COLOMBIA »^>2 L K SOUTH AMERICAN HANDBOOKS C O LOM BI A PHYSICAL FEATURES, NATURAL RESOURCES, MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT V. LEVINE WITH INTRODUCTION BY B. SANIN CANO NEW YORK D. APPLETON & COMPANY MCMXIV 30953 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION BY B. SANIN CANO I. GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES H. CLIMATE AND HEALTH III. NATURAL HISTORY —IV. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT V. DEPARTMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION — VI. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT VII. FINANCE ..... VIII. SOCIAL CONDITIONS . IX. INLAND COMMUNICATION X HARBOURS AND PORTS XI. FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS . XII. AGRICULTURE .... XIII. MINING AND MINERALS XIV. MANUFACTURES AND MINOR INDUSTRIES XV. IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE - -XVI. LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS . APPENDICES : (A) LIST OF STEAMSHIP LINES AND RIVER SERVICES .... (B) MONEY AND COLOMBIAN CURRENCY (C) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES . (D) POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS . (E) DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR (F) DENOUNCEMENT AND ALLOTMENT OF PUBLIC LANDS (G) CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES INDEX IX 1 5 9 13 23 45 50 59 74 90 97 102 112 126 135 148 185 187 188 189 192 193 209 211 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS map of Colombia .... Frontispiece BRIDGE OF THE LIBERATOR, NEAR BOGOTA facing THE CHURCH OF VERA CRUZ, MEDELLIN AVENIDA COLON, MEDELLIN THE CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, BOGOTA THE CAPITOL, BOGOTA INNER COURT OF CAPITOL, BOGOTA A MODERN PRIVATE HOUSE, MEDELLIN SKETCH MAP OF RAILWAYS AND WATERWAYS RIVER MAGDALENA — STERN-WHEEL STEAMER " CALDAS " THE PORT OF GIRARDOT, ON THE MAGDALENA A METHOD OF TRANSPORT, MOUNTAIN DISTRICTS OPEN AND COVERED MARKETS, BOGOTA A COTrON STORE ..... A MULETEER ...... MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA .... 6 18 26 34 46 48 62 72 74 84 88 108 128 146 218 INTRODUCTION The opening of the Panama Canal this year means the beginning of a new commercial era for Colombia, which is one of the nations most favoured by this inter-oceanic highway. The sea journey between Buenaventura and Cartagena, which to-day occupies three months, will be reduced to four days. The opening of the Canal and the extension of the Pacific railway to the capital of the Republic will give to the country the full advantages of her geographical position, making her importance in the Pacific more than equal to that in the Caribbean Sea. The Pacific coast of Colombia is at present but little known. The valley of the Cauca, the basin of the Atrato, the territories watered by the San Juan and the Patia will now attract the capital, which has up to the present only been invested with much hesitation. It is not difficult to find the reason why Colombia has been less known than other South American nations : the principal reason has been the frequent change of name. The foreign capitalist was confronted with the difficulty of the name. When he wished to study the country with the idea of investing in it his own money or that of others, there was a sense of insecurity. The disturbances in New Granada had a bad effect on the development of the United States of Colombia ; and when the Republic came to assume the name of Colombia, the name caused difficulties owing to its somewhat common occurrence. x COLOMBIA The coast is hot, and it has been assumed, therefore, in days past, that the same temperature prevails over the rest of the country. In this book the reader will learn that the regions most densely populated and offering the greatest opportunities enjoy a climate as benign to the white race as the southern countries of Europe. As a result of the increased facilities of communica- tion, the publication of trade returns, and the interest taken by President Reyes in making the country known, attention will now be strongly attracted by the natural resources of Colombia. The administrations that have been in power since 1903 have principally devoted themselves to keeping the peace, and their efforts have had the effect of enabling the country to settle all questions by civilised methods. Colombia has just given an example to the world. The most difficult problem in American democracies, namely, that of securing the liberty of the voter, and the policy of electoral methods, appears to be finally settled in this country. In the elections that have just taken place, the result of which has been the election of Dr. Jose V. Concha as President, the parties interested in the struggle had for their chief object the general good of the country rather than the triumph of a particular candidate. Dr. Concha will enter on the government of the country under the best auspices. He is not an inexperienced man ; he has been Minister on various occasions, and has had to settle during his term of office the most serious questions. He has represented his country in the United States and in France, and has had to study during his residence in Europe the most complicated INTRODUCTION xi side of Colombian finance. The nation has a right to expect years of peace and the harmonious development of all forms of culture during his administration. It is of the greatest importance at the present time that Colombia should be better known. The economical conditions of certain industrial centres in South America, in Africa, and Australasia are not at the present moment the most satisfactory for foreign capital. Moreover, the prosperity of some of those countries has resulted in their being able to raise the capital required for their own development. Australia Argentina, and South Africa will soon be in a condition to provide for themselves. Argentina, on emerging from the present crisis, may, perhaps, be casting her eyes on other South American countries, in order to instil in them the result of her own brilliant economical development. Colombia has so far consistently refused to advertise her natural resources, and the logical development of events has now placed this work in disinterested hands. This volume affords the means not only of learning the past history of the country, but also of interpreting something of its future. For the capitalist, the explorer, the tourist, the commercial traveller, there is information of a practical kind which cannot fail to be useful. The Author has made use of the latest official publications and has taken advantage of valuable data contained in many works which are not easily procurable. Canal Zone Treaty. While this book was passing through the Press news is to hand from Bogota that a treaty of amity has been signed between the sister Republics of Colombia and the United States of America. xii COLOMBIA By this treaty the United States agrees, within six months of the signing thereof, to pay to Colombia a sum of £5,000,000 as compensation for the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone ; also to grant certain privileges for Colombian trade passing through the Canal, and free use for Colombian Government vessels. This not only closes the controversy on the subject, but also places the Colombian nation in a very favourable position. It will be seen on referring to the chapter on " National Finance " that another result contingent on this payment will be the allotment to the Foreign Bondholders of the Republic of the balance of the old arrears of interest, as arranged by the late Lord Avebury. B. Sanin Cano. COLOMBIA CHAPTER I GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES The Republic of Colombia, formerly known as New Granada, occupies the north-west of the continent of South America. It lies between Lat. 12° 24' N., and 4° 17' S., and between Long. 66° T and 79° W. It is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea ; on the east by Venezuela and Brazil ; on the South by Peru and Ecuador ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and Panama. The boundaries with Peru, Ecuador, and Panama are still in dispute, and the area is therefore uncertain. According to the census of 1912 the total area is 461,606 square miles and the population 5,476,604 (about 30,000 uncivilised Indians being excluded from this total). The area included in Colombia falls into two approx- imately equal parts of totally dissimilar character. The more populous and better known portion, that of the north and west, is divided longitudinally by a series of mountain ranges, enclosing great river valleys. The south-east which lies beyond the mountains, consists of great well-watered plains or sabanas, 300 to 500 ft. above sea. The northern portion of this division belongs geologically to the llano open pasture lands — draining north-east to the Orinoco, while the southern part is 2 COLOMBIA covered with dense tropical forest, and drains south-east to the Amazon basin. The Mountain Ranges run, roughly speaking, north and south, in a line parallel with the Pacific coast ; and the flow of the more important rivers is from south to north, emptying into the Caribbean Sea. Close to the coast, along the whole length of the intendencia of Choco, runs a river range, known as the Baudo range, belonging to the Antilles system of Panama. To the east of this range flow the rivers Atrato, which runs north to ^he gulf of Uraba, and San Juan (149 miles), which runs south, and enters the Pacific by several mouths at the south of the department. The Andes of Ecuador enter Colombia at Los Pastos in Narino. The Western branch continues north as the Western Cordillera of Colombia, or Cordillera de Choco. It is cut by the tremendous precipitous gorge of the river Patia (1,676 ft. deep), and then runs north to the department of Bolivar. As it dies down into the plain, one branch, the San Jeronimo range, divides the river Sinis from the San Jorge, and another, the Ayapel, divides the San Jorge from the Cauca. Along nearly the whole eastern side of the range runs the great river Cauca (496 miles), with numerous small tributaries, entering the Magdalena in Bolivar. The summits of the Cordillera rise to heights ranging from 9,000 to 18,000 ft., and include Cayambe (13,710 ft.), Chiles (16,912 ft.), and Cumbal (17,076 ft.). At the paramo 1 of Las Papas the eastern Andes 1 Paramos — high, wind-swept plateaux, covered with scanty, low vegetation. GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES 3 subdivide into the Central and the Eastern Cordilleras. The Central Cordillera, of volcanic origin, forms the watershed between the Cauca and the still greater Magdalena, and terminates near Morales on the latter river. This is the highest range, and includes Tolima (18,400 ft.), Huila (17,700 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.), Coconucos (15,000 ft.), Purace (16,821 ft.), Las Papas (13,800 ft.), Ruiz (18,300 ft.), El Quindio (17,000 ft.), andElBuey (13,860 ft.). The Eastern Cordillera, or Cordillera de Bogota, is of cretaceous and tertiary formation. It runs north-east from Las Papas to the northern part of the department of Boyaca. Here there is another subdivision. One branch runs north to the peninsula of Goajira, and as the Sierra de Perija forms the boundary between the department of Magdalena and Venezuela ; as it ap- proaches the coast it is joined on the west by the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which runs parallel with the coast. The other branch passes north-east into Venezuela, where it is known as the Cordillera de Merida. The two ranges enclose the great basin of Maracaibo. The highest parts are in the Chita range and at Sumapaz, while the paramo of Santurban is 13,000 ft. above sea-level. The highest peaks of the Santa Marta range, not yet ascended, reach probably over 18,000 ft. The mountains, as they die down in the north in the departments of Magdalena and Bolivar, are succeeded by an extensive plain, watered by the lower Magdalena and its tributaries, and by smaller rivers flowing into the Caribbean Sea. This plain, described as the Atlantic plain, was called by the early Spanish conquerors, New Andalusia. 4 COLOMBIA A great part of the Choco, watered by the Atrato and the San Juan, is flat also. The lowest zone is subject to periodical inundation, and the higher ground is covered with forest. The " llano " country extends almost without undula- tion from the foot of the Cordillera in Boyaca as far as the Orinoco. It is watered by the Arauca, the Capa- naparo, the Meta, the Vichada, the Guaviare, and the Inirida, together with their numerous tributaries. In San Martin, to the south-west, and in the south, the ground is slightly higher, and the rivers drain to the Rio Negro and the Amazon. The chief of these, from the west to the east, are the Napo (the boundary with Ecuador), the Putumayo or Iza, the Caqueta or Yapura, the Apaporis, and the Vaupes. This country is covered with forest and inhabited only by uncivilised Indians. It is practically unknown and unexplored, but doubtless possesses the usual forest products of the Amazon basin. The southern portion lies on the equator. CHAPTER II CLIMATE AND HEALTH While geographically Colombia is a tropical country, it presents great diversity of climate. On the coast and the low lying river basins the climate is what might be expected in those regions, but owing to the immense range in the elevation above sea-level and the curious configuration of the mountain chains, the climate becomes a matter of locality. Broadly speaking five zones may be distinguished : (1) The tierra ardiente, limited to a few districts, such as the lower parts of the Magdalena, where often the stones are so hot that they cannot be touched. (2) The hot region (tierras caliente) up to about 3,000 ft. This includes the plains of the north, west and south-east and such great river valleys as of the Magdalena, Meta and Putumayo. (3) The temperate region (tierra ternftlada), from 3,000 to 6,500 ft. (4) The cold region {tierra fria), from 6,500 to 10,000 ft. These last two regions range from the higher valleys to the foot-hills of the upper plateaux ; they have a fine, healthy climate, and contain the bulk of the population, more especially near Bogota, in the eastern Cordillera. (5) The higher plateaux and mountain slopes. These elevated uplands are extremely stormy and inclement, being exposed not only to heavy mists but to biting, violent winds. The passes crossing from west to east, by which alone direct communication can be made, are frequently so swampy as to be almost impracticable. 2 — (2248) 5 6 COLOMBIA The coast towns, such as Santa Marta, Cartagena, Barranquilla, belong to the hot region ; Medellin, Cartago, Guaduas, Ibague, and Popayan to the temperate ; Bogota, Pasto, and Tunja to the cold region. Seasons. — In different parts of the country the seasons vary. In certain districts of the centre and the South, and in the Cordilleras, between 840 and 10,000 ft. above sea-level, there are two rainy seasons, the so-called winters, from April to June and September to December, being separated by two periods of dry weather ; else- where, and above 10,000 ft., there is a wet season of rather over six months (June to December), and a dry season (January to June). Hence summer below 10,000 ft. may be contemporaneous with violent rain, hail and storms in the higher plateaux. Local conditions, however, often intervene making generalisation rather dangerous. For instance, while on the north, or Atlantic, coast the climate is intensely hot and damp, frequent breezes help to make it tolerable ; on the west, or Pacific coast, there is heat with almost constant rain, only varied by occasional violent tempests. In many of the valleys the damp heat is excessive, bottled up, as it were, and is little modified by air currents. Then in the montana or forest districts, during the rainy season the day temperature may rise as high as 100° F. and fall to 72° at night. In the Magdalena valley, from the coast up to say Girardot, the daily temperature is about 95° F. ; in the Cauca valley with two wet and two dry seasons, the average is only 76° F., with a range from 64° to 84°. On the other hand, Bogota, 4° N. of the equator, which is classed in the cold zone, has an CQ r ^3 CLIMATE AND HEALTH 7 equable climate, the temperature ranging from 54° F. to 64° F., with a rainfall of 43 in. The rain generally comes in the afternoon. Here the only inconvenience felt is from the rarity of the air, which makes breathing to the unaccustomed visitor something of a conscious effort, decidedly trying to those with weak hearts or lungs. While the tropical low lying lands and valleys are un- suited to the permanent residence of white people, malarious fevers of varying degrees of malignity being endemic, on the whole Colombia is a healthy country. There is a certain amount of yellow fever, and possibly also pellagra, but these diseases, together with malaria, will doubtless be rendered almost innocuous when sanitary measures have been more generally adopted. Colombians have not been unobservant of what has been accomplished in Panama, especially within the Canal Zone, and hopes are entertained that in time effective warfare by means of hygienic precautions may be waged against the winged carriers of various diseases. When the municipalities have carried out their programmes of civic sanitation — water-supply, sewerage and so on — which are now in hand, the danger of epidemics will have been largely removed. It has been observed that there is a marked difference in those districts watered by rivers having aguas negras and those with aguas claras. The former, while limpid enough, appear intensely black in mass, even when the river is in flood ; wherever these black waters are found, mosquitos are absent, the district is free from malaria and generally healthy. So far these phenomena have not been scientifically investigated, but there may be 8 COLOMBIA the possibility of a great discovery for some synthetically- minded researcher. Finally, it may be said that outside of the character- istically hot and damp tropical districts, visitors and settlers will experience little inconvenience if observing ordinary precautions as regards clothing and diet. The necessity for such precautions may be seen by observing the Indians, who in the lower forest regions go, like the negroes, almost naked, but in the cold mountain districts are clothed in heavy woollen garments. CHAPTER III NATURAL HISTORY For several reasons the flora and fauna of Colombia are of remarkable variety and interest. The whole country is tropical, the south lying on the equator itself. As in Peru there is a series of climatic zones, ranging from sea-level to far above the line of perpetual snow. The boundaries of the country connect its natural history not only with the abundant products of its South American neighbours, but also in the north-west with those of Central America and the West Indies. Flora. — From the point of view of vegetation, Colombia may be divided into three zones — hot, temperate, and cold. The hot zone includes the coasts, eastern plains and river-valleys, up to a height of about 3,500 ft. The wooded country produces abundant timber trees, dye- woods, and medicinal plants, which are particularised in the chapter on Forest Products. Large bamboo thickets are found (guaduas) ; but the most characteristic feature is the palm trees. It is stated that twenty-five species are found in a district of ten square leagues in the territory of San Martin. In addition to their beauty many of these trees have valuable economic products ; the coco-nut palm, the Tagua or Vegetable Ivory, the Royal Palm, and the Wax-palm may be instanced. The cultivated crops include the cacao, sugar-cane, 9 10 COLOMBIA tobacco, maize, indigo, cotton, and vanilla ; and the fruits the banana, orange, lemon, pineapple, mango, papaya, alligator-pear, water-melon, strawberry, and sapodilla. The botanical collector finds numerous plants* such as orchids, of very considerable value for export to European and other horticulturists ; Cattleya and odontoglossum crispum may be mentioned. The temperate zone includes the land from about 3,500 to 8,500 ft. above sea-level. Much of the flora above mentioned is also found in this zone, but a gradual difference is perceptible. The palms are replaced generally by tree-ferns, though the Wax-palm is found throughout the temperate zone. Dates and Wamannias appear, and also the Cinchona, from which Peruvian or Jesuits' bark is obtained. Orchids and other epiphytes, moss, and lichen grow on the tree trunks. Coffee is added to the list of crops. The Maguey or American Agave is one of the most useful plants of this zone, the Indians using stem, leaves, fruit and fibre for different purposes ; it furnishes food, drink, tow, and fibre for making sacks and ropes. The cultivation of maize continues and that of wheat begins. In the cold zone maize is still found, though smaller than in the temperate. Potatoes and all the vegetable and cereal crops of Europe grow abundantly, and the gardens produce all the usual flowers and fruits. The wax-palm is still found in the forests, together with walnuts and pines, but trees cease' to grow at about 10,000 ft. The paramos however produce the flowering and resinous shrubs called " frailejons " (including NATURAL HISTORY 11 Espeletia and Cukitium) and grasses similar to the " ichu " grass of Peru. About 13,000 ft. all vegetation, but lichens and alpine plants ceases, and bare rock leads up to perpetual snow. Fauna. — The Fauna may be classified as (a) imported, (b) indigenous. Many domesticated animals have been introduced from Europe, e.g., the horse, mule, donkey, ox, etc. These have become acclimatised and adapted to their new environment. The indigenous animals represent practically all the genera characteristic of South America. The carnivora include the puma (cougar) and jaguar : two kinds of bears, a black variety in the lowlands, and one with white face in the eastern Cordillera ; and the skunk, valuable for its fur, an animal which is now being fast exterminated. The Pachy- dermata are represented by the tapir and two other species. The tapir, inhabiting the paramos, is of shy, nocturnal habit ; its hide is valued for making saddles and harness, and its flesh is palatable. The Edentata include two varieties of armadillo, and two ant-eaters (the ant-bear and the scaly ant-eater). The sloth is found in the forests ; the skin is used for covering saddles. The opossum, the cave rat, and the yapok or water rat, with valuable fur, belong to the Marsupials. The Capybary is the largest of the rodents, 4 ft. long by 2 ft. high ; it has no tail, and is largely aquatic in habit ; the flesh is palatable. Ruminants are repre- sented by the common deer, the Peruvian white deer, and other species ; rodents by the Capybary, and many species of hare, rabbit, and rat ; Quadrumana by both large and small monkeys, of which seventeen species 12 COLOMBIA have been distinguished ; Cheiroptera by many varieties of bats and vampires. Birds are found in great variety, from the Condor, the white and royal eagles, and other birds of prey to smaller varieties distinguished for their brilliant plumage or remarkable powers of song. Few of these, however, are peculiar to Colombia, and the species are so numerous that it would be impossible to catalogue them. One may mention the parrots, the toucan, the rosy heron of the lower Magdalena, the cenaja (a brilliant Trochilus or humming-bird, believed to be peculiar to the country), the sauci, with a song like that of the canary, and the campanero, whose bell-like note can be heard for a distance of half-a-mile. Among the reptiles are the great Caymans, many species of tortoise, lizards, and snakes (the boa-constrictor, found especially in the south-east ; venomous snakes, such as the talla, particularly characteristic of the Choco, but not found above 6,000 ft. above sea-level). Frogs and toads giow to a great size. The sea and rivers are stocked with abundant supplies of fish food. Among characteristic products are the manatee or sea-cow, which grows to a length of 6 to 8 ft. ; turtles on the Atlantic coast ; and pearls, found in Buenaventura Bay. Finally, the tropical insect life is overwhelming — locusts, beetles, ants, butterflies and moths, mosquitoes, grasshoppers, lice, fleas, etc. ; in many districts they amount to a veritable plague. CHAPTER IV DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT In order to be able to appreciate the future possibilities of Colombia, it is necessary to know something of its history. When we look upon its territorial magnitude, its felicitous position as regards geographical situation and climatic conditions, and its vast potential wealth, the material advance so far made is disappointing ; con- fidence will be restored, however, if we but reflect upon its troubled past, with all its wrongs and oppressions. The early and middle history will explain, if not indeed excuse, the constant upheavals and turmoils which were so soon to follow the glorious hopes awakened by the War of Independence. Only long and painful travail could overcome the inheritance of suppression and suspicion which was the outcome of the old regime. But the time of probation having passed, the true genius of the Colombian people has had opportunity of manifesting itself, and a new era of well-directed activity has been opened up. At the time of the Spanish Conquest (1533-1560) the majority of the numerous Indian tribes inhabiting what is now known as Colombia were uncivilized, being in a state of perpetual warfare, and supplying their wants by their skill in hunting and fishing ; yet there were a group of tribes which seemed to form a link in that wonderful chain of native civilizations, which, commencing with the Aztecs of Mexico, ended with the 13 14 COLOMBIA Incas of Peru. These tribes, the Chibchas, or Muiscas, and the Quimbayas, like the other advanced nations of Central and Southern America, inhabited high and moun- tainous plateaux. The Chibchas dwelt on the sabana of Bogota, making their headquarters in the neighbour- hood of Tunja ; the Quimbayas inhabited an extensive territory lying between the rivers Chinchina, Cauca, Patia, and the Central Cordillera. According to Spanish chronicles, the Chibchas believed in a Supreme Being, Chiminiguagua, though they also worshipped the sun, moon, stars, lakes and streams. Tradition held that their civilization was the gift of a " white man," the reforming Bochica. That they had advanced far is testified not only by the interesting accounts of their civil and economical organisation, but also by the numerous examples discovered in their tombs of their skill in working gold and copper, as well as their mastery of the arts of the potter and weaver. Cultiva- tion of the soil was not neglected : they grew maize, potatoes, certain fruits, and cotton. Side by side with these labours was a systematic training in the practice ot warfare. Under their chief Cacique, Tisquesusha, they offered a stubborn resistance to the Spaniards before they could be suppressed and enslaved. The Quimbayas, perhaps with more politic enlightenment, though ulti- mately with little better result, received the conquerors with open arms and became their allies. Actually the first discoverer of the country was Alonzo de Ojeda, who visited Cape Vela in 1499. He was fol- lowed, in 1501, by Rodrigo Bastida, who explored the coast from the Rio Hacha to the Isthmus of Panama. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 15 Between 1510 and 1533 practically the whole of the Colombian coast had been explored ; the discovery of the Pacific in September, 1513, was made by Vasco Nunez de Balboa. It was not until his fourth voyage, in 1502, that Colombus, following the example of his lieutenants, made determined attempts to explore the mainland. He landed on the Isthmus of Panama, and visited the mines of Veraguas, whence his descendants derived the title of Dukes of Veragua ; but, disappointed in his aim to discover a passage to the East Indies, he merely established a few stations and once more set sail. Others, however, were despatched to make good the formality of taking possession. In 1510, San Sebastian de Uraba and Santa Maria la Antigua were founded respectively by Ojeda and the Bachelor Enciso. Other settlements followed rapidly, some to disappear for a time, others to struggle on into importance. Among the principal of these was the town of Panama, founded in 1519 ; Santa Marta in 1525 ; and Cartagena in 1533. This last, founded by Pedro de Heredia, who later made his daring raids into the golden regions of the Sinu and San Jorge, quickly rose to importance. It was destined to become the chief gate for the imports and exports of the country, the storehouse of gold and treasures intended for shipment to Spain, the seat of powerful governors and of the dreaded and paralysing Inquisi- tion, the object of buccaneers' ambitions, and the hope alternately of the Imperial and the Liberationist parties. It was also the starting-point of many expedi- tions in search of the ever-receding fastnesses of El / 16 COLOMBIA Dorado. The land had been gradually mapped out in a rough form as persevering adventurers made their way across the country from various directions. Herrera ascended the Orinoco and discovered the river Meta ; Pedro de Heredia opened up the gold regions of the Sinu and San Jorge ; while Francisco Cesar, Vadillo, and Robledo were the forerunners of settlers in Antioquia and Cauca. But far more important than all of these was the expedition undertaken by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada on the orders of Don Pedro Fernandez de Lugo, governor of Santa Marta. In August, 1536, Quesada left Cartagena at the head of some 700 foot and eighty horse with the definite instructions to penetrate the interior and establish posts in the captured districts. He was two years making his way through forests, across mountain ranges and difficult streams, fighting fierce native tribes, before he reached the high sabanas round about Tunja. He made his headquarters at the conquered town of Bacata and called it Santa Fe de Bogota. Hardly had he settled down to map out this domain, to which he had given the title of Kingdom of New Granada, when he was startled by the irruption of white invaders from two opposite directions. Federmann, lieutenant of Georg von Speyer, governor of the pro- vince of Venezuela (which had been given to certain Augsbourg bankers, the Welsers, as an hereditary fief by Charles V), had taken three years to traverse a distance of 1,500 kilometres, striking almost due South from Cape Vela, ascending the Apure and Meta, crossing high ranges of mountains. On the other hand Belalcazar, after assisting Pizarro to conquer Peru, had seized the Kingdom DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 17 of Quito north-east through Cauca and Tolima, and thence marched to Bogota. So jealous were these con- quistadores of their glory, that a sanguinary quarrel was but narrowly averted. Finally, however, the trio reached terms, leaving a sufficient garrison to maintain the towns and administration organised by Quesada, while the three doughty explorers returned to the coast and sailed for Spain. All three gained little by their exertions, ending their days miserably ; but Spain profited by the work of these and many others. Well before the middle of the sixteenth century, Spanish dominion was firmly established. Unfortunately it was essentially an imperialistic rule, the true centre of government being kept in Spain, though perforce great latitude and enormous powers had to be delegated to the local representative of his Most Catholic Majesty. Jealousy and distrust were the ruling forces of the government. Lieutenants were sent out surrounded by regal pomp, but were often called back to answer accusations, or to allay offence given by some unwise act of ostentation or authority. All important posts were filled by men sent out from Spain ; foreigners were forbidden to set foot in or trade with South America ; and the civil power, aided by the Inquisition at Lima and Cartagena, kept the country in severe fetters. While towns sprang up, the natives were speedily almost ex- terminated as the result not so much of warfare as of forced labour in the mines and fields, and, according to some contemporary writers, of the diseases spread by contact with the Spaniards. As a result, the importation of black slave labour from Africa was authorised. 18 COLOMBIA New Granada was early divided into provinces. On the Isthmus were Panama and Veragua, dependent on the city of Panama. On the continent, Santa Marta, Cartagena, Popayan and the New Kingdoms were governed from Bogota, and the whole of the provinces were subject to the Viceroyalt y of Peru. In 1564 New Granada became a Presidency, to be erected into a Viceroyalty in 1719 ; again, from 1724 to 1740, it became a Presidency ; finally the Viceroyalty was restored in the latter year and lasted to the end of the Spanish dominion. All this was symptomatic of a policy directed by the narrowest views of home interests, which necessarily engendered repression and distrust. As a rule efforts were chiefly directed towards the extraction of as much gold, silver and precious stones and valuable woods as possible from the country, little being done to further either its material or intellectual development. The plethora of office holders from Spain, and the grow- ing influence and wealth of ecclesiastical orders, ended in arousing much local dissatisfaction. In 1767 the Jesuits, in pursuance of a wider policy, were expelled from the land ; but for a time, at all events, this appears to have made matters worse. For it is pointed out by historians that the Jesuits were the chief movers in the engineering of independence. In 1781 occurred the revolt of the Comuneros of Socorro, only overcome by treachery. This was followed by the turmoil of the French Revolution, echoes of which were spread in Colom- bia by Antonio Narino and others. Although Narino was suppressed, the result of his propaganda was seen in the expedition of Francisco de Miranda in 1801 to Church of the True Cross, Mcdcllui DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 19 free Venezuela. The ferment thus set up finally culminated in a proclamation of independence being declared on 20th July, 1810, at Bogota. For nine years the colonies fought against the levies of Spain which were poured into the land. Finally, the imperial power was broken by Simon Bolivar at the battle of Boyaca, fought on 7th August, 1819. Bolivar, who had been acclaimed as Liberator, was elected President by the Congress of Angustura (now Ciudad Bolivar). He at once set about forming the confederation of the Captain Generalcy of Venezuela, the Viceroyalty of New Granada and the Presidency of Quito, into the Republic of Colombia. It was scarcely to be expected that after such a political education as the country had had the course of government should run smoothly. Unfor- tunately the very constitution of the Republic contained the seeds of disintegration. The country having been divided into the three departments of Cundinamarca or Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, Francisco de Paula Santander was elected Vice-president at Bogota. Now, Santander, a statesman of probity and splendid organising powers, was a man of ideas, and a strong advocate of federal administration, thus coming into immediate conflict with Bolivar, who as a conquering soldier was a vehement partisan of centralisation. Bolivar's successes at the Battle of Carabobo (1821), which assured the independence of Venezuela, and before Cartagena and a few other towns which had held out for the King of Spain, smoothed over matters for a time, allowing much useful work to be done, such as the abolition of the Inquisition and the emancipation of slaves. But 20 COLOMBIA provincialism was at work. In 1830 Venezuela, under the leadership of General Paez, declared itself free. Ecuador broke away, and Peru was in open revolt, although subdued for a time by General Sucre at the battle of Tarqui (1829). Thereupon the government was recon- stituted as the Republic of New Granada, with Santander as President. Curiously enough his rule was essentially that of centralisation, and proved eminently successful and tranquillising for a time. Then came a period of unrest, with open revolt. In 1858 the Constitution of the 22nd of May united the then existing eight departments into the Confederacion^ Granadina. Conflicts continued, however, and Tomas Cipriano Mosquera, who had been President in 1841, having organised a revolution against President Aspina,. gained the upper hand ; whereupon he called a conference at Rionegro, and in September, 1861, a Law was signed, seven States confederating as the United States of Colombia. Mosquera was elected for his second term as President in 1867, and should be mentioned as one of the best and most progressive of Colombian rulers. He established Steam Navigation in the Magdalena River, secularised the communities, began the erection of the national Capitol and under his auspices Colombia was given the most liberal constitution framed for civilised countries. Under this constitution Colombia made great headway towards liberty and enlightenment. But as the outcome of the Rionegro Conference, a further move demanding decentralisation was made ; for in 1863 eight departments, including Panama, were erected into Sovereign States, with a Federal District. In practice it was found that this DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 21 fostering of the provincial sentiment did not conduce to local or general prosperity. Conflicts were numerous, often degenerating into armed risings. As a kind of compromise Dr. Rafael Nunez was elected President in 1879, and was followed by another moderate liberal ; then on re-election he had to face an open revolution of the extreme liberals. Nunez suppressed the opposition and as the result a new constitution, abolishing the sovereignty of the States, and calling into being the centralised Republic of Colombia, was promulgated. Nunez, elected for a third term, was succeeded by Sanclemente, under whose rule civil war once more broke out, directed by General Rafael Uribe-Uribe (1899- 1902). Naturally these continually renewed disturbances were detrimental to the country at home and abroad. Debts were piled up, national credit sank, and while industrial and social progress was retarded, differences arose abroad. The most noteworthy and deeply felt of these was the revolt of the department of Panama, aided by the United States of America, and the establishment by that power of the Canal Zone. But under General Rafael Reyes, with his national prestige as a great explorer in the district of Putumayo and as commander of the Government forces in the revolution of 1885, the country made giant strides, and foreign confidence was to a large extent restored. Steps were taken to develop the country by the construction of railways and roads ; and a policy of education adopted. He was too much identified with old conflicts to meet with universal acceptance among his own people, but he undoubtedly prepared the way for the enlightened and 3— (2248) 22 COLOMBIA successful rule of his latest successor, Sr. Carlo S. E. Restrepo. Everything happily points to the fact that Colombia has now settled down to an orderly development of its material, intellectual and political activities under a fairly liberal constitution, which recognises the liberty of the individual, subject to the interests of the whole community. While the division of the country into departments and provinces allows the necessary latitude for local efforts, the centralised form of the government, once firmly established, prevents sectional conflicts, and gives the country strength to meet its own problems and authority to face the world as a really united power, anxious and ready to take its due place in the march of civilisation. Since the new constitution the following have been chiefs of the executive — 1886-7. Campo Serrano (Designadc 1887-8. Payan (vice-president) 1887-8. Rafael Nunez 1888-92. Carlos Holguin 1892-96. Caro (vice-president) 1896- Quintero (Designado) 1896-98. Caro 1898- Marroquin (vice-president) 1898-1900. Sanclemente 1900-4. Marroquin 1904-8. Rafael Reyes 1908-9. de Angulo (Designado) 1909- Rafael Reyes 1909- Jorge Holguin (Designado) 1909- Rafael Reyes 1909- Holguin (Designado) 1909-10. Valencia 1910. Carlos E. Restrepo CHAPTER V DEPARTMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION Colombia of to-day, with its 461,000 square miles and its population of 5,472,604, is divided into fifteen Depart- ments, two Intendencias and seven Comisarias Especiales, these latter two classes of division being practically colonial districts. It is to be noted that this enumeration includes Panama, which although de facto a Sovereign Republic, is still claimed by the Colombian government as forming part of its national territory. As already shown in the brief historical review, the administrative divisions of the country have undergone frequent changes, notably so since the Declaration of Independence. This was inevitable, for quite apart from political changes, the gradual exploration and development of the country necessitated amalgamation in some directions, division and sub-division in others. Thus, while a law of 1908 created thirty-five departments, another of 1909 re-established the divisions of 1905, when there were ten departments, supplemented by four Intendencias. The following year four more departments were brought into being. No doubt with further settle- ment the Intendencias and Comisarias will be further divided and raised to the rank of Departments. In spite of all this re-manipulation, however, the divisions are still very unequal as regards area, population and relative importance. We will deal with them here in alphabetical order. 23 24 COLOMBIA As regards the growth of population, it was estimated to be 2,000,000 in 1800, but ten years later the figure was given as 1,400,000, and at the declaration of Independence as 1,223,598. Part of the discrepancy, no doubt, was due to the enumeration of slaves and wild Indians under the old regime, and the more restricted counting of heads at a later period. In 1905, however, a fairly accurate census was taken, the figures recorded being 4,533,777. To-day Colombia is the third most populous country in South America, only being exceeded by Brazil and Argentina. Population is densest in Cundinamarca, Atlantico and Caldas, and least so in Magdalena. The disparity of sexes varies considerably ; while there are 170,495 men to 170,703 women in Caldas, there are only 357,302 men to 383,635 women in Antioquia. It should be ex- plained that this last named department, like Tolima, has an enterprising population, strongly given to emigration to the less developed districts of the Republic, where all kinds of opportunities offer themselves to hardworking, resourceful men. It is found, too, that here as in other parts of the world, the large towns have an undue proportion of female inhabitants ; for instance, in Bogota there are 50,557 men to 70,700 women, yet the excess of females over males for the whole of the Department of Cundinamarca is only 37,024. Antioquia. — This department is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and Bolivar, on the east by San- tander, on the south by Boyaca, Tolima and Caldas, and on the west by the Choco, and has an area given as approximately 34,401 square miles, with a population DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 25 of 741,000. About 5,221,167 acres are State waste and forest lands and 943,283 acres belong to the department. Its physical character is extremely varied. On the north the coastal belt, and on the east the slope down to the valley of the Magdalena is hot and humid, possessing fairly good soil. Towards the interior, the country is largely mountainous, split up by numerous valleys and rivers, the soil here is rather cold and even somewhat arid. But ever since the discovery of the country in 1541 by Jeronimo Luis Tojelo, who ascended a charming valley, called by the natives Yamesies, which the Spaniards named San Bartoleme (now known as the Medellin), the country has been peopled by a hard- working, steady and prolific population, who have made the department one of the richest in the Republic. Several of its rivers are practicable for steamers ; the Magdalena forms the Eastern boundary, the Cauca traverses the department from the south to the north, and its affluent, the Nechi, passing by Zaragoza, taps the country to the east ; on the west is the Atrato, which runs into the Gulf of Darien. Other rivers navigable by canoes and rafts are the Nare, San Bartoleme, Arquia, Sucio and Murri. There are four main roads, the Santa Domingo, or North Road, 34 miles long ; the Caldas, which runs into Medellin, 15£ miles ; the Envigado, 9 miles ; and La Quiebra, 12 miles. Considerable attention is being paid by the Government to the construction of roads and bridges, the works being carried on by local road boards under the direction of the Minister of Public Works. Although some of these roads are available for wheeled traffic, it is felt that some better organisation is 26 COLOMBIA required for keeping the highways in repair after con- struction. Medellin, capital of the department, is connected with the Magdalena by railway to Puerto Berrio, some 500 miles from Barranquilla, and with Cauca river by the Amaga railway of which about 20 miles are open to traffic. Agriculture and mining are the chief industries. Land is generally cultivated in small holdings, which accounts for the excellent results achieved with coffee, the principal crop. In 1911 the production was estimated as follows : coffee 13,592,960 lb., cocoa 717,650 lb., rice 459,800 lb., sugar-cane 23,371,460 lb., bananas 6,167,100 lb., plantains 66,586,400 lb., ground nuts 3,905,700 lb., beans 6,656,800 lb., maize 19,425,000 lb., yucca 47,494,800 lb., cotton 274,400 lb., tobacco 932,800 lb. Cattle fattening is carried on to a small extent, but is capable of very large extension. There is a small export trade in timber (cedar, mahogany, hard woods) and forest rubber. So far the regular cultivation of rubber has not been taken up. Antioquia has long been celebrated for its mineral wealth. In 1739 there were 12,728 mines being worked, almost solely for the extraction of gold and silver. In 1911 the value of the export of gold bullion was £490,967, gold dust £259,359, platinum £69,179. Both quartz and placer mining is carried on. A large number of the rivers have rich auriferous alluvia ; among these are the Nechi, Porce, Riogrande, Guadalpe, Nare, Nus, San Bartolome, San Juan, Guadualejo, Quebradonda, Barroso, Atrato, Arquia, Murri, Sucio and the Murindo. Platinum is found in the watersheds of the San Juan and Atrato- Coal is found as far apart as Amaga and Caceres and n^ 3 <3 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 27 Zaragoza. Iron is also mined and manufactured into rails, mills, etc. There are many indications of copper and other metals. Industrial development is remarkably progressive, being specially concentrated at Medellin. The principal towns are Medellin the capital, founded in 1675, population 71,000; Antioquia, the old capital, founded in 1541, population 10,610; Sonson, population 293,050 ; Yarumal, population 21,284. The departmental income is about 1,433,000 dollars gold, and the expenditure rather more, of which 433,320 dollars gold are devoted to education. The eighty-seven municipalities have a total income of about 620,000 dollars gold. This department has no provinces, the prefecturas, or chief offices of the provinces, having been suppressed in the department, except in the district of Uraba. Atlantico, the smallest of the departments, is a wedge- shaped coastal district, bounded on the north by the Atlantic, on the east by the Magdalena river, which cuts it off from the department of that name, and on the south and west by Bolivar. It has an area of 1,082 square miles, with a population of 114,887. It is a flat land, sloping to the sea or the Magdalena, with a tropical climate, rather trying to white people, especially in the low-lying portions when inundated after the rainy season, which lasts from May to November. Transport is good, thanks to the Magdalena running along the greater length of the department, the railway from Barranquilla to Puerto Colombia (164 miles), and the highway between Barranquilla and Usiacuri (10 miles). Cultivation of the soil is carried out on a fairly large scale, the principal 28 COLOMBIA crops being sugar-cane, cocoa, and tobacco ; there is also a considerable industry in fattening cattle on the plains round about Sabanalarga. Barranquilla, the capital (population 48,907), is still the chief fluvial port of the Republic with its harbour at Puerto Colombia. The other important towns are Sabanalarga (population 16,042), Soledad (8,200), Repelon (2,900), Baranoa (5,300), and Campo de la Cruz (2,600). The two provinces are Barranquilla and Sabanalarga. Out of a departmental income of 217,560 dollars gold, 34,830 dollars are devoted to education, to which the Municipality of Barranquilla adds 14,000 dollars. Bolivar, a coastal department, is bounded on the north by the Atlantic and the Department of Atlantico, on the east by the Magdalena river and department, on the south by Antioquia, and the west by Antioquia and the Atlantic. It has an area of 23,938 square miles and a population of 420,890. The land is mostly low lying, with slopes towards the coast and the valley of the Magdalena, and has a tropical climate, except in the high- lands, in that part which forms a southerly wedge into Antioquia. It is well watered by the navigable water- ways of the Magdalena, Sinu and Cauca and their numerous tributaries. To supplement these natural channels of traffic, a railway has been constructed between Cartagena and Calamar on the Magdalena, and roads for wheeled vehicles are either in course of construction or are projected between Barranquilla and Turbaco, between Monteria and Magangue, and others. Much attention is paid to agriculture, maize, rice, bananas, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tobacco and cotton being raised DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 29 on a large scale, while cattle breeding and fattening is a big and growing industry, a considerable export trade with adjoining departments and Panama existing. The breeding of horses, donkeys and mules is another important branch of industry. From the forests timber for building purposes and cabinet making, as well as tanning materials, and dyewoods, resins and medicinal plants, together with a little rubber are derived. Ten gold mines are being worked. Industrial activity is mostly centred at Cartagena (population, 36,632), the capital. The departmental revenue is 526,580 dollars gold, and that of the fifty-four municipalities 269,989 dollars gold. The provinces are : (1) Cartagena, population 82,700 (2) Carmen, 46,300 ; (3) Corozal, 39,500 ; Chinu, 50,200 (4) Sincelejo, 44,400 ; (5) Sinu, capital Lorica, 81,600 (6) Mompos, 39,700; (7) Magangue, 31,200. Besides these there are the West Indian islands of San Andre de Providencia and Providencia, which may become of great importance on the opening of the Panama Canal, with a united population of 5,300, mostly English-speaking negroes and mulattos. Boyaca, a department of irregular shape, about 350 miles long by 150 broad, is bounded on the north by Santander and the Republic of Venezuela, on the south by Meta, on the west by Cundinamarca and Antioquia, and contains 17,654 square miles, with a population of 586,499, mostly Indians and mestizos. It lies chiefly on the elevated plateaux of the Eastern Cordillera, with a narrow tongue of plains between Venezuela and Meta. Its population is principally engaged in cultivating 30 COLOMBIA the tierra fria, raising wheat, barley, maize, alfalfa, potatoes, beans, garden vegetables, a very little coffee and sugar, cattle and horses. The river Suarez is naviga- ble between Chiquinquira (capital of the province Occi- dente, population 14,500) and Lake Fuquene. There are no railways, but probably the best road in the Republic unites Tunja with Bogota, 104 miles long ; a branch road connects Duitama (population 9,900) with Sogamoso, a very ancient and interesting town, formerly the headquarters of the Chibchas priests, who dwelt in palaces roofed with gold. A road is now in con- struction which will unite the districts of Samaca (population 2,127), Sachica (960), and Chiquinquira- Mining is carried on in a small way over an extensive area. There are eleven gold mines in working order, twelve silver, ten copper, seven mixed, three quicksilver, two marble quarries, while 157 emerald mines have been " denounced," or pre-empted. Asphalte is being worked, though in insignificant quantities, and there are salt works at Chita, Muneque, Chameza, Pajarito, Recetoz, Mongua, Pauto, Chaquipay and Pizarra. The industries carried on are chiefly spinning and weaving of cotton and wool, tanning, and milling. The capital is Tunja (8,600 feet above sea-level, population 8,407), the ancient northern capital of the Chibchas. At one time it almost rivalled Bogota and still contains many fine old buildings, including the Cathedral, Bishop's palace and the University. There are three public libraries in the city, and the department spends some 20,000 dollars gold annually on education, yet the Boyacan population is said to be both fanatical and illiterate. The DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 31 departmental income is 352,838 dollars gold, including a subvention of 222,400 dollars from the Government. The municipalities have a united income of 186,223 dollars gold. The provinces are : (1) Centro (capital Tunja), popu- lation 68,000 ; (2) Marquez (capital Ramiriqui, 10,765), 59,300 ; (3) Occidente (capital Chiquinquira, 68,300) ; (4) Ricaurte (Moniquira, 10,800), 3,400; (5) Oriente (Guateque, 7,000), 42,700; (6) Valderama (Jerico, 5,200), 25,600 ; (7) Norte (Soata, 10,700), 46,600 ; (8) Gutierez (Cocuy, 7,700), 44,800 ; (9) Nunchia (Nunchia), 14,900; (10) Neira (Miraflores, 19,150), 55,300; (11) Sugamuxi (Sogamoso, 14,700), 68,500; (12) Tundama (Santa Rosa, 5,400), 56,900 ; and the territory of Vasquez, 1,800. Caldas, a central, mountainous district, bounded on the north by Antioquia, from which it was only recently separated, on the east by Cundinamarca, on the south by Cauca and on the west by the territory of the Choco, has an area of 7,915 square miles and a population of 345,000, almost entirely whites. The long range of the Western Cordillera, with its perpetually snow-capped peaks, shuts it off from the densely forested, damp and intensely hot Choco, and on the opposite boundary the land slopes down to the valley of the Magdalena, where in the forests and plains the temperature ranges between 24° and 30° centigrade. The river Cauca traverses the district from south to north, almost cutting it in two. Both the Magdalena and Cauca are navigable by small steamers, and their tributaries, La Vieja, the Risarada, and La Miel, are also used as 32 COLOMBIA highways. Apart from this, the only means for intercommunication is by means of a few mule tracks and footpaths, recognised roads being non-existent. The people who partake of the sturdy qualities of the Antioquians, devote most of their energies to agriculture and mining. Heavy and varied crops are raised. On the slopes of the Cordilleras wheat, barley, maize and potatoes are grown largely ; on the lower slopes, pro- tected by forests, coffee, yuca, plantains and ground nuts receive most attention, while in the lower hot valleys sugar-cane, tobacco, cocoa and pasturage predominates. Cattle raising is a growing industry. A considerable com- merce exists in preparing palm straw and various fibres for the manufacture of hats, sacking and cordage. Owing to the recent separation of Caldas from Antioquia statis- tics are deficient as to the exact position of mining, but 2,610 mines have been pre-empted, and there are extremely rich alluvium in most of the river valleys. Manizales is the capital. The departmental revenue is 466,192 dollars gold, a considerable portion is derived from the tax on alcohol. The provinces are : (1) Manizales, population 74,753 ; (2) Salamina, 62,842 ; (3) Riosucio, 78,731 ; (4) Pereira, 92,551 ; (5) Marulanda, 36,728. Cauca is bounded on the north by El Valle and Tolima, on the east by the Huila and Caqueta, on the south by Narino, and on the west by the Pacific ; it has an area of 21,882 square miles and a population of 211,800, of whom only a little over 25 per cent, are whites. Much of the territory lies between the Western and Central Cordilleras, DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 33 and though the climate is cold on the highlands, in the beautiful valley of the Cauca it is temperate to hot. The whole country is fertile, even the volcanic slopes of the higher peaks are covered by rich pastures, The navigable rivers are the Cauca, the Micay, the Timbiqui from the Pacific to the town of that name, the Saija from the Pacific as far as Cupi, the Guapi, and for small boats the Guaju, the Temuy, the Caqueta, the Orteguasa, Palo, Hato, La Paila, Caguan, Desbaratado and several others. Mule and pack tracks are few and poor, but a contract has been signed for the prolongation of the Pacific Railway through the country to Popayan. Agriculture is the chief industry, wheat, maize, yuca, plantains, coffee, sugar-cane, potatoes, beans, cocoa and tobacco being raised, while cattle is bred and fattened on the pastures of Purace, Timbio and other districts. Mining is of some importance, gold and platinum being exported. Between 1895 and 1912, 4,106 mines have been " denounced." Much gold alluvium is to be found in the valleys. The forests, in certain parts quite dense, produce a little rubber. Popayan is the capital. The departmental revenues amount to 155,298 dollars gold, of which 41,312 dollars (together with 9,798 con- tributed by municipalities) is devoted to education. The twenty-i ; ne municipalities have a united income of about 69,908 dollars gold. There are five provinces : (1) Caldas (capital Bolivar, population 17,800), population 47,800 ; (2) Camilo Torres (capital Caloto, 8,600), 39,800; (3) Popayan, 67,800; (4) Santander (population of capital, 9,900), 24,700 ; (5) Silvia (capital of same name, 10,000), 31,800. 34 COLOMBIA Cundinamarca, a central district on the higher Andean plateau, is bounded on the north by Boyaca, on the east by Boyaca and Meta, on the south by Meta and Huila, and on the west by Tolima and Caldas ; it has an area of 8,629 square miles, and a population of 714,000, of whom slightly less than half are whites. While about a third of the department is occupied by the higher plateau, including the Sabana of Bogota, and its surround- ing mountains, where the climate ranges from the cool to the frigid regions of perpetual snow, two-thirds are on the slopes and in the valley of the Magdalena and the middle watershed of the Orinoco, where the climate shades from the temperate to the tropical. Corresponding with these changes of elevation and climate are great diversities of physical features and vegetation. On one hand we have the rugged and arid mountains, on the other the dense vegetation of the tropics, interspersed by grassy plains. Apart from the Magdalena, which is navigable for steamers which ply between the ports of Girardot (population 4,471), Guataqui (693), and Beltran (941), there are few rivers of importance, most are mere mountain torrents. The river Bogota, crossing the sabana near the capital, forms the great Tequendama fall of 450 ft. The population is fairly scattered, there being 110 municipalities, in none of which, outside of Bogota, do the inhabitants much exceed 6,000. While the population is engaged in most branches of trade and industry, agriculture absorbs the attention of the greater number. The land round about Bogota and other large towns is well cultivated, producing fruit and vege- tables. The crops, however, cover almost the whole © cq DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 35 range of the cultivated plants ; wheat, barley, maize, beans and potatoes in the higher regions ; coffee of renowned quality on the slopes ; sugar, cocoa, bananas, tobacco and tropical fruits in the valleys ; cattle graze on the sabana and on the llanos of the Orinoco watershed, and large herds of pigs are raised. Considerable attention is paid to mining. Iron is mined in the provinces of Facatativa and Zipaquira ; gold and silver is found widely distributed, as well as copper, lead, coal, jasper, rock crystal and asphalte. Salt production is an import- ant industry in four or more provinces. Although there are considerable forest lands, the production from these is not great. The department is served by four railways : (1) The Northern, 39 miles long, uniting Bogota with Chia, Cajica, Zipaquira and Nemocon ; (2) The Sabana Railway, 25 miles, uniting the capital with Fontibon, Mosquera, Madrid and Facatativa ; (3) The Southern, 19 miles, running out to Bosa, Soacha and Sibate ; (4) The Girardot, running from Facatativa through Zipacon, Anolaima, La Mesa, Anapoima, Tocaima to Girardot. Bogota, capital of the Republic and of the department (altitude over 5,000 ft.), has a population of 121,000. The departmental income amounts to 949,348 dollars gold, of which 137,412 dollars are devoted to education. The provinces are : (1) Bogota, population 165,400 ; (2) Choconta (capital of same name, population 9,900), 45,700; (3) Guavio (Gacheta, 12,500), 44,200; (4) Facatativa, 77,500; (5) Girardot (10,400), 22,200; (6) Guaduas (10,600), 77,700; (7) Guatavita (6,300), 23,800; (8) Oriente (Caqueza, 10,000), 54,900; (9) 36 COLOMBIA Tequendama (La Mesa, 11,200), 58,100; (10) Ubate (9,600), 52,600; (11) Zipaquira (10,000), 60,900; (12) Sumapaz (Fusagasuga 13,500), 31,200. El Valle is bounded on the north by Caldas and the Choco, on the east by Tolima, on the south by Cauca, and on the west by the Pacific. It has an area of 4,179 square miles, and a population of 217,159, about 50 per cent, of whom are white. The main stretch between the Western and Central Cordilleras has a gentle slope down to the Cauca river, with an altitude of from 3,000 to 5,500 ft. above sea-level, and enjoys an equable, warm climate. It is well wooded and the vegetation luxurious, all kinds of fruits of the temperate and warm zones growing in large quantities and to wonderful size. On the rich pastures cattle thrive amazingly. Cultivation is carried far up the foot-hills, consequently the produce varies, including rice, maize, potatoes, beans, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, plantains, sugar-cane, etc. Mining is destined to become an extensive industry. At present, claims have been filed for 446 gold, 30 platinum, 165 gold and silver mines, and one each of emery, talc, copper and iron. Coal is also mined, and there are large deposits of rock crystal. The Cauca, Vieja, Dagua, Anchicaya, Raposo, Cajambre, Naya and Juramangui, which are all more or less navigable, possess auriferous alluviums. Cali is the capital. The provinces are : Cali, population 48,582 ; Palmira (capital of same name, 24,312), 46,632 ; Buga (capital of same name, 11,578), 31,728; Tulua (capital of same name, 10,825), 27,077 ; Roldanillo (capital of same name, 9,196), 28,451 ; Cartago (capital of same name, 18,618), DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 37 24,115 ; and Buenaventura (capital of same name, 6,476), 10,574. Huila is bounded on the north by Cundinamarca, on the east by Meta and Caqueta, on the south by Cauca, on the west by Cauca and Tolima. It has an area of 8,687 square miles and a population of 158,191. Like most of the central districts it enjoys marked differences of physical features and climate. The low-lying parts fringing the Magdalena and east of that river, are hot and humid, and malaria is prevalent. On the foot-hills the climate is pleasant, and higher up cold. Over half of the area is Government forest and mountain land. Cattle raising is well developed. Wheat, maize, rice, coffee, sugar and tobacco crops are raised on a big scale. Four quartz mines are worked in the Organos reigon, while the auriferous deposits of the Magdalena, Yaguara, Bache and Aipe also receive attention. A small beginning has been made in spinning and weaving both cotton and wool, but the manufacture of the so-called Panama straw hats is a considerable industry. Neiva, the capital, is at 1,479 feet above sea-level, has an even temperature of 27° C. and a population of 21,852. It has a large public market and is an important centre of commerce. The departmental revenues amount to 152,400 dollars gold, and those of the twenty-nine municipalities to 140,034 dollars. The provinces are : Neiva, population 72,039 ; Garzon (capital of same name, 10,787), 59,523 ; and La Plata (capital of same name, 5,130), 26,627. Magdalena, is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Gulf and the Republic of 4— (2248) 38 COLOMBIA Venezuela, on the south by Norte de Santander, and on the west by Bolivar and the Atlantic. It has an area of 20,463 square miles and a population of 149,547, including the Comisaria of Goajira, 212,560. It is mostly a low-lying alluvial country, watered by the Magdalena, the Cesar and many other minor rivers, but on the eastern border there are the foot-hills and the heights of the Eastern Cordillera, and, shutting off the Goajira Peninsula from the rest of the department, the great mass of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the snow-clad top to which the range owes its name, with a base of some 5,000 square miles, and rising at one peak to 19,000 ft. Apart from these higher districts, the climate is hot and damp, in some parts of the Magdalena valley reaching the tierra ardiente degree. Coffee, cocoa, sugar and bananas are the principal crops raised, but most other vegetables and fruits can be grown within the borders. There is some mining in the mountains and along the rivers. The capital is Santa Marta (population 5,348), the oldest city in Colombia, at one time a busy port, now again rising into importance. The provinces are Santa Marta, 70,903 ; Padilla (capital Riohacha, 4,426), 20,250; Valledupar (7,301), 24,077 ; Banco, 20,141 ; Sur (capital Rio de Oro, 5,894), 13,776. Narino is bounded on the north by Cauca, on the east by Caqueta, on the south by the Putumayo and Ecuador, and on the west by the Pacific ocean. It has an area of 10,039 square miles, and a population of 292,535. It may be divided into three distinct zones : (1) lying between the Western and Eastern Cordilleras, more or DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 39 less mountainous, occupying almost a third of the area, and thickly populated, two-thirds of the people being Indians or mestizos. This part is well watered by the navigable Patia, the Mayo, Juanambu, Pasto and Guaitara, and produces potatoes, barley, rice, cocoa, sugar and rubber. (2) The Western slope down to the Pacific, rather more than a third of the department, which is dense forest, except for a small zone fringing the road from the high plateaux to the coast. This part is also well watered by the navigable rivers Patia, Guapi, Iscuande, Telembi, Tapaje, Mira, Mataje, and numerous other streams open to boats and canoes. (3) The Eastern portion is composed of foot-hills and valleys, with dense forests, wherein roam many wild Indian tribes. There are few whites. Road-making has been carried on with great energy in the department, and fair highways or paths exist between Pasto and La Cruz, 56 miles ; Pasto and the Cauca, 49^- miles ; Pasto to Tuquerres, 49£ miles ; Pasto to Ipiales, 54^- miles ; Tuquerres to Barbacoas, 99 miles ; and Pasto to Mocoa, 72£ miles. Agriculture is the chief industry, but there are great possibilities as regards mining ; 2,452 quartz and alluvial mines have been " denounced," but only six are being systematically worked, five of them being Colombian companies. Pasto, the capital, lies 8,655 ft. above sea-level. The departmental revenues amount to 738,325 dollars gold, and those of forty-eight municipalities 390,504 dollars. The provinces are : Pasto, 74,425 ; Tuquerres (capital of same name, 15,652), 58,742 ; Obando (capital Ipiales, 14,615), 64,387 ; Juanambu (capital La Union, 9,139), 40 COLOMBIA 26,633 ; La Cruz (capital of same name, 9,451), 28,192 ; Barbacoas (capital of same name, 7,840), 17,833 ; and Nunez (capital Tumaco, 11,702), 22,341. Norte de Santander is bounded on the north and east by Venezuela, on the south by Boyaca, on the west by Santander and Magdalena. It has an area of 6,708 square miles, and a population of 204,381. It is traversed by spurs of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, the temperature falling to 46° F. on the barren paramos of Bagueche, Tamar, Tierranegra and Cachiri, and rising to 89° F. in the valleys of Zulia, Catatumbo and Sarare. As might be expected the crops, which are the leading sources of wealth of the department, vary greatly, ranging from potatoes and wheat to coffee and cocoa. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and coal are mined, and petro- leum wells also exist. The Zulia is navigable by steam launches, and the Catatumbo and Tarra by boats. A great northern road is in course of construction, and is now open from the capital to Puente San Rafael. San Jose de Cucuta (population 20,364), the capital, lies 984 ft. above sea-level, enjoys a mean temperature of 84° F., has wide, tree-shaded streets, and good markets. It is united to Puerto Villamizar on the Zulia by a railway. The departmental revenues are about 218,340 dollars gold. The provinces are : Ocana (capital of same name, 16,814), 63,816 ; Pamplona (capital of same name, 14,834), 43,362 ; Cucuta (20,346), 97,203. Santander is bounded on the north by Magdalena and Norte de Santander, on the east by Boyaca, on the south by Boyaca, and on the west by Antioquia and DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 41 Bolivar. It has an area of 19,161 square miles and a population of 400,084. Its physical features, climate and agricultural conditions are much the same as those of the Norte de Santander, though it has more extensive low-lying plains watered by the Sogamoso and the Suarez. The Sogamoso, Lebrija and Carare are navigable by small boats. A good but short road is open between Bucaramanga and Florida. Gold, silver, copper, talc and asphalte are found in the district, the Rio de Oro having rich auriferous deposits. Wheat, rice, coffee, sugar, cocoa and tobacco are the principal crops. Bucaramanga (population 19,735), the capital, lies in a valley, 3,153 ft. above sea-level, with a variation of temperature between 64° F. and 88° F. This department has a revenue estimated at 312,940 dollars gold, which is insufficient to meet its expenditure. The municipalities have revenues amounting to about 50,000 dollars. The provinces are : Bucaramanga, 72,029 ; Charala (capital of same name, 9,861), 24,943 ; Malaga (capital of same name, 7,630), 42,500; Piedecuesta (8,076), 14,212; San Andres (12,721), 27,725; San Gil (9,965), 44,419 ; Socorro (11,427), 40,798 ; Velez (8,637), 76,453 ; Zapotoca (10,598), 57,073. Tolima is bounded on the north by Antioquia, on the east by Cundinamarca and Huila, and on the west by Cauca and Valle. It has an area of 10,811 square miles and a population of 282,426. This peculiarly long-shaped district has the Central Cordillera for its western boundary, the land then sloping eastward to the Magdalena. On these lowlands the climate is rather warm, but the 42 COLOMBIA plains lend themselves admirably to cattle farming, a large head of cattle being raised, often many thousand on one farm. On the foot-hills good cocoa, coffee and tobacco is grown. The upper part of the Cordillera is given over to agriculture, coffee and other crops being grown. Mining is exceptionally well developed, some sixty properties being worked for gold or silver. Most of the rivers are auriferous. The department enjoys the advantage of being tapped by the Dorada Railway ; the Magdalena ; the Saldana, open to steam launches ; the Ata and Cucuana rivers, open to small boats ; and the Quindio mule path. Tobacco, textile and hat factories carry on a flourishing trade. Ibague, the capital, 4,262 ft. high, with a population of 24,566, is the chief centre of activity. The department have an income of 395,843 dollars gold, and the municipalities (of which there are thirty-six), of 125,004 dollars. The provinces are : Ibague, 54,776 ; Guadas (capital Guamo, 15,345), 135,558; Honda (8,636), 23,980; Libano (16,186), 43,935 ; and Ambalema (6,599), 24,127. Choco (Intendencia), is a comparatively narrow slip bounded on the north by the Gulf of Darien, on the east by Antioquia, Caldas and Valle, on the south by El Valle, and on the west by the Comisaria of Jurado and Panama. It is a densely forested slope down from the Western Cordillera, and is intensely hot and very damp, for it rains nearly all the year round. It has an area of 15,033 square miles and a population of 68,127, mostly negroes and mulattoes. Its chief products are gold, platinum, rubber, ivory nuts, dyewoods, timber, cocoa, and salted fish. There is no doubt vast wealth in the forests, and DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 43 also in the auriferous rivers. Twenty mines are being worked and 380 have been explored. Quibdo (popula- tion, 15,756), the capital, lies inland, 138 ft. above sea- level, surrounded by hills. The rapidity of its growth is shown by the fact that in 1908 its population was only 4,000. The provinces are Atrato and San Juan. A few years ago a Comisaria was carved out of the coastal strip from the frontier of Panama to the river San Juan, and is named Jurado. This strip is coveted by the neighbouring Republic and, as it was a constant cause of dispute, it was considered advisable to place it directly under the jurisdiction of the executive at Bogota, which is represented locally by a Comisario. Goajira (Comisaria), is a peninsula, almost entirely surrounded by the Atlantic and the Gulf of Venezuela. It has an area of 5,019 miles. Along the Gulf of Vene- zuela there is a range of the foot of the Central Cordillera. Most of the rest of the district is low-lying forest land, inhabited chiefly by Indians, who gather forest products and raise a useful breed of horses. The population of the Comisaria is 53,013, its capital San Antonio. It is divided into the districts (or Seccions) of Norte, Occidente, and Sur. Meta (Intendencia), a large track of country, 85,328 square miles in extent, bounded on the north by Boyaca and Venezuela, on the east by Venezuela, on the south by the territory of Caqueta and on the west by Huila and Cundinamarca. It slopes from the Eastern Cordillera foot-hills to the Guainia and Orinoco rivers. While the western and southern parts are wooded, the remainder are rolling llanos, covered with coarse and inferior grass. 44 COLOMBIA A considerable amount of cattle is raised, but it is of poor quality. Much of the land is still unexplored. Its chief trade outlet is by the Meta, through Venezuela to the Atlantic. It is divided into three provinces : Villavicencio, population 4,774 ; San Martin, 3,444 ; and Orocue, 1,091. The number of uncivilised Indians is estimated at 10,000. Caqueta is a vast territory of 187,258, administered as a Comisaria, forming part of the great maze of eastern mountain, forest and rolling plains. It is traversed by the Yapura river, has a population estimated at 24,543, of which 2,034 inhabit the capital, Florencia. The other Comisarias are Arauca, the western tongue of marshy llanos lying between Boyaca, Meta and Venezuela ; Vaupes (capital Calamar, 545), population 5,545 ; Uraba (capital Acaudi, 1,476), 6,476 ; Jurado (capital Pizarro, 5,657), 8,207 ; and the much disputed Putumayo (capital Mocoa, 1,380), 31,380. CHAPTER VI CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT By the existing Constitution the government of the country is divided into the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary. It is the Executive which has the predominant influence, in accordance with the political tendency which substituted for the old federation of Sovereign States a centralised form of rule. (1) The Executive consists of a President and his Council of Ministers. The President is elected by direct popular vote for a term of four years. He may be elected for a second, or even a third term, but these must not run consecutively. All Ministers are appointed by the President, and may be removed from one office to another or dismissed by him. They are, however, responsible to the Legislature, in whose deliberations they join. There are seven Ministers, who preside respectively over the departments of State (Gobierno), Foreign Relations, Hacienda (Revenues), Treasury (Expenditure), War, Public Works and Education. They are essentially Secretaries of State to the President and carry out his policy. Each of the territorial departments is administered by a Governor, who is appointed and is removable by the President. The Governor is assisted by a Depart- mental Assembly, popularly elected at the rate of one deputy for every 12,000 inhabitants, but possessing little 45 46 COLOMBIA power of initiation or control. Governors designate Prefects to administer the various provinces into which their department are divided, who are appointed by the President. Alcaldes presiding over municipalities are nominated by the Governor or Prefect, and appointed by the Government. Alcaldes are at once Executive and Judicial officers, acting in the latter capacity prac- tically as a Court of First Instance in both civil and criminal cases. They preside over Consejos Municipales (Municipal Councils), whose members are elected by popular vote. These local councils are fairly active bodies within their limited jurisdiction, and have con- siderable local influence. They are aristocratic and plutocratic rather than proletarian, representing the landed and commercial interests. Intendencias and Comisarias are governed by Intendentes and Comisarios appointed by the President ; they possess both executive and legislative functions, subject solely to the control of the National Executive. Posts and Telegraphs are under the Executive. Educa- tion is under local control, though supervised through the Minister of Education by the Executive. Defence. — The ultimate power of the Executive rests on the forces controlled by the Minister for War. The strength of the permanent army is fixed annually by an act of Congress, and service is compulsory. The artillery is divided into batteries and sections ; the cavalry into regiments of two or three squadrons ; the infantry into companies of 100 men, six companies forming a battalion, two or more battalions a brigade, two brigades a division, and two divisions a corps. The CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 47 total permanent force in 1913 amounted to 6,031. The war footing is estimated at over 50,000 officers and men. The navy consists of a fleet of five cruisers, three gunboats, one troopship and a number of auxiliary vessels. The Police force numbers 5,619. (2) Legislative Power resides in Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of one member for every 120,000 inhabitants, and one additional for any fraction exceeding 50,000. These Senators are elected for a period of four years by electoral colleges, whose members are chosen by the Departmental Assemblies. Members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years by direct vote, in the proportion of one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. The Intendencias each send a member, who is elected by the Intendente, his secretary, and three electors nominated by the Municipal Council of the local capital. Sessions are annual, lasting ninety days, but the President may call special sessions. He may even con- voke a National Assembly in place of Congress, whenever a fundamental law affecting the Constitution is in question. Laws passed by both houses receive the Presidential assent. The President possesses a limited power veto. If he objects to a Bill, the Congress may overrule his decision by securing a two-thirds majority in both Houses. The President may still oppose, on the ground that the law is contrary to the Constitution. Should the Congress insist on passing the law, the final decision is left to the Supreme Court. Budgets are prepared by the President and his 48 COLOMBIA advisers and voted by Congress. Subsidies for educa- tional and other purposes are made to the departments, whose Assemblies have delegated powers for raising local revenues, while the municipalities also have restricted powers of taxation. These limited powers include the imposition of import (both customs and octroi) and transit duties. After every Presidential election Congress appoints a first and second Designado, who act, consecutively, as chief of the Executive in the event of the death or resignation of the President. (3) Judicial administration is divided into a Supreme Court, a Superior Court for each department, Municipal Courts and Commercial Courts. The Supreme Court consists of nine Judges, of whom four are elected by the Senate and five by the House of Representatives from a Presidential list of nominees, and sit for five years' The duties of the Supreme Court are to decide whether any laws or executive decrees brought before them conform to the Constitution ; to act as a final appeal Court ; to appoint the Judges in the Superior Courts from nominations made by the respective departmental Assemblies. Judges in the Superior Courts sit for four years, Municipal Judges are elected by two municipal Councils. Alcaldes fulfil in a measure certain of the duties of the French Juges de Paix and Juges d' Instructions. The Civil Code is based on the Code Napoleon, as is the criminal Code. There are two Commercial Codes, one devoted to Maritime Law, largely based on Spanish practice. So far no Separate Commercial Courts have oq CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 49 been constituted, although provided for in the Con- stitution. The codes are, of course, modified and supplemented by Legislative Acts and Executive Degrees, both of which, as stated, are subject to revision by the Supreme Court. CHAPTER VII FINANCE Public Debt, Income and Expenditure, Banking One of the happiest and surest auguries for Colombia's future prosperity is the steady recovery of both her National and commercial credit. This recovery, made possible by measures adopted under General Reyes, was assured by those taken under the Government of President Restrepo. When critics refer to the anomalous fact that a national currency of paper is at a discount of 10,000 per cent, that is to say, a dollar note fetches only 1 per cent, gold on the open market, it must be remembered that at one time the exchange had risen to 25,500 per cent., with violent fluctuations, and that there had been a long history of default in payment of interest on foreign loans. All that has been altered. The exchange, officially recognised at 10,000 per cent, discount, remains round about that point on the open market ; the issue of paper money has been stopped and is being slowly replaced by gold, silver and nickel coinage ; interest, together with commission on arrears, is being regularly paid on the foreign debt and a sinking fund maintained. Public Debt. — It was probably inevitable with such prolonged political unrest following upon the war of independence that financial difficulties should have supervened. Moreover, great financial disturbances were created by the drawbacks attaching to borrowing at high rates, with heavy commissions and brokerages, the 50 FINANCE 51 indiscriminate issue of paper money by the Central Government and the departments in the time of the last revolution (1899-1902). There was no forced currency of paper before 1885, but the terrible commercial slump which began in 1879, when the price of sulphate of quinine quickly dropped from 16s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per ounce, killing the export trade of cinchona from Colombia, while the fall in the price of coffee and tobacco crippled the agriculture of the country and the national finances, forced the Government to issue the unredeemable paper currency. To these disasters legislative measures added fresh horrors. Originally a bi-metallic basis of currency was adopted, though private banks had the right to issue notes not classed as legal tender. When as a result of the commercial crisis both gold and silver were drained out of the country, the banks, which had scarcely exercised their privilege, threw a large amount of notes on the market. So far had this degeneracy gone that in 1886 Raphael Nunez made the paper dollar (or peso) of the National Bank the legal monetary unit. This Banco Nacional, which had been instituted in 1880 by Nunez, although granted extra- ordinary privileges had not won the confidence of the country, and consequently the Government had to subscribe for over 1,000,000 of its 2,500,000 dollar capital. A year later its bills were made legal tender, which other banks had to accept at their face value. Laws and decrees issued in quick succession, all tending to secure the monopoly of the National Bank, and in spite of the free coinage of silver at *500 fine, the mass of paper money accumulated. To stem this flood a law was passed in 52 COLOMBIA 1894 by which further issues were to be made only in the event of foreign war or internal rebellion. Then began the era of civil strife, the rapid growth of paper dollar circulation and the phenomenal rise of exchange. After the cessation of hostilities in 1903 the 10,000 per cent, discount appeared to be adopted by general consent, an improvement which was confirmed by the law of that year fixing a gold standard, recognising the right of all contracting parties to stipulate payment in gold or paper, permitting the free circulation of foreign money, and establishing a Junta de Amortization. All this tended to quiet matters, for the new Council of Redemption was entrusted with the collection of certain revenues payable in gold. This gold was put to auction on the exchange, and the paper dollars received for it cancelled. Just when the benefits of its work were beginning to be felt, the Junta was dissolved by General Reyes, who once more attempted to form a national bank. This time it was the Banco Central, floated with a capital of 8,000,000 dollars, less than half of which was subscribed for, and only about a fifth paid up. Granted great privileges, it also had the beneficial duty of collecting some of the government revenues and devoting from 25 to 50 per cent, of the proceeds to a sinking fund for redemption of the paper money. The bank was also strong enough to ensure the payment of interest on foreign bonds and to reduce the general bank interest from 7 to 2 per cent, per month. When General Reyes resigned, the Government contract with the bank was rescinded, but whatever evil effects this might have had on exchange, were largely counteracted by a law which FINANCE 53 fixed the legal value of paper and gold as 10,000 to 100 for the payment of taxes. Then in 1909 followed the creation of the Junta de Conversion, whose duties are : to exchange old bills for new 50, 100 and 1,000 dollar notes (largely to minimise fraud), and for silver at -900 fine and nickel coins. There is also a surtax of 2 per cent, on the amount of specific duty on imports (which produced 176,181 dollars in 1911), devoted to redemption of notes. In 1910 the English sovereign was made legal lender, the Government accepting payment of taxes in gold or paper, the former at an exchange value of 9,900 per cent, premium. Following upon this the Departmental Government of Antioquia re-opened the Mint at Medellin, and is now coining gold at the rate of about £60,000 monthly. These measures, together with the cancel- lation of over 30,000,000 forged paper pesos, have greatly steadied exchange and the money market generally, and there is every prospect of still further improvement. Even more unfortunate has been the history of Colom- bia's foreign bonded debt. This debt was contracted in war time, when not only was high interest promised, but heavy commissions and discounts had to be allowed, so that a large proportion of the nominal advance never reached the country. Of the total foreign indebtedness of La Gran Colombia, New Granada accepted responsi- bility for £3,776,791. Payment of interest was very faulty, so that by 1873 the capital and accrued interest ran up to £6,630,000. It was recognised that there was no hope of such an indebtedness being liquidated, and after negotiations the bondholders accepted obligations to the amount of £2,000,000. Again there was default, 5— (2248) 54 COLOMBIA and after further negotiations the total debt of £3,514,442 was cut down to £2,700,000. As the result of non-pay- ment of interest, the late Lord Avebury, representing the bondholders, and Don Jorge Holguin, Financial Agent, discussed the whole question and came to a formal agreement, whereby the interest was reduced to 3 per cent. ; of the accrued interest amounting to £351,000. 70 per cent, was to be paid off, together with commission, by annual drawings, and the further 30 per cent, is to be discharged if and when the United States pays any compensation for Colombia's Panama claim. As security the bondholders were given a pledge of 12 per cent, of the customs revenue, to be increased to 15 per cent, should the sum received fall below 5,000,000 dollars gold. All these obligations have been faithfully fulfilled. Meanwhile the internal debt, which amounted to 24,719,541 dollars in 1910 was reduced to 1,315,781 dollars in 1912, and at the present average redemption drawings, should be extinguished in less than two years, So improved is the position that we are told by the Special Commissioner of the Advisory Committee to the Board of Trade on Commercial Intelligence who visited Colombia on behalf of the British Government in 1911, that an international group, represented by a British Syndicate, actually submitted proposals for a loan of £5,000,000 to the Colombia Government. This was to be applied to the unification of the external debts, the repayment of certain railway mortgages and the ac- quisition of the Sabana and Girardot Railways. On the other hand, French capitalists have offered to form a FINANCE 55 Mortgage Bank. Clearer evidence of restored confidence could hardly be forthcoming. This looks well for the future, for the total indebted- ness per capita is extremely low, but it must be confessed that at present the Government, Departmental and Municipal revenues are very small, certainly insufficient to meet the requirements of the work to be done. Income and Expenditure. — By far the largest pro- portion of the national revenue is obtained from import duties. The budget for 1913 was made up as follows — Revenue Dollars, gold. Customs . 8,250,000 Port dues 224,000 Surtax 167,000 Sanitary dues 8,500 Export dues 100,000 Consular fees 480,000 Hospital tax 90,000 Railways 120,000 Salt and Mine rents . 1,636,000 Monopolies (cigars and matches) . 65,000 Stamps and stamped paper 400,000 Intendencias 57,000 Magdalena canalisation tax 120,000 River navigation 100,000 Mines 24,500 Miscellaneous 248,000 12,500,000 Expenditure Ministry of the Interior . . . 1,264,515 Foreign Affairs 329,677 Finance . 1,070,591 War . 2,661,279 Treasury 544,316 Public Debt . 2,551,556 Posts and Telegraphs . 1,029,681 56 COLOMBIA Expenditure — continued Dollars, gold. Justice . . 980,724 Pensions 284,206 Education 634,297 Public Works 394,972 Fomento 'otal 754,086 1 . 12,500,000 On referring to Chapter V some idea of local administrative resources will be obtained. Banking. — While the sources of income are restricted, looking to the country as a whole, it must be said that even greater inconvenience is felt as the result of the very limited currency fund which, counting paper at the legal exchange, hardly amounts to 10s. per head of the present population. A little relief is felt from the fact that silver and nickel circulates on the Venezuelan and the Panama frontiers and in the Choco, while there is always a certain amount of foreign money in circulation at the seaports. If exchange can be kept steady, the coinage of gold at Medellin will in time help matters. But the real hope for a prosperous and unfettered commerce is the extension of banking facilities. At present there is a great scarcity of such facilities. As explained above, the Banco Central was originally founded as a national bank of issue. But its privileges were revoked and it now has only the standing of any other bank. Its nominal capital is 2,300,000 dollars, and in June, 1912, it had a reserve of 309,906 dollars, and deposits amounting to over 340,000 dollars ; it pays a dividend of over 10 per cent. Of the other three banks in Bogota the Banco de FINANCE 57 Colombia has 12,000 shares, which are quoted on the local market at 65 dollars (English gold), has over 2,710,000 dollars on deposit, and pays 3 dollars interest per share. The shares of the Banco de Bogota are quoted at a little over 2 dollars gold ; it had in June, 1912, over 958,000 dollars on deposit. The Banco Hipotecario has a capital of 500,000 dollars, all shares issued and 60 per cent, paid thereon ; has a reserve of 90,300 dollars, and 214,221 dollars on deposit. Interest on deposits varies from 3 to 6 per cent, according to term of call, and all the banks — apart from the Banco de Colombia — allow 3 per cent, per annum on the minimum monthly balance on current account. At Barranquilla there are two banks : the Banco Com- mercial, which has a paid-up capital of about 180,000 dollars ; and the Atlantico. According to the Census report, they paid from 14 to 16 per cent, per annum. At Medellin there are two banks, the Banco de Sucre and the Banco Republicano, each with capitals of 600,000 dollars, the shares of the former being quoted at a premium of 20 and of the second at 60 per cent. In this Depart- ment of Antioquia there are two other banks, at Rionegro and at Sonson. At Cartagena there are three banks : Banco de Bolivar (paid-up capital 500,000 dollars, deposits under 150,000), Banco de Cartagena (capital 100,000 dollars), Banco Union (capital 400,000 dollars). At Tunja there is the Banco de Boyaca. At Manizeles, the rapidly growing capital of Caldas, the Banco de Manizeles, with a united paid-up capital and reserve of over 110,000 dollars, has less than 100,000 dollars on deposit. At Popayan the Banco de Popayan has a paid-up 58 COLOMBIA capital of 20,000 dollars and deposits to over twice that sum. At Cali the Banco Comercial has a paid-up capital of about 100,000 dollars. At Pasto the Banco del Sur, with a paid-up capital of about 66,000 dollars, and deposits of about half as much, has managed to pay 20 per cent. All these banks are doing well, few pay less than 10 per cent., the average is probably over 12 per cent., in spite of the custom of paying high interest on deposits and even on current account. It must be remembered that most of the big mercantile houses both at the seaports and in the interior, do a certain amount of banking business, and some of them devote a good deal of attention to selling exchanges, discounting bills, making advances on bills of lading and at the same time accepting deposits. Even taking this into account, however, it would seem that Colombia offers a good field for banking enterprise, especially if managed on sound but not too conservative lines. Law 57 of 1887 declares that in order to found a new bank it is necessary to obtain the sanction of the Govern- ment (Art. 54). Such banks may fix their rate of discount, interest and commission, making these known by the issue of printed notices. Variations may be made by further printed notices after expiry of ninety days from every such notice issued. Private banks may lend money on land. By authority of 17 Act 120 of the Constitution, the President may " exercise the right of necessary inspection over banks of issue and other establishments of credit, in conformity with the laws." CHAPTER VIII social conditions Cost of Living, Travelling, Position of Foreigners, Commercial Laws From the point of view of social conditions, Colombia offers to the observant traveller most vivid contrasts. In the capital of the Republic, in Medellin, in Barran- quilla, Cartagena, Popayan and even in such small towns as Rionegro (Antioquia), the habits and methods of life of the inhabitants possess all the refinements found in European centres, having due regard, of course, to the limitations of any special locality and the wealth of individual members and of a community collectively. Bogota, as becomes the capital, is an eminently social and hospitable city, offering to visitors all kinds of attrac- tions and ways of agreeably passing the time. The clubs, of which the two leading examples are the Jockey Club and the Gun Club, give periodical dances, celebrated for the sumptuous setting and elegance which characterise them. Private individuals receive their guests either in splendid salons or modest drawing-rooms, but always with the utmost urbanity. From the early Colonial days, the Bogotanos have been justly noted for the suavity and nobility of their manners. Foreigners, who in other capitals of the South American countries find difficulties in forming relations in good society, experience no obstacles in Bogota if provided with adequate introductions. Local society is very 59 60 COLOMBIA accessible, frank and hospitable. The clubs have special regulations to facilitate the admission of foreigners, who, as temporary members, rind every convenience granted to them. It is difficult to classify the hotels of Bogota, though there are those that are good, those that are fairly good, and those certainly not worthy of recommendation. Nor is price the best indication. Strangers to the City would do well to make cautious enquiries before finally electing to take up their abodes. The houses are usually well built and often most comfortably equipped. But the old Spanish type with open patios are the rule, which is perhaps not the best method of planning for so high a situation. But Bogota, though some 8,000 ft. above sea-level, does not strike one as a cold city, indeed the temperature ranges between 58° and 60° F. ; while there is the advantage of having close at hand, by means of a four or five hours railway journey, a district basking in a tropical temperature, somewhere about 86° F. This makes it easy to procure all the produce from both temperate and tropical zones. In the markets are all the garden produce and vegetables, potatoes, peas, wheat, and European fruit such as strawberries, apples, pears, peaches fresh and wholesome, side by side with pineapples, aligator-pears, bananas, chirimoya (Anona Humboldtiana) the produce of a tropical region. On the sabana surrounding the city, cattle of excellent quality are raised in abundance. Beef, mutton and pork can be obtained at the same price as in Europe, or, indeed, at rather cheaper rates. For this reason strangers who propose to make a lengthy stay in Bogota, or who come SOCIAL CONDITIONS 61 with their families, are well advised in hiring their private houses, rather than patronising hotels. Cost of Living. — Tariffs in the dearest hotels vary from 12s. to 15s. per day. In other establishments it is possible to secure temporary lodgings with meals at much lower prices. However, owing to many difficulties, living in Bogota cannot be said to be cheap. Though compared with such places as Rio de Janeiro or Buenos Aires, it is undeniably low ; but the special conditions created by the monetary system, the high Customs tariffs and the difficulties of transport have combined to produce a disproportionate rise in the cost of comfortable and easy living. Rent of houses and land has no relation to the cost of other necessaries. This is partly due to the constant variations in the exchange value of paper money and partly to the scarcity of a circulating medium. The unit of exchange in Colombia is the paper peso, or dollar, equivalent to 4s. of English money. It has been legally fixed that five Colombian pesos are equal to £1 sterling. As a result of this, and moreover owing to the last three prosperous years, English gold coins and Bank of England notes, have entered largely into the local circulation. So that visitors who have provided themselves with English gold will find no difficulty in the matter of exchange. Travelling. — To reach the capital from Europe the most natural access is by way of the Atlantic coast. There are three ports of entry, which we shall name in the order of their commercial importance : Barranquilla, which is united by rail to its place of disembarcation, 62 COLOMBIA Puerto Colombia ; Cartagena, whose bay is accessible to the largest steamships ; and Santa Marta. From Barranquilla the interior of the Republic as far as La Dorada is entered by way of the Magdalena river, a journey of seven to eight days. At La Dorada passengers take the train on the Dorada Railway to Beltran or Ambalema, where they once more join the Magdalena, taking smaller steamers as far as Girardot. Owing to the stay of one night at Honda made by all trains, the run from La Dorada to Ambalema, which by direct route could be made in three or four hours, entails a twenty hours' journey. At Girardot, which is reached in another sixteen to twenty hours from Ambalema or Beltran, travellers enter trains on another railway, which transport them to Bogota in from eight to ten hours. The cost of this journey, from the coast to the capital, apart from expense of luggage transport and hotel charges is between £12 and £14 for each person. Barranquilla, which is well worth knowing, is pro- gressing rapidly, and is an important social centre. There are two clubs : the Club Barranquilla and the German Club. There are several hotels. In the most expensive the tariff is about 12s. per day. The town, apart from its rather high temperature and inadequate sewerage, may be considered fairly healthy. It is the port through which the greater part of the export and import trade of the country passes. Cartagena, an ancient town, surrounded by the sub- stantial Spanish walls, is also a great social centre, society being very distinguished and somewhat ceremonious. Travellers desiring to reach the capital from this port, A Modern Private House, Medellin SOCIAL CONDITIONS 63 take train to Calamar, on the banks of the Magdalena, there to join the steamers from Barranquilla. Living is about as costly as it is at Barranquilla. Santa Marta, which is also a very old Spanish town, has prospered greatly of late, being favoured by the rapid growth of the banana trade here and in its neigh- bourhood. In order to reach the interior from this port, it is necessary to go to Barranquilla, preferably by the Santa Marta Railway, which unites the plains with the Magdalena, and then by ferry across the river. In order to reach Medellin travellers ascend the Mag- dalena as far as Puerto Berrio, thence there is a railway which leads into the interior of the Department of Antioquia. This railway is not yet completed, and part of the journey has to be made by means of coaches and motor-cars. Position of Foreigners. — The laws of the country do not place foreigners under special disadvantages. They are assured of ample protection, both as regards personal liberty and property, and in time of war then- condition is even better than that of Colombians. It is advisable for foreigners to provide themselves with passports, because of the laws relating to anarchist propaganda. Nevertheless, in the interior foreigners run no risk of being incommoded by the authorities. The highways are safe, and there are no records of any foreigners having received personal injury while travelling. As has been explained in another chapter, commercial travellers may bring in samples for exhibition without paying duty, by undertaking to re-export them at the expiring of a given date, and to pay duty on any goods 64 COLOMBIA not so re-exported. However, certain districts, such as Manizales, Cartagena, Cali, and others impose a tax on commercial travellers showing samples. Education. — The people of Colombia have always distinguished themselves by a love of study. It has frequently been made a subject of reproach that the interest shown in assimilating general ideas incapacitates them from appreciating details and coldly registering accomplished facts. Yet the interest taken in the study of science has always corresponded with those periods of enthusiasm manifested at certain stages of their his- tory for various experiments in education. Even in the Colonial days, under the auspices of the Church, an Institute of Secondary Education had been founded in Bogota. From that period (1652) dates the Colegio del Rosario, also an institution of secondary instruction, which has had extraordinary success, and through which some of those Colombians most famous in science, in literature and in politics have passed. This College is still in existence and flourishing, giving courses in literature and philosophy. The National University of Bogota, founded in 1867, has Faculties of Medicine, Law and Political Science, and to this institution are associated the Schools of Engineering and of National Sciences. The National Library, Astronomical Ob- servatory, School of Fine Arts and the Academy of Music are also incorporated in the University. There is also in the capital a Seminary in which youths destined for the priesthood are educated. The Colegio de San Bartolom6, of ancient foundation, to-day under the direction of the Jesuit Fathers, imparts instruction to SOCIAL CONDITIONS 65 young boys. A free Institute of learning, enjoying a good name in the country, and in which courses of Literature and Philosophy are held, and comprising Faculties of Law and Political Science, is the Universidad Republicana, which has withstood the assaults of political enemies, and throughout a difficult period has kept pace with the official seat of learning. Elementary instruction, which attained a most flourishing stage between 1870 and 1880, as the result of the Government establishing Normal Schools with German Professors in the capitals of all States, gradually fell into evil days from 1886, owing to the precarious condition created by the war and the frequent changes of Government. Though the result of this inaction was long felt, it has been succeeded by a new impulse in favour of primary education. In certain departments, as in Antioquia and Caldas, Bolivar and Cauca, the Government's action in favour of elementary instruction is effectively seconded by the initiative of parents. In other regions, as in certain provinces of Cundinamarca and Boyaca, the average attendance at school is far below what might be expected from the census returns. The good intentions of the present Government have been nullified on the Constitutional law that education shall be free but not compulsory. Besides the higher educational institutions in the capital of the Republic, there are Universities at Medellin, with Faculties of Medicine and law ; at Cartagena, and at Popayan. The School of Mines at Medellin forms part of National University. Literature. — Colombian literature already possesses 66 COLOMBIA a history, and may justly pride itself on names which are not only known all over the Continent, but even in Europe. The Spanish language in the Republic is the object of zealous study and the best Colombian writers serve as examples to other nations of the Continent. As the result of the natural inclination to letters, and owing to the fact that in the country as a whole there is no considerable immigration, the Spanish language has preserved its purity better than in other nations. The Press. — The daily Press affords ample testimony to the fact that Colombians are tenacious in their deter- mination to keep their language free from foreign influ- ences. The Press had a precarious life owing to the rude political shocks before 1902. Few of the daily papers were able to survive the violent political crises. Never- theless, the period of peace inaugurated by President Reyes has been favourable to the development of periodical publications in Colombia. There are now some dailies which appear definitely to constitute a prosperous Press, and certain of these manifestly have great influence in political life. In Bogota the oldest paper is El Nuevo Tiempo, and the one with the best news service is La Gaceta Republicano. Other prosperous journals are El Republicano and El Tiempo. In Carta- gena El Porvenir is published ; it is one of the oldest dailies in Colombia. In Barranquilla there are El Rigolleto, El Comercio and El Liberal. In Medellin La Prensa and the Espectador. In Colombia the Press is absolutely free. Such laws as relate to the subject are scarcely in force, because the traditions of the Press have supplanted them. The SOCIAL CONDITIONS 67 dailies treat all questions relating to the Administration, to religious ideas, to habits and customs of the people, with absolute liberty, and on occasions even bold effrontery. Nevertheless such independence and liberty of criticism is not aimless. Each paper has its policy, but it is a good sign that often such policy is subordinated to the criticism of facts or the examination of opposing ideas. Commercial Laws. — According to the Colombian Constitution anybody in the enjoyment of civil rights, whether native born, naturalised or foreigners can take proceedings against another person in the civil courts, either personally or by attorney. A defendant may demand that a plaintiff shall provide a fitting guarantor for any costs that the plaintiff may be ordered to pay, but in place of a guarantor the plaintiff can pay into court such sum as the Judge may appoint. If this is done, the plaintiff may demand a similar guarantee or deposit from the defendant. Costs include postages ; Government stamped paper used for claims, evidence, etc. ; fees of witnesses and experts ; other expenses incurred in the suit ; legal charges of attorney or advocate. By Articles 307 and 322 of Law 105 of 1890, parties may, even after proceedings at law have been commenced, refer the matters in dispute to arbitration. If this is agreed to the parties must execute a deed, on stamped paper, bearing the signature of two witnesses, setting forth: (1) The subject of dispute to be submitted to arbitration. (2) Names and descriptions of three arbitrators. (3) The nature of the award that the arbitrators are to direct, setting forth whether the 68 COLOMBIA arbitrators must condemn or acquit the parties, or whether they may impose a compromise. The omission of any of these essentials renders the document null and void. The award is treated as the decision of a Judge, and is therefore subject to appeal under given conditions. The Commercial Code (Law 57 of 1887) declares that " every person who according to the common laws is held capable to contract and bind himself is held equally capable to carry on trade" (Clause 11). Minors may under certain circumstances carry on trade (Clause 15), but bankrupts cannot until they have obtained their discharge (Clause 16). Every trader must (a) declare to his creditors the winding-up of every partnership, whether legally constituted or depending merely upon agreement, in which they can intervene as parties ; (6) maintain a uniform and accurate system of accounts ; (c) preserve all correspondence having reference to his business (Clause 24). Every wholesale trader must keep a (a) daybook ; (b) ledger of current accounts ; (c) register of assets and liabilities and balance sheet ; (d) copying letter book (Clause 27). And every retail trader must keep a record of daily operations and a list of assets and liabilities, together with balance sheet, prepared at least every two years (Clause 28). Other books and records are optional. Special rules are laid down regarding the description of these books and of the entries to be made. No erasures or alterations must be made, all rectifications being made by separate entries (Clauses 37 and 38). Merchants must preserve the books and papers of their business until the termination at every point of the SOCIAL CONDITIONS 69 winding-up of their business transactions. The same obligation rests upon their heirs. Brokers are persons capable of trading, but electing to act as brokers or agents, and having their names and addresses entered on a Register. They must observe secrecy ; cannot employ assistants, and must not trade, directly or indirectly, in those matters in which they usually deal ; they may not acquire goods entrusted to themselves, or to other brokers, for sale (Clauses 65-91). The civil law recognises five classes of bankruptcy : (a) suspension of payment, (b) accidental insolvency, (c) culpable bankruptcy, (d) fraudulent bankruptcy, (e) absconding (Clause 122). Fraudulent bankruptcy is assumed when a bankrupt has failed to keep the prescribed books, or books in the prescribed manner, or when he fails to answer the summons of a Judge (Clause 128). The execution of deeds of assignment of property of traders is regarded as an act of bankruptcy (Clause 134). The regulations as to obtaining discharges are very stringent (Clauses 174-181). Ordinary binding contracts may be made by word of mouth, by public or private written document, or through an authorised agent (Clause 183). An oral offer must be accepted at once, and a written offer within twenty-four hours by a person residing in the place where the offer is made, or by return of post by others ; otherwise the offers are void, but if a later acceptance is made, any retraction of the offer must be made by return of post to avoid liability to an action for loss and damages (Clauses 184-185). Every trader can charge interest for deliveries made on credit, one month after 6— (2248) 70 COLOMBIA rendering an account, if the time of payment has not been specified, even though the debtor is not a trader (Clause 212). A seller must deliver the goods sold in the time and at the place agreed upon, but if no time has been fixed, then the seller must have the things sold ready for the buyer within twenty-four hours following the com- pletion of the contract. If no place has been named, delivery shall be made in the place where the goods existed at the time of the sale (Clause 134). Three kinds of commercial agency are recognised : (a) the Comision (relating to specific mercantile trans- actions) ; (b) Preposition (when an agent is placed in the position of a manager) ; (c) Correduria y agenda de cambio (brokerage) (Clauses 331-462). The law recognises four forms of commercial associa- tions : (a) full partnership ; (b) joint-stock companies ; (c) limited partnership ; (d) joint adventure. A partnership is made between persons capable of trading by a written document made public and registered. This document must contain (a) the names and addresses of both parties ; (b) partnership style ; (c) names of partners charged with management and right of signing ; (d) the capital introduced by each partner ; (e) the scope of the partnership ; (/) the share of profits or losses assigned to each partner ; (g) time limit ; (h) permissible annual drawings of each partner ; (*) particulars as to division on winding-up ; (/) arbitra- tion provisions, if any ; (k) registered address of the concern ; (/) any other binding terms (Clauses 464-549). A joint-stock company may sue and be sued. The liability of the members is limited to the amount of their SOCIAL CONDITIONS 71 subscription (Clause 550). But an ordinary joint-stock company can only exist by complying with such regu- lations as apply to the registration of partnerships (Clause 551), and those projected for carrying out under- takings of public concern must be authorised by special law (Clause 553). All joint-stock companies must specify the time of their duration, unless such time limit is implicit in their deed of incorporation (Clause 446). Article 14 of the Constitution declares that companies constituted abroad " which are recognised in Colombia as juridical personalities, will not have rights other than those which appertain to Colombian persons." By Legislative Decrees Nos. 2 and 37 of 1906, foreign joint- stock companies desiring to have permanent establishments in Colombia must record in the National Registry of the district in which their chief place of business is situated, a copy of their Act of Incorporation, copies of their Articles of Association, and evidence of their registration and permission to trade in their own country. Such companies must have a fully authorised local resident agent. They are not subject to any special tax. Limited partnership (sociadad en comandita) are of two kinds : (a) Simple limited partnerships with a capital fund supplied wholly or in part by the limited partners and the working partners ; (b) Limited partner- ship by shares, whose capital is contributed by shares subscribed by members whose names do not appear in the partnership instrument (Clause 597). Both clauses are subject to ordinary partnership law, but the limited partners (whose names may be omitted from the partner- ship instrument and need not appear in the official 72 COLOMBIA abstract) are liable only to the extent of the capital they have invested (Clause 599). A joint adventure {participation) " is a contract by which two or more traders take an interest in one or several mercantile ventures, contemporaneous or in succession, which must be carried out by one of them in his own name alone, and under his personal credit, with the obligation of rendering an account, and of dividing with his co-adventurers the gains or losses, in agreed proportion " (Clause 629). The Supreme Court has held that only traders may be joint-adventurers. Patents. — According to Decree No. 909 of 1906 on Stamped Paper and National Stamp-Duty, patents of privilege must pay annually ten pesos gold on each invention. Trade Marks.— By Decree No. 217 of 1900 it is enacted that any citizen, whether Colombian or foreigner, who is the proprietor of a Trade or Commercial Mark, may acquire the exclusive right to its use by Registration. The applicant, personally or by attorney, must appear at the Ministry of Public Works with a request for Registration, setting forth the distinctive sign which constitutes the mark, the article to which it refers, and the place of manufacture or production. This request must be made on stamped paper of the third class, and be accompanied by two copies (drawings or prints) of the mark, each bearing a stamp of the first class. The application is published in the official Gazette at the cost of the applicant, and if thirty days thereafter, if a Trade Mark, or sixty if a Commercial Mark, there should be no opposition, it is registered. A Trade Mark (Marca SOCIAL CONDITIONS 73 de Fabrica) is defined as " any phrase or sign employed in order to distinguish or define a particular product in- tended for trade or commerce." A Commercial Mark (Marca de Comercio) is defined as a " phrase or sign distinctive of an article of commerce intended to be associated with a particular commercial person or trading house." By Decree No. 217 of 1900, the dues payable on both classes of Mark are ten pesos gold. CHAPTER IX INLAND COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT One of the greatest needs of Colombia, if not indeed the greatest of all, is the provision of facilities for inland traffic. Not only is a large part of the country still practically unexplored, but even districts which are comparatively densely populated are often left in strange isolation owing to the lack of railroads and highways. It is this fact that makes travelling in the Republic slow and costly, and the transport of goods a matter of serious concern. No doubt the configuration of this very mountainous country with its deep valleys and rolling llanos, explains much of the present condition of affairs, because the engineering and financial problems to be overcome are considerable. Nevertheless it will be found, especially when the railroads and highways of the country are being examined, that past political history has had much to do with both the deeds of commission and omission ; with the new era, therefore, we may justly look for greater wisdom and swifter progress. We have already dealt with certain provisions for inland navigation, and meagre though these be, it will be found that the river system plays an almost pre- dominant part in traffic possibilities when the country is viewed as a whole. In regard to river traffic' the Magdalena stands pre- eminent. In its course of about 1,060 miles (of which 930 are navigable), it traverses nearly three-fourths of 74 <3