun axle in the ground, placing a wheel on it upside down, and lashing handspikes to the spokes to act as capstan bars. The rope to be hove on is passed round the nave of the wheel below the line of the spokes, as shown in the annexed illustration, T£>flwrrt CllNNEU'S CAPSTAN. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 375 In many countries where navigation is not very far advanced, wooden anchors are commonly used. We have seen and sketched these on the coast of Java, and elsewhere. In tropical Anchors, countries the hard heavy wood that sinks of its own weight is peculiarly suited for this, A forked tree of suitable size is chosen, and sometimes, but not always, the fork or fluke of the anchor is strengthened by a cross lashing to the shank. A heavy stone, as long as possible in proportion to its thickness, is lashed across underneath the shank, serving the purpose of a stock. A loop for the attachment of the cable is made above it, so that the anchor, when cleared for letting go, may hang in the position shown in Fig. 1, and may take the ground fluke downward. A many-forked tree of heavy wood, with stones lashed on (Fig. 2) for additional weight, is more certain to hold, but does not stow so snugly when not in use. This, in a lighter form, may be used as a creeper for dragging over the bottom to recover a lost cable, &c. Canoes, in shallow, sluggish waters, are often moored by one or more of their poles stuck into the mud. A stone lashed to one of these and a guy carried aft, as in Fig. 3, will give addi- tional security; or a couple of poles may be put over the sides and crossed under the bottom, the lower ends being guyed in the same manner, but this would be dangerous in a strong tide- way. If the boat is dropping down with the tide, a pole over the stern, about a foot longer than her draught of water, will take the gi'ound and either pre- vent her running ashore or at least give warning before she does so. Where heavy wood cannot be obtained, a couple of holes may be bored in a slab of sandstone (Fig. 4), the ends of a forked branch thrust through and forelocked, another stone being jammed into the fork at right angles with the first. We have often seen anchors of this description in use among Indians. MAKESHIFT ASCHOnS. 376 Shifts and Exijedients of A pump, or nave auger, may be advantageously worked with what are called " slinger sticks.-" Set the log upright, either in a hole Workino- in ^^ ^^® ground by shoring it, or by a combination of timber. both methods. Above it rig a stage, on the forks of trees, with a firm socket for the stock or shaft of your auger to work Bomfa w^u f?!f!!firM^f^ fashion, only two boys walk slowly round with a kind of capstan bar, the drill being weighted with a basket of stones. We have seen Africans, in Portuguese service, working a common handsaw very efficiently by fixing a cross handle to the end of the Saws and blade ; then two men would sit opposite each other, and drills. holding the log between the soles of their feet, as shown in the full page illustration, would work the saw between them. For rough work this serves well enough. In such case let them have a saw with teeth widely set, and pretty much their own way ; but if you want anything well done do it yourself. Saws for natives need not have much temper, and the teeth should be set very wide, so as to do a great deal of what carpenters call " sawing wood." The Germans are very 'fond of using frame saws, Hke that shown in the same illustration — a long, narrow strip of soft steel, stretched tightly in a heavy rectangular frame of wood. Such a saw could be extemporised with a few feet of iron hooping, with teeth filed on it. It would do for soft wood, but on hard wood would wear out quickly ; nevertheless, it might last long enough to do the required work. We had three small web-saws, assorted sizes ; they are very Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploratic 377 handy to carry, frames (like tliat in our full page illustration — " Boat building at Logier Hill ") are easily made when wanted, and they should not be neglected if weight or bulk in carriage is objectionable. Stock and bow drills may be easily made, as in Fig. 1. The arm of a tree will afford a socket above, and the wood or iron to be bored must be firmly fixed below ; a good sized disc of heavy wood, the sheave say of an old block, or a piece sawed off a hard tree, acts as a fly wheel. For smaller work a cotton reel (Fig. 2) does well for the bow strings to work on ; in this case the stock ought to be of iron, purchased at home. The Bowditch islanders lash their drill on alongside the stock (Fig. 3), but we can hardly sanction this plan, though it might exceptionally prove useful. If weight and not rapid motion is desired, make the di-ill stock of a heavy log (Fig. 4), with the pivot going up through the upper socket, and fit a crank on it. We have had at times not actually to make casks ah initio, but what comes to very nearly the same thing, to pick out the materials of old ones "shaken out," when we abandoned a camp, . Coopers' work, to tie them m bundles, and carry them as best we could till they were again required. Sometimes it is impossible to gather all the individual parts of one cask, and heads and staves must be taken as they come. In this case, pick out two heads of the same size, or pieces which will make two. Measure their dia- meter, and as the circumference is, for practical purposes, three times as much, measure across the ends of the staves on the inside of the chine groove, until their united widths fully equal three times the diameter. If you have another cask a httle larger, set up the staves inside it ; or if you have one somewhat smaller, arrange them outside, and put on temporarily a larger hoop, or lash them with a turn or two of rope. Then take the hoops which you have selected for the cask, 878 Shifts and Expedients of and get the larger ones over the end, drive them down tolerably tight, nearly to the centre. Then, taking one of the heads, bore a couple of gimlets into it to hold it by, or screw on it a clamp, across tho grain, 80 as to hold all its pieces fair and level. Let this down edgewise into the belly of the cask, then, di'awing it up, enter one edge of it into the chine groove, and, slacking the hoops if necessary, lift it till it fits in all round. If you find any difficulty in this, take a knife blade, or thin piece of hoop iron, pass it through one of the interstices of the staves under the head, and lift it till it enters the groove. If this is done at the four quarters, it will be impossible for the head to fall down inside. Drive the lower hoops down, and when the staves begin to close up, take out the knife or hoop iron and tighten the hoops with the hammer and driver. Then turn up the cask, and if you wish to close it at once, do the same with the other end, if not, drive the hoops on leav- ing it open, and slack them up when you want to put the head in. Put knives or thin iron between the staves, as before, to keep the head from slipping down, and withdraw them before you tighten up. If you have not another cask to set up the staves in or upon, take one of the hoops and support it as a horizontal ring by tying it to small trees or posts, or sot up the head itself on a pole, breast high, for the staves to lean against, or dig a circular trench a few inches deep in the ground to set the staves in. Remember that if iron hoops are worn or rusted or bent much, and have to be straightened out, they are very easily broken or burst by driving too tightly. Of course they can be mended by punching holes and riveting a piece in ; but they require good punches and a matrix, for which a piece of hardened wood may be substituted, and some skill and patience. Always heat both tho iron and rivets, and do not punch holes or clench rivets cold. Wooden hoops are generally withies or saplings, split down Ca/nip Life, Travel, and Exjploration. 879 tlie middle, and left with one flat side and one round. The ends are thinned a little, and notches cut on the upper edge of one and the lower of the other. These are made to catch each other, either with a short overlap, as in Fig. 1, in which case the two parts lie parallel with each other, or with a long joint (Fig. 2), in which each takes a half turn round the other, between the notches. The joint is then served either with slips of osier or split rattan, or other substitute for cord. If it is necessary to make a cask, the pieces forming the discs used for the heads should be dowelled together, with a bit of pith of reed, or other caulking material between them, and the circum- ference must be thinned off to an obtuse edge. The staves, to look neat, ought to bo nicely rounded as segments of a circle, and the ends should be narrower than the centre if belly is to be given to the cask; but if it is not essential that the cask should be perfectly round, the staves may be of flat plank. It is, how- ever, indispensable that their edges should be cut to the proper angle, or they will not fit closely nor support each other when hooped up ; the diagram we give will facilitate this. If there are to be 20 staves in a cask their edges must be cut at an angle of 18°, thus 360 divided by 20 is 18, and the angle of any other number may be found by dividing 360 by the number of staves. The chine groove may be cut with a saw, and it is better that the staves should be always a little narrower at the ends than in the middle, so that the hoops may tighten in being driven on. To becket a cask, slacken off" one or more of the hoops, take a strip of raw hide, slip one end under, twist the middle a little, then turn it, slip the other end under, nick them that they may not Water casks, draw out, and tighten up the hoop. A kind-hearted *« embark. American, captain of the " Mechanic," of Boston, who filled our water casks when we were on scant allowance, oS" the coast of Australia, taught us this expedient. In towing a number of casks from shore to the vessel becket them in this manner at both ends, and on two sides ; then put them end to end, and pass a rope on each side through aU the beckets. If there are two boats let one tow ahead of the other, so as to leave but one wake ; let the bung-hole bo downward, for if the cask leak, the salt water being heaviest, will not run up into the fresh, nor will the fresh run 380 Shifts and Expedients of Bent wood. down into tlie salt ; whereas, if tlie bung is up, the fresh water may splash out and the water of the sea run in and spoil tho remaining contents. Hoops may bo made by taking thin strips of any flexible wood, three or four times as long as the circumference of the required hoop, coiling them as it were, and then binding or clenching them together. These are very strong and flexible (Fig. 3). Jib stay hanks (Figs. 1 and 2) are made of any tough wood, in bars 14in, or 16in long, lin. wide, and a little more than |in. thick at one edge, and somewhat less at the y /g" ^s..^ ' ~'- -y other. These are notched about 2 in. from the ends, so that when they are bent the ends may cross each other and afibrd a hold for the lashing that attaches them to the leach of the sail. They are not fas- tened as the sailor opens them to put them on the stay, and the lash- ing to the leach rope fastens them sufiiciently. Hanks may be made of the fork of a branch (Figs. 4, 6 and 7), and if a double hank is required, a branch mth two forks (Fig. 5) will serve the purpose. In South America stirrujDS are very neatly made by taking a bar of tough wood (Fig. 1), 1ft. or 14in. long, notching it so as to leave in the centre a piece of the full thick- ness 4in. long, and leaving the ends of the full thickness, thinning down from them to the notch on each side till tho wood can be safely turned up so that the ends meet and form the bow of tho stirrup (Fig. 2). The ends are cut to the proper bevel, and fastened by a thong in a hole bored through them. A couple of hori- zontal bars, 2in. long, fastened above, form a slip for the stirrup leather to pass through. This is a very neat arrangement, but Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 381 ■ts only fault is its extreme lightness, as, when the horse is in rapid motion, the foot cannot readily find the stirrup if it should be lost for a moment. In this respect, the block of wood, some- times richly carved and ornamented, used by the Chilians (Fig. 3), s, notwithstanding its clumsy appearance, far superior. Three bars, 50 lashed as to form an equilateral triangle of at least 5in. inner neasurement, will make a good stirrup. The fork of a branch, with I cross piece lashed on it, or suspended so that one of its arms brms the tread or bottom piece, a thong of hide making the other lide of the triangle, will answer if sufficiently heavy. The hide of ;he hippopotamus, rhinoceros, or girafie, when sufficiently dried, may )e cut into stirrups, and left to harden. Sometimes the block which brms the stirrup is cut with a projecting spike to form a spur; but he Mexican wooden spurs, consisting of two sticks a little thicker han a pencil, 4in. long, armed with small iron points, and pro- dded with straps as in Fig. 4, are about the neatest and most easily ixtemporised form we know. Among the native tribes of South Africa, where iron, owing to the imall scale on which they smelt it, is very scarce and valuable, con- liderable ingenuity is shown in the mounting of Makeshift m axe blade. This is generally a triangular piece ^^^^ ^^ adzes. >f iron, with one of its sides thinned down and ground to a 'oundcd edge, and the other two tapered to a spike. It is well mown that weight is an essential quality in all chopping instru- nents, and the deficiency of iron has therefore to be made up with vood. A stout branch, with another projecting from it at an angle )f from 70° to 80°, is so cut as to leave a block of the larger limb ittached like a mallet head to the smaller one, as in the uppermost igure of our illustration (p. 382). The spike of the axe head is made 'ed hot, a hole is bored through the knob in the direction of the frain, and the axe is ready for use, and has besides the advantage of )eing convertible into an adze by simply taking out the iron and nserting it again athwart the hole instead of keeping it parallel with he handle ; the two lower figures will give a sufficiently good idea )f this. We have seen these tools very efficiently wielded by honey mnters and by native woodsmen and carpenters, who, when tired of 382 Shifts and Expedients of work, convert tlio axo liandio into a pipe by taking out tlie iron, partially stopping tlie middlo of tlie liole with a few green leaves, putting the tobacco into one end, and applying tbeir broad lips to tbe other. The other two figures repre- sent the manner in which a broad chisel may be converted into a serviceable axe or adze, by smoothing off and chan- nelling the front of the knob, and firmly lashing the chisel to it with raw hide either fore and aft or athwartships as re- quired. A plane iron (p. 140) is often made to answer the same purpose. The hoes used by the women in Africa are made in nearly the same manner as the axes, but larger ; sometimes they are flat, thin, and oval ; sometimes chisel or adze shaped; and sometimes a gouge like form is given to the blade, but in all cases a spike is left at the top for insertion into the heavy knob of the handle. At times this knob is cut where two branches project from it, so as to form a double-handled hoe, an example of which is shown in our engraving of a Bechuana hut on p. 281. It may not bo amiss here to give an example of the manner of making a piece of wattled work for a door, a window shutter, a table. Hurdle or ^ bedstead, or any other purpose. As many stakes as ■wattle work. ^^^.^ j.equ{pe(j r^YQ planted firmly in the ground, either in a trench or, which is better, in holes separately made with a "grauwing" stick for the purpose. Rattans, osiers, twigs, reeds, or grass, are then wattlod in in the manner shown in the sketch, their ends being ^. OOML^ MAKESHIFT AXES OB ADZES. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploraiion. WATTLED WORK. either cut off, if tliey are not flexible enougli to bond well, or returned round the outermost stake, and wattled in again if tbey are. In doing tliis, care must be taken not to draw the outermost stakes un- duly together ; and to prevent this it is a good plan to cut a strong stick, with a fork at one end and a notch like gaff jaws in the other, and set it between the stakes to keep them apart, re- moving it when it is necessary to put fresh wattles over the top, and replacing it when they are to be forced down. Baskets, crates, or gabions of any size, may be made by settiug up squares or circles of stakes, and removing them when wattled; or houses may be built by fixing them more permanently and using them as the walls. We have often admired the simplicity of the equipment of a Javanese ship carpenter ; the ponderous maul or heavy axe and adze of our workman is unknown to him ; all his tools, axe, adze, maul, hammer, and augers, are made so as to fit successively on one handle about 2ft. in length (see p. 44), and are carried in a canvas haversack slung upon his shoulder. We have seen, perhaps, a hundred Javanese workmen squatting about the decks and sides of our little schooner busy as bees, and tapping away like so many woodpeckers, where one-fourth the number of English carpenters could not have worked without injuring each other. The attention of the traveller is too seldom dii'ected to blocks and tackle. These useful and unpretending economisers of labour are thought to belong to a ship, and therefore to be out of Blocks place on an inland journey. Nevertheless, we have found °'' pulleys, that the possession of eight or ten blocks of different sizes, and two or tlu-ee coils of rope to suit them, has often done us most essential service ; and as a traveller may unexpectedly find them necessary, where perhaps nothing but rope of hide or native vegetable fibre can be obtaiuedj we 384 Shifts and Expedients of WELCH.S. yW2. SINGLE AND COMPOUND BLOCKS. draw lines across at lin. from each end subjoin directions for making tlie simplest forms, wliich we believe will meet most of tbo probable requirements : To make a single block, take a piece of good sound wood of medium density, and of a kind tliat will not easily split. Elm is mucb used at home : oak will do very well ; so will also tlie stinkwood of Africa, and others of like quality in other countries. Let it be, for instance, 7in. long, 4in. wide, and oin. thick ; suppose it is to carry a rope of lin. in diameter, properly called a Sin. rope, all ropes being measured by their circumference. Gauge along each of the narrow sides two, parallel lines lin. apart and lin. from each edge, and then, taking a brace and an inch centre-bit, insert the centre so that its cutter shall just come within the cross-line at either end ; bore the holes half through, and between them bore two other holes with the same bit, thus taking out nearly all the wood between the lines : reverse the block, and bore in like manner from the other side; take a chisel and mallet and clean away all the intermediate parts, and you will have a sheave hole 5in. long and lin. wide. Clean it up with a file or rasp. Then, drawing a longitudinal line along the centre of each of the broader sides, mark it at Sin. from one end and 4in. from the other on each side, and, placing the centre of the bit on these marks, bore through each side for the pin-hole. Then for the sheave select a log of the hardest wood conveniently obtainable; lignum vitcc is generally used, but many kinds of acacia would answer very well. See that it is large enough to cut away all the sap wood, and leave a heart 4in. in diameter; trim this to a circular form, saw off a disc lin. thick, fix it in a lathe, and with a gouge or half round rasp or file sink a hollow all round the edge. If you have not a lathe, saw the disc not quite off, and, while it is still attached to the log, make the hollow on the edge and saw it off when Camq) Life, Travel, and Exj)! oration. 385 finished; bore an inch hole in the centre, place it in the shell, drive a pivot of hard wood right through, and you -will find thnt at one end of the block the sheave very nearly fills the hole, while at the other a vacancy of about an inch is left to reeve the rope through. Then, with a gouge or half round rasp, sink hollows in the outside of the shell along the centre line toward each end, and across the ends, to receive the strop; round off the corners and edges as neatly as you wish, and you will have a serviceable block like Fig. 1 (p. 384). Sometimes iron pivots are used, but these are a trifle smaller than the wooden ones ; fin. iron would do, but then an iron socket ought to be let into the sheave as in Fig. 2. Some sheaves have small iron rollers let into them to run round on the pivot, and so diminish the friction ; but a traveller need not work to such a nicety as this. The snatch-block has already been two or three times mentioned, and perhaps this is a good opportunity to show its form, which is given in Fig. 3. The shell is longer and stouter than that The snatch-block. of a common block, and m one side of it is cut the " natch " from which it takes its name ; it is iron bound, but part of the strop is fashioned into a hasp, which is opened when the bight of a rope is to be passed into the natch and shut down upon its staple and forelocked to keep the rope from coming out should the strain be suddenly released. Fig. 4 is a very useful kind of block for signalling ; it has ten or more sheaves side by side, and as many lines running over them ; in fact it ought to have as many sheaves as there are ^ "^ Si^cal block, flags. It is kept in the signal locker with the halyards always rove, and each flag bent on to its own liuc. "Wlien required for use one end of the peak down-haul is bent on to the cleat in the centre, as shown in the figure, and it is hoisted to the peak end ; the flags required are then sent up, care being taken to hoist each to such a height that they may read properly one under the other in the required order. These being done with are hauled down and others sent up, and much confusion and loss of time is saved by thus avoiding the necessity of bending on and unbending the several flags from one pair of halyards. c c 386 Skiffs and Expedients of Double block. We give also figures of two useful forms of double block. No. 5^ on wliicli tlio slieaves are side by side, is called a sister block. No. 6, in wliicli tbey are one above the other, is a fiddle block. Notice that in this fomi the lowermost sheave is the smallest, and thus the rope passing over it is not jammed by the one that passes over the upper. In the manufacture of a number of wooden articles, such as the sheaves of blocks, bowls, round balls, &c., the aid of a makeshift lathe will be required. There are several forms of lathe made use of in different countries. No. 1 in the annexed illustration is the best we know of for the use of the traveller or explorer. To make a contrivance of this kind Makeshift lathes. MAKESHIFT LATHES proceed as follows : Prepare three squared posts, bore an auger hole through the top of each at about 5in. from its head ; to these holes fit a spindle made of some hard tough wood, in such a way that it will just easily play round in the holes without shaking about ; cut a slice from a log about 7in. in diameter j trim it until it is quite round ; cut a tolerably deep groove round the edge, and bore a hole in the centre for the spindle to come through. Now, from a piece of pointed iron rod or bar make a pivot pin, as shown passing through the head of the post which stands alone ; fit this in the hole so tightly that the driving of a single wedge prevents it from sliding forward or back. All the posts must be firmly fixed in the ground at an even depth, and at the relative distances shown in the engraving. In the Camp Life, Travel, and E.i'ploration. 387 end of tlie spiudle opposite the pivot piu throe sharp iron spikes, made from nail points, must be driven ; these hold the work in its place when revolving. This it is made to do by the action of the spring overhead, which is usually made from a tough elastic pole or bamboo cane. The end of the spring is fitted with a long strip of hide or a rope, which, passing once round the grooved slice of log, is attached to the end of the treadle. This is made from a naturally- forked branch, with a bit of plank lashed fast to it for a foot board. The chisel rest is made by di'iving a post into the ground in front of the work, making a saw-cut in its head, and then driving a bit of tliin board or a piece of broad hoop iron into it, in the form of the letter T- The spindle is prevented from moving too far back by having pins driven through it before and behind the tail-post. The lathe represented at Yig. 2 is common throughout the East. It is by the use of this contrivance that we have seen the long and beautifully straight pipe tubes, for which Stamboul is so justly celebrated, made. We have also seen the turners of Poona, in India, making their wonderful nests of almost air-tight boxes by the aid of the bow-lathe (Fig. 2) . It is erected much on the principle of Fig. 1 ; but is usually placed so close to the ground that no one but an Asiatic could work conveniently at it. Few border stores will be found without a New- Grinding stones castle grinding stone, and very few expeditions of *° mouut. any magnitude omit including one or more in their list of useful matters. There are several modes had recourse to for setting up a grinding stone, but we visually adopt one of the plans shown in the accompanjnng illustra- tion. Fig. 1 represents a uatui-al fork set up in a slanting direc- tion, and then treenailcd against the trunk of a tree. To mount the stone, a straight bar of wood or iron, squared in the centre, must be wedged tightly in the square hole of the stone. If the axle is of wood, the two ends must cc 2 388 Shifta and Expedients of be rounded, in order that they may revolve freely in the notches cut for their reception in the support. A "svooden winch handle must then be fitted to one of them. If the axle is to be of iron, it should be first heated in the fire to a red heat ; the form of the handle bent in it by hammering; the centre squared, and roughened at the edges by the use of a cold chisel ; and the two bearing or revolving surfaces made round by the use of the hammer and file. Wooden pins or iron staples will serve to keep the axles from rising out of the notches and becoming displaced. A suspended bullock's horn, with a hole in the small end, through which a wisp of tow or moss is loosely pulled, makes a very good water drip, to prevent the tools from losing their temper when being ground. Some prefer putting a wooden trough, to contain water, under the stone. This is a mere matter of taste. r\(K-a/.'ni^ GERMAN OX HARKES3. best able to support it, i.e., the shoulder hump ; and this simple gear has the advantage of being applicable to one or any number, while the yokes can only be used for pairs of oxen. Kemember that the prudent as well as the merciful man is merciful to his beast ; and if you want an animal to work for you, take especial care that he is not galled nor incommoded by superfluous or ill-fitting gear, nor fretted and irritated by unnecessary chastisement, inflicted in such a manner that he cannot understand it. If it is necessary to flog him, take care to do it in such a manner that he can escape the punishment only by going to his work, and discontinue it as soon as he really does so. Little good could result from our describing the various modes by which bullocks are harnessed in difierent parts of the world, as the explorer will, in great measui-e, have to be guided in the selection of 456 Shifts and ExpeMents of the way in which he intends to work his teams by the description of animal with which he is about to deal. Humped cattle draw efficiently by either the German plan, before described, or the yoke and pin plan shown in the annexed illustration (a), because a much larger amount of pressure comes on the anterior point of the hump, or bear- ing point of the yoke piece, than in any other direction, the pin merely keeping the neck of the bullock in the proper position, and regulating the line of draught ; whilst humpless cattle require, in lieu of a collar, either a neck bow, as shown at b, or some other mode of adjust- ment, by which neck and shoulder power can be brought to bear. The Indian, African, and Eastern cattle work according to the former rule, whilst the English and Australian draw by the latter. The Australian ox bow, as we have before stated, is usually composed of iron, bent into the required form; whilst that in general use throughout the western counties of England is made from a pole of tough wood, commonly elm, moulded to the requisite shape by the aid of heat. The yoke should be made from some tough light timber, and the neck bows of some wood not liable to splinter. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 457 CHAPTER X. HARNESS AND PACK ANIMALS. Whether mules or horses are selected for waggon and cart draught too much attention cannot be paid to the arrangement and fitting of the harness they are intended to work in ; and, although the pattern will vary somewhat not only in every country, but in every province, the traveller passes through, the leading principles remain much the same, and whether the traces are of rope chain or leather, the office they perform remains unaltered. Collars, let the pattern be what it will, require especial care in fitting, as nothing tends more efiectually to disable a harness animal (mule or horse) than a collar carelessly or injudiciously applied. Every animal in the team should have its own, and on first selecting the collar for fitting so put it on that the collar strap can be buckled up to the last hole in the tongue strap. When you have done this there should be room enough at the bottom of the collar in front of the animaPs chest to pass the open hand when laid flat freely forward and back between the inside of the collar and the animaFs neck. When new collars are found to fit uneasily and chafe in particular places, it is a common expedient among mule teamsters to lay the ill-fitting collar in water, and allow it to soak for the night ; it is then taken out wet and fitted to the animal's neck, to which it at once adapts itself. Much trouble is often experienced on long and toilsome expeditions from loss of condition and leanness of the animals causing the saddles and collars to fit badly and, consequently, cause severe sores. Take, therefore, plenty of curled hair stuffing with you, in order that deficiencies in the padding may be from time to time made good. When a collar is too large to be adapted to a thin neck by stuffing, it will be well to cut a portion out of its centre at once, which can be done by first measuring the excess of space roughly, then take the collar oflf the animal ; lay it on a board or 458 Shifts and Expedients of tablo, aud cat out evenly as mucli as is thought requisite, and if on testing the collar it is found still too large, cut out a little more from each side of the incision until the collar takes its proper bearing, but take care that a proper medium is observed regarding the position of the lower end, or bow, of the collar. If it hangs too far down the movements of the muscles of the shoulder are interfered with. If it presses too far upwards the windpipe becomes unduly pressed on. Some persons use what is called ^^ crown pads " for the top, or ridge, of the neck, under where the narrow portion, or crown, of the collar rests. These are sometimes made from sheepskin with the wool on, but it will be better to get some moderately stout but smooth and soft leather. Cut this into pad pieces, each of which may be 13in. long and Sin. wide. Make a cut at each end of the pieces about 2^in. from the end of the pad, extending it to about an inch from the centre. Then turn your pad, and cut from the opposite side until only the inch of sound leather remains between the two cuts. Treat the other end of the pad in the same way, and it will be fit for use. A very tolerable makeshift collar and pair of hames may be made as follows : Collect a good quantity of reed, either wheat or marsh reed; cut off all the heads, or tops, leaving nothing but the clear shafts of the plant. Make these up in a bundle, and place them to soak in water for one night. Measure the horse's or mule's neck for size of intended collar with a piece of cord ; lay this on the ground in the form and of the size of the collar ; then close to the string, as it is placed on an even spot, drive in a double row of long pegs at about Gin, apart ; then proceed to lay in your reed between the two walls of pegs, so disposing the reeds, that too many ends do not appear at any one place ; continue to lay in reeds, working them round the ends of the oval and thumping them well down in their places, until sufficient substance has been gained for the fore part of the collar ; then, with fine twine, proceed to bind the reeds firmly together by lashing them spirally. Now make a second reed collar just as you did the first, only let it be larger and more bulky ; and, with a packing needle and twine, sew the two collars together, one on the other — that first made on the top. Now try the united collars on the animal, the large collar being next the shoulder. See that there is plenty of space below the wind- Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 459 pipe in front of the chest when it is made to fit at both top and bottom. Line the inside of the bearing or large collar with soft pliant leather laid over a layer of soft moss, fine cocoa fibre, fur of animals, or any- thing else you can get calculated for stuffing purposes. A piece of hide laid on and sewn wet will cover the outsides of both collars ; but whilst it is drying the hames should be fastened in the groove formed by stitching the two collars together. The hamos are made as follows : Get two well-seasoned pieces of tough strong wood ; cut them to the shape of the curve and length of the collar, and fashion them as shown in the annexed illustration. A is the trace hame-tug, formed of a loop and several turns of raw hide ; B is the hame strap fork, below which an oblong square hole is cut for the strip of hide forming the hame strap to pass through; c is the lower end of the hame cut into hook form, to admit of its being securely lashed with hide strips to its fellow on the opposite side. Breast straps may be used in lieu of a collar and hames. When starting on an expedition take plenty of harness leather with you. Raw hide and strips of sinew are admirable for repairs, but good tanned and curried leather is needed for the harness itself. The illustration on next page represents a very useful and plain set of mule harness, and also the way in which a long rope or lasso is used for securing a refractory mule to the side of a waggon whilst the harness is being put on. Some mules are so dangerously skilful in the use of their fore and hind feet, that even an accomplished prizefighter might view their feats in the art of attack with envy. To guard against the eS"ects of this objectionable skill, we proceed as follows : Throw the running noose end of your lasso over the mule's head, and let it settle well over his neck ; then edge him quietly away until he is standing stem and stern with the waggon on the near or left-hand side ; then, keeping well before your mule, pass the free end of the lasso between the upper spokes of the near fore wheel ; draw out your 460 Shifts and Expedients of end by walking backwards with it, keeping up a steady strain until you walk in a wide circle well outside tlie range of mules^ lieels ; slip dexterously behind the wheel and tail of the waggon, keeping your lasso tight all the while ; then pass your lasso end, from without, inwards between the spokes of the near hind wheel ; haul taut and belay. There are very few mules that cannot be successfully handled in this way. The guide as to the proper height of the lasso is given by the point of elbow and the line of the stifle joint. If the mule is a small one, choose lower spokes in the wheel than for a tall, long-legged animal. The adaptation of hames to collars is almost as important as the fitting of the collars to the animals. Hames are sometimes made of wood fitted with iron work, but they are far better when made from good tough wrought iron. Here we again say, beware of "malleable cast." During the rough work of a campaign hames are constantly getting broken, particu- larly at the union of the ring point and the blade of the hame. The old pattern used by our horse artillery and field batteries was especially objectionable, as the point t>f union (shown in the above illustration at a) was so Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 461 unmeclianically effected that incessant trouble and constant breakage was the result. We have submitted to the Horse Guards authorities that which we believe to be a far more durable and efficient pattern (as shown at b, p. 460). The hames now in use are certainly better than they were at the commencement of the Crimean war ; but those which we used during our long forced marches in India during the mutiny were very far from being perfect. We, some time since, invented and patented a very simple contri- vance, by which a fallen or disabled horse or mule could be instantly freed from the tension of the traces without cut- ting or unbuckling. The latter operation, by-the- bye, it is next to impos- sible to perform, from the strain on the trace. By the use of our slip (represented in the accompanying illustration) the trace can be released by turning up the pendulum (a) until it matches with the slot (b), when it drops out to the front, and forms a cross handle, like that of a corkscrew, to draw the lock pin by. The instant the pin is drawn as far as it can be pulled out, the trace is detached from the ring of the hame. The lock pin cannot be lost, as it can only be drawn out to a certain distance — in fact, just far enough to free the trace from its hold. Much mischief is done to team animals by having bits of insuffi- cient substance and solidity. See that they are of sufficient diameter to prevent cutting, and that they are long enough from cheek to cheek to prevent pressure on the angles of the mouth and lips. See also that the bit is so attached to the headstall that the corners of the mouth are not drawn up by it. Let the throat latch be long enough to see plenty of daylight under, or, by drawing on the headstall, the poll of the head may be severely rubbed and a poll evil established. The nature of this injury will be fully dealt with under the head of ''Veterinary Surgery." If bearing reins are used at all, see that they are slack. A good store of anti-friction pads will be found of the greatest value on the march to keep such portions of the harness as are found to rub the skin of any 462 Shifts and Expedients of animal in tlie team from doing further mischief. These are made of very soft pliant leather, stuffed with soft curled hair. Seven inches long by 4^in. wide, and 2|in. thick, will be found a convenient size. They are secured between the strap causing irritation and the skin by bits of thong fastened to their backs for the purpose. Galls from saddles or collars are not unfrequently caused by some hard and uneven point of bearing. When this is the case, take a long sharp- pointed instrument, pass it through the leather or woollen, and, by working it about and pushing in every direction, force the stuflfing back until a cavity much larger than the gall is formed ; thump the covering over and into the cavity well with the round end of a tool handle until it fits the injured spot without pressure. Never allow teamsters or drivers to tie knots in straps of any kind with a view to shortening them. Insist on more holes being punched for the buckle tongue, or the cutting of the strap to the proper length. Knotted straps and serious galls go hand in hand. In adjusting your traces to the swingle trees, see that there is length enough given them when slack for the swingle tree to reach just sufficiently far down the back of the hind leg to cross half-way between the point of the hock and the hollow of the heel. As the trace is tightened, there will then be enough space for the animal to move his legs freely in. Watch him as he walks ofiF, and see that nothing touches him behind at full stride. There are more kickers made by ill- adjusted swingle trees than any other cause. The weaker the animal is, the more liable he is to get his hind legs battered by the bar, as he lacks spii'it and energy to keep well clear of it. The bar is, however, his enemy from that time, and it is difficult to make him forget past sorrows. Waggon chains of one sort and another often snap when it is highly inconvenient to repair thorn. Keep, therefore, in your " odd and end " box a good number of Cliains and union links, made as shown in the above illustration, * • They are forged rather flat, stouter in proportion than the chain they are intended to unite, in order to guard them against Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 463 opening. A leather tlioug or tie, witli a toggle end, is passed tlirougli the slots at tlie two ends of tlie union, in order that the links may not come out when the chain is slack. The looped ends of ropes are conveniently attached to chains, or chains to standing rings, by these union Hnks. The illustration on p. 462 represents one of them uniting the ends of two chains. Pack animals are of the greatest service and value to the explorer, as they travel easily through tracts of country which are impassable for wheeled carriages of all descriptions. Horses, ponies, , _ _, , Pack animals, mules, donkeys, oxen, elephants, camels, dromedaries, lamas, goats, and dogs are all, more or less, used as pack animals in different countries ; and no two can be found in which the pack saddle and its gear will exactly correspond. The nature of the ground to be passed over, and the description of load to be carried, will in great measure call for some special arrangement in the form and adjustment of the gear. For the use of a well-organised exploring or hunting party, provided with horses or mules, we know of no pack saddle equal to that described and figured at pp. 25 and 36. Saddles of this description, although admirably adapted for carrying the well-made and evenly-formed bags of the explorer, would not answer to the requirements of the professional packer, who carries objects of every imaginable shape, from a bundle of pick-heads, or a case of bottled ale, to a barrel of powder. For the safe transport of such matters as these no saddle is better than the Hispano -American pack saddle. No people in the world understand the management and packing of mules as well as the Spaniards and their descendants. The foundation of the Spanish pack saddle may be said to be the '^ aparejo,^' which is, so to speak, a framework for the back of the mule composed entirely of hide. Its form is represented at a in our illustration entitled " Horse Equipments.^^ Each side flap of the aparejo is composed of a double layer of hide, with space sufiicient between the layers to introduce an efficient stuffing of hay, dry moss, fibre, or other stuffing material. The cushions or side pads, when stuffed, should be about 3ft. Sin. long by 2ft. Sin. wide. Each flap and side cushion will thus constitute one side of the saddle body. These, when stitched together at the top, will form a sort of hollow ridge within which the backbone will rest 464 Shifts and Expedients of free from pressure and friction. The aparejos of the Andalusian muleteers who, with their mules, accompanied us from Spain to the Crimea had layers of small twigs disposed between the stuffing of the panels and the covering of hide, so that the *' riata," or rope used in securing the load, was prevented from cutting grooves in the padding. Each of these aparejos weighed, when new and dry, 351b. On the inside of each cushion leather a hole is left, through which the material constituting the stuffing can at any time be got at. The careful packer will constantly avail himself of this orifice, in order that such portions of stuffing as may become shifted and worked up into hard lumps by the movements conse- quent on travel may be redistributed and evenly disposed of. The above illustration represents this aparejo when placed on the back of the mule. Next the skin of the animal is placed a piece of soft well-washed canvas, 4ft. Gin. square ; on this is then laid three layers of thick woollen blanket ; on these layers, the true saddle cloth — the " corona " of the packers. This is made of stout woollen cloth, with fringed, worked, and ornamented borders. The corners of each of these cloths bear on them the letter or number of the mule to which it belongs. When removed from the mule, it is placed with the saddle gear on or under the aparejo, so that every mule can be at once fitted with his own trappings. To secure the aparejo, and the cloths beneath it, to the mule's back, a wide girth, called a " synch,'' is used. This may be composed either of hide, grass, cloth, or common sail canvas doubled. Its edges should be sewn in a broad hem. The width may be about 13in., and the length not sufficiently great to go round the mule's body, over the aparejo and cloths under it. One end of this girth has a ring sewn into it, and the other a bent stick of natural growth, as shown at b in full- page illustration of " Horse Equipments." To tighten the synch by drawing the two ends together, a long strip of well-greased thong is Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 465 used. This is passed several times tlirougli both ring and wooden eye, after one end has been made fast. By powerful and continuous hauling on the free end, the ring and eye are at length drawn close enough together below the saddle to make all secui-e. A loop is then formed in the free end, and the bow pulled under the forward and back lashings of the thong. When the synch is to be relaxed, it is only necessary to pull on the free end to set all free. Two ropes are used for lashing on the load. One is called the " riata," and should be of pliant, evenly-spun 2\-va.. rope, 70yds. long; the second, or sling rope, is best made of stout patent Pack ropes sash line. Forty feet will be found long enough for a ^"^"^ saddles, sling rope. No written directions or pictorial illustration will give the least idea how to lash fast the heterogeneous objects constituting a general pack load; nothing but experience and ingenuity in the handling of rope will ever teach the traveller how to form the intricate spider-web-like lashing, interlacing, and cross-binding, which by a professional Spanish or Mexican packer are woven until as tense as a harp string. The Hudson's Bay Company and many traders and explorers in North West America make use of the so-called cross-tree saddle for transporting their peltries and stores. One of these is Cross-tree shown at c in our full-page illustration representing saddles. " Horse Equipments." The girth for that description of saddle has two sets of holes made in it, so that the ends may be laced together by the use of a strip of hide, represented at d. A good number of narrow flat battens of tough wood and bundles of twigs will be found very useful, for placing between the load ropes and load, as in the case of bags containing soft sub- Tightening stances, or articles likely to be crushed in, a groove is lii^ruess. at once formed by the tension of the strained rope, and without some interposing medium no little mischief is done. When a rope is found loose from any cause, it can be tightened by thrusting a short curved stick into the loop formed by the slack part, when, by twisting the lever round and round, the required tension is soon gained. When packing a mule or adjusting a disarranged pack it is well to partially blindfold the animal. This is done by the Spaniards by the use of a n H 466 Shifts and Expedierds of contrivanoo called a " tapajo/' represented at e in the full-pago illustration of " Horse Equipments/' Tlio hind strap of this is placed behind the ears^ just as the head strap of a halter would be. The leather part hangs before the mule's eyes^ whilst the fringe-like tails hang down at the sides. WTien not on a mule's head, the tapajo is used instead of a whip by placing the forefinger through the ring in its middle. In travelling through a country tolerably free from large animals of prey or hostile Indians, it will not be requisite to hobble a large train of mules during the night, as they will not stray far from Bell mules. the hobbled bell mare. This animal leads the march by day and keeps the " mulada " together at night. A gelding not uncommonly takes the place of the mare as the bearer of the bell. White or grey animals should be selected to perform this duty. Never, on any account, allow a stud mule to accompany your band ; he rarely thrives, is always ready for a fight, and is as bad as an enraged wild beast when fairly roused. It is not wise to work mules hard until after three years old — four, five, and six are better ages to buy at. Examining a strange or ill-tempered mule's teeth with a view to ascertaining his age is at times rather a risky operation. To do this. Hints to P^^^ o^ ^ blind, get a halter put on the mule's head ; mule buyers, g^and well in against the near fore-shoulder, pass the right hand gently up the neck, patting the animal as it goes until you are enabled to take a steady firm grip of the root of the ear with your right hand; then, with your left, seize quickly, but tightly, on the upper lip and nose. Do this quickly and resolutely, guarding against a blow from the fore-foot, and you will probably get a glance of the front teeth, or incisors, and see if the corner tooth is temporary or permanent. Another piece of important information will be gained at the same time, and that is whether the dentition of the upper jaw is free from deformity. It sometimes happens that both mules and horses are what is called overhung or parrot-beaked, which simply means that the upper row of front teeth projects so far beyond the lower that the two rows can by no effort of the animal be brought in contact. This defect is often overlooked, but when present is a fruitful source of loss of con- Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 467 dition and consequent ■W'eakness, as food, easily gathered by animals with naturally-formed rows of teetli, is all but lost to tlio unfortunate possessor of a parrot-moutli. See, too, that the tongue is perfect. Mixles for packing purposes should not be too large or high on their legs. Some of those which accompanied us from Andalusia to the Bast were 16 hands and over; whilst the great majority of the trains we worked in Central India were very little larger than common donkeys, and certainly less than a great many we have seen in Egypt. The experience of the last American war has shown that the Hispano - Mexican mules are a most hardy and valuable strain. Speaking of these animals, the superintendent of the Government mule corral at Washington says : — '' There is in Old as well as New Mexico a class of mules that are known to us as Spanish- Mexican mules. These mules are not large, but for endurance they are very superior, and, in my opinion, cannot be excelled. I am not saying too much when I assert that I have seen nothing in the United States that could compare with them. They can apparently stand any amount of starvation and abuse. I have had these Spanish mules in a train of twenty-five six mule teams, and starting from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on Colonel (since General) Sumner's expedition in 1857, have travelled to Walnut Creek, on the Santa Fe route, a distance of 300 miles in nine days, and this in the month of August. The usual effects of hard driving, I noticed, showed but very little on them. I noticed, also, along the march, that with a halt of less than three hours, feeding on grass that was only tolerably thick, they will fill up better and look in better condition for resuming the march than one of our American mules that had rested five hours and had the same forage. The breed, of course, has something to do with this; but the animal is smaller, more compact than our mules, and, of course, it takes less to fill him up. It stands to reason that a mule with a body half as large as a hogshead cannot satisfy his hunger in the time it would take a smaU one. This is the secret of small mules out- lasting large ones on the prairies. It takes a large one so long to find enough to eat when grass is scanty that he has not time enough for rest or recuperation. I often found them leaving camp in the morning quite as hungry and discouraged as they were when we halted the H H 2 4G8 Shifts and Expedients of previous evening. With the small mule it is different. He gets enough to eat quickly, and has time to rest and refresh himself. The Spanish or Mexican mules, however, are better as pack animals than for a team. They are vicious, hard to break, and two-thirds of them kick." These observations of the superintendent are highly practical, and well worth bearing in mind in the purchase of pack mules. Wo are of opinion, however, that there are other qualities to be found in small well-formed animals, apart from the comparatively small amount of food required to support them. Activity, endurance, and muscular power do not, so far as oui' experience has enabled us to judge, increase in the ratio of size ; and the great majority of noteworthy and remarkably clever performances under saddle or pack related by hunters and explorers have been achieved by animals of comparatively small size. We do not think that even the English hunter will be found an exception to the rule. Often have we devoutly wished that it might be our good fortune to possess a 16-hand horse with going and staying qualities, equal in proportion, size for size, to those of a sturdy, but very tiny cob we were once 'cute enough to select from a drove fresh from the wilds of Bulgaria. We conceive that a well-formed mule — that is to say with clear bright eyes, hocks not inclined to give in like those of a cow, stout muscular haunches, a short back, and dark small compact feet — should, for average service, be about 14 hands high, and weigh about 8cwt. Avoid all spotted, dappled, or white mules. These are, among the packers, known as " painted " or calico mules, and are by no means as hardy as those of dark uniform colours. Mares are always to be preferred to horse mules. They are more tractable, and follow the bell mare better on the march. About 1401b. is as much as a mule of average power can travel well vnth from day to day. Never start a mule train without looking care- Hints on fiil^y a-t each mule as he passes ; and if you see one mule equipment, ^f ^j^g^ raising his lips and twitching his mouth and nose depend upon it he is getting galled, and requires looking to. Particular care should be taken that the halter heads fit easily across the back of the head, and that, in putting the halter on, the ears of the raules are not injured or roughly handled. Nothing makes a mule so CanijJ Life, Travel, and Exploration. 469 sliy and disposed to be vicious as sore ears. The baiters used for pack mules are just sucli as we use in this country. We, however, prefer leather head collars with ropes attached to them. There are many ways of preventing horses and mules from straying from the spot at which they are intended to remain. The Indian method of picketing horses by the use of head and f ^ J Hobbling cattle, heel ropes is by far the best and most convenient we have ever had recourse to. The heel hobbles — the subject of the accom- panying illustration — are best made of stout tanned leather; the inside surface should be lined, and have a slight stuffing of curled hair put in to prevent friction ; one hobble end terminates in a leather loop ; the other, in a leather toggle. The heel ropes themselves should be made from soft flexible rope (cotton is often spun into heel ropes) ; the strands are opened and untwisted to a short dis- tance, in order that they may be securely stitched fast to each hobble. At about 6ft. from the hobbles the two heel ropes are spliced together and form one tail rope, which is secured round a peg driven into the earth. Two ropes attached to the head collar are also secured to pegs, as shown in the illustration on p. 471. When on the march each horse should carry his own head and heel ropes secured in a leather wrapper behind the saddle. Head ropes may be conveniently fastened to the head collar by having a strap and buckle like that represented at a in the annexed illustration attached to the end of each rope, if the other end is finished, as shown at b. One head rope 470 Shifts and Expedients of left on wlicu the liorse is equipped for marcliiug forms a convenient head- collar rope, wliich, can be coiled up and secured as shown at p. 37. The Cape hunters usually secure their horses during a temporary halt by the use of the knee halter. The manner of adjusting this is shown at a in the following illustration. In Australia, the hook hobbles, figured at p. 33, are adjusted as at b in the illustration below. ^^ ^\ Ai ^ CAPE KNEE HALTER AND AUSTRALIAN HOBBLES. It is a common practice in the army to stretch a long rope between a number of posts, and then secure the horses to it at intervals by fastening the ends of the head-collar chains. We have seen mule trains in India fastened in a similar manner to a long cord stretched out on the ground. Although space is economised by the adoption of these plans, they lead to an endless number of serious accidents from kicks, bites, and stake wounds from the splintered posts. The addition in weight to the present scale of military horse equipment may be, perhaps, urged as a reason why the head and heel ropes of India have not been universally adopted by the troops of this country. The result of our experience is that the very slight addition which is juade to the burden by the strapping on of a pair of light strong head and heel ropes to the rear of the saddle is a mere mite in the balance when compared with the constantly recurring and serious evils we have just referred to. Cam}) Life, Tiavel, and Eiplurati ill ,^Mi\ I . ^««f i:^j\\\ nil 472 Shifts and Ex2)edients of If you are witlioiit hobbles, your liorso or mule may be prevented from straying far by fastening tbe fore and bind leg on tbe same side Horses together with a piece of rope or a couple of leather belts, to tie up. rpj^^ ^^Q £Qj.g £gg^ ^j^y ^g hobbled together in much the same manner, allowing just a short scope for the animal to move one foot before the other. In countries where the lasso is used either in the form of hide lasso or hair cabresto (the manufacture of which will be treated of further on in our work), a horse or mule may be secured by first putting the noose end over the head and adjust- ing the neck loop just to fit the small of the neck easily, and then with the free or trail end taking a single hitch knot through the loop. This prevents the noose from running up and strangling the animal should it become suddenly alarmed and hang back. Mustangs, however, very rarely hang on a lasso after once expe- riencing its powers. Never trust the security of your riding animal, when either hunting or scouting, to either the regulation head-collar chain or headstall-rope, as, should a sudden alarm from any cause arise, your steed will in all probability give a sudden snort, tuck his haunches well under him, get his fore legs well to the front, give his head a violent shake, with one efibrt send all your head gear to the four winds, and go scampering away perhaps for ever. Lassoes are not so easily broken. If halting among trees or bushes fasten the trail end to a flexible branch ; if there are no bushes, and you have a peg, fasten the lasso to it. If out on the prairies without a peg, dig a deep hole in the earth with your knife ; tie a large knot in the end of the lasso, force it to the bottom of the hole, and then stamp the earth and turf well in over it. On sandy desert ground the lasso end may be secured to any odd article, such as a bag or blanket, which may be then deeply buried in the sand. An ox may be conveniently secured by passing two or three turns of a rope round the roots of the horns and then making a knot in front. All ropes long enough to admit of the animal walking and feeding in a moderately large circle should have one of the forms of wooden swivel before described attached to it in order to prevent twisting and entanglement. Should a party of Iceland horsemen wish to halt for a short time, they place their horses with their heads together, and heels forming Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 473 tlie outer border of the circle ; tlie bridles are then looped and knotted together. Horses secured in this way cannot stray because no two animals pull in the same direction. This plan will only answer with very quiet animals. The entire horses of the East would fight despe- rately if thus brought in contact. Large bands of horses may be driven or led in strings fastened head and tail, or marched on what is called a waggon line. This is a lona: strong: rope fastened at each end to a cart or ^ ^ ^ . Horses, to lead, waggon, sufficient distance bemg maintained between each vehicle to keep the rope moderately tight. The halters of the horses to be led are fastened at convenient intervals along the line of the rope, and as the waggons travel so the horses march in a hne. If there are many stores to be transported at the same time, put them in the rear waggon, as the line of marching horses aid greatly in drawing the load. An arrangement of this kind is very convenient when a stampede from Indians is to be di-eaded. Horses may be conveniently embarked by the use of the sling shown in the illustration on p. 474. The belly-band is made of very stout sail canvas, mounted on two straight strong bars of Embarking horses, wood. The ropes, which should be of thoroughly reliable 4^in. or 5in. rope, after passing round under the edges of the belly-band, are securely fastened to the ends of the bars, and each terminates in a loop. Four strong rope loops are secured to the edges of the band for the breast and breech ropes to pass through. One man holds the horse's head steady by the halter, and, if requisite, adjusts a blind ; two men, one on each side, pass the rope loops through each other ; whilst others bring round the breast and breech ropes, haul them up tight and double knot them. At the word "hook on,^' the hook of a fall working from a derrick is passed through the upper loop and stopped with a piece of small stuff. At a given signal the men on board at the tail of the fall, walk smartly away with it, and the horse moves rapidly aloft guided by two guy ropes until directly over the hatchway, which should be well padded with bags of straw. At the signal to lower away, the horse is lowered steadily to the hold or lower deck, where a deep bed of straw is 474 Shifts and Expedients of spread, aud men wait to cast loose and conduct it to the stall allotted for its reception. EMBAIIKATIOX SLING. In regularly -fitted horse transports, boxes are not unfrequently fitted for tlie liorses to walk into before being lowered in tliem. Sometimes, when near tlie shore, horses are allowed to swim to land. The management of horses on board ship will be treated of under the head " Veterinary Surgery.'' ;'''&: HOLD ON, ALL! Horses and ponies for packing should be of sturdy short-legged, cobby breed. A full-sized horse's pack for moderately fast and con- Camjp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 475 tinuous travelling should not weigh more than about 1201b. A lively well-formed ox will cany about the same burden. Donkeys will carry from 501b. to 601b., according to size and con- p^^^j^ animals dition. A pair of strong cane or wicker panniers, with ^^^ packs, lids made to hinge and lock, and covered with stout waterproofed duck, will be found very useful for putting in articles for immediate use. Cooking utensils, food for the day, and a change of dry gar- ments, are conveniently stowed away in these receptacles. Beware how you pack a number of rattling, clattering pots, pans, and kettles loosely on a timid ox's back. Should sudden alarm seize him, it will most probably lead to such a scene as is represented in the illustration on the opposite page. Camels and dromedaries are frequently most valuable to the traveller ; and, although generally associated with the torrid zone and its belongings, we see no reason why the camel should not be Camels, successfully acclimatised in many countries in which it is now practically unknown to the packer and traveller. " Camel Land " has been said to embrace the Canaries, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, the Great Desert, Egypt, Africa, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, Persia, Cabool, Beloochistan, Hindoostan, Burmah, Thibet, Mongolia, Tartary in Asia, the Crimea, and a comparatively small tract of country in the neigh- bourhood of Constantinople. The camel has been kept and rendered available for general use on the estates of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, at Pisa, for very nearly two centuries. Australia and America are, we conceive, particularly well calculated for the utilisation of the labours of the camel. The opinion commonly entertained that the camel can only flourish in tropical lands is most erroneous. The ordinary geographical range of this animal may be roughly stated as being between 15'~' and 52° of north latitude, and 15*^ of longitude west of Greenwich to about 120° east of it. We have had opportunities of working camels of the Bactriau, Arabian, and Saunduey breeds, under more than common vicissitudes of both climate and labour ; we have ridden, muffled up in fur helmet and gloves, through the deep snow, where the woolly-coated Bactrians, crouching behind a sheltering rock, dis- cussed their meal of coarse steepe hay contentedly, and were hardy to a. degree ; we have seen the burden camels of Egypt, under huge 476 Shifts and Expedients of loadsj trooping across tlio dry deserts of tliat land as if they were in their element ; we have performed over 3000 miles of packing with Indian camels, and liave taken part in most severe forced marches with Saundneys, carrying two men (an Englishman and a native), a heavy saddle, two sets of arms, accoutrements, and ammunition, over difficult tracts of country bordering on the sandy desert regions of Central India. Although we have seen the camel harnessed much after the manner of an ox, and used in draught, it will rarely be found of much service Harnessing ^o the explorer when used in harness : as pack animals, came s. camels are invaluable. A good form of camel pack saddle is given at f in our full-page illustration of " Horse Equipments ''; and the above diagrams will serve to show how ordinary camel riding Camp Life, Travel, and ExiAoraiion. 477 saddles may be made. Any strong tougli wood will answer for tlie uprights and side pieces ; tlie lasliings are of raw liide ; tlie cushions, or pads, of leather, stuffed with wool or curled hajr; the girths are of spun goats^ hair ; and the breast strap is a wide band of plaited thongs. Some idea may be formed of the courage, power, and speed of the camel when we state that, before the opening of the Suez Eailway, the mails were transported on camels' backs twice per month across the Desert between Grand Cairo and the head of the Eed Sea, a distance of eighty-four miles, without halting, in about eighteen hours. The weight of each camel-load (four mail boxes, &c.) was about 3001b. Few matters of animal nomenclature have led to more confusion and misunderstanding than the terms " camel " and " dromedary ;" and this has mainly arisen from the distinction laid down by Buffon, who states that the camel has two humps, whilst the dromedary has only one. If this point of distinction were correct, there would be no camels in Egypt, and one would have to travel to Tartary and some remote parts of Asia to find them ; and the dromedary, and that only, would be found in Turkey, Arabia, Grand Cairo, Africa, and India. Amongst the Arabs and Egyptians the word " gimel " is applied to all the members of the genus — the term " dromedary " never being made use of. An animal used exclusively for riding purposes is called a " hagine.-*' It will, therefore, be convenient to follow their example, and call a baggage animal of this family a '' camel,'' and that used for riding purposes a " hagine." Our space will not admit of our entering on the subject of camel breeding, or the various crosses of breeds found in different parts of the world, as, like those of the horse, they would fill a volume. 478 Shifts and Expedients »f CHAPTER XI. CATTLE MARKING. In all large and imperfectly settled countries the use of a private mark, or brand, is most important, not only as a means by wliicli animals can be identified and recovered wlien lost, but as tlie evidence of legal transfer and of particular breed or strain of stock. Animals are most commonly marked with either some conspicuous and tenacious pigment, by slits or cuts of definite form made in the ear, or by initials or some symbol branded with a heated iron on some part of the body. Sheep may be both ear-marked and lettered with either red or black paint. The lettering is easily and expeditiously efiected by the use of the cover or bottom of an old biscuit tin. Lay your sheet of tin on the table, and with the point of your knife sketch out the outline of the letter or letters you have determined on as your mai-k, taking care that they are of conspicuous size ; then with a mallet and chisel cut out the letters. You will then have a sort of stencilling sheet; cut it to a convenient size, nail a piece of wood to it for a handle, and your marker is complete. Place it against your sheep, paint over the out- side of the plate with a large paint-brush, and your mark is made in an instant. Your sacks, bags, and boxes can be marked in the same manner with the same contrivance. A herd of cattle can be tem- porarily marked by a newly-arrived settler in a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes, as follows : Procure a waggon whip handle or a long pole ; then lash to its end a round ball of either hide, with the hair on, or a bit of old blanket, fixing on your ball to the stick just as the striker of a drum-stick is made. Dip this in a pot of paint or tar, and then put it adroitly against the haunch or shoulder of the animal to be marked. Give it a sudden sharp twist round, and there will be instantly formed a round ball-like spot. With a lot of timid newly-purchased cattle, with which you are anxious to move off at once, the above plan will be found a good one. Camp Lifo, Travel, and Exploration. 479 A native herdsman would despise sucli means of recognition ; and many of tlie colonial farmers would know individually every horse, ox, or sheep in their possession, just as we know by expression of the countenance or peculiarity of figure any person among our own acquaintance ; and we have even heard of a case in which the calf of a cow, that had been stolen many years before, was recognised by its resemblance to its mother, and the theft thus traced out and detected. The cutting of marks in the ear seems to be the more primitive and, perhaps, the easier, as involving less need of tools or apparatus ; but it is difficult to give sufficient variety to enable many farmers to have each a distinctive mark. One slit, or more, in the right or left ear, a '' swallow-tail ^' in one and a slit in the other, or a hole punched with a wad cutter, are among the most common ; but all are liable to be torn off by dogs or wild animals ; and the hole in the ear is especially objectionable, as the creature itself is almost sure to tear it through by scratching with his hinder foot. Moreover, almost all are liable to be altered should the marked property fall into dis- honest hands ; and most farmers, and, it may be said, all traders, now employ the branding iron — fashioned to represent either their own initials or some arbitrary sign, as a cross, a square, a triangle, a circle or any segment of it, a star of any par- \ / \ ticular number of rays, the figure formed by crossing two /\. triangles (as here shown). In America, and some other countries, it is requisite on the pur- chase of animals — horses and mules especially — that the traveller should not only get a receipt for his purchase money, but get indorsed on it by the seller his acknowledgment of the new owner^s counter- brand, in manner as follows : " Received of Capt. , the sum of dollars, in payment for a brown mare mule. Seller's brand, O. B. ; buyer's brand, W. Signature, &c.'^ The new brand should be placed under the old one, and unless these precautions are taken the new purchaser stands a very excellent chance of having his recently- acquired stock seized on at some frontier post, and detained until the legality of the transfer has been ascertained. It is sometimes agreed on that the owner shall renovmce all claim to an animal by reversing his own brand above that originally made by him, thus, f-l . 480 Sliifte and Expedients of There are talcs, however, of certain dwellers at a distance from the law who have acquired considerable skill in altering the marks of any stray cattle that may fall into their hands, and this is an operation requiring no little skill, for should the mark be old, an iron made too hot will burn the addition in so deeply that it will for a long time display an air of freshness not in accordance with the original. Some initials are very easy of alteration ; thus, C may be converted into O, or Q, or G ; I may be made at least into thirteen letters without increasing its size, which, when it is used in combination with others, is a point of con- siderable importance, and into several more if a shght increase may be ventured on. P may become B or R, and L or F may be changed to E. It may be well for us to point put to those who have charge of Government stock, or are likely to have stolen animals oflfered them for sale, that the thief not unfrequently sees fit to adopt an anchor as his brand, as, if it is of proper size, the broad arrow. by the addition of the stock and flukes, makes a very respectable one. We have heard of an unscru- pulous colonist who branded all his cattle with a frying pan, and had no particular place on which to apply it ; thus, no matter what the brand on a stray horse or ox might be, he had nothing to do but to clap the red hot disk above it, and his own mark speedily and effectually obliterated every other. It is said that he afterwards repented, and, in proof of it, led a most exemplary life in a Government department for fourteen years. It is a good plan to have a small iron and to brand cattle upon the horns, as it is impossible to efface the mark by any process that would not betray itself. This iron may also be used for branding small articles — such as tent poles, yokes, waggon-gear, or anything in the traveller's possession — not only as a precaution against theft, but as a means of affording an indication of his fate should he perish, as many a poor fellow has done in a gallant but fruitless effort to explore an unknown country. Any man with a few tools and a modei'ate share of ingenuity can make his own branding iron from a suitable-sized chunk of soft iron. File it to the right form, give it an even surface ; then with a pencil sketch the letter, or mark, on the iron, only taking care to reverse the Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 481 others form the letters^ &jC., object as you would in drawing on wood. When your pencil lines are complete^ scratch them in with a sharp hard point. Rub a little gunpowder and grease into them in order that they ' may show conspicuously, and then, with a hammer and small cold chisel, pro- ceed to chip away the superfluous iron until the pattern stands boldly and sharply out. Heat it and try the print on a board, and, if requisite, trim and file again until it is to your satisfaction. A large drill is of great service in making branding irons, which, when finished, can be attached to handles either by leaving a piece of metal on the back of the chunk long enough to weld the hand iron to, or a screw may be made at the back to hold it in its place. Some persons make chunk, hand iron, and all from one piece of metal , from narrow strips of iron, bend- ing them to the required figure, and then riveting them fast to ^ a sort of frame. We, however, consider the solid chunk form of iron by far the best and most durable. A clear charcoal or wood fire is best for heating the brand in. It should be heated just hot enough to singe rather than burn into the skin ; so long as the roots of the hair are destroyed the burning may be considered effective. As we have before stated, the particular strain, or breed, of certain ani- mals may be known by the peculiar way in which they are branded. The Arabs have a great number of private marks, which few, save themselves, understand. Horses and drome- daries are marked in an entirely different manner. There is also a distinction drawn by tlicui 1 I between 482 Shifts and Expedients of large aud small horses. The former are known as " Aneezah " Arabs, and, if of high cast, usually bear the peculiar mark of the tribe by which they are reared. All Arab horses under 14 hands are called " Nedjdi." These, when found by any tribe to possess more than ordinary purity of breed and excellence, are marked with an extremely narrow crescent, like a new moon, with the horns a little more than an inch apart. In the illustration on p. 481 we give a few examples of dromedary branding, as showing the particular class of animal indicated by it. 1. Amadabieh. 2 shows the general mark of a Bicharieh tribe, which will be seen to exist on all the other examples. The additions show the private brand of each small community, or division of the tribe, thus: 3. Amitirah; 4. Mahomed-Ouzabieh ; 5. Menacir ; 6. Achabab ; 7. Cawarah; 8. Mahazi ; 9. Valgat. Having shown the marks by which many strains or breeds of camels may be known, it may not be amiss to give a few' general hints on camel and hygeene purchase and management. Cami) Life, Travel, and Exidoration. 483 CHAPTER XII. HINTS ON HYGEENS AND CAMELS. The following directions to pvircliasers of these animals are given by Linaut Bey, engineer-in-cliief of dykes and bridges to the Viceroy of Egypt, and were translated for the information of the President of the United States of America. " To avoid deception in the choice of a dromedary one must be very much of a connoisseur of the animal, for I think it is more difficult to be skilled in dromedaries than in horses. One must points in the have lived with Arabs and their dromedaries to appre- dromedary, ciate either the one or the other. It may be conceived, then, how difficult it is to designate clearly what constitutes a good dromedary. " A dromedary should not be too tall, nor its legs too long, which would give it a gaunt appearance ; nor should the chest be too wide nor too heavy. " The fore-legs should not touch the callosity upon the breast. The two rowels or mullets {molettes) of the fore-feet should be far from touching each other when the animal walks. " The belly should be round, without being puffy ; and the hump should not be too big. " The neck should be rather wide than narrow, the head well set on, the eye large, and the lips closed. " In walking the animal should show suppleness in the neck, and have a wavy movement of the head. The more suppleness there is in this motion the easier will be the gait. " To be highly esteemed a dromedary should not cry when touched ; and, when bridled, haltered, or saddled, it should give utterance only to a low grumbling. " A dromedary should not be taken that has been seriously hurt near the shoulders, where the saddle rests, though it does not indicate T T '>. 484 SJiifts and Exjjedieids of disease, but proceeds only from tlie little care the Arabs give to keeping their saddles in repair. In a female this is less objectionable ; for, in giving birth, if her wounds have caused any disease, it is almost always cured. Fine cautery marks on either side of the callosity, on the breast, or on the belly near the navel, indicate always internal, incurable disorders. ^' The hind-legs should not be too angular, but rather straight. The hump should not be too much to the front; rather to the rear is better, as then the saddle is more easily adjusted. The hair should not be too short, as then the animal is more easily injured. " The feet should be small, the nails and the hair round them black rather than white. " Fawn-coloured di'omedaries are more highly prized than those entirely white. " When mounted, the dromedary should instantly and quickly rise and start off. " When the dromedary moves, it should be with such spirit that the rider is obliged to hold him in ; this supports both. To urge him on kick him on the shoulder with the foot. It is very difficult to find a dromedary uniting in itself all these requisite qualities, and very rarely can such an one, especially if it is a female, be purchased ; for the Arabs love their fine-blooded dromedaries as much as they do their horses, and it is only as presents, or else at enormous prices, that the choicest animals can be obtained. " A first-rate Nomanieh is worth in Cairo from five hundred to six hundred dollars ; but those ordinarily met with there sell from one hundred to two hundred dollars. " The Bichariehs sell for less ; good ones — that is to say, such as are for sale — may be had for from sixty to one hundred dollars. " At nearly for the same prices as for the Bicharieh can be purchased also the other breeds of the Mahazi, Cawarah, and Ababdi. I will remark hero that the Bicharieh dromedaries do not carry as heavy burdens as the Nomanieh. These last carry a saddle called ' gabit,^ fitted with pads, and with saddle-bags termed ' krourque,' Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 485 that hang down on both sides of the saddle and carry the baggage, provisions, &c., of the rider and of the dromedary. " The Bicharieh carries a wooden saddle, laid over two small pads, which are not fastened to it. This saddle is called ' kyarpah,* ' maraloiip,^ &c., &c., according to its shape. Saddle-bags cannot be carried over it, on account of its form ; but behind it a small sack of hide called 'bila,^ in which a little luggage can be packed, may be attached after the manner of a valise or portmanteau. " Often, in expeditions, a servant or follower rides behind upon the dromedaries of the two breeds. Both riders carry their arms. "In a word, the Nomanieh generally carries from 2001b. to 2301b. ; the Bicharieh, 1801b. At the utmost their burdens are 3001b. and 3501b. A dromedary, well equipped, well ridden, and in good con- dition, can easily make in a day over suitable ground, level and a little sandy, about ninety miles, that is, between morning and evening ; but it cannot keep on at that rate. It can make fifty miles a day for fifteen or twenty days, and for a long journey can be counted upon for that. I have myself travelled upon one ninety miles in eleven hours, and gone twelve miles in forty minutes." The carrying power of the camel will depend in great measure on the stock they came of and the climate in which they are employed, the Central Asiatic camel being, as a rule, more vigorous Camels and and enduring than that of either Africa or India. The ^^^^i'^ ^«^'^^- loads of camels will vary greatly with the nature of the work they are employed to perform. Where very short distances under burden have to be travelled, as for instance from the depots of a town to a camp in the immediate vicinity, a powerful and healthy camel can carry from 11001b. to 12001b. ; for the march, or when produce or baggage has to be carried any distance, from 3001b. to 4001b. will be found quite heavy enough to admit of regular and continuous performance of carrpug duty. We always roughly estimate our weight of stores and equipments at seven camels to the ton ; for slow ordinary travelling of about twenty miles per day of from eight to ten hours in duration ; for more rapid movements the loads should be proportionately lightened. 48G Shifts and Expedients of The following table of cainol burdens made use of in various parts of the world may prove useful to the traveller in many lands : COUNTRY. Algeria, Morocco, Tunis, Tripoli, Egpyt, Syria, Asia Minor, Turkey in Asia, Persia and Tartary, Beloochistan, Cabool, Hindoostan, Thibet, Birmah, \ Mongolia, ^ Crim-Tartary and ) the borders of > From 3001b. to 5001b. Southern Russia, ^ WEIGHT. From 3001b. to 4001b. From 3501b. to 5501b. From 6001b. to 6001b. From 3001b. to 4001b. DESCRIPTION OF ANIMAL. Ordinary camels of the country. Camels of the country. Large-sized bull camels (Inks, as they are called) and hybrids (or booghdee). Ordinary breeds. Bactrian. The age of a camel, like that of a horse or mule, may be judged of by the teeth. It remains without incisor teeth until the termina- Hints on ^^^^ of the third year of its life, when it has two ; at camels, g^g years old, it will have four; at six years old six incisors ; and at eight there will be a full complement — canines and molars. The condition of the hump is a good index of the general well-doing of the animal, as that structure is the first to fail or diminish from want or overwork. The food of camels may be said to be found everywhere on the earth^s surface where vegetation, of even the most scanty and unattrac- tive character, is to be found. All is food that comes to tooth with the camel, and when low trees have been scarce, we have often sent a native armed with our hatchet or billhook to climb into a large peepul, neem, or baubul thorn tree, and chop down a cartload or two of branches. These, when dragged with hook-ended sticks to where the camels were picketed, were received with cavernous rumblings and grunts of satisfaction ; and the same tree, by the use of the same Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 487 implement^ yielded not uufrequently tlie supper for tlie camels and the fuel to cook our own evening meal. The Arabs generally maintain that the camel should not drink more frequently than once in every three days, although in dry hot weather we have known them drink much more frequently without being apparently the worse for the indulgence. We have on many occasions endeavoured to ascertain the quantity of water taken at each period of thirst- quenching, and the result of our investigations have led us to the conclusion that about five gallons should be allowed as a drink to each camel when he takes in water on the march. The stomachs of the camel, like those of other ruminating animals, are constructed so as to admit of a store of both food and water being laid up in them to meet the demand when other sources of supply fail. In cases of extreme necessity, and when the preservation of human life depends on the obtainment of water, the supply to be found in the stomach of the camel should not be overlooked or forgotten. During the Algerian campaign the French made some investigations in order to find out the quantity of water a dead camel's stomach would contain, and the result was that about 15 pints was the average arrived at. This water, although green and turbid, had no offensive smell; and it was at the time asserted by the Arabs that water of this character required three days to clear itself. This period, however, could rarely, if ever, be allowed to elapse, as three days would probably close the scene of sufiering, exhaust the patience of the distressed traveller, or lead him to more natural sources from which to obtain the precious fluid. In a case of emergency, we should simply pass the water through our pocket filter, which will be described under the head "AVater, and the Sap of Plants," and drink it at once. The regular purchase, collection, embarkation, and transport of camels has rarely been so carefully and successfully conducted as by the officers appointed by the Government of the United Camels, States of America, and the report forwarded to Congress *^ embark, by the officer in charge of the embarkation department will not fail to bo of interest and value. He says : "In the first place, the ship is 488 Shifts and Expedients of anchored aa close as possible to the place of embarkation to save time. The camel boat with the car in it is rowed on shore, and a force of about ten men sent to get the camels in. There is also sent on shore in the boat a good tackle (not very large), a camel harness complete, spare plank, hammer and nails, and about 50 fathoms of 2in. rope, all of which will be of use. " It is requisite to select a place for the boat where she will lie with her bow on a level with the wharf. If this cannot be done, and it is necessary to ' beach ^ her, then a strong bridge made of stout plank, and about 8ft. wide, will have to be constructed, strong enough to bear not only the camel^s weight, but to stand their struggling. This I was obliged to do. The bow of the boat being secured firmly to the wharf or bridge, the harness is placed on the camel, which is led up as close as it will go. If it will walk right into the car, one end of which is placed on the gunwale of the boat, so much the better (in no instance did we find them willing to go without foi'ce), but if it will not go in then hook on the tackle to the breaststrap of the harness on the camel ; let the men keep a steady pull upon it, and the camel will go in without a hurt, no matter how much he may resist. Four men guide the camel, and keep it in the centre of the planks, and one man leads it by the halter into the car, through which the tackle is led, one block being booked to the other end of the boat. After the camel is in it is made to lie down, the knees tied round with ropes, a rope across the neck Camp Life, Travel, and Explorafuoi. 489 and made fast to tlie knees, and two or three ropes across tlie back to keep it down. It is then hoisted on to the camel deck without fright or excitement of any kind." The opposite illustration will serve to show how the ropes and tackle are arranged for the purpose of urging a reluctant camel onwards. When the camels were all on board the report goes on as follows : — "Having taken in all the camels, two days we occupied in fitting to each one its proper harness (for almost every one of them differed in size and form), marking their numbers on the harness, and fitting out each one with brush and currycomb — all of which it is necessary to be done before going to sea. Hayracks, made of large open network, wci'e fitted amidships, extending the whole length of the camel deck. Large bags filled with hay were also placed against the ship's sides for thoir haunches to rest against, and two ropes fitted for securing to the PBEPAaED FOU ROUGH WEATHER. harness on each camel." The above engraving wall show the manner in which the camels were secured when a gale of wind or a heavy sea prevailed. " To enable the camel guard to efiiciently watch their charge at night, four large lanterns with reflectors were put up, and lighted every evening at sunset ; and, in case of accidents from fire, two largo water tubs were kept always full." The American camel journal kept on board the United States ship Supply is so thoroughly practical and useful, that we p . n c • f ^ Camel journal, msert a specimen of its form of construction for the guidance of travellers who may have to perform a voyage with camels newly purchased for an expedition or campaign. 490 Shifts and Expedients of Camel Journal. 18 . Jan. 21 22 Bales. 2801b. 2201b. 1 bale Galls. 30 40 40 Bags. 2 Galls. MEDICINES. lb. \ sulphur Received on board GjCamels (2 of them males). Washed them and secured them in their stalls. Put sulphur in their water. Fitted the harness when required, and rubbed the camels well with curry- combs and brushes. Named the camels and lettered the harness. Refilled the netting with hay, as also the fenders for their behinds. Went roimd the camels with sulphur oint- ment, and applied it on aU suspicious- looking places. Ceased to issue oats. Littered with hay. The treatment of camels wlion suffering from disease or accident will bo given under tlie head " Veterinary Surgery .^^ Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 491 CHAPTEI^ XIII. WATER, AND THE SAP OF PLANTS. The wliole success of au expedition aud the preservation of tlie lives of those composing it have not unfrequeutly depended on the obtainment of this precious fluid ; and, as its importance to the traveller is vital, so the sources from which it is to be obtained are numerous. Rivers, lakes, springs, and rain pools are the most common and obvious, needing no comment here. Showers of rain often yield a Locality for considerable quantity, which may be caught in sails or water, sheets spread for the purpose, selecting those which are free from the perspiration of men or animals. Deep clefts among rocks and ra^anes often contain a great deal, and the cliffs by the sea-shore, although there are no rivulets to be discovered, frequently contain cracks and crevices, through which water runs and loses itself in the sand. The beds of apparently dried-up watercourses should be always explored carefully, as high up as possible, and the stones at the bottom of the deepest pools lifted out, and their resting places examined. A piece of woollen cloth, a sponge, or a bunch of soft moss, will much facilitate the withdrawal of chance finds in such places. Spots of low ground, on which reeds, rushes, or other water plants are found, should be carefully examined, and their depths probed with a strong sharp- pointed stick. The tracks of wild animals are often valuable guides to water ; but careful examination is needed lest the searcher should take the back track, and go from, instead of towards, it. A sharp lookout overhead towards evening will often be rewarded by a sight of the flocks of wild- fowl or other birds winging their way towards the drinking places. Baggage animals and dogs at times show extraordinary instinct in finding pools and springs where they are least expected to exist. We have also seen Indians apparently guided by some singular faculty to 492 Shifts and Expedieyits of its neighbourhood. In most countries some particular kind of tree will be met with generally associated with the presence of water, and growing near it. Should moisture be discovered a hole should bo at once dug by loosening the earth and gravel with the stick, and then clearing out the hole with the hand, a small " well '' as deep as the arm is long, may be very rapidly made in this manner : Well hardening the point of the digging stick in the fire will add much to its efficiency, and is much better than a mere pointing with a sharp instrument. Where the soil is of a loose character and the sides of the well likely to fall in, a long bundle of reeds or rushes should be bound together and thrust down. Holes of this kind may be long preserved as drinking places by making up a round ball of slender twigs just sufficiently large to fit the hole, ramming it firmly to the bottom, then placing a bamboo or other hollow tube long enough to reach a couple of feet or so above the surface, and then filling in the hole with earth and pressing the whole well down. The water is thus preserved from evaporation, and can be sucked freely through the tube. At times it will be found to flow up the tube and run over, or a second tube may be put in to blow through, when the w\atcr can be caught in any convenient vessel by boring a hole through a bit of " ~" ~ ^°^ bark for the upper end of the tube to fit into, thus forming a shoot for it to run off through, as in the above illustration. When horses or cattle have to be watered from a pool or " well " of any size, and the water is any distance below the sur- face, the old expedient of the lover and post, so common all through Egypt and most Eastern countries, will be found an exceedingly useful one. (See the following full-page illustration.) Wlien travel- ling through Central India, where the wells are often very large and deep, we used to find our small brass " lota pot," which was carried strapped fast to the front of the saddle, with a long Catnp Life, Travel, and E.qjloration. 493 coil of whipcord stowed away iu it to lower and raise by, of great service. Drinking troughs for cattle are conveniently made from hollow tree trunks, sheets of bark with the ends nipped up, or by digging a trench in the ground and placing a piece of canvas or an indiarubber ground sheet in it. In watering cattle from contrivances of this kind two separate herds should be formed, consisting of those which have to drink and those which have drunk, letting them up one at a time, and keeping back the rest. Much confusion and irregularity are thus avoided, and you are sure that each animal has had its share. We can only give a few general hints on searching for water. Perhaps the surest way is if there are natives in the country to make friends of them, not by hurriedly and lavishly forcing Water, to find, upon them presents — costly, it may be, to the giver, but valueless to them — but by quietly waiting to see what they value, and giving it in moderate quantities, as if the donor knew its worth as well as they. Half a stick of tobacco, a short pipe, a sixpenny knife, or cotton handkerchief, blue spotted with white, or a few strings of beads of the kind they value — generally white, red, blue, or black opaque seed beads — will gain their good will better than useless tinsel or gewgaws of ten times the cost ; while a Dutch brass-barrelled tinder-box, with flint and steel, value Is. or 1.^. 6d., becomes far in the interior an article of such value that it ought not to be given except as a reward for real service. Extravagant liberality will only be attributed to fear, more especially if haste accompanies it ; therefore, it is wise to spend a little time before making even the preliminary oSer of a pipeful of tobacco, and more before giving the real present and making known what is desired iu return. But in reality the traveller will save time, and when he does ask for water the native will bring him a supply, or point out where to obtain it ; whereas, were he to open the negotiations by hurriedly demanding information, the natives would become suspicious of his motive, and would in the first instance tell him a lie in order to throw him ofl"the scent and gain time to discover his supposed intentions. In the absence of native guides, converging footpaths of men or animals will probably lead to a pool. Most antelopes drink every day, but this is not the case with the gemsbok or the eland, the last of 494 Shifts and Expedients of which never drinks, or, if it ever does, the instances are quite exceptional. As before stated, the flight of birds morning and evening shoukl also be watched, but this, however, is not always an infallible sign, as we have seen cockatoos drinking water so black that we could not use it ; but when, as we have also seen, even the parrots desert an island before sunset it becomes tolerably certain that no water will be found upon it. Depressions on the ground should be followed, and additional freshness of vegetation carefully sought for. An iron ramrod may be thrust into the ground when there is any chance of dampness below the surface, and the traveller should make himself acquainted with the peculiar plants of the country which grow near the water. The pau- danus, or screw pine of Australia, is one of these. In savage countries the labour of seeking and digging for water falls principally on the women, who usually make use of a fire- hardened grubbing stick for working a hole in the ground. The stick is loaded with a perforated stone of several pounds weight to give additional force to each stroke, and as the soil is loosened it is cleared out by the insertion of the hand and arm, using the bent fingers as a scoop. Use is also made of a stick split to about 12iu. or 15in. from the end, and this, when worked down into soft soil, catches and brings up a quantity in the cleft, and this being shaken out upon one side the stick is again clear and fit to bring up more. A bamboo cane, with the end split up into several filaments, is used for the same purpose by the natives of India. Where only salt or saline water is to bo obtained recourse may bo had to distillation, which may serve, as it has done in many well- authenticated cases, to at least save the lives of the human beings and dogs of a party. Little hope could, however, be entertained of being enabled by this means to supply the wants of cattle or horses. A " still " may be very easily made from any vessel which will stand fire, such as one of the copper water barrels hereafter described, or even a common cooking pot and a iMuki'shift still. i , gun barrel (single or double), a hollow bamboo with the knots removed, or, in fact, any heillow tube. If a pot is used, a stout heavy wooden cover must be fitted to it, through Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 495 whicli two holes are to be cut — one at the side for the barrel or tube, and the other a bung-hole at the top, which must have a stopper fitted securely to it, and is used to introduce the water as it becomes exhausted. This saves the trouble of removing the cover, and thus disturbing the other arrangements. The annexed illustration will serve to explain the nature of a contrivance of this kind. The boat- shaped box resting on the forked sticks is made of bark, pinned at the ends with wooden pins. This is filled with a couple of woollen blankets or a quantity of moss, or even seaweed. The barrel passes directly through the centre, and is kept cold by constantly throwing cold water over it. The fresh water runs out through the hole from which the nipple is unscrewed, and is caught in any suitable vessel ; and the waste salt water through holes bored in the burk for the purpose. Many modifications of this plan might, of course, be had recourse to, but this will be found about as convenient as any. Barrels, or hooped vessels of any kind, are about the very worst that can be taken into a wild country, as the hoops come off as the wood shrinks, causing leaks and endless trouble. For carrying water on the backs of animals a pair of thin sheet copper flasks (20in. long, 12iu. broad, and Sin. thick) will be found exceedingly convenient. These should have broad and Copper strong loops soldered on to pass leather straps and "^^^"^^ tiasks. lashings through, and in using water it should be taken alternately to preserve an even balance. The bung-holes should be at the ends and have a stout raised ring round them, through which a hole is drilled ; through this a pin is run, passing through a corre- sponding hole in the wooden stopper, thus keeping it secure. These flasks, when made, should be thoroughly tinned inside. They are useful for a number of purposes. Water can be boiled in them as well as carried. They can, on an emergency, be converted into a 496 Shifts and Expedients uf '' still/^ as before stated, and when corked up air-tiglit are a great support to a raft. One at eacli end of an outrigger pole renders tlie upsetting of a canoe or float log next to impossible. No knocking about hurts them, and should at any time a leak be discovered a bit of solder puts the matter to rights at once. Next in value to flasks, perhaps, come leather mussacks, of the description used in the East. They can be made of any size, and, when Water skius injured or pricked, as they sometimes are by sharp cand pails. sticks or thirsty niggers, they are readily repaired for the time by pinching up a piece of leather at the orifice and passing a sharp-pointed stick through, over which a clove hitch (see " Knots and Hitches ") may be secured. A patch may be sewn on when there is time to do it, just as a cobbler mends a shoe. But bear in mind that, instead of the ordinary thread or hempen cord used in mending or making leather utensils or articles in this country, a dry carefully-cut leather thong should be used instead, as when once in place it swells from the action of the water on it, and completely fills the holes through which it has been passed, thereby preventing leakage. In Mongolia they use a very useful pail or bucket for carrying water. It has a head fixed into it much like that of an ordinary barrel, and there are two openings or bung-holes ; one tolerably large on one side, just below the edge of the head, and another through the head itself. In these orifices wooden plugs or stoppers are fitted, and, when water is to be poured out, the stopper in the head is just eased like the vent peg of a cask, so that air may be admitted ; when the stopper is taken out the larger hole freely discharges the water, which would not run without the vent-peg arrangement. During the year 1865, when we had entered the Victoria River, North Australia, and the Tom Towjli was still drifting, in daily danger of breaking up upon the sand-banks, we had become tired of carrying water overland from distant pools to supply 140 sheep ; and, consider- ing that if our inflatable boat (p. 48) would hold air to float upon the water she would also hold fresh water to float in salt, we determined to seek supplies farther up the river ; and putting the four sections into the schooner's gig, we sailed or pulled alternately thirty or fortv Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 497 miles up the river, till tlie entire cessation of tlie mangroves and the appearance of the pandanus, or screw pine, upon the banks and islands showed that we were above the influence of the tide and in a stream of permanently fresh water. We halted at Palm Island, and, choosing a place where the water was a little more than knee deep, we threw the inflatable sections over- board, and, fixing the bellows in the valves, held Canoe them beneath the surface and pumped water into water-transport. them, just as we would have pumped air had we required them for boats. We did not quite fill them with water, but forced in a little air to give them buoyancy, and, at the same time, to preserve their shape. In towing them, however, the pressure of the water caused the foremost ends to assume a wedge-like form, while the water and air, being forced aft, carried all the buoyancy thither, and they went down head-foremost. We remedied this by cutting a long spar and lashing them to it, making fast also an indiarubber mattress to the parts most liable to go down. Tedious enough was our voyage down the river. To make anything like speed with such a drag astern of the boat was impossible, either with oars or sails ; and during the heat of the day we found the cement of the bags beginning to soften and give way. They had been warranted to stand 170*^; but, testing them by the thermometer, the internal heat was only 120°. We gathered up the defective part, knotted it with a bit of twine, and laced the bag along the gunwale of our boat — keeping her in trim by lacing its fellow on the other side — leaving only one pair to be towed astern. The extensive shallows, where for half a mile on a stretch the river percolated through rather than flowed over broad banks of angularly-broken stones, caused us considerable labour and anxiety lest some sharper point than usual should pierce our bags and deprive us of the fruit of all our toil. We found, however, that they yielded kindly to the varpng pressure ; and we rolled them, one by one, over the successive reaches — working for hours together through the night, and frequently in pools in which we saw alligators, and sometimes sharks of considerable size. Our week's work, however, toilsome as it was, resulted in a supply of 600 or 800 gallons of fresh water, tasting somewhat of indiarubber. 498 Shifts and Expedients of but still available for the sheep. This supply we could have obtained in no other manuer. Water-bags for ship use may be made of stout No. 1 canvas. They should be of oblong form, about 2ft. long by 18in. wide. They Shins' should be in two thicknesses — the inside or lining water-bags, "being kept perfectly clean, and the outer one previously oiled with good boiled linseed oil and allowed to dry before it is made up, so as to keep the inner canvas as free from taint as possible. Generally the canvas is wetted with salt water, and then hung up till it is wind dry, or just so damp that no water will drip from it. It is then considered to be capable of absorbing just so much oil as will suffice to render it waterproof without clogging it or making it unpleasant to handle when it is dry. A sufficiently stout rope should be stitched round the seam of the bag ; beckets or loops should be left in it at the four comers for convenience of handling; and a wooden tube or stopper should be inserted, and firmly seized in with small cord at one corner. These bags are most convenient when a supply of water is needed on any emergency, especially if the landing be difficult or dangerous, or the inhabitants hostile. They occupy no room in the boat while empty. The oarsman may pull in unencumbered through the surf; or, if it is necessary to fight, the riflemen may use their weapons. When the landing is effected each carrier may seize his bag, sling it over his shoulder with a lanyard, and experience no hindrance until he actually fills it, when, of course, the weight of the water will become a burden. The bags will lie flat in the boat's bottom, accommodating their form to that of the space they occupy. If it is necessary to carry sail they serve as ballast ; and even were the boat to fill, they would not sink her, but, as fresh water is of somewhat less specific gravity than salt, would, if secured by bottom boards laid over them and beneath the thwarts, help to keep her up ; and on this account they would form the most eligible ballast for boats on separate service, and even for pleasure boats on excursions, where they might not be in actual need of a large supply of fresh water. Cattle horns serve in South Africa for powder-flasks or water vessels, some, especially among the Bechuana tribes, being 13ft. from Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. • 499 tip to tip, and capable of containing several gallons each; while the Hottentots use them to hold honey beer, and the Abyssinians for " tedge " or mead. A calabash, or gourd, is used Calabashes, homs, by most of the natives of South Africa, as well as ^^. albecore are at times taken in considerable numbers by making use of a rude imitation of the flying fish ; and the form of this contrivance (represented at Fig. 4 in the accompanying illustration) will show that one need not de- spair of catching fish because he has no fish hook. A piece of oak or other hard wood, about 7in. This is cut slightly tapering towards the tail, like the body of a fish. About lin. from the tail a hole is bored, and through this a strong sharp nail, such as carpenters use, is Makeshift hooks. , i * « ^ • driven obliquely. A few turns of twine round the wood and nail serve to prevent shifting or splitting. The ''head" end of the stick has a notch cut round it to fasten the line to, and secure a couple of strips of white rag in, so that the free ends may represent the wings or fins of the fisb. This aSair, when finished and attached to a strong line, is cast into the sea, and kept leaping from wave to wave, when it is greedily seized by the pursuing boneta or albecore, who discovers when too late that, instead of securing a rich and palatable flying fish, he has swallowed a nail instead. The Esquimaux make an excellent substitute for a fish hook by scraping a strip of whalebone round and fine, and then binding on a piece of hard, finely-pointed bone at an acute angle, with a strip of sinew or split ground willow, as shown at Fig. 3. A sail needle may be made to do duty for a hook by attaching it to the line, as shown at Fig. 2. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploi'ation. 587 The albatross can be conveniently taken when following a ship at sea by the use of a baited sailmaker's hook. The point holds in the curved portion of the bird^s beak^ whilst the swivel at its looped end prevents the line from twisting and becoming entangled. Fig. 1, 5«f> ^piit^ the manner in which this hook is formed. The shanks of horse-nails make very good fish hooks. These, when filed down to the proper thickness, must be laid, one by one, in a narrow groove made in a piece of hard wood, and the barb struck up with a chisel or the sloped edge of a knife. One smart, well-directed blow on the instrument usually efi'ects this. The point is now to be filed up sharp, the wire gently heated in the fire, and twisted with pliers — or, in the absence of these, a split stick — into proper hook form, when it is to be subjected to the case-hardening process. (See " Case-hardening.'^) Hooks of any size may be made in this way, merely taking care to use good tough iron for the purpose. Stout, large-sized needles may be used straight for the capture of eels and some other kinds of fish. When so used, the line is firmly secured by waxed thread or silk to the centre of the needle, which is baited by drawing a large worm or other bait over both needle and line, which, when so prepared, lie in a line with each other. On the fish swallowing the bait and the line being drawn tight, the needle at once becomes fixed across the throat, and thus holds the captive until dragged to the shore. The needle is then easily withdrawn by pressing back one end with a bit of stick. 588 Shifts a7id Expedients of Tackle, to select. We strongly advise the traveller to include in his list of stores a liberal supply of fish hooks of various sizes, for both sea and I'iver fish, together with some strong brass swivels, a few hanks of stout gut, and fishing lines for river and sea fishing. The former should be of the kind known as prepared salmon line, and the latter hemp or cotton sea line. The sea lines should be all " barked '' before use ; any tanner will subject them to that process for a mere trifle. Lines so treated are infinitely more durable than those used in a raw state. It will sometimes happen that when separated from your stores, short of food, and with very few appliances with you, a catch of fish proves highly acceptable, and tackle of some kind has to be extemporised. We have had on many occasions to do this. Rods can be made very easily from tough sticks or bamboo canes. Fishing lines should never be put away wet, as they will soon decay, and become weak and unreliable. The most portable and convenient form of hand reel we have ever used is made as follows : Two pieces of well-seasoned wood are cut flat, like stout round-ended paper knives. Two holes are burned or bored in each, as at 1 in the annexed illustration; then two round bars are cu.t with points and shoulders, as at 2. A cork bung is then fashioned and bored in the centre, as at 3 ; the hole in this admits one of the round bars, and serves to stick the points of the hooks in. No. 4 represents the frame or reel put together, and shows the position of the bung and the loop of the line. The ends or shoulder pieces of the round bars are secured by small pins driven through them. Reels of this description afford free ventilation to the lines coiled on them. They can be taken asunder in an instant, and will pack in a very small space. We made an excellent outfit for fly-fishing in the Crimea as follows : Hints on ^^ selected a set of straight tough dog-wood sticks tackle making. ^^^^ ^.j^^ fascines for the joints of our rod ; these were feruled with tubes made from preserved-meat tins cut and soldered. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exioloration. 689 The rings were made from wire buttons Avith tlie thread covering cut oJEf; the line from hair pulled from the horses' tails, twisted or laid up by the aid of a set of quill sticks,, the use of which will be described as our work proceeds. The winch was made from a large-sized cotton reel mounted on a frame of forage hoop iron, and the handle from a piece of a broken Eussian ramrod. We were often asked by envious fellow campaigners where we had picked up such an excellent fly-rod and fittings. Our having made it from the limited means at our disposal was never even suspected by them. The following adventure will serve to illustrate the manner in which a httle ingenuity will often procure a dinner. Our little party encamped one morning, after a very long fatiguing ^ dinner night march in Bengal, under the shelter of an immense extemporised, banyan tree which grew on the banks of a deep reed-fringed lake. A small native village, situated at no great distance, had been pillaged and deserted some time before, and a miserable pariah dog or two wandering disconsolately about between the huts, and a few inqui- sitive-looking crows perched on the roofs, were the only living crea- tures to be discovered. No land of Canaan was this; commons of the very shortest kind stared us unpleasantly in the face. Still we had some bags of grain of the country, and a little '' ghee " or native butter. An old corn mill, of the " quern " pattern before described, was foraged out from some forgotten nook or corner, and set to work preparing flour. A needle from the doctor's instrument case, when heated in the fire and bent to a proper form, made a very tolerable hook ; a skein of his suture silk, a line ; a bamboo cane, pulled from the roof of a hut, a rod ; a bit of bark with a stick through it made a float ; a few shot, split with a knife, sinkers ; and some beetle larvae, which were routed out of a decayed log, formed a very toothsome bait. The lake was clearly our larder, and to it we betook ourselves with as little delay as possible, the long cane over one shoulder, a double-barrelled gun over the other, and a leather bucket s^vung over the arm in lieu of a fishing creel. No Waltonian enticements in the shape of ground bait were needed here ; the bait was hardly out of sight before the float vanished, and then, on the ^'haul devil, pull baker " principle, out our floundering victims came amongst 590 Shifts and Expedients of the sedges and reeds. A shrill blast on our railway whistle not only brought one of the sable camp followers to carry the welcome capture to the cook, but roused six or eight large grey wild ducks, which had lain like so many water rails amongst the tall reeds, and sent them with outstretched necks and whistling wing wheeling round the lake, when by dropping under a hollow bank and keeping well down we lulled suspicion, and the flock come cutting the air right overhead. Now is our time, and, pitching the heavy double well before them, we let drive in rapid succession the two charges of big shot. Three thumping ducks come like clods to the earth; a few feathers drift off on the wind far in the rear of the survivors, who do not linger on the wing ; and little did we care where their flight might lead them — our hunter's dinner had been earned, and in less than two hours from its obtainment was dulycooked, eaten, and its merits discussed. A very effective contrivance for taking caymans or alligators was made use of by Waterton's followers in British Gruiana. The annexed Alligators, illustration represents a modification of it. Two or more to catch, tough fire-hardened sticks are notched at the large end like the head of a tent peg, and barbed at the point like a straight- ened fish hook. The notched ends are bound fast with raw hide lashings to a stout rope, which has been served for about 6ft. or 7ft. with stout wire. When this con- trivance is to be used, the barbed tines and rope are thickly wound round with the entrails of some animal, and then suspended just above the water by supporting the rope on an upright crutch, which is so adjusted as to give way on the bait being taken. When the whole mass has been pouched by the alligator, and the rope is hauled on, the tines open, catch across the gullet, and act as a hook. We have heard of alligators being destroyed by inclosing a canister of powder, with the wires of a galvanic battery attached to it, in the offal of any animal ; this, when fitted with a line and float, was cast into the water, and, on a bite being perceived, the connection of the circuit was made, when the alUgator was shattered by the force of the explosion which followed. Gcmip Life, Travel, and Exploration. 591 Alligators are incorrigible pests to tlie fisherman, waiting until the fish is securely hooked, and then carrying it off, line and all. The following plan is the best we know to baffle the greedy Alligatora marauders. Strong flexible sticks, like small fishing rods, **^ baffle, are to be cut, taking care to select such as have lateral branches some distance down. One of these is to be cut to about 2in. from the main FISH SPRINti. stem, and a notch made in its end for a button on the line to catch in, as shown in the above illustration. This, when freed by the biting of the fish, allows the rod to spring smartly up, and swing the fish high enough to be beyond the reach of the prowling pirate. A variety of fish may be taken in ponds and lakes by the use of inflated bladders, of which several can be used at once. They are thus prepared. The bladder, after being well filled with air Lio-o-ers and by blowing into it through a quill or bit of cane, trimmers, must have its neck securely tied up with twine, and to this fasten- ing a piece of stick the size of the little finger must be attached, so that it forms a sort of stem-Hke appendage to the bladder. The line, with the baited hook attached, is now to be knotted fast to the centre of the stem, and then wound on it just as thread is wound on a reel. The lower end of the stick or stem must now have a slit made in it. The line, when pulled into this, should have just a sufficient length to hang freely in the water. The bladder is now to be taken to the windward side of the pond or lake, and cast adrift. On the bait being seized by the fish, the hue is jerked from the sHt. 692 Shifts and Expedients of The bladder, revolving on its own axis, allows the coil to unwind from the stem, and from its extreme buoyancy soon tires out the largest captive, whose position it serves to indicate to the fisherman, who gathers up his prizes at his leisure from his canoe or reed boat. Bundles of rushes, large corks, empty bottles, and a number of other things, can be used as substitutes for the bladders. Contrivances of this kind are commonly called " trimmers" or " liggers." Large turnips are often used by poachers to mount lines on for the capture of pike in preserves, as, unless rather experienced hands, the keepers do not suspect the dangerously destructive character of these floating roots. On the Vaal River, in South Africa, we caught barbel up to 271b. weight by thus using an empty powder canister ; but it was anchored in mid stream by a stone not heavy enough to prevent a large fish from -^-1^ ^.x--^' ~*^^^C Life, Travel, and Exploration, 617 The Avomera is about 30iu. in leugtli^ aud is held iu the right hand, the forefinger of which sometimes grasps the spear also, to steady it until the moment before it is thrown, while the left hand supports the centre of the shaft, prevents the weight from depressing the point, and steadies and directs the aim. The advantage gained by the use of the womera will be readily understood by anyone who will remember that the length of stroke is an important element in estimating the power of a steam engine. Suppose the length of a man^s arm, from collar-bone to fist, to be 3ft., and the chord of the arc through which he is able to swing his body in the act of throwing 4ft., we shall have 10ft. as the length of his stroke ; and if we add to this double the length of the womera, or 5ft., we shall find that he is able to apply propelling force to the weapon while it is passing through 15ft. of space, an advantage which naturally exhibits its corresponding efiect in the increase of range. The spear point is generally charred to harden it. The boomerang, a weapon whose apparently mysterious property of coming back to the hand that has thrown it, must be now much better understood iu England than it was before the arrival of the Australian cricketers. It is a thin blade of wood, curved either sabre- like in the segment of a circle, or bent in the centre at an obtuse angle. But its peculiar property is that, owing to a shght twist or change in the plane of surface on either side the centre, it becomes in reahty a segment of one turn in the flange of a screw of exceedingly small pitch, and if its length were indefinitely increased it would assume the form of the spiral springs used in candle lamps, or in the well known toy of Jack-in-the-box ; and supposing a small segment of one turn cut from the wire of such a spring and flattened, without altering either its circumferential or its spiral curve, we should have an exact representation of the boomerang. Little more need be said of this weapon, as no one but a native could ever hope to use it efiectively. A very simple form of harpoon is used for spearing turtle by some Australians we fell in with near the Goidburn . n -n Turtle spears. Islands. They had evidently been alongside European ships, and it was probably from this source that they had acquired 61S Shifts and Expedients of the essential part of their harpoon — an iron spike about 6in. long, and pointed at both ends. To this was fastened a small line, which was also stopped to the staff — a light pole about 8ft. long — the remainder of the line being held loosely coiled in the hand. Some- times the Australians use their paddle as a spear by having the blade end sharpened, barbed, and hardened. Oa/mp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 619 CHAPTER XVI. POISONED WEAPONS, AEROWS, SPEARS, &c. The arrows of the South African Bushmen are worthy of notice, not only for the ingenuity displayed in making formidable weapons from such apparently insignificant materials, but for the deadly Poisoned poison with which in many cases they are imbued. A arrows, crooked stick, a few reeds, bits of bone, and the dorsal sinews of any antelope, are all the materials required in the formation of the weapons. The poisoning is sometimes a more elaborate affair. Among the southern tribes, some of whom still maintain an existence as hunters and occasional marauders on the borders of the colony, the juices of the bulbs of various species of amarylUs and hsemanthus, mixed sometimes with serpent poison, and aided by the adhesive acrid juice of the euphor- bium, are boiled down in the hollow of a stone to the tough viscous consistency of birdlime, and sparingly smeared upon the arrow heads. Farther to the north the process is much more simple. The Bush- men of the Kalihari Desert, and the regions in the vicinity of Lake Ngami, use the entrails of a grub called ^kaa or ngwa, an almost inarticulate sound, which it is impossible to ^vl•ite so as to enable the English reader to pronounce it with anything like correctness. Both forms of spelling are attempts to indicate a cHck of the tongue against the teeth, followed by a slight nasal ringing, and ending in the broad sound of the vowel " sk."" The grub is of a creamy white, and is soft, with the exception of its head; and when full- sized seldom much exceeds three-quarters of an inch in length. It lives chiefly, perhaps almost exclusively, upon the leaf of a tree called " Maruru papeerie,'' which varies from the size of a small low-growing shrub to that of a moderately-sized ti*ee, upwards of 20ft. high, or 12in. or 14in. in thickness. It is covered with thorns, and its wood in the vicinity of Lake Ngami was soft and of a very even texture; but 620 Shifts and Expedients of toward the Zambesi it seemed harder. When we first saw it it was feeding on these leaves, and we were rather puzzled by a loose ragged mantle or envelope of green matter, which seemed to be peeling off like a skin in process of being cast. It lay in loose rolls, mostly parallel to the muscular rings upon the body, and was gradually forced forward, so as to form a hood or shield above the head, where it dried and broke off as it accumulated, and was replaced by fresh matter. Our highest magnifying power was the microscope of a sextant ; but this at length enabled us to decide that the green matter was merely excrement issuing not only in the usual manner, but also from pores ranged along the whole length of the body. As the grub attains its full size, this matter issues more sparingly, and is of a browner colour. The grub drops to the ground, buries itself to the depth of a couple of feet, and forms its cocoon of a thin shell of earth, cemented by glutinous juices around its body. This is quite hard enough to bear handling, even rather roughly, so long as it retains its perfect form, and we brought several specimens to England; but if it is once broken, the slightest touch is enough to complete its destruction. In ajDplying this poison to their arrows, the Bushmen collect a number of the cocoons, which they lay near them on a skin, a leaf, or on a sandal ; they break one of these, and, taking out the grub, hold it between the thumb and forefinger, and squeeze the entrails, or rather the internal juices, in small drops upon the arrow head, which is then carefully laid upon any extemporised rest to dry in the sun, much as an artist lays his brushes on something that will keep the hair from contact with anything capable of giving or receiving damage from the colour with which they are charged. They take the greatest possible care not to let these juices come in contact with any cut or sore, or abrasion of the skin, for they would in such case produce the same excruciating agony that is inflicted upon a wounded animal ; and it is said that a man with a wound, however slight, so infected, would become a maniac, and would probably destroy himself in the extremity of his pain. It is, however, believed that fat rubbed plentifully on the wound, and taken internally in sufficient quantities, would prove an antidote ; but this is a medicine by no means likely to be always at hand among persons living a nomadic life, and but occasionally Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 621 supplied witli animal food like the BusTiman. Fortunately for them they possess another remedy^ growing plentifully and naturally in most parts of their country. We were aware that they knew of this ; and a friend_, who had been personally acquainted with the chief for a considerable time, had long attempted to induce him to reveal its name, but he was unwilling to do so, till in a conversation with another member of his tribe he mentioned its name; and our friend, who perfectly understood the Sechuana and some of the other native languages, asked him at the next opportunity if the remedy in question were not the " Kala haetlwe,^^ and thus surprised him into the confession that white men knew everything, and that further attempts at concealment were useless. The word kala signifies friend, but we are not aware of the meaning of the concluding syllables. The " Kala haetlwe" is a small, soft-stemmed plant; the flower is yellow, star- shaped, and has five petals ; the stamens are numerous, and the calyx is divided into two sepals. The root is something between a bulb and a tuber — rough and brown outside — and, when cut, is seen marked with concentric lines of light reddish brown and purple. The leaves are 2^in. in length, and |in. wide. The mid-rib of the leaf projects on the under surface, and forms a depression on the upper. There are, however, two other plants which bear the same name, and are used for the same purpose. One of them has a broader leaf and larger flower, and tastes like sorrel; and the third has a waved or wrinkled leaf. The root or bulb is chewed and laid on the wound, and is followed by plentiful application of fat. The natives use an arrow with a bone head dotted over with the ngwa or 'kaa poison, and loosely inserted into the shaft. This is a slender reed, seldom more than fin. thick. It is bound with sinew at the end to keep the head fi-om splitting it, and is also bound for the same purpose near the notch. In fastening this sinew no knots or hitches are used, but the end is frayed out very fine, cheAved soft, and, while still soft, is firmly pressed down upon the rest, where its glutinous properties cause it firmly to adhere. The Bushman makes use of a simple and effectual method of sheath- ing his arrows, so as to render any accidents impossible. "\Ylien not intended for use the point is reversed and enters the socket in the shaft. 622 Shiftx and Expedients of They make use of a very ingenious expedient for tightening the bowstring. A small knob of hardened sinew is firmly lashed to one end of the bow^ the string made of the dorsal sinews of the springbok or other antelope, slightly twisted, has a loop at one end, which is hitched on to the end of the bow ; the other is brought up and passed between the knob and the wood, several turns are taken loosely round the latter. When required for use the bow is bent by holding it with the hand and knee, with the action represented in the beautiful statue of Cupid, and then with the other hand turning the coil of sinew around the end of the bow until the string is sufficiently tightened. They also adopt a very simple plan of preserving an ostrich feather. The Bushman, it may be after weeks or months of patient stalking, kills an ostrich. He knows the feathers are valuable, and that from a white trader he may obtain for them tobacco, clasp knives, tinder boxes, or other articles of value to himself, but he also knows that he must keep them clean and unbroken. He therefore inserts the quill first into a reed, and taps it on the ground till the whole feather has vanished, and he can carry it about in his quiver ; and, to say truth, it is at first sight a little astonishing to a European when a Bushman ofiers for inspection a slender reed, to see him draw from it a gracefully waving ostrich plume of the finest quality and largest size. The simple apparatus by which the Bushmen obtain fire is shown at page 536. It consists of two sticks of moderately close-grained but not very hard wood. One of these, which may be called the fire stick, is somewhat thicker than the little finger, and may be of any length, gene- rally about Ift. or 18in., and in this small notches are cut with the point of an assegai, at about lin. apart, for the reception of the end of the other, or the whirling stick. This is about the size and length of the ramrod of a common fowling piece, and both are carried in the quiver, with their arrows, sucking reeds, and rushes, for the manufacture of bracelets, &c. The preparation of the wourari poison is usually conducted by natives, from whom it is best obtained. This substance may be at times of service to the explorer. The sumpitans of the Dyaks and Borneans should also be noticed. Mr. Bates says that salt is put on the tongue of the coati as a restorative from the stupor induced by the wourari poison. We have often hoard of poisoned bullets, and once Cam-p Life, Travel, and ExphraHon . 623 saw an experiment tried. A tola was bored in a revolver bullet and filled with tlie juices of the ^kaa or ugwa — the Bushman's poison grub ; this was fired into the rump of an ox ; the animal showed little or no sign of acute pain, but seemed to be dull and stupefied for some hours. At length it seemed as if it were likely to recover, and, partly because the flesh was really wanted for food, and partly to end an experiment which seemed likely to lead to no useful result, the poor creature was shot dead. Probably the fire might have neutralised or destroyed the active principle of the poison. We have heard of some native tribes who prepare arrow poison by first making a hollow nest in the liver of a dead animal. They then fill this with living centipedes, scorpions, tarantulas, and other poisonous creatures. These they irritate by striking the liver with a stick, when the virus of the united assemblage of venom bearers is poured out and at once absorbed by the liver, which is rubbed over the weapon to be treated. The Chinese plunge their arrows in a putrid carcase in order to poison them. The Malays keep their poison preparations strictly secret. Poisoned weapons retain their destructive qualities for years, and should therefore be handled with extreme caution. A square of paper, folded diagonally across, may be used as a ''feather '' for a blowpipe arrow. Wild cotton is also used to make the arrow fit the tube. A cross-bow of peculiar construction is used by the Chinese ; the action of the trigger is suflficiently simple to need no explanation, and the chief peculiarity consists in the fact of its having a kind of reservoir above the barrel, in which half a dozen or more ai'rows pr bolts lie one upon the other ; this is connected with the barrel only at the foremost end, the string passing beneath it, and the lowermost arrow resting on the string until the bow is bent ; then the string being pulled back allows one arrow to drop into its place in the barrel, from which, of course, a sufficient length of the upper part has been cut away to admit of the arrow falling in. When the trigger is pulled, the string drives the lower arrow out from beneath the others ; the next arrow then rests on the string, and, when that is again drawn back, drops like the first into the barrel ; and so on until all are exhausted, and it becomes necessary to replenish the reservoir. 624 Shifts and Expedients of The pellet bow, tlie subject of tbe illustration below, is an instru- ment with which many tribes make excellent practice with small pellets of hardened clay. For the inexperienced, a padded glove is necessary for the protection of the left thumb, and there is also a peculiar knack in so holding the bow that that arm shall be the merest trifle out of the Hue of flight of the pellet. Many semi-barbarous nations are perfectly aware of the advantage to be gained by rifling their arrows^ and this is done sometimes by having rather large barbs, and giving them a pitch or turn on opposite sideSj or by putting on the feathers spirally. In using the arrow for the capture of tortoises on the South American rivers, the archers like to shoot at such a distance that they may give their arrow a good elevation, and allow it to fall more per- pendicularly on the back of the tortoise, as it has then a better chance of penetrating the shell. It has no barb, as, if its broad point once pierces, there is not much fear of its being dragged out. A thorn wreath is used by the Uganda and other nations in Central Africa, and is described by Captain Speke. The thorns all point to the centre, and yield just enough to allow an antelope or other animal to put his foot through, when their points are sure to enter the leg, and prevent its coming off. A log is made fast to it, heavy enough to impede the motions of the animal, but not sufficiently so to tear the wreath off from his leg and allow him to get away. Young branches of many kinds of mimosa in South Africa, which have thorns 5in. or Gin. long, would answer well for this. The ancient Romans and Greeks made use of this contrivance in deer hunting. We remember seeing, several years ago, the foot of a Vaal rheebok encumbered with a joint of the spine of a horse or ox. The poor creature had literally put its foot in it some time before, and had worn the painful appendage till the skin beneath was destroyed and the tendons weakened, which led to its being eventually caught. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 625 ' Europeans are very rarely reduced to such a state of destitution as to be entirely without some tool or weapon of iron or steel, even if it is merely an old jack knife ; yet such cases may, xhe manufacture of and sometimes do, happen. We remember read- ^^^"^^ weapons. ing with great interest the tale of two seamen who, during many weeks' sojourn on a small island, possessed absolutely nothing but one knife, which served them to cut up the sea birds they managed to catch, till at length this, having been wrapped in a bloody cloth and carefully stowed away in a crevice of the rocks, was found by some bird, dragged from its hiding place, and irrecoverably lost ; then they with great labour beat out and ground down upon the rocks an old spike nail. Under such circumstances, the abiHty to pro- duce a cutting edge from a flint or other pebble of sufficient hardness would have stood them in good stead ; and even, if we remember how often edged tools are spared by using a piece of glass as a scraper, we shall be ready to acknowledge that a keen-edged fragment of flint, obsidian, or agate may advantageously be used in the same manner. Perhaps it may be thought absurd to give directions for the breaking of glass for this purpose, yet, simple as the matter seems, a hint may not be thrown away : Take the back of a knife, or the smooth straight edge of any piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment, then, taking the piece of glass in both hands, rest its edge midway between them on the edge of the iron ; let the upper edge of the glass lean from you, and push it gently along the iron, so as slightly to indent the edge of the glass ; then, reversing its position so as to make it lean towards you, draw it smartly along the iron, and you will find it separated by a clean fracture directly across, forming a line more or less curved, and leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other. By a little practice, and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other, almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be achieved. In North Australia we had reason to beheve that many of the tribes through whose country we passed were utterly ignorant of the use of iron. Fragments of jasper and other stones were found in several localities, where they had evidently been used for cutting up or skinning animals. Spear heads that they had dropped or lost in the chase were occasionally picked up ; and once we came across a con- s s 626 Shifts cmd Expedients of siderable area profusely strewn with chips of every form and kind, indicating that the manufacture of weapons had been extensively carried on there. Some of these might be relics of antiquity ; but those strewn upon the surface over an area of 200yds. or 300yds. were quite recent ; while along th^esuiver side were holes in the earth surrounded by scorched shells of the fres"h-wM&r mussel, of the tortoise and turtle, besides bones of fish and alligators, and fragments of charred wood and blackened stones that had been used in cooking. The savages might have been few in number ; perhaps in one instance the cooking holes would indicate the presence of twenty or thirty ; while, from the number of chips, from six to eight seemed to have been engaged in making weapons ; and it must be remembered that, thoroughly as they enjoy the pleasure of doing nothing, they are neither ignorant nor idle when employed either in the chase or in the preparation of snares or weapons for it. Besides this — as only the perfect weapons would be taken away for actual service, and the failures and imperfect ones would far outnumber them — it is easy to imagine how such chips would accumulate during successive generations. The following explanation of the progress of stone-implement making was given us by a fellow traveller, and our own examination of the fragments on the spot confirmed his statement : — The operator, squatting down before a block large and solid enough to be used as an anvil, selects a pebble as nearly oval as possible, and about the size of an ostrich egg or a cocoanut. One end of this he strikes on the large block, so as to detach a fragment, which leaves a flattened base ; then, taking it vertically in his hands, he strikes the edge of this base upon the anvil, detaching in succession two ovate chips as nearly as possible equal in form and size ; and this, if cleverly done, leaves a sharp and well- defined central rib, with a slightly hollowed facet on either side. The next blow should, if successful, split ojff another piece, small at the base, spreading slightly as it goes upwards, and finally tapering to a keen point, with the rib previously formed running truly along the centre ; and this chip constitutes the spear head, which is fastened to the shaft with gum and lasliings of bark or vegetable fibre. If this is well done, at least three chips must have been made in the Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 627 production of one head ; but if, as is most likely, the failures greatly outnumber the successes, the proportion of chips must be greatly increased. Sometimes, when a pebble is found well suited for the work, facets are struck oflF on all sides, and spear heads are formed as long as the cleavage of the "core" remains sufficiently perfect. Some of these, when about half worked out, present so great a resemblance to a common beer glass with facets on it, that we hardly know how to convey a better idea of the peculiar form. The stone tomahawks dis- covered were generally of trap or greenstone. They were first chipped out into a long wedge-like form, and then with great labour ground up to a uniform rounded edge upon other stones, and with gum and lashings securely fixed into a branch, part of which is generally made to bend round them as a handle. Blacksmiths in this country secure their cold chisels much in the same manner. ss2 628 Shifts and Expedients of CHAPTER XVII. TRACKING, HUNTING, AND TRAPPING. Most readers of works on travel must be familiar witli the apparently wonderful power possessed by savages of following the tracks of men or animals, and yet this is in reality only a habit of closely observing effects, and referring them to their natural causes. On the roads of a populous country, passengers, animals, and vehicles succeed each other so rapidly that no continuous spoor of any one of them remains ; but it is otherwise in the desert and the wilderness. There it is impossible for man or beast to efface the track that he has made. In countries such as Kafirland, where cattle thefts are common, no evidence is required but the track of the stolen animals entering a village, and the headman is considered responsible until he shows where the same track has gone out again. Kafirs have been known to sweep out the spoor with branches where they were about entering a ri-^er ; but such a ruse, though it might prevent a farmer making oath to the exact place at which they crossed, would never actually deceive him, or prevent his finding the track on the other side. Sometimes a number of men will tread in each other's footsteps, or they will walk backward for short distances, or will put on their shoes heel foremost ; but a practised eye will soon detect the deceit, and be aroused to double vigilance. It may be thought that a man passing barefooted over a hard rock would leave no trace; and yet the fine dust of the road he left, caked by perspiration, has been sufficient to betray him. Sometimes, in a grassy country, the track is best seen by looking out ahead, when it appears as a continuous line, showing where the grass has been turned, although it is almost invisible at a short distance ; and this is sometimes the case on plains of coarse sand or shingle. Very frequently, though no actual footprint may remain, stones or pebbles will have been turned so as to lie with that Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 629 side uppermost wkicii has for a long time rested on the ground, and an eye accustomed to observation detects this at once, and will sometimes see, by the condition of the upturned side, whether it has been moved so recently as not yet to be perfectly dried. If a shower has fallen, it will at once be seen whether the tracks were made before the rain, during it, or afterwards ; in the same manner the morning or evening dew upon the tracks will furnish a test of time, as will the grass withering, if crushed in the heat of the day or partially restored if bent while the dew was on it. If there has been wind, it may be known whether the tracks were made during its continuance, by the position of the grass, or by the sand or dust drifted from it ; and if the wind has changed at a remem- bered time, it may be possible to tell exactly the point at which the track and change took place. If periodical or alternate winds blow, as, for instance, the land and sea breezes near the coast, it wiU be easy to tell during which of them the track was made. Sleeping places, or halts for rest, for food, drink, or other pur- poses, should be carefully sought for. The condition of the grass cropped by an animal, and the fragments dropped from its mouth, must be examined, as also its dung, the comparative moisture or dryness of which is an unfaiHng index to the time that has elapsed since it was dropped. If there are two or more tracks, and the time when one was made is known, that of the others may be inferred by looking sharply for any place where they cross, and ascertaining which overlies the other. We have been followed for many miles at night by a lion, but though we knew by the panic spreading among the oxen that something was disturbing them, we were not aware of the fact till our Hottentot went back next morning and reported the track of " a great man lion, step for step upon our horse's spoor." Not only can the period of time at which tracks are made be very closely estimated, but various circumstances connected with the track will not unfrequently afford most important information. As, for instance, where the tracks of naked feet are investigated, it will generally be found that savages in walking turn their toes in, whilst Europeans turn theirs outj if the track is left by shod men, the 630 8hifts and Expedients of description of foot gear will often tell a tale. A mocassin print with the toes turned out would indicate that a white man in Indian gear had passed. The army pattern boot or shoe, the native sandal, worn by aborigines of some countries, the shooting boot, and the light buck- skin shoe, all leave their well-marked and distinctive tracks. The particular manner in which a boot or shoe sole has been nailed or repaired will enable an experienced tracker to follow its print unerringly amongst fifty others ; large or small, narrow or wide, the track will in almost all cases retain its individuahty, except when cunning Europeans put on other men^s boots for the purpose of crime. The nature of a footprint will, by its comparative depth and form, show whether the person who made it carried a burden, or was in light marching order ; if in a hurry, or travelling leisurely ; whether travelling willingly, or led as a captive ; whether sober or intoxicated. In following horse tracks the pace at which the animal or animals were going can be judged by the impressions left on the ground. A stray horse walking leisurely away, feeding as it goes, will usually leave an irregular but well-marked track, causing but little disturbance of the surface of the ground ; a sudden fright caused by the appearance of a wild animal or an attempt at capture will be shown by a scattering of earth, sand, or gravel, and probably by the casting out of the pellets which collect in the hollows of the feet. A frightened horse starting without a rider will usually leave the deep and disturbed tracks caused by ill-directed speed at the very commencement of the run, which will in most cases prove rather erratic. Had the same horse been galloped away by a rider, the man^s track might be found, or if not, the first sixteen or twenty hoof strokes will vary in distance, depth, &c., from those farther on, where the animal had been caused to strike into his regular stride. Most hunters can identify the track of their own horse. A defect in either hoof, a broken shoe, and the mode of shoeing, are all matters to be well looked to. The horses of wild tribes, from not being shod, are to be distinguished from those belonging to Europeans, who either shoe " all round " or leave the hind feet bare, and only shoe the fore hoofs. Mule tracks are not of the same form as those of the wider and rounder footed horse, and can be in- stantly recognised. Tracking on snow is usually followed with much Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 631 greater rapidity than when prosecuted on the uncovered ground ; still no little experience is needed to successfully follow up partly obliterated and wholly filled up footsteps. The impressions left in snow by different animals require some study before the inex- perienced hunter can with certainty distinguish one from another. The art of tracking can no more be taught without the aid of the forest and the plain to demonstrate in, than can a skilful cricketer be made without allowing him to play the game. The hints which are here given are merely intended to form a sort of groundwork, on which the experienced hunter must himself build. In traversing the woods and wilds let nothing escape the eye, and never aUow the slightest deviation from the common order of things to pass without close scrutiny and the application to the case of a system of inductive reasoning. No living creature acts voluntarily without aim ; and, although at times much mystery surrounds the doings of some furred or feathered inhabitants of the wilderness, depend on it a little close scrutiny will not fail to show both plan and purpose in that which at first appeared an enigma. The stranger to the wilds would feel no little compassion for the poor crippled lapwing plover, who, crying plaintively, totters on and struggles to escape from the hunter, until at length, on a good space of ground being ti^avelled over in fruitless pursuit, the cunning bird wheels away aloft with a mocking whistle, and shortly rejoins her brood of mouse -like little ones among the moss hags. We once saw a hyena near our camp take a piece of old dry goat^s hide in his mouth and perform a number of strange and uncouth movements, as if either lame or drunk ; a second, however, crouched, partly concealed by some euphorbium bushes and stones. Their object was to lure away our dogs whilst they themselves remained at a safe distance, when the pair would have made short work of some of them. In tracking wounded game look out sharply for even the most minute blood specks or flakes of foam, these, where found, are great helps over hard ground. Dead or dying animals are discovered in an incredibly short space of time by birds of prey ; and when they are seen curling and wheeling over any particular spot you may rest assured that food is the attraction. Nothing requires greater care and cii-cumspection than the approach of 632 Shifts and Expedients of the hunter to the lurking place of any animal capable of doing mischief when suffering from the effects of a wound. We have known even antelopes to use their horns freely when unable to escape. No large beast of prey should be approached, although apparently dead, until all doubt on the subject is removed by either a shot through the head or a pelting with stones. Within the colonies, of course, roads are regularly made, but in the wild country beyond, and less important places within, the boundary the so-called roads are merely foot or bridle paths or waggon tracks. We have heard a farmer say, " I have made a new road round the mountain to-day,'^ and we understood by this merely that he had driven his waggon by a fresh route, leaving others to follow his track if they thought it better than the old one. Sometimes the waggon is not employed upon this work, but the track having been first carefully estimated by the eye a thorn tree is cut down, dragged along it by the oxen, and the road is made. A waggon track across the country seems practically indelible, the wheels are almost sure to crush the side of an ant-hill here and there, and even if the insects repair the damage the new work will always show. If it passes during the rains, the clay kneaded by the feet of the oxen, or furrowed by the wheels, is baked so hard by the succeeding hot weather that ordinary vegetation for many seasons will not efface the marks. If in the dry season grasses are crushed down, the stumps of a tuft wiU show for a long time the passage of the wheels. More especially is this the case if a fire sweeps over the plain immediately after, or if the waggon passes during or after a prairie fire. We have known a fellow traveller recognise in this manner the tracks his waggon had made seven years before. The lines of charred stumps crushed short down remaining to indicate the passage of the wheels, though all other impressions had been obhterated by the rank annual growth of grass, fully 12ft. in height. Often when waggons have passed for the first time across a grassy plain, the vegetation they have crushed down will be partially replaced or mingled with other kinds, either indigenous, and only waiting for this opportunity to spring up, or growing from undigested seeds from other localities deposited in the droppings of the oxen ; or even it may be exactly the same vegetation simply rendered more luxuriant by being Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 633 thus manured. We have seen a broad grassy plain looking like an immense corn field, but right across it the road was marked by a broad band of yellow flowers contrasting with the deep green around. In many countries the prevailing winds leave unfailing indices of the direction of the points of the compass. Thus all the unsheltered trees on the road from Cape Town lean towards the pojjits of the north-west or north-north-west ; and on the sub-tropical compass, plains of South Africa and Australia we frequently noticed that the continued winds from the south-east had laid the grass towards the opposite point. The rising or setting sun is a useful guide, so is the moon, and also the stars ; but the traveller must acquire for himself the habit of observing where any of the heavenly bodies are likely to be at a given time, by day or night, and this while he is upon known paths, and not in actual need of them, and then his knowledge will serve him if by accident he should lose the road. If the declination is the same as the latitude of the place, the sun will be vertical at noon, and therefore of no service as a guide for nearly a quarter of an hour, but by extemporising a plumb line, and observing whether its shadow shortens or lengthens, it may soon be found whether the sun is east or west of the meridian. In using stars select, if possible, those that are far north or south, and as low as possible; or, if the pole be far above the horizon — as it must be in all places far removed from the equator— take the star that is nearest to it, and that consequently revolves with the least possible change of position. In the north the constellation of the Grreat Bear will serve, but if the pole star can be seen, it is, of course, the best — the two stars called the Pointers will guide the eye to it. And in the south, when the southern cross is vertical, either above or below the pole, it is due south; and this may be ascertained by trying when the two stars of the longer beam coincide with a plumb line, but at any time the position of the pole may be estimated by remembering that it is half-way between the lower star of the cross and the little Magellan cloud. In travelling with a waggon from almost any civilised colony, it will generally be found that traders and hunters have penetrated so far, that for perhaps 1500 or 2000 miles there is nothing to be done but to 634 Shifts and Expedients of let the waggon driver follow tlieir tracks, which will generally be in every respect the best that could be selected, while the traveller hunts or explores on either side the path, or gains experience as to the slope a waggon can climb, descend, or travel on without capsizing; the average size of trees under the branches of which it can pass, and the density of the grove in which it can continue a gently meandering course between the trees without the absolute necessity of cutting a road, which, of course, he avoids if possible by making even a con- siderable detour, for the labour is excessive and severe. The professional hunters in South Africa, and indeed most of the amateurs who are ardent in the pursuit of game, not only follow the wild animals by day, but as they become shy, or few in number, lie in wait for them at the waters at which they come to Hunting. drink by night; for the less dangerous animals they merely throw up a circular wall of loose stones, 2ft. or 3ft. high, to hide the hunter from the view of the approaching animals ; and not unfre- quently an experienced hand will even watch in these for the lion, the rhinoceros, or the elephant, trusting for security to a quick eye and ear, and to skill in handling the two or three spare guns which are kept ready loaded within easy reach. With the larger animals it is, however, more advisable to dig a pit about I Oft. long, 3ft. deep, and 30in. wide, and to roof in 5ft. or 6ft. of the central part of this #^ with stout logs, that an elephant would not break were he to tread on them in passing over ; the ends are left open, and a bank of earth is left in each, large enough for the hunter to sit upon, with K uiFLE PIT. nothing but his head showing above the edge of the " scherm." Generally two men lie in each pit, one watching whilst the other sleeps. The pit should be made in a spot carefully chosen to leeward of the path by which the elephants or other animals are likely to come, and great care Gamp Life, Travel, and ExploraHon. 635 must be taken to cover any signs of human work about it. The cut fsnds of the logs placed across it must especially be hidden, and if chips have been made in the vicinity, they ought to be removed, and every- thing reduced as nearly as possible to its natural appearance and con- dition. Most hunters carry a pick and one or two spades for this and similar purposes, but we have found a worn-out adze exceedingly handy and much liked by native servants. The work should be commenced early in the day, so that it may be finished by a little after noon, and left to recover its natural quiet, and the air to purify itself from the baint of man, for even though the elephant may not be so early on the watch, smaller animals, disregarded by the hunter, are sure to be about him, and any alarm among them will most assuredly spread itself, until a general sense of danger pervades the wilderness ; and if this extends to the keen senses of the elephants, they will not approach till they have assured themselves by every possible precaution that all is safe. We have seen the path marked for a considerable distance by the serpentine track of the extended proboscis, sometimes actually touching the ground, and at others moving so closely in contact that the breathing would disturb the dust, as the leader of the herd deliberately tested the scent for every inch of the way. And the change of elephan- tine tactics since rifle pits were introduced sufficiently proves that what we call instinct is in reality an intelligence capable of receiving new ideas and guiding its possessors in meeting novel dangers. A few years since, when all the elephants had to fear was the pitfall of the Bushmen, with its sharpened stakes at the bottom, they would come fearlessly on, trusting to their leader, as with extended trunk as above mentioned, would literally feel the ground inch by inch, and, having once detected a frail deceitful covering that masked the pitfall, would toss aside the sticks and grass, and the whole herd would follow in contemptuous security along the very edge of the now undreaded snare. Fardifi'erently do they nowactj if they but suspect the presence of a pit they will not approach until, by making a careful circuit far to leeward, they have assured themselves that their chief enemy man, and especially the white man, has not recently been near the water. If a taint remains upon the air they act with the extremest caution ; for hours they will remain motionless, waiting till their keen senses detect 636 Shifts and Expedients of tlie recently tainted breeze, or their liuge expanded ears catch the crack- ling of a twig or the slightest sound made by the incautious hunter. If their fears preponderate^ they may not only refrain from drinking, but even desert the locaHty, and travel 50 or 100 miles during the night to another water, but thirst may overcome their prudence, and they may approach and enter the water ; the hunter must then, in perfect quietude, make himself acquainted with the individuals of the herd, selecting the male that carries the heaviest ivory, and wait patiently until he comes near enough and exposes his shoulder, then, aiming upwards, at the lower part of the after lobe of the huge ear, he reckons either to cripple the animal by breaking its shoulder bone, or to kill it by sending his bullet to the heart ; then, judging at once the effect of his shot, he catches up his spare gun and either fires again at the same elephant or selects another, and endeavours to cripple him also. If two hunters are together, they can agree beforehand whether they shall fire together at the word given by one, or whether one man shall fire both guns. In the latter case at the word, or rather at the sign signifying " be ready," both set the hair triggers of their rifles, and the man who is to fire being assured that his comrade is prepared, waits a favourable moment and fires ; the other does not consciously pull the trigger, but, with his gun carefully aligned upon the vital part and his forefinger hardly touching the trigger, waits patiently till either the concussion of the air or the slight nervous action induced by the report of his friend's gun causes his finger to contract upon the trigger, and his gun is fired. In elephant shooting it is always well that two men should be together, for though it is not probable, it is at the same time possible that an elephant may attack the scherm. An attack of this kind occurred to the brothers Green, the well-known African travellers and hunters ; the enraged elephant began tearing off the beams and earth that roofed the scherm, and in a few moments more would have di-agged forth his victim, when the brother fired with deliberate aim and killed the enraged animal. We have already said that the favourite place for the death shot is behind the lobe of the ear, just where it overlaps the shoulder, but if the shot can penetrate about 1ft. below Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 637 ,ny part of the spine it may cut the large blood vessels there ; or f fired from behind, and striking about 1ft. below the insertion of the ;ail, it may pass through to the vital organs in the chest, and prove 'atal. If an elephant is walking or running in such a manner that the ieath spot (" dood plek ") behind the shoulder is exposed the shot should be delivered, if possible, so as to strike when his leg is thrown forward ■^''J and the thinnest part of the skin is tightly stretched ; if the leg is back- ward, the skin will hang in loose yielding folds, and the shot will most likely fail to enter. African hunters seldom fire at the head of an elephant unless he is charging and they must check him — he seldom fails to swerve from his course on receiving the bullet — but this rule is not infalHble ; we have hit an elephant as fairly as possible in the fore- head without effecting this. Another rule is to run from the elephant the moment you have fired, and then look round to see if he is giving chase ; if he is, you can increase your speed, if not, you can easily stop and get another shot ; but if you wait for him to charge before you run you give him the chance of diminishing the distance very materially before you can get up the requisite speed. Wahlberg, the eminent Swedish naturalist, held that a man ought to stand like a rock, and the elephant would be sure to swerve before he reached him; sometimes the boldest course is the safest, but in his case at length it failed, the elephant came right on, and the career of the brave naturalist was closed for ever. Sir Samuel Baker, although he has personally killed African elephants by shots in their head, found that he could by no means depend upon being able to do so, and remarks that the man who stands to meet the charge of an elephant by a shot in the head cannot feel the proper amount of confidence that his shot will be effective ; indeed, the proba- bility is that it will decidedly fail to kill. Captain Faulkner, who volunteered to accompany Mr. E. D. Young in his search for Dr. Livingstone, told us that he determined to prove experimentally whether nn African elephant could bo killed by a head shot, and that he, by walking close up to them, killed sevei-al in that manner. It must, however, be remembered that he 638 Shifts and Expedients of travelled in a new district^ where never white hunter had been before, and that the elephants there were ignorant of their danger, and not prepared to meet or avoid it like those frequenting the old hunting grounds. In hunting the elephant the favourite shot of the hunter in India is that in the head ; but in Africa this is seldom successful. It is related in the early history of Natal that a party of sailors (Lieut. FarewelFs, we think) were challenged to go out with the Zulus to kill an elephant, chiefly with the desire that their defective weapons or want of skill would render them objects of ridicule to the natives. Neither their courage nor their good fortune, however, failed them ; they formed front as the elephant came on, fired at the head, and killed it. In Africa, as we have before stated, the " dood plek,^^ or death spot, of all the animals of the chase is considered to be behind or in the shoulder ; and in the case of the elephant this is marked by the pos- terior and lower edge of the ear, which is so large that in a male lOffc. 9in. high at the shoulder the ear measured 5ft. Sin. in depth and 3ft. 9in. from front to rear. The African elephant is much larger than the Indian, which does not average more than 10ft. ; while one shot by a friend measured lift. Sin. at the shoulder, and probably between 12ft. and 13ft. at the highest part of the back. Mr. Petherick also tells of one 12ft. 4in. at the shoulder, with a pair of tusks weighing 140rb. ; and of another of 15ft. at the shoulder, whose pair weighed 1001b. In general a bulFs tusk will weigh from 501b. to 901b., and a cow's not more than 301b. The largest we have ever seen weighed, one 1531b. and the other 1631b.— 1001b. Dutch being equal to 1081b. English. The native methods of killing the elephant seem to alarm the survivors but little, and would probably never drive them from the country ; but since the introduction of firearms they have gradually been forced so far towards the interior that it is difiicult to believe that herds of them had once browsed on the slopes of Table Mountain. A few are left in the dense forests of the Kuysna, where they may not be shot without special permission, and some in the Addo and Sundays Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 639 River Bush^ between Algoa Bay and Grahamstown^ and it will be long ere tbey are thorouglily extirpated from tlie country to tbe northward of Natal ; but in the district of Lake Ngami they are becoming scarce, and the hunters from Walvisch Bay have to go yearly much farther to the northward, and follow them to new districts. Under these circumstances the waggons of the hunters have to be fitted out for the season's journey like ships for a long voyage. Groceries and meal must be purchased before starting. If bread should be desired, corn may in general be bought for beads, and flesh will be supplied by spare cattle, sheep, or goats, driven with the waggons, or by the hunter's rifle. Of working oxen there must be a sujficient number to replace those that die from the deadly sting of the tsetse, or other causes; and the stud should also be numerous enough to allow for the ravages of the horse sickness, for exhaustion, and for casualties in the field. A " salted " horse — i. e., one that has recovered from the sickness, and is, therefore, supposed not to be liable to it again — is worth any money ; but this depends much on the locality, for if a horse that has passed the ordeal in a district where the sickness is in a mild form be taken to one where it is more severe he is liable again to disease and death. The Western negroes are very ingenious and clever in hunting elephants. The herds are watched for weeks, their haunts are ascertained, their paths carefully traced, and the possibility of catching them in, or driving them to, the thickest parts of the forest debated on; then the bush vines, monkey ropes, lianas, or bindweed are cut, so as not quite to fall, but to hang loosely from the branches. Some of the paths are blocked by trees felled across them ; others are left open as entrances and others as escapes ; and in these last, where two stout trees, with conveniently forked branches, narrow the pass between them, a heavy beam, pierced with several holes, into which spear-heads are inserted and tightly wedged, is raised, so as to hang as high as possible directly across the path ; a stout rope at each end of the beam is looped over the short thick end of a pole, which rests on a forked branch, and of which the longer end is held down by another rope attached to a peg stuck into the ground at the foot of the tree, the immense leverage afibrded by the longer 640 Shifts and Expedients of arm making it easy for a small strain to keep it down_, and the shorter end pointed up, so that the loop cannot slip off. When all is ready another hne, about 16in. from the ground, is stretched from peg to peg across the path. The forest is then surrounded, the elephants disturbed with loud noises, driven from their favourite haunts, and forced to take refuge in the thickest forest ; and here men, previously stationed in the trees, cat the remaining bush vines, and let the tangle fall like a boarding netting among and around the elephants; spears and assegais are also hurled down on them at every opportunity. This is, however, a service of great . danger, for the persecuted animal, with his far- reaching trunk, may seize the nearest hunter and dash him to jelly against a tree, or trample him to death. But while thus engaged, the others cut and let fall more tangle, and drive down upon him their broad -bladed spears until he sinks exhausted ; while others that break away are driven with loud shouts into the openings that gradually narrow as the paths approach the beam falls (contrivances much like those used in the capture of the hippopotamus), where at the next step the elephant must trip the horizontal line, draw out or break the pegs, release the lever ends of the long triggers, and the next moment, with wounded body and disabled spine, lie writhing in the power of his enemies, some of whom, if they approach too closely his powerful wide- sweeping trunk, may yet, however, pay dearly for their victory. It is fortunate, perhaps, that nearly all occupations necessary for the obtainment of animal food in a wild country not only entail the neces- sity for the expenditure of sufficient physical force to serve as healthful exercise, but also afford enjoyment enough to induce men to engage in them. It might be shown that even the daily labour of the mechanic is not always the exception to this rule. But for the present purpose it is enough that the chase, besides supplying food and raiment to savages and semi-barbarous tribes from the remotest antiquity till now, has always possessed such charms for the vigorous and healthy man rejoicing in his strength, and proud of the opportunity of displnying it, that not only the savage, confident in his personal address, and the • support of his fellow-hunters, exults in open battle with the fiercest animals ; in trials of speed and endurance with the fleetest ; or of patience Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 641 and watcliful skill in ensnaring the most wary. But our own country- men, led by the love of adventure and excitement, will leave behind the luxuries of civilised life, and cheerfully endure the privations of a toilsome journey for the mere chance of engaging single-handed with some fierce creature which, with their inferior weapons, a whole tribe of natives would find it difiicult to subdue. Nor is this love of excitement and adventure to be classed with the cold-blooded cruelty so often attributed to hunters. The hattuc system, by which herds of timid, helpless animals are driven from all quarters into an inclosure before some potentate — who sits in safety in his gallery with ready-loaded rifles, handed to him by obsequious attendants, who score ofi" the hundreds he has slain — we surrender freely to the reproach and reprobation it deserves. There may be enjoyment in wholesale slaughter, but the spirit that could find it is not of the sort which m-ged a young military friend of ours to chase four lions across the plains near Bloem Pontein, and to regret only that his horse failed to bring him to close quarters before they gained the shelter of the broken rocky hills. Of course there are "butchers" who, when animals happen to be plentiful and easy of approach, will kill for the mere pleasure of boasting of the numbers they have shot ; but the true sportsman would turn disgusted from such facile slaughter. Some exercise of skill, endurance, and more or less personal risk, is necessary to his enjoyment; and when to his ardour for the chase he adds the accomplishments of the artist, the naturalist, and the geographer, he deserves the praise instead of the reproach of those who sit at home at ease, and cannot enter into the enthusiasm which alone has enabled him to endure privation and conquer difficulty, instead of turning weary and defeated from the hard- ships of travel. All travellers, and many missionaries in Africa, are from choice or necessity hunters — and those who do not desire in some way to improve the opportunities cast in their way are few in number — and if they enjoy the task of killing savage animals which, in the interests of humanity, had better be thinned oS", the cattle farmers, the agriculturists, or the hungry natives, as they satisfy their cravings for animal food, will thank them, and hail the hunters as friends in need. The Capo farmer, whether English or Dutch, is seldom so spirit- T T 642 Shifts and Expedients of less as not to enjoy tlie bunting of his own lions, and the avenging with his own hand the depi-edations on his cattle. With game more worthy of his lead, the Dutch colonist works more methodically ; and though in general he exhibits but little of the dash and recklessness characteristic of the British officer, he lacks not courage or determina- tion when occasion calls it foi'th. When it becomes known that a lion has established himself in the vicinity, and his depredations become annoying to the cattle owners, his " spoor " or trail is taken up and followed as Lion hunting. ^ . . ^ . ^ . , • ^ far as prudent towards his Ian' ; this ascertained, a council is held as to the best means of dislodging him and bringing him into position to receive the fire of the hunters. If there be natural shelter so much the better; if not, the horses are fastened together in line, and, held by the after riders or Hottentot servants, are backed down so near as to afford the marksman an opportunity of a fair shot ; one or more, who can be implicitly relied on for certainty of aim and steadiness of hand in the moment of peril, are chosen to reserve their fire in case the rest should miss, and the others are told off to fire in regular order. The marskman, edging a little clear of the shelter of the horses, sits down, rests his elbows on his knees, and, grasping his ramrod as an additional support, takes as deliberate an aim as circumstances permit at the lion, aiming to hit him, if possible, in the breast ; for it is seldom that the animal, when thus bearded in his den, refuses to face his foe, or expose his shoulders to the deadly missile. Possibly, he lies with head extended forward, so that it would be useless to fire at the sloping skull ; and it is likely also that the fore-paws so cover the chest that there is the chance, by breaking one of them, of somewhat crippling, but at the same time provoking him to a headlong charge, in the fury of which even the loss of a fore-paw would be unheeded, and would diminish but little his power of doing mischief. Suppose him irritated by a painful wound, with a roar like thunder he bounds forward, and the inexperienced hands, if any such there be, discharge their guns as he comes on ; but there are always some cool-headed fellows who know that within about five and twenty yards he will stop and gather his energies for a final spring. Deliberate as the Dutclunan is, he knows when time is precious ; the Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 643 lieavy roer is steadily aligned, and, if tlie aim be true, the monarcli of tlie forest falls dead upon the spot, or, collecting his last energies, springs upon the horses. Now is the time for the reserve. At a glance he takes in the exigencies of the situation, he steps aside for a clear view, his bullet crushes through skull or shoulder, and the fierce animal falls helpless to the ground. The restless steeds are brought again to quietude, the visitors gather round the prostrate foe, examine the perforations, and adjudge to each the merit of his respective shot. Not always, however, is the aflPair so happily ended. In 1850, while passing through the Orange River Sovereignty, now the Free State, on our way to Vaal River, we heard of a contest that had nearly proved fatal to a brave old boer and his no less gallant nephew ; and as we soon after became acquainted with many of the witnesses and actors in the scene, and saw the horses deeply scored by five sharp talons on either quarter, we have no hesitation in relating it. The lion, after receiving the fii-e of the uncle, had sprung upon him, knocked him down, and lay upon him, glaring defiance at his enemies. The young man, confident of his skill and steadiness of hand, boldly advanced close up to him, set his " Sneider " or hair trigger, and aimed deliberately at the forehead ; one gentle touch of the forefinger, and instead of the expected death shot, the hammer fell into half- cock. Again he proved the edge of his flint, set his hair trigger, and again and again it failed him. The lion was growing restless ; his trusted weapon was useless in his hand. What wonder that his courage failed, and, dashing it to the earth, he turned and fled. In an instant the lion was upon him, and he in his turn lay helpless beneath the monster's weight. For some time he waited patiently, expecting his comrades to fire ; but only one of them raised his gun, and that barrel wavered, so that the rest begged him not to fire. The uncle rose, and catching up his gun hastened to the rescue, but it had been discharged ; and with his broken arm he attempted in vain to load it. The young man advised his comrades, and then entreated them to come on and shoot the lion while he was yet quiet enough to give them a good chance ; but they came not. He cursed them for a set of cowards. Next he cursed the lion, and in the recklessness of despair T T 2 644 Shifts and Expedients of he kicked him. The astonished beast turned round and seized the left knee, but this was a false move, for the young boer now drove his right foot so vigorously and rapidly into the exposed flank that the lion stared around him in bewilderment, and finally walked off, leaving the young fellow lamed only for a time. About the same time we became acquainted with a young boer, who, while lying in the power of the lion, had been so mangled that there was not sufiicient muscle left upon his right arm to enable him to raise it without the assistance of his left. No one could see him advance to give his hand without a feeling of pity, yet his grip was as hearty as ever ; and when his fingers closed upon the gunstock, the needful strength to raise it to the shoulder seemed to return. And notwithstanding his misfortune no man was readier or bolder in the hunting field. Of the method adopted by English hunters, so many illustrative anecdotes are before the public, that in our limited range it is difficult to select one that shall be new and, at the same time, sufficiently striking to arrest attention. Generally, if the country is tolerably open, two or three gentlemen, with their native servants, and perhaps a few dogs, to distract the attention of the lion, will ride up, and one, checking his horse as he passes, will fire from the saddle, starting forward if the lion springs, and trusting to his comrades to relieve him. Among the Bushmen the lion is not much hunted ; in fact, some of them seem to look upon him as an involuntary benefactor, who, after he has killed his prey, will certainly let some remain for them, and may, perhaps, be scared from his repast, so as to leave them all. Sometimes, perhaps, they venture, if annoyed by one of men-eating propensities, to track him to his lair, and as he lies in dreamy enjoy- ment after a full meal, to lodge a poisoned arrow in his side. But in general they prefer to enlist the white man in their cause, partly because they know his weapons to be more instantaneously effective, and partly because they are sure he will reward them for showing him the sport. The feat of Gordon Gumming delivering a village from the persecution of a pair of man-eaters, by killing them both with two shots from his double-barrel gun was still talked of by the natives when we were in the Sovereignty. The general introduc- tion of firearms among the half-castes and the native tribes has Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 645 rendered obsolete many of their customs, and it is now rare even in Africa to see some of the weapons they formerly used ; such, for instance, as the long spears with which the Kafirs attacked the hippo- potamus or elephant. But a lion hunt on fair and open ground, by a tribe of savage warriors, must have been an exciting scene. With them the preparatory tracking up and gathering of information essen- tial to the English hunter are needless ; the haunts and habits of the lion they intend to hunt have long been too familiar to them. The hunters with their naked bodies fresh anointed, and lithe and well-turned limbs, assemble around with light assegais or javelins, and with long sticks tufted with black ostrich feathers. A few feints and false attacks are made, and the lion is drawn or driven from his covers to the open plain. Now the fight begins. Encircled by the active warriors the lion stands at bay, perplexed and baffled by their rapid change of place, and perhaps somewhat confused by shouts from every quarter. At length the irritated beast exposes himself to the attack. Some bold warrior rushes past and darts his assegai, escaping if he can, while the manoeuvre is repeated by the next. Not all are thus successful. The wounded animal charges furiously, but in the moment of extreme peril the native strikes his plumed staff into the ground, and, before even the quick eye of the lion can detect the cheat, darts off in another direction, driving home, perhaps, another assegai as he passes. Many, perhaps, are wounded ; but unless he does it at a stroke the lion has no time to kill, for he is already bristling like a porcupine with spears, and one moment of inaction would expose him to the fatal shower that would pour in upon him from every side. His fate sooner or later is sealed ; whatever way he charges his foes elude him ; wound after wound exhausts his strength, till, bleeding and helpless, he sinks upon the ground, and his skin and paws are borne in triumph to the chief; while the women of the kraal, with clapping of hands and extem- porary songs of triumph, welcome and congratulate the victors. The elephant, unfortunately for his love of ease and indolence, or perhaps rather quiet and undisturbed enjoyment, is endowed with many qualities which offer peculiar temptations to his apparently contemp- tible, yet in reality formidable, enemies. To savage tribes the amount of flesh acquired by the destruction of an elephant is a sufficient 646 Shifts and Kr,pedients vf inducement for a small tribe to labom- in digging pitfalls, or unite in the attempt to weary out and irritate him almost to death by number- less light javelins, till some one, bolder or more fortunate than the rest, is able to approach and drive the larger spear with skill and strength sufficient to give a deadly wound. To the ardent sportsman, who is also a clever artist and lover of nature, the mere act of engaging with and conquering single-handed this g-igantic animal, affords an almost delirious excitement. But beyond all other considerations, the paramount inducement to traders, hunters, and even to natives among whom white men have already penetrated, is that, like the greatest of marine animals, the whale, he carries about him that which may be made profitable in a commercial point of view, and thus repay the hunter for the labour of destropng him. Of course, in the case of the elephant this induce- ment is the ivory, with which in Africa both males and females are provided ; while in India the hunters find the females without tusks, and the males so frequently so that profit from this source rarely enters into the sportsman's calculations, nevertheless, great numbers are annually killed in Ceylon and other parts of the Indian Empire. It requires a knowledge of the immense damage a single elephant is capable of doing among the cane or grain fields of the natives to induce those who cannot enter into the enthusiasm of the sportsman, to return a verdict of justifiable elephanticide. Tigers, panthers, leopards, pumas, &c., are taken in various ways. The former animals, as we have before stated, are captured in large cage traps fitted with drop doors and trigger levers, which are thrown out of gear when the animal seizes a bait suspended from them. The Malays are very skilful in setting traps of this description. The systems adopted in shooting the large animals of prey just mentioned i a the jungles of the far East are too well known to need description here. They may be said mainly to consist in shooting from a howdah placed on an elephant's back ; shooting on foot, aided by beaters ; watching a live or dead bait from a " meechaum" or scaffolding erected in a tree ; or shooting at night from the rifle pit, after the manner already described. To hunt antelopes by the aid of tamed leopards, or to take aeiT with the bcarcoot, or hunting eagle, it is necessary to secure the Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 647 services ofaregular staff of native hunters, keepers, and trackers — in fact, a retinue wliicli few mere travellers could support. Sword hunting, as practised by the inhabitants of the Abyssinian borders, is a pui-suit re- quiring more than ordinary skill and adroitness — in short, almost a life- time may be passed in fruitlessly endeavouring to successfully imitate the feats of the ^^ Aggageers." There are, however, many weapons and hunting appliances used in wild countries which the traveller will do well to familiarise himself with. The spear, the bow and arrow, the sling, the lasso, the bolas, the sumpitan or blow pipe, and the club, may as makeshifts stand him in good stead. A knowledge of the use of the boomerang would be extremely valuable ; but we have never known a white man who could throw it even passably well. The spear, as cast from the womera, or throwing stick, is another weapon marvellously accurate, long-ranged, and deadly in the hands of the black fellow, but resolves itself into a mere sharp pointed stick when the European attempts to use it. It is much the same with the Kafir assegai. Very few Englishmen learn to use it well, whilst the natives hurl it with astonishing force and precision. There are calls, too, which are successfully used by the natives of many countries for attracting game to the lurking place of the sportsman. The birch bark calling trumpet of the Amei'ican and Canadian moose hunter is an example of these ; but practice alone will enable the traveller to use it successfully. The natives of South Africa excel in the construction of pitfalls, and there is scarcely a tribe, with the exception of the [ ^ Pitfalls, pastoral Kafirs on the frontier, or the half-castes, who possess firearms, that does not more or less supply itself with wild fiesh in this manner. The tools used in sinking pitfalls resemble chisels, perhaps a hand breadth broad, and Sin, or 1ft. long; these are set in stout handles 6ft. or more in length, and used in a manner that may be understood after a glance at the beautiful group of Michael overthrowing Satan. The pits will be 10ft. or 12ft. long, 2ft. or 3ft. wide, and more than 8ft. deep, but they taper wedge-like towards the bottom, which is only a few inches wide, the intention being that an antelope or other animal shall jam his body immovably between the sides before he can touch the bottom vrith his feet. About 648 Shifts and Expedients of the centre the pit is crossed by a wall of the hard soil, reaching about half-way to the top, and left standing for the pm-pose of catching any animal that, having once fallen in, is able to spring forward, and of holding him helplessly suspended by the belly. The top is carefully covered with small sticks, over which reeds or grass are laid, and earth dusted over the whole as naturally as possible. A little water is then sprinkled over all to equalise the surface. Of course this has to be very artistically done to deceive the timid game ; therefore there is no wonder that a mounted hunter, or even a traveller on foot, should occasionally fall in. Sometimes, to i nsure the capture of the animal, a small hole, also carefully covered, is made just before one end of the pit, and the creature stumbling in this, leaps forward and precipitates itself into the true snare. We have on three occasions fallen into such pits (unprovided with the little hole last mentioned, which might have proved a warning to a man, who, if possible, would instinctively step backward), and once had considerable difficulty in getting out, because, owing to the wedge-shaped form, our hips were tightly jammed between the sides, while our feet could not reach the bottom ; but, by vigorously sticking our elbows into the sides above, we at length extricated our lower extremities. A fellow hunter had a more dangerous adventure than this; for the one that he fell into had three stakes, that would certainly have impaled an antelope, fixed upright in it ; but fortunately a man goes straight down feet foremost, and seldom or never falls lengthwise. These pits for single animals, however, are but petty affairs compared with the extensive hope or tellekello fences, built for the purpose of inclosing large herds of game, that are either driven during the day by extended lines of men from all quarters into the wide entrance, or sud- denly find themselves forced into it when they come by night to drink at the water ; in either case the space between the fences narrows rapidly, funnelwise, the fences themselves being made stronger in pro- portion to the diminution of the space between them, until this becomes little more than a narrow lane, and the fences assume the proportions of palisades, high and strong enough to prevent the escape even of the large auimals that crowd into it. At the end of this passage is a low Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 649 fence, partially concealing from view tlie yawning pit beyond, the apparent size of which is diminished by beams and poles so laid as to cover a considerable portion of each side, and thus rendering it impossible for any animal attempting to spring out to make his escape. We have often seen these fences ; but the Bushmen will very seldom get up a drive when white hunters are in the vicinity, preferring, very naturally, to eat game which, with very little trouble to themselves, has been shot by the European or the colonist, rather than to assemble their tribe and be on watch all night at the tellekello. On occasions such as we have referred to, the widest opening of the fences is kept as near as possible to the pool or river where the wild game comes to drink, without encroaching so far as to interfere with their free access to the water. The Bushmen dig holes outside the fence, make in them large fires of hard wood, and cover the still glowing embers Avith dry earth, which absorbs a great amount of heat, and gives it out gradually during the night to those who come to sleep, or at least to lie down and watch beside it. In addition to this, they fashion a number of torches of some dry light wood, preferring that of a dead baobab ; and at night, when the herds come down to quench their thirst, they draw their cordon round in rear of them, light their torches, and, waving them in the air, rush forward with wild gesti- culations and loud outcries. Sometimes the larger animals, such as the black rhinoceros, or others, instead of submitting to be driven, will endeavour to break through the fence, but the active Bushmen swarm along the outside, and meet every attempt by waving their blazing torches, or throwing them in the fiices of the animals ; at length the herd crowded together comes to the narrowing neck of the funnel. The height and strength of the palisade forbids all hope of escape; the natives, wild with delight, are shouting and pressing on their rear, they rush thundering on to the narrowest part, the slight fence which hides the pit from view is easily leaped, others follow, blindly pushed on by the crowd in the rear, until at length the pit is filled with perhaps one or two hundred animals, writhing, struggling, and suffocating, and moreover bruised and stunned by the hoofs of those which rush madly on, seeking to escape over them. The Bushmen now assemble near the pass and stab with their assegais. 650 Shifts and Exj^edients of as many as tliey can, but these are few in comparison ; and when the pit is once filled^ the escape of the majority of those that remain is tolerably certain. The most serious impediment which stands in the African hunter's road to success is the tsetse fly, which haunts the forests and the banks of streams in many parts of southern and sub- Tsetse fly. tropical Africa. Horses and dogs are also liable to be fatally affected ; but men, mules, and donkeys, as well as sheep or goats and wild animals, are not injured. When cattle are " bitten " by " the fly,^' as this dreaded pest is called, j:)ar eminence, they begin to lose condition, the coat ceases to be sleek and glossy, and in a period, proportioned to the severity or number of the bites, generally from twelve hours to a fortnight or three weeks, or even a month, the animals die. If the tsetse infested district is not large, it is much better to make the circuit of it, or to pass through it in the night. We have seen a horse thus taken through the belt on the shores of the Zambesi as a present for Tekalatu. He would be towed by a canoe across the broad river, and hurried on to a place of security before the morning. The fly, as may be supposed from these remarks, is very local. One of the Transvaal republicans told us that a mimosa tree, with bright yellow bark (probably the sweet gum), was one tolerably certain indi- cation of its habitat ; but it is best to inquire of the natives what are its particular limits, and especially to learn whether the tribes in advance keep cattle or dogs, and if they do not, to ask why so. Have they possessed cattle, and been plundered of them, or can they not keep them because of the proximity of the fly? If this is the case, the oxen must be kept beyond the bounds ; but mules or donkeys may be used with safety. The boundaries of this pest are well defined j and we have heard the Batch colonists speak of "De Kant van de Vleigen," or the " edge of the flies," with as much precision as a municipal officer in defining the boundary of his parish. Frequently one side of a waggon road will be spoken of as infested, while the other is safe ; and sometimes the hunters speak of riding up to the " edge of the fly," and going in on foot to shoot game. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 651 Whether the rather more than half-reasoning elephants know that the fly kills horses or not^ we cannot undertake to say; but they certainly connect the idea of comparative security with the " fly country/^ just as an Australian horse knows that the stockyard is the only place in which he is never flogged, and retreats to it whenever he hears the cracking of the dreaded stock whip. That the fly is local there can be no doubt ; and the only chance, so far as we have heard, of this pest being found out of its proper district, is that a herd of bufialoes or other game may be chased to some distance, and carry the fly with them; but if they remain long the insect will leave them and return to its proper range. The fly, a little more than half an inch long and more slender in proportion than a common house fly (the illustrations given below. Figs. 1 and 2, give the true size and an enlarged view of the insect), hovers steadily over the devoted cattle with a peculiarly rapid motion of the wings. To speak either of its bite or its sting would convey an erroneous idea ; it seems to pierce the skin, and dilute the blood it wishes to drink by the injection of a fluid, just as the mosquito does ; the surplus liquid mingles fatally with the blood. We believe neither goats nor sheep are injured by the virus. The piercing apparatus must be of considerable length, as the insect will penetrate a pilot coat and full suit of under- clothing ; the puncture leaves no subsequent pain like that of a mosquito, but is startling enough at the moment. The de- scription of the fly may be thus summed up : The abdomen is marked with transverse stripes of yellow and dark chesnut, fading towards the back, and imparting the appearance of a longitudinal stripe of yellow down the centre of the back. The belly is a livid white; dusky glassy-brown wings folding over each other; eyes, brownish purple. It has six long legs. Its proboscis is about one- sixth of an inch long. It has tufts of hair on the body, which are 652 Shifts and Expedients of dingiest about tlio mouth, on the back, and near the tail. It is keen of smell, quick of sight, and its flight is rapid and straight. It is said that a peculiar breed of dogs, known as the " Moscoba," or Baylye dogs, remain exempt from injury, from having from time immemorial been reared in the fly district, and escaped a cow- milk diet as the natives say. It has no injurious efi'ect upon game whatsoever. The Cape Colony, the Free State, Kafirland, Natal, and most of the Transvaal Republic, as well as Namaqua and Damara land — the Kalihari Desert and the desert between the Bo-tlet-le and Zambesi rivers — may be regarded (speaking generally) as clear of the fly, but the hunters on the various tributaries of the Limpopo suffered very heavy losses ; and Mr. Coqui and party, who travelled from Origstadt to Delagoa Bay, lost all their cattle, we believe, from the tsetse, not far from the last- named place. When travellers first began to find their way to Lake Ngami many, for want of local knowledge, lost sometimes half their cattle. At Tette, and the other Portuguese possessions on the Zam- besi, very few cattle and no horses are kept, but Senhor Pascoal possessed a few donkeys. The natives in the vicinity have no cattle. We do not remember that we saw the tsetse there, but possibly this may have originally prevented their introduction, and the fly may have died out in places where the wild animals have been destroyed. When we travelled from Walwisch Bay, we fell in with no fly all the way to Lake Ngami, but turning thence to the north-west we feared to push too far to the northward, as the banks of the Teoughe, and probably the woods some distance from it, were known to be infested. From the lake eastward we travelled in comparative safety along the Bo-tlct-le River, and turned north over the elevated riverless plain towards the Zambesi. In the valley of that great river system we first felt ourselves in actual proximity to the fly. At Dakd, the cattle grazed in safety; but a servant, who was sent to outspan, ten or twenty miles to the west, had to return because he had got into an infested locality ; and when we started with one waggon only to visit the Falls, we found that patches of mimosa and other forests on the banks of the Matictsie River were also frequented by these little pests. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 653 We tried to save the oxen by rushing them past whenever the edge of the bush approached too closely to the river ; but an accidental delay exposed the cattle to the fatal influence of the tsetse. At the Anyati, or Buffalo Riverj we had to leave the waggon and cattle as the long bed or sand hill covered with mopani and other trees^ between it and the Falls, was known to be infested. Mr. Baldwin also on his way to the Victoria Falls, from Natal, left his waggons in Moselekatses country, on account of the fly in the intervening districts, and made his way on foot. A fellow traveller of ours had a safe camp for several months with cattle at Boana ; and at Logier Hill on the Zambesi (lat. 18° 4' 58" S. ; long, approx. 26° 38' E.) we do not remember to have seen any, though we resided there from September to the following February, in 1862-63. In the parts about Chobe the fly is found near rivers only, in or near rich soils, and marshy spots — generally in mimosa or mopani forests. It sometimes shifts its position, and has been known to leave a spot which has been greatly hunted with guns — probably because the game had diminished or left. The following are the first symptoms in oxen of being bitten : A swelling under the throat, which, if lanced, emits a yellowish fluid ; the hair stands on end or reversed ; they become debilitated, and though the herbage is ever so luxuriant, refuse to fill themselves and become very thin ; their eyes water, and at length, when their end is approach- ing, a continual rattling in the throat or chest may be heard a few paces off. Sometimes one out of the number recovers, but very rarely, and only when it has no work to perform after being bitten. Horses generally swell about the eyes, nostrils, and testacies, where, probably, the bites are most numerous ; the hair becomes reversed, and pining gradually away, they die. Both cattle and horses live from a fortnight to six months after being bitten, Jaut generally all die shortly after the first rain falls. After death the heart of an ox is encased in a yellowish and glutinous substance, Avhich might be mistaken for fat. The flesh is full of little bladders of water, and the blood is half water at heart, which, on cooling, becomes congealed into a yellow glutinous sub- stance. The vitals are of a livid colour. 654 Shifts and Expedients of We do not believe tliat the flesli is rendered unfit for food if the animal be killed in the early stages, but when the poison has made much progress in the blood, and the creature becomes much out of condition, it must of course be greatly deteriorated. We do not know of any remedy, and no certain preventive; it would be a great boon to travellers if any composition, disgusting to the insect, innoxious to the animal, and easy of carriage and applica- tion, could be discovered. We have heard a hunter propose to tar his horse, and then ride ^^into the fly," and shoot elephants; and it is supposed that the anointing of cattle with their own excrement mixed with milk will save them from being bitten, but both these expedients, beside being annoying to the animals, would be liable to lose their efficacy in a short time. The vang-stock is generally used to slip the noose over the hind leg of an ox unwilling to be caught. If a turn can be got round the other leg so much the better ; another noose is thrown over his horns ; men catch him by the tail, another seizes him by the horns, using them as levers, and, with all his members thus pushed and hauled in _ , . contrary directions, down he must go. If he is meant Catchmg cattle. . . for a waggon ox the yoke is put upon his neck, and once fast in the middle of a dozen well- drilled yokefellows his struggles are unavailing, and he soon begins to feel the necessity of taking kindly to his work. If he is wanted for a pack ox, a hole is bored through the cartilage of the nose, and a small stick 4in. or Gin. long, with a fork at one end like a Y pushed through ; this serves as a bit, to which his halter is made fast ; a long reim is passed very tightly, with many turns, round his body, some old skins are tied upon his back, and he is forced to stand or walk with those for several hours. Next day heavier packages arc put on, and he is thus exercised till he is well accustomed to carry a load. The Kafirs very frequently tie packages upon the horns of their oxen. For riding oxen, those that seem of a less gregarious or dependent temper, and go most freely alone, are selected, as they give less trouble to the rider. Many of the most highly valued have loose, pendent horns, swinging, like locks of hair, with every motion of the head. We believe this is malformation, and is produced by beating and Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 655 breaking the core of the horn while still young. In riding, the reim is carried from the nose-bit over the forehead, and thus the nose can be jerked up into the air at the rider^s pleasure, or the animal guided by a gentle pull from side to side. Among completely uncivilised Kafirs or Hottentots the ox is ridden with only a few skins lashed on his back, but after communication with Europeans they generally improvise some sort of . Riding oxen, saddle, perhaps a couple oi pads connected by strips of skin, or a piece of skin with the ends turned up towards the middle and stitched, so as to form two bags, which may be filled either with grass or with any soft articles that have to be carried. We have ridden oxen very comfortably with an English saddle, and have used spurs, which are well enough for gentle admonition, but the sambok, or hide whip, must be at hand as a more convincing argument. The armament of a hunter is expensive. A couple of hundred pounds may very easily be spent upon his rifles, without subjecting him to the imputation of extravagance. He must have his good, stout, plain gun (smooth-bored) for general purposes — double-barrel, of eleven gauge ; then his rifles, carrying bullets of from 2oz. to 6oz. each ; and most probably one or more smooth bores, of still heavier metal, for night shooting at close quarters, when extreme accuracy of aim is not of much importance, and where the shock to the nervous system by the concussion of a large round bullet which bruises the parts around, instead of merely penetrating them like the sharp pointed cylindro-conical, is much more likely to bring down the animal before he has had time to wander very far from the place where he was shot. Powder is required in large quantities, for, besides being always liable to waste or injury from damp, the loading of guns, with from 6drs. to lOdrs. to a charge, the number of shots fired for practice at ant-hills, ineffectively in the chase, or shot away by native servants, counts for something. A liberal stock of shot of various sizes, caps, wadding, and gun requisites should be laid in. Of course there must be a proportionate amount of mercury, tin, or type metal, to harden the bullets, till they can just be indented between the teeth, when they are supposed to be hard enough, without losing too much of their weifrht. 656 Shifts and ExpciUoits of When engaged in hunting in the forests during the day, the hunter will not unfrequently find it convenient to set either gun or bow traps for the purpose of destroying mis- "^ chievous and roving night prowlers. Almost any old gun or musket, provided that it will go off when the trigger is pulled, and will not burst from the effects of a good heavy charge, will answer the purpose. The most convenient form of gun trap we have ever used is formed by lashing a piece of horn, bone, or polished wood, to the back — of the trigger guard with waxed thread, as shown in the annexed illustration. The trigger string is then brought back, passed through behind it, and led forward through the ramrod hoops. The gun, when heavily loaded, is lashed fast to some tree or post at a convenient height from the ground. A stout forked stick placed in the ground, about ISin. from the muzzle, will, according to its length, serve to regulate the line of fire to the height of the animal the trap is intended for. The trap is baited either by attaching a piece of meat of suitable size to the end of the trigger string in such a way that, as the food is seized and dragged away, the trigger may be drawn, and the gun exploded. Where jackals or other small animals of prey are abundant, they are very apt to spring your trap and waste your ai.iununition. In order to prevent them from doing so, Oamp Life, Travel, and E.tplorafhm. 657 it is well to form a sort of pass or road up to a large bait staked to the earth with crook posts or pegs, and then carry your trigger line at a slight strain high enough for a jackal to go under it, but low enough to be struck on the advance of a larger animal. The outer end must now be tied fast to a tree or post, as shown in the engraving on the opposite page. Some huntei's we have known adjust their trigger lines on the lever principle, as shown in the accompanying illustration. The plan is a good one for drawing a trigger with a heavy pull ; but we prefer our own plan, because it is always available. The bit of horn need never be taken from the guard when once properly secured there. A very good porcupine tra,p is made from the barrel of an old cavalry pistol, stapled to a block of wood, and exploded by the fall of a piece of old spring. A- little bone peg or setting pin rests on the top of the barrel, and supports the spring until the string which is fastened to the middle of the setting pin is drawn. Tlie least pull on the string R( UPIvr TK\P causes the lower end of the pin to slip off the barr(> spring to fly sharply down on the crown of the uipplft- lud The Bow and arrow traps are in use in many parts of the world. Chinese and Tartars are very clever at constructing ^^^,^^^ ^^.^^^, them. Very large and powerful cross-bows, charged with poisoned arrows, and set much after the manner of a gun-trap are often used for the destruction of tigers and other animals. Large and very strong bamboo bows, charged with a number of u u 658 Shift.f and Expedients of arrows placed in a row, are set with a line stretched across the ruu of the animals in such a manner that a set of trigger sticks, shown in the annexed illustration, may b* acted on when the line is drawn on. A -^ There is an arrow trap, the " Elg-Led/' used for the destruction of elk in the forests of northern Europe. No bow is used in the construction of this engine. The hunter, when about to set an elg-led, seeks for a regularly used elk track. Each side of this, when found, he plants a post about 4ft. in height, like the posts of a gate. At about 6ft. from one of the posts he plants another in the same line, and on the tops of the two uprights he fixes by pins a fir-pole chopped flat, just as a hand rail of a bridge is made. He then cuts a long tough spring pole, and lashes its large end fast to two more uprights in such a way that, when forcibly bent back like a spring, its small end may sweep the whole length of the hand-rail, as we will call it. On the top of this hand rail a deep groove is cut, and in it rests a heavy- headed arrow. When the spring pole is drawn back to its full extent, it is held in place by a hard wood pin, set at a slope in a notch cut in the top of the hand rail. To the bottom or heel of this pin is attached one end of a stout copper wire, whilst the other eud is carried across tlio elk track and made fast to the other gate post. Brushwood skil- fully disposed on either side of the track keeps the elk in the direct road, whilst fresh young branches and " elk food lichen ^' scattered freely here and there serve to so attract the attention of the advancing Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 659 animal that the first intimation he reneives of anything being amiss is the passage of the massive steel-pointed shaft thi'ough his body. We were first shown how to set an elg-led by an old Norae skipper, who as a warning informed us that the best cow he ever possessed, or was ever likely to possess again, was found dead within ten yards of the first elg-led he ever constructed. Whilst on the subject of traps of this kind, it may not be amiss to caution our readers against placing any of them in situations where either domestic animals or human beings are likely to stray. When you set gun or bow traps near camp, warn all your followers that you have done so. In setting a gun trap be sure that the cocking of the gun and putting on the cap are the last two operations performed. In the case of arrow traps never lay in your arrow until every detail of your arrangements have been completed. Never cross in front of a set trap, or you may pay dearly for doing so. In situations where it is not convenient or profitable to construct arrow traps, deer are often taken in considerable numbers by first forming a rough fence of tree trunks and branches, and then making openings just large enough for the animals to pass through at intervals. In these pass ways nooses of strong cord are suspended in such a way that, as the deer endeavours to force its way through, the slip knot tightens round his neck and holds him fast until dispatched. Tough, elastic young trees are not uufrequently made to do duty as deer traps, by bending them dowu until their tops are a few feet from the earth ; a running loop of strong cord is then made fast to the extreme end of the natural spring, which is held down by a line, peg, and trigger arrangement set in the deer path. As the animal, in straying onward, catches his leg in the line, the trigger sets the bow free, the noose runs home, and the captive swings aloft. Some of the jungle tribes of India make use of an ingenious hook arrangement for deer and antelope catching, which is thus prepared : A pebble from the river bed, a stout, sharp, hook-shaped thorn and a short piece of twisted hide or grass rope are used to make the trap. The pebble has a hole made in one of its ends, through this one end of the rope is looped, whilst the other end is securely lashed to the thick end of the 660 Shifts and Ex-pedients of hooked tliorn, as shown in the annexed ilhistration. This contrivance is baited by placing a small round jungle fruit, of which deer are very fond, on the hook, which is, with its cord and pebble, laid in the path which the animals follow in going to and from water. On the bait being taken into the mouth, the hook quickly becomes embedded in the loose skin below the tongue. The deer, being unable to get rid of it, strikes impatiently upwards with one of its fore-feet, stamping furiously, like an enraged sheep ; in doing this, the cleft between the two hoof-tips, being open, receives the cord, the pebble runs up to the back of the pastern, into the hollow of the heel, holds fast there, and so compels the deluded beast to caper about on three legs, when a well-directed arrow soon settles the matter. On the American Continent a sport known as fire-hunting is much followed. This mode of hunting is prosecuted at night. The hunter provides himself with a, rifle, an old frying-pan, fastened to the end of a pole, and a good supply of resinous pine knots. These he ignites in the pan, and as the bright flame leaps up, he watches carefully for the gleam from the eyes of the deer amongst the dark shadows of the forest. When the two glowing orbs are per- ceived a ball is directed immediately between them. Canoes are not unfrequently used in fire-hunting, when the deer are lily-root hunting on the borders of lakes and rivers. Salt-licks or saline incrustations are powerful attractions to deer, who will travel long distances at night to indulgo their fondness for salt, when they can bo often shot in great numbers by the aid of fire kindled near the lick. Trappers and squatters at times manufacture artificial salt-licks by boring a great number of auger-holes in prostrate tree trunks ; these, when tightly rammed with salt, seldom fail to attract such deer as may.be in the vicinity. Care must, however, be taken that domestic cattle are not shot at the lick in mistake, as the salt is much relished by them. When a deer is killed by the hunter at some distance from camp, ho either protects it from the attacks of animals or birds of prey until it can be conveniently removed, or proceeds to prepare it for packing at once on his horse, pony, or mule. In countries where there arc no vultures, aniinnls of uiedinm size may bo ke])t in safety hj attaching them Gamp Life, Travel, and Eploration. 601 to a spring-pole, or "riser/^ This is made by bending down a tough, elastic young tree until the crown fork is reached ; trim this in such a way with your hunting* knife that a sort of hooked crutch is formed. Now lock the hind legs of your animal together by making a slit behind one back tendon, and running the opposite leg through until the hough joint prevents its return ; place the loop thus formed over your hook-crutch, and then let the tree spring back to its original erect position, and your game will be safe from ground pil- ferers. The pole will be too small for bears to climb. Birds and wild cats are scared away by attaching a few bits of colom-ed rag, or a flutter- ing pocket handkerchief to the prong. Lai-ge red deer or moose can be cut up before suspension. When large animals have to be left whole and unskinned in the woods, lay them longways against the side of a fallen log ; cover them vnih. thorn bushes, and then proceed to cut some long thin wauds, or small branches ; strip the bark from them, in order that the white stick may show. Plant the ends in the earth, and bend the upper portions of the rods over the thorn bushes, amongst which they can be wattled. Few wolves will face this arrangement, as it looks too much like a trap to be safely ventured on. To prepare a deer for- packing on a horse which has to carry the hunter as well, proceed as follows : — First make an incision directly behind the back of the head, above what is called the pithing spot, or joint between the atlas and dentata of anatomists ; cut round the neck until the muscles, &c., are all divided ; then twist the head round, using the antlers as a pair of levers ; divide the attachment between the two bones just mentioned, and the head is separated from the neck. Cut the neck from the body just at the last neck joint, which lays in front of and above the shoulders. Cut off all the feet at the pastern joints. Now pass your knife directly in through the front line of the breast bone, and cut forward and back until the brisket is completely divided.- Then in the same line carry your cut straight down the centre of the belly until the point of your knife rests on the root of the- tail. Feel for the arch bone of the pelvis, skin back the tissues from it, place your knife on its centre with the heel of the blade close to the border of the bone. If the knife is a powerful one, and in good order, a little dexterity in its use will suffice to divide the ai'ch at once. AYhen 662 81iifts and Expedients of this has been doue^ return to the brisket^ force open the cut made in it, insert the two hands, and pull right and left until you can bring your knee to bear in flattening out the two sides by the giving way of the heads of the ribs. Take the two thighs and spread them open in the same manner. When this is done seek for the end of the windpipe ; when found make a hole through it and pass in a short stick for a cross handle to hold on by, pull it upwards and backwards, cutting away right and left above it such adhesions as will be found, turn out all the intestines by freeing them in the same manner, taking care not to puncture them during the operation. If the. work has been properly done nothing but the kidneys will remain in the body of the deer, which can be easily lashed fast to the Ds behind the saddle. The liver and heart can be made a separate package of, as they are well worth taking home. A great number of forms of the fall-trap, as it is called, are to be found in different parts of the world, and trappers of fur-bearing animals avail themselves extensively of the use of FaU-traps. . . . . engines of this description. From the largest bear to the tiny ermine the drop or deadfall produces death, just as we see the common slide-door cage successfully used in taking alive either the royal Bengal tiger or the pilfering kitchen mouse. Dead- fall traps are especially valuable to the northern trapper, who, with axe, knife, and rifle, penetrates vast solitudes in search of furs. The materials for his traps cost him merely the trouble of cutting them from the surrounding forest ; but no little ingenuity, forethought, and deep calculation are needed to so arrange the tree-trunks, pegs, sticks, and baits, as to successfully impose on creatures so richly endowed with instinct as the fur-coated inhabitants of the wilds. The martin trap is a contrivance much used for taking small animals of the weasel .tribe, is generally useful, and is made as follows : When you have reason to suspect the presence of the animals you are in search of, either from having seen their tracks or noted their move- ments, proceed to build your pound wall, as it is called. This is a horse-shoe or half-tower arrangement, about 4ft. in height, built up with heavy stones and pieces of hard compact turf. Through the centre of the back of your half tower pass a stout, rounded, smooth Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 663 stick, about the size of a comuiou broum handle, sharpen the end which comes to the front, and adjust it so that, when the wall is com- C^ n-^1 <£ ^ FIGURE OF FOUR TRAP, HBr AND DIVIDED. BEAR TRAP. pleted, it may project at about 2ft. Gin. from the ground, and 4in. within the line of the two side walls. Now, with your axe, fell a good heavy straight young log, long enough to lay well across the front of your pound when brought up almost in contact with the stones forming the ends. Now, with your knife, make your " iigm-e of four," the principle of which is shown in the above illustration. A\Tien this is completed make your loop-line. This is a stout strand of twisted cedar bark, with a smoothly-tied loop at one end. This loop is run on the projecting stick in the centre ot the pound, and pushed back until the loop touches the back wall. The other end of the line is made fast, about 4 in. from the ground to the bait, which must be perfectly fresh, clean, sweet, and uncontaminated, to be of any use. Any small pieces of bird or squirrel will do. When the bait is attached, the figure of four is brought into use. The :, which, when thoroughly exhausted, is knocked on the head with short heavy sticks. The Bushmen of Africa lie carefully Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration, 669 concealed, with their bows and aiTows, at a convenient distance from the nests of the birds or the edge of a vley or pool to which they come to drink. Stalking is an art the Bushman excels in ; and, with a piece of ostrich skin on his back, a stick roughly hewn into the form of the neck and head of the bird, together with his short bow, in the left hand, and a supply of arrows in his head band (as shown in the annexed woodcut), the cunning hunter creeps up wind towards the feeding flock, and not unfrequently succeeds in shooting down more than one before the alarm is given. The Australian native, when emu hunting, provides himself with a leaf-covered branch large enough to effectually conceal him as he advances step by step up wind towards the birds as they stalk forward and back on the plain in search of food. When within range the native fits the hollow end of his long fire-hardened spear into the tooth of his womera, or throwing stick, and sends it whistling on its mission of death. In South America the ostrich is hunted by mounted meu, who capture it by the aid of the bolas, which consists of three rounded pebbles sewn up in raw hide cases and attached to strips of hide, which are united in the centre. In the use of this contrivance the balls are made to whirl rapidly round the head of the hunter as he gallops towards his prey, and diverge to the full extent of their thong attachments. When sufficiently close to the object of pursuit, the whole affair is launched forth with extraordinary force and precision, entangling the legs, wings, or neck of the bird, and not unfrequently inflicting a heavy stunning blow or two as well. In districts where wheeled 670 Shift. >< and Rrpedienfs of vehicles are employed by either settlers or natives, ostriches or emus may be successfully approached by concealing yourself in one of them as they go creaking and jolting slowly in a line with the flock. By a little management the bullock team may be so guided as to edge down until at very close quarters, when a heavy charge of buckshot under the wing, or a well-directed bullet through the body^ seldom fails in bringing the game to bag-. We have success- fully approached bustards in this manner, both in India and Tartary. Before commencing your stalk, it is well to arrange some straw or reed in the cart, waggon, or hackery in such a manner that it shall afford concealment without preventing you, when within shot, from instantly starting, gun in hand, to a, kneeling posture, which we have found the best attitude to shoot in when subjected to the irregular motion of a vehicle with wheels out of circle, and travelling over a plain without roads. For this description of shooting, a strong hard-shooting gun is needed. One of the kind described at page 9 of this work will be found well adapted for the purpose, and is identical in size of bore — viz., 11 — weight, &c., with one we always use. When about to commence bustard shooting, it will be well, if you have no Ely's wire cartridges, which are of the greatest value for all large fowl, to prepare some from old kid-glove fingers, or oiled silk, as directed at pp. 235 and 286. It is seldom, even when shooting with heavy charges of powder and cartridges, that standing or running shots at bustards pi-ove fatal. We have found it the best plan to continue the approach steadily, until the bird, becoming alarmed, makes a short rapid run, as it almost invariably will, and then spreads its wide wings for flight. Then fire well to the front and below the wing, and the chances are greatly in favour of the sportsman. Wild turkeys are approached by the aid of a call made from a hollow bone. Some skill und experience are needed both to make the call and use it when made. Some hunters succeed in imitating the cluck, or " yelp " as it is called, without the aid of the bone ; but to do this it is necessary to study the exact pitch and intonation of the bird's voice, Avliich can only be done by listening to it. Great numbers of wild turkeys are taken in " cribbets,'' or pens, which are made much on the same principle as the bird trap shown at the front of our full- Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 671 page illustration, only that, instead of sticks of ordinary size, poles are made use of. The following directions for making a wild turkey pen or trap are given by Audubon, and are thoroughly practical and to the purpose : " Young trees of four or five inches in diameter are cut down and divided into pieces of the length of twelve or fourteen feet. Two of these are laid on the ground parallel to each other, at a distance of ten or twelve feet. Two other pieces are laid across the ends of these at right angles to them, and in this manner succes- sive layers are added until the fabric is raised to the height of four feet. It is then covered with similar pieces of wood placed three or four inches apart, and loaded with one or two heavy logs to render the whole firm. This done, a trench about eighteen inches in depth and width is cut under one side of the cage, into which it opens slantingly and rather abruptly. It is continued on its outside to some distance, so as gradually to attain the level of the surrounding ground. Over the part of this trench within the pen, and close to the wall, some sticks are placed so as to form a kind of bridge about a foot in breadth. The trap being now finished, the owner places a quantity of Indian corn in its centre as well as in the trench, and as he walks ofi" drops here and there a few grains in the woods, sometimes to the distance of a mile. This is repeated at every visit to the trap after the turkeys have found it. Sometimes two trenches are cut^ in which case the trenches enter on opposite sides of the trap, and are both strewn with corn. No sooner has a turkey observed the train of corn than it com- municates the circumstance to the flock by a cluck, when all of them come up, and, searching for the grains scattered about, at length come upon the trench, which they follow, squeezing themselves one after another through the passage under the bridge. In this manner the whole flock sometimes enters, but more commonly six or seven only, as they are alarmed by the least noise, even the cracking of a tree in frosty weather. Those within, having gorged themselves, raise their heads and try to press their way through the top or sides of the pen, passing and repassing on the bridge, but never for a moment looking down or attempting to escape through the passage by which they enter. Thus they remain until the owner of the trap, arriving, closes the trench, and secures his captives." Great numbers of both capercailzie and 672 Shifts and Expedients of blackcock are taken in the forests of northern Europe by the aid of traps and snares. The former differ in form of construction with the district in which they are used. Deadfalls are in common use. They are either made in such a way as to allow one long heavy pole to fall on the bird, or seven or eight stout poles are battened together as they would be to form a door. A hole is cut in the upper end large enough for the main post or setting stick to pass up through as the flap of the trap falls. The figure-of-four form of release is that usually made use of. The illustrations at page 663 will serve to show the arrangement when put together and the mode of notching the separate portions. Birch or beech wood makes excellent figure-of- four traps. Cowberries and other forest fruits are used as baits to strew in and about the traps. A very ingenious form of pen trap is also much used in the North for blackcock capture ; it is called the " orre tratt/' and is thus constructed : A young pine of about 12ft. high is selected as the centre pole ; all the branches are removed, and the top of a well-grown young spruce fir tree lashed in a reversed position to the pole about 4ft. from the ground ; a crutch or fork is now fastened with cord to the head of the pole ; within about 1 ft. of the top in this crutch is lashed the tip stick, which is so tied as to act as a scale-beam or the see-saw used l)y boys ; a bunch of wheat or other corn in the ear is secured to the extreme end of the main pole. When these arrangements have been made, a number of larch poles with the bark on are driven in round the main pole in funnel form, much as young trees are defended from the attacks of deer or rabbits in this country. The top of the funnel should be about 4ft., and the bottom about 20iu. across. A few tough sticks or vines wattled in here and there give firmness and compactness to the structure. When this is complete, plant a few poles, with bunches of partly threshed oat or barley reed tied to their tops in such a way that a good foothold may be afforded to birds on cross branches left for the purpose, which should be near enough to the tip stick of the main pole for a blackcock to hop easily off when attracted by the buucli of wheat ears. The instant he settles on the tij) stick it gives way, and allows him to drop down into the pen on tlic lir-l)i-anch frill in the centre, which instantly gives way under his ; /. <#^^;. .-,?;v/t'/#*iv ^^ Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. C73 wcig-ht, ami lets him dowu to the bottom. Sl.ould be atteiupt to rise, the barb-like pine branches keep him dowu. The tip stick, having fallen back to its original position, is ready for a fresh victim, who cjuickly descends to join his fellow in the bottom of the pen, which has been known to become well filled during a short winter's day. Snares may be made of annealed brass or copper wire, or of several strands of twisted horsehair. Twisted copper or Snares, brass wire makes excellent snares, but it must be very soft and pliable. Iron wire, when used as a makeshift for the two former descriptions of material, should be annealed before use : this process, which adds greatly to the pliability and tenacity of iron wire, is conducted as follows : Double your wire into a hank or bundle of convenient size ; twist a loose rope made of dried grass or straw round it in all directions until the coil is completely covered ; ignite the straw or hay band, and let it burn to ashes ; let your wire cool gradually, and you will find it almost as pliant as a thong. The snoods, or '' grains " as they are called, are best made from stout white horsehair, twisted by the aid of a half-opened pocket knife, as at Fig. 1, page 598. Immense numbers of these are made in some districts for the capture of snipes and woodcocks, and are used in a kind of trap known as a " springle.^' As a ground trap for birds, it is, perhaps, the most remunerative that can be set; its form, when adjusted for use, is shown at the front of the full-page illustration, " Traps for Small Game." Common hazrl is the best material to make all the wood- work of a springle from. The annexed illustration shows the arrangement in a divided form. The parts consist of the riser A, the " sweik " B, the bow C, the hookpost D, and the button E. The riser liue — a piece of stout twisted twine — the orains, and the button in place are shown at F. The riser should be planted .=0 as to lay well back, in order that it may exercise its full power when in action. When X X 674 Shifts and Expedients of setting this description of trap for snipes or woodcocks no bait is used. A convenient spot is chosen on the ground in which they bore for food ; and a reading is then j^" made with small bent twigs, as :^ ^ ' in the annexed illustration, in ^^^i^^'v - S extended V form. The sweik is - :^ -C ?- .-, set directly across the narrow ^^^^^T- ; ,; : ;^;: :; : : =/ ^^^ pass, formed by the convergence ""^ -■ — ~ of the two twig walls or hedges. No woodcock or snipe will ever pass out over the barrier formed by the bent twigs. Feeding and running onwards, they merely touch their beaks against the border hedge, work their way up the gradually narrowing passage, until the sweik, with its sur- rounding of grains or snare, is reached, when the head or feet of the bird, pressing down the former, releases the button from its hold on the notch. The riser flies up, and the neck, or some other portion of the body of the bird, is caught within the noose, which holds the game firmly against the bow, until strangled or taken out by the trapper. We have seen hundreds of springles set along the lines formed by the wheels of a waggon across an open stretch of plain or moorland. Water settling in these forms a sort of water road for snipes to run in. Two or three twigs on each side are all that will be needed at each trap, in such a favourable trapping ground as this. On an open flat or marsh meadow, 14ft. or 15ft. of twig reading will not be too much for each side or limb of the double or single V arrangement. Springles set for birds, requiring a bait such as fieldfares, blackbirds, missel thrushes, redwings, &c., should have their sweiks placed over shallow oval pits; hawthorn^ paracanthus or cotoneaster berries, rotten apples, or ears of unthreshed wheat or barley make good baits for springles. Vast numbers of migratory birds of the thrush tribe are taken for the market on the Continent and in the north of Europe by the use of various forms of the " dona.'' This is a trap made by either bending into half-hoop form a stick either growing or inserted in an auger hole bored in a tree. The string used to bend the bow, and form a head line for the hair nooses or snares, is usually made of bast obtained from the lime or linden Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 675 tree ; twine, or any other cord-like material, will answer the same purpose. Several forms of this kind of trap will be seen suspended from the trees in the full-page illustration, representing " Traps for Small Gsbvae." A very excellent form of spring bow trap is made by bending a strong pliant hazel or other stick into the form shown in the annexed illustration. Bore a hole through one end with a red-hot wire; draw the snare or grains through the hole until the two ends of the bow closely approach each other, then force the end of the tread-fork (A), which must be cut to a truncated conical form, into the hole (B), until the grains is held by it in such a way that the force of the bow cannot draw it through the hole, and yet pressure on the tread-fork will displace it, and set the grains free to be drawn through the hole, unless the bird which has stepped on the fork is caught, in which case it is held, as shown in the full-page illustration. Larks, quails, finches, &c., are readily taken in snares, hung either from bows or stretched lines adjusted so as to hang just above the ground ; several of these arrangements are shown in the full-page illustration. Chaff or grain should be scattered about traps of this kind, which answer best when snow is on the ground. A great number of both birds and small animals are to be taken in " cribbets : " these are pyramidal-shaped pens, or cages, built up by placing round, straight sticks, with the bark on, one on the other, just as a log house is built, only that cribbet sticks are not notched as logs are for building. AYhen the cribbet is built to the required size and height for the description of game to be caught in it, a string at each corner, brought to the apex of the trap, gathered together in a knot, and made tight by twisting round a stick placed in the loop, makes all firm and compact. A piece of bent vine or briar serves to set the trap, which is arranged as shown in the full-page illustration. Wild geese, ducks, widgeon, teal, water rails, coots, &c. &c., are taken readily by traps properly set for them. On the coasts of X X 2 676 Shiffti and Expedients oj Fiuhiud Hud Lapland great nuiiibers of wild geese ai'e taken by forming a little fence or hurdle (which stands about breast high to a goose), on projecting points or spits of laud which stretch out into the bays or harbours. Unbarked sticks, about the size of a common walking-stick, are thrust firmly into the ground, at about 10ft. or 12ft. apart, and then at every third or fourth stick a second is placed at about a foot from the other, forming, so to speak, a pair of gate posts, and in such a manner as to form an irregular line, completely surrounding the sea-line of the spit. A string or wire is now stretched tightly from stick to stick, <-*nily omitting the spaces left between the pairs of posts. These are left unfenced, and are each provided with a running noose, made of twisted hair or wire, which is secured to one of the posts. When the arrangement is complete, barn refuse is scattered inside the fence. The geese, coming in from the sea to feed, breast the fence, until an opening, formed by one of the gates, is found. This is quickly entered, and the noose, running in round the neck of the intruder, holds him fast. A sort of trap raft frame is much used for duck catching during winter in the north. Some short pieces of board serve to form the side and end floats of the raft. An upright post is set at each corner, and a top line is stretched round the heads of the side and end posts, as shown in the annexed illustration. Hair or wire nooses are set all round the duck raft, which is usually floated in a hole made in the ice ; a quantity of water plants, pulled up by the roots, are thrown within the barriers. The ducks or other fowl, in endeavouring to force their way through the loops, are hung by the neck, and strangled. Wooden frames are also mounted with wire snares and cross strings, as shown in the illustration on page 677, and prepared for sinking, by the aid of stones, through holes in the ice, until they are about 3ft. or 5ft. beneath the surface. The ducks congregate in these holes, and in diving after food become entangled in the snares, and are drowned. The frames are hauled up once or twice during the day, for the purpose of removing the dead birds. Small-sized fish hooks. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 677 fastened to stout line or twine, and baited with bits of unio, pond mussel, or otlier fresh-water molluscs, removed from the shell, make good traps for ducks. Herons, storks, egrets, and other wader birds, can be caught by hooks baited with small fish. Sea-fowl are caught in considerable num- bers by baiting ordinary fishing- hooks and lines with bits of pork rind or fish offal. Ducks and other wildfowl are captured by the natives of Australia by the aid of a long rod or wand, to which a fine strong noose of twisted bark is attached. Furnished with this con- trivance, the native proceeds to make for himself a head dress or crown of river weeds, and then, wand in hand, swims and wades out to where the unsuspecting fowl are feeding and disporting themselves ; here, with the rod resting on the surface of the water, and pushed forward, duck after duck is first noosed by the neck, and then drawn under the surface to the duck-catcher, who quickly attaches the victims to his belt by slip-loops fastened to it for the purpose. Both the Chinese and Indians take wildfowl on ponds or lakes by the aid of a gourd shell placed on the head. A few real gourds or pumpkins are first launched well to windward, and allowed to float amongst the birds in order to allay suspicion. The fowler then, with his gourd-shell cap (in which two small peep- holes are cut) on his head and neck, enters the water at some spot where a clump of reeds or rushes can be found as a concealment, and then swiftly swims or wades, as the depth of the water may render necessary, out amongst the birds. Here he proceeds to draw as many as he requii-es down by the feet, securing his game just as the Australians fasten theirs. The shooting or trapping of wildfowl by the white hunter or explorer is often much facilitated by the use of false or decoy birds. These may be either solid bl »L'ks of carved wood, painted so as to imitate the plumage of real birds (the heads and necks of 678 Shifts and Expedients of these should be made to take ofF)^ stuffed skins mounted on wooden or bark floats, sheet metal, or gutta-percha models ; many of these are beautifully made, but are rather costly and troublesome to carry. We prefer, when making use of a few decoys, to employ duck, goose, or widgeon skins stuffed with bark chips, and balanced with lead attached to a loop fastened to the breast. Bits of lead pipe make good weights. Each decoy bird should have an anchor weight and cable string attached to it, so that it may remain in its proper place until picked up from the canoe by the aid of a long forked pole. Ambushes are often made use of in marshes, on the borders of lakes, or the banks of tidal rivers, for the purpose of concealing the sportsman from the quick eyes of the passing fowl. A good sized cask sunk in the ooze, and then well furnished with straw, makes a good lurking place. On flats, where the tide flows, it is a good plan to plant four stout posts in a square. Bore sets of auger holes up each post in such a way that four stout iron or hard wood pins may be passed completely through the holes in the posts, and project about six inches towards the interior of the square. On these projecting ends a light platform or stage of boards is fixed for the sportsman to stand on ; a few bundles of marsh reeds, fastened to the frame, are so spread out as to form an effectual screen. A narrow board to sit on is supported on two bars run through each pair of end posts. When shooting ducks on the marshes of Southern Russia we used to form a sort of screen by cutting a bundle of marsh reeds, fastening their tops together with a piece of twine, spreading the lower ends out like a large extinguisher or the hat of a beehive, and then placing the whole arrangement on the head. When seated thus arrayed on a good thick pile of reeds, with your legs encased in well-greased boots, and your gun placed well under cover, the ducks, geese, widgeon, and other fowl, come fearlessly by on whistling wing, and are knocked over and bagged accordingly. A contrivance, known as the " crinoline stalker," may be used with advantage in approaching many descriptions of wildfowl; this con- trivance is made from four bars of wood nailed together in a square, as a picture frame is made. At each corner a leg is placed, about knee high. A string serves to sling the arrangement over the shoulders of the sportsman, just as a falconer's hawk stand used to be carried. Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 679 A number of short lengths of cord or ropeyarn attached to the frame serve as lashings for bundles of reeds or long green branches, so that, when the stalker is adjusted properly, the sportsman walks as though in a very large and high topped crinoline. "When he wishes to remain stationary, he drops his frame so that the legs may rest on the ground. He can then sit down on the hind bar and remain well con- cealed. The gun is usually carried slung until required for use, in order that the hands may be free to manage the crinoline. Calls of different kinds are generally made use of to attract deer, wildfowl, rails, plover, and partridges. The moose deer is called with a trumpet formed from birch bark. Duck and goose calls vary in form with the locality in which they are used. The natural windpipe and larynx, freshly stripped from the bird, are, in the hands of a skilled performer, the best that can be devised. Landrails can be brought close to the sportsman by the use of a small thin flat bone (beef- rib bone is as good as any), cut into teeth, like those of a saw. Over these a thin flat strip of bone is drawn sharply and re- peatedly until the answering bird is within shot. Partridge calls are made by stretching a bit of stout parchment or moistened vellum over the mouth of a common bottle neck, broken off short. When the stretched membrane is dry, a small pin hole is made in its centre, and thi'ough this a knotted horsehair is passed, until the knot is drawn against the inside of the drum-head. A little powdered resin is placed on the fingers, and the hair is drawn sharply through in such a way that the voice of the real bird is closely imitated. Woodpigeon, plover, and weasel calls can be purchased for a small sum from any respectable gunmaker, and are far better than most amateurs could hope to make. They occupy a small space, and can be easily stowed away in the gun case. Much might be said on the subject of wildfowl punts, sunk flats, fowling canoes, &c., but a con- sideration of such appliances can be scarcely entered on in this work. The use of birdlime may be often had recourse to for the captm'e of a great variety of birds, particularly such as assemble in large flocks about the neighbourhood of springs or water holes. The most expeditious and best mode of preparing birdlime is to place about a pint of hnseed oil in an earthen pot or other vessel. 080 Shifh and Expedients of which should be set upright in the hot ashes of the camp fire^ and boiled slowly and steadily until reduced to about a third in quantity, when, instead of oil, birdlime will be left in the vessel. The inner bark of the holly, some kinds of elm, a parasitical plant like a mistletoe which grows from the mango tree, the straight upright shoots of the common elder, and several creepers or vine-like plants found in tropical countries, produce birdlime. To prepare it, the bark, after being scraped free from the outer shell, must be boiled in rain-water for at least ten hours ; throw it then in a mass out on a cloth to drain ; dig a pit in the earth in a cool place, put a flat stone in the bottom of the pit, throw your bark in on the stone, letting it rest as a pile or heap. Now place another flat stone on the top of tlie pile, throw in grass round the edges to keep any earth from getting in, fill up your pit with earth so as to leave a slight depression in the middle ; throw a little water into this every other day for three weeks, when the bark will have become stringy and tough. Lay it now little by little between two rough stones, and grind it into a paste. Work the paste with clean hands in a clear running stream, until all impui'ities and foreign substances are washed away, and then place it in a clean earthen pot, covered with a tile or flat stone for a week, when the lime will bo fit for use. When intended for the capture of small birds, it should be smeared on sets of twigs or branches, so set that the birds may settle easily on them. When used for crow catching, it is placed in a thick coat on the inside of paper cones, which are made as though intended for silk- worms to spin in ; each cone is baited by placing a piece of raw meat in its narrow end, and then thrusting a thorn or sharp splinter of wood through both it and the paper. The crow, in attempting to get at the bait, thrusts its head into the cone, which remains fixed on like an extinguisher. Birds thus caught either flap about helplessly or keep mounting in the air until, becoming exhausted, they fall to the earth, and are easily taken. On some of the islands of the Pacific vast quantities of dragon flies are taken for food by boys, who, armed with long wands tipped with birdhme, lightly touch the insect, which is at once secured, and placed in a basket carried suspended from the shoulders. We have always a great aversion to the use of poison as an agent Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 681 for the destruction of animal life ; and it is only in cases of absolute necessity tliat recourse should be had to it. The skins of fur-bearing animals so destroyed are very inferior to those obtained in the usual way. The flesh of birds and animals poisoned by strychnine (the agent commonly made use of by hunters and travellers for poisoning purposes) is so intensely poisonous, that any creature partaking of it is almost sure to perish. It is, therefore, the best plan, when it is considered advisable to rid the vicinity of the camp of the presence of furred or feathered carnivora, to destroy some suffering or worn-out baggage mule or horse with strychnine, and then place its remains in a position in which access to them is easy ; but see that your own dogs are secured, or they, with all the magpies, crows, vultures, wolves, wild dogs, &c., &c., in the district, will stand a fair chance of being destroyed. We remember hearing of two settlers in Australia who, finding that their crops Avere seriously damaged by cocatoos, tried all in their power to shoot them, but to no purpose. They at length prepared a quantity of corn with strychnine, and spread it about the clearings. The cocatoos eagerly devoured the grain, fell dead in the forest, and were in due time devoured by the " dingoes,^' or native wild dogs, who in turn fell beneath the powers of the potent vomic nut. It is best to take such strychnine as may be required from England. Apothecaries' Hall is the best place to obtain it from. The best way to pack it for travelling is in a stout glass-stoppered bottle, which has had a strong tin case or jacket soldered over it. The tin cover or cap fitting over all should have a skull conspicuously marked on it. (See " Box markings.'') Too much caution cannot be used in handling or dealing with this most deadly and fearful poison. Shifts and Expedients of CHAPTER. XVIII. PALANQUINS, STRETCHERS, AMBULANCES, ETC. In many countries where it is difficult to keep riding or draught horses, or where the want of roads precludes the use of wheeled carriages, those who can afford to ride are borne upon the shoulders of men in conveyances more or less simple or elaborate ; and not only do these vary much in different countries, but the mode of shouldering, and even the step of the bearers is as various as the fashion of the vehicle. The peculiar short trot of the palkee bearers differs from the elastic spring of the Zambesians when they carry in single file, and that again from their swinging walk or run when they carry in pairs — each man embracing his comrade, while the pole rests on the right shoulder of one and on the left of the other ; while they walk on separate paths, about 3ft. apart, each man leaning inward, at an angle of 15 degrees or 20 degrees towards his comrade, just as the horse and rider lean inward in a circus. The machila, or masheela, is simply a couch, slung by chains or leather thongs to a pole of female bamboo of the largest possible diameter, so that it may bear easily on the shoulders of the men, and not cut them, as a smaller pole would. Generally an awning of chintz or calico, spread on yards like a boat's awning, with curtains on either side, is attached to the bamboo ; but sometimes, when the masheela is intended to be more strictly a private carriage, a sloping roof or pent-house of reeds is slung saddle-wise over the pole, completely screening the occupant from the public eye, while a small window on each side affords sufficient facility of observation from the interior. All the Portuguese on the Zambesi keep masheelas and sets of bearers, who generally have a tolerably Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 683 easy time of it^ their duty being to convey their master or mistress to- and from the corn land^ the church, or any house in the little town where an evening party is afoot or a morning call to be made. When it is actually necessary to carry a sick or disabled man, a hammock may be extemporised, by rolling a small stone into each corner of a blanket, and thus forming a knob, or projection which will prevent the slipping of the cords or thongs with which it is made fast to the pole. We saw a young Dutch lad, under the influence of fever, carried by a couple of Zambesian natives in a skin hammock, two corners of which were fastened to a short cross- pole, or yard, at the head, while the other end was gathered up and tied altogether to the main or bearing pole. The pressure of this pole on one shoulder was partially relieved by a stick held lever-wise over the other, so as to take a portion of its weight, as shown in our illustration ; and, in connection with this, we may well remember the carrying stick of hawkers and packmen : — Smooth, round, and just thick enough to be grasped with comfort in the hand; then spreading to nearly Sin. in breadth as it curves gently over the shoulder, and again turning more decidedly upwards, to form a hook for the pack to hang upon. Almost anyone with ordinary ingenuity and a little patience could find out the most convenient form for himself. 684 Shifts and Expedients of Fig. 1, in the following series of sketches, is a hammock, either of canvas, like a seaman's, or of ornamental grass rope, like those of South America, Sierra Leone, or other places, where considerable taste is often shown in weaving in the different lace-like patterns of the borders or in arranging the various colours. The ends are spread by two sticks or stretchers, about 2ft. long ; these may either be stitched or woven into the material, or simply kept in place by having the ends of the clews knotted round them. It is slung to a pole of female bamboo, which should be as light and of as large diameter as possible. Fig. 2 is a cot, a most luxurious arrangement, which may be made up to any degree of simplicity or completeness. The bottom consists of one breadth of stout canvas, fully 6ft. in length, or more if for a very tall man. A piece about Iffc. in depth is then strongly seamed on to each end, and a similar piece along each side; and the upper edges of these should be turned down, and sewn into pipes capable of containing poles or stretchers of about l^in. in diameter. These pieces should not be stitched together at the edges, which meet when they are turned up, but should have eyelet holes and lacings, so that when not in use, or when laid down as the foundation for a bed, or taken apart to be washed, the canvas may lie hke a flat sheet. The eyelet Oarnp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 685 holes for the clews should be so made that each clew may encircle the stretcher in its canvas pipe and tie round it. Tlic ends of the stretchers should have holes bored in them, so that they may be firmly, but not too stiffly, lashed together with small cord; and those at the bottom may cither be secured in the same manner, or a regular frame of joiner's work may be made to fit it, and a web of stout sacking or of cords tightly interlaced, as in Fig. G, may be substituted. Fig. 3 is the common military stretcher, which may be thus made : Take 6ft. of 30in. wide stout canvas, draw a line with chalk or charcoal 6in. from each side and parallel to it, or fold and crease the canvas along a thread ; turn each edge down to one of these marks, and stitch it so as to make a pipe of 6in. in circumference, into which a pole, somewhat smaller or a little less than 2in. in diameter, will slip easily in and out ; these poles should be at least 8ft. or a trifle more to leave sufficient ends for the bearers. Then take two boards, 5in, broad, lin. thick, and a little over 2ft. long ; bore or cut in each two holes large enough to let the ends of the poles pass through ; and with the nearest parts of their circumference, just 18in. apart, put them together, as shown in Fig. 3 ; when not in use, lay the boards in, as in Fig. 4, and roll them upon the stretcher ; in this figure one of the poles is shown withdrawn from the side pipe. In active service one of these is usually carried by a soldier in the rear of his company ; and if a comrade is wounded, four men carry him on the stretcher, while four more carry their muskets, and act, if necessary, as a relief. The wounded man's blanket and great coat serve for his pillow, and those of his comrades, if necessary, are used to cover or support him in any position his injury may require. A plot of ground, as smooth and as much sheltered from shot as possible, is selected. The sufferer is laid down, the poles are withdrawn from the pipes on each side, so that there may be no impediment to medical examination ; and when the wound is dressed, the poles are once more inserted, and the man borne to the temporary or permanent hospital. Fig. 5 shows a little addition we improvised in Damara land. We screwed clamps of wood upon the end pieces, and in them in- 686 Shifts and Expedients of serted other poles, tlie lower ends of which were short, and stout enough to serve as legs, and converted the stretcher into a low bedstead, while the upper supported a small awning, and were steadied by stays leading to the ends of the bearing poles. This was constructed for the purpose of bringing home a friend who had been wounded, at a distance ; and during our journey towards the spot we used it nightly, and found it a most comfortable bed ; it rolled up like the military stretcher, and the clamps of the awning poles increased its bulk very slightly. Fig. 6 is the " kadel," or bed frame, usually slung in a Cape waggon, with two of the yokes, or more, if necessary, lashed under it as bearers. Fig. 7 shows how the muskets of a small party may be used to carry a wounded comrade. The belts serve as lashings, and overcoats or blankets as bedding ; or if grass, or small branches are available, a quantity may be cut, and a tolerably soft couch made of them. Of course it is quite possible that eight muskets could not be spared ; in this case two only might be laid side by side, with three across them — one to support the head and shoulders, one under the hips, and the third under the knees, the belts passing as much as possible under the other portions of the body. Fig. 8 indicates the use of lances and swords for the same purpose ; the sketch is purposely made in the simplest possible form, in order to show more clearly the principle of construction. If more lances or swords are at hand, the possessors of them will see at any moment how to suit the comfort of the wounded man better than any details we could give would teach them. The form of stretcher indicated in the accompanying engraving is worthy of remembrance : it resembles two short ladders, hinged side by side, and is furnished with stout straps, being often used with more regard to the security of the prisoner than to his comfort. In some countries a couple of horses or donkeys are harnessed between the ends of two long poles or shafts, on the centre of which I Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 687 the load is supported, as shown in the annexed illustration. This arrangement might, under favourable circumstances, be made available for the carriage of a wounded man, or in a case of great emergency the ends of a blanket might be knotted together; and, two men being laid in the bights, the central part might be laid across the back of a horse, with one man hanging on each side, and secured with the best means available at the moment. Among civilised nations it would, perhaps, be better to leave the wounded to the mercy of a victorious enemy than to risk the extinction of life by such rough means ; but in fighting savages no living man ought, under any circumstances, to be left in their power, and a soldier had better die under the rough, though kindly, efforts of his comrades to remove him than become a prisoner — to be kept alive as long as he is capable of enduring torture. The Kaffirs, and we suppose most other savages, carry off not only their wounded, but also the dead, not from any motives of humanity, but simply to deprive the enemy of a trophy. Among some tribes a quantity of reeds are cut and made into a bundle, with the corpse inside ; this is firmly lashed to a long pole, and is easily carried upon men^s shoulders. When our late friend, C. J. Anderson, was wounded in his gallant and self-sacrificing attempt to free the Damaras from their Namaqua oppressors, we had to adopt a somewhat more elaborate arrangement. The fact that a limb had been shattered rendered it impossible that he could lie with comfort upon the yielding canvas of the stretcher (Fig. 5 of the group given on page G8i^) ; and, therefore, when it was found necessary to remove him, we sent to Objimbengue for planks, and with them made a level and unyielding surface, supported by cross battens, notched at each end, so as to lie securely on the bearing poles. On each side we raised one breadth of about 9in., making them work upon claw hinges of brass wire, so that they could either be turned down or entirely removed at pleasure ; on these sides we screwed uprights or 688 SIdfts and Ejcpedients of stanchions, with notches in their edges, so that crossbars could bo laid in them (as may be seen in our full-page illustration-), and i-aised or lowered from notch to notch as needful. One of these crossbars was near the head of the stretcher, so that he could occasionally rest his shoulders, by taking hold of it by partially lifting himself from his bedj and two others were noarcn- to the foot, for the purpose of slightly supporting and steadying a box, with falling sides, in which, for further security, we encased the shattered leg. When wc halted to dress the wound the ci'ossbars were first removed, the sides let down or taken away, the sides of the small box containing the limb also removed; while the awning was left spread, and occasionally blankets were stretched from trees to shield it from the direct action of the sun. When the dressing was completed everything was easily restored to its place, and a few points and lanyards, knotted in their proper places, made all fast again. The same engraving also shows a rude but not an uncomfortable form of litter, extemporised for a wounded Damara, from a forked branch, with the smaller twigs lopped off where they were in the way, or interwoven where they would serve to fill up a gap in the bed; other boughs and cross pieces were added, and a few skins, karosses, or blankets, converted it into a very comfortable couch. Sometimes a man, though unable to walk, can sit and practically support himself; in this case two men may lay their muskets together, end for end, and hold them across between them for him to sit on, with his arms upon their shoulders ; and even if they have no weapons at hand they may make him a very comfortable seat by joining their hands and arms, as shown in the above illustration. Thus, the two bearers stand side by side, and half facing each other, No. 1 grasps his own right wrist with his left hand; No. 2 Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. G80 does tlie same; No. 1 then grasps the left wrist of No. 2 with his disengaged right hand, and this brings the right hand of No. 2 into the proper position to catch the left wrist of No, 1. In this easily extemporised chair they can bear a tolerably heavy man without undue strain on the mnsc-K-s of their (Avu Mrnis^aud when they become weai-y two others can at once take their places, or they juay gain a little relief by interchanging the position of their right and left hands, while nothing can be more comfortable to a disabled man than the easy chair thus formed for him. Fig. 4 shows how a short pole can be used to form a seat-rest for carrying. The mode of carrying used in mountainous countries by a chair strapped on the back of a porter, and still further secured by a band passing round his forehead, as shown at Fig. 5, might occasionally be found useful. The principle of the sedan, or of the electioneering chair, fastened on two fore and aft slioulder-poles, in a manner which any sailor could effect with a few bits of cord, should also be borne in mind, to be used or not, according to the necessity of the case. In our illustration on p. 690, Fig. 1 represents the cross bandages applied to an injured head ; and here we may remark, once for :ill, tliat in bandaging, as in knotting or lashing, simplicity Bandaires aud is the essence of security. Let as many turns of '"''^'^'^^^ appliances, the bandages be used as are absolutely necessary to cover and secure the dressings of the wound ; all in addition are not only superfluous, but detrimental. Fig. 2 (p. 690) shows the support for a dislocated shoulder or broken collar-bone : a roll or pad of calico is placed under the armpit, and secured by a bandage over the opposite shoulder ; another l)andage is then passed .in tigures-of-8 fashion round the arm aud the body, in order to confine the arm close to the side. The arm of this figure, with the palm of the hand placed against the breast, as at Fig. 3 (p. 690), shows the position in which the limb should be placed in cases of fracture of the bones or other injury ; the hand then lying between the prone and supine positions, and the bones and muscles assuming, without constraint, their natural relative position towards each other. This figure also shows the manner of ai)plying a bandage to a taper limb. If the bandage were wound spirally round, one edge would be Y Y 690 Shifts ami Re(Uenfs of g=^ uiiiliily tit^-lit while llio otlior would be slack ; tlicrcforo, at evory turn round the limb a turn inoro (jr loss docidcd is taken in tlio bandag^e, which thus accommodates itself easily and exactly to the shape of the limb. In the next figure is shown another form of head bandage (Fig. 4), one part of Avhich forms a loop, while the next, passing through it, is turned upwards at right angles over the head, and this is re- peated until the whole, or as ranch of the scalp as is neces- sary, is covered. This is a very convenient form when, from any other injury, it is not advisable to pass a cross bandage under the chin. Fig. 5 is the strapping or ~' bandage for a broken jaw. It is made of sticking plaister, a hole is cut for the chin, and the ends are cut in swallow tails, to allow them to take the shape of the face they are laid on. Fig. 6 is the bandage for a broken rib. If the body is at rest, the bones will assume their natural ]ilaee, but the expansion and conli"iction of 'the chest in breath iug disturbs and disunites them. Scunotimes, therefore, the whole chest is tightly bandaged; but as it will answer the purpose just as well if the injured side is prevented from expanding, strips of adhesive plaister may be cut sufficieutly long to reach from the sternum to the spine^ and so to confine the wounded side and leave the other free. Ii the back of the hand should be injured, it may be necessary to pl.ace a Imll of calico or other soft substance in the palm of the hand, Camp Life, Trace], ami Exploration. 001 then closing the fingers upon it to bind tlio fist firmly edingly useful when applied to the turn of a joint, as in the sketch. Fig. 1, in the group of illustrations on p. 692, is in case of injury to the radius close to the wrist joint. It may be necessary to have a crooked splint aiid bend the hand on it, as shown in the figure. We believe it will more frequently be found advisable to place 1 •' Sjilmts, &c. the palm of the hand to the splint ; but this must be left in a great measure to the judgment and daily experience of the operator aud his ])atient. Fig, 2 is a splint in case of fracture of the bones of the lower arm. 'I'here will also be a short splint on the inner side, and the arm must be supported by a sling. Fig. 3 is an angled splint for injuries near the joint. It may 692 be carried ready made of gutta with the best materials at haud. Figs. 4 and 5 c^f the anuexed i Shifts and Expedients of percha, or may be extemporised ustrations are splints for the inner and onter bend of the arm ; the outer may support the arm nearly to the wrist ; the inner should be shorter; others sliould ])C ready made in gutta percha. Fisfs, 6 and 7 are substitutes for them, extemporised from the smootli bark of a young tree, as near the size of the arm as possible. Fig. 8 is a piece of bark so cut as to allow of its being bent to the form of No. G. Figs. 9 and 10 are inner and outer splints for the leg, usually made of gutta. percha, and of course made right and left. Sometimes a fully sufficient hollow is left for the ankle, and sometimes a hole is cut entirely through. Fig. 11 is a leg with a cradle of bark supporting the thigh, the calf, and the sole of the foot, and with a splint or shield of the same covering the instep and the shin. Fig. 12 is a leg which has been broken, bandaged and supported n the best position to avoid any derangement of the parts by uu- e({ual tension of the nmsi-les. Of course splints would have to be secured above these bandages. Fig. 13 is a jointed rest, some- times used in fractures of the thigh, to give ease to the limb when there is not much fear of muscular Cam}) Life, Travel, and Explorafioi (;93 action disarraug-iug it. The pegs at the sides draw nut for convenience of dressing, and serve at other times to keep in position the pads or cushion which are placed under the limb. Fig. 14 is the full-length splint for a broken thigh. The lind) is bandaged, the splint secured at the ankle and hip, and the over-all bandage partially passed on. We have had to wear a splint bound over all with starched bandages from toe to armpit. Sir Samuel Baker mentions one of the Agu- geers who broke his thigh, and whom he bound up in this man- ner like a nmmmy with strips of bark and calico, stiffened with gum^ and who, after lying on his back a few weeks, was able to rise and join in the chase as energetically as before. Fig. 15 shows the extension of the leg without a splint, by folding a long strap of sticking plaister up each side of the calf, making a line fast in the bight, leading it over a sheave or roller, and attaching a weight, say of 61b. or 81b., to the other end. Fig. IG is a sheet, or long towel, or piece of cloth, with two half hitches made in the middle, and passed over the ankle for the purpose of extending the limb; care must be taken that ends on which the pull is made come out on the inner side, abreast of the hollow of the foot. These last two expedients are useful in case of fracture in a strong and muscular limb ; for, by keeping up a continued strain, they weary out the muscles, and cause them to relax, when the bone may be set with less ditiicultv. We once assisted 694 SIn/ts and liriirJlmfs of Dr. Kirk to sot tliu tluiiiib of ;i Z;uiiljcsi:iii ne<^-ro. Wv, luid no appliances at hand, but liad to sit behind hiiu, uinbracing and holding hiin back, while Dr. Kirk grasped and hauled upon the thumb. The involuntary contraction of his nuiscles Was for a long time more than a match for us ; but at length we succeeded in wearying him out, and slipjiiug the thumb into its socket. Fig. 17 (p. 693) is a foot-rest we made for our friend Anderson. It is simply a piece of board about 27in. or oOin. long, hollow where the calf of the leg comes, and cut completely through where the heel would otherwise rest. A piece of thin board is then cut nearly to the shape of the foot, and is fixed by a pivot joint across this space ; a couple of strings leading from holes in the board support it at any angle that is most comfortable for the foot, which is bound to it ; and a small bracket beneath the end of the j^rincipal board raises it so far that the heel cannot chafe or press upon the mattrass, which, however slight may be the contact, becomes, when endured for hours without a change of position, more painful to a helpless man than one in health, aud free from constraint, can readily believe. Fig. 18 (p. 693) is a box-splint, with sliding bottom and falling sides, which we also made on the same occasion. Its use was to serve as an external case and protection for the wounded limb. When all the dressings were on, the hinges were merely pieces of cord, passed figure-of-8 fashion through the holes, and the lan- yards were strong enough to suspend the whole perfectly clear of the bed when it was necessary to change the linen. Fig. 19 (p. 693) is a light awning frame to support the weight of the bed clothing, which might otherwise press painfully upon the toe. The last three articles were made at Barmen, a remote mission station in South-West Africa, with no more tools than a traveller usually carries with him, and therefore we presume that they arc by no means beyond the power of others who may be similarly situated. The illustration on the opposite page represents the mode of setting a dislocated shoulder. A man takes off his boot, siltiny- beside the Cainp Life, Tracel, and E.qjhjrdtlon. 695 patient, places his foot under the amnjjit, then taking- liold of the wrist he pulls it steadily towards hiui, until the inuseles relax and the bone slips into its place. A pad must then be secured under the armpit and the arm bound firmly to the side. Sometimes it is necessary to stop the too copious flow of blood from a wound; and for this purpose a tourniquet (Fig. 1), as shown in the annexed illustration, must be ex- temporised : a handkerchief may be rolled up with a stone in it, or an overhand knot may be turned in the thickest part, or any means adopted to insure pressure on the injured blood-vessel ; each end of the handkerchief must be then returned upon itself, so as to form a bight, through both loops so formed a short stick must be passed and twisted tightly, until the compression stops the flow of blood ; if an artery is cut, the blood gushes forth in regular pulsations, bright and red ; if only veins are injured, the flow, however copious, is steady, and the colour is darker. Many of the vSouth Afi-ican Kafir and Bcchuana tribes have a very ingenious method of cupping. They take the end of an ox-horn, about the size of a small wine-glass (Fig. 2), and perforate the smaller end %vith a small hole communicating with the internal cavity ; they scarify the part to be operatctl on with a group of perhaps half a dozen cuts, half an inch long and a quarter of au inch deep, made with an assegai or rough-edged iron knife ; the large end of the horn is then placed over the wounds, the operator sucks with all his might, and as soon as he has produced a partial vacuum dexterously plugs the 696 Shifts and Exiiedients of little hole with a bit of wax, and allows the horn to remain until the blood drawn from the wounds so far tills the cavity that there ceases to be a vacuum, and the horn drops oif. The clot of blood, about as large as a florin and half an inch thick, is then cleared out and thrown aside, a fresh operation is then performed, and others in succession, till the whole surface of the limb, generally the inside of the thigh or arm, is covered with groups of little scars, and blood enough has been extracted. Tailor's Work. Although it is in every respect better and more economical for a traveller to take full supplies from home so as to be able to devote all his time to the real objects of his journey, yet it is quite possible that these may fail, and that he may have to trust to his own ingenuity to replace them. A cotton or woollen shirt, worn over all, and belted round the waist, is in cold weather a very simple, and not inconvenient or unsightly, addition to the clothing. We have taken a navy serge frock, and folding in and stitching a slight gore down the back, and turning up the skirts inside towards the waist, and stitching them there, have made a very neat and comfortable hip jacket for walking or riding, without cutting it in any part, except down the front, where a couple of buttons, in addition to those already attached, were quite sufficient to confine it. A cotton shirt may be treated in this manner for a lighter blouse or jacket; and for those who wish something more stylish in appearance we give a diagram, which we think will sufficiently explain itself. We have, in cases of need, cut out a pair of trousers, and stitched them while sitting on the waggon box during the morning journey, so as to have them ready to put on at the next station; and we have done this without intermitting our usual obsei'vations for course and distance and notes of the route. These may be made in two pieces, one for each leg — 24yds. or 3yds., according to stature, being enough for a pair. The duck, or other material, is folded along the centre through its whole length, and it may then be folded in half, but should not be cut until the measurements are taken ; if the stuff is scant, the diagonal line of each part at the waist may cross into the other half, and thus it may be found sufficient. The duck, of which trousers furo usually made, is 27iu. in width, and Camp Life, Travel, and Exjjloration. 697 in general this is found to be enough, with little or nothing to spare ; if stuft' is plentiful and time of any importance, Trousers the trousers may be made in two pieces, each of which *" make, forms one leg and half the body ; there is no difference except in the front, the buttons being sewn on the right side, while the corresponding holes are on the left. Presuming the length from above the hip to the heel to be 40in., 2jyds., or 81in., with care in sup- plementing one part by the pieces cut out of the other, will just serve; but we will suppose that we have 24yds., or 90in., and are not com- pelled to such an exercise of in- genuity. Each half will now be 45in. long, of which mark or crease off lin. at the end, / /, fur the hem at the bottom; from this line, /.• /.-, measure 40in. along the edge, 41in. along the centre, and 42in. along the other edge ; draw a diagonal line through these points, and draw another 2in. beyond and parallel to it ; this will be sufficient to turn down for the waistband, and will occupy the remainder of the 45in. of stuff. In duck or canvas, where both sides are alike, some inches might be saved by cutting it diagonally across the centre ; but in drill moleskin, or anything that has a right and wrong side, this will not be the case, so that it had better be left out of the question. The inner seam of the leg will be 30in., measured from h k to the points a and h, where the duck will remain of its full breadth; take the girth of the waist at the point /, and, finding it 32in., divide it by four, and mark off Sin. on each side the central line ; then take that of the hips along the line h h, and, finding it o(3in., divide it by four, as before, but instead of 098 ,s7////.s- ami E.rj>c,Uants „f marking oil' Din. oil oacli (ho centre, mark Sin. before and lOin. behind it; then on the edi^o intended for the front draw a curved line from a, to the point b, and continue it in a straiglit line upward ; then draw the outlines of the piece that is to be folded into the parts e, d, and c, each of which is to be l|in. wide^ and cut round the outline, which is strongly marked in the diagram' folding and creasing sharply, but not cutting the material along the dotted lines. Cut the back of the trousers from the point Ic with a. slight curve, touching the end of the measured lines h and j. We should then commence by turning down the parts c, d, and e, working button-holes in them as in the diagram, and stitching them firmly, but very neatly, in their places, and remembering that we are working on the left half of the garment. We should then take the right half, fold in the parts <•, d, and e, as before, and stitch them, omitting the button-holes. We should then take the two parts, and laying them together at a, stitch them as far as h ; then laying together the point //, stitch up the back seam, next bringing a and h together, stitch down each leg, turn down the waist- band, and stitch it, making button-holes as at /, in the diagram, and fixing buttons to match, turning up and seaming the bottoms of the legs. Making eyelet-holes for a lacing at the back of the waistband braces we usually make no provision for ; but if the wearer desires, buttons may be affixed for them in their proper place. We give also the outlines of a plain and useful jacket, which may be made in six pieces, of which three only are drawn : Fig. 1, Jacket, 1^'^lf the back ; Fig. 2, half the front ; Fig. 3, one o cu out. y[ggyg . ^]jg others of course are exact duplicates of them. Our drawing is made on a scale of l-12in. to lin. Fig. 1 is lialf the back, the first measurement for which is taken from the collar, so far down the centre as just to clear the saddle — say, fur instance, 24iii. ; the next is the girth of the chest —say one quarter; say SUn. is allowed for the half back, and a little more, or O^in. for the half front. The rectangular figures, 1 and 2, should be first drav^^n to these measurements, and this will ranch facilitate all future operations. In like manner, if the circumference of the neck tor collar be 12in., the proportions will Gamp Life, Travel, and Ny/ihinilinn. (399 I'l-uiii I ho ibuiit Gin., ^^^^ 1 b' y — ViTT 2i ir ->) aV -.^ fe?-- m \ . 8i \ 1 -..'_._., \, \ ^1 8f 1 3 J no \ l\ 1 \ 1 \ 1 \ L T 1 j FATTEKN be {'or the hull' buck 2iiu. ami Ibi- ilic iiall" li-oiit -Miii collar duwu to the liue ticm.s.s tbo shoiiKlL-rs will bu and from the collar to the liue of chest measurement 9in. The first of these lines drawn on the parallelogram will give the point from which to draw the diagonal line for the shoulder seam, and the second the bottom of the oval that is to be cut out for the armhole ; the edges are hol- lowed about ^in. for the waist. The diagram, we hope, will be sufficiently clear to indicate the fcAV remaining measurements. From the front of the collar on Fig. 2 down to the line of the shoulders will be about 5in., and from the collar end of the shoulder seam to the same line will be fully 7iu. ; the oval for the armhole will be Gin. deep and 4|in. across, of which lin. is to be cut into the half back and 3 lin. into the half front. About 4in. beyond the front line of the diagram may be allowed on each half of the front for overlapping, and on this the buttons will be i)laced according to taste. The dotted lines of Fig. o represent the sleeve, the measure for which will be from centre of back to armhole; 7^iu. from arm- hole to elbow; when the arm is raised and bent inwards, lO^iu. from elbow to wrist; lO^in. the circumference of the oison ; and it would bo wi'll if all chests, bottles, or cases containino- citlior ]ioison or medicines, wln'cli might be hnrtfnl if wronglv nsed, were marked with a death's head, a snake, or crossed bones, or sonie other nnmistakable warning". Demeanour towards Companions or Natives and White Servants, Hints on Travel, etc. Everything during a journey beyond tlie limits of civih'sation depends upon the good feeling and harmony ainong the party, and nothing short of unavoidable necessity should be suffered to interfere with this ; there are, of course, cases in which human nature can stand no farther provocation, but it should be remembered that forbearance is seldom repented of, while hasty resentment, even if expressed only in words, may lay the foundation of ill-feeling, which becomes all the moi-e bitter because the parties cannot separate from each other. At the same time, even forbearance should be exercised in a kindly spirit, for even an outspoken quarrel is better than the habit of " nursing the wrath to keep it warm;" the fii'st may admit of explanation, or the parties to it, if reconciliation does not follow, may agree to dismiss the subject and work together till the close of the journey ; and, if both be honourable, each will disdain to do less than his duty, or to throw an unftiir share of labour or privation upon the other. But in the second case no such explanation is possible ; the person who feels himself the subject of displeasure has no chance of learning what is the nature of his offence, and goes on unconsciously, perhaps repeating it, till, like an overcharged thunder- cloud, the storm bursts, and the restoration of peace which, in the first instance, would have been easy, l)ecomes impossible. Many a tale could we tell of comra,(les in travel who have fr(?ely risked their lives over and ov(>r again for each other, and counted it not even a thing for which tliey expected thanks, who have rcraaiuod fast friends until the close of their journey, and in most inptances, wo are glad to say, this friendly feeling has remain(>d un- disturbed. In one case related to us, one of the travellers had been Gamp Lifr., Tnirel, and J<].rj>1(>r(ifi(ni. 703 CiiHod ;i cowmimI by Jiis coinrjido liccjiiisf lie l";iiliMl jo lii-c; ;it a lion at tlio expected moment. His r(>ply was, " We will not quarrel over it now ; but we separate at the fii-st opportunity, and meantime T may find a cliance to prove that I have not deserved your reproach." One day he who had been thus stigmatised remained at home; and, when his comrade returned, said to him — " I thought 1 should be able to show that your words were undeserved : a lion has attacked the camp." " Where is he?" asked the other. " Lift up the covering, and you will see him here," was the reply. There was but one wouiul — it was in the forehead — and from so short a distance had the death shot been discharged that the flash of the gun had singed the hair around the orifice it made. The accuser apologised fir his hasty words ; ])nf the breach was never healed, and the separation took place soon after. The choice of servants must be very much gnich'd l)y the li:il)its and disposition of the traveller himself; but if he can, as ought to be the case, dispense with many of the luxuries of civilised life, then we should consider it best for him to engage people accustomed to the duties they are required to perform from among the servants of the colonists or white residents, who know and can answer for their character and ability. Many travellers who start for the Cape Colony like to have a white man as an overseer, and he generally acts also as cook and personal servant. Such men as these are to be found in most of the frontier towns, and one who is really competent to the work in hand is invaluable; but care must be exorcised in the selection, for however inexperienced the traveller may be he had better command his own attendants than submit to tin; intervention of a man who is unfit to manage them. in the first case, llu-y will at least look upon him as the " master," who hires, who pays, and feeds them, and for whom they feel bound to work ; in the latter, they have no hesitation in saying to an incompetent overseer, " You are not our master, but only a servant like ourselves, and we care nothing for you." More especially is this the case if they find him ignorant of the management of oxen, an inefficient hunter, or too much dependent upon guides for indications of his way in the 704 Shifffi and Expedients of bush. Nor is tliis to be wondered at ; the discipline of a ship may be carried on, though the captain be incompetent, if his first hentenant be a thorough seaman ; bnt if that officer is not up to his duty, even a first-rate captain can hardly atone for the defi('i(Micy. If :i 111,111 who, ill his youth, has been a soldier or a sailor, enters till' scrvicf' of a traveller, he possesses many advantages over ordinary servants, 'flic soldier ought to have learned something of the value of discipline and ordei^ and to be able to combine respect for himself with obedience to his employers ; while the sailor must have learned, during his probation, a thousand shifts and expedients; and, above all, have acquired a habit of self-reliance in difficulty and danger that cannot be too highly valued. Efficient men, however, must be sought out and well paid ; it is of little use to expect them to flock to the intending traveller and ask employment; they are not of the class who generally hang about large towns, but are more likely to be found on the very borders of civilisation. Moreover, they are not too plentiful ; they would be more likely to ask, as was the case in Australia, have you a good character from your last servant ? and inquiry should be made in time among other travellers as to the character and reliability of such persons as they have reason to think fit for the charge. Within a colony, in case of a dispute with a servant, an appeal to the magistrate is possible; though if, as is sometimes the case, the nearest justice should live from thirty to fifty miles away — not always convenient — the master perhaps inquires of his native herdsman respecting the fate of a missing ox or two or three sheep ; and, th(» replies not being satisfactory, hints his suspicion that they have been killed and eaten ; the herdsman indignantly denies it, shortens his kuoV)keerie in his right hand, and gathers his kaross, or blanket, over his U^ft arm, as a Spaniai'd does his cloak. If the master be of quick t('iii])('v, ho closes with and disarms him, or perhaps gets knocked down. If otherwise, he takes the more prudent alternative of riding to the magistrate. If he docs the first, the; native, whose time is of no value to him, starts off at once to the magistrate, and obtains a summ(jns against his master for assault. If he chooses the latter, Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 705 his herdsman probably takes advantage of his absence to add as many more cattle as he can to the missing list^ and before he can be legally summoned is far away from the power of the law, seeking refuge among remote tribes. Uuder these circumstances, it is not to be wondered at that occasionally the colonists took the law into their own hands ; and of their manner of proceeding the following incident, related to us' by a friend, may serve as a fair example. A native servant having transgressed in this manner, the people of the farm were assembled, and he was put upon his trial ; the evidence was against him, and he was asked, " Will you be taken before the magistrate ? Will you receive forty lashes at the waggon wheel, or will you be shot ? " They generally," said our informant, '' choose to take the flogging offhand. " But how," said we, " if some cunning fellow should choose to be shot ? " " Oh," said he, " that is not very likely ; but a man once did so, and he was allowed to run a hundred yards, when a bullet was fired past him, but sufficiently near to let him hear the singing of it. It was not very far from the locality where this event happened that a flock-master began to find a steadily-increasing mortality among his sheep, the very healthiest of which, without any apparent cause, sickened, and in a short time died. Now, when merino or other wool- bearing rams are imported at a cost of 120L each, it behoves a man to look well after the good condition of their progeny, but no symptom of disease marked the approaching deaths ; the shepherds asked for the carcases, and, finding these, he proposed to serve them out as rations, but they refused, and insisted that sheep should be killed for them as usual. " Very good," said he, " dig a pit and throw in the carcases, and I will kill for you." Next morning he found the pit had been opened and its contents abstracted. AVTien sheep were again brought in dead he threw quicklime into the pit with them; the mortality began to diminish, and a post-mortem examination resulted in the discovery that a very fine mimosa thorn, specimens of which may be had of all sizes, from that of a sewing-needle to Sin. or Gin. in length, had been thrust under the shoulder, and left to work its way to the heart of the animal. 706 Shifts and Expedients of Uuless, in case of gross and insolent disobedience, wliich it is necessary to chastise witli a strong hand upon the spot, some form of trial and examination of evidence for and against the culprit ought always to precede the punishment ; and this course, so far as we have seen, is generally adopted by English travellers, a love of fair play being, we are fain to hope, in spite of occasional excesses, inherent among us. ! One of the most mai'ked instances we have known of this occurred not far from Objimbengue. A train of waggons was passing up country from the Bay ; wine and spirits were flowing freely ; and, as is usually the case where long-enforced abstinence is succeeded by opportunities of unlimited indulgence, some of the party were not quite as judges ought to be before dinner. Jealousy — that fruitful source of quarrels — produced one during the night, and an Englishman broke a Hottentots head — that is to say, inflicted a scalp wound half an inch wide and as deep as the thickness of the skin would permit. The inflictor of the blow (we never found out who was the actual aggressor) was confined in the room that had been assigned to us, and, with the exception of a few wild tricks inspired by the waning influence of the liquor, such, for instance, as drawing a sword-bayonet and giving point at a friend who entered, behaved with remarkable propriety, till a " raad " could be duly formed among the rest. Of evidence very little was required ; there was the " tottie " with his wounded head ; the defendant pleaded provocation and the influence of drink, and expressed his willingness to pay a fair compensation. Eight pounds sterling was proposed and consented to, and a bill drawn out and signed upon the spot. Rather exorbitant damages we thought for a wound which disabled the lad but for a day; but wo were fresh in the country then, and thought the old hands knew best how to manage their own afi'airs. Extravagant and wild as was the scene, it was nevertheless a proof that wherever a number of Englishmen, or their colonial descendants, can bo gathered together, a spirit of fair play will actuate the majority. With native servants, very much must depend upon the custom of the country in which they are hired. Among some of the superior tribes, if men are well chosen, they may be left to perform their own Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 707 duty in their own way ; an occasional expression of approval from the master^ and half an hour's chat with them now and then^ to show that, though he trusts them, he is not careless of his own interests nor unmindful of theirs, being nearly all that is required ; while the power of withholding a good character or making a deduction from their pay at the end of the journey is enough to restrain any irregularity tliey might be tempted to. Sometimes they may be hired from the chiefs, who then transfers to the master, for the time being, his authority over them, and looks to him for the safe return of his men at the end of the stipulated time. In this case the traveller becomes pro tempore their chief, and may exercise his power in summary punishment of a culprit, or may reserve his right to appeal to the actual chief on his return. In other cases, as with Lascars or other natives of India, a gang may be hired with their own Serang, or Tindal, to whom all orders respecting them should be given, and from whom they will submit to any amount of punishment, though they would resent it as an insult, only to be atoned with blood, if inflicted by a white man. The Kroomen of the coai^t near Sieri'a Lettuc, who are usually employed on board our men-of-war, are generally engaged in this manner. Wo had twelve on the Zambesi expedition, under a very fine head man, called Tom Jumbo. When our little steamer, the Ma Robert (which, if not the best constructed, was certainly the best abused little vessel afloat) was put together on the Zambesi, Mr. Rae, the engineer, took some trouble to train Tom Coffee (a Kroomau) to act as stoker and general assistant. Tom had, however, a will of his own ; and, proving refractory, was brought before Dr. Livingstone, who, from motives of humanity, instead of ordering him corporal punishment, put him off duty and stopped his pay. The Kroomen gathered in serious consultation over the sentence, and at length deputed Jumbo to appeal against it : '' The Kroomen," said he, " do not understand being put off duty ; they come to work, and they must work. I wiU see to that, and they will expect their pay when this voyage is done. If they are insolent or lazy, or deserve punishment, tell me of it, and I will flog them; they ' savcy ' that, but they do not ' savoy ' stoppage of their pay." Mr. Rae also felt tho sentence press rather heavily upon him. zz2 708 Shifts and Expedients of None of tlie other men were fit, without fresh instruction, to take Tom's place; and as the duties of chief engineer, with those of stoker and assistant, were rather too onerous for one individual, he was fain to join in the request that Coffee should be set to work again. In some places it is almost impossible to avoid the employment of slave labour in some form or other; for even though the master do not, as of course no Englishman with proper feeling will, retain a man in compulsory bondage, or sell him for profit when his term of servitude is expired, it is in some countries impossible to hire a free labourer; and to give a man his liberty immediately after he has been purchased from his chief, or master, would only deprive the hirer or purchaser of all benefit during the expected period of service. This is particularly the case in some of the countries bordering upon the upper branches of the Nile. A well-known traveller in that region was once taxed with slave trading; he indignantly denied the charge. He had bought men of their chief, as everyone who required servants was obliged to do ; but he challenged proof that he had ever detained one in bondage or sold him again when his service was completed. An English military officer, in the same dilemma, bought men ; he was a kind master, he found them good servants, and when he required them no longer he made them presents and set them free. A sudden cloud darkened every brow. Had they not served him well ? What fault had they committed that he should now discard them, and turn them adrift, without providing them another master ? We once met in Dielli, the capital of the Portuguese settlement in the island of Timor, an English captain who, moved by compassion at the miserable condition of some prisoners in the hands of Malay pirates, yielded to their entreaties, and purchased some of them ; and on arrival at the first British port he went ashore to consult the magistrate as to the proper manner of giving them their liberty. " You cannot give them their liberty,'^ said he, " they are free already ; and,, though you have acted from motives of humanity, you had better let them go as quietly as possible, for not oply is yom- purchase of no eSbct, but you have brought yourself into some danger by making it.'' Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 709 In South Africa the English travellers, or traders, very properly refuse to have anything to do with the purchase of slaves, though men and boys will come to them desiring to be bought. A friend of ours had an ofier of this kind made while we were together ; but though it would have been very advantageous to have a couple of lads who, in a short time, would have been well qualified to act as interpreters, he declined the oflFer. On a previous occasion, however, when a boy had begged hard that he would buy him he refused, but told the lad to go and make the best bargain he could for his own liberty; the price was handed over to him, he ransomed himself, and joyfully returned to enter the service of his new master. Frequently a white man picks up some miserable, neglected child, lets it sit by his fire, and huddle among his servants, getting a share of their food; and if he be, as he ought, a kind-hearted fellow, an occasional pat upon the woolly head and a tit bit from himself. AVhen its condition is improved, he perhaps sets it to some trifling work ; but no sooner is it supposed to have become useful than down come the parents or brothers, or some impostors who represent themselves as such, and threaten to take the child away unless they are properly paid for allowing him to keep it. In Damara land especially such cases were common; and we became quite accustomed to hear the native servant girls telhng each other, as a matter of very little importance, that such a one had " thrown her child into the fire that morning." Not that the statement was to be taken literally ; but rather that the mother had just abandoned it, and the poor creature had crawled towards the fire for warmth, and so scorched itself. There were also some natives who had a great facility for establishing a relationship with these unfortunates; and two or three had gained quite a reputation for their skill in discovering some genealogical afiinity with anyone that had become the pet of a European supposed to be able to afford to pay for the luxury of keeping it. In the Portuguese settlements on the Lower Zambesi a modified form of slavery exists, totally distinct from, and unconnected with, 710 Shifts and Expedients of the slave trade^ and rendered much more endurable by the fact that the slaves, or, more properly, serfs or bondsmen, are subjects of the Crown, and may not be removed from the colony, an ordinance, however, respecting which something may be said on both sides ; for, if it prevents subjects being sold as slaves into foreign bondage, it is sometimes assigned as a reason for not legally marrying a native woman; that if a man were to do so, he could not take her from the country, and, not being allowed to leave her, would thus pass upon himself a sentence of confinement there for life. With regard to the question of servitude under the Crown, the position of a slave seems to be that he cannot change his master, and his master cannot discharge or sell him, except under certain restrictions. During the Livingstone expedition we were frequently served by slaves lent or hired to us by their masters. One of these, Katara, lent us by Major Sicard, the commandant, who always addressed him as Vossa Mercee, or Mister, acted as our house steward, and had under him Jose, the cuisiuier, who became highly indignant if any of us razeed his many-syllabled title into " cook." Katura had a position to maintain, and he understood it ; he was not only a steward, but a plucky little fellow, and the first dead man we sketched there (whose corpse will be seen in the picture of Mazaro Mutu, in Dr. Livingstone's second book) was one of his shooting. Although a slave he had rights of his own, and was well aware of them. Sometimes he would bring us a few eggs, and when we offered to pay for them proudly remarked that the " ova katura " were not for sale, but he had no objection to accept a present ; neither would he agree to put a price on any service we asked him to do for us ; wo made him a present of navy serge — enough to make a " frock " of. Next morning ho told us that his master wanted it, and asked us how much calico he should demand in return. Wo told him three yards for one of the serge ; the major demurred to this, and Katura refused him the serge, and after a month or six weeks made the bargain on his own terms, and asked us for a foot rule that ho might measure the calico he had received. "A queer sort of slavery this \" said a Yankee friend, to whom we afterwards related the circumstance. Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 711 The following valuable hints on travel were communicated by- Captain Stuart, the Australian explorer, to Mr. A. Gregory, on his taking command of the expedition before referred to in this work, and in which we took part. In order to render the directions as concise as possible, we have, in repeating them, avoided the repetition of the leader's name, &c. In other respects we give the directions, words of advice, and hints, in Captain Stuart's own words. In communicating them, he says : — " Mr. Augustus Gregory, not being a military man, and not, perhaps, having acquired the habits of caution peculiar to that service, I venture to put together a few hints for his consideration, which I would fain hope may be of use to him, and for offering which my past experience in the field of discovery, and my anxious desire to promote the success of the undertaking in which he is embarked, must be my apology. " I would recommend the leader to come to a strict understanding with his men before he engages them to conform to the terms of the agreement I have drawn up, and which is a copy of that which I made the men sign who accompanied me on my central expedition. It is the only means, when at a distance from home, to keep the men in order and subjection. I found it most efficacious on one occasion ; when, one of the men having misconducted himself, I struck his name off the pay list, reduced his supply of provisions, and only reinstated him at the earnest solicitation of his comrades and on their guarantee that he should not offend again. '' The commanding officer should have his camp always compact. His sheep in the centre of it, and the drays flanking the sheepfold with the tents at the angles. I would caution him never to be without a guard. Let him give his men to understand that he will never dispense with the guard. I never did but on one occasion, which might well have been excused, and on that one occasion I was robbed. Mr. Gregory may rest assured that his safety at all times, whether in the presence of natives or not, depends on this necessary vigilance. " I have been peculiarly fortunate in my intercourse with the natives. I believe the reason of this is that I have always put myself in their position, and deemed the alarm and vehemence they have exhibited 712 SliiJ'fs and Expedients of at the approach of men and beasts they had never seen before as only natural. Instead of approaching nearer, I have given them time to recover from their amazement before I have separated myself from my men, and walked singly and unarmed towards them, and sat quietly down on the ground, until they had lowered their spears and appeared pacified. One of the natives is sure to advance and sit down as I had done, and so, by gradual approaches, we at length sat down side by side. But it is long before the native raises his eyes to look at you. I have always respected their customs in this respect, and am happy to say that I never failed. Treat the natives kindly, and they will so treat you. On no account did I allow my men to have any intercourse either with the men or women. This I interdicted under the severest penalties. The leader should not remain too long in one spot. He will understand that familiarity subdues fear. " I would recommend him to have a respectable and responsible storekeeper, who should have a tent with the overseer of stock. The provision should be weighed out weekly to the men, and stock taken once a month, and a return of what has been issued and what remains given by the storekeeper to him. Such regularity inspires confidence. " If the commander should follow a river into the desert, he will most probably find it assume a chain of ponds, and ultimately disappear in a vast plain. I would beg of him in such case not to move on his party until he has ascertained that there is water in front of him. He can have no idea how soon he can place himself in jeopardy. " I know not that I can give Mr. Gregory any further friendly hint. Doubtless ho is experienced in all the arrangements of an expedition, and he may be assured he has my best prayers for his success. " The following general rules for the treatment of Indians, given by Dr. Brown, may also be useful in reference to other tribes, though a traveller's behaviour to a barbarous or savage people must, to a great extent, depend on circumstances — his position in the tribe and the customs of the nation, which ought never to be wantonly outi'aged. Those rules wore partially drawn up for me at an early date of my residence among the North -West American Indians by a gentleman whom to muutiou would be to name, perhaps, the most celebrated of Camjj Life, Travel, and Exploration. 713 all the eeries of the fur trade. I afterwards added and amended them by my own experience. 1. Never pass an Indian village in the night if you suspect any mischief. They will be sure to find you out, and then, like all bullies, seeing that you are afraid of them, will act upon that knowledge. 2. If you suspect mischief, camp outside at a distance, and pass in daylight ; you can then see better what you are about. 3. If you come to a village where you think there is likely to be an attack made on you, go into the chief^s lodge, and, if possible, into one where there are a number of women and children. If their sense of hospitality does not prevent them from molesting you, they know that when white men are attacked bullets fly about, and some may strike the women and children. It is an axiom that no man likes to put his head down a gun-barrel. 4. Trust to an Indian's lionour, and you are tolerably safe — you and your goods ; but not to his honesty, for he will steal the ears off your head, unless you are very skilful in making a cache. If in a neighbourhood where there are Indians, you had far better leave your goods in their charge until you come back ; you will generally find them safe; but if they find your cache — their honesty being doubted, and having no honourable scruples — they will be sure to clean it out. 5. Never appear to be afraid of them. 6. Never give them one cent less or one cent more than you bargained for — as a right. If you do, they will think it only yielding to them, and then imagine you have cheated them at first. You may give a small present if you like. It is a custom the Hudson's Bay Company have introduced of giving after a trade has been completed a small " potlatch," or gift, of their free accord, according to the value of the goods traded. Those Indians who have traded with the Hudson's Bay Company expect it. 7. In making presents, take into consideration their wants ; only make presents where you may expect a return ; they do that 714 Shifis and Expedients of with you ; and goodness of heart is only thrown away. Never calculate on this last weakness. 8. In making presents for conciliatory pui'poses^ always make them to the head people ; never mind the smaller tribes' men. Be sure, however, that it is the chief you are making presents to, and not some forward and impudent fellow, who is usually the first to accost you at the outskirts of a village. The chief generally retires on his dignity, and wants to be sought out. Secure the head man's regard, and you need not mind the favour of the smaller ones ; but even if you had abundance of goods to distribute, you would be sure to create red blood and heart burnings by one man's present being better than another, or supposed to be, &c. 9. I have generally adopted the practice, when I had not much to give, of giving it to the children. If you win the children, you win the mother, and of course the father. A little present goes a long way with the children. If you give it to the mother, you often excite the father's jealousy, and frustrate your purpose. Always remember, in addition, that a savage values a man's generosity, &c., according to the size of his presents, and act accordingly. 10. Never allow the natives to eat with you as your equal. As a rule, play the great man with them. 11. If a savage is travelling with you, give him food whenever he wants it. Food given when he wishes it is of ten times more value than when he gets it when he does not need it, or is not hungry. Consult his wishes in this respect. 12. Never attempt to gain anything by force ; always by persuasion, argument, and presents. 13. Notwithstanding aU you will be told about the value of a medical knowledge in travelling among savages, I have generally found it of very little benefit, and frequently, when put in practice, of real detriment. An Indian will never come to you unless when at death's door and ho has lost confidence in his own sorcerers. You may give him some medicine, and perhaps in nine cases out of ten the patient dies, as he would Oamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 7 lb have done anyhow. Then' professional jealousy is raised, and you are accused by the " medicine men " of killing the person ; and the worst of the matter is, it is often believed by the credulous people. If the man recovers, it is rarely that you get the credit of it. It is the medicine men who have done it. With surgery it is somewhat different. If the operation is one not involving any very serious consequences if unsuccessful, by all means perform it. They then see the working of your superior knowledge before their eyes. 14. Be just and firm, patient and equanimous with them. Display no anger or violent and passionate gestures, and never be very prone to notice insults. 15. Never say you will do a thing and not do it. Never threaten to do anything unless you intend to do it. 16. No people notice the weakness and moral shortcomings of a man quicker than savages ; therofoie beware, especially in re fceiiiind. 17. Try by all means to learn the customs and social etiquette of the people ; for nothing raises you more in their estimation than this knowledge, or enables you to see when you are slighted. • 18. If you are attacked, and at tbe last extremity have to fire, take to the bush. An Indian does not like to venture in. He knows there is a man there and a gun, and that somebody may be shot, and that somebody may bo himself. 19. If you have a watch at night, never stand near the fire ; foB then you are only giving the man a chance to fire at you. 20. Always, and above everything, remember that the hearts of all mankind are the same, and that all the difference between one and another is merely the overlay caused by etiquette, custom, and education ; at heart they are the same. " There are many arts which might be mentioned as useful in treating with Indians; but, as these depend upon a knowledge of the particular tribal customs, these general rules must suffice." 716 Shifts and Expedients of CHAPTER XIX. ON SKETCHING AND PAINTING UNDER THE ORDINARY DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVEL. For artists making a tour of the Lake Districts^ the Highlands of Scotland^ or the mountain districts of Wales, every possible con- venience is supplied by the colourmen of London. The explorer-artist must, however, have recourse to many shifts and expedients. The talented author of " A Painter's Camp in the Islands " actually fitted out a little studio on wheels, the front of which was a large sheet of clear plate glass, so that, whatever might be the weathei', he would be able to paint upon the spot, and with all the truthful reality that working in the presence of nature only can impart. Every effect of storm or sunshine on the hills, catching the passing rain cloud while the shower was still falling, with its misty fragments torn off by the gale, illuminated by the beauteous rainbow, or lighted up by rays of sunshine piercing through the gloom- j and when such luxurious appliances can be obtained, and are used, moreover, to so good a purpose, far be it from us to say a word against them. In fact, we would 'advise every one who determines, as he ought, to make his sketches as perfect and truthful a realisation as possible of the country they illustrate, to provide every convenience he can afford or carry for the successful prosecution of his work ; regarding them, how- ever, simply as means towards that end, and casting them aside unhesitatingly when, from the labour of transportaton, they become hindrances instead of helps to him. We will suppose, first, that the intending traveller wishes to take sketches in pencil or in water colours, as occasion may serve, of the objects of interest that he meets with, he should be provided, as we have said, with folding sketch-books of folio and quarto sizes, with drawing paper, white aud tinted, cut to theii- respective sizes. He Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 71 7 will be able to form a tolerable estimate of tlie number of sketches he is likely to make in a day, and had better not encumber his folio with more than a good allowance of paper for the work he expects to do. Suppose he reckons six or eight sketches, and, allowing margin enough, takes a dozen sheets — three white, and two each of the pearl, the warm and cool grey, and the drab paper, putting away at the close of the day his finished sketches in a case specially provided for them, and replenishing his folio from that in which he keeps his store. The preservation of his folio and its contents from injury by rain, by the dash of sea water, or by other causes, is of the first importance, and for this purpose he should have a haversack of good stout canvas — i.e., sail cloth — for each ; this may be slung by a leather strap and buckles, but we prefer that the shoulder strap should be of double canvas 2|in. wide, and that the end, which comes forward over the right shoulder, when the sketch book is carried on the left side should pass through a loop at the corner of the haversack, and doubling back upon itself be provided with points or other means of fastening it at the required length. If buckles, hooks and eyes, or other such expedients are used, let them be not of iron or steel, but of plated or well-tinned material, so that no rust or oxide of metal shall gather on and rot the canvas. Let the part which would then hang next the body of the wearer be of double canvas so stitched with two vertical seams that it may form three pockets, one large enough for the box of water colours in front, one in the rear for the japanned or plated water bottle, and the central sub-divided, so as to carry a few spare pencils, a memorandum book, to which, if the traveller cares about mapping his route, may be added, a Gin. scale, protractor, and dividers ; in which case he will do well to add a sheet or two of the squared mapping paper to the contents of his folio, and two or three sheets of foolscap, with a leaf of semi-carbonic paper and a H H H pencil for his journal. A third thickness of canvas will at once form the pocket for the folio and the front of the haversack ; and we would advise that the double strip, already spoken of as forming the sling, should be sufficiently long to form also the sides and bottom of the haversack. 718 Shifts and Expedients of The octavo, llin. by 7^in. folio, will bo found very convenient and handy on boat expeditions, horse or foot journeys, hunting trips, or when the artist has to carry everything himself, and must diminish weight and incumbrance as much as possible. In the Austra- lian exploring trips we were not able to carry any other, and this hangs easily from the quarter of the saddle on the near side. In Kafirland, we slung the sketch-book itself (covered with skin to keep off the occasional rain) by short straps and buckles to our waist belt ; and one long strap, passing over the shoulder to the belt in front, remained always fast, so that if a sudden movement, either of our own troops or of the enemy, necessitated it, we could at once throw the sketch-book over our shoulder, and advance or retreat as requisite. We would advise, however, that the imperial, 15in. by llin., folio should be carried if possible, as it gives so much more space for detail in landscape or other subjects than can be gained upon the smaller scale. With the large book the twenty-four tube colour box can be carried, with the smaller a twelve tube must be taken; and in either case weight may be economised on short trips by carrying only the lid that forms the palette with the little divisions that should always be found along its edge charged with patches of colour ; in this case a slip of tin or copper must be fitted as a temporary cover to the box loft at home. We do not advise the solid sketch-block for hard service; first, because it exposes to risk an unnecessarily large quantity of paper, and next, because, with rough usage, the sheets may become loose, and cease to be a block. The folio with japanned tin frame, for confining the sheet actually in use, is tlie best. It should be made of strong, light, saddlers' leather, rather than of the flimsy materials ; which serve well enough for lady students a mile or two from home. The mill- board surfaces may be varnished with boiled linseed oil, and allowed to dry thoroughly. Do not have them covered with paper pasted on, but with the plain surface of the milled board. We found it very convenient to mark a scale of inches along the sides of our frame, and have a movable slip of thin brass fastened upon it by simply bending the ends round, so as to enable us to draw a truly horizontal line at Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 719 any height, and this would be especially useful in mapping, or the horizon in sea-views. If a sketching-stool can be carried, it will be found a great con- venience, as, when the artist has to sit upon the ground, to say nothing of possible unpleasantness from storms or dampness, the eye is lowered so much that often the grass in the foreground will hide the greater part of the landscape. The triangular stool, which folds up into a stick but little larger than a policeman's truncheon, is the most convenient form. One of the logs may be longer, with a couple of cross-bars, on which to rest the sketch-book ; or such a conve- nience may be made with a couple of thumb-screws to slip on when required. In sketching a landscape it is of great importance to decide, first, what you intend to make the principal object, and how much in the way of accessory you can include beside it. About sixty degrees, or the sixth-part of a circle, is all that can be seen horizontally, without moving the head, and about forty vertically, and this may be roughly estimated by holding up the hands like bhnkers on each side of the face, and observing where they shut off the view. Photographers have a little frame made specially for this purpose, and the artist may, by opening the frame of his folio, and holding it nearly at arm's length, see how much of the landscape it includes. It must also be remem- bered that no one looking at a landscape can see the spot he stands on ; and, therefore, if it is desired that this spot shall be the foreground, he must retire, say ten or fifteen yards, so as to bring it within the limit of his vision. In practice, however — when, for instance, he is looking over the edge of a clitf — this might deprive him of the sight of some of the most beautiful portions of the view, and it might be better to remain on the edge, leaving a sufficient blank at the bottom of the paper, and then retiring to sketch the fore- ground, choosing such a position as should make its characteristic features enhance the beauty of the view. It conduces very greatly to correctness if the bearings of distant hills are taken by compass and noted in pencil on the upper margin of the sketch, while nearer features are similarly noted at the bottom — ^if the estimated distance in miles is added, this enhances greatly the value of the sketch, as it becomes then a geo- 720 Shifts and Expedients of graphical record, in addition to its merit as a work of art. Holding up the paper steadily at nearly arm's length, and making on its upper edge the apparent horizontal distances, and on its side the heights, assists the drawing very much ; and the pencil may be held up and the distances gauged on it by the thumb-nail, and measured on the paper. Two knots on the ends of a bit of string, one held on the pencil, and the other between the teeth, will ensure the measurements being all taken at the same distance from the eye, which is of great importance. The angle formed by the side of a mountain may be estimated by making the pencil coincide with it, and then bringing it down on the paper. The perspective of receding lines may be found in the same manner ; but care must be taken to hold the pencil in the plane of the picture, and not let it point away from the observer; the limits being thus ascertained, the forms may be slightly indicated, and then, after a steady and searching gaze at the object, firmly, but not heavily, drawn. When once the paper is indented by the pressure of the pencil, the line can never be entirely erased ; and the surface, once injured, can never bo restored. No line should be made at random ; be the touches few or many, each should definitely represent some form. The merest outline accurately sketched upon the spot is preferable to any amount of indefinite filling up, which the artist had better leave to his own imagination, assisted by memory and a faithful sketch, when he finishes his picture. In a pencil sketch, little notes, indicating the nature of the soil, the foliage, the colour or condition of the water or the clouds, may be neatly written in, in such a manner that, unless on close inspection, they blend into the forms of the objects, and rather assist the drawing than detract from its appearance : for instance, the word rocks may run alongside the shadow of a fissure, and their kind or colour — red, grey, basalt, or sandstone, &c. — grass, sandy plain, water, dark clouds, cumuli or light cirri, accidental or cast shadows, or gleams of light, are all worthy of notice ; while the direction of a river may be indicated by a small arrow-head. It may also be enough if several objects of a kind are together, as a crowd of men, a herd of animals, or a flotilla of small vessels, to draw one or more carefully and simply indicate the position of the rest. If there is time, a few touches of Camp Life, Travel, and Fj.vploration. 721 colour on the principal parts — say tlie grey of distant hills and the stronger tints of the nearer ones in flat washes. If a sketch is to be finished in colour on the spotj the outlines should be made as before, with the greatest care ; but no time should be wasted in attempting to shade or finish with the pencil. If the paper is of a light pearl or a warm grey tint^ so that Chinese white will tell upon it, it will be less dazzling to the eye when reflecting the rays of a vertical sun ; but it must be remembered that all tinted grounds impart their own character to the work, and, if strict fidelity is sought, nothing but pure white paper, with a sufficient grain or texture to take the colour well, and to give that slight broken uncertainty of touch which is of so much advantage in foliage or rough surfaces, and yet sufficiently fine to admit of the most delicate manipulation where it is required. The right side of the paper is that on which the maker^s name, pressed into its texture, is properly seen ; and, if the sheet is cut, each piece that does not include some portion of this should be marked with an " R " on the right side, to prevent mistake. The pencil sketch being completed, wet the paper all over with your largest brush filled with pure water — this somewhat softens, while it fixes the pencil lines, and disposes the paper to receive colour more readily. Take up with the half-dried brush any drops of water that may hang under the edge of your sketching frame, which should, of course, be perfectly clean. Determine now what parts of your picture are to be white, or of pure and unmixed blue, and thoii, with the large brush, pass a very faint tint of pale orange over all the rest. The three primitive colours, red, blue, and yellow, in their greatest obtainable purity, should now be placed on the pallettc, which ought to be clean, and if possible unencumbered by other colours. Suppose you have Indian yellow, carmine, and cobalt. "With a little diluted cobalt wash iu the clear blue spaces in the sky, carrying a tint down- ward on any part of the ground in which grey is to predominate, so as to impart depth of colour as speedily as possible, and reduce the distracting effect of the white paper as seen in opposition to the parts you are painting ; if the lights on the clouds are to be pure white, form a grey with a little cobnlt and carmine and paint their shadow AAA 722 Shijfs and Ed'pedienis of sides, then with a clean half dry brush soften the harshness of the edges, and reduce them to the form you wish, bearing in mind that the more correctly and ef enly you can lay the edge of the original wash, and the less it wants re-touching the better for your picture. If the sky is to be cloudless, turn the picture bottom up, take a very faint . wash of cobalt and carmine and lay it along the horizon, letting the lower edge hang full and wet, so as to give you time to work on it before it dries, and yet not so full as to run down in a drip, and so produce unequal lines across the sky; then take up a little pure cobalt and wash in another line of colour a little deeper than the first, the wet edge of which will run imperceptibly into your second line, and thus in succession keep working in lines of deeper blue, until by an imperceptive gradation you reach the zenith. If sunset or sunrise is to be represented, keep a pure white space for the sun, round this lay a wash of Indian yellow, round this another of carmine, and beyond this another of cobalt with a little carmine in it, keeping the picture still reversed, so that in graduating the tints the most brilliant colours may run into those that are less so — as the yellow into the red and the red -into the blue, rather than that the colder colours should run into the warm, and thus impair their purity. The sun may then be tinted as required, remembering always that the source of light must be brighter than the atmosphere through which it shines — though, if the sun be setting in a bank of cloud or haze, great effect may be gained by painting it of a deep and lurid red ; while its clear and nearly white light shines on the light clouds in the zenith above the influence of the haze. Calm water will reflect the colour of the sky according to the angle at which it is viewed ; if you look down on it, it will reflect the dark blue of the zenith, but at the same time, if it be transparent, it will also transmit the broken colours of the ground beneath, and thus many beautiful effects are produced — the yellow sand of the tropics imparting a brilliant green to the shallow sea, while rocks or sea-weed will give rich tones of brown. If the spectator is low down, the water will reflect the colour of the horizon, and its own local colour will be lost or much diminished; the reflection of objects on its banks will also appear more perfectly in proportion to its stillness ; but never fall Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 72 o into the error of making tlie reflection an inverted facsimile of tlie real object — it is in reality an image as seen from tLe level of the water at a point nfidway between the spectator and the object. Get a good photograph showing a reflection, or lay a looking-glass horizon- tally and place an object on it, and you will see at once what wf mean. The distant hills may either melt into the soft tints of the sky, partaking of roseate light and faint sky shadow, or may rise cold and dark against a clear horizon, or may be shown in full light against a heavy storm cloud ; in any case, the tone of colour proper to their respective distances must be preserved, and in this respect there can be no better rule than to copy those that nature herself presents. Objects in the middle distance will be more strongly coloured; and if any particular object be selected as the subject of the landscape, the attention should be directed to this, and the remainder made subservient to it, by having somewhat less finish bestowed upon them. Fix the eye steadily upon the chosen object, and observe how all detail becomes indistinct towards the limits of the vision, and then in like manner, having worked up the detail around the centre of interest, let the colours become a little fainter, and the work less definite toward the corners of your sketch. In foliage, take the lightest tint, say Indian yellow and French blue, or Prussian blue toward the foreground where intense green is required, and lay in the masses, keeping the forms large and broad, and blending a little more blue with the parts that are to represent the farthest side of the tree ; then, when this is dry, take a darker tint and somewhat more minutely represent the forms of those portions that take the middle tint or local colour; and lastly, take a third for the deeper shadow, strengthening this with touches of rich warm brown or cool grey as you Avish the masses to advance or to retire. Even pure crimson may be used with advantage as a shadow to cool clear green in the foreground ; in like manner the proper shadow for a yellow sandhill on a beach is not a deeper yellow, but a cool purplish grey, composed of the complementary colours blue and red. To give some idea of the work that may be done with three wcll- A A A 2 724 ,s7/;/"/.s- and Ih-ppAioriU of chosen colours^ wo append the following list^ wliicli niiglit be mncli enlarged : — TYellow and red produce orange. Primaries } Yellow and blue, green. (^Red and blue, purple. r Orange and green, citrine. Secondaries... ) Orange and purple, russet. (^Purple and green, olive. When the eye is fatigued by looking at one of the brilliant primary colours it seems to relieve itself by seeing the secondary colour which is complementary to it : thus if we have looked at red — say at a red light — for some time, and turn the eye away we shall see a green one of the same size and form, being seen in fact by that portion of the eye only that has been fatigued by the strong impression of the red. If we have looked at a yellow light we shall behold a purple image, because this is composed of the other two colours ; blue and red is complementary to yellow. Blue, being a cool colour, does not so much fatigue the eye ; hence, though by the foregoing rule we ought to see its image in bright orange, in practice we rarely do so. From these facts we learn that, whenever one of the primary colours is used in a picture, the complementary colour formed of the other two ought to be placed not very far from it, so as agreeably to relieve the eye. In most cases the landscape actually being copied will afford sufficient facility for this; sometimes it will not; but these instances are exceptional, and probably will occur in the snow wastes of the north, on the solitude of the ocean, or in the sandy deserts of the tropics, where drear monotony or wild and terrific grandeur constitute the charm of the picture, and fidelity rather than pleasing composition must be the artist's aim. We subjoin also a few combinations of colour which will be found useful in landscape painting : Aerial tints for skies, clouds, and distance : for very delicate pre- paratory wash, cadmium yellow and rose madder; strong ditto, Indian yellow and carmine; neutral ditto, yellow ochre and brown madder; still darker and less aerial, light red, Venetian red, ur Indian red. Cobalt fur delicate blue skies ; French ultramarine for Camp Lifr, TraLcJ, and E.qiluraflon. 11') stronger. Cobalt and rose madder for delicate cloud tints. For golden sunsets : aureolin^ gamboge, lemon yellow, cadmium yellow, Indian yellow, yellow ockre — to be used according to the brilliancy or depth of colour required, and to be contrasted by cool greys composed of cobalt and rose madder, or French ultramarine. Crimson sunsets : rose madder, carmine, crimson lake, Indian red, purple madder, contrasted with cool grey ; and sometimes greenish tones formed by adding a little yeUow to the blue and red. In dark storm clouds, French blue or indigo, with light red, Vene- tin red, or Indian red, or purple madder. Indigo and Prussian blue require great caution in their use. With any of the beforementioned yellows, they form rich greens for sea tints or foliage ; with raw sienna or burnt sienna, they give very deep greens for stormy seas or heavy forest trees. Light red and Prussian blue give a greenish grey. Light red with cobalt or ultramarine give greys somewhat less aerial for middle distance, mountains, &c. Indian red, with the same blues, gives a more opaque grey. Sepia and French blue make a cool grey ; raw and burnt sienna are good colours for autumnal foHage, stems of trees where grey is not required, rocks, Dutch galliots, and many other foreground objects ; brown madder and vandyke brown afford great depth for foreground shadows. For native complexions, raw sienna with a little of the burnt will give the colour of a Hottentot. A Kafir requires burnt sienna in the half tints, vandyke brown in the shadows, and a cool grey like the reflection of the sky in the lights — this is best produced by a little Chinese white and cobalt laid on thin over the brown. There may be a little blue put into the black of the hair to contrast the better with the brown skin. For a Negro, crimson lake and blue-black; the lights made with Chinese white and blue as before. 726 Shifts and Edipedients of CHAPTER XX. THE ESTIMATION OF DISTANCES AND HINTS ON FIELD OBSERVING. On measuring the Distance travelled by Wheeled Carriages. When no instrument for this purpose is obtainable, the best plan we know of is that adopted by the late Dr. Burchell, the eminent South African traveller, and after him by Captain Cornwallis Harris, the explorer and naturalist, in the more distant parts of the same country ; and this is, to measure the large wheel carefully, to mark one of its spokes, and count its revolutions during any given time, say a minute, and then convert the result into miles or parts of a mile per hour. Thus, if a wheel be 5yds. in circumference, and it makes six revolutions in a minute, the distance in that time will be 30yds., or 1800yds., i.e., -lOyds. more than a mile per hour ; twelve revolutions will of course be SOyds. over two miles ; and, during former journeys, when our wheel was making eighteen revolutions, we used to reckon the waggon was going, allowing for occasional unavoidable stoppages, two and a half miles per hour. With a watch having a second hand it is easy to note any fraction of time, but with one not so provided less than a minute cannot easily be estimated. After a little practice we became so accustomed to this that we seldom used a watch j but when sitting on the waggon-box would just look over the side, and estimate the rate at which the wheel was going, just as a sailor would in like manner make a very fair estimate of the speed of his ship. It Avill generally be found that an African ox-waggon, not over- loaded, and on tolerably fair ground, travels about two and a half miles an hour; and we have also found that with pack horses in Australia, if the same rate is assumed, the resulting measurement of the day's work will be very nearly correct. ^Ve tried once to make a trocheameter, but at the time had never Canqj Life, Travel, and h\q)Ionitio)t. I'll either seen one or read a description of itj and therefore the principle cost us some thinking out. It was perfectly evident that, for motive power, an axle so weighted that it could not revolve in a revolving box would produce the same effect upon the works as an axle made to revolve, by weights or otherwise, in a fixed box would have on those of a clock. We therefore made a box of such a form as to fit between spokes of the hinder wheels of a waggon, and in it fitted an axle with a heavy plummet, so fixed to it as to prevent its turning when the box revolved j on this axle was one tooth fitting into the cogs of a sixty- toothed wheel, which therefore moved one tooth for every revolution, or once round for every sixty; the axle of this had also one tooth acting on another of sixty teeth, so the two were capable of registering sixty times sixty, or three thousand six hundred revolutions, whicli, supposing the wheel to be only 5yds. in circumference, would measure ten miles and a quarter, the number of revolutions being indicated by a hand fixed upon the axle of each wheel, each moving on its own dial-plate, like those of a patent log. We found that the machine answered quite well enough to convince us that we were right in principle, and to make us regret that we had not the tools and appliances at hand to fit it so perfectly as to insure smoothness and uniformity of action. To all, however, who have the means, we would say do not fail to buy a trocheameter : it is a small, compact instrument, fitted in a copper case, capable of being strapped on any convenient part of the wheel ; and one of fair quality need not cost above 2/. 10s. or 3/. The instru- ment is composed of two revolving toothed wheels, the upper wheel having 101 and the lower 100 teeth, suspended from and turned by an endless screw ; there are two indices, that on the upper wheel pointing out every single revolution, and that on the lower every hundred. The whole circuit of the instrument is 10,100 revolutions, and the following is an example of its power : " One complete circuit of 10,100 revolutions, with a carriage- wheel of 12ft. circumference, would indicate 23 miles, minus 80yds. Thus, 55 revolutions give 220yds., or 1 furlong; 110 give 440yds., or a quarter of a mile; 440 give 1760yds., or 1 mile; 7040 give 16 miles; 10,100 equal to 23 miles, minus SOyds. 728 Sldfts and Expedients of " To set the instrument unscrew the milled nut from off the steel endless screw, and move the wheels round until both the indices coincide ; screw the nut firmly in its place, shut up the instrument, and strap it securely to the oflf-wheel in the centre of the nave." In Africa we cannot literally follow out these instructions, for the nave is not brass capped, as with carriage-wheels at home, but the end of the axle comes through, and the wheel is secured to it by a washer and a linch pin ; therefore, we strap the trocheameter between the spokes as near to the nave as possible, and in our journey to the Zambesi Fall we secured a pint pannikin permanently between the spokes as a protection to the trocheameter, which just fitted nicely into it during this journey. We measured a distance of between 2000 and 3000 miles, and do not remember that this instrument failed, except once from being choked with fine dry sand, and once again from equally fine sand and water. We subjoin a table, by which it will be seen that our waggon- wheel was 5yds. 24in. in circumference ; this fraction gave some little trouble in the preliminary computation, and it looked very absurd to calculate the stages to half an inch, but if we had thrown it out a considerable error would have accumulated, and when the table was once formed the trouble was at an end. Canq) Life, Travel, and E,qiloraliun. 7-29 TllOCllEAMETEK TaBLE. First Wheel. No. Fiir. Yds. Ft. In. No. 1 Fur. y The Plane Table, and its Use. In making a plane table, discard all the compUcated an-angemeuts of sights, protractors, fixed compasses, spirit levels, and levelling screws, each of which has an individual error, which must be found and allowed for before correctness can be attained ; while the approxi- mation to perfection gained by their most careful use is almost certain to be vitiated by the contraction of the paper when removed from the table on which it has been stretched. Take any flat board— Fig. 1 (an artist's drawing-board) is as good as any— and stretch on it a sheet of drawing or stout cartridge paper : the 736 Sln'fts and Expedients of l)cst levelling apparatus is a wooden hcraispliere (Fig. 2), screwed temporarily on to its back, and woi'king in a circular aperture (Fig. 3) in the top of such a stand as is used for the photographic camera or theodolite ; there is no neces- sity that the surface should be truly horizontal ; indeed, it is much better that it should be capable of alterations of position, so that objects above or below its horizon may be sighted and mapped at pleasure. Set up a needle (a) in the centre of the drawing-paper, and lay against it a straight-edged ruler {b) with two other needles (c c), set perfectly upright in each end as near as possible to the fiducial edge, as sights; then, choosing some principal object — say a well-marked conical peak, the bluff edge of a precipice, or a deep and narrow cleft in distant mountains — and keeping your ruler pressed against the central needle, bring the others, which serve as sights, in careful alignment with the object, and draw a pencil line along the fiducial edge right across the paper ; theu, with your prismatic compass (resting on the table for greater steadiness, if there is no iron in it to aSect the magnet), take very carefully the bearing of the object, and note it in degrees from north, or zero, say 40°, on the line you have drawn ; then lightly sketch the object on the line, estimating its distance from the centre, according to the scale on which you arc working, say one or more inches to a mile. Direct the sights to any number of well-marked and recognisable objects, draw lines, and sketch them lightly at their estimated distances. Then have a mark set up as far off as possible, say a mile, or any carefully-measured distance, direct the sights, and draw a line towards it ; mark its distance accurately on the paper, and insert the pivot needle there ; remove the table to the marked spot, and, with your prismatic compass, set the first line again to 40° ; then bring your sights to bear upon the object, draw another line along your straight edge, and the Cam}^ Life, Travel, and Exploration. 737 point at whicli this cuts the first will bo tho true position of your object j correct your first sketch still lightly, but do not efface anything ; sight all the other objects, and sketch them where the second set of lines cut the first. Then choose another station, forming, if possible, an equilateral triangle with the other two ; mark its position on the map, remove the proof needle there, carry the table to the spot, set the first line again to 40°, and sight the same objects a third time all round, and the third set of lines crossing the other two will give their true distances from the centre with sufficient accuracy for all ordinary purposes. A ball and socket joint for adjusting the table to the necessary alterations of level may be made by nailing on beneath it a hemisphere of wood (Fig. 2), working in a circular hole (Fig. 3) in the top of the stand. Extemporised Sight Vaxe foe Levelling Staff. Fig. 5. Suppose your staff Hin. thick: take a piece of tin about 7iu. wide, and of any convenient length, say nearly square ; line it off as in Fig. 4, so that there shall be three divisions parallel to each other, as wide as the staff is thick, and on one side of them leave another division, about fin. wide, and on the other mark and cut out two pro- jections fin. square, and a semicircular eyepiece, somewhat larger, with a quadrant-like aperture, as in the illustration ; bend the tin at the divisional lines, so as to clasp the staff loosely, with the sight vane projecting from it ; let a cord be attached to the top of the tin, and pass through a hole in the top of the staff to draw it up by, and attach another cord to the bottom to draw it down again if required. Upon the edge of the narrowest divisions draw the subdivisions of the measures already marked upon your staff, letting them commence from the level of the bottom of the aperture in the sight vane, and read downwards; then, directing the telescope of your levelling instrument towards the staff, let an assistant lower or raise the sight vane according t© your signals, and then read off the number of sub- divisions on the vernier until you come down to a line, marking a division on the staff; read off this, and add the fractional parts, and 738 Shifts and Expedients of tlie excess or deficiency over or below tlie lieigHt of the eye will be tlie difference of level in feet, iucbes, or wliatevor measurement may be used. Movable stands for instruments must be light for the sake of portability, but steadiness cannot be obtained with- out weight; and for this purpose a bucket of water, a bamboo filled with water or sand, a bag of stones or sand, a large stone, or lashing to a tent peg driven into the ground, may be employed, as in our illustration. Makeshift Clinometee. Captain Lendy recommends a simple form of clinometer, which is constructed as follows : The clinometer consists of a quadrant of pasteboard or of brass, having a plummet, A H, suspended at its centre, and graduated, as in the diagram, on both sides. When we require an angle of elevation, we look along the edge, A C, till B is in sight, when the plummet indicates the angle. For an angle of depression reverse the instrument. This instrument is an excellent substitute for the ordinary form of sextant in case of accident or breakage. The same officer describes an ingenious substitute for an ordinary water level, which can always be replaced by a little ruler, A B, sus- pended by strings, A, C B, having a little weight under it to pre- vent the wind from shaking it. When held by the string the hue Gamp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 739 A B will give a horizontal direction. To make use of it for levelling along A B, start from A, hold the ruler up to the eye, and, aiming along its edge, notice to what point (B) of the ground the visual ray- corresponds. Repair there, we shall have ascended a distance — the height of the eye above the ground. Start afresh from B, and in this manner the number of stations made between A and B, multiplied by the height of the eye above ground, will give the difference of level required. The same author gives the following useful hints on the estimation of distance : " Pacing is generally resorted to while filling in the details of a survey. The trotting of a horse might also be made available. Distances can also be measured by time when we have previously ascertained over how many yards we walk or I'ide in a given time. This is not a rare occurrence in the field. "Wlien distances are measured by pacing or riding a correction is necessary, owing to the lengthening caused by acclivities and the turnings of roads. On slightly uneven ground we subtract l-7th of the distance paced, and l-5th when the inductions are more important." When the atmosphere is even sound travels at the rate of 1118ft. per second ; therefore a musket fired may serve to measure a dis- tance. A watch gives the number of seconds elapsed between the instant the light is seen and that when the report is heard; that number, multiplied by 1118ft., gives very approximately the dis- tance. If no watch is to be had the time is obtained by counting the bbb2 '40 Shifts and Expedients of pulsations of an artery. A sound pulse averages from 75 to 80 in a miuute. Distances may even bo guessed by observing that in clear weatlier tlie windows of a house can be counted at 4000yds. Horses and men appear as dots at 2200yds. A horse is clearly seen at 1200yds. The movements of men are perceived at 800yds.; and the head is distinctly visible at 400yds. For the measurement of time^ as we have said before^ a thoroughly well-made English lever watch is preferable to a chronometer^ as it will withstand the rough jolts and vibrations caused by being carried on horseback, or in a waggon, far better. Sun-dials, properly so called, are rarely of much use to the traveller ; still the pocket compass may be made to do duty as an indicator of time. There is a small and very portable little instrument to be obtained of most opticians, in the formation of which a silk cord is so attached to the border of the compass case that on adjusting the compass, so that the needle shall point to a black stud inserted for the purpose, a shadow is cast by the silk on the figure indicating the hour of the day. A small equation table is attached to the inside of the cover. When no watch is at hand seconds can be indicated closely enough for practical purposes by suspending a small bag of shot or bullets from the end of a piece of fine fishing line or copper wire. Attach the upper end to a cross bar, laid in the crutches of two forked sticks, let the bag hang, and regulate the length of the string until you find that it describes the proper arc in swinging ; your own pulse, the number of which has been already given, or that of a horse, which may be roughly set down as thirty-six beats per minute, will be a sufficient guide. If great accuracy is sought, recourse may be had to repeated astronomical observations. An excellent makeshift hour-glass can be made from two empty soda-water bottles, and a little fine dry sand. A wooden plug of oin. long should be so cut as to fit the necks of the bottles tightly. Through the centre of the plug, from end to end, burn with a red- hot wire a fine even hole, then with your pocket-knife make a funnel- shaped or flared-out mouth to each hole, cutting away until the extreme edge of the plug is reached. See that your sand is free from small stones or lumps, pour it into one of the bottles, insert Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration. 741 the plug half-way, and test the quantity by letting it run out at the hole. When you have the prosier charge to run for fifteen or thirty minutes, place the bottles mouth to mouth in such a way that one-half the plug shall be in the neck of each bottle. A bit of raw hide sewn round the union of the bottle mouths makes all secure. The joined bottles can then be mounted in a wooden frame for use. Two bits of flat square board, with holes in the centre for the bottoms of the bottles to come partly through, pinned at the corners by four bars of wood, is as good a form of frame as any. The Malays make use of a very convenient and simple form of time indicator or water clock, which is made as follows : — A large- sized cocoa-nut shell is obtained; this is fi.rst scraped perfectly smooth, and then at the bottom a very minute hole is bored. The nutshell is then set floating in a pail of sea water. As the shell fills it gradually settles deeper and deeper, and at last sinks to the bottom with a gurgle and a thud. The rapidity of filling, and con- sequent duration of time, is regulated by increasing or diminishing the size of the orifice. Thus a man may be set to keep a two-shell watch or a four-shell watch, and so on. The instant the shell sinks to the bottom of the pail it attracts attention by the disturbance made. It is then immediately taken up, the water is poured out, and it is set afloat again. Excellent time can be kept by this primitive arrange- ment. For ascertaining the altitude of high lands, ranges of hills or mountains, a thoroughly good " compensated " aneroid barometer should be taken. This will not only be valuable for measurements, but will be of considerable service in the observation of weather signs. We have one now in use made expressly for us by Mr. Gary, of 181, Strand. It is protected by a smooth wooden cover or case, enveloped in tightly-stretched leather. A sling is fitted to it by a swivel loop, which admits of its being carried over the shoulder or in the jacket pocket. The Table of Altitudes, given on the next page, will prove a useful guide when conducting observations with it. 742 Shifts and Expedients of Table of Altitudes. o-Sl o^i ^%i ^%i III 1 s-i ■^s^ -^ s ■£ -^ ^- ■« o^ *.. *j- -=! o » ■" ^- 1 -a - m 111 SI 2 £ i § s S o S 1 , , ,, . [ 697 Ave condensed 100 tunes ) Musket ball 1280 Eifle ball (at most) 1600 Cannon ball (24-poimder) 2450 Earth's rotation (at equator) ... 1525 Earth's centre in its orbit ... 101,061 Miles per hour. Racehorse 60 Pigeon 20—30 Peregrine falcon 120 Ocean steamers 21 River steamers 22 Railway train 80 Sailing vessel 10 Malay proa 20 Miles per second. Light 200,000 Electricity 576,000 Weight op a Superficial Foot op Plate or Sheet Iron. No. of Thickness Weight No. of Thickness Weight No. of Thickness Weight the wire in iu the wire in in the wire in in guage. inches. pounds. guage. inches. pounds. guage. inches pounds. 1 40 5 8-74 18 1-86 85 6 8-12 19 1-70 f 30 7 W 7-5 20 1-54 u 27-5 8 6-86 21 1-40 # 25 9 6-24 22 ^V 1-25 A 22-5 10 5-62 23 1-12 * 20 11 i 5 24 1 T6 17-5 12 4-38 25 0-9 ■ t 15 13 3-75 26 0-8 1 A 12-5 14 312 27 0-72 2 12 15 2-82 28 ^V^ 0-64 3 11 16 tV 2-50 29 0-65 4 i 10 17 2-18 30 0-50 Ajjjjendix. 809 Weight in Pounds of One Cubic Foot of the following Substances : Cast ii'ou 450 Wrought irou 486 Steel 489 Pine wood 29-5 Water. Air .... Steam . U)8. G2o 0(t75 003G Weight of Rod Iron One Foot in Length of the following Dimensions : Square Iron. EoDND Iron. Flat Ikon. Inch. Pounds. Incli. Pounds. inc. Ponnda. i 0-2 i 0-14 ixl 0-8 1 0-5 t 0-4 ixl 1-3 i 0-8 i 0-7 ^xl 1-7 1 1-3 1 1x1 2-1 J 1-9 1 1-5 ixl 2-5 i 2-6 7 2 : X2 1-7 1 3-4 1 2-7 ^x2 2-5 H 4-3 H 3-4 ix2 8-4 U 5-3 U 4-2 1x2 4-2 If 6-4 If 5 fx2 61 H 7-6 H 6 ix3 25 i| 8-9 H 7 |x3 3-8 ^ 10-4 1? 8-1 ix3 61 H n-9 H 9-3 1x3 6-3 2 13-6 2 10-6 fx3 7-6 2i 17-1 H 13-5 ix4 3-4 2+ 21-1 il 16-7 |x4 51 2| 25-6 2f 20-1 ix4 6-8 3 30-4 3 23-9 ^x4 8-4 3^ 41-4 3.^ 32-5 fx4 10-1 4 641 4" 42-5 ■ ix5 4-2 5 84-5 5 66-8 |x5 6-3 6 121-7 6 95-6 ix5 8-4 7 165-6 7 130 *x5 10-6 8 216-3 8 169-9 Jx5 12-7 Relative Heat-conducting Gold 1000 Platinum 981 Silver 973 Copper 898 Iron 574 Zinc 363 Tin 304 Lead 180 Marble 24 Porcelain 12-2 Power of different Bodies. Firebrick ^1 Fireclay 1^* Willi Water as a Staiulanl. Water Pine Lime Oak Ash Apple Ebony 22 10 39 39 33 m 28 810 Afipendix. Relative Conducting Power of different Substances compared WITH each other. Hare'sfur 1315 Eider down 1-305 Beaver's fur 1-296 Raw silk 1-284 Wool 1.118 Lamp black 1-117 Cotton 1.046 Lint 1-032 Charcoal -937 Ashes (wood) -927 Sewing silk -917 Air -576 Mercury- Water .. Relative Conducting Power op Fluids. 1-000 I Proofspirit -312 -357 I Alcohol (pure) -232 Radiating Power of different Bodies. Water 100 Lamp black 100 Writing paper 100 Glass 90 Lidian ink 88 Bright lead 19 SUver 12 Blackened tin . Clean tin . . . . Scraped tin.... Ice 100 12 16 85 Mercury 20 Polished iron 15 Copper 12 The Stone Weight. The term " stone " is often used to indicate weight, but some confusion is apt to arise if the nature of the object or substance to bo weighed is not clearly indicated ; thus, in weighing men according to what is known as "■ horseman's weight/^ 141b. avoirdupois are made use of; in weighing butcher's meat, 81b.; iron, 141b.; glass, 51b.; hemp, 321b. ; cheese, ] 61b. The Qualities of Gold. Very few terms are more loosely used than that of " gold,^' and it is therefore necessary that the traveller should make himself fully acquainted with the nature of the alloy made use of under the name of gold in the various countries he may chance to visit. Let him not suppose that, because the glittering chain or ring displayed in an Engbsh jeweller's window is marked in conspicuous letters "Warranted fine gold," the ornament is as a matter of course composed of pjwe fjold, or he will buy experience dearly. Fine gold means nothing further than that an alloy of some kind containing some gold is for sale. It is well, therefore, to insist on the exact quality of the article Appendix. 811 (in carats — 18 carats, 22 carats, or whatever it is represented to be) being stated on the vendor's bill of charge. The nature of gold alloy differs materially in various countries. We have, therefore, thought it well to provide the reader with the following useful tables compiled by Mr. E. W. Streeter and used in his " Hints to Purchasers of Jewellery.'' Qualities of Gold manufactured In different Parts of the World. £ s. d. £ s. d. England From 1 carat, worth 3 6 to 22 carats, worth 3 17 lOi France ,, 18 carats, ,,3 3 8^ only common by special per- Denmark , 18 ,, „ 3 3 8^ [mission. Baden „ 14 „ „ 2 9 6i Germany (all States)... „ 12 „ „ 2 2 5^ to 15 carats, worth 2 13 1 Russia „ 15 „ „ 2 13 1 to 22 „ ... „ 3 17 m Austria „ 10 „ „ 115 4 j to 18 „ ... „ 3 3 8^ Italy , 12 „ „ 2 2 5^ to 22 „ 3 17 lOi Holland „ 4 „ „ 14 2 to 22 „ ... „ 3 17 KH Africa , 23 „ „ 4 3 U IncUa , 22 „ „ 3 17 lO^o -'3i „ ... „ 4 3 IJ Rome AH 18 „ „ 3 3 8^ U. States of America... From 1 „ ,,036 to IS „ ... „ 3 3 8^ Norway and Sweden ...All 18 ,, ,, 3 3 8^ Belgium From 18 „ „ 3 3 8^ to 22 3 17 lOi Spain All 18 „ „ 3 3 8* Switzerland All 18 „ „ 3 3 8^ Geneva From 14 „ ,.2 9 6* Watch cases only. China From 16 „ „ 2 16 7^ to 23 J carats, worth 4 4 Japan From 18 „ „ 3 3 8Uo 23J „ ... ,,440 BrazU ." All 18 „ „ 3 3 8* Hamburg From 13^ „ „ 2 11 3^ to 18 „ 3 3 8^ Tiu-key „ 18 „ „ 3 3 8^ Greece „ 10 „ „ 115 ^i to 16 , 2 16 7^ Persia „ 3 „ „ 10 7^ to 23^ 4 3 H Egypt „ 18 „ „ 3 3 Sk Rio Janeiro Imported from 1 carat 3 6 to 22 3 17 lOJ Chili „ „ 3 6 to 22 3 17 10^ Peru „ n 3 6 to 22 , 3 17 lOJ Siam Nearly pure, fine work. Australia Same as England, except that made up from the tligging^'. Mexico Principal manufacture fine. Any quality is allowed to be imported into these countries. 812 The following table by the same author will serve to show in a condensed form, the value of different gold alloys relatively, and also the extremely low standard at which so called " gold articles " are manufactured in this country. Gold Value Table. 22-cariit gold is WO] •tl £ s. d. 3 17 IQi per oz. 8-carat gold £ s. is worth 1 8 3^ per oz 18 „ ,, 3 3 8i ,, 6 „ ,, 1 1 2i „ 16 ,, 2 16 7^ ,, 4 )) U 2 „ 14 ,, 2 9 6^ n 2 ,, 7 1 » 10 ,, 1 15 4i ,, 1 ,, 3 6 9 ,, 1 11 10 ,, Since writing the early portion of this work, we have found it requisite, in order to supply a manifest want, to have manufactured a small leather case (on the exact model of our own), containing all the tests and appliances requisite for the identification of precious metals or precious stones.* We have also caused to be constructed, from our own pattern, a small triple branch of gold of different degrees of alloy. Each branch, when rubbed on the touch stone, and treated with nitric acid, will leave a characteristic streak, which may be compared with one formed by rubbing the article to be tested, and treating it with acid in the same manner; the nature of the alloy will thus be found by comparison, t Emerson's Table of Strengths, showing the Load that can be safely boene by a square inch rod op each of the following Substances : Iron rod, lin. square bear will lbs. avoir. 76,400 35,600 Ivory 15,700 Oak, box, yew, plum-tree 7,850 Elm, ash, beech 6,070 Walnut, red fir, holly, elder, plane, crab 5,000 Cherry, hazel 4,760 Alder, asp, birch, willow 5,000 Lead 430 Freestone 914 * This, together with its accompanying instruction book, can be obtained at the explorer's room, established by S. W. Silver & Co., 66 & 67, Cornhill. t This test branch can be obtained either at the explorer's room, or from Mr. E. Streeter, Conduit-street, Bond-street. Appendix. 813 Emerson's rule is, that a cylinder, the diameter of which is //inches, loaded to one foui'th of its absolute strent^tli, will carry as follows: ewt. cwt Irou 135x'/2 Oak \4x(P Good rope 2'2xfP ' Fir 9x(/» Another of his rules is that a cylindrical rod of well-seasoned clean-gTown fir of an inch circumference drawn in length will bear at its extremity 4001bs. and a spar of fir 2in. in diameter will bear about 7 tons, but not more. A well-made and carefully-kept hemp rope of one inch in circumference, will bear lOOOlbs. being at its extremity. Mr. Barlow has formed the following table as a mean resulting from experiments on the strength of direct cohesion on a square inch of the following substances : Iha. IbR. Box 20,000 Ash 17,000 Teak 15,000 Fir 12,000 Beech 11,500 Oak 1<),»X>0 Pear 0,8f on the snbject. Teak 2-4G2 English oak 1-672 Canadian oak 1-7GG Dantzic oak 1-457 Adriatic 1-383 Ash 2-026 Beech 1-556 Elm 1-()13 ritchpine 1-6:32 Red pine 1-341 New England fir 1-102 Riga fir 1108 Mar Forest fir 1-262 Larch 1-127 INDEX Abyssinian mule platforms, 345 Accommodation of tents, to increase, 61 Adaptation of hames to collars, 400 Admiral Belcher's expedient for moving ves- sels during calms, 175 Adzes or axes, makeshift, 381 African boots, 412 Aguardiente, to make, 579 Albatross, catching, 587 Alligators, catching. 590 Securing snared fish from, 591 Aloe juice, extracting, 802 Altitudes, ascertaining, 741 Low, or levels, to obtain, 734 Table of, 742 American cordway, 324 Indian lodges, 308 Life raft, 167 Portable boat, 154 Wild fruits, 530 Ammunition, packing, 17 Taking abroad, 17, 19 Amphibious animals, trapping, 660 Anchors, 375 Angle at which to pitch a tent, 56 Animals, calls of, 679 Infested with fly, treatment of, 804 Purgative for, 802 Skin of, as food, 557 Wild, observation of the habits of, 773 Antidotes for poison, 80 From arrows, 620 Ants, locusts, and other insects and their larvae as food, 562 Anvils, 193, 197 Aparejo, 403 Application of wind power to horizontal wheel, 512 Aps or chupatee, 544 Aquatic birds, traps for, 675 Arctic regions, hints for the, 309, 310 Hutting in the, 309 Armament, hunter's, 055 Arobas waggon, 441 Arrest hemorrhage, 695 Arrow-fishing, 594 Trap, 657 Arrows, harpoon. 594 Poisoned, 619, 622 Rifling, 624 Artificial horizon, 29 And sextant, use of, 743 Artillery, charges for, 241 Cartridges and wads for, 243 Dromedary or Zembourcks, 245 Field, 448 Repairing, 243 Shot for, 240 Sledges, 406 Unspiking, 243 Zembourcks, 245 Artist's materials, 22 Ascertaining altitudes, 741 Variations of the compass, 732 Ash cake, 549 A.ssegais, to render useless, 203 Attachment of straps, for sledges, 399 Australian bark canoe, 102 Sjiears and spear throwing, 016 Tent, 59 Two-wheel drays, 454 Axes or adzes, makeshift, 381 Axles, to make and repair, 215 Baggage derrick, extempore, 330 Bags, pack-saddle, 30 Sleeping, 780 Baits, fish, hints on, 605 For traps, 607 Baking bread, 550 Cakes, 549 Ballast for boats, 177 Balsas canoe, 140 Bamboos, building with, 289 Various uses for, 358 Bananas and plantains for food, 533 Bandages, surgical, 689 Bark canoes, 105 Australian, 162 Canadian, 157 For canoes, mode of stripping, 156 Stripping from trees, 7S9 Uses of, 789 Base metals, to detect, 263 Baskets, fish traps, 595, 597 Waterproof, 500 Bayonets, 1 1 Sheath knives as, 202 Beams, masts, &c. for platform boats, 114 Bear trap, 663 Bechuana but, 280 816 Index. Beds, camp, 44 Beehive but, Kafir, 279 Bees' Nests, taking, 580 Wild, to smoke out, 537 Bell mules, 46(5 Bellows, 09 And forge, extempore, 213 Bell-tent made to hold many people, 61 Bent wood, 380 Biltong, 575 Birch bark canoes, 157 For canoes, 15G Birdlime, 679 Birds, aquatic, traps for, 675 Calls for, 679 Traps for, 673 Preserving, 574 Sea, cooking, 584 Snaring, 673 Bite of tsetse fly, 653 Bits, 34 Blackcock trap, 672 Bladders and paunches for holding water, 499 And water-skins, repairing of, 783 Use of, 783 Blanket used for extemporising a tent, 59 Blindfolding pack animals, 465 Blockhouse, 296 Blocks and pulleys, 383 Double, 386 Signal, 385 Snatch, 385 Board house, 278 Wigwam, 274 Boards, ice, 403 Boats, American portable, 154 Balh.st for, 177 Bridges of, 350 Building, 121, 125, 128 Canvas or skin, 48, 100 Cape waggon, 129, 131 Catamaran, 165 Clinker, 125, 128 Collapsible, 155 Connecting beams, masts, &c. for platform, 114 Copper, 50, 118 Copper, materials used in, 54 Copper platfoi-m, 110 Corrugated iron, 51 Esquimaux, 103 Fitted with inflated tubes, 170 Indian cattle, 99 Inflated canvas, 48 Inflated, to make safe, 117 Iron, 51, 118, 123 Leaky, 91 Massoolah, 164 Metal life, 124 :\Io:al platform, 107, 110 Metal, to connect odd sections rf, 125 Mixture for painting metal, 1 13 Models of, 105, 119 Norwegian, 165 Paddling, 134 Portable canvas, 49 Portable steel, 16G Boats, Proas, 135 Quagga hide, IOl' Reed, 97 Rules for sailing, 177 Russian cargo, 102 Sculling, 132 Skin, 100 Things to be thought of when de- signing, 105 Torres Straits, 162 Wattled, 125 Whale, 610 Without nails, 165 Wooden platform, materials for, 114 Boers' method of loading guns quickly, 228 Boiling meat, 553 Rice, 565 Water without pots, 553 Bolts and nuts, dies and taps for, 198 Bones, horns, tendons, fish skin, &c. use of, 784 Books for travellers, 29, 31 Boomerang, 617 Boots, African, 412 And shoes, 6, 412 Clamps for, 420 India rubber, to mend, 429 In tropical countries, hints on, 429 Laces, 7 Lasts for, 416 Making, 417 Sledge dogs', 403 Snow shoe, 410 Stitching, 421 Thread for, 420 Wading among rocks, 429 Boring heavy logs, 376 Botanical specimens, collecting, 764 Packing and preserving, 771 Boulders, to remove, 265 Buoys, life, 95 Bowls, wooden, 393 Bows, cross, Chinese, 623 Pellet, Indian, 624 Strings, tightening, 622 Box markings, 700 Boxes as floats, 97 Copper, 8 For Cape waggon travelling, 9 For rafts, 144 Braces, 5 Brands of camels, 481 Cattle, making, 480 Branding cattle, 478 Branch, peg, and log ladders, 349 Brass guns and their chai'ges, 241 For barter with natives, 210 Softening and hardening, 210 Bread baking, 550 Breakers, rules for passing through, 176 Break for wheels, 443 Brick tea, 571 Bridge shears, to construct, 336 Bridges, boat, 350 Cable and twig, 335 Chain, 331 I Index. 817 Bridges, Deodar beam, 3-11 Fly, 331 Gabion, 327 Ice, 343 Indian rope, 341 Natural, 346 One tree, 325 Rafter, plank, and slab, 342 Swamp, 326 Tartar, 328 Bridles, 34 Broken masts, 182 Spars, scarfing, or fishing of, 181 Bruised gun barrels, to i-epair, 226 Buckets, bamboo, 358 Canvas, 67 Gutta pei-cha, 73 Leather, 72 Palm, 523 Buck-shot moulds, 19, 222 Buik-waggon, 437 Building, bamboo for, 289 Boats, clinker, 128 Boats, hints on, 128 Boats of metal, 121 Boats of wood, 123 Boats, things to be thought of when, 105 Fires, 539, 540 Jetty, 329 Mission Churches, plans for, 301 Of the Portuguese in Africa, 305 Rafts, principles of, 147 Walls, 291 Wheels, 366, 371 Bullet moulds, 9, 220, 230 Bullets, cleft, 229 Hardening, 228 Bullock trunks, 8 Bull's-eye lantern, 86 Burning charcoal, 266 Bush knife, 11 Bushman's hut, 278 Bustard shooting, 670 Butter, preserving, 583 Buying horses, 577 Second-hand guns, hints on, 1 1 0. Cable and twig bridge, 335 Cakes, baking, 549 Meat, 566 Sago, 556 Calabashes, float, 96 For holding water, 498 Calls, bird and animal, 679 Calming troubled water by means of oil, 176 Camels, 475 Brands, 481 Embarking, 487 Feeding, 486 Harnessing, 476 Hints on, 483, 486 Journal or diary, 489 Loads and distiinces, for, 485 I Camels, on shipboard, fastening, 489 Water in stom.-ich, 487 Wounds on bafkrt of, S()0 Camp beds, 44 Filters, 501 Furniture, 389 Medicine-making, hints on, 802 Of ox waggons, to defend. 2'.t7 Canadian bark canoe, 157 Candles, 86 Guttering, to jjrevent, 556 Making, 87 Malay, 89 Packing, 88 Screens for, 88 Cannon, cartridges for, 243 Charges, »tc. 241 Mounting, 237, 240 Repairing, 243 Shot for, 220, 246 Unspiking, 243 Wads, 243 (See also Artillery.) Canoes, Australian bark, 162 Balsas, 140 Bark, 105, 157, 16(1, 162 Birch for, 156 Canadian bark, 157 Carriage for, 159 Cedar bark, 160 Dug-out, 104, 163 Fojee, 139 Fuogian, 161 Inflated canvas for one man, 50 Long, 163 Mode of stripping bark for, 1 56 Outriggers for, 99 Queen Charlotte's Island, 158 Shoe, 161 Water transport, 496 Canteens, 70 Canvas boat, inflated, 49 Boat, portable inflated, 48, lOO Buckets, 67 Canoe for one man, inflated, 50 Or skin boat, 100 Cape waggon, 433 Boats, 129, 131 Chests as rafts, 140 Load for, 453 Tent, 59 Tent or tilt, 130 Wine, 440 Cap squares of a gun, makeshift for, 239 Caps for the head, 5 Percussion, and their substitutes, 240 Priming, to make, 244 Capstan, gunner's, 374 Cargo boat, Russian, 102 Carnivora, hunting of, 646 Carpenter's tools, 41 Carriages, ca4»oe, 159 Wht»>lVh me.isuring distances tra- velleFly-, 726 Carrying, rolling, and parbuckling heavy spars. ,So2 Carrying water, 4in> 818 ImU Cartridges and wads for cannon, 243 Making, 232, 235 Case hardening, 205 Cases for saddles, 34 Tin, utilisation of, 212 Casting horses, 800 Oxen, 801 Ropes for horses, 801 Casks, water, to embark, 379 Catamaran float, 1G5 Catching albatrosses, 587 Alligators, 590 Cattle, G54 Crayfish, lol)sters, &c. G04 Crows, G80 Deer with thorn wreaths, G'2\ Ducks, itc. G75 Fish, 585, 587 Musk rats, 6G7 Ostriches, emus, &c. GG8 Porpoises, 612 Sea fish, 585 Turkeys, 670 Catgut and parchment, 782 Cattle boat, 99 Brands, making, 480 Catching, 654 Drinking troughs for, 493 Hobbhng, 469 Marking, 478 Watering, 493 Cautions regarding glanders, 806 Cedar bark canoe, 160 Cereals as food, 569 Chain and rope ladders, 348 And links, 462 Bridges, 331 Pole, 335 Chalk lines, 292 Charcoal burning, 266 Charges, &c. for brass guns, 241 Chemical tests, for minerals and metals, 260 Chests as rafts. Cape waggon, 140 Chinese cross-bow, 623 Slab and trestle bridge, 343 Chisels, cold, 204 Making incisions in iron with, 194 " Ghucknuck," or " strikc-a-light," 537 Chupatee or aps, 544 Chupper screens, 294 Churches, fortifying, ;!()1 I\Iissi(>n, plans for building, 301 Cider, plantain, 533 Clamps for boot making, 420 Cleaning guns, 237 Clearing fine sand from gun-locks, 69 Nut, 505 Cleft bullets, 229 Climl) palms, to, 523 Clinker boat, 125, 128 Clinometer, makeshift, 738 Clip for holding posts, &c. 273 Clock, water, 741 Cloths, saddle, 33 Coats, 5, 6 Cocoa nut palin, uses for, 3(:0 Slu'lls, use nf. r.2(; Cocoa nut, use of, 524 Cold chisel, making, 204 Making incisions in iron with, 194 Colic or gripes, remedy for, 802 Cdllapsiblo boat, 155 Collars, horse, 457 Collecting botanical specimens, 764 Dew, 518, 523 Mineralogical and geological speci- mens, 771 Natural history specimens, 7G3 Water from rain-falls, 504 Colonists and natives, to obtain information from, 758 Common dog sledge, 404 Companions and servants, conduct to, 702 Compass, pocket, 28 Points of, 633 Variation of, to ascertain, 732 Marking distances with, 30 Conduct to companions and servants, 702 Connecting beams, masts, &c. for platform boats, 114 Contusions, remedy for, 79 Convenient tool hold-all, i3 Cooking pots, 71 Sea birds, 584 Stove, Norwegian, 558 Copper and iron, to tin, 210 Boats, 50, 51 Boats, materials used in, 51 Boxes, 8 Or iron skiff, 118 Skiff, 118 Tinning, 210 Water flasks, 495 Cooper's work, 377 Coracle, 100 Cordway, American, 324 Corrugated iron boat, 51 Houses, 305 Cost and materials of metal platform l)oat, 110 Cotton torch, 89 * Covers for lamps, 87 Cravats, hog's, 391 Crayfish, lobsters, &c. to catch, 604 Creeper or grapnel, to trip, 603 Crimea, tent used in, 62 Crook and prong house, to build, 2S4 Cross-bow, Chinese, 623 Cross-tree saddles, 465 Crows, catching, 680 Cup lamp, 85 Cupping, 695 Cutting gun Ijarrels, 198 Sheet metal, snips for, 2 1 .". Timber, season for, 270 Up large game, 575 D. D'Amu, Tente, 57 Damaras hut, 282 Damper, 549 Damp places, procuring water from, 492 Tnde.r 819 Dams, weirs and spears, 590 Dead game, piott3ctin<(, G(i() Deep-water glass, 187 Deer catching with thorn wreaths, (!24- Eiiticing, (JGO Traps, ()5'J Defensible camp with ox-waggons, 297 Churches, 301 Farm-house and village, 295, 29S Deodar beam bridge. 3-H Derrick, baggage, ;J30 Landing, Hid Deris, to make, 3i2 Designing boats, things to be tlionght of when, lO.j Destroy mule leeches, to, 805 Detection of base metal, 263 Dew, collecting, 518. 523 Diarrhcca and its remedy, 79 Diary, &c. in duplicate, 21 Or journal, camel, 489 Dies and taps for bolts and nuts, 1 OS Dimensions of sledges, 39-1- Disabled artillerj--, management of, 44 S Dishes and plates, to make, 21;! Dislocated shoulder, reducing, G'.'4 Distances, estimation of, 739 For camels, 485 Measurement, 30, 726 Travelled by wheeled carriage, measuring, 726 Distil aguardiente, to, 579 Water, to, 494 Ditty bag, 68 Dividing and packing venison, 661 Dogs, boots for, 403 Free from the attacks of the tsetse fly, 652 Packs for, 405 Securing to sledges, 400 Sledge and harness for, 396, 404 Sledge, food for, 400 Doors and gates, to make and hang, 289 Double boat of copper, 51 Block, 386 Canvas boat, inflated, 49 Metal boats, 107 Sextant, 26 Dough nuts, 550 Drags for wheels, 443 Drawing sledges, 395 Drays, Australian, 454 Dressing for wounds, 73 Skins, 779 Dried flesh, 558 Drills and saws, 376 Drinking troughs for cattle, 493 Driving a coracle, 100 And leading horses, 473 Droge, the, 167, 168 Dromedary brands, 481 Points in the, 483 (Zembourcks), artillery, 245 Drowned, treatment of the apparently, 188 Drugging fish, 606 Dubbin, to make, 429 Duck for ground sheet, &c. C, Ducks, &c., catching, 675 Dug-out fanoes, 104, 163 Duplicates of corri'spoiidence, A< E. Economy in food, 560 Edible frog. 564 Eggs, ostrich, 5(!5 Preserving, 583 Shells of. horns and cnlabaalicB for holding watei-. 4;i8 Elephant hunting, 634 Elg-Led, 658 Klk trap, 658 Embarking camels, 487 Horses, 473 Water casks, 379 Emus, ostriches, &c., catching 668 England, outfit to take from, 4 Enticing deer, 660 Eciuipment, mule, hints on, 46S North Australian exiK-dilioii, ."<5 Sledge, 399 Waggon, 44(5 Erecting a perpendicular on a given jMiint. 320 Escape, fire, 353 Pole, Indian, 347 Esijuimaux boat, 103 Ice hut, 314 Lamp, SG Sledges, 398 Snow hut, A-c. 312 Summer tents, 315 Establishing communication willi a lee shore by means of a kite, 185 Estimate distance, to, 739 Strength of ropes, to, 793 Time, 740 Weight of roiMj, to, 793 Expi'dients for moving vessels during calms Admiral Belcher's, 175 For saving boats in rough water, 176 For working ships' pumps. 176 Expedition by twouty-ono men for eight. -on months, stores, Ac, required for, 46 Extracting gun nipple. 204 Sap from timber. 355 Extricating waggons from iiuicksands, Ac. 145 F. Fall-traps, (562 Plank, 6G4 Farmer's stores and horse nuHlicincs, S4 Farmhouse, defensible, 2'.'5, 298 And village, to fortify. 298 Fastening camels on shipboard, 48!i Horses, 472 Makeshift, 33.-. Fat. to ti-eat, 784 Feathei-s, ostrich, packing. 622 Feeding of camels, 4SI', fi _ 820 Index. Feet, sore, 430 Felling timber, 268 Fences, 273, 291 Ferries and fly bridges, 331 Ferrying wheels over rivers, 144 Fever and its remedy, 77 Field artilleiy, 448 Sledges, 40G Guns and their charges, 241 Figure of four traps, GG3 Fijee canoes, 139 Filing up and trimming iron after forging, 194 Filters, camp, 501 Extemporised, 501, 503, 506 Patent, 506 Finding height of a tree or other obji^ct, whose base is accessible, witlmut instruments, 321 Points of the compass, 633 River pearls, 256 Water, 493 Width of rivers or ravines without instruments, 318 Firearms, hints on, 236 Makeshift, 245 Testing, 13 Fire baskets, 555 Building, a, 539, 540 Escapes, 353 Fuel for, 539, 541, 542, 543 Maintaining, 542 Places, makeshift, 553 Producing, 535 Rignal, as a, 539 Fish baits, hints on, 605 Catching, 587 Drugging, 606 Haunts of, hints on, 605 Hooks, makeshift, 586, 587 Hooks, to make, 209 Roe, preserving, 583 Sea, Catching, 585 Securing from alligators, 591 Skin, use of, 784 Spearing, 607, 608 Spears, weirs, and dams, 596 Torch, 89 Traps, baskets, 595, ,^97 Fishing broken spars, 181 Implements, 604 Lines, to make, 597 Nets, 600. 603 Tackle making, and hints on, 588 Under ice, 602 Fitting-up of tents, 61 Flasks, water, copper, 495 Flat- bottomed steel boat, 1 66 Flesh, dried, 558 Preserving, 572 Transportation of, bints on, 576 Flint muskets, 10 Float for one man, skin, 154 Waggons, to, 144 Floats, calabash, 96; boxes, 96 Catamaran, 165 Baric, 99 Floats, Inflated skin, 152 Mangrove wood, 163 Milk-bush, 163 Skin, 99 Wood, 99 Flour, preserving from weevils, 556 From wrecks, 557 Fly bridge and ferries, 331 Infested animals, treatment of, 804 Tsetse, 650 Flying railway at Ichaboe, 338 Food, economy in, 560 Gathering, hints on, 577 Insects and their larvaj as, 562, 581 Reptiles as, 560, 564 Sledge dogs', 40;) Various, 566 Vegetable, 563 Foot coverings, makeshift, 425 Footways, tree, 330 Fording rivers, hints on, 344 Forge and bellows, extempore, 213 Forecastle lamp, 87 Hints on the management of the, 192 Forked sticks, uses of, 388 Form of tent peg, 04 Fortifying churches, 301 Farm and village, 298 Foundations for houses, 304 Fox trap, 664 Fracturing glasses, as to obtain a sharp edge, 625 Fritters, 536 Frogs, edible, 564 Fruits, obnoxious juices, removing of, 520 Wild, 567 Wild, of America, 530 Fuel for fires, 539, 541, 542, 543, 556 Fuegean pole house, 309 Canoe, 161 Furnace, makeshift, 553 Furniture, camp, 389 G, Gaberdine, 4 Gabion bridge, 327 Galls in horses, 799 Game, dead, protecting, 660 Pegs, &c. 392 Gates, latches for, 390 Making and hanging, 289 Gathei'ing food, hints on, 577 Mushrooms, hints on, 582 General hints on boat building, 128 Geographical information, to obtain from natives and colonists, 758 Geological and mineralogical specimens, col- lecting, 771 Geology for travellers, 250 Gipsy tent, 57 Glanders, cautions regarding, 806 Glass bottles, lightning averted by, 289 Fracturing, so as to obtain a sharj) edge, 625 Gloves, 5 I Index. 821 Gold, identifying-, 257 Qualities of. 810 Searchers, hints to, 251 Grapnel or creeper, to trip, G03 Grass filters, 504 Grenades and rocket arrows, 240 Grindstones, mounting. 387 Gripes or colio, remedy for, 802 Ground lines, and their management, 503 For tent pitching, GG Guano stages at Ichaboe, 337 Gum-tree bark canoe, 1G2 Gun barrels, to cut, 198 Barrels, to repair when bruised, 22G Cleaning, 237 Locks, oil for, 236 Nipple, to extract .a, 204 Repairing, 199 Rests, 392 Second-hand, hints on buying, 11 Sighting. 200 Sights, 201 Slings, 39 Spring, (i56 Telling time by, 238 Gunner's capstan, 374 Gunpowder, to make, 247 Plan for securing, 37 Gunyah, the, 278 Gut, silkworm, 599 Guttapercha buckets, 73 Guttering in candles, to prevent, 536 Habits of wild animals, observation of, 773 Halters, 37 Hames, adaptation to collars, 460 Makeshift, 458 Hammocks, 45 Handbarrow, makeshift, 389 Hand mill, 544 Hanging doors and gates, 289 Handles of stock whips and lead pencils, 225 Hardening brass, 210 Bullets, 228 Hai-d rove rope, treatment of, 7it3 Wood, 358 Harness and pack animals, 457 For dog sledge, 396 Hints on, 4G1 Mule, 459 Tightening, 465 Harnessing and yoking draught oxen, 452, 454. 455 Camels, 47G Hints on, 4GI Reindeer, 406 Harpooning hippopotami, 613 Seals under ice, 603 Harpoons, G09 Arrow, 594 Harteb(^o^te hut, 282 Hats and caps, 5 Haunts of fish, hints on, 605 Hay and straw ropes, spiuuiug, 792 Hoad.tall-i, :i7 Ileat-conducting bodies, 809, 810 Heavy spars, to carry, roll, or parbuckle, 352 Height of a tree, or other object whose base is accessible, to find without iDstromonta, 321 Hemorrhage, to arrest, 695 Hide boat, qungga, 102 Ropes, 784 Hints on boat building, 128 Boots in tropical countries, 429 Buying second-hand guns, 1 1 Camels, 486 Camp medicine making, 802 Fire-arms, 236 Fish baits, 605 Fishing tackle, 588 Food gathering, 577 Fording rivers, 344 Gold searching, 251 Gathering mushrooms. 582 Harness and harnessing, 461 Haunts of fish, 605 Horse and mule purchase, 806 Hygeens, and camels, 483 Management of the forge, 192 Matters connected with waggon8,446 Mule eiiui])ment, 468 Mule purchasing, 466 Raft building, 147 Sentries, 301 Servants and slaves, 704 Serving rations, 559 Shoeing horses, 798 Sledges, 401 Transportation of flesh, 576 Trapping, GG6 Travel, 701 Travelling in the arctic regions, 309, 316 Hippopotami, use of, 616 Harpooning, 613 Hitches and knots, 794 On measuring lines, 365 Hobbles, 38 Hobbling cattle, 469 Hogs' cravats, 391 Hold-all for tools, 43 Holder for torches, 555 Honey, finding and taking, 580 Hook trap, 6G4 Hooks, fish, 209, 586, 587 Hoop-iron, uses for, 194 Horizon, artificial, 29 Artificial, and Bcxtant, nso of, 743 Horizontal wheel, application of wind pjwor to, 512 Horn lantern, >'■*') Horns for holding water, 49S Use of, 784 Horao and mule waggons, 442 Horses, buying, 577 Casting ropes for, 801 Collars, 457 Embarking, 473 Fastening, 472 Galls, 799 822 Iiul,.,' Horses, glanders, 806 Leading and driving, 473 Medicines and farrier's stoi'es, 84 Poultice, 799 Purchase of, hints on, 8()G Securing, 800 Shoeing, hints on, 798 Sledges, 405 Si)rejbacks,'^799 Teeth, and other irregularities, 805 Throwing, 800 Hour glass, 740 Houses, African, Portuguese, 305 Board, 278 Crook and prong, 284 Corrugated iron for, 305 Defensible farm, 295, 298 Foundations for, 304 Fuegean pole, 309 Log, 275 Logier hill, 287 Reed, 293 Thatches for, 285, 288 Howitzers, and their charges, 242 Hunter's armament, G55 Hunting elephants, G34 Largo carnivora, G4G Lions, G42 Hurdle or wattle work, 382 Husks of cocoa nut, use of, 526 Huts, Bechuana, 280 Beehive, 279 Bushman's, 278 Damaras, 282 Fuegean, 309 Hartbeeste, 282 Ice, 314 Xamaqua Hottentot, 283 Papuan tree, 307 Peat, 309 Savages' 278 Snow, 312 Stone, 280 Rio Negro, 307 Tartar, 294 Thatches for, 285, 288 Vaal river, 281 Hutting in the ai'ctic regions, 309, 316 Hj'gcens and eanicls. hints on, 483 I. Ice Ijoards, 403 Bridging a river bj' means of, 343 Fishing under, 602 Harpooning seals under, G03 Huts, 314 Getting under, 602 Ichaboc guano stages and flying railway, 338 Identification of gold, 257 Precious stones, 254 Implements, fishing, 604 Impurities from water, removing, 505 Ini-isions in iron with cold chisels, to make, 194 Increase accommodation of tents, 61 Increase size of bell-tent, 61 Indian (American) lodges, 308 Cattle boat, 99 Escajie pole, 347 Gharrie waggon, 441 Lamp, 87 Pellet bow, 624 Rope bridge. 341 Scaling ladders, 348 Indiarubber boots, to mend, 429 Inflated boats, to make safe, 117 Canvas boat, 48, 49, 50 Skin floats, 152 Tubes, boat fitted willi, 179 Infonnation from natives and colonists, to obtain, 758 Insects and their larvpo as food, 562, 581 Inspanuing, 452 Instruments for mapping, 31 For mapping a route, 24 Stands for, 738 Intestines for holding water, 500 Introduction, 1 Iron articles, selection of, 446 Boats, 51, 123 Corrugated for houses, 305 Making incisions with cold chisels in, 194 Ore, to smelt, 258 Platinizing, 206 Rod, weight of, 809 Rusting, to prevent, 207 Skiff, 118 Test for wrought or malleable, 447 Tinning, 210 Trap, 665 Uses for scrap and hoop, 194 Welding of, 192 Irregularities of teeth in draught animals, 805 Irritated surfaces, remedy for, 80 Jacicets, 4 Jlaking, 698 Jetty, to build an extempore, 329 Joining odd sections of metal boats, 125^ Sheet metal, 211 Journal in duplicate, 21 Or diary, 20 Or diary, camel, 489 Juices, obnoxiouSj^rcmoving from fruits, &c. 520 K. Kaffir beehive hut, 279 Killing sheep, 560 Kites as auxiliaries to swimming, 183 As sails, 182 Establishing communication with a Ice shore by moans of, 185 Scaling cliffs with, 185 Signalling by means of, 184 Tacking by means of, 184 Knives, 40 Index. 823 Knivos, makeshift, 103 Sheath and bayonets, 202 Knots and hitches, 79 i Ladders, 353 Indian scaling, 348 Makeshift, 348 Miners', 347 Peg, brancli, and log, 349 Rope and chain, 348 Ladles, spoons, and their sub,stitntes, 227 Lamps, bull's-eye, 8(j Cover.s for, 87 Cup, 85 Esquimaux, 86 Forecastle, 87 Indian, 87 Railway, 87 Oils for, 85 Portuguese, 84 Reflecting, 87 Wicks for, 85 Lancers' tent, 58 Landing derrick, 349 Lantei-ns, bull's-eye, SQ Horn, 8(J Larch trees, 358 Lars,'e game, cutting up, 575 Larvro of insects as food, 502 Lasts for boots, 416 Latches, 390 Lathes, makeshift, 386 Laudanum, preparation of, 803 Lead ore smelting, 228 Pencils and stock whip handles, 225 Plates, to make, 225 Leading and driving horses, 472 Leaf torch, 89 Leakage in water-skins, repairini^ of, 49';) Leaky boats, to stop, 91 Leaping-poles, 347 Leather buckets, 72 Leeches, mule, to destroy, 805 Lee shore, establishing communication by kites with a, 185 Levelling, 340 Staff, extemporised sight vane for, 737 Levels or low altitudes, to obtain, 734 Water, substitute for, 738 Library, the traveller's, 29, 31 Life-bolts, 94 Boat, metal, 124 Buoys, 95 Line, 90 Raft, American, 167 Liggers and trimmers, 591 Lighting a fire, 539, 540 Lightning, averted liy glass l)ottle, 289 Line slings and lob sticks, 334 Lines, lis'iing, 597 For measuring, 292 Ground, and their management, 593 Measuring, 3()5 Lining for old huts, tents as, 61 Links and chains, 402 Lion hunting, 042 Lizards, snakes, &c. as food, 500 Loads for eamcls, 485 Cape waggon, 453 Lobsters, crayfish, &c. to catch, G04 Lob sticks and line slings, 334 Locality for water, 491 Lodges of the American Indian, 308 Logging-up timber, 209 Logier hill house, 287 Log, boring a, 370 Clip, 273 For sledges, to make, 399 House, to build, 275 Peg and branch ladders, 349 Splitting, 543 Steaming, 357 Long canoes, 103 Lotus roots and seeds as food, 564 Low altitude or levels, to obtain, 734 ]M. Maintain a fire, 542 I\Iaizc, preserving, 569 Malay torch, 89 ^Mallets for driving t<^nt pegs, 04 JIanagement of forges, hint-s on the, 192 Disabled artillery, 448 Ground line, 593 Mange, preventive and remedy, 803 JIangrovo wood Hoats, 103 ^lanna and its preparation, 529 Maple sugar, 528 Mapping, 30 Instruments for, 31 On Mercator's projection. 754 Routes, instruments for, 24 Tables, 755 Marking boxes, 700 Cattle, 478 Marrow bones, 557 Martin trap, 002 Massoolah boats, 104 blasts, broken, 182 For jilatform boats, 114 Matches from blue lights, 550 Materials for copper boats, 54 Metal platform boat, 110 Ropes. 78 8 Sketching; iVc. 22 Wooden platform boat, 114 Mats, rush, 283 Measurements, extemporary. 303 Of distances, 30 Of distances travelled by wheeled carriages, 726 Of time, 740 Of watorflow of a rivor, 757 Rough modes of, 39 Powder-flasks, 19 Precious stones, to identify, 254 Preparation of American wild fruits, 530 Laudanum, 803 Manna, 529 Skin for boots, 414 Preserving birds, 574 Botanical specimens, 771 Fish roc, eggs and butter, 583 Flesh, 572 Flour from weevils, 556 Iron from rusting, 207 Mnize, 569 Milk. 582 Natural history siwcimons, 766 Skins, 774 Preserved vegetables, 582 Preventing a candle from guttering, 566 Iron rusting, 207 Preventive and remedy for mango, 803 Of tsetse ffy bite, 654 Priming caps, to make. 244 Principles of raft buiUling, 147 Proas, 1 35 Procuring aloe juice, 802 Index. Procuring fire, 535, 540 Water from damp places, 492 Water from wells, 492j Producing fire, 535 Projection, Mercator's, mapping on, 754 Of routes, 751 Prong and crook house, to build, 284 Protecting dead game, 6G0 Pullej's or bloclis, ;]83 Pumping ships, 176 Pumps, extemporised, 516 Miners', to make, 26G Punk, 537 Purcliase of horses and mules, hints on, BOG Purgative for animals, 802 Purifying water, 507 Q. Qdabrant, 744 Quagga hide boat, 102 Qualities of gold, 810 Quantitj"- and nature of stores required by 21 men for 18 months, 46 Of ammunition to take abroad, 17 Quariying stone, 263 Queen Charlotte's Island canoe, 158 Queen, the, 544 Quicksands, extricating waggons from, 145 R. RadiatIxVG heat power of various bodies, 810 Rafter, plank and slab bridges, 342 Rafts, American life, 167 Gape-waggon chests as, 140 From wrecked ships, 02 Inflated skin, 152 Pot, 150 Principles of building, 147 Reed, 98 Sedge grass, 150 Trennelled, 146 Rail splitting, 272 Railway lamp, 87 Rainfalls, collecting water from, 504 Raising a roof, 287 Water from wells, 508 Waggons, &c. from quicksands, &c. 145 Rakes, forks, &c. from sticks, 391 Rations for one man for six days, 566 Scale of, for rough travelling, 559 Hints on serving, 559 Ravines or rivers, to find the width of without instruments, 318 licducing dislocated shoulder, 694 IvcoJ boat, 97 Houses, screens and sheds, 293 Raft, 98 Reefing of sails from the sides, 174 Reflecting lamp, 87 Reindeer sledge, 406 Harnessing, 406 Refractory mule, to secure, 459 Region of the tsetse fly, 652 Remedj' for colic and gripes, 802 Diarrhoea, 79 Fever, 77 Irritated surfaces, 80 Mange, 803 Snow blindness, 79 Strains and contusions, 79 Removing boulders, 265 Obnoxious juices from fruits, &c . 520 Sand, &c. from gun locks, G9 Render boats safe, 92 Repairing axles, 217 Bladders, water skins, &c. 783 Bruised gun-barrels, 226 Cannon, 243 Guns, 199 Leakage in water skins, 499 Muskets, 208 Perch-bolts, 197 Poles, 218 Vessels, temporary, 168 Wheels, 218 Wheel-tires, 195 Reptiles as food, 560, 564 Rests for guns, A'c. 392 Rifle shooting, 203 Revolvers, 18 Rewarding natives, 493 Rice, boiling, 565 Riding and pack oxen, 654 Saddles, packing of, 37 Rifle balls, penetration of, 17 For travellers, 231 Rests, 203 Selecting, 10 Sights, 16, 201 Shells, extempore, 226 Sporting, 231 Rifling arrows, 624 Rigs of vessels, 172 Rio Negro huts, 307 Rivers, ferrying wheels over, 144 Hints on fording, 344 Or ravines, to find the width of with- out instruments, 318 Pearls, to find, 256 Water flow, measurement of, 757 Rivets, 213' Roads, to make swamp, 317 Roadways, cane and twig, 335 Roasting meat, 551 Rocket arrows and grenades, 246 Rod iron, weight of, 809 Rolling, carrying, and pai-buckling heavy spars, 352 Roof, to raise a, 287 Roots for food, 533 Of lotus as food, 564 Yielding sap as a substitute for water, 516, 518, 521 Rope bridge, Indian, 341 Casting, for horses, 801 Chain ladders, 348 Hard rove, treatment of, 793 Hay, 792 Inili'x. 827 Ropo hide, 7S4: Ladders, 818 Making, 790 Materials for, 788 Pack, 4G5 Straw, 792 Strength of, to estimate, 793 Weight of, to estimate, 793 liucksacks, 787 Rudders, temporary, 178 Rue ruddy, 395 Rules for passing thi-ougli lireiilccrs, 17G For sailing boats, 177 To be observed when sledging, 101 Rush mats, 283 Russian cargo boat, 102 Routes, projection of, 751 Sabots and socks, 428 Sacks, ruck, 787 Water, skin, 780 Saddles, 32 And gun rests, 392 Cases, 34 Cloths, 33 Cross-tree, 405 Pack, 35 Packing of, 37 Spanish pack, 4G3 Sago cakes, 556 Making, 532 Sailing boats, rules for, 177 Sails and their substitutes, 172 Kites used as, 182 To reef from the sides, 1 74 Substitutes for, 174 Samovar, 90 Sandals, 42fi Sand, &c. from gun locks, to remove, 69 Sap from timber, to extract, 355 Of plants as substitute for water, 491 Savages' huts, 278 Saw-pit, substitute for, 274 Saws and drills, 376 Scale of rations for rough travelling, 559 Scaling cliffs, &c. kites for, 185 Ladders, Indian, 348 Scarfing of broken spars, 181 Scissors, 41 Scrap-iron, uses for, 194 Screens, Chuppar, 294 For candles, 88 Plank, 292 Reed, 293 Sculling, 132 Soa-birds, cooking, 584 Sea-fish, catching, 585 Season lor cutting tiuil>er, 27fi Seals, harpooning under ice, (ido Seasoning wood, 355 Second-handguns, hints on buying, 11 Sections, odd, of metal boats, to join, 125 Securing cattle, 469 Fish fi-om alligators, 591 Securing gunpowder, modo of, 37 Horses, 472 Horse for an operation, 800 Tent ropes, modes of, G5 Seeds and roots of lotus as food, 5C4 Sedge grass raft, 150 Selection of bullet moulds, 9 Ground for tent pitching, 66 Guns, 9 Iron articles, 446 Rities, 10 Servants, 704 Sentries, bints for, 301 Servants and companions, conduct to, 702 Slaves, hints on, 704 Serving rations, hints on, 559 Settlers' plough, 391 Setting trajjs, 665 Sextant and artificial horizon, use of, 743 Sheds, reed, 293 Sheath knives or bayonets, 202 Shears to construct bridge, 33G Sheep killing, 560 Sheet-copper boat, 50, 51 Iron, weight of, 808 Metal, to join, 211 Metal, snips for cutting, 213 ' Shells for rifles, extempore, 226 Of cocoa-nut, use of, 526 Shelves, makeshift, 293 Ship-board, fastening camels on, 489 I Ships, rafts from, 92 j Pumping, 176 I Water-bags, 498 ' Shirts, 4 Making, 696 Shoe canoe, 161 Shoeing horses, liints on 798 Shoemaker's wax, 415 Shoes and boots, 6, 412 Snow, 408 Shooting bustards, 070 Tortoises with arrows, (>21 Shot belts, 19 Cannon, 220 Cannon, makeshift, 24G Making, 223 Moulds, 222 Signal clock, 385 Fire as a, 539 I Signalling by moans of kites, IS I Signs of the weather, 185 i Sight vane for levelling stafT, oxlcniporisod, 737 Sighting guns, 200 Sights, sun, 201 Rifie. 16. 201 Silkworm gut, 599 Sinking wells, 513 Skates and their substitutes, 411 Sketching and painting, under iliniciiltics of travel, 71<> Skidor, Norwegian, 410 Skift' of copper or iron, 118 Skins as food, 557 Boat, 100 Cattle boat, 99 828 Index. Skins, dressing, 779 Float for one man, 154 Floats, 99 Preparation of, for boots, 41-t Sleeping bags, 786 Treatment, 774 Use of, 784 Water, 496 Water, and bladders, repairing, 783 Water, repairing leakage in, 499 Water sacks, 780 Slab plank and rafter bridges, 342 Slaughtering sheep, 560 Slaves and servants, hints on, 704 Sledges, attachment of straps for, 39 J Dimensions, 394 Dog, 396, 404 Drawing, 395 Equipment of, 399 Esquimaux, 398 Field artillery, 406 Harness for dog, 396 Hints on, 401 Horse, 405 Ice board, 403 Log for, 399 Reindeer, 406 Runners of, to smooth, 398 Speed of, to check, 400 Stopping, 400 Summer, 408 Tobogun, 403 Travail, 404 Whip, 397 Sleeping bags, 786 Slings for guns, 39 Slow match and tinder, 537 Slugs, making, 223 Smelting iron ore, 258 Lead ore, 228 Smith's tools for travelling, 208 Smoking out wild bees, 537 Smoothing roughened runners of sk-dgos, 398 Snakes as food, 560 Bites, &c. 82 Snares, 673 Snatch block, 385 Snips for cutting sheet metal, 213 Snow-blindness, and its remedy, 79 Hut, 312 Shoe-boots, 410 Shoes, 408 Soap making, 785 Socks and salwts, 428 And stockings, 5 Softening brass, 210 Solids, Weight of, 809 Sore backs, 799 Feet, 430 Spanish pack saddle, 463 Spawn, fish, preserving, 583 Spais, carrying, rolling, or parbuckling, 352 Scarfing or fishing of broken, 181 Spearing fish, 607, 608 Spears, Australian, 616 Fish, woirs and dams, 596 Throwing, Australian, G16 Spears, turtle, 617 Specimens, Ijotanical, collecting. 7^4 Botanical, packing and preserv'ng, 771 Geological and mineralogical, col- lecting, 771 Natural history, collectii g, 763 Natural history, presorv ng and packing, 766 Speed of a sledge, to check, 400 Spinning hay and straw ropes, 792 Spirit from milk, 534 Splicing, 797 Splints, surgical. 691 Splitting logs, 543 Rails, 272 Timber, 271 Spoons, ladles, and their substitutes, 227 Spooring, 628 Sporting rifles, 231 Spring guns, 656 Spurs, 34 Square, to make a, 320 Squirrel trap, 663 Stables, temporary, 294 Stages at Ichaboe, guano, 337 Stands for instruments, 738 Steaming log, 357 Steel boat, poi-table, 166 Making, 259 Traps, 665 Steering wheel, to make, 372 Stern-posts, temporary, 181 Sticks, forked, uses of, 388 Still, makeshift, 494 Stirrups, 34, 380 Stitching boots, 421 Stockings and socks, 5 Stock-whip handles and lead pencils, 225 Stone hut, 280 Quarry, 263 ; treatment of, 264 Weapons, manufacture of, 625 Weight, the, 810 Stopping leaky boats, 91 Stores, &c. required by 21 men for an IS months' expedition, 4(5 Farriers' and liorse medicines, 84 Stoves, Norwegian, 558 Strains, remedy for, 79 Straps for sledges, attachment of, 399 Straw and hay ropes, spinning, 792 Strength of ropes, to estimate, 793 Various bodies, 812 Stretchers, palanquins, &c. 682 " Strike-a-light " or "Chuckmuck," 537 Stripping bark for canoes, mode of, 156 From trees, 789 Sugar cane or oil mill, 546 Making, 546 Maple, 528 Palm, 525 "" .Pots, making, 548 Summer sledges, 408 Tents, Esquimaux, 315 Supple jack, 392 Surgical bandages, 689 Splints, 691 Index. 829 Swamp roads, to make, 317 Swimming to a lea shore, kite as an assistance in, 183 Swing and ladder, minors', 3i7 Swinging derrick, 341) Swivels, wooden and other, 3G1 Symptoms of fever, 77 Tsetse fly bite, r.53 Table necessaries, 70 Plane, and its use, 735 Tables, altitudes, 7-12 Heat conducting bodies, 809, 810 Mapping, 755 Quality of gold, 810 Radiating heat power of bodies, 810 Strength of various bodies, 812 Trocheameter, 729 Velocity, 808 Weight of rod iron, 809 "Weight of sheet iron, 808 Weight of solids, 809 Tacking by means of kites, 18-t Tackle, fishing, making, and hints on, 58^ Tailor's work, 696 Taking bees' nests, 580 Tana trap, 664 Tanning skins, 779 Taps and dies for bolts and nuts, 198 Tartar bridges, 328 Hut^ 294 Tea, uses of, 570 Teeth of draught animals and their irregu- larities, 805 Tempering tools, 204 Temporary repairs of vessels, 168 Rudders, 178 Stables, 294 Stern-posts, 181 Wigwam, 277 Tendons, use of, 784 Tente d'abri, 57 Tents, Australian, 59 Belt, to increase size of, 61 Blanket, 59 Cape-waggon, 59 D'abri, 57 Esquimaux, 315 Extemporary, 60 Fitting up of, 61 Gipsy, 57 Lancers', 58 Lining to old huts. 61 Or tilt for Cape waggons, 130 Patrol, 55 Pegs, 64 Pitching, 55 Pitching, selection of ground for, 66 Hopes, modes of securing, Go • Umbrella, 67 Used in Crimea, 62 Testing ti rearms, J 3 Testa for minerals and metals, 260 For wrought or maUeable iron, 447 1 Thatches for houses and hate, 285, 288 I Theodolite, 745 Thermometers, 26 Things to be thought of when deaignin^' a boat, 105 Thorn wreath, catching deer with, 624 Thread for boot making, 420 Throwing a horse, 800 Oil on troubled waters, 170 Tightening harness, 465 String of bow, 622 Tilt or tent for Capo waggons, 130 Timber, extraction of sap, 355 Felling, 268 Hardening, 357 Logging-up, 269 Seasoning, 355 Splitting, 271 Steaming, 357 Vice for holding, 166 When to cut, 270 Time, estimation of, 740 Guns, 238 Tin cases, utilisation of, 212 Tinder and slow match, 537 Tinning copper and iron, 210 Tip-up, 602 Tires of wheels, to repair, 195 Tobogun sledge, 403 Toddy, palm, 524 Tools, chest, portable, 44 Carpenter's, 41 For mining, 252 Hold-all, convenient form of, 43 Smith's, for travelling, 20S Tempering, 204 To take abroad, 44 Torches, 89 Holder, 555 Torres Straits boats, 162 Tortillas, 544 Tortoises, shooting, with an-ows, 62 1 Tourniquets, 695 Tracking, 628 Transportation of flesh, hints on, 57G Traps, arrow, 657 Aquatic bird, G75 Baits for, 667 Bear, 663 Bird, 673 Blackcock, 672 Deer, 659 Elk, 658 Fall, 662 Figure of four, C63 Fish, basket, 5'.>,'., 597 Fox, 664 Hook, 664 Iron, 665 Martin, 662 Oneid.i, 665 Pen, 671 Plank fall, 664 Porcupine, 657 Setting of, G65 Squirrel, 663 Tana, 664 830 Tmle.i Traps, turkey, G71 Trapping amphibious aniiuols, (10(1 Hints on, GfiC Travail sledge, 404 Travel, hints on, 711 Painting and sketching during, 71(! Traveller, making and working a, 5 94 Travellers, geology for, 250 Library for, 29, 31 Treating fat, 784 Treatment of apparently drowned porsoriS, ISS Fly infested animals, S()4 Hard rove rope, 793 Skins, 774 Stone, 264 Tree footways, 330 Trees, larch, 358 Stripping bark from, 789 Whoso bases are accessible, to tind the heiglit of without instruments, .'!2I Yielding manna, 529 Treenails, making, 326 Trenneled rafts, 14C Trestle bridge, Chinese, 343 Trimmers and liggers, 591 Trimming and filing up after forging, 194 Tripjoing a grapnel or creeper, (J03 Trocheameter, 727 Tables, 729 Troughs, cattle, for drinking, 493 Trousers, 4 Making, G96 Trunks, bullock, 8 Tsetse-fly, G50 Preventive of bite, 054 Region of the, G52 Symptoms of bite, G53 Tubes of inflated canvas, boat fitted with, Turkeys, catching, G70 Traps, G71 Turning wheel naves, 370 Turtle spears, G17 Twisting fishing lines, 598 Ropes, 790 Twu-wheeled dravs, Australian. 454 U. Umbuella tent, G7 Union links, 4G2 Unsiiiking cannon, 243 Use of bladders, 783 Horns, bones, tendons, fish skins, &c. 784 Plane table, 735 Sextant and artificial horizon, 743 Waggon wheels in tents, G3 Useful roots for food, 533 Uses of bamboos, 358 IJark, 7S9 Hent wood, 380 Cocoa-nut palms, 3G0 Forked sticks, 388 Hippopotami, GIG Porpoises, Gl;; Uses of scrap and hook iron, 194 Tea, 570 Utilisation of tin cases, 212 Yaal River hut, 281 Vanfe, sight, extemporised for levelling ataft", 737 Variation of the compass, to asceilain, 7;>2 Various foods, 5GG Vegetables and fruit, 5G7 Food, 563, 567 Preserved, 582 Vehicles, wheeled, measuring distances travelled by, 72G Velocity tabic, 808 Vessels during calms. Admiral Belcher's ex- pedient for movint;, 175 Rigs of, 172 Temporary repairs of, IGS Vices and anvils, extempore, 197 For holding timbL'r, IGG Village and farm, to fortify, 298 Vinegar, Palm, 525 W. Wads and cartridges for cannon, 243 Walls, to build, 291 Waggons and other wheeled vehicles, 432 Arobas, 441 Australian two-wheeled, 454 Bulk, 437 Buy, 297 Cajje, 433 Cape wine, 440 E(piipment, 44 6 Floating, 144 From quicksands, &c. to extricate, 145 Load for Cape, 453 Indian gharrie, 441 Hints on matters connected with, 44G Horse and mule, 442 :Makeshift, 438 Wilson (American), 443 Waistcoats, 4 Watch, 29 Key, to make a, 204 Wattle on hurdle work, 382 Wattled boat, 125 Water and the sap of plants, 491 Bags, ships', 498 Baskets for holding, 500 Bladders and panniers for holding, 499 Boiling without pots, 553 Calabashes, horns, and egg shells for holding, 498 Carrying, 495, 500 Casks, to embark, 379 Clock, 741 Collecting from rainfalls, 50 1 Dew collecting, 518, 523 Distilling, 494 Index. 831 Water filters, 501, 503, 50G Finding, 49:3 Flasks, copper, 495 From damp places, pi-ocuring, 492 From wells, procuring, 492 Glass, the deep, 187 In camel's stomach, 487 Intestines for holding, 500 Level, substitute for, 738 Locality for, 491 Pails and skins, 49G Plants holding, 504, 522 Substitute, plants and roots yielding sap as a, 51G,518, 521 Power wheels, 511 Purifying, 507 Raising from wells, 508 Removing impurities, 505 Sacks, skins. 780 Skins and bladders, repairing, 783 Skins and pails, 490 Skins, repairing leakage in, 499 Transport, cauoe, 490 Watcrfiow of i-iver, measurement of, 757 Watering cattle, 493 Waterproofing, ISG Waterspout baskets, 500 Wax, shoemakers', 415 Weapons, stone, manufacture of, G25 Weather signs, 185 Weevils, preserving Hour from, 55G Weight of rod iron, 809 Of rope, to estimate, 7!t3 Of sheet iron, 80S Weirs, dams, and fish spears, 59() Welding iron, 192 Wells, making extempore, 492 Procuring water from, 492 Raising water from, 508 Sinking, 513 Whale boat, GIO Whaling, GIO WUeelod carriages, measuring '« j^;""^" .'''"'^J^.f i,?"''/j;^ worms, the food that should be given them, and the way thoy should be ™'^°»*f.^^^„^'\{' 7"^'' '""f,"*;?^^''''^^ engravings of the caterpillar, moth, and cocoon of the Oak-leaf ^'Ikworm (the \ ama Mai^ the Ailanthi^ic^ and illustrations descriptive of the apparatus, &c.. used in «^e management (rf the "-onn^ and »he prepmiUon and wmding oft of the silk from the cocoons. By W. B. LORD, R.A. In demy 8vo. Price 2t. 6d. cloth gilt Post free 2s. 8d ADVEETISEMENTS. J!lSK: ^NY TRA.VBLLER WHOSE WATERPROOFS ARE THE BEST. CORDING'S. They have been proved for several years, and are acknowledged by those who have used them to bo the best and only ones to be relied on IN ALL CLIMATES. THE IDSTOISTE BOOT (REGISTERED), as suggested and recommended by "IDSTONE" OP THE "FIELD," well adapted for all purposes of CAMP LIFE, FISHING, SHOOTING, HUNTING, &c., MANUFACTURED ONLY BY J. C. CORDING. CORDING'S YACHTING BOOTS, COATS, AND TROWSERS ARE HIGHLY APPROVED, FISHING AND SHOOTING BOOTS AND STOCKINGS. See Sporting Life, Jan. 27th and Sept. 1st, Land and Watei; March 2nd, Standard, July 12 th, and Paris Times, Sept. 1st. LIFE BELTS, A.IR BEDS. COMPRESSIBLE SPONGING BATHS FOR TRAVELLERS. BOX-GIG AND DOG-CART APRONS. ORIENTAL DREADNOUGHT COAT. LADIES' WATERPROOFS. PORTABLE BOATS. CAUTION.— All Genuine Goods are stamped with the Name, J. C. CORDING, 231, STRAND, TEMPLE BAR, LONDON. ADVERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED OVER FIFTY YEARS. EDWARD LONDON, GUN AND RIFLE MAKER. CENTRAL PIKE BREECH-LOADEES. DOUBLE-GRIP SNAP-ACTION BREECH-LOADERS. SELF HALF-COCKING BREECH-LOADERS. SINGLE-BARREL BREECH-LOADERS. RIFLES, IHILITART & SPORTING. MUZZLE-LOADERS CONVERTED. STS^OUDS OF ^LL 1>A.TTER]S:S. REPAIRS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, AND ALL ARTICLES NECESSARY FOR SPORTSMEN AND RIFLEMEN. 51, LONDON-WALL, LONDON. ADVERTISEMENTS. ARMS AND E QUIPMENT FOR WIL D COUNTRIES. THE EXPLORER'S ROOM, G6 and 07, Cornhill, has been by Messrs. SILVER and CO. established in order that officers departing on foreign service, explorers, missionaries, and emigrants, may, without the needless expenditure of valuable time, select from carefully-chosen stores every article of equipment required to meet the exigencies of " Camp Life, Travel, or Exploration." Amongst other requisites will be found Firearms of the most approved forms of construction. THE SETTLER'S DOUBLE GUN, designed by an old hunter, and constructed expressly for rough and ready work in wild countries. It is a muzzle-loader of 11 -bore, weight 91b., is 2ft. Gin. in the barrels, and shoots either ball or shot. In its production elaborate finish and ornamentation have been dispensed with, in order that the barrels and locks may be of good and reliable quahty. Price 7/. These guns are only to be obtained at the "Explorer's Room." Xo gun so named is genuine unless marked on the heel plate with the trade mark of the firm. THE SETTLER'S DOUBLE RIFLE, a companion gun to the above. Sftjj The Naturalist's Collecting Gun, Revolvers, Hunting Knives, Axes, &c. The Explorer's Tool Chest and Portable Tool Box. The Explorer's Test Case, with its accompanying " Key to Fortune in New Lands," by the aid of which the precious metals, minerals, and gems may be identified. Fishing Tackle, Beads, and other articles of barter with wild tribes in great variety. Tents of the best patterns. Tents, Saddlery, Tooh, Cooking Utensils (including the " Patent Norwegian Cooking Apparatus or Traveller's Kitchen"), Instruments, Fishing-gear, and articles for barter with Wild Tribes, always on view in the Explorer's Room. " S. W. S. & Co.'s Circular," published monthly, contains latest colonial news, prices of provisions, rates of wages, statistics, shipping information, &c. CIRCULAR NOTES (S. W. Silver & Co.'s), in triplicate, payable in all the colonies. Colonial Papers filed. Directories and Almanacs for reference. General information supplied. List of necessaries for voyage. Goods shipped and warehoused. Passages secured. Insurances effected. S. ^W. SILVER & CO., 66 & 67, Cornhill, and 2, 3, & 4, Bishopsgate Within, LONDON, E.G., And at 4, Norfolk-street, MANCHESTER. stki^m: tviills, liiviehotjse:, k. In post 8vo., cloth, price 5s. THE EXPERIENCES OF A GAME PRESERVER. By "DEADFALL" of "The Field." VOL VI. OF THE FIELD LIBRARY. In post 8vo., cloth, price 5s. POPULAE ILLUSTEATIONS OF THE LOAV'ER FOKiyCS OF LIFE. COMPlilSIXG : I. THE PPtOTOPHYTON. ! 11. THK PROTOZOON. I III. THE C(ELENTERATA. VOL. V. OF THE FIELD LIBRARY. By C. R. BPvEE, M.D., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Author of the " Birds of Europe," &c., &c. In demy 8i'o., cloth gilt, price 2s. Gd. CROQUET TACTICS, WITH ILLUSTRATIYE COLOURED FIGURES, AND DIAGRAMS OF THE VARIOUS CROQUET STROKES. By WALTER JONES WHITMORE. LONDON: HORACE COX, 346, STRAND, W.C. ADVERTISEMENTS. J. H. CRANE, 3, ROYAL EXOHAlSraE, LONDON, E.U., MANUFACTUKER OF CENTRAL-FIRE BREECH-LOADING GUNS, RIFLES, AND REVOLVERS, ON THE MOST APPROVED PRINCIPLES. CEANE'S UNITED SERVICE EEVOLVER (ON THE CENTRAL-FIRE PRINCIPLE). ELEVATIONOF SECTIONQF EMDVirWOF CARTRIDCt CARFRIDCE CARTKIDCE " In our remarks on the new Breech-loading Revolver manufactured by Mr. , wo noticed as Important defects, first, the fact that occasionally a missflre occurs: and secondly, that the drag on the base of the {lischarged copper cases is sometimes a serious obstacle to the revolution of the chambers. Since that time we have had sub- mitted to us for trial by Mr, Crase, of 3, Royal Exchange, London, a Revolver takmg a central-flro cartridge, which completely does away with these objections. There is no great novelty in the plan adopted, it being made up of the best parts of various well-known pistols ; but, as a whole, it, in our opinion, approaches very closely to absoluto perfection. The bore is the same as largest size, "442, while the weight is a quarter of a pound less — Crasb's new Revolver weighing 21b. 4oz. against 21b. 8oz, as in . The ignition is e:tttctly on the same principle aa the central-fire shot cases now in general use, the missfires from which are certainly not more than one io a thousand, and probably not so high. In addition to this advantage, in consequence of the blow of the hammer being given on the centre of the base, after the explosion takes place the empty case is driven forwanl from the face of the false breech, and not the slightest grind or drag occurs in the revolution. We have shot 50 rounds with- out a missflre ; but of course, this test would not bo sufficient of itself. As, however, the capsi, anvil, 4c. are exactly similar to those which have been successfully tested in the field during the last two .seaaona, we need not discuss that question. Mr. Crane has succeeded in regulating the action so nicely that, even when auing the pelf- cocking process, we have been able to make very fair practice with his pistol. We give an engraving with a section of the ball, which we understand is likely to be adopted in the service. It is manufactured by the Measra. Eley, and we believe will be sold at about the same price as the rim-flre cartridge, viz., 7,«. or fv«. per KMi. .\ltogcthcr we can strongly recommend this Revolver, especially as it is to be sold, as soon as it can be supplied in sufflclent numbers, at £i 10s., in oak case complete." Revolver, double -action ; length of barrel, 6iii. ; total length of barrel and cylinder, 7^in. ; weight, 2jlb. ; bore -450. Price in Case, with tvrxsckew and cleaning kod, £i 10s.; Caktkikge.s 7.«. rsu HiNniiED. CRAXE'S Breech-loading Pin and Central-fire Shot Guns and Rifles are xcell known Jor their simplicitu, strength, and efficiency. By the use of Crane's metal Breech they may be converted into Muzzle-loaders in a moment. Prices of Shot Guns, Central-fire, 20, 25, and 35 guineas. „ ,, Pin, 12 to 30 guineas. „ Rifles, 25 to 45 guineas. „ Breech-loading Sporting Carbines, on the " Snider" principle, to Uke the roguUUon Cartridge, from 5 guineas. o j o • „ Breech-loading Rifles for small game, bores -320 and -440, range 2onyds.. 8 gumcaa. If fitted with extra set of fine glol>o and disc sights, range iOOyds., 1 guinea extra. The 440 is convertible to a Muzzle-loader by mserting a metal Breech. Smith and Wesson's, Tranter's, Adams's, and all other Bevolvers. Foreign orders io be accompanied by a remittance or London rf/crence. CONTR.\CTS FOR MILITARY ARMS AND STORES. J. H. CRANE, 3, ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON, B.C. ILLUSTRATED LISTS ON ArrLlCATl^X. ADVEETISEMENTS. CENTEAL-FIRE GUNS AND RIFLES E. M. REILLY & CO. Beg to acquaint gentlemen that they have always on hand, for Home and Foreign use, a large assortment of their approved DIRECT ACTION CENTRAL-FIRE GUNS, rano-ing from 15 to 35 Guineas. KIFLES on same principle for Large Game in India, Africa, &c. ; adapted for round and shell bullets, with heavy charges for low trajectory; accuracy guaranteed ; prices ranging from 35 to 50 guineas. PIN-CARTRIDGE GUNS AND RIFLES IN GREAT VARIETY. BREECH-LOADING CAPSULE REVOLVERS, from 55s. to 130s. AIR CANES, &c. ILLUSTRATED PRICE LISTS ON APPUCATION. E. M. BEILLY CO AND WW, GUN-MANUFACTURERS, 502, ISTe^^ Oxford-street, 'LiO-n.dio-n., BRANCH ESTABLISHMENT: 2, RUE SCRIBE, PARIS. A. D-A. ]y: s's Ne^v Patent Double Action Central-Fire Breecti-Ijoading REVOLVER, Afi adopted hy H.M. War Department, of the finest London Manufacture, and ivarranted. SOLE MANUFACTURERS BY STEAM MACHINERT. ADAMS'S PATENT SMALL ARMS COMPANY, 391, STRAND, LONDON, W.C— JOHN ADAMS, Managing Director. Contractors to H.M. "War Department. Cartridges specially designed for the above by Col. Boxer, R.A., Chief Superintendent of the Royal Laboratories, Woolwich. Breech-loading Rifles, Guns, and Appurtenances of all Kinds. THIS COMPANY IS NOW CONVERTING THE SERVICE 54-GAUGE REVOLVERS TO THIS SYSTEM FOR H.M. WAR DEPARTMENT, &c. Prospectuses and Lists of Prices to be obtained on application. See Pull Mall Gazette, July 22 and Nov. 23, 1868 ; Engineer, Jan. 1, May 7, and July 18, 1868. 1 ^> JA' RETURN TO the circulation desk ot any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS • 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 • 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF • Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW jl.ll 2 8 ms WAY 2 7 ?m 12,000(11/95) VD 04269 M21f>J)46 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY