COLOMBIA
»^>2
L
K
SOUTH AMERICAN HANDBOOKS
C O LOM BI A
PHYSICAL FEATURES, NATURAL RESOURCES,
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, MANUFACTURES
AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
V. LEVINE
WITH INTRODUCTION BY
B. SANIN CANO
NEW YORK
D. APPLETON & COMPANY
MCMXIV
30953
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION BY B. SANIN CANO
I. GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
H. CLIMATE AND HEALTH
III. NATURAL HISTORY
—IV. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT
V. DEPARTMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF
POPULATION
— VI. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
VII. FINANCE .....
VIII. SOCIAL CONDITIONS .
IX. INLAND COMMUNICATION
X HARBOURS AND PORTS
XI. FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS .
XII. AGRICULTURE ....
XIII. MINING AND MINERALS
XIV. MANUFACTURES AND MINOR INDUSTRIES
XV. IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE -
-XVI. LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS .
APPENDICES :
(A) LIST OF STEAMSHIP LINES AND RIVER
SERVICES ....
(B) MONEY AND COLOMBIAN CURRENCY
(C) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES .
(D) POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS .
(E) DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR
(F) DENOUNCEMENT AND ALLOTMENT OF
PUBLIC LANDS
(G) CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES
INDEX
IX
1
5
9
13
23
45
50
59
74
90
97
102
112
126
135
148
185
187
188
189
192
193
209
211
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
map of Colombia .... Frontispiece
BRIDGE OF THE LIBERATOR, NEAR BOGOTA facing
THE CHURCH OF VERA CRUZ, MEDELLIN
AVENIDA COLON, MEDELLIN
THE CHURCH OF SAN FRANCISCO, BOGOTA
THE CAPITOL, BOGOTA
INNER COURT OF CAPITOL, BOGOTA
A MODERN PRIVATE HOUSE, MEDELLIN
SKETCH MAP OF RAILWAYS AND WATERWAYS
RIVER MAGDALENA — STERN-WHEEL STEAMER
" CALDAS "
THE PORT OF GIRARDOT, ON THE MAGDALENA
A METHOD OF TRANSPORT, MOUNTAIN DISTRICTS
OPEN AND COVERED MARKETS, BOGOTA
A COTrON STORE .....
A MULETEER ......
MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA ....
6
18
26
34
46
48
62
72
74
84
88
108
128
146
218
INTRODUCTION
The opening of the Panama Canal this year means the
beginning of a new commercial era for Colombia, which
is one of the nations most favoured by this inter-oceanic
highway. The sea journey between Buenaventura and
Cartagena, which to-day occupies three months, will
be reduced to four days. The opening of the Canal and
the extension of the Pacific railway to the capital of the
Republic will give to the country the full advantages
of her geographical position, making her importance in
the Pacific more than equal to that in the Caribbean Sea.
The Pacific coast of Colombia is at present but little
known. The valley of the Cauca, the basin of the
Atrato, the territories watered by the San Juan and the
Patia will now attract the capital, which has up to the
present only been invested with much hesitation.
It is not difficult to find the reason why Colombia has
been less known than other South American nations :
the principal reason has been the frequent change of
name. The foreign capitalist was confronted with the
difficulty of the name. When he wished to study the
country with the idea of investing in it his own money
or that of others, there was a sense of insecurity.
The disturbances in New Granada had a bad effect
on the development of the United States of Colombia ;
and when the Republic came to assume the name of
Colombia, the name caused difficulties owing to its
somewhat common occurrence.
x COLOMBIA
The coast is hot, and it has been assumed, therefore,
in days past, that the same temperature prevails over the
rest of the country. In this book the reader will learn
that the regions most densely populated and offering the
greatest opportunities enjoy a climate as benign to the
white race as the southern countries of Europe.
As a result of the increased facilities of communica-
tion, the publication of trade returns, and the interest
taken by President Reyes in making the country known,
attention will now be strongly attracted by the natural
resources of Colombia.
The administrations that have been in power since 1903
have principally devoted themselves to keeping the
peace, and their efforts have had the effect of enabling
the country to settle all questions by civilised methods.
Colombia has just given an example to the world. The
most difficult problem in American democracies, namely,
that of securing the liberty of the voter, and the policy
of electoral methods, appears to be finally settled in this
country. In the elections that have just taken place,
the result of which has been the election of Dr. Jose V.
Concha as President, the parties interested in the struggle
had for their chief object the general good of the country
rather than the triumph of a particular candidate.
Dr. Concha will enter on the government of the country
under the best auspices. He is not an inexperienced
man ; he has been Minister on various occasions, and
has had to settle during his term of office the most
serious questions. He has represented his country in the
United States and in France, and has had to study
during his residence in Europe the most complicated
INTRODUCTION xi
side of Colombian finance. The nation has a right to
expect years of peace and the harmonious development
of all forms of culture during his administration.
It is of the greatest importance at the present
time that Colombia should be better known. The
economical conditions of certain industrial centres in
South America, in Africa, and Australasia are not at
the present moment the most satisfactory for foreign
capital. Moreover, the prosperity of some of those
countries has resulted in their being able to raise the
capital required for their own development. Australia
Argentina, and South Africa will soon be in a condition
to provide for themselves. Argentina, on emerging from
the present crisis, may, perhaps, be casting her eyes on
other South American countries, in order to instil in them
the result of her own brilliant economical development.
Colombia has so far consistently refused to advertise
her natural resources, and the logical development of
events has now placed this work in disinterested hands.
This volume affords the means not only of learning
the past history of the country, but also of interpreting
something of its future. For the capitalist, the explorer,
the tourist, the commercial traveller, there is information
of a practical kind which cannot fail to be useful. The
Author has made use of the latest official publications
and has taken advantage of valuable data contained in
many works which are not easily procurable.
Canal Zone Treaty. While this book was passing
through the Press news is to hand from Bogota that a
treaty of amity has been signed between the sister
Republics of Colombia and the United States of America.
xii COLOMBIA
By this treaty the United States agrees, within six months
of the signing thereof, to pay to Colombia a sum of
£5,000,000 as compensation for the acquisition of the
Panama Canal Zone ; also to grant certain privileges for
Colombian trade passing through the Canal, and free use
for Colombian Government vessels. This not only closes
the controversy on the subject, but also places the
Colombian nation in a very favourable position. It
will be seen on referring to the chapter on " National
Finance " that another result contingent on this payment
will be the allotment to the Foreign Bondholders of the
Republic of the balance of the old arrears of interest, as
arranged by the late Lord Avebury.
B. Sanin Cano.
COLOMBIA
CHAPTER I
GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES
The Republic of Colombia, formerly known as New
Granada, occupies the north-west of the continent of
South America. It lies between Lat. 12° 24' N., and
4° 17' S., and between Long. 66° T and 79° W. It is
bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea ; on the east
by Venezuela and Brazil ; on the South by Peru and
Ecuador ; and on the west by the Pacific Ocean and
Panama. The boundaries with Peru, Ecuador, and
Panama are still in dispute, and the area is therefore
uncertain. According to the census of 1912 the total
area is 461,606 square miles and the population 5,476,604
(about 30,000 uncivilised Indians being excluded from
this total).
The area included in Colombia falls into two approx-
imately equal parts of totally dissimilar character. The
more populous and better known portion, that of the
north and west, is divided longitudinally by a series of
mountain ranges, enclosing great river valleys. The
south-east which lies beyond the mountains, consists
of great well-watered plains or sabanas, 300 to 500 ft.
above sea. The northern portion of this division belongs
geologically to the llano open pasture lands — draining
north-east to the Orinoco, while the southern part is
2 COLOMBIA
covered with dense tropical forest, and drains south-east
to the Amazon basin.
The Mountain Ranges run, roughly speaking, north
and south, in a line parallel with the Pacific coast ; and
the flow of the more important rivers is from south to
north, emptying into the Caribbean Sea. Close to the
coast, along the whole length of the intendencia of Choco,
runs a river range, known as the Baudo range, belonging
to the Antilles system of Panama. To the east of this
range flow the rivers Atrato, which runs north to ^he
gulf of Uraba, and San Juan (149 miles), which runs
south, and enters the Pacific by several mouths at the
south of the department.
The Andes of Ecuador enter Colombia at Los Pastos
in Narino. The Western branch continues north as the
Western Cordillera of Colombia, or Cordillera de Choco.
It is cut by the tremendous precipitous gorge of the
river Patia (1,676 ft. deep), and then runs north to the
department of Bolivar. As it dies down into the plain,
one branch, the San Jeronimo range, divides the river
Sinis from the San Jorge, and another, the Ayapel,
divides the San Jorge from the Cauca. Along nearly the
whole eastern side of the range runs the great river
Cauca (496 miles), with numerous small tributaries,
entering the Magdalena in Bolivar. The summits of the
Cordillera rise to heights ranging from 9,000 to 18,000 ft.,
and include Cayambe (13,710 ft.), Chiles (16,912 ft.), and
Cumbal (17,076 ft.).
At the paramo 1 of Las Papas the eastern Andes
1 Paramos — high, wind-swept plateaux, covered with scanty,
low vegetation.
GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES 3
subdivide into the Central and the Eastern Cordilleras.
The Central Cordillera, of volcanic origin, forms the
watershed between the Cauca and the still greater
Magdalena, and terminates near Morales on the latter
river. This is the highest range, and includes Tolima
(18,400 ft.), Huila (17,700 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.),
Coconucos (15,000 ft.), Purace (16,821 ft.), Las Papas
(13,800 ft.), Ruiz (18,300 ft.), El Quindio (17,000 ft.),
andElBuey (13,860 ft.).
The Eastern Cordillera, or Cordillera de Bogota, is
of cretaceous and tertiary formation. It runs north-east
from Las Papas to the northern part of the department
of Boyaca. Here there is another subdivision. One
branch runs north to the peninsula of Goajira, and as
the Sierra de Perija forms the boundary between the
department of Magdalena and Venezuela ; as it ap-
proaches the coast it is joined on the west by the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta, which runs parallel with the
coast. The other branch passes north-east into Venezuela,
where it is known as the Cordillera de Merida. The two
ranges enclose the great basin of Maracaibo. The highest
parts are in the Chita range and at Sumapaz, while
the paramo of Santurban is 13,000 ft. above sea-level.
The highest peaks of the Santa Marta range, not yet
ascended, reach probably over 18,000 ft.
The mountains, as they die down in the north in the
departments of Magdalena and Bolivar, are succeeded
by an extensive plain, watered by the lower Magdalena
and its tributaries, and by smaller rivers flowing into the
Caribbean Sea. This plain, described as the Atlantic plain,
was called by the early Spanish conquerors, New Andalusia.
4 COLOMBIA
A great part of the Choco, watered by the Atrato and
the San Juan, is flat also. The lowest zone is subject to
periodical inundation, and the higher ground is covered
with forest.
The " llano " country extends almost without undula-
tion from the foot of the Cordillera in Boyaca as far as
the Orinoco. It is watered by the Arauca, the Capa-
naparo, the Meta, the Vichada, the Guaviare, and the
Inirida, together with their numerous tributaries. In
San Martin, to the south-west, and in the south, the
ground is slightly higher, and the rivers drain to the Rio
Negro and the Amazon. The chief of these, from the
west to the east, are the Napo (the boundary with
Ecuador), the Putumayo or Iza, the Caqueta or Yapura,
the Apaporis, and the Vaupes. This country is covered
with forest and inhabited only by uncivilised Indians.
It is practically unknown and unexplored, but doubtless
possesses the usual forest products of the Amazon basin.
The southern portion lies on the equator.
CHAPTER II
CLIMATE AND HEALTH
While geographically Colombia is a tropical country,
it presents great diversity of climate. On the coast
and the low lying river basins the climate is what might
be expected in those regions, but owing to the immense
range in the elevation above sea-level and the curious
configuration of the mountain chains, the climate becomes
a matter of locality. Broadly speaking five zones may
be distinguished : (1) The tierra ardiente, limited to a few
districts, such as the lower parts of the Magdalena,
where often the stones are so hot that they cannot be
touched. (2) The hot region (tierras caliente) up to
about 3,000 ft. This includes the plains of the north,
west and south-east and such great river valleys as of the
Magdalena, Meta and Putumayo. (3) The temperate
region (tierra ternftlada), from 3,000 to 6,500 ft. (4) The
cold region {tierra fria), from 6,500 to 10,000 ft. These
last two regions range from the higher valleys to the
foot-hills of the upper plateaux ; they have a fine, healthy
climate, and contain the bulk of the population, more
especially near Bogota, in the eastern Cordillera. (5) The
higher plateaux and mountain slopes. These elevated
uplands are extremely stormy and inclement, being
exposed not only to heavy mists but to biting, violent
winds. The passes crossing from west to east, by which
alone direct communication can be made, are frequently
so swampy as to be almost impracticable.
2 — (2248) 5
6 COLOMBIA
The coast towns, such as Santa Marta, Cartagena,
Barranquilla, belong to the hot region ; Medellin, Cartago,
Guaduas, Ibague, and Popayan to the temperate ;
Bogota, Pasto, and Tunja to the cold region.
Seasons. — In different parts of the country the
seasons vary. In certain districts of the centre and the
South, and in the Cordilleras, between 840 and 10,000 ft.
above sea-level, there are two rainy seasons, the so-called
winters, from April to June and September to December,
being separated by two periods of dry weather ; else-
where, and above 10,000 ft., there is a wet season of
rather over six months (June to December), and a dry
season (January to June). Hence summer below
10,000 ft. may be contemporaneous with violent rain,
hail and storms in the higher plateaux.
Local conditions, however, often intervene making
generalisation rather dangerous. For instance, while
on the north, or Atlantic, coast the climate is intensely
hot and damp, frequent breezes help to make it tolerable ;
on the west, or Pacific coast, there is heat with almost
constant rain, only varied by occasional violent tempests.
In many of the valleys the damp heat is excessive,
bottled up, as it were, and is little modified by air currents.
Then in the montana or forest districts, during the rainy
season the day temperature may rise as high as 100° F.
and fall to 72° at night. In the Magdalena valley,
from the coast up to say Girardot, the daily temperature
is about 95° F. ; in the Cauca valley with two wet and
two dry seasons, the average is only 76° F., with a range
from 64° to 84°. On the other hand, Bogota, 4° N. of
the equator, which is classed in the cold zone, has an
CQ
r
^3
CLIMATE AND HEALTH 7
equable climate, the temperature ranging from 54° F.
to 64° F., with a rainfall of 43 in. The rain generally
comes in the afternoon. Here the only inconvenience
felt is from the rarity of the air, which makes breathing
to the unaccustomed visitor something of a conscious
effort, decidedly trying to those with weak hearts or lungs.
While the tropical low lying lands and valleys are un-
suited to the permanent residence of white people,
malarious fevers of varying degrees of malignity being
endemic, on the whole Colombia is a healthy country.
There is a certain amount of yellow fever, and possibly
also pellagra, but these diseases, together with malaria,
will doubtless be rendered almost innocuous when sanitary
measures have been more generally adopted. Colombians
have not been unobservant of what has been accomplished
in Panama, especially within the Canal Zone, and hopes
are entertained that in time effective warfare by means
of hygienic precautions may be waged against the winged
carriers of various diseases. When the municipalities
have carried out their programmes of civic sanitation —
water-supply, sewerage and so on — which are now in
hand, the danger of epidemics will have been largely
removed.
It has been observed that there is a marked difference
in those districts watered by rivers having aguas negras
and those with aguas claras. The former, while limpid
enough, appear intensely black in mass, even when the
river is in flood ; wherever these black waters are found,
mosquitos are absent, the district is free from malaria
and generally healthy. So far these phenomena have
not been scientifically investigated, but there may be
8 COLOMBIA
the possibility of a great discovery for some synthetically-
minded researcher.
Finally, it may be said that outside of the character-
istically hot and damp tropical districts, visitors and
settlers will experience little inconvenience if observing
ordinary precautions as regards clothing and diet. The
necessity for such precautions may be seen by observing
the Indians, who in the lower forest regions go, like the
negroes, almost naked, but in the cold mountain districts
are clothed in heavy woollen garments.
CHAPTER III
NATURAL HISTORY
For several reasons the flora and fauna of Colombia are
of remarkable variety and interest. The whole country
is tropical, the south lying on the equator itself. As
in Peru there is a series of climatic zones, ranging from
sea-level to far above the line of perpetual snow. The
boundaries of the country connect its natural history not
only with the abundant products of its South American
neighbours, but also in the north-west with those of Central
America and the West Indies.
Flora. — From the point of view of vegetation,
Colombia may be divided into three zones — hot,
temperate, and cold.
The hot zone includes the coasts, eastern plains and
river-valleys, up to a height of about 3,500 ft. The
wooded country produces abundant timber trees, dye-
woods, and medicinal plants, which are particularised
in the chapter on Forest Products. Large bamboo
thickets are found (guaduas) ; but the most characteristic
feature is the palm trees. It is stated that twenty-five
species are found in a district of ten square leagues
in the territory of San Martin. In addition to their
beauty many of these trees have valuable economic
products ; the coco-nut palm, the Tagua or Vegetable
Ivory, the Royal Palm, and the Wax-palm may be
instanced.
The cultivated crops include the cacao, sugar-cane,
9
10 COLOMBIA
tobacco, maize, indigo, cotton, and vanilla ; and the
fruits the banana, orange, lemon, pineapple, mango,
papaya, alligator-pear, water-melon, strawberry, and
sapodilla. The botanical collector finds numerous plants*
such as orchids, of very considerable value for export
to European and other horticulturists ; Cattleya and
odontoglossum crispum may be mentioned.
The temperate zone includes the land from about 3,500
to 8,500 ft. above sea-level. Much of the flora above
mentioned is also found in this zone, but a gradual
difference is perceptible. The palms are replaced
generally by tree-ferns, though the Wax-palm is found
throughout the temperate zone. Dates and Wamannias
appear, and also the Cinchona, from which Peruvian or
Jesuits' bark is obtained. Orchids and other epiphytes,
moss, and lichen grow on the tree trunks. Coffee is
added to the list of crops. The Maguey or American
Agave is one of the most useful plants of this zone, the
Indians using stem, leaves, fruit and fibre for different
purposes ; it furnishes food, drink, tow, and fibre for
making sacks and ropes.
The cultivation of maize continues and that of wheat
begins.
In the cold zone maize is still found, though smaller
than in the temperate. Potatoes and all the vegetable
and cereal crops of Europe grow abundantly, and the
gardens produce all the usual flowers and fruits. The
wax-palm is still found in the forests, together with
walnuts and pines, but trees cease' to grow at about
10,000 ft. The paramos however produce the flowering
and resinous shrubs called " frailejons " (including
NATURAL HISTORY 11
Espeletia and Cukitium) and grasses similar to the
" ichu " grass of Peru. About 13,000 ft. all vegetation,
but lichens and alpine plants ceases, and bare rock leads
up to perpetual snow.
Fauna. — The Fauna may be classified as (a) imported,
(b) indigenous. Many domesticated animals have been
introduced from Europe, e.g., the horse, mule, donkey,
ox, etc. These have become acclimatised and adapted
to their new environment. The indigenous animals
represent practically all the genera characteristic of
South America. The carnivora include the puma
(cougar) and jaguar : two kinds of bears, a black variety
in the lowlands, and one with white face in the eastern
Cordillera ; and the skunk, valuable for its fur, an
animal which is now being fast exterminated. The Pachy-
dermata are represented by the tapir and two other
species. The tapir, inhabiting the paramos, is of shy,
nocturnal habit ; its hide is valued for making saddles
and harness, and its flesh is palatable. The Edentata
include two varieties of armadillo, and two ant-eaters
(the ant-bear and the scaly ant-eater). The sloth is
found in the forests ; the skin is used for covering
saddles. The opossum, the cave rat, and the yapok
or water rat, with valuable fur, belong to the Marsupials.
The Capybary is the largest of the rodents, 4 ft. long
by 2 ft. high ; it has no tail, and is largely aquatic in
habit ; the flesh is palatable. Ruminants are repre-
sented by the common deer, the Peruvian white deer,
and other species ; rodents by the Capybary, and many
species of hare, rabbit, and rat ; Quadrumana by both
large and small monkeys, of which seventeen species
12 COLOMBIA
have been distinguished ; Cheiroptera by many varieties
of bats and vampires.
Birds are found in great variety, from the Condor, the
white and royal eagles, and other birds of prey to smaller
varieties distinguished for their brilliant plumage or
remarkable powers of song. Few of these, however,
are peculiar to Colombia, and the species are so numerous
that it would be impossible to catalogue them. One may
mention the parrots, the toucan, the rosy heron of the
lower Magdalena, the cenaja (a brilliant Trochilus or
humming-bird, believed to be peculiar to the country),
the sauci, with a song like that of the canary, and the
campanero, whose bell-like note can be heard for a distance
of half-a-mile.
Among the reptiles are the great Caymans, many
species of tortoise, lizards, and snakes (the boa-constrictor,
found especially in the south-east ; venomous snakes,
such as the talla, particularly characteristic of the Choco,
but not found above 6,000 ft. above sea-level). Frogs
and toads giow to a great size.
The sea and rivers are stocked with abundant supplies
of fish food. Among characteristic products are the
manatee or sea-cow, which grows to a length of 6 to 8 ft. ;
turtles on the Atlantic coast ; and pearls, found in
Buenaventura Bay.
Finally, the tropical insect life is overwhelming —
locusts, beetles, ants, butterflies and moths, mosquitoes,
grasshoppers, lice, fleas, etc. ; in many districts they
amount to a veritable plague.
CHAPTER IV
DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT
In order to be able to appreciate the future possibilities
of Colombia, it is necessary to know something of its
history. When we look upon its territorial magnitude,
its felicitous position as regards geographical situation
and climatic conditions, and its vast potential wealth,
the material advance so far made is disappointing ; con-
fidence will be restored, however, if we but reflect upon
its troubled past, with all its wrongs and oppressions.
The early and middle history will explain, if not indeed
excuse, the constant upheavals and turmoils which were
so soon to follow the glorious hopes awakened by the
War of Independence. Only long and painful travail
could overcome the inheritance of suppression and
suspicion which was the outcome of the old regime.
But the time of probation having passed, the true
genius of the Colombian people has had opportunity of
manifesting itself, and a new era of well-directed activity
has been opened up.
At the time of the Spanish Conquest (1533-1560)
the majority of the numerous Indian tribes inhabiting
what is now known as Colombia were uncivilized, being
in a state of perpetual warfare, and supplying their
wants by their skill in hunting and fishing ; yet there
were a group of tribes which seemed to form a link
in that wonderful chain of native civilizations, which,
commencing with the Aztecs of Mexico, ended with the
13
14 COLOMBIA
Incas of Peru. These tribes, the Chibchas, or Muiscas,
and the Quimbayas, like the other advanced nations of
Central and Southern America, inhabited high and moun-
tainous plateaux. The Chibchas dwelt on the sabana
of Bogota, making their headquarters in the neighbour-
hood of Tunja ; the Quimbayas inhabited an extensive
territory lying between the rivers Chinchina, Cauca,
Patia, and the Central Cordillera. According to Spanish
chronicles, the Chibchas believed in a Supreme Being,
Chiminiguagua, though they also worshipped the sun,
moon, stars, lakes and streams. Tradition held that
their civilization was the gift of a " white man," the
reforming Bochica. That they had advanced far is
testified not only by the interesting accounts of their
civil and economical organisation, but also by the
numerous examples discovered in their tombs of their
skill in working gold and copper, as well as their
mastery of the arts of the potter and weaver. Cultiva-
tion of the soil was not neglected : they grew maize,
potatoes, certain fruits, and cotton. Side by side with
these labours was a systematic training in the practice
ot warfare. Under their chief Cacique, Tisquesusha, they
offered a stubborn resistance to the Spaniards before
they could be suppressed and enslaved. The Quimbayas,
perhaps with more politic enlightenment, though ulti-
mately with little better result, received the conquerors
with open arms and became their allies.
Actually the first discoverer of the country was Alonzo
de Ojeda, who visited Cape Vela in 1499. He was fol-
lowed, in 1501, by Rodrigo Bastida, who explored the
coast from the Rio Hacha to the Isthmus of Panama.
DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 15
Between 1510 and 1533 practically the whole of the
Colombian coast had been explored ; the discovery of
the Pacific in September, 1513, was made by Vasco
Nunez de Balboa.
It was not until his fourth voyage, in 1502, that
Colombus, following the example of his lieutenants, made
determined attempts to explore the mainland. He
landed on the Isthmus of Panama, and visited the mines
of Veraguas, whence his descendants derived the title
of Dukes of Veragua ; but, disappointed in his aim
to discover a passage to the East Indies, he merely
established a few stations and once more set sail.
Others, however, were despatched to make good the
formality of taking possession. In 1510, San Sebastian
de Uraba and Santa Maria la Antigua were founded
respectively by Ojeda and the Bachelor Enciso. Other
settlements followed rapidly, some to disappear for a
time, others to struggle on into importance. Among
the principal of these was the town of Panama, founded
in 1519 ; Santa Marta in 1525 ; and Cartagena in 1533.
This last, founded by Pedro de Heredia, who later made
his daring raids into the golden regions of the Sinu and
San Jorge, quickly rose to importance. It was destined
to become the chief gate for the imports and exports
of the country, the storehouse of gold and treasures
intended for shipment to Spain, the seat of powerful
governors and of the dreaded and paralysing Inquisi-
tion, the object of buccaneers' ambitions, and the hope
alternately of the Imperial and the Liberationist
parties. It was also the starting-point of many expedi-
tions in search of the ever-receding fastnesses of El
/
16 COLOMBIA
Dorado. The land had been gradually mapped out in
a rough form as persevering adventurers made their
way across the country from various directions. Herrera
ascended the Orinoco and discovered the river Meta ;
Pedro de Heredia opened up the gold regions of the Sinu
and San Jorge ; while Francisco Cesar, Vadillo, and
Robledo were the forerunners of settlers in Antioquia
and Cauca. But far more important than all of these
was the expedition undertaken by Gonzalo Jimenez
de Quesada on the orders of Don Pedro Fernandez de
Lugo, governor of Santa Marta. In August, 1536,
Quesada left Cartagena at the head of some 700 foot
and eighty horse with the definite instructions to penetrate
the interior and establish posts in the captured districts.
He was two years making his way through forests, across
mountain ranges and difficult streams, fighting fierce
native tribes, before he reached the high sabanas
round about Tunja. He made his headquarters at the
conquered town of Bacata and called it Santa Fe de
Bogota. Hardly had he settled down to map out this
domain, to which he had given the title of Kingdom of
New Granada, when he was startled by the irruption of
white invaders from two opposite directions. Federmann,
lieutenant of Georg von Speyer, governor of the pro-
vince of Venezuela (which had been given to certain
Augsbourg bankers, the Welsers, as an hereditary fief by
Charles V), had taken three years to traverse a distance
of 1,500 kilometres, striking almost due South from Cape
Vela, ascending the Apure and Meta, crossing high ranges
of mountains. On the other hand Belalcazar, after
assisting Pizarro to conquer Peru, had seized the Kingdom
DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 17
of Quito north-east through Cauca and Tolima, and
thence marched to Bogota. So jealous were these con-
quistadores of their glory, that a sanguinary quarrel was
but narrowly averted. Finally, however, the trio reached
terms, leaving a sufficient garrison to maintain the towns
and administration organised by Quesada, while the
three doughty explorers returned to the coast and sailed
for Spain. All three gained little by their exertions,
ending their days miserably ; but Spain profited by the
work of these and many others.
Well before the middle of the sixteenth century,
Spanish dominion was firmly established. Unfortunately
it was essentially an imperialistic rule, the true centre of
government being kept in Spain, though perforce great
latitude and enormous powers had to be delegated to
the local representative of his Most Catholic Majesty.
Jealousy and distrust were the ruling forces of the
government. Lieutenants were sent out surrounded
by regal pomp, but were often called back to answer
accusations, or to allay offence given by some unwise
act of ostentation or authority. All important posts
were filled by men sent out from Spain ; foreigners
were forbidden to set foot in or trade with South America ;
and the civil power, aided by the Inquisition at Lima
and Cartagena, kept the country in severe fetters. While
towns sprang up, the natives were speedily almost ex-
terminated as the result not so much of warfare as of
forced labour in the mines and fields, and, according to
some contemporary writers, of the diseases spread by
contact with the Spaniards. As a result, the importation
of black slave labour from Africa was authorised.
18 COLOMBIA
New Granada was early divided into provinces. On
the Isthmus were Panama and Veragua, dependent
on the city of Panama. On the continent, Santa Marta,
Cartagena, Popayan and the New Kingdoms were
governed from Bogota, and the whole of the provinces
were subject to the Viceroyalt y of Peru. In 1564 New
Granada became a Presidency, to be erected into a
Viceroyalty in 1719 ; again, from 1724 to 1740, it became
a Presidency ; finally the Viceroyalty was restored
in the latter year and lasted to the end of the Spanish
dominion. All this was symptomatic of a policy directed
by the narrowest views of home interests, which
necessarily engendered repression and distrust. As a
rule efforts were chiefly directed towards the extraction
of as much gold, silver and precious stones and valuable
woods as possible from the country, little being done to
further either its material or intellectual development.
The plethora of office holders from Spain, and the grow-
ing influence and wealth of ecclesiastical orders, ended in
arousing much local dissatisfaction. In 1767 the Jesuits,
in pursuance of a wider policy, were expelled from
the land ; but for a time, at all events, this appears
to have made matters worse. For it is pointed out by
historians that the Jesuits were the chief movers in the
engineering of independence. In 1781 occurred the
revolt of the Comuneros of Socorro, only overcome by
treachery. This was followed by the turmoil of the
French Revolution, echoes of which were spread in Colom-
bia by Antonio Narino and others. Although Narino
was suppressed, the result of his propaganda was seen
in the expedition of Francisco de Miranda in 1801 to
Church of the True Cross, Mcdcllui
DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 19
free Venezuela. The ferment thus set up finally
culminated in a proclamation of independence being
declared on 20th July, 1810, at Bogota. For nine years
the colonies fought against the levies of Spain which
were poured into the land. Finally, the imperial power
was broken by Simon Bolivar at the battle of Boyaca,
fought on 7th August, 1819. Bolivar, who had been
acclaimed as Liberator, was elected President by the
Congress of Angustura (now Ciudad Bolivar). He at
once set about forming the confederation of the Captain
Generalcy of Venezuela, the Viceroyalty of New Granada
and the Presidency of Quito, into the Republic of
Colombia. It was scarcely to be expected that after
such a political education as the country had had the
course of government should run smoothly. Unfor-
tunately the very constitution of the Republic contained
the seeds of disintegration. The country having been
divided into the three departments of Cundinamarca or
Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, Francisco de Paula
Santander was elected Vice-president at Bogota. Now,
Santander, a statesman of probity and splendid organising
powers, was a man of ideas, and a strong advocate of
federal administration, thus coming into immediate
conflict with Bolivar, who as a conquering soldier
was a vehement partisan of centralisation. Bolivar's
successes at the Battle of Carabobo (1821), which assured
the independence of Venezuela, and before Cartagena
and a few other towns which had held out for the King of
Spain, smoothed over matters for a time, allowing much
useful work to be done, such as the abolition of the
Inquisition and the emancipation of slaves. But
20 COLOMBIA
provincialism was at work. In 1830 Venezuela, under the
leadership of General Paez, declared itself free. Ecuador
broke away, and Peru was in open revolt, although
subdued for a time by General Sucre at the battle of
Tarqui (1829). Thereupon the government was recon-
stituted as the Republic of New Granada, with Santander
as President. Curiously enough his rule was essentially
that of centralisation, and proved eminently successful
and tranquillising for a time. Then came a period of
unrest, with open revolt. In 1858 the Constitution of the
22nd of May united the then existing eight departments
into the Confederacion^ Granadina. Conflicts continued,
however, and Tomas Cipriano Mosquera, who had been
President in 1841, having organised a revolution against
President Aspina,. gained the upper hand ; whereupon he
called a conference at Rionegro, and in September, 1861,
a Law was signed, seven States confederating as the
United States of Colombia. Mosquera was elected for
his second term as President in 1867, and should be
mentioned as one of the best and most progressive
of Colombian rulers. He established Steam Navigation
in the Magdalena River, secularised the communities,
began the erection of the national Capitol and under his
auspices Colombia was given the most liberal constitution
framed for civilised countries. Under this constitution
Colombia made great headway towards liberty and
enlightenment. But as the outcome of the Rionegro
Conference, a further move demanding decentralisation
was made ; for in 1863 eight departments, including
Panama, were erected into Sovereign States, with a
Federal District. In practice it was found that this
DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 21
fostering of the provincial sentiment did not conduce to
local or general prosperity. Conflicts were numerous,
often degenerating into armed risings. As a kind of
compromise Dr. Rafael Nunez was elected President
in 1879, and was followed by another moderate liberal ;
then on re-election he had to face an open revolution of
the extreme liberals. Nunez suppressed the opposition
and as the result a new constitution, abolishing the
sovereignty of the States, and calling into being the
centralised Republic of Colombia, was promulgated.
Nunez, elected for a third term, was succeeded by
Sanclemente, under whose rule civil war once more
broke out, directed by General Rafael Uribe-Uribe (1899-
1902). Naturally these continually renewed disturbances
were detrimental to the country at home and abroad.
Debts were piled up, national credit sank, and while
industrial and social progress was retarded, differences
arose abroad. The most noteworthy and deeply felt of
these was the revolt of the department of Panama, aided
by the United States of America, and the establishment
by that power of the Canal Zone. But under General
Rafael Reyes, with his national prestige as a great
explorer in the district of Putumayo and as commander
of the Government forces in the revolution of 1885, the
country made giant strides, and foreign confidence was
to a large extent restored. Steps were taken to develop
the country by the construction of railways and
roads ; and a policy of education adopted. He was
too much identified with old conflicts to meet with
universal acceptance among his own people, but he
undoubtedly prepared the way for the enlightened and
3— (2248)
22 COLOMBIA
successful rule of his latest successor, Sr. Carlo S. E.
Restrepo.
Everything happily points to the fact that Colombia
has now settled down to an orderly development of its
material, intellectual and political activities under a
fairly liberal constitution, which recognises the liberty
of the individual, subject to the interests of the whole
community. While the division of the country into
departments and provinces allows the necessary latitude
for local efforts, the centralised form of the government,
once firmly established, prevents sectional conflicts, and
gives the country strength to meet its own problems
and authority to face the world as a really united power,
anxious and ready to take its due place in the march of
civilisation.
Since the new constitution the following have been
chiefs of the executive —
1886-7.
Campo Serrano (Designadc
1887-8.
Payan (vice-president)
1887-8.
Rafael Nunez
1888-92.
Carlos Holguin
1892-96.
Caro (vice-president)
1896-
Quintero (Designado)
1896-98.
Caro
1898-
Marroquin (vice-president)
1898-1900.
Sanclemente
1900-4.
Marroquin
1904-8.
Rafael Reyes
1908-9.
de Angulo (Designado)
1909-
Rafael Reyes
1909-
Jorge Holguin (Designado)
1909-
Rafael Reyes
1909-
Holguin (Designado)
1909-10.
Valencia
1910.
Carlos E. Restrepo
CHAPTER V
DEPARTMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
Colombia of to-day, with its 461,000 square miles and
its population of 5,472,604, is divided into fifteen Depart-
ments, two Intendencias and seven Comisarias Especiales,
these latter two classes of division being practically
colonial districts. It is to be noted that this enumeration
includes Panama, which although de facto a Sovereign
Republic, is still claimed by the Colombian government
as forming part of its national territory.
As already shown in the brief historical review, the
administrative divisions of the country have undergone
frequent changes, notably so since the Declaration of
Independence. This was inevitable, for quite apart
from political changes, the gradual exploration and
development of the country necessitated amalgamation
in some directions, division and sub-division in others.
Thus, while a law of 1908 created thirty-five departments,
another of 1909 re-established the divisions of 1905,
when there were ten departments, supplemented by four
Intendencias. The following year four more departments
were brought into being. No doubt with further settle-
ment the Intendencias and Comisarias will be further
divided and raised to the rank of Departments.
In spite of all this re-manipulation, however, the
divisions are still very unequal as regards area, population
and relative importance. We will deal with them here
in alphabetical order.
23
24 COLOMBIA
As regards the growth of population, it was estimated
to be 2,000,000 in 1800, but ten years later the figure
was given as 1,400,000, and at the declaration of
Independence as 1,223,598. Part of the discrepancy,
no doubt, was due to the enumeration of slaves and wild
Indians under the old regime, and the more restricted
counting of heads at a later period. In 1905, however,
a fairly accurate census was taken, the figures recorded
being 4,533,777. To-day Colombia is the third most
populous country in South America, only being exceeded
by Brazil and Argentina.
Population is densest in Cundinamarca, Atlantico
and Caldas, and least so in Magdalena. The disparity
of sexes varies considerably ; while there are 170,495
men to 170,703 women in Caldas, there are only 357,302
men to 383,635 women in Antioquia. It should be ex-
plained that this last named department, like Tolima,
has an enterprising population, strongly given to
emigration to the less developed districts of the Republic,
where all kinds of opportunities offer themselves to
hardworking, resourceful men. It is found, too, that
here as in other parts of the world, the large towns have
an undue proportion of female inhabitants ; for instance,
in Bogota there are 50,557 men to 70,700 women, yet the
excess of females over males for the whole of the
Department of Cundinamarca is only 37,024.
Antioquia. — This department is bounded on the north
by the Atlantic Ocean and Bolivar, on the east by San-
tander, on the south by Boyaca, Tolima and Caldas,
and on the west by the Choco, and has an area given as
approximately 34,401 square miles, with a population
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 25
of 741,000. About 5,221,167 acres are State waste and
forest lands and 943,283 acres belong to the department.
Its physical character is extremely varied. On the
north the coastal belt, and on the east the slope down
to the valley of the Magdalena is hot and humid, possessing
fairly good soil. Towards the interior, the country is
largely mountainous, split up by numerous valleys and
rivers, the soil here is rather cold and even somewhat
arid. But ever since the discovery of the country
in 1541 by Jeronimo Luis Tojelo, who ascended a charming
valley, called by the natives Yamesies, which the
Spaniards named San Bartoleme (now known as the
Medellin), the country has been peopled by a hard-
working, steady and prolific population, who have made
the department one of the richest in the Republic.
Several of its rivers are practicable for steamers ; the
Magdalena forms the Eastern boundary, the Cauca
traverses the department from the south to the north,
and its affluent, the Nechi, passing by Zaragoza, taps the
country to the east ; on the west is the Atrato, which
runs into the Gulf of Darien. Other rivers navigable
by canoes and rafts are the Nare, San Bartoleme, Arquia,
Sucio and Murri. There are four main roads, the Santa
Domingo, or North Road, 34 miles long ; the Caldas,
which runs into Medellin, 15£ miles ; the Envigado,
9 miles ; and La Quiebra, 12 miles. Considerable attention
is being paid by the Government to the construction of
roads and bridges, the works being carried on by local
road boards under the direction of the Minister of Public
Works. Although some of these roads are available for
wheeled traffic, it is felt that some better organisation is
26 COLOMBIA
required for keeping the highways in repair after con-
struction. Medellin, capital of the department, is
connected with the Magdalena by railway to Puerto
Berrio, some 500 miles from Barranquilla, and with
Cauca river by the Amaga railway of which about 20 miles
are open to traffic.
Agriculture and mining are the chief industries. Land
is generally cultivated in small holdings, which accounts
for the excellent results achieved with coffee, the principal
crop. In 1911 the production was estimated as follows :
coffee 13,592,960 lb., cocoa 717,650 lb., rice 459,800 lb.,
sugar-cane 23,371,460 lb., bananas 6,167,100 lb., plantains
66,586,400 lb., ground nuts 3,905,700 lb., beans 6,656,800
lb., maize 19,425,000 lb., yucca 47,494,800 lb., cotton
274,400 lb., tobacco 932,800 lb. Cattle fattening is
carried on to a small extent, but is capable of very large
extension. There is a small export trade in timber
(cedar, mahogany, hard woods) and forest rubber. So
far the regular cultivation of rubber has not been taken
up. Antioquia has long been celebrated for its mineral
wealth. In 1739 there were 12,728 mines being worked,
almost solely for the extraction of gold and silver. In
1911 the value of the export of gold bullion was £490,967,
gold dust £259,359, platinum £69,179. Both quartz
and placer mining is carried on. A large number of the
rivers have rich auriferous alluvia ; among these are the
Nechi, Porce, Riogrande, Guadalpe, Nare, Nus, San
Bartolome, San Juan, Guadualejo, Quebradonda, Barroso,
Atrato, Arquia, Murri, Sucio and the Murindo. Platinum
is found in the watersheds of the San Juan and Atrato-
Coal is found as far apart as Amaga and Caceres and
n^ 3
<3
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 27
Zaragoza. Iron is also mined and manufactured into
rails, mills, etc. There are many indications of copper
and other metals. Industrial development is remarkably
progressive, being specially concentrated at Medellin.
The principal towns are Medellin the capital, founded
in 1675, population 71,000; Antioquia, the old capital,
founded in 1541, population 10,610; Sonson, population
293,050 ; Yarumal, population 21,284.
The departmental income is about 1,433,000 dollars
gold, and the expenditure rather more, of which 433,320
dollars gold are devoted to education. The eighty-seven
municipalities have a total income of about 620,000
dollars gold. This department has no provinces, the
prefecturas, or chief offices of the provinces, having been
suppressed in the department, except in the district of
Uraba.
Atlantico, the smallest of the departments, is a wedge-
shaped coastal district, bounded on the north by the
Atlantic, on the east by the Magdalena river, which
cuts it off from the department of that name, and on the
south and west by Bolivar. It has an area of 1,082
square miles, with a population of 114,887. It is a flat
land, sloping to the sea or the Magdalena, with a tropical
climate, rather trying to white people, especially in the
low-lying portions when inundated after the rainy season,
which lasts from May to November. Transport is good,
thanks to the Magdalena running along the greater
length of the department, the railway from Barranquilla
to Puerto Colombia (164 miles), and the highway between
Barranquilla and Usiacuri (10 miles). Cultivation of
the soil is carried out on a fairly large scale, the principal
28 COLOMBIA
crops being sugar-cane, cocoa, and tobacco ; there is
also a considerable industry in fattening cattle on the
plains round about Sabanalarga. Barranquilla, the
capital (population 48,907), is still the chief fluvial port
of the Republic with its harbour at Puerto Colombia.
The other important towns are Sabanalarga (population
16,042), Soledad (8,200), Repelon (2,900), Baranoa
(5,300), and Campo de la Cruz (2,600). The two
provinces are Barranquilla and Sabanalarga. Out
of a departmental income of 217,560 dollars gold,
34,830 dollars are devoted to education, to which the
Municipality of Barranquilla adds 14,000 dollars.
Bolivar, a coastal department, is bounded on the north
by the Atlantic and the Department of Atlantico, on the
east by the Magdalena river and department, on the
south by Antioquia, and the west by Antioquia and the
Atlantic. It has an area of 23,938 square miles and a
population of 420,890. The land is mostly low lying,
with slopes towards the coast and the valley of the
Magdalena, and has a tropical climate, except in the high-
lands, in that part which forms a southerly wedge into
Antioquia. It is well watered by the navigable water-
ways of the Magdalena, Sinu and Cauca and their
numerous tributaries. To supplement these natural
channels of traffic, a railway has been constructed between
Cartagena and Calamar on the Magdalena, and roads
for wheeled vehicles are either in course of construction
or are projected between Barranquilla and Turbaco,
between Monteria and Magangue, and others. Much
attention is paid to agriculture, maize, rice, bananas,
coffee, cocoa, sugar, tobacco and cotton being raised
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 29
on a large scale, while cattle breeding and fattening
is a big and growing industry, a considerable export
trade with adjoining departments and Panama existing.
The breeding of horses, donkeys and mules is another
important branch of industry. From the forests timber
for building purposes and cabinet making, as well as
tanning materials, and dyewoods, resins and medicinal
plants, together with a little rubber are derived. Ten
gold mines are being worked. Industrial activity is
mostly centred at Cartagena (population, 36,632), the
capital. The departmental revenue is 526,580 dollars
gold, and that of the fifty-four municipalities 269,989
dollars gold.
The provinces are : (1) Cartagena, population 82,700
(2) Carmen, 46,300 ; (3) Corozal, 39,500 ; Chinu, 50,200
(4) Sincelejo, 44,400 ; (5) Sinu, capital Lorica, 81,600
(6) Mompos, 39,700; (7) Magangue, 31,200. Besides
these there are the West Indian islands of San Andre de
Providencia and Providencia, which may become of great
importance on the opening of the Panama Canal, with a
united population of 5,300, mostly English-speaking
negroes and mulattos.
Boyaca, a department of irregular shape, about 350
miles long by 150 broad, is bounded on the north by
Santander and the Republic of Venezuela, on the south
by Meta, on the west by Cundinamarca and Antioquia,
and contains 17,654 square miles, with a population of
586,499, mostly Indians and mestizos. It lies chiefly
on the elevated plateaux of the Eastern Cordillera,
with a narrow tongue of plains between Venezuela and
Meta. Its population is principally engaged in cultivating
30 COLOMBIA
the tierra fria, raising wheat, barley, maize, alfalfa,
potatoes, beans, garden vegetables, a very little coffee
and sugar, cattle and horses. The river Suarez is naviga-
ble between Chiquinquira (capital of the province Occi-
dente, population 14,500) and Lake Fuquene. There
are no railways, but probably the best road in the
Republic unites Tunja with Bogota, 104 miles long ; a
branch road connects Duitama (population 9,900) with
Sogamoso, a very ancient and interesting town, formerly
the headquarters of the Chibchas priests, who dwelt
in palaces roofed with gold. A road is now in con-
struction which will unite the districts of Samaca
(population 2,127), Sachica (960), and Chiquinquira-
Mining is carried on in a small way over an extensive
area. There are eleven gold mines in working order,
twelve silver, ten copper, seven mixed, three quicksilver,
two marble quarries, while 157 emerald mines have been
" denounced," or pre-empted. Asphalte is being worked,
though in insignificant quantities, and there are salt
works at Chita, Muneque, Chameza, Pajarito, Recetoz,
Mongua, Pauto, Chaquipay and Pizarra. The industries
carried on are chiefly spinning and weaving of cotton
and wool, tanning, and milling. The capital is Tunja
(8,600 feet above sea-level, population 8,407), the ancient
northern capital of the Chibchas. At one time it almost
rivalled Bogota and still contains many fine old buildings,
including the Cathedral, Bishop's palace and the
University. There are three public libraries in the city,
and the department spends some 20,000 dollars gold
annually on education, yet the Boyacan population
is said to be both fanatical and illiterate. The
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 31
departmental income is 352,838 dollars gold, including a
subvention of 222,400 dollars from the Government.
The municipalities have a united income of 186,223
dollars gold.
The provinces are : (1) Centro (capital Tunja), popu-
lation 68,000 ; (2) Marquez (capital Ramiriqui, 10,765),
59,300 ; (3) Occidente (capital Chiquinquira, 68,300) ;
(4) Ricaurte (Moniquira, 10,800), 3,400; (5) Oriente
(Guateque, 7,000), 42,700; (6) Valderama (Jerico,
5,200), 25,600 ; (7) Norte (Soata, 10,700), 46,600 ; (8)
Gutierez (Cocuy, 7,700), 44,800 ; (9) Nunchia (Nunchia),
14,900; (10) Neira (Miraflores, 19,150), 55,300; (11)
Sugamuxi (Sogamoso, 14,700), 68,500; (12) Tundama
(Santa Rosa, 5,400), 56,900 ; and the territory of Vasquez,
1,800.
Caldas, a central, mountainous district, bounded on
the north by Antioquia, from which it was only recently
separated, on the east by Cundinamarca, on the south
by Cauca and on the west by the territory of the Choco,
has an area of 7,915 square miles and a population of
345,000, almost entirely whites. The long range of the
Western Cordillera, with its perpetually snow-capped
peaks, shuts it off from the densely forested, damp and
intensely hot Choco, and on the opposite boundary
the land slopes down to the valley of the Magdalena,
where in the forests and plains the temperature ranges
between 24° and 30° centigrade. The river Cauca
traverses the district from south to north, almost
cutting it in two. Both the Magdalena and Cauca
are navigable by small steamers, and their tributaries,
La Vieja, the Risarada, and La Miel, are also used as
32 COLOMBIA
highways. Apart from this, the only means for
intercommunication is by means of a few mule tracks
and footpaths, recognised roads being non-existent.
The people who partake of the sturdy qualities of the
Antioquians, devote most of their energies to agriculture
and mining. Heavy and varied crops are raised. On
the slopes of the Cordilleras wheat, barley, maize and
potatoes are grown largely ; on the lower slopes, pro-
tected by forests, coffee, yuca, plantains and ground
nuts receive most attention, while in the lower hot
valleys sugar-cane, tobacco, cocoa and pasturage
predominates.
Cattle raising is a growing industry. A considerable com-
merce exists in preparing palm straw and various fibres
for the manufacture of hats, sacking and cordage. Owing
to the recent separation of Caldas from Antioquia statis-
tics are deficient as to the exact position of mining,
but 2,610 mines have been pre-empted, and there are
extremely rich alluvium in most of the river valleys.
Manizales is the capital. The departmental revenue is
466,192 dollars gold, a considerable portion is derived
from the tax on alcohol.
The provinces are : (1) Manizales, population 74,753 ;
(2) Salamina, 62,842 ; (3) Riosucio, 78,731 ; (4) Pereira,
92,551 ; (5) Marulanda, 36,728.
Cauca is bounded on the north by El Valle and Tolima,
on the east by the Huila and Caqueta, on the south by
Narino, and on the west by the Pacific ; it has an area of
21,882 square miles and a population of 211,800, of whom
only a little over 25 per cent, are whites. Much of the
territory lies between the Western and Central Cordilleras,
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 33
and though the climate is cold on the highlands, in the
beautiful valley of the Cauca it is temperate to hot.
The whole country is fertile, even the volcanic slopes of
the higher peaks are covered by rich pastures, The
navigable rivers are the Cauca, the Micay, the Timbiqui
from the Pacific to the town of that name, the Saija
from the Pacific as far as Cupi, the Guapi, and for small
boats the Guaju, the Temuy, the Caqueta, the Orteguasa,
Palo, Hato, La Paila, Caguan, Desbaratado and several
others. Mule and pack tracks are few and poor, but a
contract has been signed for the prolongation of the
Pacific Railway through the country to Popayan.
Agriculture is the chief industry, wheat, maize, yuca,
plantains, coffee, sugar-cane, potatoes, beans, cocoa and
tobacco being raised, while cattle is bred and fattened
on the pastures of Purace, Timbio and other districts.
Mining is of some importance, gold and platinum being
exported. Between 1895 and 1912, 4,106 mines have
been " denounced." Much gold alluvium is to be
found in the valleys. The forests, in certain parts quite
dense, produce a little rubber. Popayan is the capital.
The departmental revenues amount to 155,298 dollars
gold, of which 41,312 dollars (together with 9,798 con-
tributed by municipalities) is devoted to education. The
twenty-i ; ne municipalities have a united income of about
69,908 dollars gold.
There are five provinces : (1) Caldas (capital Bolivar,
population 17,800), population 47,800 ; (2) Camilo
Torres (capital Caloto, 8,600), 39,800; (3) Popayan,
67,800; (4) Santander (population of capital, 9,900),
24,700 ; (5) Silvia (capital of same name, 10,000), 31,800.
34 COLOMBIA
Cundinamarca, a central district on the higher Andean
plateau, is bounded on the north by Boyaca, on the
east by Boyaca and Meta, on the south by Meta and
Huila, and on the west by Tolima and Caldas ; it has an
area of 8,629 square miles, and a population of 714,000,
of whom slightly less than half are whites. While about
a third of the department is occupied by the higher
plateau, including the Sabana of Bogota, and its surround-
ing mountains, where the climate ranges from the cool
to the frigid regions of perpetual snow, two-thirds are
on the slopes and in the valley of the Magdalena and
the middle watershed of the Orinoco, where the climate
shades from the temperate to the tropical. Corresponding
with these changes of elevation and climate are great
diversities of physical features and vegetation. On one
hand we have the rugged and arid mountains, on the
other the dense vegetation of the tropics, interspersed
by grassy plains. Apart from the Magdalena, which is
navigable for steamers which ply between the ports of
Girardot (population 4,471), Guataqui (693), and Beltran
(941), there are few rivers of importance, most are mere
mountain torrents. The river Bogota, crossing the
sabana near the capital, forms the great Tequendama
fall of 450 ft. The population is fairly scattered, there
being 110 municipalities, in none of which, outside of
Bogota, do the inhabitants much exceed 6,000. While
the population is engaged in most branches of trade and
industry, agriculture absorbs the attention of the greater
number. The land round about Bogota and other
large towns is well cultivated, producing fruit and vege-
tables. The crops, however, cover almost the whole
©
cq
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 35
range of the cultivated plants ; wheat, barley, maize,
beans and potatoes in the higher regions ; coffee of
renowned quality on the slopes ; sugar, cocoa, bananas,
tobacco and tropical fruits in the valleys ; cattle graze
on the sabana and on the llanos of the Orinoco watershed,
and large herds of pigs are raised. Considerable attention
is paid to mining. Iron is mined in the provinces of
Facatativa and Zipaquira ; gold and silver is found
widely distributed, as well as copper, lead, coal, jasper,
rock crystal and asphalte. Salt production is an import-
ant industry in four or more provinces. Although
there are considerable forest lands, the production
from these is not great. The department is served by
four railways : (1) The Northern, 39 miles long, uniting
Bogota with Chia, Cajica, Zipaquira and Nemocon ;
(2) The Sabana Railway, 25 miles, uniting the capital
with Fontibon, Mosquera, Madrid and Facatativa ;
(3) The Southern, 19 miles, running out to Bosa, Soacha
and Sibate ; (4) The Girardot, running from Facatativa
through Zipacon, Anolaima, La Mesa, Anapoima, Tocaima
to Girardot.
Bogota, capital of the Republic and of the department
(altitude over 5,000 ft.), has a population of 121,000.
The departmental income amounts to 949,348 dollars
gold, of which 137,412 dollars are devoted to education.
The provinces are : (1) Bogota, population 165,400 ;
(2) Choconta (capital of same name, population 9,900),
45,700; (3) Guavio (Gacheta, 12,500), 44,200; (4)
Facatativa, 77,500; (5) Girardot (10,400), 22,200;
(6) Guaduas (10,600), 77,700; (7) Guatavita (6,300),
23,800; (8) Oriente (Caqueza, 10,000), 54,900; (9)
36 COLOMBIA
Tequendama (La Mesa, 11,200), 58,100; (10) Ubate
(9,600), 52,600; (11) Zipaquira (10,000), 60,900; (12)
Sumapaz (Fusagasuga 13,500), 31,200.
El Valle is bounded on the north by Caldas and the
Choco, on the east by Tolima, on the south by Cauca,
and on the west by the Pacific. It has an area of 4,179
square miles, and a population of 217,159, about 50 per
cent, of whom are white. The main stretch between the
Western and Central Cordilleras has a gentle slope down
to the Cauca river, with an altitude of from 3,000 to
5,500 ft. above sea-level, and enjoys an equable, warm
climate. It is well wooded and the vegetation luxurious,
all kinds of fruits of the temperate and warm zones
growing in large quantities and to wonderful size. On
the rich pastures cattle thrive amazingly. Cultivation
is carried far up the foot-hills, consequently the produce
varies, including rice, maize, potatoes, beans, coffee,
cocoa, tobacco, plantains, sugar-cane, etc. Mining is
destined to become an extensive industry. At present,
claims have been filed for 446 gold, 30 platinum, 165 gold
and silver mines, and one each of emery, talc, copper
and iron. Coal is also mined, and there are large
deposits of rock crystal. The Cauca, Vieja, Dagua,
Anchicaya, Raposo, Cajambre, Naya and Juramangui,
which are all more or less navigable, possess auriferous
alluviums. Cali is the capital.
The provinces are : Cali, population 48,582 ; Palmira
(capital of same name, 24,312), 46,632 ; Buga (capital
of same name, 11,578), 31,728; Tulua (capital of same
name, 10,825), 27,077 ; Roldanillo (capital of same name,
9,196), 28,451 ; Cartago (capital of same name, 18,618),
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 37
24,115 ; and Buenaventura (capital of same name, 6,476),
10,574.
Huila is bounded on the north by Cundinamarca,
on the east by Meta and Caqueta, on the south by Cauca,
on the west by Cauca and Tolima. It has an area of
8,687 square miles and a population of 158,191. Like
most of the central districts it enjoys marked differences
of physical features and climate. The low-lying parts
fringing the Magdalena and east of that river, are hot
and humid, and malaria is prevalent. On the foot-hills
the climate is pleasant, and higher up cold. Over half
of the area is Government forest and mountain land.
Cattle raising is well developed. Wheat, maize, rice,
coffee, sugar and tobacco crops are raised on a big scale.
Four quartz mines are worked in the Organos reigon,
while the auriferous deposits of the Magdalena, Yaguara,
Bache and Aipe also receive attention. A small beginning
has been made in spinning and weaving both cotton
and wool, but the manufacture of the so-called Panama
straw hats is a considerable industry. Neiva, the capital,
is at 1,479 feet above sea-level, has an even temperature
of 27° C. and a population of 21,852. It has a large
public market and is an important centre of commerce.
The departmental revenues amount to 152,400 dollars
gold, and those of the twenty-nine municipalities to
140,034 dollars.
The provinces are : Neiva, population 72,039 ;
Garzon (capital of same name, 10,787), 59,523 ; and La
Plata (capital of same name, 5,130), 26,627.
Magdalena, is bounded on the north by the Atlantic
Ocean, on the east by the Gulf and the Republic of
4— (2248)
38 COLOMBIA
Venezuela, on the south by Norte de Santander, and on
the west by Bolivar and the Atlantic. It has an area
of 20,463 square miles and a population of 149,547,
including the Comisaria of Goajira, 212,560. It is
mostly a low-lying alluvial country, watered by the
Magdalena, the Cesar and many other minor rivers, but
on the eastern border there are the foot-hills and the
heights of the Eastern Cordillera, and, shutting off the
Goajira Peninsula from the rest of the department,
the great mass of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
the snow-clad top to which the range owes its name, with
a base of some 5,000 square miles, and rising at one peak
to 19,000 ft. Apart from these higher districts, the
climate is hot and damp, in some parts of the Magdalena
valley reaching the tierra ardiente degree. Coffee, cocoa,
sugar and bananas are the principal crops raised, but
most other vegetables and fruits can be grown within the
borders. There is some mining in the mountains and
along the rivers. The capital is Santa Marta (population
5,348), the oldest city in Colombia, at one time a busy
port, now again rising into importance.
The provinces are Santa Marta, 70,903 ; Padilla
(capital Riohacha, 4,426), 20,250; Valledupar (7,301),
24,077 ; Banco, 20,141 ; Sur (capital Rio de Oro, 5,894),
13,776.
Narino is bounded on the north by Cauca, on the east
by Caqueta, on the south by the Putumayo and Ecuador,
and on the west by the Pacific ocean. It has an area of
10,039 square miles, and a population of 292,535. It
may be divided into three distinct zones : (1) lying
between the Western and Eastern Cordilleras, more or
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 39
less mountainous, occupying almost a third of the area,
and thickly populated, two-thirds of the people being
Indians or mestizos. This part is well watered by the
navigable Patia, the Mayo, Juanambu, Pasto and
Guaitara, and produces potatoes, barley, rice, cocoa,
sugar and rubber. (2) The Western slope down to the
Pacific, rather more than a third of the department,
which is dense forest, except for a small zone fringing
the road from the high plateaux to the coast. This
part is also well watered by the navigable rivers Patia,
Guapi, Iscuande, Telembi, Tapaje, Mira, Mataje, and
numerous other streams open to boats and canoes. (3)
The Eastern portion is composed of foot-hills and valleys,
with dense forests, wherein roam many wild Indian tribes.
There are few whites. Road-making has been carried
on with great energy in the department, and fair highways
or paths exist between Pasto and La Cruz, 56 miles ;
Pasto and the Cauca, 49^- miles ; Pasto to Tuquerres,
49£ miles ; Pasto to Ipiales, 54^- miles ; Tuquerres to
Barbacoas, 99 miles ; and Pasto to Mocoa, 72£ miles.
Agriculture is the chief industry, but there are great
possibilities as regards mining ; 2,452 quartz and alluvial
mines have been " denounced," but only six are being
systematically worked, five of them being Colombian
companies. Pasto, the capital, lies 8,655 ft. above
sea-level. The departmental revenues amount to 738,325
dollars gold, and those of forty-eight municipalities
390,504 dollars.
The provinces are : Pasto, 74,425 ; Tuquerres (capital
of same name, 15,652), 58,742 ; Obando (capital Ipiales,
14,615), 64,387 ; Juanambu (capital La Union, 9,139),
40 COLOMBIA
26,633 ; La Cruz (capital of same name, 9,451), 28,192 ;
Barbacoas (capital of same name, 7,840), 17,833 ; and
Nunez (capital Tumaco, 11,702), 22,341.
Norte de Santander is bounded on the north and east
by Venezuela, on the south by Boyaca, on the west by
Santander and Magdalena. It has an area of 6,708
square miles, and a population of 204,381. It is traversed
by spurs of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras, the
temperature falling to 46° F. on the barren paramos of
Bagueche, Tamar, Tierranegra and Cachiri, and rising
to 89° F. in the valleys of Zulia, Catatumbo and Sarare.
As might be expected the crops, which are the leading
sources of wealth of the department, vary greatly, ranging
from potatoes and wheat to coffee and cocoa. Gold,
silver, copper, iron, lead and coal are mined, and petro-
leum wells also exist. The Zulia is navigable by steam
launches, and the Catatumbo and Tarra by boats. A
great northern road is in course of construction, and is
now open from the capital to Puente San Rafael. San
Jose de Cucuta (population 20,364), the capital, lies
984 ft. above sea-level, enjoys a mean temperature of
84° F., has wide, tree-shaded streets, and good markets.
It is united to Puerto Villamizar on the Zulia by a railway.
The departmental revenues are about 218,340 dollars
gold.
The provinces are : Ocana (capital of same name,
16,814), 63,816 ; Pamplona (capital of same name,
14,834), 43,362 ; Cucuta (20,346), 97,203.
Santander is bounded on the north by Magdalena
and Norte de Santander, on the east by Boyaca, on the
south by Boyaca, and on the west by Antioquia and
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 41
Bolivar. It has an area of 19,161 square miles and a
population of 400,084. Its physical features, climate
and agricultural conditions are much the same as those
of the Norte de Santander, though it has more extensive
low-lying plains watered by the Sogamoso and the
Suarez. The Sogamoso, Lebrija and Carare are navigable
by small boats. A good but short road is open between
Bucaramanga and Florida. Gold, silver, copper, talc and
asphalte are found in the district, the Rio de Oro having
rich auriferous deposits. Wheat, rice, coffee, sugar, cocoa
and tobacco are the principal crops. Bucaramanga
(population 19,735), the capital, lies in a valley, 3,153 ft.
above sea-level, with a variation of temperature
between 64° F. and 88° F.
This department has a revenue estimated at 312,940
dollars gold, which is insufficient to meet its expenditure.
The municipalities have revenues amounting to about
50,000 dollars.
The provinces are : Bucaramanga, 72,029 ; Charala
(capital of same name, 9,861), 24,943 ; Malaga (capital
of same name, 7,630), 42,500; Piedecuesta (8,076),
14,212; San Andres (12,721), 27,725; San Gil (9,965),
44,419 ; Socorro (11,427), 40,798 ; Velez (8,637), 76,453 ;
Zapotoca (10,598), 57,073.
Tolima is bounded on the north by Antioquia, on the
east by Cundinamarca and Huila, and on the west by
Cauca and Valle. It has an area of 10,811 square miles
and a population of 282,426. This peculiarly long-shaped
district has the Central Cordillera for its western boundary,
the land then sloping eastward to the Magdalena. On
these lowlands the climate is rather warm, but the
42 COLOMBIA
plains lend themselves admirably to cattle farming, a
large head of cattle being raised, often many thousand
on one farm. On the foot-hills good cocoa, coffee and
tobacco is grown. The upper part of the Cordillera is
given over to agriculture, coffee and other crops being
grown. Mining is exceptionally well developed, some
sixty properties being worked for gold or silver. Most
of the rivers are auriferous. The department enjoys
the advantage of being tapped by the Dorada Railway ;
the Magdalena ; the Saldana, open to steam launches ;
the Ata and Cucuana rivers, open to small boats ; and the
Quindio mule path. Tobacco, textile and hat factories
carry on a flourishing trade. Ibague, the capital, 4,262 ft.
high, with a population of 24,566, is the chief centre of
activity. The department have an income of 395,843
dollars gold, and the municipalities (of which there are
thirty-six), of 125,004 dollars.
The provinces are : Ibague, 54,776 ; Guadas (capital
Guamo, 15,345), 135,558; Honda (8,636), 23,980;
Libano (16,186), 43,935 ; and Ambalema (6,599), 24,127.
Choco (Intendencia), is a comparatively narrow slip
bounded on the north by the Gulf of Darien, on the east
by Antioquia, Caldas and Valle, on the south by El Valle,
and on the west by the Comisaria of Jurado and Panama.
It is a densely forested slope down from the Western
Cordillera, and is intensely hot and very damp, for it
rains nearly all the year round. It has an area of 15,033
square miles and a population of 68,127, mostly negroes
and mulattoes. Its chief products are gold, platinum,
rubber, ivory nuts, dyewoods, timber, cocoa, and salted
fish. There is no doubt vast wealth in the forests, and
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 43
also in the auriferous rivers. Twenty mines are being
worked and 380 have been explored. Quibdo (popula-
tion, 15,756), the capital, lies inland, 138 ft. above sea-
level, surrounded by hills. The rapidity of its growth
is shown by the fact that in 1908 its population was
only 4,000. The provinces are Atrato and San Juan.
A few years ago a Comisaria was carved out of the
coastal strip from the frontier of Panama to the river
San Juan, and is named Jurado. This strip is coveted
by the neighbouring Republic and, as it was a constant
cause of dispute, it was considered advisable to place it
directly under the jurisdiction of the executive at Bogota,
which is represented locally by a Comisario.
Goajira (Comisaria), is a peninsula, almost entirely
surrounded by the Atlantic and the Gulf of Venezuela.
It has an area of 5,019 miles. Along the Gulf of Vene-
zuela there is a range of the foot of the Central Cordillera.
Most of the rest of the district is low-lying forest land,
inhabited chiefly by Indians, who gather forest products
and raise a useful breed of horses. The population of
the Comisaria is 53,013, its capital San Antonio. It
is divided into the districts (or Seccions) of Norte,
Occidente, and Sur.
Meta (Intendencia), a large track of country, 85,328
square miles in extent, bounded on the north by Boyaca
and Venezuela, on the east by Venezuela, on the south
by the territory of Caqueta and on the west by Huila
and Cundinamarca. It slopes from the Eastern Cordillera
foot-hills to the Guainia and Orinoco rivers. While the
western and southern parts are wooded, the remainder
are rolling llanos, covered with coarse and inferior grass.
44 COLOMBIA
A considerable amount of cattle is raised, but it is of poor
quality. Much of the land is still unexplored. Its
chief trade outlet is by the Meta, through Venezuela
to the Atlantic. It is divided into three provinces :
Villavicencio, population 4,774 ; San Martin, 3,444 ;
and Orocue, 1,091. The number of uncivilised Indians
is estimated at 10,000.
Caqueta is a vast territory of 187,258, administered
as a Comisaria, forming part of the great maze of eastern
mountain, forest and rolling plains. It is traversed
by the Yapura river, has a population estimated at
24,543, of which 2,034 inhabit the capital, Florencia.
The other Comisarias are Arauca, the western tongue
of marshy llanos lying between Boyaca, Meta and
Venezuela ; Vaupes (capital Calamar, 545), population
5,545 ; Uraba (capital Acaudi, 1,476), 6,476 ; Jurado
(capital Pizarro, 5,657), 8,207 ; and the much disputed
Putumayo (capital Mocoa, 1,380), 31,380.
CHAPTER VI
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
By the existing Constitution the government of the
country is divided into the Executive, the Legislative
and the Judiciary. It is the Executive which has the
predominant influence, in accordance with the political
tendency which substituted for the old federation of
Sovereign States a centralised form of rule.
(1) The Executive consists of a President and his
Council of Ministers. The President is elected by direct
popular vote for a term of four years. He may be elected
for a second, or even a third term, but these must not run
consecutively.
All Ministers are appointed by the President, and may
be removed from one office to another or dismissed
by him. They are, however, responsible to the
Legislature, in whose deliberations they join. There
are seven Ministers, who preside respectively over the
departments of State (Gobierno), Foreign Relations,
Hacienda (Revenues), Treasury (Expenditure), War,
Public Works and Education. They are essentially
Secretaries of State to the President and carry out his
policy.
Each of the territorial departments is administered
by a Governor, who is appointed and is removable by
the President. The Governor is assisted by a Depart-
mental Assembly, popularly elected at the rate of one
deputy for every 12,000 inhabitants, but possessing little
45
46 COLOMBIA
power of initiation or control. Governors designate
Prefects to administer the various provinces into which
their department are divided, who are appointed by the
President. Alcaldes presiding over municipalities are
nominated by the Governor or Prefect, and appointed
by the Government. Alcaldes are at once Executive
and Judicial officers, acting in the latter capacity prac-
tically as a Court of First Instance in both civil and
criminal cases. They preside over Consejos Municipales
(Municipal Councils), whose members are elected by
popular vote. These local councils are fairly active
bodies within their limited jurisdiction, and have con-
siderable local influence. They are aristocratic and
plutocratic rather than proletarian, representing the
landed and commercial interests.
Intendencias and Comisarias are governed by
Intendentes and Comisarios appointed by the President ;
they possess both executive and legislative functions,
subject solely to the control of the National Executive.
Posts and Telegraphs are under the Executive. Educa-
tion is under local control, though supervised through
the Minister of Education by the Executive.
Defence. — The ultimate power of the Executive
rests on the forces controlled by the Minister for War.
The strength of the permanent army is fixed annually
by an act of Congress, and service is compulsory. The
artillery is divided into batteries and sections ; the
cavalry into regiments of two or three squadrons ; the
infantry into companies of 100 men, six companies
forming a battalion, two or more battalions a brigade,
two brigades a division, and two divisions a corps. The
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 47
total permanent force in 1913 amounted to 6,031. The
war footing is estimated at over 50,000 officers and men.
The navy consists of a fleet of five cruisers, three gunboats,
one troopship and a number of auxiliary vessels. The
Police force numbers 5,619.
(2) Legislative Power resides in Congress, consisting of
a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate
is composed of one member for every 120,000 inhabitants,
and one additional for any fraction exceeding 50,000.
These Senators are elected for a period of four years by
electoral colleges, whose members are chosen by the
Departmental Assemblies. Members of the House of
Representatives are elected for two years by direct vote,
in the proportion of one member for every 50,000
inhabitants.
The Intendencias each send a member, who is elected
by the Intendente, his secretary, and three electors
nominated by the Municipal Council of the local capital.
Sessions are annual, lasting ninety days, but the
President may call special sessions. He may even con-
voke a National Assembly in place of Congress, whenever
a fundamental law affecting the Constitution is in question.
Laws passed by both houses receive the Presidential
assent. The President possesses a limited power veto.
If he objects to a Bill, the Congress may overrule his
decision by securing a two-thirds majority in both
Houses. The President may still oppose, on the ground
that the law is contrary to the Constitution. Should
the Congress insist on passing the law, the final decision
is left to the Supreme Court.
Budgets are prepared by the President and his
48 COLOMBIA
advisers and voted by Congress. Subsidies for educa-
tional and other purposes are made to the departments,
whose Assemblies have delegated powers for raising local
revenues, while the municipalities also have restricted
powers of taxation. These limited powers include the
imposition of import (both customs and octroi) and
transit duties.
After every Presidential election Congress appoints a
first and second Designado, who act, consecutively, as
chief of the Executive in the event of the death or
resignation of the President.
(3) Judicial administration is divided into a Supreme
Court, a Superior Court for each department, Municipal
Courts and Commercial Courts. The Supreme Court
consists of nine Judges, of whom four are elected by the
Senate and five by the House of Representatives from a
Presidential list of nominees, and sit for five years' The
duties of the Supreme Court are to decide whether any
laws or executive decrees brought before them conform
to the Constitution ; to act as a final appeal Court ;
to appoint the Judges in the Superior Courts from
nominations made by the respective departmental
Assemblies. Judges in the Superior Courts sit for four
years, Municipal Judges are elected by two municipal
Councils. Alcaldes fulfil in a measure certain of the
duties of the French Juges de Paix and Juges
d' Instructions.
The Civil Code is based on the Code Napoleon, as is
the criminal Code. There are two Commercial Codes,
one devoted to Maritime Law, largely based on Spanish
practice. So far no Separate Commercial Courts have
oq
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 49
been constituted, although provided for in the Con-
stitution. The codes are, of course, modified and
supplemented by Legislative Acts and Executive Degrees,
both of which, as stated, are subject to revision by the
Supreme Court.
CHAPTER VII
FINANCE
Public Debt, Income and Expenditure, Banking
One of the happiest and surest auguries for Colombia's
future prosperity is the steady recovery of both her
National and commercial credit. This recovery, made
possible by measures adopted under General Reyes, was
assured by those taken under the Government of
President Restrepo. When critics refer to the anomalous
fact that a national currency of paper is at a discount of
10,000 per cent, that is to say, a dollar note fetches only 1
per cent, gold on the open market, it must be remembered
that at one time the exchange had risen to 25,500 per
cent., with violent fluctuations, and that there had been
a long history of default in payment of interest on foreign
loans. All that has been altered. The exchange,
officially recognised at 10,000 per cent, discount, remains
round about that point on the open market ; the issue
of paper money has been stopped and is being slowly
replaced by gold, silver and nickel coinage ; interest,
together with commission on arrears, is being regularly
paid on the foreign debt and a sinking fund maintained.
Public Debt. — It was probably inevitable with such
prolonged political unrest following upon the war of
independence that financial difficulties should have
supervened. Moreover, great financial disturbances were
created by the drawbacks attaching to borrowing at high
rates, with heavy commissions and brokerages, the
50
FINANCE 51
indiscriminate issue of paper money by the Central
Government and the departments in the time of the
last revolution (1899-1902). There was no forced
currency of paper before 1885, but the terrible commercial
slump which began in 1879, when the price of sulphate
of quinine quickly dropped from 16s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per
ounce, killing the export trade of cinchona from Colombia,
while the fall in the price of coffee and tobacco crippled
the agriculture of the country and the national finances,
forced the Government to issue the unredeemable paper
currency. To these disasters legislative measures added
fresh horrors. Originally a bi-metallic basis of currency
was adopted, though private banks had the right to
issue notes not classed as legal tender. When as a
result of the commercial crisis both gold and silver
were drained out of the country, the banks, which
had scarcely exercised their privilege, threw a large
amount of notes on the market. So far had this
degeneracy gone that in 1886 Raphael Nunez made the
paper dollar (or peso) of the National Bank the legal
monetary unit. This Banco Nacional, which had been
instituted in 1880 by Nunez, although granted extra-
ordinary privileges had not won the confidence of the
country, and consequently the Government had to
subscribe for over 1,000,000 of its 2,500,000 dollar capital.
A year later its bills were made legal tender, which other
banks had to accept at their face value. Laws and
decrees issued in quick succession, all tending to secure the
monopoly of the National Bank, and in spite of the free
coinage of silver at *500 fine, the mass of paper money
accumulated. To stem this flood a law was passed in
52 COLOMBIA
1894 by which further issues were to be made only
in the event of foreign war or internal rebellion. Then
began the era of civil strife, the rapid growth of paper
dollar circulation and the phenomenal rise of exchange.
After the cessation of hostilities in 1903 the 10,000 per
cent, discount appeared to be adopted by general consent,
an improvement which was confirmed by the law of that
year fixing a gold standard, recognising the right of all
contracting parties to stipulate payment in gold or paper,
permitting the free circulation of foreign money, and
establishing a Junta de Amortization. All this tended
to quiet matters, for the new Council of Redemption was
entrusted with the collection of certain revenues payable
in gold. This gold was put to auction on the exchange,
and the paper dollars received for it cancelled. Just
when the benefits of its work were beginning to be felt,
the Junta was dissolved by General Reyes, who once
more attempted to form a national bank. This time
it was the Banco Central, floated with a capital of
8,000,000 dollars, less than half of which was subscribed
for, and only about a fifth paid up. Granted great
privileges, it also had the beneficial duty of collecting
some of the government revenues and devoting from
25 to 50 per cent, of the proceeds to a sinking fund
for redemption of the paper money. The bank was also
strong enough to ensure the payment of interest on
foreign bonds and to reduce the general bank interest
from 7 to 2 per cent, per month. When General Reyes
resigned, the Government contract with the bank was
rescinded, but whatever evil effects this might have had
on exchange, were largely counteracted by a law which
FINANCE 53
fixed the legal value of paper and gold as 10,000 to 100
for the payment of taxes. Then in 1909 followed the
creation of the Junta de Conversion, whose duties are :
to exchange old bills for new 50, 100 and 1,000 dollar
notes (largely to minimise fraud), and for silver at -900
fine and nickel coins. There is also a surtax of 2 per cent,
on the amount of specific duty on imports (which produced
176,181 dollars in 1911), devoted to redemption of notes.
In 1910 the English sovereign was made legal lender,
the Government accepting payment of taxes in gold or
paper, the former at an exchange value of 9,900 per cent,
premium. Following upon this the Departmental
Government of Antioquia re-opened the Mint at Medellin,
and is now coining gold at the rate of about £60,000
monthly. These measures, together with the cancel-
lation of over 30,000,000 forged paper pesos, have greatly
steadied exchange and the money market generally, and
there is every prospect of still further improvement.
Even more unfortunate has been the history of Colom-
bia's foreign bonded debt. This debt was contracted
in war time, when not only was high interest promised,
but heavy commissions and discounts had to be allowed,
so that a large proportion of the nominal advance never
reached the country. Of the total foreign indebtedness
of La Gran Colombia, New Granada accepted responsi-
bility for £3,776,791. Payment of interest was very
faulty, so that by 1873 the capital and accrued interest
ran up to £6,630,000. It was recognised that there was
no hope of such an indebtedness being liquidated, and
after negotiations the bondholders accepted obligations
to the amount of £2,000,000. Again there was default,
5— (2248)
54 COLOMBIA
and after further negotiations the total debt of £3,514,442
was cut down to £2,700,000. As the result of non-pay-
ment of interest, the late Lord Avebury, representing the
bondholders, and Don Jorge Holguin, Financial Agent,
discussed the whole question and came to a formal
agreement, whereby the interest was reduced to 3 per
cent. ; of the accrued interest amounting to £351,000.
70 per cent, was to be paid off, together with commission,
by annual drawings, and the further 30 per cent, is to be
discharged if and when the United States pays any
compensation for Colombia's Panama claim. As security
the bondholders were given a pledge of 12 per cent,
of the customs revenue, to be increased to 15 per
cent, should the sum received fall below 5,000,000
dollars gold. All these obligations have been faithfully
fulfilled.
Meanwhile the internal debt, which amounted to
24,719,541 dollars in 1910 was reduced to 1,315,781
dollars in 1912, and at the present average redemption
drawings, should be extinguished in less than two years,
So improved is the position that we are told by the
Special Commissioner of the Advisory Committee to the
Board of Trade on Commercial Intelligence who visited
Colombia on behalf of the British Government in 1911,
that an international group, represented by a British
Syndicate, actually submitted proposals for a loan of
£5,000,000 to the Colombia Government. This was to be
applied to the unification of the external debts, the
repayment of certain railway mortgages and the ac-
quisition of the Sabana and Girardot Railways. On the
other hand, French capitalists have offered to form a
FINANCE
55
Mortgage Bank. Clearer evidence of restored confidence
could hardly be forthcoming.
This looks well for the future, for the total indebted-
ness per capita is extremely low, but it must be confessed
that at present the Government, Departmental and
Municipal revenues are very small, certainly insufficient
to meet the requirements of the work to be done.
Income and Expenditure. — By far the largest pro-
portion of the national revenue is obtained from import
duties. The budget for 1913 was made up as follows —
Revenue
Dollars,
gold.
Customs
. 8,250,000
Port dues
224,000
Surtax
167,000
Sanitary dues
8,500
Export dues
100,000
Consular fees
480,000
Hospital tax
90,000
Railways
120,000
Salt and Mine rents
. 1,636,000
Monopolies (cigars and matches) .
65,000
Stamps and stamped paper
400,000
Intendencias
57,000
Magdalena canalisation tax
120,000
River navigation
100,000
Mines
24,500
Miscellaneous
248,000
12,500,000
Expenditure
Ministry of the Interior . .
. 1,264,515
Foreign Affairs
329,677
Finance
. 1,070,591
War
. 2,661,279
Treasury
544,316
Public Debt
. 2,551,556
Posts and Telegraphs
. 1,029,681
56
COLOMBIA
Expenditure — continued
Dollars,
gold.
Justice
. .
980,724
Pensions
284,206
Education
634,297
Public Works
394,972
Fomento
'otal
754,086
1
. 12,500,000
On referring to Chapter V some idea of local
administrative resources will be obtained.
Banking. — While the sources of income are restricted,
looking to the country as a whole, it must be said that
even greater inconvenience is felt as the result of the
very limited currency fund which, counting paper at
the legal exchange, hardly amounts to 10s. per head
of the present population. A little relief is felt from
the fact that silver and nickel circulates on the
Venezuelan and the Panama frontiers and in the Choco,
while there is always a certain amount of foreign
money in circulation at the seaports. If exchange
can be kept steady, the coinage of gold at Medellin
will in time help matters. But the real hope for a
prosperous and unfettered commerce is the extension
of banking facilities. At present there is a great scarcity
of such facilities. As explained above, the Banco
Central was originally founded as a national bank of
issue. But its privileges were revoked and it now has
only the standing of any other bank. Its nominal
capital is 2,300,000 dollars, and in June, 1912, it had a
reserve of 309,906 dollars, and deposits amounting to
over 340,000 dollars ; it pays a dividend of over 10 per
cent. Of the other three banks in Bogota the Banco de
FINANCE 57
Colombia has 12,000 shares, which are quoted on the
local market at 65 dollars (English gold), has over
2,710,000 dollars on deposit, and pays 3 dollars interest
per share. The shares of the Banco de Bogota are quoted
at a little over 2 dollars gold ; it had in June, 1912, over
958,000 dollars on deposit. The Banco Hipotecario
has a capital of 500,000 dollars, all shares issued and
60 per cent, paid thereon ; has a reserve of 90,300
dollars, and 214,221 dollars on deposit. Interest on
deposits varies from 3 to 6 per cent, according to
term of call, and all the banks — apart from the Banco
de Colombia — allow 3 per cent, per annum on the
minimum monthly balance on current account. At
Barranquilla there are two banks : the Banco Com-
mercial, which has a paid-up capital of about 180,000
dollars ; and the Atlantico. According to the Census
report, they paid from 14 to 16 per cent, per annum.
At Medellin there are two banks, the Banco de Sucre
and the Banco Republicano, each with capitals of 600,000
dollars, the shares of the former being quoted at a premium
of 20 and of the second at 60 per cent. In this Depart-
ment of Antioquia there are two other banks, at Rionegro
and at Sonson. At Cartagena there are three banks :
Banco de Bolivar (paid-up capital 500,000 dollars,
deposits under 150,000), Banco de Cartagena (capital
100,000 dollars), Banco Union (capital 400,000 dollars).
At Tunja there is the Banco de Boyaca. At Manizeles,
the rapidly growing capital of Caldas, the Banco de
Manizeles, with a united paid-up capital and reserve of
over 110,000 dollars, has less than 100,000 dollars on
deposit. At Popayan the Banco de Popayan has a paid-up
58 COLOMBIA
capital of 20,000 dollars and deposits to over twice
that sum. At Cali the Banco Comercial has a paid-up
capital of about 100,000 dollars. At Pasto the Banco
del Sur, with a paid-up capital of about 66,000 dollars,
and deposits of about half as much, has managed to
pay 20 per cent. All these banks are doing well, few
pay less than 10 per cent., the average is probably over
12 per cent., in spite of the custom of paying high interest
on deposits and even on current account. It must be
remembered that most of the big mercantile houses
both at the seaports and in the interior, do a certain
amount of banking business, and some of them devote a
good deal of attention to selling exchanges, discounting
bills, making advances on bills of lading and at the same
time accepting deposits. Even taking this into account,
however, it would seem that Colombia offers a good
field for banking enterprise, especially if managed on
sound but not too conservative lines.
Law 57 of 1887 declares that in order to found a new
bank it is necessary to obtain the sanction of the Govern-
ment (Art. 54). Such banks may fix their rate of discount,
interest and commission, making these known by the
issue of printed notices. Variations may be made by
further printed notices after expiry of ninety days from
every such notice issued. Private banks may lend money
on land. By authority of 17 Act 120 of the Constitution,
the President may " exercise the right of necessary
inspection over banks of issue and other establishments
of credit, in conformity with the laws."
CHAPTER VIII
social conditions
Cost of Living, Travelling, Position of
Foreigners, Commercial Laws
From the point of view of social conditions, Colombia
offers to the observant traveller most vivid contrasts.
In the capital of the Republic, in Medellin, in Barran-
quilla, Cartagena, Popayan and even in such small
towns as Rionegro (Antioquia), the habits and methods
of life of the inhabitants possess all the refinements
found in European centres, having due regard, of course,
to the limitations of any special locality and the wealth
of individual members and of a community collectively.
Bogota, as becomes the capital, is an eminently social
and hospitable city, offering to visitors all kinds of attrac-
tions and ways of agreeably passing the time. The clubs,
of which the two leading examples are the Jockey Club
and the Gun Club, give periodical dances, celebrated
for the sumptuous setting and elegance which characterise
them. Private individuals receive their guests either in
splendid salons or modest drawing-rooms, but always
with the utmost urbanity. From the early Colonial
days, the Bogotanos have been justly noted for the
suavity and nobility of their manners.
Foreigners, who in other capitals of the South American
countries find difficulties in forming relations in good
society, experience no obstacles in Bogota if provided
with adequate introductions. Local society is very
59
60 COLOMBIA
accessible, frank and hospitable. The clubs have special
regulations to facilitate the admission of foreigners,
who, as temporary members, rind every convenience
granted to them.
It is difficult to classify the hotels of Bogota, though
there are those that are good, those that are fairly good,
and those certainly not worthy of recommendation.
Nor is price the best indication. Strangers to the City
would do well to make cautious enquiries before finally
electing to take up their abodes. The houses are usually
well built and often most comfortably equipped. But
the old Spanish type with open patios are the rule, which
is perhaps not the best method of planning for so high a
situation. But Bogota, though some 8,000 ft. above
sea-level, does not strike one as a cold city, indeed the
temperature ranges between 58° and 60° F. ; while
there is the advantage of having close at hand, by means
of a four or five hours railway journey, a district basking
in a tropical temperature, somewhere about 86° F.
This makes it easy to procure all the produce from
both temperate and tropical zones. In the markets are
all the garden produce and vegetables, potatoes, peas,
wheat, and European fruit such as strawberries, apples,
pears, peaches fresh and wholesome, side by side with
pineapples, aligator-pears, bananas, chirimoya (Anona
Humboldtiana) the produce of a tropical region. On the
sabana surrounding the city, cattle of excellent quality
are raised in abundance. Beef, mutton and pork can be
obtained at the same price as in Europe, or, indeed, at
rather cheaper rates. For this reason strangers who
propose to make a lengthy stay in Bogota, or who come
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 61
with their families, are well advised in hiring their private
houses, rather than patronising hotels.
Cost of Living. — Tariffs in the dearest hotels vary
from 12s. to 15s. per day. In other establishments it
is possible to secure temporary lodgings with meals at
much lower prices. However, owing to many difficulties,
living in Bogota cannot be said to be cheap. Though
compared with such places as Rio de Janeiro or Buenos
Aires, it is undeniably low ; but the special conditions
created by the monetary system, the high Customs
tariffs and the difficulties of transport have combined to
produce a disproportionate rise in the cost of comfortable
and easy living.
Rent of houses and land has no relation to the cost
of other necessaries. This is partly due to the constant
variations in the exchange value of paper money and
partly to the scarcity of a circulating medium. The unit
of exchange in Colombia is the paper peso, or dollar,
equivalent to 4s. of English money. It has been legally
fixed that five Colombian pesos are equal to £1 sterling.
As a result of this, and moreover owing to the last three
prosperous years, English gold coins and Bank of England
notes, have entered largely into the local circulation.
So that visitors who have provided themselves with
English gold will find no difficulty in the matter of
exchange.
Travelling. — To reach the capital from Europe
the most natural access is by way of the Atlantic coast.
There are three ports of entry, which we shall name in
the order of their commercial importance : Barranquilla,
which is united by rail to its place of disembarcation,
62 COLOMBIA
Puerto Colombia ; Cartagena, whose bay is accessible
to the largest steamships ; and Santa Marta. From
Barranquilla the interior of the Republic as far as La
Dorada is entered by way of the Magdalena river, a
journey of seven to eight days. At La Dorada passengers
take the train on the Dorada Railway to Beltran or
Ambalema, where they once more join the Magdalena,
taking smaller steamers as far as Girardot. Owing
to the stay of one night at Honda made by all trains, the
run from La Dorada to Ambalema, which by direct
route could be made in three or four hours, entails a
twenty hours' journey. At Girardot, which is reached in
another sixteen to twenty hours from Ambalema or
Beltran, travellers enter trains on another railway,
which transport them to Bogota in from eight to ten hours.
The cost of this journey, from the coast to the capital,
apart from expense of luggage transport and hotel charges
is between £12 and £14 for each person.
Barranquilla, which is well worth knowing, is pro-
gressing rapidly, and is an important social centre.
There are two clubs : the Club Barranquilla and the
German Club. There are several hotels. In the most
expensive the tariff is about 12s. per day. The town,
apart from its rather high temperature and inadequate
sewerage, may be considered fairly healthy. It is the
port through which the greater part of the export and
import trade of the country passes.
Cartagena, an ancient town, surrounded by the sub-
stantial Spanish walls, is also a great social centre, society
being very distinguished and somewhat ceremonious.
Travellers desiring to reach the capital from this port,
A Modern Private House, Medellin
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 63
take train to Calamar, on the banks of the Magdalena,
there to join the steamers from Barranquilla. Living is
about as costly as it is at Barranquilla.
Santa Marta, which is also a very old Spanish town,
has prospered greatly of late, being favoured by the
rapid growth of the banana trade here and in its neigh-
bourhood. In order to reach the interior from this port,
it is necessary to go to Barranquilla, preferably by the
Santa Marta Railway, which unites the plains with the
Magdalena, and then by ferry across the river.
In order to reach Medellin travellers ascend the Mag-
dalena as far as Puerto Berrio, thence there is a railway
which leads into the interior of the Department of
Antioquia. This railway is not yet completed, and part
of the journey has to be made by means of coaches and
motor-cars.
Position of Foreigners. — The laws of the country
do not place foreigners under special disadvantages.
They are assured of ample protection, both as regards
personal liberty and property, and in time of war then-
condition is even better than that of Colombians.
It is advisable for foreigners to provide themselves
with passports, because of the laws relating to anarchist
propaganda. Nevertheless, in the interior foreigners
run no risk of being incommoded by the authorities.
The highways are safe, and there are no records of any
foreigners having received personal injury while travelling.
As has been explained in another chapter, commercial
travellers may bring in samples for exhibition without
paying duty, by undertaking to re-export them at the
expiring of a given date, and to pay duty on any goods
64 COLOMBIA
not so re-exported. However, certain districts, such as
Manizales, Cartagena, Cali, and others impose a tax on
commercial travellers showing samples.
Education. — The people of Colombia have always
distinguished themselves by a love of study. It has
frequently been made a subject of reproach that the
interest shown in assimilating general ideas incapacitates
them from appreciating details and coldly registering
accomplished facts. Yet the interest taken in the study
of science has always corresponded with those periods
of enthusiasm manifested at certain stages of their his-
tory for various experiments in education. Even in the
Colonial days, under the auspices of the Church, an
Institute of Secondary Education had been founded in
Bogota. From that period (1652) dates the Colegio del
Rosario, also an institution of secondary instruction,
which has had extraordinary success, and through which
some of those Colombians most famous in science, in
literature and in politics have passed. This College is
still in existence and flourishing, giving courses in
literature and philosophy. The National University
of Bogota, founded in 1867, has Faculties of Medicine,
Law and Political Science, and to this institution are
associated the Schools of Engineering and of National
Sciences. The National Library, Astronomical Ob-
servatory, School of Fine Arts and the Academy of Music
are also incorporated in the University. There is also
in the capital a Seminary in which youths destined for
the priesthood are educated. The Colegio de San
Bartolom6, of ancient foundation, to-day under the
direction of the Jesuit Fathers, imparts instruction to
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 65
young boys. A free Institute of learning, enjoying a
good name in the country, and in which courses of
Literature and Philosophy are held, and comprising
Faculties of Law and Political Science, is the Universidad
Republicana, which has withstood the assaults of political
enemies, and throughout a difficult period has kept pace
with the official seat of learning.
Elementary instruction, which attained a most
flourishing stage between 1870 and 1880, as the result
of the Government establishing Normal Schools with
German Professors in the capitals of all States, gradually
fell into evil days from 1886, owing to the precarious
condition created by the war and the frequent changes
of Government. Though the result of this inaction was
long felt, it has been succeeded by a new impulse in
favour of primary education. In certain departments,
as in Antioquia and Caldas, Bolivar and Cauca, the
Government's action in favour of elementary instruction
is effectively seconded by the initiative of parents. In
other regions, as in certain provinces of Cundinamarca
and Boyaca, the average attendance at school is far
below what might be expected from the census returns.
The good intentions of the present Government have
been nullified on the Constitutional law that education
shall be free but not compulsory.
Besides the higher educational institutions in the
capital of the Republic, there are Universities at Medellin,
with Faculties of Medicine and law ; at Cartagena,
and at Popayan. The School of Mines at Medellin forms
part of National University.
Literature. — Colombian literature already possesses
66 COLOMBIA
a history, and may justly pride itself on names which
are not only known all over the Continent, but even in
Europe. The Spanish language in the Republic is the
object of zealous study and the best Colombian writers
serve as examples to other nations of the Continent. As
the result of the natural inclination to letters, and owing
to the fact that in the country as a whole there is no
considerable immigration, the Spanish language has
preserved its purity better than in other nations.
The Press. — The daily Press affords ample testimony
to the fact that Colombians are tenacious in their deter-
mination to keep their language free from foreign influ-
ences. The Press had a precarious life owing to the
rude political shocks before 1902. Few of the daily papers
were able to survive the violent political crises. Never-
theless, the period of peace inaugurated by President
Reyes has been favourable to the development of
periodical publications in Colombia. There are now
some dailies which appear definitely to constitute a
prosperous Press, and certain of these manifestly have
great influence in political life. In Bogota the oldest
paper is El Nuevo Tiempo, and the one with the best
news service is La Gaceta Republicano. Other prosperous
journals are El Republicano and El Tiempo. In Carta-
gena El Porvenir is published ; it is one of the oldest
dailies in Colombia. In Barranquilla there are El
Rigolleto, El Comercio and El Liberal. In Medellin La
Prensa and the Espectador.
In Colombia the Press is absolutely free. Such laws
as relate to the subject are scarcely in force, because
the traditions of the Press have supplanted them. The
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 67
dailies treat all questions relating to the Administration,
to religious ideas, to habits and customs of the people,
with absolute liberty, and on occasions even bold effrontery.
Nevertheless such independence and liberty of criticism
is not aimless. Each paper has its policy, but it is a good
sign that often such policy is subordinated to the
criticism of facts or the examination of opposing ideas.
Commercial Laws. — According to the Colombian
Constitution anybody in the enjoyment of civil rights,
whether native born, naturalised or foreigners can take
proceedings against another person in the civil courts,
either personally or by attorney. A defendant may
demand that a plaintiff shall provide a fitting guarantor
for any costs that the plaintiff may be ordered to pay,
but in place of a guarantor the plaintiff can pay into
court such sum as the Judge may appoint. If this is
done, the plaintiff may demand a similar guarantee or
deposit from the defendant. Costs include postages ;
Government stamped paper used for claims, evidence,
etc. ; fees of witnesses and experts ; other expenses
incurred in the suit ; legal charges of attorney or
advocate.
By Articles 307 and 322 of Law 105 of 1890, parties
may, even after proceedings at law have been commenced,
refer the matters in dispute to arbitration. If this is
agreed to the parties must execute a deed, on stamped
paper, bearing the signature of two witnesses, setting
forth: (1) The subject of dispute to be submitted to
arbitration. (2) Names and descriptions of three
arbitrators. (3) The nature of the award that the
arbitrators are to direct, setting forth whether the
68 COLOMBIA
arbitrators must condemn or acquit the parties, or
whether they may impose a compromise. The omission
of any of these essentials renders the document null
and void. The award is treated as the decision of a
Judge, and is therefore subject to appeal under given
conditions.
The Commercial Code (Law 57 of 1887) declares that
" every person who according to the common laws is
held capable to contract and bind himself is held equally
capable to carry on trade" (Clause 11). Minors may
under certain circumstances carry on trade (Clause 15),
but bankrupts cannot until they have obtained their
discharge (Clause 16). Every trader must (a) declare
to his creditors the winding-up of every partnership,
whether legally constituted or depending merely upon
agreement, in which they can intervene as parties ; (6)
maintain a uniform and accurate system of accounts ;
(c) preserve all correspondence having reference to his
business (Clause 24). Every wholesale trader must keep
a (a) daybook ; (b) ledger of current accounts ; (c) register
of assets and liabilities and balance sheet ; (d) copying
letter book (Clause 27). And every retail trader must
keep a record of daily operations and a list of assets and
liabilities, together with balance sheet, prepared at least
every two years (Clause 28). Other books and records
are optional. Special rules are laid down regarding the
description of these books and of the entries to be made.
No erasures or alterations must be made, all rectifications
being made by separate entries (Clauses 37 and 38).
Merchants must preserve the books and papers of their
business until the termination at every point of the
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 69
winding-up of their business transactions. The same
obligation rests upon their heirs.
Brokers are persons capable of trading, but electing
to act as brokers or agents, and having their names
and addresses entered on a Register. They must observe
secrecy ; cannot employ assistants, and must not trade,
directly or indirectly, in those matters in which they
usually deal ; they may not acquire goods entrusted to
themselves, or to other brokers, for sale (Clauses 65-91).
The civil law recognises five classes of bankruptcy :
(a) suspension of payment, (b) accidental insolvency,
(c) culpable bankruptcy, (d) fraudulent bankruptcy,
(e) absconding (Clause 122). Fraudulent bankruptcy is
assumed when a bankrupt has failed to keep the prescribed
books, or books in the prescribed manner, or when he
fails to answer the summons of a Judge (Clause 128).
The execution of deeds of assignment of property of
traders is regarded as an act of bankruptcy (Clause 134).
The regulations as to obtaining discharges are very
stringent (Clauses 174-181).
Ordinary binding contracts may be made by word
of mouth, by public or private written document, or
through an authorised agent (Clause 183). An oral offer
must be accepted at once, and a written offer within
twenty-four hours by a person residing in the place
where the offer is made, or by return of post by others ;
otherwise the offers are void, but if a later acceptance
is made, any retraction of the offer must be made by
return of post to avoid liability to an action for loss and
damages (Clauses 184-185). Every trader can charge
interest for deliveries made on credit, one month after
6— (2248)
70 COLOMBIA
rendering an account, if the time of payment has not been
specified, even though the debtor is not a trader (Clause
212). A seller must deliver the goods sold in the time
and at the place agreed upon, but if no time has been
fixed, then the seller must have the things sold ready for
the buyer within twenty-four hours following the com-
pletion of the contract. If no place has been named,
delivery shall be made in the place where the goods
existed at the time of the sale (Clause 134).
Three kinds of commercial agency are recognised :
(a) the Comision (relating to specific mercantile trans-
actions) ; (b) Preposition (when an agent is placed in the
position of a manager) ; (c) Correduria y agenda de
cambio (brokerage) (Clauses 331-462).
The law recognises four forms of commercial associa-
tions : (a) full partnership ; (b) joint-stock companies ;
(c) limited partnership ; (d) joint adventure.
A partnership is made between persons capable of
trading by a written document made public and
registered. This document must contain (a) the names
and addresses of both parties ; (b) partnership style ;
(c) names of partners charged with management and
right of signing ; (d) the capital introduced by each
partner ; (e) the scope of the partnership ; (/) the share
of profits or losses assigned to each partner ; (g) time
limit ; (h) permissible annual drawings of each partner ;
(*) particulars as to division on winding-up ; (/) arbitra-
tion provisions, if any ; (k) registered address of the
concern ; (/) any other binding terms (Clauses 464-549).
A joint-stock company may sue and be sued. The
liability of the members is limited to the amount of their
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 71
subscription (Clause 550). But an ordinary joint-stock
company can only exist by complying with such regu-
lations as apply to the registration of partnerships
(Clause 551), and those projected for carrying out under-
takings of public concern must be authorised by special
law (Clause 553). All joint-stock companies must specify
the time of their duration, unless such time limit is
implicit in their deed of incorporation (Clause 446).
Article 14 of the Constitution declares that companies
constituted abroad " which are recognised in Colombia
as juridical personalities, will not have rights other than
those which appertain to Colombian persons." By
Legislative Decrees Nos. 2 and 37 of 1906, foreign joint-
stock companies desiring to have permanent establishments
in Colombia must record in the National Registry of the
district in which their chief place of business is situated,
a copy of their Act of Incorporation, copies of their
Articles of Association, and evidence of their registration
and permission to trade in their own country. Such
companies must have a fully authorised local resident
agent. They are not subject to any special tax.
Limited partnership (sociadad en comandita) are of
two kinds : (a) Simple limited partnerships with a
capital fund supplied wholly or in part by the limited
partners and the working partners ; (b) Limited partner-
ship by shares, whose capital is contributed by shares
subscribed by members whose names do not appear
in the partnership instrument (Clause 597). Both clauses
are subject to ordinary partnership law, but the limited
partners (whose names may be omitted from the partner-
ship instrument and need not appear in the official
72 COLOMBIA
abstract) are liable only to the extent of the capital they
have invested (Clause 599).
A joint adventure {participation) " is a contract by
which two or more traders take an interest in one or
several mercantile ventures, contemporaneous or in
succession, which must be carried out by one of them
in his own name alone, and under his personal credit,
with the obligation of rendering an account, and of
dividing with his co-adventurers the gains or losses, in
agreed proportion " (Clause 629). The Supreme Court
has held that only traders may be joint-adventurers.
Patents. — According to Decree No. 909 of 1906 on
Stamped Paper and National Stamp-Duty, patents of
privilege must pay annually ten pesos gold on each
invention.
Trade Marks.— By Decree No. 217 of 1900 it is
enacted that any citizen, whether Colombian or foreigner,
who is the proprietor of a Trade or Commercial Mark,
may acquire the exclusive right to its use by Registration.
The applicant, personally or by attorney, must appear
at the Ministry of Public Works with a request for
Registration, setting forth the distinctive sign which
constitutes the mark, the article to which it refers, and the
place of manufacture or production. This request must
be made on stamped paper of the third class, and be
accompanied by two copies (drawings or prints) of the
mark, each bearing a stamp of the first class. The
application is published in the official Gazette at the cost
of the applicant, and if thirty days thereafter, if a Trade
Mark, or sixty if a Commercial Mark, there should be
no opposition, it is registered. A Trade Mark (Marca
SOCIAL CONDITIONS 73
de Fabrica) is defined as " any phrase or sign employed in
order to distinguish or define a particular product in-
tended for trade or commerce." A Commercial Mark
(Marca de Comercio) is defined as a " phrase or sign
distinctive of an article of commerce intended to be
associated with a particular commercial person or trading
house." By Decree No. 217 of 1900, the dues payable
on both classes of Mark are ten pesos gold.
CHAPTER IX
INLAND COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
One of the greatest needs of Colombia, if not indeed the
greatest of all, is the provision of facilities for inland
traffic. Not only is a large part of the country still
practically unexplored, but even districts which are
comparatively densely populated are often left in strange
isolation owing to the lack of railroads and highways.
It is this fact that makes travelling in the Republic
slow and costly, and the transport of goods a matter of
serious concern. No doubt the configuration of this very
mountainous country with its deep valleys and rolling
llanos, explains much of the present condition of affairs,
because the engineering and financial problems to be
overcome are considerable. Nevertheless it will be
found, especially when the railroads and highways of the
country are being examined, that past political history
has had much to do with both the deeds of commission
and omission ; with the new era, therefore, we may
justly look for greater wisdom and swifter progress.
We have already dealt with certain provisions for
inland navigation, and meagre though these be, it will
be found that the river system plays an almost pre-
dominant part in traffic possibilities when the country is
viewed as a whole.
In regard to river traffic' the Magdalena stands pre-
eminent. In its course of about 1,060 miles (of which
930 are navigable), it traverses nearly three-fourths of
74
<3
</)
*0
ns
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 75
the central part of the Republic, and by means of its
tributaries taps many of the most thickly populated
of the agricultural and industrial regions. Unfortunately,
although the fourth largest river in South America, it
partakes for long stretches the character of a mountain
stream. Broadly speaking, the river is navigable for
large steamers from the Atlantic almost up to Honda,
a distance of about 1,000 kilometres ; for small steamers
from above Honda to Neiva ; for boats and rafts up
to the confluence of the Paez. As a matter of fact,
however, there are numerous obstacles to be met with.
Much dredging and rectification of banks are required
in the lower reaches before large steamers can enjoy a
free and easy course all the year round. Real difficulties
begin at Honda, just above which are the celebrated
Fall and Rapids of that name. These cause most of
the steamers to anchor a short distance below the port.
For up-country traffic this stoppage generally takes
place at La Dorada, where there is a short railway running
to Honda and then on to Ambalema. By using this
railway passengers avoid the Falls of Honda and the
narrow straits of Colombaima, where the river races
between high rocky cliffs. At Ambalema passengers
and goods once more join the river, a short distance by
small steamer being traversed before reaching Girardot,
where the railway to Bogota begins. The steamers
continue up to Neiva, and then further progress must
be made by canoes, or the peculiar raft-boats known as
Champans. On the banks of the Magdalena are numerous
ports, some little more than wharfs and warehouses.
The river has also many tributaries. Soon after leaving
76 COLOMBIA
Barranquilla on the south bank is Calamar, the river
port and railhead of the Cartagena railway. Just above,
on the north bank, is Heredia, an important collecting
depot of the rich agricultural Magdalena plains. Higher
up, on the south bank, is the mouth of the Cauca. A
regular service of steamers ply up the river from Barran-
J quilla to Valdivia ; also up a tributary of the Cauca, the
Nechi, as far as Zaragoza. The Cauca is used on many
of its stretches by both steamers and rafts, assisting in
traffic between such towns as Cali and Cartago, but the
bed is in many parts impassable owing to falls and rocks.
Returning to the Magdalena we find on its north bank
the river Cesar, which affords a waterway through fertile
regions to the Valle Dupar and the Goajira Peninsula.
Here is also the mouth of the partly navigable Lebrija,
which runs south-east, steamers going as far as Estacion
Santander, champans continuing the voyage to Puerto
Santos, where the pack-mule trail commences. Other
tributaries useful as collecting and distributing channels
are the Opon and Carare, opening up the country of
Santander ; the Sogamoso, tapping Santander and
Boyaca and the Nare, traversing part of Antioquia. To
return once more to the main stream of the Magdalena,
Jesus del Rio and Zambrano are important as the coffee
and tobacco depots of Bolivar ; Magangue" is the gateway
to the cattle-raising plains of Corozal. From Puerto
Wilches a railway is under construction to Bucaramanga,
which district is also served by La Gloria, Bodega de
Carmen, and Bodega del Sur. From Puerto Berrio a
railway runs south-west to La Quiebra and is being
continued to Medellin.
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 77
It has already been said that the navigation of the
Magdalena is by no means easy, this is due to sand-
banks, rocks, and at certain seasons lack of water.
Consequently the service is apt to be slow and somewhat
irregular, moreover, it is extremely expensive owing to the
frequent transhipments. In his report to the Board of
Trade, Mr. G. T. Milne says : " With a view to improving
conditions a canalisation tax is imposed on both exports
and imports, the product being applied to the acquisition
and upkeep of dredges." The work is carried out under
the direction of the Minister of Public Works and a
Canalisation Board. According to a recent decree the
tax is as follows — _ .. „ ,,
Dollars Gold
per ton.
On imports of general merchandise . . . . 4.5
On national manufactures for consumption
in the country .. .. .. .. 2.10
On national manufactures for export —
On sawn or squared timber, sugar, rubber,
minerals, hides, coffee, cocoa and salt . . 1.60
On timber in logs, and fibres . . . . 0.60
In 1912 this tax yielded about 117,000 dollars gold,
on an import cargo of 44,500 tons and an export cargo
of 53,300 tons. Mr. Milne adds : " While the Canalisation
Board probably does something to improve navigation,
to deal effectively with the problem (which is stated to be
getting more serious every year owing to the diminished
amount of water in the rivers through deforestation)
technical advice of the best kind available would be
necessary, with presumably the expenditure of very
large sums of money. At present canalisation works
on an extensive scale might prove to be beyond the
country's resources, although a loan, secured on the
78 COLOMBIA
revenue derived from the tax and expended by responsible
foreign engineers and contractors, might greatly improve
existing conditions. The first essential would be a
thorough investigation of the problem by a competent
engineer. If his report should be favourable to expendi-
ture a loan could presumably be arranged on condition
that the collection of the tax by the lending house was
satisfactorily provided for. In the event of the necessary
works being deemed beyond the country's resources, the
only solution of the difficulty would seem to be for the
Government to assist such railway enterprises as would
tend to facilitate communication between the littoral
and the interior. Eventually a trunk line, linking up
existing and projected railways, may cross the country
from ocean to ocean ; but it seems improbable that a work
of this magnitude will be undertaken in the near future."
Before discussing this and other aspects of the railway
problem we must say a few words about the steamboat
accommodation in the Magdalena, and also on the other
navigable waterway systems of the Republic. That
such facilities as the Magdalena offers should largely
monopolise attention is explained when we realise that
close upon 80 per cent, of the value of imports, and over
60 per cent, of the exports pass through the Customs
of Barranquilla and Cartagena, and as only a small
proportion of these goods remain in the two cities, or
are distributed in their neighbourhoods by rail or carts,
or transhipped to Santa Marta, it is clear what a pre-
ponderating part this river plays in the business life of
the country. While there is a fair amount of competition
in the provision of steamboat service, the two leading
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
79
organisations are a local company, the Empresa Han-
seatica, and an English company, the Empresa Aliadas,
both of which are managed by Colombian firms. The
Hanseatica has a fleet of seven steamers of 1,269 tons in
all, and the Aliadas twenty-nine steamers of over 6,000
tons. These steamers, and those of other owners, are
flat-bottomed stern-wheelers, drawing little water and
designed on the lines of the American river steamboats.
A weekly express mail service to Bogota, and inter-
mediate services, are run by the Aliadas for a monthly
Government subsidy of £1,000. Passenger rates and
cargo freights are on a tariff approved by the Government,
rebates being allowed on certain classes of goods. Thus
the charge for carriage of general merchandise from
Puerto Colombia to La Dorado, thence over rail to
Arranca Plumas, then by river, and again by rail to
Bogota is about £12 per ton, calculated thus in gold
dollars per ton —
Railway freight, Puerto Colombia to Barran-
quilla
River freight, Barranquilla to La Dorado
Sundry charges : Manifest and Stamps
Loading river steamer
Canalisation tax
Customs despatch
Cartage
Commission
Through freight, La Dorado-Bogota
3.63
14.0
1.60
.60
2.0
.20
.10
1.20
35.35
58.68
The through rates from Cartagena are the same. It
should be noted that there is a rebate of 25 per cent, on
the river freights for agricultural and mining machinery,
80 COLOMBIA
tools and wire netting, and 50 per cent, on railway
material.
Mention has already been made of the Cauca, which
taps part of Bolivar, Antioquia, Caldas, El Valle and
Cauca. It is navigable from the Magdalena, near
Magangue, to Rio Nuevo ; but thence to the city of
Antioquia the river is impassable. Above that there is a
considerable reach of fair waterway, a busy traffic being
kept up from a little above Cali and rather beyond
Cartago. The Nechi and other tributaries bring addi-
tional traffic to this river, giving access to districts lying
eastward.
The Sinu, draining the low-lying cattle and sugar
plantation lands of western Bolivar, is open to steamers
from the Gulf of Cispata to Monteria.
Going west, there is the Atrato, falling into the Gulf
of Darien and navigable as far as Quibdo. Plans have
been prepared for a short canal from Cupica Bay, by
which this river would be given an outlet into the Pacific.
While the eastern slopes of the Cordillera and wide
valley of the department of El Valle is served by the
Cauca, the western slope and coastal forest regions are
served by the San Juan, which is open for steamers
from Buenaventura to San Pablo, and for small boats to
Dipurdu. There is a project to join the San Juan with
the Atrato by canalisation, which would also have the
effect of giving direct water communication between the
Atlantic and the Pacific. But the engineering diffi-
culties are very considerable and the probable cost,
in view of the class of possible traffic, appears prohibitive.
The Pat i a drains the south-western border of Cauca
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 81
and the western part of Narino, flowing into the Pacific
not far from the Ecuadorian frontier.
On the eastern side, the Meta rising in the Cerro del
Nevado (where snow-capped peaks, 14,140 ft. above
sea-level, feed enormous glaciers), lying to the south-west
of Bogota, skirts the foot-hills of the Eastern Cordillera,
and, flowing through the great territory of Meta and the
southern border of the Comisaria of Arauca, which is
tapped by tributaries, joins the Orinoco at the Venezuelan
frontier, and affords an outlet into the Atlantic through
Lake Maracaibo.
The Guaviare river rises on the southern slope of the
Cerro del Nevado, and just below Uribe is joined by the
Ariari, which rises in the foot-hills of the Cordillera de
Sumapaz and passes by the town of Arana. The
Guaviare continuing with a north-eastward trend, cuts
the Meta territory almost in two and flows into the
Orinoco. One day it may become of great importance.
The Yupura, which flows right through the Caqueta
territory, tapping it right and left by means of many
tributaries, and the Putumayo, south of the Caqueta,
both of which flow into the Marahon, are waterways
whose usefulness are bound to be largely developed in the
near future.
Other rivers are navigable, though they are generally
tributaries of the systems already mentioned. Some
particulars of these will be found in the chapter on
Ports and Harbours.
Railways. — For the moment the railways of Colombia
present an extraordinary absence of systematic develop-
ment. There are fourteen lines, ranging from 15 to 55
82 COLOMBIA
miles in length, dotted about the country, few having
any direct connection with any other. This seemingly
haphazard scattering of short stretches of railways in
isolated districts is to a considerable extent the result
of the old Sovereign State regime, when there were seven
or eight Governments each ambitious to enter into the
civilised world's race for railway construction, but without
much regard to what their neighbours were doing, or
to the needs of the Confederation as a whole.
Two of the obviously necessary lines are those of the
Barranquilla and the Cartagena railways, both owned by
English companies. The first is 15 miles long and links
up Puerto Colombia with Barranquilla, and has a capital
(in shares and bonds) of £300,000. The second runs
between Cartagena and Calamar on the Magdalena, a
distance of 65 miles ; it has a capital of £1,350,000.
The Barranquilla railway carries four times as many
passengers and rather over twice as many goods as the
Cartagena line. Both perform a useful purpose, yet they
entail an expensive system of transhipment.
Santa Marta Railway. Santa Marta, whose port is
regularly visited by the Elders-Fife line as well as the
ships of the United Fruit Company and the Hamburg
American line, is the starting-point of a railway, owned by
the English Santa Marta Railway Company, Ltd. (capital,
shares and bonds, £506,370), which runs to Cienega on the
river Fundacion. It has 72 miles of track, and is more-
over fed by about 10 miles of short private lines serving
banana plantation estates. There is a project to carry
the line to Banco on the Magdalena, near to its confluence
with the Cesar. This would add about 135 miles to the line.
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 83
On the Pacific coast the Cauca railway, which was
started forty years ago and has had a chequered career,
is now in the hands of a local company, the Compania del
Ferrocarril del Pacifico. It has a paid-up share capital
of 854,000 dollars gold, and a bonded debt floated in
London of £119,200. Its line runs from Buenaventura
towards Cali, which it has nearly reached, about 83 miles
being open and in operation.
Harking back to the Magdalena, at a point known as
Puerto Wilches we find the Great Central Northern Railway
Company, Ltd. (an English concern with a share and
bond capital of £1,001,760 ; the Government of Colombia
holding £50,000 of shares), constructing a line to Bucar-
amanga, of which over 12 miles are completed. This
company secured the right to prolong its line from
Bucaramanga, so as to form a junction with the
Ferrocarril del Norte.
Higher up the river, on the west bank, is busy Puerto
Berrio, where commences the Antioquia Railway (which
is owned by the department). It is now nearly com-
pleted as far as Medellin, a distance of 120 miles.
Practically an extension of this railway is being run from
Medellin through Amaga to the Cauca river. This
extension now reaches Caldas, 19 miles distant, and still
has to be carried another 23 miles. Mr. Milne states that
freights on this railway, from Puerto Berrio to Cisneros
(109 kiloms.) are 20 cents gold on general merchandise,
18 cents on cotton yarn, petroleum, flour and salt, and
15 cents on machinery, galvanised iron, wire fencing
and steel, all per ton-kilometre.
Some distance farther up on the west bank, just below
84 COLOMBIA
Honda, commences the La Dorada Railway, owned by the
Dorada Extension Railway, Ltd., with a capital of
£700,000. As elsewhere already explained, three of its
Stations, La Dorada, Honda and Arranca Plumas are
on the Magdalena, and there is an extension to Ambalema.
Its chief reason for existence is to act as a portage, carrying
all passengers and goods traffic between La Dorada and
Ambalema, thus avoiding the impassable rapids about
Honda. It also receives much traffic from Manizales
and elsewhere, which comes over the Quindio pass road.
The main, or river skirting line, is 31 miles long, and the
extension 51.
Still higher up, at Girardot, commences a narrow
gauge railway, owned by the English Colombian National
Railway Company, Ltd. (capital £900,000, one-third
owned by the Government, and a bonded debt of
£1,480,000).
The 82 miles of the Colombiano National Railway
end at Facatativa, whence another railway of 24 miles
starts for Bogota across the plateau. It carries over
70 per cent, of traffic to and from the Sabana of Bogota,
though up to 1913 more than half of the total found
its way down to the valley by way of the Honda mule
track and the Camboa cart road. Bogota itself is the
centre of four railways serving the Cundinamarca
plateau. Besides the Girardot line there is the Sabana
(practically owned by the Government), which has
25 miles out, to Facatativa. The Ferrocarril del Norte,
owned by the English Colombian Northern Company,
Ltd. (capital, shares and bonds, £780,000) has a 29 mile
line to Zipaquira. It has made over its concession
53
^
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 85
for the construction of an extension from its terminus
to Chiquinquira, where it would connect up with an
extension from Bucaramanga, to the Colombian Central
Railway Company, a short branch (9 miles) connecting
Zipaquira and Nemocon. The Ferrocarril del Sur, the
property of the Government, runs from Bogota to Sibate,
a distance of 19 miles. It is proposed ultimately to link
up Girardot with Ibague, in Tolima. Work has already
been commenced on this Tolima Railway, which is the
property of the Government, from the Ibague end, about
15 miles being in working order.
North-east of Bucaramanga, in Norte de Santander,
is the go-ahead town of Cucuta. In 1888 its merchants,
with the assistance of the Municipality which owns a
third share, constructed a railway 37 miles long to
Puerto Villamizar, on the Zulia river ; subsequently an
extension of 10 miles was made to the Venezuelan
frontier, joining the town of Chiguara.
Such is the railway position to-day. The Government
is credited with projects to link up these various isolated
lines. The Buenaventura line to Cali would be carried
north, passing through various towns, to join the Cauca-
Medellin line and so through to Puerto Berrio. Thence it
would turn south to join the Dorada line, where a branch
would run to Tocaima on the Girardot line, thus linking
up with Bogota. From Bogota the Norte is to be pro-
longed to Chiquinquira, forming a conjunction with the
Bucaramanga line to Puerto Wilches. A line across the
Quindio would connect Cartago with Girardot, and a
branch line from Medellin would run to the Gulf of
Uraba. A branch would run- from Girardot to La
7— (2248)
86 COLOMBIA
Plata, while the Buenaventura railway would be run
south through Popayan and Pasto to the Ecuadorian
frontier. To complete the network, a branch would be
built from Bucaramanga to Cucuta. Thus only the
three Atlantic lines would be left unconnected.
A free hand has been reserved by the Government in
the matter of railway construction. A law passed in
1892 gives power to the Executive to grant concessions
without reference to the Legislature. Subsidies may be
granted in the form of not more than 300 hectars of public
lands, plus a sum not exceeding 10,000 dollars gold,
payable in 6 per cent, amortisable bonds, per kilometre
open to traffic ; or a guarantee for not more than twenty
years of interest not exceeding 7 per cent, on capital
actually invested, and not exceeding 30,000 dollars gold
per kilometre open to traffic. This guarantee ceases if and
when the railway succeeds earning in three consecutive
years a profit sufficient to pay the guaranteed interest.
A concession may be given for as long as 100 years.
As a rule, the Government reserves power to purchase the
railway at any time after fifty years on valuation, and after
seventy-five years on payment of 50 per cent, of actual value.
It will be readily gathered from what has been said
above that when all allowances have been made for
river traffic and railway service, the commerce of the
country as a whole is still chiefly dependent on ordinary
land transport. While in a few districts, mainly in the
immediate neighbourhood of a few of the big cities, there
are good high-roads, available for public and private
motor traffic, and a rather larger mileage open to heavily
built carts, most places are only accessible for foot
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 87
passengers, pack-horses and mules, over more or less well
denned tracks.
Roads. — On the Sabana of Bogota some excellent
highways are to be found. The most notable of these
is the Carretera Central del Norte, which unites Bogota
to Santa Rosa in Boyaca. It passes through the
municipalities of Usaquen, Chia, Cajica, Sopo, Tocancipa,
Gachancipa, Nemocon, Suesca, Choconta, Villa Pinzon,
Boyaca and Santa Rosa, a distance of 200 miles, and is
traversable by carriages and motors. Next in importance
is the Carretera de Cambao, uniting Bogota with Cambao
some 130 miles away on the Magdalena. These are
supplemented by a number of smaller roads and bridle
paths. In Antioquia the good cart roads also radiate
from the capital. There is the North Eastern road to
Santo Domingo, the southern to Caldas, and others to
Envigado and La Quiebra. In Atlantico the only cart
road is that between Barranquilla and Usiacuri, about
30 miles long. In Bolivar there are projects for highways
uniting Barranquilla with Calamar and Turbaco, and
another between Monteria and Magangue. In Boyaca
fairly good branch roads from the great North Road
unite Quetame with Sogamoso and so with the Magdalena,
the other running out to Carare. Over a mile of the new
road to unite Samaca, Sachica and Chiquinquira, has
been constructed. In El Valle a road of some 40 miles
unites Buga and Palmira. In Norte de Santander the
Carretera Central del Norte is under construction, and
is making slow progress. In Santander the only cart
road is between Bucaramanga and Florida, a distance of
about 15 miles. It is not a long list.
88 COLOMBIA
Apart from these are several well-known and much
frequented tracks, some traversed by horses and mules,
others only possible for foot passengers. The most
famous of these is the Quindio road, which may be
entered from Girardot on the Magdalena, touching at
Ibague and then over the Central Cordillera by the
Quindio Pass into the Cauca valley to Cartago. Another
ancient and much frequented road is that from Neiva
on the Magdalena, across the paramos of Guanacas and
Coconucos on the Central Cordillera to Popoyan. A track
is being made between Quibdo, capital of the Choco
territory, to Bolivar.
Many of these tracks are difficult at the best of times,
and even the good ones are often impassable in the
rainy season. Mules are preferred to horses, as being
hardier and more sure-footed. For pack mules a load,
or cargo, is limited to two packs of from 60 to 70 kilogs.
each, according to the route to be traversed, and for light
but bulky loads 300 cubic decimetres is the limit. For
the more difficult tracks and passes smaller and lighter
packs are necessary as they have to be carried on men's
or women's backs. In all districts mule and carrier
contractors will be found, with their strings of well
trained beasts or human porters.
It is obvious that for such transport as this careful
packing is essential, not only as regards size and weight,
but the strength of the cases or bales and the outer
waterproof covering.
In the past very serious mistakes have been made in
connection with the sending out of heavy merchandise.
While wonders have been done in transporting machinery
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT 89
into the interior, for instance railway material to the
Bogota plateau before the days of the Girardot and cart
roads, on the other hand it has often happened that
expensive mining and milling machinery, sent out from
Europe, has had to be abandoned in the forest as being
too bulky and heavy.
CHAPTER X
HARBOURS AND PORTS
Taking the seaports in order of their importance Puerto
Colombia, sometimes called Savanilla, comes easily first,
not only on the Atlantic coast, but in the whole Republic.
It lies slightly to the west of the mouth of the Magdalena,
and is the chief port of call for all steamers from Europe
and the United States. As a matter of fact Puerto
Colombia is the modern and seawardly situated suburb
of the older port and town of Savanilla, but even now
there is very little water inshore, so that a screwpile
pier, a mile long, though soon to be extended by 20 ft.,
has been constructed for the accommodation of vessels.
Steamers drawing 25 ft. of water can be berthed at the
pierhead, there being room for two large and two small
vessels. From the pierhead four lines of rails connect
with the single track railway to Barranquilla, which is
the real port and the Customs headquarters. Both pier
and railway are the property of the Barranquilla Railway
and Pier Company, Ltd., which has a capital of £200,000
in shares and £100,000 in bonds. Puerto Colombia
and Savanilla are in themselves quite small places, having
a population of 1,202.
Barranquilla, 17 miles up stream from Puerto Colombia
on the western bank, is the true port. Founded in
1629, it was not until the middle of last century that its
advantages as a trade distributing centre was recognised,
and for long it maintained an unequal struggle with its
90
HARBOURS AND PORTS 91
near by sister city of Cartagena, but to-day it holds the
premier place, where the chief Custom House of the
Republic is situated and the most developed business and
manufacturing circles are found. It has good quays,
ship repairing yards, great warehouses, public markets,
water supply, electric lighting and tramways, theatres,
public buildings of various descriptions, including a
fair number of educational establishments. Railway
communication is provided not only with Puerto
Colombia, but with Cartagena, and steam launches
connect the city with Santa Marta. Barranquilla is
also the headquarters for the various lines of river steamers
which take up country by far the largest percentage of
imports, and bring down a very considerable portion of
produce and manufactures for export. In a few words,
it is Colombia's most conspicious traffic exchange, both
for passengers and goods. Hotels, banks, clubs and
many other conveniences exist. There are projects
for dredging and otherwise improving the Ceniza mouth
of the Magdalena, so as to permit ocean-going liners to
steam right up to the port. It has a population of
21,138.
Catagena, the old " Queen of the Indies," seated on an
island in the bay of that name, presents a delightful
picture, with its old-world fortifications and public
buildings. Although somewhat difficult to enter, the
port is extensive and safe, with all necessary facilities
for rapid handling of cargoes. The quay, on which the
Custom House stands, belongs to a British concern,
the Cartagena Railway Company, Ltd., whose line runs
to Calamar, just above Barranquilla on the Magdalena.
92 COLOMBIA
At present much of the trade to and from the Sinu and
Atrato districts pass through Cartagena. The city,
which has a population of 17,210, possesses a number of
flourishing manufacturing industries.
There are two other ports of the Atlantic. That
furthest east is Riohacha, a small town at the mouth
of the Rio Hacha, or Rio Ranch eria, on the Goajira
Peninsula, and has a population of 9,426. Practically
there is no harbour, the water being very shallow all
goods are transported from and to ship by means of
lighters. At present the trade of the port is carried
on chiefly by sailing vessels from Santa Marta, though
steamers call occasionally. It is the natural outlet
and inlet for the Goajira Peninsula, which is almost
entirely inhabited by Indians. Trade is confined to
the export of horses and cattle, hides, pearls, brazil
and divi-divi woods, which the Indians bring in and
exchange for the imported hardware and textiles.
Further to the west on the mouth of the river Man-
zanares, lies Santa Marta, the excellent harbour being
well protected and offering good berths at wharfs for
ocean steamers. Founded in 1525, it long enjoyed the
rank of a leading town, then sank into comparative
insignificance, to be revived by the rise of the banana
trade. It is a well planned, bright little town, with all
the public buildings to be expected in the capital of a
department, also having a large market, hospital, electric
lighting, etc. While there is a fair general trade done
here, the overshadowing industry is the exportation of
bananas, which are grown in the fertile, low-lying lands
in the Magdalena valley. These plantations are connected
HARBOURS AND PORTS 93
with Santa Marta by a short railway and its feeders.
There is a project for continuing the railway to Valle
Dupar, which would tap a rich agricultural and mining
district, at present inadequately served by boat and canoe
service on the Cesar River. Enormous possibilities for
the growth of the banana trade exist in this extensive
district.
It is probable that some day that magnificent sheet of
water known as the Gulf of Darien will be developed as
a harbour. This will certainly be the case if the scheme
for dredging the Atrato and the San Juan, and joining the
two heads by a deep cutting, thus forming a canal between
the Atlantic and the Pacific, is carried out. It extends
well inland, is securely protected, provides safe anchorage
on a sandy bottom at depths varying from \\ to 10
fathoms, is provided with fresh water by two streams,
the rivers Tuira and Sabana, and could be made by means
of roads the collecting centre for the Atrato river. At
present the bay is surrounded by dense forests, man-
groves making an almost complete fringe to the bay.
Mahogany, palms and rubber trees grow in profusion,
and so fertile is the soil that sugar, coffee and cocoa
grow almost without cultivation.
On the Pacific coast three ports are recognised :
Buenaventura, Guapi and Tumaco.
Buenaventura lies on an island on the south side of
the River Buenaventura or San Juan, ten miles from its
mouth. This broad stream is navigable up to the city
by vessels drawing 24 ft. of water, though they cannot
approach the bank, and there being no wharf, lighterage
is necessary. This is a pity, as the port possesses many
94 COLOMBIA
natural advantages and is known as one of the beauty
spots of the country. A railway is being run from the
port inland to Cali. Buenaventura is the gateway not
only to the Choco territory, but to the Cauca country.
It exports coffee, hides, ivory, nuts, rubber, gold,
platinum, and imports provisions, salt and manufactured
goods.
Guapi is a village some hundred miles south of
Buenaventura, and although the seat of a Custom House,
at present does little trade. But a beginning has been
made towards the opening up of the timber industry.
There are considerable mineral possibilities in the neigh-
bourhood, while a new road across the Cordillera from
Popayan to Micay, just south of the port, may in time be
found a useful trade route.
Tumaco, 5 miles south of Boca Grande, is the frontier
town on the Ecuadorian border and is situated on three
islands, Tumaco, Viciosa and El Moro, all lying in the
mouth of the Labarra or Rosario river. The existing
entrance to the port is through a somewhat narrow
channel at the eastern end of El Moro. Ships of 21 ft.
draught find safe anchorage, but all cargo is handled by
lighter. The town is of some importance, and although
the present trade (exports, coffee, cocoa, hides, ivory,
nuts, rubber, and gold dust ; imports, clothing, provisions,
and manufactured goods) is slight, the opening of the
Panama canal and a policy of road construction may soon
cause rapid development.
It would be absurd to write about the ports and har-
bours of Colombia without dealing with the river ports,
for the rivers of this country are not only trade highways,
HARBOURS AND PORTS 95
but in a large measure a prolongation of the open trade
routes of the seas.
On the Magdalena, just above Barranquilla, is Calamar,
where the Cartagena railway ends. Puerto Wilches
(population 1,912) is the river terminus of the Bucara-
manga railway. About 100 miles higher up, and 500
miles from Barranquilla, is Puerto Berrio (population
4,553) the river terminus of the Medellin Railway.
Then comes La Dorada where a railway commences,
touching at Honda and continuing to Ambalema to
avoid the falls of Honda. Practically navigation for
large steamers end below Honda, but this port (popu-
lation 5,433) is a thriving commercial centre. At
Girardot (population 4,456) there is the head of the
railway to Bogota. Next in importance after this is
Neiva (population 9,599). It must be remembered
that the Magdalena is navigable almost up to Honda
for large steamers, and then up to its conjunction with
the river Paez for boats and rafts ; moreover, it receives
upwards of 500 affluents in its course of 1,055 miles, of
which several are open to steamers, and most to boats
and canoes.
Cali (population 11,822) is the principal port on the
Cauca, which is navigable by steamers up to Cartago,
and by smaller boats up to Magangue (population 6,099).
Other stretches of the river are open to small steam
launches and boats. Banco is at the confluence of the
Cesar with the Magdalena, Bodega Central and Bodega
Sogamoso are respectively at the confluences of the rio
Lebrija and the Sogamoso, and are the collecting posts for
trade to and from Bucaramanga.
96 COLOMBIA
The Atrato, which flows into the outer bay of Darien,
has two important ports, one a mere entrepos at the
confluence of the Napipi, 189 miles from the mouth,
which can be reached by large steamers, and Quibdo
(population 15,000) 130 miles higher up. Above this
boats and quite steamers run up to Lloro and El Quito.
The San Juan, which is partly blocked by a sand bar,
has the ports of Noanama and Dipurdu, where there are
rapids and steamer service ends, but boats go up as far
as San Pablo (population 4,716), 139 miles from the mouth.
On the Meta, a tributary of the Orinoco, the chief port
is Orocue (population 556), which is reached by steamer
from the Venezuelan town of Ciudad Bolivar, on the
Orinoco.
CHAPTER XI
FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS
It is difficult to arrive at any serviceable computation
as to the extent of the Colombian forests. Although
they are met with in practically every one of the Depart-
ments and Territories, and are known to be of enormous
value, little exact data has so far been gathered. Caldas,
Colombia's martyred scientific Botanist, placed the
limit of forest growth at 3,365 metres above sea level,
and that of vegetation at 4,328, which has been confirmed
by later observers.
In the warm zone, which extends over nearly three-
fifths of the country, palms may be said to be the domin-
ant feature of the forests. There are an immense variety
of this species. Among the most important of these are
the coconut palm ; the phytelephas macrocarpa, producing
the tagua or vegetable-ivory nut ; the myroxilum
toluifera and copaifera officinalis, producing respectively
balsams of Tolu and copaiba ; the ceroxylon Andicola,
or wax palm ; the manto, whose bark produces seamless
sacks, and many others. Besides these we must mention
the much appreciated cedars, mahogany (both the true
mahogany and its best substitute, cariniana pyriformis),
bread fruit trees, the curious milk tree, the guayacan (an
intensely hard wood, much used locally for railway pur-
poses and in mining), and several timbers utilised in build-
ing and cabinet-making work. In a special class among
these are the rubber producing trees, including the Sapium
97
98 COLOMBIA
Tolimensis, or white caoutchene, Castilloa elastica, Hevea,
the milk tree, etc., balata, and other species yielding a
kind of gutta-percha. Allied to these are the many
resiniferous trees, among which may be specified the
elaegia utilis of the Caqueta region, producing a beautiful
resin, known as Pasto varnish ; the arraco, yielding a
brilliant rose varnish, which becomes a deep, brilliant
black if mixed with the juice of the yuca leaves ; the
currucai {isica herelophila) producing a white, aromatic
resin, rich in turpentine, which on testing resembles high-
class Burgundy pitch, and others. There are also
numerous trees yielding dyewoods and tannins. Under
the giants of the tropical forests we find such valuable
smaller growths as the cinchonas (in several varieties) ;
wild cocoa trees, bearing scanty crops of small beans
rich in oil ; ginger ; ipecacuanha ; sarsaparilla ; vanilla ;
not to mention gorgeous orchids and beautiful shrubs
and plants which have been introduced into our gardens
and hot-houses.
In the temperate zone, covering nearly one-third of
the country, at an altitude of between 1,000 and 2,600
metres, with a mean temperature of between 17 and 22° C,
we find a fair number of the tropical trees and shrubs
mixed with tree ferns, oaks, and the very useful algarroba
or locust bean tree. The wax palm, which appeared in
small numbers in the warm zone, is here more abundant,
and persists right through the cold region. Here, too,
will be found in rich profusion the American agave, which
tapped for its fermentable juice {pulque), is specially
valued for its hennequen fibre.
In the cold zone, between 2,600 and 3,300 metres
FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS 99
above sea, forming about one-eighth of the country, the
outstanding forest trees are resiniferous pines, wax
palms, oaks and walnuts. It is also within this zone
that the best cinchona bark is found.
Most of the dense forests are found in the valleys,
such as those of the Magdalena, the upper Sinu, Sogamoso,
the Meta, Patia, the great basin of the Putumayo and such
coastal regions as the Goajira Peninsula and the Choco
Territory. Very little has hitherto been done to exploit
these riches on an economic scale. Yet, immense as
the forests undoubtedly are, complaints are already
heard as regards disforestation, especially in the valleys
of the Magdalena, Cauca, Sogamoso, etc., which results
in the progressive falling of water in the rivers, thus
rendered more difficult to navigate. This state of affairs
is due not so much to the clearing of National and
Departmental forests by agricultural colonists, as to the
fact that wood is almost the only fuel, outside of very
restricted areas. It is not only used domestically and
for manufacturing purposes, but also for firing steamboat
and railway locomotive boilers. Along the navigable
rivers and the railways huge stacks of wood have to be
kept at frequent intervals, for the annual consumption
in this way is immense. Moreover, very liberal grants
of forest land are made in connection with mining enter-
prises, the trees being cut down wholesale not only for
timbering purposes, but for fuel. Unquestionably there
is much waste in these directions due to badly directed
energies. Apart from this the Government regulations
for controlling forest exploitation are sound enough.
Grants are made for units of not more than 3,000 hectares.
100 COLOMBIA
Concessionaires may receive two or more units, but
such units must be separated by tracts of not less than
3,000 hectares. Grants are made for only one clearly
specified line of exploitation : the cutting down of timber
trees ; gathering of locust beans, coco-nuts, of ivory nuts,
of rubber, gums and resins, of barks, of vanilla, medicinal
herbs, orchids or horticultural specimens. However, a con-
cessionaire is often granted the rights for two or more
kinds of exploitations. As a rule only mature trees may be
cut down, and provision is made for natural growth. Nut,
resiniferous and gum trees must be exploited in such a
manner as only to gather the year's crop, without harming
the trees. It is extremely doubtful, however, whether
these regulations are observed as strictly as they should be.
As regards rubber and gutta-percha, up to the present
the trade is practically confined to the gathering of
the latex from wild trees in the National forests, a business
largely confined to Indians, negroes, and a limited class of
white and mestizo caucheros. If anything is to be done
with the trade on a big scale, regular planting will have
to be undertaken. Most of the rubber now comes from
the forests of Antioquia, Cauca, Narifio (chiefly derived
from Amozone valley and the Pacific), and the Choco.
For coco-nut the principal centres are Antioquia
and El Valle. For tagua, the Sogamoso valley, Narino,
the Choco and the Goajira Peninsula. The Choco also
exports much dyewoods, vanilla, pita and other fibres.
Few things in the commercial history of a nation are
more tragic than the story of cinchona in Colombia.
At one time the bark of the many varieties grown within
the country were eagerly sought after, for the extraction
FORESTS AND FOREST PRODUCTS 101
of its valuable febrifuge, the sulphate. But when the
plant began to be acclimatised in the east, prices suddenly
fell to so low a figure that it no longer became profitable
to collect the bark in South America, and thus within
a few short years a big export trade, forming much of the
wealth of such a country as Colombia, was wiped out,
apparently with little hope of revival.
As regards timber, considering the untapped wealth,
very little has been done to develop the trade. For many
years past there have been a number of sawmills, run by
foreign capital, to exploit the mahogany and other
woods of the upper Sinu ; and there are also sawmills
in the Choco territory. These last may assume special
importance after the opening of the Panama Canal,
which will coincide with local railway and mining
developments.
It must be confessed that there are several obstacles
to the economical development of the timber trade.
First is the fact, common to the majority of tropical
and semi-tropical forests, that different species though
well represented are rather widely scattered. Mahogany,
cedars, castilloas, do not grow in more or less closely
connected clumps, but appear mostly as isolated speci-
mens. This, of course, adds to the difficulty and cost of
exploitation when handling bulk timber. The drawback
is not quite so apparent when dealing with the gathering
of nuts or the more precious resins. These remarks also
apply to the difficulties of transport.
It may be said, therefore, that while the forests of
Colombia offer great possibilities of wealth, they require
very careful study and special means of exploitation.
»— (2248)
CHAPTER XII
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture, including cattle raising, though still in
its infancy, is the real mainstay of the Colombian people.
It is carried on in every part of the country, under widely
varying conditions, but mostly on quite primitive lines.
For instance, locally intensive cultivation is understood
thus : a tract of virgin forest, in the mountainous region,
is cleared of its useful woods, and the remainder is burned
down, then for two or three years, four at the utmost,
crops of cereals and vegetables are raised, and when the
ground is exhausted of its fertilising ashes and native
salts, the land is abandoned. It is extremely rare to
find fertilisers used, even for such crops as coffee, cocoa
and cotton, and although rich deposits of nitrates are
to be found in the country, what little is used in the way
of manure is imported.
It has already been pointed out that owing to the
extraordinary range of altitude and temperature, almost
all crops can be grown profitably in Colombia. Probably
the most satisfactory plan to show the condition of affairs
is to deal with the country in three zones, as already
defined in the Chapter on Forests and Forest Products.
Taking, then, the tropical or warm region, we find
the main crops are sugar-cane, tobacco, cocoa, bananas,
coco-nut trees, rice, cotton and to a limited extent rubber.
Sugar-cane. — Four varieties are grown, known locally
as paipa, Colonial, peluda and morada. The first named
102
AGRICULTURE 103
gives the best results, and appears to be identical with
the kind more widely known as Singapore cane. It
is grown largely on the rich valley lands of Cauca, El
Valle, Cundinamarca, Antioquia and the flat regions of
the Atlantic. It grows without fertiliser, with very
little cultivation beyond occasional hoeing of the land,
and will yield for some eighty years, giving crops of over
80 tons of cane per acre in good localities, and an average
of well over 40 tons. In Antioquia, which is not the
department of largest output, the crop amounts to well
over 22,000,000 lb. of cane. At one time there was a large
export of sugar from Colombia, but although the acreage
under crop has increased, now the product hardly suffices
for local needs. Yet, though in the main a crop of the
tropical zone, it will flourish and is fairly widely cultivated
up to 7,000 feet. The cane juice is usually worked in
small primitive mills, but there is a large modern
establishment at Cartagena and another in the Cauca
valley.
The greater part of the juice is made into panela, a
brown maple-like sugar, which forms a staple food
among the peasantry and travellers. It is palatable
and nourishing. Next in importance is the preparation
of fermented beverages, such as aguardiente, chicha,
guarapo, etc. Finally, refined sugar is made for table use
and for the numerous chocolate factories. Given adequate
labour, there ought to be a great future for sugar grain.
Tobacco. — Tobacco of excellent quality, some said
to be equal to the best Havana, is largely grown, though
mostly for local consumption. Germany, however, is a
large and increasing customer for Colombian tobacco.
104 COLOMBIA
The chief centres for these crops are Bolivar, the Mag
dalena and Cauca valleys. Up to 1909 the sale of tobacco
in the Republic was reserved as a Government monopoly,
but this is no longer so. The cultivation and export of
tobacco are now free.
Cocoa. — Cacao theobroma grows wild in the forests (in
damp lowlands), the indigenous plants yielding moderate
crops of small beans, containing a heavy percentage of
fat. It is met with in the wild state covering thousands
of acres, and rising to about 45 ft. high. However, the
gathering of wild cocoa beans has not been found
profitable. It is susceptible to cultivation, and then gives
good results. The varieties generally planted are the
cajizo or cacao morado, with a bean as large as a Jordan
almond ; the verdoso, or white, with a larger bean ;
the bicolor, and the cimaron. It is planted under
bananas for early protection, with guamo Colorado,
cambulo and cumulo for permanent shade. While the
climate is admirably suited to this cultivation, and the
cocoa enjoys a very good reputation in the market,
little more than enough for local demands (which are
great) is grown. The chief centres of cultivation are
Tolima, Cauca, Huila and Antioquia.
Plantains and Bananas. — Over certainly more than
half of the inhabited districts the fruit of plantains
form the principal article of food among the masses.
Plantains are, therefore, grown on quite a large scale
in the low-lying, damp and hot sea borders and in the
tropical valleys, but plantations extend well through the
temperate zone. It is, however, in the hot damp regions
that the most prolific crops are secured. The plants
AGRICULTURE 105
require very little cultivation, beyond occasional removal
of weeds. When the crown of fruit is ready for con-
sumption, the plant is cut down, fresh stems shoot up
from the suckers to bear fruit and in their turn to be cut
down. In this way good stools will last for many years.
The crops are heavy, and the fruit are eaten green or
ripe. The Atlantic and Pacific coasts, the lower Mag-
dalena valley and Antioquia are among the largest
centres of this crop. With regard to the banana, this
industry is a matter of recent growth, and is largely
due to the action of the United Fruit Company. Export
of bananas from Colombia has risen from 1,295,228
bunches in 1905-6 to over 6,000,000 bunches in 1911-12.
Bananas thrive best in a hot damp atmosphere, and
rich, light, moist soil, at an altitude of not more than
1,500 meters. About 350 trees are planted per acre ;
the land requires irrigation and periodical clearing
from weeds. Within two years a paying crop may
be cut. The industry has been brought to its highest
pitch in the district of Santa Marta, where close on
40,000 acres are under cultivation, and about 100,000
more acres available. The plantations are here well
laid out, with irrigation canals, often short lines of rails
leading to the Santa Marta Railway, managers' houses
and labourers' quarters. There is also considerable
cultivation of the banana in the Magdalena valley and
in Bolivar. Some four years ago the Hamburg-
Colombian Bananen Aktien-Gesellschaft, connected with
the Hamburg-American Steamship line, obtained a grant
from the Government of 12,000 acres on the Gulf of Uraba
in order to develop the banana industry. About a third
106 COLOMBIA
of this area is now under cultivation. The company
binds itself to the construction of a pier and wharf —
Puerto Cesar, and a railway, with telegraph, telephones
and wireless station. All bananas are to be free of export
duty and taxation, while much of the material required
for establishing and developing the estate is to be
imported duty free. This shows the importance attached
to the industry by the Government, and the liberal
views they take of their duties in assisting capitalists.
Hitherto rather more than half of the exports have gone
to the United States and the balance to the United
Kingdom.
Coco- nut Palms. — Most of the large coco-nut palm
plantations are found on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
The exports are chiefly to the United States and to
Germany, but there is a considerable use of fibres, and
also of oil for soap and candle making, locally.
Rice grows freely, without much attention, wherever
rich, hot irrigated land is available. Both Patna and
Carolina varieties are sown. In a few places cultivation
is carried on under scientific conditions and gives very
good returns.
Cotton. — An excellent cotton, derived from Egyptian
seed, is grown mostly in Antioquia and on the Atlantic
coast. The qualities grown on the slope of the Orinoco
are unrivalled for the length of the fibre. So far com-
paratively little attention has been given to this crop,
although it does not entail much trouble and is in good
local demand, to supply the native spinning mills. On
the other hand, locusts have been the greatest obstacle
to the development of cotton cultivation.
AGRICULTURE 107
Agave Americana. — The agave is chiefly cultivated
as a hedge, but it merits closer attention, as even at
present the local demand for hennequen fibre is insuffi-
ciently met by local supply. Manioc, or Yuca, is also
a plant grown largely on the coast and certain hot valley
zones, to yield flour for the peasant and labouring classes.
In the temperate zone, the principal crops are coffee,
ground nuts, cereals, beans.
Coffee. — This is the most important of all crops,
as there is an immense demand for it both for export
and for local consumption. Colombian coffee stands
very high as regards quality, coming immediately after
choice Arabic beans. The trees grow freely enough at
altitudes between say 500 and 7,000 ft. above sea-level.
They do best under temperatures ranging between 59°
and 77° F. On the lower warm slopes, large, rather
strong berries are grown, and here the trees require
shade trees and a fair amount of attention. Higher
up the berries are smaller, milder and more choice, the
trees do not require shade, demand little attention, but
have a comparatively short life. Most of the Colombian
coffee is grown in Cundinamarca, Tolima (the Bogota
and Tolima crops being most highly valued), Antioquia,
Caldas, Cauca, on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada and in
Santander, Cucuta being a great centre, with its principal
outlet through Venezuela. Although coffee is a difficult
crop owing to the market fluctuations resulting from the
Brazilian Valorization scheme, there appears to be
room for considerable development in this direction, the
bulk of coffee land on valley slopes being still virgin land.
A fair amount of labour, however, is necessary.
108 COLOMBIA
Cereals. — Wheat and maize are the leading cereals
of the temperate zone. Maize is grown in most parts of
the country, and wheat gives good crops, especially in
Cundinamarca, Boyaca, Cauca and Santander, up to
about 7,000 ft. Both grains, however, could be more
extensively cultivated, as the yields are good. So far
local demands are not satisfied.
Ground Nuts. — These are grown between 5,000 and
6,000 ft. altitude, mainly as a cheap food for the people,
though some oil is extracted for local soap works.
There is ample room for extension, the yield being
excellent.
In the cold zone, there is much fertile plateaux land,
which bears some good wheat, choice barley and splendid
potatoes. Partly owing to local demand, partly to
difficulties of transport, the coastal population import
almost all the potatoes that they require. Beans, both
habas and frejoles, are also grown on a large scale in
the higher regions as a staple popular food. In the
neighbourhoods of towns vegetables and fruits are
generally raised in abundance, the quality being
good.
Cattle. — The raising of horned cattle is carried on
pretty widely over the country, but the most favourable
localities are considered to be the grassy plains of the
Magdalena, the flat districts in Bolivar and Atlantico,
and the whole valley of the Cauca. It is held that the
vast llanos of the Meta territory will one day become a
huge cattle-breeding ground, but although there are
already some very large ranches in that region, some with
upwards of 10,000 head, it is found that the rank grass
_ „. . — ..,,,, ...
1
Open and Covered Markets, Bogota
AGRICULTURE 109
gives poor nourishment. To some extent there is a move-
ment to bring cattle bred on the llanos of San Martin
and Casanare to fatten on the more luscious grazing
grounds of the Magdalena and its affluents. Fairly
good cattle are raised by the Indians of the Goajira
Peninsula. For many years past the original strain of
Spanish oxen have been improved by crossing with
pedigree stock from England, Holland and Normandy.
A considerable trade in exporting cattle to Cuba and to
Panama existed for some time, but the Cuban sanitary
regulations have made it impossible to continue. There
is also talk of establishing packing houses on the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts. Oxen are still much used for draught
purposes over the few roads, over flat country and the
more open forest tracks, though on roads they are being
displaced by motor vehicles. In a few regions, Bolivar
for instance, large flocks of sheep of English breeds are
kept. Goats, both in the hot and temperate zones, are
numerous, being bred for their flesh and milk, and also
for their skins.
Colombian horses are usually Andalusians crossed
with Arab and English. They are hardy beasts, much
appreciated in the adjoining countries. A specially
sturdy type is bred by the Indians of Goajira. For
local purposes, however, mules are preferred, as they
are more sure-footed in the mountains and can carry
heavier burdens as pack animals. They are rather small,
but admirably suited for the country. Some of the
largest and best kinds are bred on the llanos of the
north of Tolima. Donkeys are also bred to a great
extent.
110 COLOMBIA
As regards the possibilities of early developments
of the cattle trade, Mr. Milne, already cited, states :
" In the Department of Bolivar on the Atlantic coast
conditions are economically favourable," and adds :
" In view of the constant reclamation of grazing areas
for agricultural purposes in the United States and other
countries, the land suitable for cattle breeding around
the Carribbean sea will probably be developed in the next
decade." To this area may be safely added considerable
tracks along the Atrato and the Cauca.
It must be borne in mind that while old cattle land
in the United States is rapidly being brought under the
plough, the American meat packers find it necessary
to compete with England in the Argentine meat market
in order to supply the demand of their own people,
which considerably exceeds supply.
Land Settlement. — This chapter would not be
complete without saying a few words about the oppor-
tunities existing for taking up public land for agricultural
and grazing purposes. A colonist may select a plot
and by cultivating and fencing secure a title to it, as well
as to an adjoining plot of equal size, merely for the trouble
of surveying it, petitioning the proper authorities and
paying certain moderate fees. A large number of
Antioquians and Tolimese have become colonists in
this way, overflowing into other departments, both
near and far. The mulattoes of the Choco also provide
a number of good agricultural colonists, especially in the
hot regions.
The Law and Decree relating to the taking up of
public lands will be found in the Appendices.
AGRICULTURE
111
Number of Persons Engaged in Agriculture and
Cattle-Breeding
Agri-
Cattle-
culture.
breeding
Antioquia
. 117,375
2,201
Atlantico
14,915
300
Bolivar
37,278
5,240
Boyoca
84,326
4,006
Caldas
63,733
1,091
Cauca
43,009
213
Cundinamarca
97,777
848
El Valle
23,094
1,263
Huila
23,856
368
Narifio
49,816
406
Norte de Santander
31,813
367
Santander
55,002
424
Tolima
47,031
3,754
Choco
26,459
430
Goajira
285
14,563
Meta
1,516
95
No statistics are available for Magdalena
CHAPTER XIII
MINING AND MINERALS
Although Colombia is wondrously rich in all kinds of
minerals, at the present time it is gold and platinum,
together with emeralds, that are chiefly exploited.
Formerly the extraction and export of silver reached a
high level as to quantity and value, but since the fall in
price, the mining of this metal, apart from its association
with gold, has been neglected.
In spite of the vast amount of gold sent out of the
country since the Spanish conquest, it still remains
one of the richest gold districts in the world. The
metal either in quartz veins or in alluviums is found
scattered in almost every corner of the Republic, and in a
great many places the exploitations, both of quartz
veins and of placers, is carried out on a thoroughly
scientific plan, though in others the most primitive
methods prevail. This is especially true as regards the
washing of the river gravels and sands ; consequently
it is impossible to secure accurate figures of the country's
gold production, much of the gold-dust winnings going
unrecorded.
Silver is found native, as galena and as argentiferous
blendes. It is also associated with gold and tin.
Platinum was discovered as early as 1737, but it was
not until nearly a hundred years later that its extraction
became possible, and the metal assumed importance.
Colombian platinum is much purer than the Russian metal,
112
MINING AND MINERALS 113
the ores containing from 80 to 85 per cent. It is found
in placer mines, in grains associated with iridium, osmium,
paladium, rodium and ruthenium, as well as with gold.
Platinum was formerly a Government monopoly.
Good iron is found pretty widely distributed, the ores
most generally worked being compact limonite.
Copper is abundant, and is found native, distributed
in veins as grains, and also in blocks, often weighing
several pounds. It is constantly associated with gold.
Tin is found in primitive rock formations, usually
associated with quartz, felspar, tourmaline, mica, etc.
Several valuable deposits of manganese have been
located.
Lead, though abundant in rich deposits, is little worked
owing to the lowness of price.
Mercury, and sulphate of mercury, are found in many
districts, and are worked to a considerable extent.
Zinc, antimony, and arsenic also exist, though they
are not worked, but emery receives some attention.
Sulphur is extracted in considerable quantities both
from old and existing volcanic regions.
Nitre, in Santander, alum in Santander and Norte de
Santander, nitrate of soda in the Valle Dupar, are
plentiful but much neglected.
Rock salt forms an important branch of industry,
and is to some extent a Government monopoly. Some
of the salt mines, at Zipaquira and Nemocon, are well
equipped. Salt is also evaporated from saline springs,
and on the Atlantic from sea water.
Coal is found in many parts of the country, and is of
good quality, an average sample giving 55 per cent.
114 COLOMBIA
of pure carbon, 39 per cent, volatile matter, with 5,740
calories. So far coal has only been mined in small
quantities for local consumption. But with better
transport facilities it should replace wood as a fuel on
steamers and locomotives. The rich beds in the Western
Cordillera, especially those near the Atlantic coast, and
those stretching from the Cauca valley to the Pacific
slope, offer splendid opportunities for development,
having regard to manufacturing and shipping needs.
Asphalte of excellent quality, containing over 99*50
per cent, of bitumen, is quarried and used largely for the
manufacture of paint and varnishes.
Petroleum is known to exist in many districts, but very
little has been done to exploit the deposits, in spite of the
fact that Colombia imports large quantities of oil.
Colombia possesses a rich assortment of precious
stones. At one time the Jesuits were reputed to have
worked a diamond mine at Tena, province of Tequendama,
Department of Cundinamarca. But when this diamond
mine was examined by Percira Gamba it turned out to be
a zirconium mine. It is difficult to say whether the
Petits Peres could not, at the time, differentiate between the
two, or if the whole thing was a legend. In the sands
of the Platayaco river, in the Caqueta territory, fine
Orient rubies and water-borne sapphires are found ; while
in the Mayo river, an affluent of the Patia, rubies, sapphires
and other varieties of corundium are found, but of too
pale a colour to be of any value. Garnets, amethysts,
carnelians are widely distributed. Deposits of j asper, onyx,
agate and rock crystal are worked to a small extent,
and amber is said to be found near Bucarammanga.
MINING AND MINERALS 115
Of all these, however, little of interest to commerce
can be said as compared to the emeralds. Colombia
supplies the world with the greatest share as well as purest
and most highly prized of emeralds. The chief mines
are in Boyaca, the Muzo, Coscuez and Somondoco being
Government property, though long worked by an English
company. Now, however, the Government has resumed
direct control, having purchased the lease and other rights
of the shareholders. The first named mine is extensive
and well equipped. Emeralds were declared a monopoly
to this extent : all stones had to be sold through the
Government agency, so as to adjust supply to demand.
According to the law 219, 1907 (Articles 5 and 6), the
Government exacts 10 per cent, on the gross produce of
every bill of sale of emeralds exploited by private persons,
and has the right to exercise the necessary inspection to
ascertain the exact amount of such sales.
We may now briefly review the various departments
in connection with their mineral wealth.
Antioquia has always been one of the leading mining
districts, and still maintains its position, both as regards
quartz and placer deposits. From official sources it
appears that since 1739 no less than 12,728 mining
claims have been made good, mostly in connection with
gold. For 1911 it was estimated that gold and silver
was exported to the value of about 350,000 dollars gold
per month. While some twenty or more rivers are classed
as having rich gold alluviums, it is chiefly the sands and
gravels of the Cauca, Nechi, Pato and Porce that are
worked on a big scale. On the Pato the ores are dealt
with by the Pato Mines (Colombia) Ltd., an offshoot of
116 COLOMBIA
the Oroville Dredging Company of California, which is a
British concern. It has erected a large dam on the
river and is proceeding by dredging. The bench gravel
is very deep here. At Caceres the Breitung Mine Cor-
poration is also going in for dredging. Elsewhere
primitive washing methods are the rule, though on the
Nechi, Porce and Cauca some French and American firms
are working with hydraulic monitors. Quartz mines are
numerous, but the most noteworthy are at, or in neigh-
bourhood of, Amain, Remedios and Titiribi. Of late
years houses connected with the Rand mining industry
have been turning their attention to this part of Colombia,
but there is still an immense percentage of the auriferous
ground left untouched, and as this section is fairly
accessible, and steadily becoming more so, the chances
of success are many. Silver plays a big part at Zancudo,
Titiribi. Coal and iron are mined in a few places, the
iron being smelted and worked up into rails, mills and
similar articles. There are rich coal deposits on the
Gulf of Darien.
Atlantico is merely interesting from the fact that
petroleum indications are fairly marked about Barran-
quilla, though only one serious attempt at sinking wells,
apparently without great results, having been made
at Corregimiento.
Bolivar has ten gold mines in operation. Good coal
is found near the river Sinu. There are also indications
of petroleum about Cartagena.
Boyaca is highly mineralised, though little developed.
Licences have been issued for eleven gold, twelve silver, ten
copper, three quicksilver, and 157 emerald mines. It is in
MINING AND MINERALS 117
this department that the celebrated government emerald
mines of Muzo are found. Several small asphalte mines
are worked ; and the salt springs of Chita, Muneque,
Chameza, Pajarito, Rector, Mongua, Pauto, Chaquipay,
and Pizarra are exploited.
Caldas is another active mining centre. Since the
creation of the department 2,610 mines were denounced
and 855 licensed. Probably the richest of the gold mines
are at Marmato and Supia. With very few exceptions
the rivers are richly auriferous.
Cauca is also a gold and silver district. From 1895
to 1912, 4,106 gold mines were denounced. The many
rivers are rich in gold-bearing sands and gravel, with some
platinum. The mining centres are Patia, Timbiqui
and Buenos Aires. There are abundant indications
of coal.
Cundinamarca is a close rival of Antioquia as a mineral
district, so far as variety is concerned, though develop-
ments have not been great. Iron has been largely
exploited in the Provinces of Facatativa and Zipaquira
in connection with the excellent coal deposits of Bogota,
Facatativa, Zipaquira and Tequendama. There appear
to be great possibilities in this direction. Recently gold
and silver mines have been surveyed in Zipaquira.
Copper, lead, as well as asphalt rock crystal and jasper
are found in most of the provinces. Salt, however,
stands pre-eminent as the mineral wealth of this depart-
ment, the principal seats of the industry being at the
mines of Zipaquira, Nemocon, Zesquile and Tausa,
with saline springs of minor importance at Gacheta,
Cumaral and Upin. The production of the first named
9— («Z4 8 )
118 COLOMBIA
amounted to 460,896 dollars gold in 1911. This output
nearly suffices for local needs, so the other mines and
springs are worked intermittently. Salt mining and
evaporation is a Government monopoly, though in minor
exploitations often farmed out.
El Valle is a highly mineralised pocket between the
Central and western Cordilleras. From 1910 to 1912,
644 mines were denounced and 236 licensed. Of these
446 were gold, 165 gold and silver, thirty platinum, and
one each of copper, emery and talc. An iron mine is
worked in the region of Cali in connection with coal
winning, and there are abundant indications of coal and
rock crystal in other sections of the department. The
coal beds near Cali apparently run right through to the
Pacific slope, and are estimated to be of immense value.
Huila possesses four considerable quartz mines in
active exploitation, while the rich gold alluviums of the
Magdalena, Yaguara, Bache, and Aipe are washed
in primitive fashion, but with fair yields.
Magdalena is well worthy of close study from the
mineralogical point of view, as it presents many interest-
ing possibilities. Coal was quite early found on the
south-eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,
near Serrejon, and is known to be plentiful in the Goajira
Peninsula. The slopes of the Eastern Cordillera also
would seem to be worth exploring, and several of the
tributary streams have gold bearing sands and gravels.
Narifio, besides being a gold bearing country, is one
of the probable chief future sources of platinum. From
1904 to 1912 no less than 2,452 gold mines were
denounced, though of these only six of the quartz mines
MINING AND MINERALS 119
are exploited in a large way in accordance with modern
practice. But it is considered that the whole of the
western part of this district is auriferous ; certainly the
rivers are rich in gold dust. In the Barbacoas country,
between Ecuador and the river Micay, the gold is
associated with a very small percentage of platinum,
but it is considered that richer deposits of the latter
metal may ultimately be discovered. Coal is also found
here. So far the extractions of metals in this department
is almost entirely in the hands of Colombians, very little
foreign capital being engaged in the industry.
Norte de Santander presents two distinct sections.
On the eastern slopes of the Cordillera, in the provinces
of Cucuta are rich deposits of gold, silver, copper, iron
and coal, with good indications of petroleum. On the
western slope, in the province of Ocana, copper, lead
and coal are found. These coal measures are likely to be
valuable only so far as local needs are concerned.
Santander, according to official statistics, has in oper-
ation sixty-three gold and silver quartz mines, two gold
placer exploitations, eight copper mines, ten asphalte
and one of talc. There are several foreign mining
companies at work in the province of Bucaramanga.
Tolima is receiving steadily increasing notice from the
mining aspect, the number of claims denounced and
licensed showing a progressive development. There are
at present over sixty gold and silver quartz and placer
claims being worked. The gold bearing veins are
decidedly patchy, and show a tendency to peter out at
no great depth. Among the leading concerns, there is the
North Tolima Mining Company, an English firm
120 COLOMBIA
The rivers Saldana, Ata, Cucuana, Luisa and Coello are
gold bearing.
As regards the Intendencias and Comisarias little is
known outside of El Choco. It is in this territory that
the chief centre of the platinum industry is found, the
most important placers being on the Condoto and Platina
rivers, though the precious metal is also washed on the
Agua Clara, Andagueda, Bebara, Certegui, Iro, Negua,
Tamana and several others. The washing operations
are quite primitive, and almost entirely in the hands
of negroes and mulattoes. Gold washing is of secondary
importance, though inseparable from washing for
platinum.
Mr. Bodiam, formerly British Vice-Consul at Medellin,
made the following useful official report on the climate,
labour conditions and means of access to the mining
districts of Antioquia and certain parts of the valley of
Cauca.
Remedios and Segovia. — The climate is healthy, provided
one lives in a moderately careful manner. Labour is cheap
and plentiful. A steamer leaves Barranquilla, up the Rivers
Cauca and Nechi, for Saragoza (the port for both places)
once every month. Thence there is a good road — part cart
and part mule — to destination.
Amalfi, Yolombo, Santo Domingo, San Roque. — All
healthy climates. Labour is plentiful. The communication
is by steamer from Barranquilla to Puerto Berrio ; thence by
train to rail head (Estacion Sofia) and thence over good mule
roads to the towns named.
Santa Rosa and Yarumal. — Climate is good in both places.
Labour is plentiful. The way to Santa Rosa is by steamer
from Barranquilla to Puerto Berrio, thence by train to
Estacion Sofia, thence by good mule road to Yarumito, and
thence over fair mule roads to Santa Rosa. A passenger
would need between four and five days on mule back to reach
MINING AND MINERALS 121
Santa Rosa from the rail head. For Yarumal a steamer
must be taken at Barranquilla up the River Cauca as far
as Valdivia and thence over a passable mule road for two or
three days to destination.
Caceres. — Climate is malarial. Labour is cheap and fairly
plentiful. Communication is by steamer from Barranquilla up
the Rivers Cauca and Nechi to Saragoza and thence on mule
for two to three days over poor roads to the mining district.
Titiribi. — Climate is healthy. Labour cheap and
plentiful. Communication is by steamer from Barranquilla
to Puerto Berrio, thence by rail to Estacion Sofia and thence
to Titiribi via. Medellin over good roads — part mule and part
cart.
Anori, Zea, Rivers Porce and Nechi. — Anori has a
healthy climate, while Zea and the Rivers Porce and Nechi
are malarial. Communication is by steamer from Barran-
quilla up the Rivers Cauca and Nechi to Saragoza, and thence
over poor mule roads to destination.
Andes. — Climate is healthy. Labour plentiful. Com-
munication by steamer from Barranquilla to Puerto Berrio,
thence by rail to Estaci6n Sofia, thence over good mule roads
via Medellin to destination. In all, about five to six days
on mule back.
Sonson. — Climate very healthy. Labour is cheap and
plentiful. The communication is by steamer from Barran-
quilla to Puerto Triunfo, which is a little above Puerto
Berrio, thence over a bad mule road of about 65 miles to
Sonson. I am given to understand that the road is being
repaired. An alternative route is by steamer to Puerto
Berrio and thence to Medellin, from which place there is a
good mule road to Sonson. The distance from Medellin to
Sonson is about 60 miles, or two to two-and-a-half days on
mule back.
Manizales. — Climate is healthy. Labour plentiful.
Communication by steamer from Barranquilla to Honda
and thence over good mule roads to Manizales.
Caramanta, Valparaiso, Marmato, Supia, Rio Sucio. —
Caramanta, Marmato and Rio Sucio are healthy places,
whilst Valparaiso and Supia are malarial. Labour is plentiful
in the whole district. The communication is by steamer
122 COLOMBIA
from Barranquilla to Puerto Berrio, thence by rail to Estacion
Sofia, thence by good mule roads to the different towns
mentioned.
The terms good and bad, as applied to roads, are, of course,
relative, for in these mountainous regions a reasonably safe
mule track is generally all that can be hoped for.
Timbers used in Mining. — The following timbers,
which are usually abundant, are generally used for
mining purposes.
B.W. in Lbs.
Sp. Gr.
Aguatillo (Laurus Carboms) .
. 451
0.43
Amarillo de Pefia (Persea)
. 595
0.66
Arenillo (Laurinea)
. 550
0.52
Chicala (Tecoma Spectabilis) .
. 889
0.91
Dinde {Madura Tinctoria)
. 949
0.69
Gualanday {Jacaranda Gualanday)
. 397
0.53
Guayacan {Leguminosa)
. 763
1.30
Mario (Calophyllum Mariae) .
. 610
0.68
Zenascuro (Carola Augusta) .
. 499
0.46
Mining Laws. — The mining laws of Colombia are
quite liberal, though there is some reason to complain
of the delays involved before securing ratification of
surveys and titles. In some matters the Government
reserves special rights, as in the monopolies of emeralds
and salt, the inheritance of the old Spanish crown mines
and districts. Any one may denounce a mine, and after
surveying and receiving a ratification and licence, for
which quite small fees are charged, the minerals can be
worked, subject to moderate annual dues. Under
certain circumstances it is possible to denounce mines not
only on public lands, but on private property. But
according to a law passed in 1913, oil wells discovered
on lands belonging to the State, whether waste lands or
otherwise, are not transferred by the adj udication of such
lands to private individuals or Corporations, but remain
MINING AND MINERALS 123
the property of the State. And mines on land belonging
to Educational or Charitable Institutions cannot be
denounced without the sanction of the owners. In any
case facilities are always granted for access to the claims,
and, moreover, the claimant is granted preferential
rights to the adjudication of adjoining plots of public
lands required for the exploitation of the mine. Two
drawbacks to the liberality of these laws rather impede
mining developments in the country. When once a
denounced mine has been surveyed and the fees paid,
it becomes the property of the licensee, whether it be
worked or not, and the first successful claimant has
prior claims as to water-rights. The result of this is
that many people take up mining claims purely with
speculative intentions, paying the small fees and taxes
while awaiting an opportune moment to sell their claims.
In this way much valuable mineralised land is held up,
owing to the excessive demands of persons unable or
unwilling to work the claims themselves. There are no
hampering restrictions as regards foreigners.
A few of the more recent enactments by Congress or
Executive Decree are set out here in tabular form.
Law 21 of 1907
Authorises the Government to assume the exclusive right
to export platinum, palladium, irridium, rhodium, osmium
and ruthenium, as well as all radio-active minerals, to issue
new rules for the exploitation of these metals, and to offer
rewards for the discovery of new deposits.
Authorises change in the tax on emerald mines. See
above, under paragraph on emerald mining.
Declares that copper may be denounced like the previous
metals ; landowners being allowed one year to make good
their mining rights in accordance with the general laws ;
124
COLOMBIA
and fixes the royalties payable at half those payable on
previous metals.
Royalties :
For denouncing a gold or silver mine . . $0.50
Grant deed ,, ,, ,, . . $4.00
Annual royalty for rock mine for each 52 sq.
kilometres (20.072 sq. miles) .. .. $1.00
Annual royalty for alluvial mine . . . . $1.00
By paying in one sum twice the amount that
according to law 21 of 1867 should be paid
for 20 years, the owner can acquire the
property of the mine in a permanent form.
No contract for exploitation of mines of coal,
asphalt, petroleum, or gas, entered into with
the Government is valid unless sanctioned by
Congress.
Law 72 of 1910
Declares that the platinum mines can be denounced.
No grants to be made in Choco until the laws are reformed.
The Platinum mines in actual exploitation can be granted
only to the actual owners.
Law 75 of 1913
The Government reserves the right to petroleum wells
in the lands granted to settlers and in all lands belonging
to the State.
Export of Gold from 1905 to 1912
Year.
Description.
Kilos. Gs.
Value in Gold
Dollars.
Totals.
$
$
1905
In bars
2,723 500
1,046,515
—
In dust
2,601 038
570,420
1,616,935
1906
In bars
5,650 -
2,186,539
—
In dust
1,378 854
518,926
2,705,465
1907
In bars
5,106 573
2,136,284
—
In dust
1,749 041
741,457
2,877,741
1908
In bars
6,860 555
2,856,293
—
In dust
2,224 608
980,581
3,836,874
MINING AND MINERALS 125
Export of Gold from 1905 to 1912 — continued
Value in Gold
Year.
Description,
Kilos. Gs.
Dollars.
Totals.
1909
In bars
5,459 360
$
2,140,912
$
In dust
1,941 645
847,798
2,988,710
1910
In bars
6,190 700
2,293,568
—
In dust
2,498 013
1,076,384
3,369,952
1911
In bars
7,680 427
2,454,834
—
In dust
2,891 294
1,296,999
3,751,833
1912
In bars
and dust
19,642 372
6,634,913
6,634,913
The export of platinum, which was valued at £35,119
in 1907, sank to £20,844 in 1908, and rose to over £118,839
in 1912.
CHAPTER XIV
manufactures and minor industries
Present Developments and Future
Possibilities
In Colombia high import duties are the rule, and these
are designed to be protective as well as revenue pro-
ducing. In the past, as at the present day, it has been
the custom of the Government to foster local industries
by very material concessions. Sometimes this has taken
the form of a guaranteed interest on capital involved
both in equipping and establishing factories. More
often exclusive rights to manufacture in specified districts
for definite periods, together with exemption from
central and local taxation, freedom from import duties
on machinery and raw material required has been the
rule. Occasionally money and land grants have been
made. Quite commonly when such concessions have
been made the manufacturers are in their turn bound
to sell their goods at prices ranging from 5 to 15 per cent,
lower than the prices charged for imported goods of a
similar character, it being estimated that the concessions
granted give a preference of from 10 to 25 per cent, and
upwards over imported articles. We may take the boot
factories of Cartagena and Barranquilla as examples.
These are fitted with machinery from America, and
supplied with choice leathers and other raw material
from England, the United States and Germany, free of
import duties. Their boots sell at an average of 2.75
dollars gold for men's, and 2.50 for ladies', retail. While
126
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 127
the duties on imported boots are 80 cents gold per
kilogramme gross weight, plus 70 per cent, and 2 per cent,
on the specific duty. Often valuable Government con-
tracts are also awarded to local manufacturers. Apart
from this official fostering of native industries, it will be
found that many of the larger business firms (frequently
acting not only as importing and exporting agents,
but also as bankers) either run or otherwise finance
industrial enterprises. Thus it is frequently the case
that many coffee growers are merely tenants, or are
financed by bill discounting by big coffee collecting and
exporting firms. The same conditions prevail in the
" Panama " hat industry, and to a lesser extent in
that of sugar growing and refining.
Owing to its influence on home and foreign commerce
the textile industry is probably the most important
in all the manufacturing class. Spinning and weaving
are very ancient indigenous arts, both wool and hair,
as well as some vegetable fibres, having been used by the
Indians long prior to the Spanish conquest. But it was
not until 1790 that a priest, Don Cristobal de Restrepo,
introduced the spinning and weaving of cotton among
the Antioquians. Apparently the industry persisted
in a small way, although almost dormant. At the present
day textile factories for cotton and wool of considerable
importance are run at Barranquilla, Bogota, Cartagena,
Medellin, and Samaca. At Barranquilla the Obregon
cotton mill contains over 200 electrically driven British
looms, worked by women and boys. Imported British
grey and coloured yarns are used, and worked up into
grey domestics and coarse coloured drills, about 10,000
128 COLOMBIA
yards being finished per day. It is proposed to start
in conjunction with this a mill to spin native cotton.
In the same town there is a stocking net factory, run
with German capital and machinery, the yarns (grey,
bleached and coloured) being imported from England,
Germany or the United States, as periodical quotations
may render advisable. The twenty-four netting
machines, worked by electricity and attended by women,
turn out 150 dozen under vests, 150 men's drawers and
250 pairs of stocking monthly. They sell at about
60 per cent, less than imported goods.
At Cartagena a large spinning and weaving steam
driven mill is owned by the Banco Union, and has been
run for about a quarter of a century. Native cotton
is spun here, the seed being exported. Coarse yarns,
for grey drilling, are spun, but a certain amount is im-
ported. There are 105 looms, attended by 160 women
and boys. It appears that imported sheeting, paying
20 cents gold per kilogramme, plus 70 per cent, surtax
and 2 per cent, on the specific duty, competes severely
with the local drills. There is a stocking net factory,
with thirty-two machines , at Cartagena, using unbleached
and coloured United States yarns.
In Bogota there are several large and well equipped
mills, some both spinning and weaving, for the production
of cotton and woollen materials of a cheap quality,
chiefly intended for the working classes. Among the
leading firms are the Fabrica Nacional de Tejidos, turning
out black and coloured woollens, and the Sagrada Familia
cotton and wool spinning and weaving mills.
At Medellin the largest spinning and weaving mills
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 129
belong to the Compania Antioquena (established in 1905),
which are worked by hydraulic power of 300 h.p. There
are 189 spinning machines with 5,328 spindles and 290
looms ; some 110 men and 400 women turning out over
8,000 yards of cottons and woollens per day. The
Colombiena, established three years later, also spins
and weaves. There are several other smaller
establishments.
At Samaca (Boyaca) the Gran Fabrica de Hilados y
Tejidos spins cotton and wool, and has about 100 looms,
employing some 400 hands to turn out grey domestics
and drills, native cotton being used.
Spinning of wool is very general, and cottage looms are
found all over the country.
It is difficult to obtain any reliable data as regards the
use of vegetable fibres. But the making of sacks,
hammocks and shoes, chiefly from hennequen (agave)
fibre, is well developed so wide apart as in Santander,
Tolima and Nariho. On the other hand, much of the sack-
ing used for sugar and coffee in the Atlantic ports is
imported from England, usually being of Indian- jute.
An extensive and growing industry is that of the
manufacture of " Panama " straw hats, which are made
from fine palm straw. Among the centres of this in-
dustry may be mentioned Atlantico, Bolivar, Caldas,
El Valle, Huila, Tolima and Narifio. In 1912 the exports
of these came to about 120,000 lb. weight, of a declared
value of well over £80,000. But it must be remembered
that the hats are extensively used locally. Of the
better quality, or " Sombreros de Suazus," some
161,000 lb., valued at £151,363 were exported.
130 COLOMBIA
There is a considerable export trade in hides. Tanning
is also carried on locally, in a small way as a rule, but on
a large scale in Antioquia. Only sole and coarse leather
is usually turned out, for boot making and a little
harness work. Finer leather is imported ; and most
of the saddles and harness sets are made of agave fibre.
There is a tanning factory at Cartagena, turning out
tanning extract, and a special secret brand, " Guara,"
produced from red mangrove bark, growing abundantly
wild in the neighbourhood. It is used locally, and also
exported to England and Germany. Both leather
and tanning offer considerable scope for enterprise, more
especially as the breeding of cattle is bound to increase
enormously in the near future.
Of recent years a growing percentage of the vegetable
ivory (tagua nut), collected in the forests, has been
worked up in small local factories into buttons and
kindred objects.
Tobacco, of local growth, is very widely manufactured,
factories for the production of cigars and cigarettes
existing in a great many towns up and down the country.
This branch of manufacture assumes important propor-
tions in the Cauca valley, and also in Tolima, in which
department Ambalema is the principal centre of the
industry, about 120,030 cigars being turned out there
weekly. The former export trade in tobacco and cigars
was large, but is now almost entirely confined to Germany,
which country, however, is steadily increasing its orders.
Cement is now being produced on a fairly big scale,
the two leading factories being found in the Department
of Cundinamarca. One of these is devoted mainly to the
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 131
manufacture of tiles and slabs for paving, cisterns and
water conduits, and the other to the production of cement
in powder and in blocks for building purposes. This
has already had a marked effect in reducing the demand
for imported cement.
In connection with the food industries, nearly every
town of any importance has several mineral water
factories. Good aerating and refrigerating machinery is
in steady demand. Breweries, generally producing ales
of the lager type, flourish in several districts. Sugar
calls forth various classes of factories, from refineries
to distilleries. The machinery used is often of primitive
type and local manufacture, but a few well-equipped
establishments are met with. Besides the manufacture
of fermented beverages from the sugar juice, there is a
large and growing export of alcohol, about 40° strength,
much of it going to England. Chocolate factories,
some quite large and expensively equipped, are com-
monly met with in most large towns, and all seem to
prosper. The demand for sweets of all kinds is large.
Milling is, speaking generally, still in a primitive
condition, but is bound to develop without much delay,
for conditions are extremely favourable. At Barran-
quilla there are two flour mills, one at Cartagena, one
at Medellin, three at Bogota and one at Tunja. These
are all well equipped. There is a heavy import duty
on flour, and also, in some cases an internal, or depart-
mental tax. The import duty is 8 cents gold per kilo-
gramme gross weight, plus 70 per cent, surtax and 2 per
cent, on the specific duty. The inter-departmental
tax between Atlantico and Antioquia is 8 dollars gold
132 COLOMBIA
per 250 lb., and between Atlantico and Cundinamarca
16 dollars. At Barranquilla and Cartagena wheat on
an average costs 1.45 dollars gold per bushel of 60 lb.,
plus a duty of about 1 cent per 2 lb. Flour sells at 18
dollars gold per 280 lbs., and the bran fetching locally
a dollar gold for 1001b., and equally good prices in
Trinidad, where most of it goes, pays the running
expenses. It is extremely probable that in the interior
profits are not so large. But it must be remembered
that in many places, especially on the Pacific coast, flour
has to be imported, in spite of the high duty.
Coco-nut palms and ground nuts are almost entirely
neglected from the industrial point of view, though both
products supply some of the fats required by the soap
and candle factories existing in most of the large towns.
For there is a big consumption of both commodities.
Commerce, both as regards imports and exports, is
largely in the hands of merchants at the seaports, with
agents in the interior, who act as commission agents,
as well as direct shippers. It has, however, been found
profitable for firms to open branches, or appoint direct
agents after personal interviews. Circularising is of
little value, and ordinary commercial travelling hardly
more so. At Barranquilla import and export trade is
mainly in the hands of German firms, though other
foreigners have a share. At Cartagena, Colombians
share the trade with a few Syrian firms. At Bogota
it is again the Colombian element that prevails, with a
few English, American and other foreign houses. At
Medellin the native element also prevails, both manu-
facturers and merchants being active and wealthy.
MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES 133
At Manizales, Ibague and Bucaramanga, we again have
Colombian firms in the ascendancy. At Cali there are
also Italians and Germans ; and at San Jose de Cucuta
Italians, German, Syrians and Venezuelans. All the
above-named towns are populous, in some degree manu-
facturing places, and all busy centres of commerce,
both for the collection and distribution of goods. Many
of the native products, and this applies practically to
agricultural products and cattle, are disposed of at the
great periodical fairs held in the commercial centres.
These are usually attended by local merchants or their
representatives.
It is officially stated that all travellers' samples in
small pieces of no value are admitted free of duty up to
25 kilogs. Samples of commercial value pay duty
according to their classification, but may be re-exported
up to 1,000 kilos, within two years from the date of
importation. These must be accompanied by a consular
invoice, which should be made out in the name of the
traveller. If no consular invoice is produced twice the
amount of the consular dues, plus 10 per cent., as a fine,
will be charged. Travellers wishing to re-export samples
must pay the duplicated consular dues and fine, if incurred,
and give a bond to the satisfaction of the Administrator
of Customs that the duties applicable will be paid, plus
interest at the rate of 2 per cent, monthly in case the
re-export be not effected within two years ; the Customs
manifest, the acceptance of the bond for the duties,
must be kept by the traveller for presentation to the
Administrator of the Customs in the port whence he
leaves the country, in order that his samples may be
io — (2248)
134 COLOMBIA
checked ; when this is done, the Administrator will
cancel the bond. If the samples are not re-exported
within two years, or if the import duties have not been
paid, the Administrator of Customs at the port of entry
will collect the duty in terms of the guarantee.
As already stated, when dealing with Inland Com-
munication and Transport, it is of the utmost importance
for any shipper dealing with Colombia to pay the greatest
care to packing. Small, well secured packages must be
the rule. All weights and measurements must be given
according to the metric system.
CHAPTER XV
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE
As already explained in the last Chapter, the great bulk
of Colombian trade passes through the hands of large
firms of importers and exporters, for the most part of
Colombian origin. Over 90 per cent, of the import
trade is carried out on current account, that is to say,
six months' credit with interest at the rate of 6 per cent,
for European firms, and at three to four months' credit
at the same interest for United States traders. British
traders usually grant ninety days or at sight ; German,
French, and Spanish firms six months or at sight, and
those of the United States either thirty days' drafts, or
cash on delivery with discounts. Importing firms usually
allow fifteen days' credit for provisions sold in the port
towns, thirty days for outside districts, and for hardware
sent up country from three to four months. But there
are considerable variations in practice ; thus Medellin
merchants customarily grant their clients promissory
notes payable at six, twelve, and eighteen months. Long
credits are necessary in a country of such immense
distances and limited means for quick and cheap
transport.
Statistics as to imports and exports are very deficient,
not only owing to the delay in presenting them, but the
constant changes introduced into the method of tabulating
the information. However, it would appear from such
data as is available that for the thirty years, 1880-1909,
135
136
COLOMBIA
the imports remained practically stationary at a little
under £2,500,000, and the exports at a little over
£3,000,000. There was a slight drop in each case in the
last year. But in 1910 the imports rose to £3,405,127
and the exports to £3,557,361 ; and in 1911 the imports
were valued at £3,621,773, and the exports at £4,475,180.
As regards the countries of origin, taking the four
leading manufacturing and commercial nations, it is
found that for the years 1902-1906 the United Kingdom
sent 30.84 per cent., the United States 31.60, France
23.44 and from Germany 13.98 per cent. For the years
1907-1911 the percentages were : United Kingdom 36.16,
United States 27.54, France 22.28, Germany 13.88.
Thus between the two periods there was a gain of 5.32
per cent, for the United Kingdom and losses of 4.06
for the United States, 1.16 for France and 0.10 Germany.
While there is a gain on the total trade for British goods,
it will be seen later on that ground has been lost by the
United Kingdom in certain classes.
The latest complete statistics available are for the year
1911—
Imports
£
From —
United Kingdom
1,167,757
United States . .
1,080,995
Germany
648,527
France
343,749
Spain
79,546
Panama
6,358
Other Countries
294,838
Total
£3,821,760
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE
137
These are the corrected figures of the Director- General
of Statics, which differ slightly from those given by the
British Board of Trade.
Details of Imports
Textiles —
i
United Kingdom
840,543
Germany
238,905
United States
217,989
France
199,558
Spain
19,729
Panama
1,388
Other Countries
107,014
Food-stuffs and Condiments —
United States
275,677
Germany
108,026
United Kingdom
38,265
France
12,404
Panama
883
Other Countries
55,519
Metals —
United States
135,925
United Kingdom
130,500
Germany
99,441
France
18,407
Panama
1,865
Spain
1,158
Other Countries
15,913
Drugs and Medicines —
United States
65,566
France
30,801
Germany
25,582
United Kingdom
27,802
Spain
271
Panama
23
Other Countries
8,395
Railway and other Carriages an
d Wagons —
United States
88,222
United Kingdom
30,221
Germany
6,162
France
1,793
Spain
667
Panama
74
Other Countries . .
12,084
138
COLOMBIA
Materials for Arts and Trades —
i
United States
103,697
United Kingdom
16,995
Germany
11,279
France
2,383
Spain
279
Panama
50
Other Countries
5,908
Alcoholic and other Beverages —
France
39,211
Spain
35,060
United Kingdom
15,846
Germany
14,458
United States
8,411
Panama
97
Other Countries
12,835
Ceramics —
Germany
34,588
United States
26,139
France
8,225
United Kingdom
7,888
Spain
384
Panama
209
Other Countries
14,264
Paper and Cardboard —
United States
38,138
Germany
29,029
France
9,070
Spain
3,998
United Kingdom
3,966
Panama
191
Other Countries
6,365
Lighting and Fuel —
United States
39,314
Germany
9,488
United Kingdom
9,080
Spain
337
Panama
58
France
2,975
Other Countries
13.035
Agriculture and Mining Products-
United Kingdom
28,686
United States
26,319
Germany
3,361
France
260
Panama
73
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE
139
Agriculture, etc. — {contd.) — £
Spain . . . . . . . . . . 11
Other Countries . . . . . . . . 5,913
Hides and Skins, and manufactures therefrom —
United States 32,259
France 11,193
Germany 9,339
United Kingdom 6,823
Spain 1,635
Panama . . . . . . . . . . 38
Other Countries . . . . . . . . 803
Woods —
United States 17,553
Germany 13,990
Spain 5,067
France 4,237
United Kingdom 1,589
Panama . . . . . . . . . . 878
Other Countries .. .. .. .. 1,961
Oils and Greases —
United States 10,392
United Kingdom 3,334
Germany . . . . . . . . . . 3,321
France . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,467
Spain . . . . . . . . . . 315
Panama . . . . . . . . . . 209
Other Countries 2,324
Varnishes, Colours, and Inks —
Germany 8,386
United States 7,049
United Kingdom 3,121
France 1,013
Panama . . . . . . . . . . 8
Spain . . . . . . . . . . 4
Other Countries .. .. .. .. 1,287
Electrical Appliances —
United States 10,079
Germany . . . . . . . . . . 5,964
United Kingdom 2,061
France . . . . . . . . . . 748
Spain . . . . . . . . . . 2
Other Countries 1,163
Perfumery and Soap —
United States 10,373
France 4,265
140
COLOMBIA
Perfumery and Soap — (contd.) —
i
United Kingdom
2,438
Germany
2,028
Panama
4
Other Countries
389
Rubber, Celluloid, etc. —
Germany
6,019
France
4,459
United States
3,889
United Kingdom
1,859
Spain
7
Other Countries
667
Musical Instruments —
Germany
4,865
United States
2,962
France
2,326
United Kingdom
388
Panama
88
Other Countries
523
Tortoise-shell, Horn, etc. —
Germany
4,513
France
4,362
United Kingdom
812
United States
301
Panama
16
Other Countries
695
Firearms, accessories, and ammunition-
Germany
3,550
United States
2,720
Spain
1,007
France
945
United Kingdom
880
Other Countries
645
Explosives and Combustibles —
United States
4,383
United Kingdom
2,147
Germany
514
Panama
421
France
18
Other Countries
201
Live Animals —
United States
164
France
104
United Kingdom
40
Other Countries . .
1,128
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE
141
Miscellaneous —
United States
France
Germany • •
United "Kingdom
Spain
Panama
Other Countries
To United States
United Kingdom
Germany . .
France
Spain
Panama
Other Countries
Exports
Total
/
13,478
3,407
1,733
864
227
2
26,040
£
2,449,799
919,227
382,070
153,839
23,931
8,598
537,718
£4,475,182
Details of Exports
Live Animals —
Panama
United States
United Kingdom
Other Countries
Animal Products (chiefly hides) —
United States
United Kingdom
Germany
Spain
France
Panama
Other Countries
Vegetable Products (coffee, bananas, rub
ber, leaf tobacco, etc.) —
United States
United Kingdom
Germany . .
France
Spain
Panama
Other Countries
£
1,696
911
219
15,743
210,023
51,367
41,262
15,148
13,527
21
60,734
661,711
422,515
305,287
24,981
8,729
3,019
448,817
142
COLOMBIA
Manufactured Goods (chiefly straw hats)-
United States
175,436
United Kingdom
54,618
Germany
25,825
Panama
3,776
France
17
Other Countries
9,818
Mineral Products —
United States
401,709
United Kingdom
374,467
France
114,866
Germany
9,145
Panama
83
Spain
54
Other Countries
1,228
Miscellaneous —
Germany
46
France
31
United Kingdom
16
United States
8
Other Countries
1,388
Exports for 1912
The returns prepared by the Colombian Director-
General of Statics for 1912, under a somewhat different
classification to that given above is as f ollows —
£
Gold
.. 1,326,983
Platinum
118,838
Coffee
. . 3,355,581
Hides
532,344
Rubber
147,285
Bananas
399,399
Palm Straw Hats
83,585
Fine Palm Straw Hats (sombreros
de
suazos)
151,363
Tobacco Leaf
88,492
Tagua (Ivory Nuts)
150,941
Timber
3,058
£6,257,869
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE 143
The exports under " Vegetable Matters " include
coffee, cocoa, sugar, tobacco, bananas, " alligator "
pears, pineapples and other fruits, balsams, divi-divi
and mangrove bark, raicilla (ipecachuana), and other
medicinal herbs, palm nuts (tagua), timber and plants.
The " Animal Matters " include live animals, hides,
horns, goat and alligator skins, tortoise-shell, etc.
As regards Imports, the Textile Class includes a large
number of items. There is an increasing demand for
yarns. Those from the United Kingdom rose from
£1,000 in 1903 to £84,000 in 1911. For the same years
yarn imports from Germany (for the port of Barranquilla
alone) £376 and £3,940 ; from the United States £103
and £2,007. There is a small import from France.
There is a considerable and growing demand for manu-
factured cotton goods. In 1911 the imports from the
United Kingdom were : piece goods £531,000, other
goods £88,000 ; from the United States : piece goods
£183,000, other goods £21,000; Germany: piece goods
£55,000, other goods £42,000 ; France, all sorts : £69.
Taking the period 1907-1911 it is found that Great
Britain has made a gain of 25 per cent., Germany of
17 per cent., France about 1 per cent., while the United
States has receded by 15 per cent. Prints are in good
demand and fetch remunerative prices. While in 1909
62 per cent, of the prints came from the United Kingdom
and 34 per cent, from the United States, these percentages
were respectively 57 and 42 in 1911. The quick delivery
from stock favours the United States manufacturers
in this line. White bleached piece goods passed through
the Barranquilla Custom House in 1911 to the value
144 COLOMBIA
of £76,900, of which about 98 per cent, came from the
United Kingdom. Pieces 20 yd. long and 18 and 36 in.
wide are favoured. Drills through the same port were
valued at £68,100, of which 22 per cent, came from the
United Kingdom, 33 from Italy, and 24 from Germany,
whereas our imports in 1909 amounted to 36 per cent,
of the total. We are losing ground to Italy, Germany
and the United States. Unbleached goods were im-
ported to the value of £27,300 in 1911, as against £49,600
in the previous year, a fall no doubt due to competition
by local mills. In 1909 55 per cent, came from the
United States and 44 per cent, from the United Kingdom ;
the percentages are now respectively 50 and 49, but
there is a strong objection to the heavy English sizing.
Of the cotton lace imported about 60 per cent, comes
from Great Britain and about 80 per cent, of the
" Unclassified Cotton Manufactories. " The linen
imports are small and diminishing ; they are chiefly
from Great Britain, but made-up linen clothing from
France.
Woollen yarns are imported to a small extent, chiefly
from the United Kingdom. Woollen fabrics were
imported through Barranquilla to the value of £50,900
in 1909, £96,500 in 1910 and £70,000 in 1911. The
percentages for the three years were respectively :
United Kingdom, 26, 27 and 19 ; France, 39, 37, 37 ;
Germany, 24, 24, 25 ; Italy, 7, 6, and 11. Red flannel
and white blankets are mostly of British make ; but
black and coloured checked woollen shawls came chiefly
from France and Germany.
Of wearing apparel, France sends over 50 per cent.,
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE 145
Germany being the next largest exporter, while great
Britain only sends 12 per cent.
The empty sack trade is a big one, the value averaging
about £21,000 annually, the demand being for packing
coffee, salt, tagua and divi-divi, etc. These mostly come
from Calcutta and Dundee. There is a considerable local
competition from the makers of "henequen" and " fique"
(agave) fibre, and the United States has also improved
its position from about £1,000 in 1909 to £4,000 in 1911.
In machinery the United States holds the lead. The
imports in 1910 were £50,000 from the United States,
£44,000 from the United Kingdom, £14,000 from Ger-
many and £6,000 from France. In 1911 the respective
totals were £151,000, £49,000, £12,000 and £7,000.
Of agricultural machinery, the United States supply
the small demand for ploughs (£1,700) ; the United
Kingdom for hoes (£3,300) ; and of the £95,000 worth of
machetes imported through Barranquilla, Germany
supplied nearly 60 per cent., and Great Britain 27 per
cent. The mining shovels come from Great Britain;
the picks from the United States, Great Britain and
Germany. Textile machinery is mostly of British
make ; printing machinery comes from the United States.
Of implements and tools the United Kingdom supplied
£14,000 in 1909 and £17,000 in 1911 ; the United States
£17,000 and £19,000 ; and Germany £7,000 and £11,000.
Germany supplies most of the cutlery and the enamelled
ironware. Barbed wire was imported through Barran-
quilla to the amount of £13,000, mostly from the United
States.
Practically the whole of the trade in electrical goods
146 COLOMBIA
and apparatus is in the hands of United States and
German manufacturers, this including telegraphic and
telephonic material, although the Bogotan telephone
system is run by an English company. There are
undoubtedly enormous possibilities in the country for
the development of hydro-electric schemes, both for
municipal and industrial purposes.
Another branch of trade well worth careful attention
and fostering is the horseless vehicle business. In
most of the big towns, and wherever a few miles of
passable high roads exist, the automobile is gaining in
favour, both for private use and as means for public,
passenger and goods, conveyance. As the policy of
recent governments, and of the departmental adminis-
trations, is to promote the construction of roads and
bridges, this appreciation of automotive cars and wagons
is bound to grow. It is, therefore, to be noted that so
far the second class, low-priced cars of the United States
are preferred to the better built but more expensive
British vehicles, the reason being that purchasers prefer
to run their cars for a few seasons, then dispose of them
and procure newer models.
The leather manufactured goods trade is also deserving
of attention. According to the Colombian official
statistics as given above the imports of " hides and skins
and manufactures therefrom" in 1911 was £62,900, but
the figures given by the British Board of Trade on the
authority of the Barranquilla Custom House for
" leather and leather manufactures " are £59,000 in 1909,
£69,000 in 1910 and £85,000 in 1911. Of this last named
sum, £6,000 only went to the United Kingdom, £41,000
IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE 147
to the United States, £28,000 to France and £10,000 to
Germany. It appears that the chief sources of supply
are : for leather belting, the United States ; harness, the
United States, France and the United Kingdom ; boots,
France ; fancy goods, France and Germany. Saddlery
is almost entirely of local manufacture. There is an
appreciation of good leather articles, but the market
cannot afford to pay high prices.
There is a genuine demand for strong, tasteful binding
(both leather and cloth) at medium prices.
In estimating the possible value of the Colombian
market, it must be remembered that at the present rate
of imports the people, on the latest census basis, only
spend a little over 15s. a head on foreign goods. It is
almost certain that a closer study of the local needs
as regards prices, terms, and styles would sensibly
augment this per capita expenditure in the near future.
But the Colombian market is one whose idiosyncrasies
particularly demand sympathetic consideration.
CHAPTER XVI
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS
ABEJORRAL, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 45' N. lat. ; founded
in 1811 ; pop. 17,500. Centre of an agricultural district.
Salt mines in the neighbourhood.
ACANDI, cap. of the Uraba Comisaria.
AGUADAS, prov. of Salamina, dep. of Caldas, 5° 35' N. lat. ;
7,255 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 26,400. A leading centre
for the production of " Panama " straw hats.
AIPE, prov. of Neiva, dep. of Huila, 3° 22' N. lat. ; 1,214 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 6,600. Cattle and agricultural centre.
Many remarkable rocks with hieroplyphic inscriptions are
found here.
ALMAGUER, prov. of Caldas, dep. of Cauca, 1° 54' N. lat. ;
7,434 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,900. Agricultural and
mining centre.
AMAGA, dep. of Antioquia, 5° 56' N. lat. ; 4,517 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 6,700. Agricultural and mining centre. In
addition to rich gold mines there are coal mines and an
important foundry.
AMALFI, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 45' N. lat. ; founded in
1840 ; pop. 10,400. Situated on a plain, surrounded by
forests. Enjoys a pleasant climate. Is the centre of an
agricultural and important gold-mining district.
AMAIME, prov. of Ibague, dep. of Tolima ; pop. 4,000.
Ten gold and silver mines in operation.
ANAPOIMA, prov. of Tequendama, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 32' N. lat. ; 2,246 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,550. Situated
in the bed of an ancient lake. Thermal springs. Copper
mines.
148
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 149
ANDES, dep. of Antioquia, on the San Juan river ; pop.
18,400. Is situated amid fertile fields. A cattle-breeding
centre. Also rich gold and salt mines.
ANGOSTURA, dep. of Antioquia, 6 °45' N. lat. ; 5,313 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 8,200. First regular Congress of the
Republic held here.
ANOLAIMA, prov. of Facatativa, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 32' N. lat. ; 4,650 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 14,400. Agri-
cultural and mining centre. Large sugar-cane plantations ;
lead mine ; rich deposits of limestone.
ANSERMA, prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas, 5° 12' N. lat. ;
5,877 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 13,000. Coffee-growing
district.
ANTIOQUIA, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 24' N. lat. ; about
1,800 feet above sea-level, on the R. Tonusco ; pop. 10,000.
This picturesque old city was founded by Robledo in 1541,
and was long the chief town of that district. Possesses
cathedral, episcopal palace, public schools, hospital, etc. In
an agricultural district. Connected with Medellin by a road,
with good bridge over the Cauca river.
APIA, prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas ; 5,374 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 6,100. Coffee and tobacco-growing district.
ARANZAZU, prov. of Salanima, dep. of Caldas ; 5° 26'
N. lat. ; 5,765 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,100. Coffee-
growing district.
ARAUCA, cap. of Comisaria of Arauca, 6° 32' N. lat. ;
640 ft. above sea-level, on the river of the same name ; pop.
3,000. Cattle-raising and agricultural district. Sugar, rice,
maize, cocoa, plantains, etc.
ARBELAEZ, prov. of Sumapaz, dep. of Cundinamarca ;
pop. 5,900. Agricultural district.
ARBOLEDAS, prov. of Cucuta, dep. of Norte de Santander,
7° 27' N. lat. ; 2,994 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,700. Coffee
and cocoa.
ARJONA, prov. of Cartagena, dep. of Bolivar, 10° 16' N.
xx— (2248)
150 COLOMBIA
lat. ; 344 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,200. Agricultural and
cattle-breeding centre.
ARMENIA, prov. of Pereira, dep. of Caldas ; 5,515 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 13,700 ; coffee and tobacco cultivation.
There is another town of Armenia in Antioquia ; pop. 5,878.
ASPACIA, prov. of Ocafia, dep. of Norte de Santander,
8° N. lat. ; 5,242 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,300. Gold
mining.
B
BANCO, cap. of prov. of Banco, dep. of Magdalena, 8° 52'
N. lat., a port on the R. Magdalena, at its juncture with the
Cesar. Commercial and agricultural centre ; pop. 5,200.
BARANOA, prov. of Sabanalarga, dep. of Atlantico, 10° 47'
N. lat. ; pop. 5,324. Cotton-weaving mills in the town.
Cotton and yuca extensively grown in the neighbourhood.
BARBACOAS, cap. prov. of Barbacoas, dep. of Narifio,
1° 54' N. lat., at the confluence of the Guagui and Telembi
rivers, about 100 m. from the Pacific coast ; pop. 7,800.
Founded in 1607 as Nuestra Senora del Puerto de Nuevo
Toledo de Barbacoas. Formerly a rich alluvial mining
district, though now the gold production has fallen off. A
trace of platinum is found with the gold.
BARBOSA, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 22' N. lat. ; about 4,247
ft. above sea-level; pop. 11,000. Founded in 1792. Is the
centre of a cattle-breeding and mining district. Rich gold and
salt mines ; also lime quarries. Several important sugar mills
are situated here.
BARICHARA, prov. of Zapatoca, dep. of Santander,
6° 24' N. lat. ; 4,332 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 11,300. Chiefly
occupied with manufacture of straw hats and cigars.
Principal crops : tobacco, cotton, and agave (henequen).
BARRANQUILLA, cap. of the dep. of Atlantico, 10° 29'
N. lat., on the R. Magdalena (at about 55 miles from its mouth),
of which it is the chief port, as well as of the Republic ; pop.
48,900. The climate is hot and damp. Barranquilla is con-
nected with Puerto Colombia by railway. Founded in 1629, it
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 151
had a chequered career, being overshadowed by Cartagena,
until the early part of the nineteenth century, when its com-
mercial importance began to make itself felt. It is a busy,
well-built city, possessing a large covered market, hospital,
theatre, five churches, and two banks. Two of the largest
flour mills in the country are found here ; there are also sugar,
chocolate, soap, important textile and other factories. The
town is lit by electricity. There are electric tramways,
telephone service, and good water supply. Barranquilla is the
headquarters of steamer traffic on the Magdalena, Cauca,
Nechi, and other rivers. The chief Custom House of the
Republic is found here.
BAUDO, Choco Territory, 5° 10' N. lat. ; pop. 7,000.
Centre of alluvial gold industry.
BEL£N, cap. of prov. of Tundama, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 52'
N. lat. ; 8,860 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,164. Cattle-
breeding centre.
Another town of Belen is in the prov. of Tundama, dep. of
Caldas ; pop. 5,960.
BELTRAN, prov. of Guaduas, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 46' N. lat. ; 755 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 1,968.
Agricultural centre ; on the La Dorada Railway.
BITUIMA, prov. of Guaduas, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 51'
N. lat. ; 3,756 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,950. Agricultural
and mining centre.
BOAVITA, prov. del Norte, dep. of Boyaca, 6° N. lat. ;
6,936 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,000. Agricultural centre.
Produces sugar-cane, dates and an odoriferous resin (storax).
There are here sugar refineries and fruit-preserving factories.
BOCHALEMA, prov. of Cucuta, dep. of Norte de Santander,
7° 26' N. lat. ; 3,362 ft. above sea-level, in a small valley near
the R. Pamplonita ; pop. 4,300. Coffee plantations. Curious
Indian tombs, with mummies, found here.
BOGOTA, cap. of the Republic, of the dep. of Cundinamarca
and the prov. of Bogota, situated in 4° 35' N. lat., at 8,679 ft.
above sea-level, in the midst of rolling plains on a high plateau
152 COLOMBIA
surrounded by great mountains. It was founded on the site
of an Indian town by Belalcazar in 1558, and has always
been of great importance. The city is well laid out, with
spacious, but not over well-paved streets, open squares,
public gardens, imposing public buildings, and large numbers
of fine private residences and business premises. Served by
several railways, it has an excellent network of municipal
tramways, is lit by electricity, possesses two of the best
theatres on the Continent (the Teatro Colon and the Teatro
Municipal), large bull ring, hippodrome, polo club grounds,
and many other conveniences. In this city, too, will be found
the Capitol (home of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies),
the President's Palace, ministerial offices, university, many
high schools, public, secondary and elementary schools, public
library and museum, cathedral and a great many churches
and old conventual establishments. Bogota, besides being
the political centre of the country, is also a busy mart where
much of the imports for distribution as well as goods for
exports are gathered. It is also a manufacturing town, textile
(cotton and wool), pottery, glass, sulphuric acid, soap and
candles, cigars, chocolate, beer and other liquors being
produced ; there are as well flour mills, tanneries, and brick
and tile works. There are four banks, the Banco de Colombia,
Banco de Bogota, Banco Central and the Banco Hipotecario,
and an influential insurance company, the Compania General
de Seguros, with a capital of two million dollars gold.
BOLIVAR, cap. of pro v. of Caldas, dep. of Cauca, 1° 49'
N. lat. ; 5,512 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 17,738. Picturesquely
situated town, founded in 1749. Agricultural and mineral
district.
BOLIVAR, prov. of Velez, dep. of Santander, 5° 21' N. lat. ;
6,435 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 12,410. Agricultural centre.
Close by are unworked emerald strata.
A third town of this name is in the dep. of Antioquia, pop.
9,500 ; and a fourth in the prov. of Roldanillo, dep. of El
Valle, pop. 4,600.
BOYACA, prov. Centro, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 27' N. lat. ;
8,637 ft. above sea-level, on the banks of a small river of the
same name ; pop. 6,600. This is the site of the victory which
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 153
Bolivar won over the Royal Spanish troops in 1819. An
obelisk has been erected to commemorate the event. An
agricultural centre.
BUCARAMANGA, cap. of prov. of Bucaramanga and
dep. of Santander, 6° 50' N. lat. ; 3,036 ft. above sea-level ;
pop. 19,700. Founded in 1778. Has wide streets and many
conveniences, such as electric light, theatre, hospital, public
gardens, etc. Is situated in the midst of fertile coffee, cocoa,
cotton, and tobacco plantations. It is one of the chief coffee
markets of the country. Possesses factories turning out straw
hats, textiles, cigars, beer, etc. Its gold mines are no longer
worked.
BUENAVENTURA, cap. of prov. of Buenaventura, dep. of
El Valle, 3° 53' N. lat., situated on the island of Cascajal ;
pop. 6,500. Principal Colombian Pacific port, and head of the
Pacific-Cali Railway. Custom House and submarine cable
station. Important market town, and port of entry for the
whole Cauca Valley.
BUGA, cap. prov. of Buga,dep. of El Valle, 3° 55' N. lat. ;
3,285 ft. above sea-level, on banks of river of the same name,
close to the R. Cauca; pop. 11,600. Founded in 1575 by
Alvaro de Mendoza as Guadalajara, subsequently known as
Nueva Galicia. An important agricultural centre.
CACERES, dep. of Antioquia, 7° 30' N. lat. ; 652 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 5,500. Coal seams. Extensive gold dredging
operations carried on here.
CALAMAR, prov. of Cartagena, dep. of Bolivar, 10° 17' N.
lat., on the banks of the Magdalena ; pop. 6,349. The river
terminus of the Cartagena Railway, which gives it its only
importance.
CALAMAR, cap. of the Comisaria de Vaupes, on the R.
Unilla, just S. of the Equator. Floating pop. of about 500.
Centre for the collection of the caucho negro, or forest rubber.
CALARCA, prov. of Pereira, dep. of Caldas ; 5,512 ft.
154 COLOMBIA
above sea-level ; pop. 13,200. Agricultural and mining
centre.
CALDAS, dep. of Antioquia, 5° 58' N. lat. ; 5,300 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 5,700. Possesses glass and pottery factories
and foundries.
Also Caldas, prov. of Occidente, dep. of Boyaca, pop. 5,000 ;
and Caldas, prov. of Ambalema, dep. of Tolima, pop. 5,600.
CALI, the capital of the prov. of Cali and the dep. of El
Valle, is situated in 3° 5' N. lat., on the R. Cali, at 3,420 ft.
above sea-level, enjoys an average temperature of 25° C, and
has a population of 27,500. It was founded in 1535. Much
of the old town remains, but it is a thoroughly progressive
place, with steam tramways, electric light and a number of
large factories. There is a handsome cathedral, numerous
other churches, a hospital, schools, theatre and public gardens.
There are large furniture, soap and candle factories, foundries,
etc. It collects and exports gold, coffee, cocoa, rubber and
other local produce. In the immediate neighbourhood are
vast deposits of excellent coal, so far unworked. River
steamer communication with Cartago.
CALOTO, capital of the prov. of Camilo Torres, dep. of
Cauca, 2° 46' N. lat. ; 3,320 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,578.
Founded in 1543. Agricultural and mining centre.
CAMPOALEGRE, prov. of Neiva, dep. of Huila, 2° 57'
N. lat ; over 1,800 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,250. Situated
in a fertile plain. Fruit, cattle, etc. Alluvial gold deposits
worked.
CANDELARIA, prov. of Palmira, dep. of El Valle, 3° 25'
N. lat. ; 3,152 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,900. Agricultural
centre, producing maize, bananas, sugar-cane and cocoa.
CAPARRAPI, prov. of Guadas, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° 16' N. lat. ; over 4,300 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,417.
Agricultural centre.
CAPILLA DE COCUY, prov. of Gutierrez, dep. of Boyaca,
5 ° N. lat. ; 9,192 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,700. Agricultural
centre.
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 155
CAQUEZA, cap. of the prov. del Oriente, dep. of Cundina-
marca, 4° 25' N. lat. ; 5,785 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,000.
Commercial and agricultural centre. Half-way halting stage
between the Sabana of Bogota and the llanos of the Meta.
Is a centre for the manufacture of textile and other articles
from henequen fibre.
CARAMANTA, dep. of Antioquia, 5° 28' N. lat. ; 6,893 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 5,000. Gold and silver mining.
CARMEN (EL), dep. of Antioquia, 5° N. lat. ; 6,916 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 8,312. Agricultural centre. Commerce
in salt from springs, timber and pottery.
CARMEN, cap. of the prov. of El Carmen, dep. of Bolivar,
9° 44' N. lat. ; 492 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 16,300. Situated
on a fertile plain, celebrated for the excellence of its tobacco
crops.
Also Carmen, prov. of Atrato, district of Choco, pop. 2,300 ;
Carmen, prov. of Ocana, dep. of Norte de Santander, pop.
8,200 ; and Carmen de Agricala, prov. of Guaduas, dep. of
Tolima, pop. 2,700.
CARMEN DE CARUPA, prov. of Ubate, dep. of Cundina-
marca, 5 deg. 14' N. lat. ; 9,745 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
8,238. Coal mines. Centre of fertile agricultural district.
CARTAGENA, cap. of the dep. of Bolivar, 10° 25' N. lat. ;
situated on an island in Cartagena bay ; pop. 36,632. This
ancient city, founded in 1533 by Pedro de Heredia, was for
long one of the most important settlements in Spanish South
America. Strongly fortified, it became the emporium of that
great exchange of wealth between the New and the Old
World, and consequently attracted various covetous persons.
Captured and sacked by French pirates in 1544, forty-two
years later it fell to Francis Drake, who carried off vast
wealth in gold, silver and precious stones, besides exacting a
ransom of 113,000 dollars ; attacked in 1620 by united bands
of English and French pirates, a successful defence was made ;
but in 1697 a strong French force captured the town, the
conquerors singing the Te Deum Laudamus in the cathedral,
and carrying off over seven million dollars worth of treasure.
Finally came the unfortunate enterprise of Admiral Vernon
156 COLOMBIA
and General Wentworth in 1741, which suffered unqualified
defeat. For its resistance to foreign foes and rebels, the
Spanish kings bestowed on it a coat of arms and the title of
" Most Noble and Loyal." In spite of this it declared for
independence in 1811. Four years later it suffered siege by
land and water, falling after heroic efforts to the Royalist army
when the leaders of the Republican party were put to death ;
a large ransom exacted and the office of Holy Inquisition
re-established. But as the result of the victory of Boyaca
in 1819, the Spanish governor capitulated eighteen months
later. Cartagena still retains much of its old world appear-
ance, with its stout ramparts and bastions, its splendid cathe-
dral, archiepiscopal palace, viceroy's ancient palace and other
buildings, vying with its modern edifices, which includes the
National Treasury, hospitals, and a fine theatre. The Univer-
sity is installed in the old convent of San Augustin ; there
are numerous educational establishments besides, among which
is the National Normal School for Teachers. While the
streets of Cartagena itself are rather narrow, though well
paved, the pleasant residential suburbs of Jetyemani, Pie de
la Popa and Cabrero have wide streets, with charming villas
hidden among palms and other tropical vegetation. Although
Barranquilla has done much to take away the commercial
leadership, Cartagena still retains an influential position in the
business world. It has textile (spinning and weaving), sugar,
chocolate, soap, straw hat, boot, tanning and other factories,
large flour mills, petroleum refinery, and other works. Carta-
gena is lit by electricity, has a good tramway service, and is
linked up with the Magdalena by a canal, the Dique, and a
railway. The latter runs from the spacious wharves and
warehouses, on the shores of the magnificent harbour, to the
fluvial port of Calamar. Commercially Cartagena is not only
important as an entrepot for overseas traffic (about 35 per
cent, of the imports pass through its Custom House), but also
as the main trading centre for the dep. of Bolivar and the whole
of the Atrato valley.
CARTAGO, cap. of prov. of Cartago, dep. of El Valle,
4° 45' N. lat., near the Rio Vieja. It was originally founded
in 1540 on the R. Otun, but soon after transferred to its
present site ; pop. 18,600. An agricultural centre, producing
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 157
cocoa, coffee, tobacco, etc. Busy commercial community.
Steamer communication between Cartago and Cali.
CERETE, prov. of Sinu, dep. of Bolivar, 8° 47' N. lat. ;
82 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,000. A commercial centre.
CERRITO, prov. of Buga, dep. of El Valle, 3° 43' N. lat. ;
3,063 ft. above sea-level, on the river of the same name ;
pop. 6,300. An agricultural centre.
CHARALA, cap. of prov. of Charala, dep. of Santander,
6° N. lat. ; 4,751 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,900. Agriculture
(sugar-cane, maize, etc.) ; cattle-breeding ; manufacture of
blankets ; tanneries.
CHIA, prov. of Bogota, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 50' N. lat. ;
8,567 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,430. Agricultural centre.
CHINACOTA, prov. of Cucuta, dep. of Norte de Santander,
7° 23' N. lat.; 6,320 ft. above sea-level; pop. 10,100.
Important agricultural centre. Coffee, cocoa, etc.
CHINU, cap. of prov. of Chinu, dep. of Bolivar, 9° N. lat. ;
pop. 12,000. Founded in 1534 by Pedro de Heredia, on site
of an ancient Indian town. Is in midst of fertile plains, on
which extensive herds of cattle are bred.
CHIPAQUE, prov. del Oriente, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 26' N. lat. ; 7,905 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,500.
Agricultural centre.
CHIQUINQUIRA, cap. of the prov. Occidente, dep. of
Boyaca, 5° 32' N. lat. ; 8,500 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
14,500. Founded in 1586. Possesses fine church, colleges,
hospital, and other public buildings. Some manufacturing is
carried on here. The town is on a plain, whose rich pasturages
carry large flocks of sheep.
CHIRIGUANA, prov. of Valledupar, dep. of Magdalena,
9° 10' N. lat. ; pop. 6,500. An agricultural centre, near the
R.Cesar. Well known for the excellence of its cattle and
cocoa.
CHISCAS, prov. of Gutierrez, dep. of Boyaca, 6° 42' N. lat. ;
158 COLOMBIA
7,813 ft. above sea-level, situated on a plain near the Sierra
Navada del Cocuy ; pop. 6,600. Agricultural centre.
CHITA, prov. of Gutierrez, dep. of Boyaca, 6° N. lat. ;
pop. 9,100. Ancient Indian settlement. Important agri-
cultural centre. Saline thermal springs in neighbourhood,
which are exploited.
CHOACHI, prov. del Oriente, dep. of Cundinamarca, 5° 32'
N. lat. ; 6,182 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,100. Thermal spring
bathing station. Fruit and cereals produced on a large scale.
CHOCONTA, cap. prov. of Choconta, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° N. lat. ; 8,732 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,900. Built on
site of old Chibchas fortified town, at extremity of the sabana
of Bogota. Inhabitants chiefly occupied in sadlers' and
harness makers' industry. In neighbourhood are unworked
rich deposits of iron, asphalt, etc. Also thermal springs.
CIENAGA, prov. of Santa Marta, dep. of Magdalena, 11°
N. lat. Situated on a plain on the Atlantic coast at the foot
of the Sierra Navada de Santa Marta ; pop. 14,610. Shipping
and agricultural centre. Many of its inhabitants are engaged
in the coasting trade. Cocoa, cotton, and tobacco, but chiefly
bananas are grown. A little gold and good marble. Cienaga
was formerly known as San Juan de Cordoba.
Also Cienaga, prov. of Marquez, dep. of Boyaca, pop. 4,700.
CIENAGA DE ORO, prov. of Sinu, dep. of Bolivar, on the
Martinez, a tributary of the Sinu ; pop. 9,500. Centre of
agriculture and alluvial gold mining.
CIRCASIA, prov. of Pereira, dep. of Caldas ; pop. 6,100.
Agricultural centre.
COCUY, cap. of the prov. of Gutierrez, dep. of Boyaca,
6° 16' N. lat. ; 9,050 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the
Sierra del Cocuy ; pop. 7,870. Agricultural and mining cen-
tre. Much wheat, oats, and maize grown. Gold and silver
abundant.
COELLO, prov. of Ibague, dep. of Tolima, 4° 16' N. lat. ;
1,090 ft. above sea-level, near the rivers of the same name
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 159
and of the Magdalena ; pop. 4,825. Silver mines, gold
alluviums and thermal springs.
COLEGIO. See El Colegio.
CONCEPCI6N, prov. of Malaga, dep. of Santander, 6° 35'
N. lat. ; 6,427 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,100. Agricultural
centre. Thermal springs.
Also Concepcion, dep. of Antioquia, pop. 3,300 ; and
Concepcion, prov. of Gorzou, dep. of Huila, pop. 3,500.
CONVENCI6N, prov. of Ocafia, dep. of Norte de Santander,
8° 12' N. lat. ; 3,252 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,200.
Agricultural centre.
COROZAL, cap. of prov. of Corozal, dep. of Bolivar, 9° 27'
N. lat. ; 510 ft. above sea ; pop. 10,900. Centre of extensive
cattle-breeding district. Produces textiles and much
appreciated cotton embroideries.
CUCUTA (San Jose de Cucuta), cap. of prov. of Cucuta and
of dep. of Norte de Santander, 7° 38' N. lat. ; 1,052 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 20,400. The town lies within ten miles of the
Venezuelan frontier, and is connected by railway with the
R. Zulia, which flows into Lake Maracaibo, and so into the
Atlantic. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1875, and
has been rebuilt with wide tree-bordered streets and fine
houses. It is lighted by electricity and served by a tramway
and the telephone. Among the public buildings are a theatre,
casino, hospital, many churches and schools. There are two
public parks. Local industries are carried on vigorously, but
the chief business of the place is to act as a gathering and
distributing centre for the agricultural and other products
of the district. Cucuta coffee has an excellent reputation.
Seat of a Custom house.
CUCUTILLA, prov. of Pamplona, dep. of Norte de San-
tander, 7° 21' N. lat. ; 4,342 feet above sea-level ; pop. 6,600.
Agricultural centre.
CUMBAL, prov. of Ipiales, dep. of Narino, 0° 49' N. lat. ;
12,297 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the volcano of the same
name ; pop. 7,400. Agricultural centre.
160 COLOMBIA
D
DAGUA, prov. of Cali, dep. of El Valle, on the river of that
name ; pop. 6,300. Agricultural centre. Alluvial gold.
DUITAMA, prov. of Tundama, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 47' N. lat.;
8,239 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,915. Celebrated for its
orchards, and its manufacture of esparto matting.
E
EL COLEGIO, prov. of Tequendama, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 33' N. lat. ; 3,972 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,350.
Agricultural centre.
EL PENON, prov. of Zipaquira, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° N. lat. ; 4,563 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,600. Agricultural
centre.
F
FACATATIVA, cap. of the prov. of Facatativa and of the
dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 45' N. lat. ; 8,634 ft. above sea-
level ; pop. 10,534. On site of an old Chibchas stronghold,
on the eastern confines of the sabana of Bogota at the con-
fluence of two small rivers. Busy commercial centre, with
wide streets, well-built public edifices and factories. Is
connected with the Bogota by rail and tramways, and is an
entrepot for mineral and agricultural produce and also for
imported manufactured goods. Thermal springs and curious
inscribed rocks in the neighbourhood.
FIRAVITOBA, prov. of Sugumuxi, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 34'
N. lat. ; 8,435 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,550. Agricultural
centre.
FLORENCIA, cap. of Caqueta Comisaria.
FOMEQUE, prov. del Oriente, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 30'
N. lat. ; 6,467 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,900. Agricultural
centre.
FREDONIA, dep. of Antioquia, 5° 50' N. lat. ; about
6,060 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 18,200. Important agricul-
tural centre, much coffee grown. Fine outcroppings of coal
seen here.
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 161
FRONTINO, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 32' N. lat. ; about
5,100 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,587. Busy agricultural and
commercial centre. Large coffee and sugar plantations. The
neighbouring forests produce vegetable ivory, rubber, and
cabinet woods. Rich gold mines.
FUSAGASUGA, cap. of the prov. of Sampaz, dep. of
Cundinamarca, 4° 21' N. lat.; 5,818 ft. above sea-level;
pop. 13,500. Great coffee plantation centre.
G
GACHALA, prov. of Guavio, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 44'
N. lat. ; 5,742 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,920. Agricultural
district.
GACHETA, cap. prov. Guavio, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 47' N. lat. ; 5,643 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 12,500. Sulphur
and salt mines ; also thermal springs. Centre of a rich
agricultural and cattle-raising district.
GARAGOA, prov. of Niera, dep. of Boyaca, 5° N. lat. ;
5,200 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,200. Agricultural centre,
the chief crops being sugar-cane, bananas, aniseed.
GARZON, cap. prov. of Garzon, dep. of Huila, 2° 50' N. lat. ;
2,692 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,800. A bishopric. The
town is built on site of an ancient lake, amidst extensive cocoa
plantations and wide pastures, which carry a heavy head of
cattle. Possesses asphalt mines.
GIGANTE, prov. of Garzon, dep. of Huila, 2° 40' N. lat. ;
2,660 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,800. Town derives its
name from the discovery here by the Spanish conquerors
of quantities of fossil bones of huge animals. Gold placer
mines.
GIRARDOT, cap. of prov. of Girardot, dep. of Cundina-
marca, 4° 16' N. lat. ; 1,083 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,400.
On the banks of the Magdalena. Of great importance as
the terminus of the Girardot-Bogota railway. A lengthy
suspension bridge at the Paso de Flandes gives direct
communication between Bogota and Ibague.
162 COLOMBIA
GIRARDOTA, Antioquia, 6° 16' N. lat. ; 4,599 ft. above
sea-level. Founded in 1702 ; pop. 8,100.
GIRON, prov. of Bucaramanga, dep. of Santander, 6° 47'
N. lat. ; 1,849 ft. above sea-level on the banks of the Rio de
Oro ; pop. 6,200. Chief interests : straw hat manufacture,
cattle-breeding, tobacco-growing.
GUACA, prov. of San Andres, dep. of Santander, 6° 44'
N. lat. ; over 8,400 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,100. Commer-
cial and agricultural centre. Esteemed for its woollen
fabrics, known as " ruanas."
GUCARI, prov. of Buga, dep. of El Valle, 3° 45' N. lat. ;
3,217 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,500. Agricultural and
cattle-raising centre.
GUACHETA, prov. of Ubate, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° 18' N. lat. ; 8,874 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,300. Occupies
the site of an old and wealthy Indian town ; copper mines.
GUADUAS, cap. of the prov. of Guadas, dep. of Cundina-
marca, 5° N. lat. ; 3,368 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,700.
Busy and wealthy little town, situated in a pleasant, healthy
valley. Agricultural and mining centre. Coffee, sugar-cane,
tobacco, cotton, and indigo grow well. Palm straw hats
manufactured. Coal and asphalte mines. Thermal springs.
GUAITARILLA, prov. of Tuquerres, dep. of Narino, 1° N.
lat. ; 8,755 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,000. Agricultural
centre.
GUASCA, prov. of Guatavita, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 49'
N. lat. ; 8,710 ft. above sea- level, near the lake of the same
name ; pop. 5,760. Site of the old Indian town. Coal mines.
Thermal springs.
GUATAVITA, cap. prov. of Guatavita, dep. of Cundina-
marca, 4° 51' N. lat. ; 8,522 ft. above sea-level. Site of an
old Indian town, sacked by Quesada. Extensive production
of woollen fabrics. Coal mines.
GUATEQUE, cap. of prov. del Oriente, dep. of Boyaca
5° N. lat. ; 5,989 ft. above sea-level. Situated in the Tenza
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 163
valley ; pop. 7,000. Founded 1671. Agricultural and
mining centre. Gold, silver, and copper.
GUAYATA, prov. del Oriente, dep. of Boyaca, 4° 59' N.
lat. ; 5,657 ft. above sea-level, near the R. Macheta ; pop.
8,150. Important agricultural centre.
H
HATO, prov. of La Plata, dep. of Huila, 2° 25' N. lat. ;
2,685 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,300. Agricultural district.
Also Hato, prov. of Zapatoca, dep. of Santander ; pop.
2,000.
HONDA, cap. of prov. of Honda, dep. of Tolima, 5° 11' N.
lat. ; 689 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,600. Busy port and
mart on the Magdalena, terminus of the lower fluvial naviga-
tion. Station on the La Dorada-Ambalema Railway.
I
IBAGU£, cap. of the prov. of Ibague and the dep. of Tolima,
4° 27' N. lat. ; 4,266 ft. above sea-level, in the valley of the
Combeima, a tributary of the R. Coello ; pop. 24,700. Founded
in 1551. A pleasant, well-planned town, enjoying an excellent
climate, owing to the cool mountain breezes. It is an active
commercial centre, for the valleys of the Cauca and Magda-
lena ; exporting coffee, cocoa, sugar, straw hats, hides, rubber,
tobacco and vegetable ivory. There are gold, silver and
sulphur mines, and thermal springs in the neighbourhood.
The cattle trade is developed on quite a big scale.
IPIALES, cap. prov. of Ipiales, dep. of Narifio, 0° 46' N.
lat.; 10,123 ft. above sea-level, near the R. Male; pop.
14,600. Industrial and commercial centre, having consider-
able dealings with Ecuador. Is the seat of a Custom house.
Chief industries : cabinet work and tanning.
ISCUANDE, prov. of Nunez, dep. of Narifio, 2° 31' N. lat. ;
pop. 7,300. Situated amidst marshes. Sugar-cane, rice,
cocoa, bananas, and rice grown in large quantities.
ISTMINA (or SAN PABLO), district of the Choco, 1° 38'
N. lat., lying between the headwaters of the Atrato and San
164 COLOMBIA
Juan rivers; pop. 11,100. One of the chief markets for
platinum, brought in from the Condoto, Iro, and other rivers.
ITUANGO, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 59' N. lat. ; pop. 15,246.
Agricultural centre.
J
JAMUNDI, prov. of Cali, dep. of El Valle, 3° 20' N. lat. ;
3,365 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,250. Agricultural centre,
producing maize, bananas, cocoa.
JENESANO, prov. of Marquez, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 23' N. lat. ;
7,107 ft. above sea-level, on banks of river of same name ;
pop. 7,560. Great centre for fruit-growing and cattle-raising.
JERICO, dep. of Antioquia, 6° N. lat. ; 6,790 ft. above
sea-level; pop. 15,200. Founded in 1851, and was the
capital of the old dep. of Jerico. Is a nourishing agricultural
and commercial centre. Cattle-raising and coffee-planting
are carried out on a large scale. The town possesses an
extensive weaving mill.
j£RICO, cap. of the prov. of Valderrama, dep. of Boyaca,
6° N. lat. ; over 10,000 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,200.
Agricultural centre.
Also Jerico, prov. of Villavicencio, Meta.
JESUS MARIA, prov. of Valez, dep. of Santander, 5° 46'
N. lat. ; 6,326 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 13,200. Founded in
1774. Agricultural centre.
JUNIN, prov. of Guavio, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 44' N.
lat.; 5,975 ft. above sea-level; pop. 11,758. Centre of
agricultural district.
L
LA CRUZ, capital of prov. of La Cruz, dep. of Narifio,
1° 34' N. lat. ; 7,889 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,500.
Also La Cruz, prov. of Ocafia, dep. of Norte de Santander,
pop. 8,000.
LA MESA, cap. of prov. of Tequendama, dep. of Cundina-
marca, 4° 36' N. lat. ; 4,205 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 11,122.
Important market for cocoa, coffee, sugar, maize, salt and
palm straw hats. Fertile cocoa and coffee plantations.
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 165
LA PALMA, prov. of Guaduas, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° N. lat. ; 4,781 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,400. Agricultural
centre.
Also La Palma, prov. of Ocana, dep. of Norte de Santander ;
pop. 2,800.
LA PLATA, cap. prov. of La Plata, dep. of Huila, 2° 35'
N. lat. ; 3,334 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,130. Agricultural
and silver-mining district.
LA UNION, cap. of the prov. of Juamambu, dep. of Narifio,
1° 33' N. lat. ; pop. 9,100.
Towns of the same name in Antioquia, pop. 2,700 ; prov. of
Neiva, Huila, pop. 5,000 ; and prov. of Roldanillo, El Valle,
pop. 3,200.
LA VEGA, prov. of Facatativa, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 55' N. lat. ; 3,822 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,900.
Agricultural centre.
Also La Vega, prov. of Caldas, dep. of Cauca, pop. 6,600.
LORICA, cap. of prov. of Sinu, dep. of Bolivar, 9° 15'
N. lat., on the R. Sinu ; pop. 19,000. Busy commercial,
agricultural, and mining centre. The river is navigable up
to this point by fairly large steamers.
M
MAGANGUfi, cap. of the prov. of Magangue, dep. of Bolivar,
9° 26' N. lat., on the left bank of the Cauca, almost at its
confluence with the Magdalena ; pop. 13,400. A busy
fluvial port, where well-attended fairs are held periodically.
Possesses textile mills.
MAJAGUAL, prov. of Magangue, dep. of Bolivar, 8° 22'
N. lat. ; pop. 9,700. Agricultural centre.
MALAGA, cap. of the prov. of Malaga, dep. of Santander,
6° 31' N. lat. ; 7,262 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,600.
MANIZALES, cap. of the prov. of Manizales and the
dep. of Caldas, 5° N. lat., at 7,025 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
34,700. Although only founded in 1846, it is an important
and rapidly growing city. It is the seat of a bishop. Perched
12— (2248)
166 COLOMBIA
on a rocky peak overlooking the plateaux of Ruiz, it is sur-
rounded by a range of snowy mountains, owing its very name
to the granite on which it is based. Manizales possesses
wide streets, public gardens, colleges, and schools, theatres, and
four banks. On the plains large herds of cattle graze, and in
the immediate neighbourhood are sulphur and salt mines,
and thermal sulphur and saline springs. Although distant
from any river and having no railway, it is the gathering and
distributing centre for much of the commerce of the surround-
ing departments. It is one of the leading markets for gold,
sulphur, coffee, cocoa, and cattle.
MANZANARES, cap. of the prov. of Manzanares, dep. of
Caldas, pop. 11,900. Important mining centre.
MARMATO, prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas, 5° 5' N. lat. ;
5,121 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,100. One of the richest
gold-mining districts of the Republic. The mines are State
property, leased to the Colombian Mining and Exploration
Company, of London.
MATANZA, prov. of Bucaramanga, dep. of Santander,
7° 40' N. lat. ; 5,269 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,700. Deposits
of coal, talc and rock ; crystal abundant.
MEDELLIN, cap. of the dep. of Antioquia, 6° V N. lat. ;
4,600 ft. above sea-level, situated in a picturesque, fairly
sheltered valley, enjoying an excellent climate. Founded in
1675 ; pop. 71,000. Its streets are wide and houses well
built. It is lit by electricity, and plans have been prepared
for a modern drainage system. It possesses a university,
public library, schools of arts, mines and mechanics, as well as
secondary and primary schools, museum, assay and chemical
laboratories, mint, two banks, two theatres, a bull ring and
many factories. Among these must be specified five textile
factories (spinning and weaving), the largest employing 400
girls and 110 men, and having an output of 8,000 yards of
cotton and woollen cloth ; four foundries ; an engineering
shop chiefly engaged in manufacturing machinery for handling
coffee and chocolate, and large tannery ; four chocolate
factories ; four breweries ; and establishments for the manu-
facture of cigars and cigarettes, candles, and soap. Another
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 167
textile factory and one for the manufacture of paper are in
the course of erection. It is of considerable commercial
importance, being one of the largest collecting and distributing
centres in the Republic ; the chief exports are gold, silver ,
coffee, and hides.
MESA. See La Mesa.
MIRAFLORES, capital of Province of Neira, dep. of Boyaca,
5° 14' N. lat. ; 4,340 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 19,150. Tropical
crops.
MIRAFLORES, prov. of Ibague, dep. of Tolima, 4° 14'
N. lat. ; 2,627 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,438. Founded
in 1778. Gold-mining and agricultural produce.
MOCOA, capital of the Comisaria of the Putumayo, 0° 56'
N. lat. ; 2,094 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 1,400. An old penal
settlement, now a trading centre for the collection of rubber, etc.
MOGOTES, prov. of San Gil, dep. of Santander, 6° 16' N.
lat. ; 5,582 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,300. Well known for
its fruit preserves. Coal mines in the district.
MOLAGAVITA, prov. of San Andres, dep. of Santander,
6° 32' N. lat. ; 7,062 ft. above sea-level, on banks of the river
of the same name ; pop. 7,000. Coal mines.
MOMPOS, cap. of prov. of Mompos, dep. of Bolivar, 9° 14'
N. lat., on a branch of the Magdalena ; pop. 14,700. Founded
by Alonzo de Heredia, in 1539. A fine town, with public
buildings. A commercial and manufacturing centre, with
several foundries and jewellery factories. Large trade in
cattle and choice tobacco.
MONIQUIRA, cap. of the prov. of Ricaurte, dep. of Boyaca,
5° 47' N. lat. ; 5,797 ft. above sea-level, on the banks of the
river of the same name ; pop. 10,746. An agricultural centre.
Fruit preserving factories are extensive. Rich copper mines
in the vicinity.
MONTERIA, prov. of Sinu, dep. of Bolivar, on the Sinu ;
pop. 21,500. Chiefly engaged in production of illuminating
oil known as " Corozo."
168 COLOMBIA
N
NAZARET, prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas ; pop. 9,400.
Agricultural colony.
NEIRA, prov. of Manizales, dep. of Caldas, 5° 11' N. lat. ;
6,372 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 12,500. Agricultural and
cattle-raising centre. Valuable salt springs.
NEIVA, cap. of the prov. of Neiva and dep. of Huila, 3°
N. lat. ; 1,512 ft. above sea-level, on the right bank of the
Magdalena at its confluence with the R. Neiva ; pop. 21,850.
The town is situated in a hot but healthy valley. Founded
in 1612. Its streets are wide, bordered by fine houses.
Important commercial, industrial, and agricultural centre.
Much of the export and import trade is gathered and dis-
tributed here over wide regions. Possesses textile, "Panama"
traw hat, fibre hammock factories, potteries, etc. Its cocoa
and cattle are widely known.
NEMOCON, prov. of Zipaquira, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° N. lat. ; 8,792 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,300. Founded
in 1537. Great centre of the salt trade ; also coal mines.
NOVITA, Choco district, 4° 36' N. lat. ; 575 ft. above sea-
level, on the river of the same name ; pop. 6,100. The town,
founded in 1709, is built on piles. Centre of the alluvial gold
and platinum trade.
NUNCHIA, cap. of the prov. of Nunchia, dep. of Boyaca,
5° 28' N. lat. ; 1,408 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 2,890. Centre
of tropical agricultural produce.
O
OCANA., cap. of the prov. of Ocafia, dep. Norte de Santan-
der, 8° N. lat. ; 3,824 ft. above sea-level, on the banks of the
Rio Grande ; pop. 16,800. Well-built town, founded in 1576,
on a sandy plain. Commercial centre ; exports coffee,
aniseed, hides, palm straw hats. Coal and lead deposits are
found in the neighbourhood.
P
PACHO, prov. of Zipaquira, dep. of Cundinamarca, 5° N.
at. ; 6,076 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 15,837. Iron and coal
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 169
mines. Formerly there was an important foundry here, but
it is now closed. This district supplies Zipaquira and Bogota
with firewood. Agriculture is the chief industry.
PACORA, prov. Salamina, dep. of Caldas, 5° 30' N. lat. ;
5,475 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 11,300. Cattle-raising centre.
PADUA, prov. Centro, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 22' N. lat. ;
8,587 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,424.
PAIPA, prov. of Tundama, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 47' N. lat. ;
8,072 ft. above sea-level, on the banks of the river of the same
name. Near here are the plains known as Pantano de Vergas,
where Bolivar gained a victory in 1819. Agricultural centre
PALMA. See La Palma.
PALMIRA, cap. of the prov. of Palmira, dep. of El Valle.
3°33'N. lat. ; 3,132 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 24,312. Impor-
tant industrial and agricultural centre. Well-equipped sugar
factories. Palmira tobacco is much sought after. One of the
principal tobacco markets in the Republic. A half-yearly
general market held here.
PAMPLONA, cap. of the prov. of Pamplona, dep. of Norte
de Santander, 7° 12' N. lat. ; 7,560 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
14,800. Old town founded in 1549, but has suffered much
from earthquakes. Was formerly a great mining depot, rich
gold mines being worked in its neighbourhood, now exhausted.
Coffee trade occupies most attention.
PANDI, prov. of Sumapaz, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 13'
N. lat. ; 3,273 ft. above sea-level, on the Sumapaz ; pop.
4,500. Agricultural centre. Is celebrated for its natural
rock bridge (Puenta Icononzo), about 39 ft. long by 9 ft. wide
spanning the Sumapaz at an elevation of over 250 ft. There
is also a curious red-painted, inscribed rock.
PASTO, cap. of the prov. of Pasto and the dep. of Narifio,
1° 30' N. lat. ; 8,660 ft. above sea-level, situated on a small
fertile plateau at the foot of the volcano of the same name ;
pop. 27,800. Founded in 1539. Is the seat of a bishop.
Possesses wide streets, lit by electricity and fine public build-
ings, including a school of mines. A commercial and
170 COLOMBIA
manufacturing centre. Textiles (wool and cotton), felt and
straw hats, and varnished wood-work produced here. The
Pasto varnish, derived from the eleagia utilis, is widely
celebrated and deserves attention.
PENON. See El Penon.
PENSILVANIA, prov. of Manzanares, dep. of Caldas ; pop.
10,200. Agricultural and mining centre.
PEREIRA, cap. of the prov. of Peria, dep. of Caldas ;
4,675 ft. above sea-level, on the banks of the R. Otun ; pop.
18,500. Agricultural centre. Chief cattle market of the
department ; a half-yearly fair is held here.
PESCA, prov. of Sugumuxi, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 6' N. lat. ;
8,735 ft. above sea-level, on the river of the same name ;
pop. 10,700. An ancient town of the Chibchas Indians.
Large market for wool and cereals.
PIEDECUESTA, cap. of the prov. of Piedecuesta, dep. of
Santander, 6° 43' N. lat. ; 3,312 ft. above sea-level, on the
Rio de Oro ; pop. 8,100. Manufactures : straw hats, cigars,
fruit preserves. Agricultural products : fruit, cocoa, coffee,
tobacco, cotton.
PLATA. See La Plata.
PITALITO, prov. of Garzon, dep. of Huila, 2° 10' N.
lat. ; 4,445 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 12,550. Prosperous
agricultural district.
POPAYAN, cap. of the prov. of Popayan and of the dep.
of the Cauca, 2° 26' N. lat. ; 5,900 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
18,725. Was founded in 1536 by Belalcazar on a great table-
land, at the foot of the extinct volcano Sotara (15,892 ft.),
and some 17 m. from the active volcano Purace (16,103 ft.).
It enjoys an equably cool spring climate, but is subject to
violent electrical storms and earthquakes. It played a leading
part in the old Spanish and early revolutionary days, and
still possesses many remarkable buildings, but its commercial
importance is on the decline. The Government and depart-
mental offices, the University of Cauca, the chief schools all
occupy fine old convents. There are, including the cathedral,
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 171
ten churches. Besides the large covered market-place, there
are two banks, schools, hospital, theatres, a bull ring, and
very beautiful gardens. The municipality has built two
handsome bridges and short lengths of good roads in the
immediate neighbourhood of the town. Woollen fabrics are
produced for local consumption.
PUEBLOVIEJO, prov. of Sugumuxi, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 24'
N. lat. ; pop. 9,000. Agricultural centre.
PUEBLOVIEJO, prov. of Santa Marta, dep. of Magdalena,
10° 59' N. lat. ; 404 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,400.
Agricultural centre.
PUENTE NACIONAL, prov. of Valez, dep. of Santander,
5° 46' N. lat. ; 5,279 ft. above sea-level, on the R. Suarez ;
pop. 11,900. Agricultural and coal and iron-mining centre.
PUERTO BERRIO, dep. of Antioquia ; 6° N. lat., on the
Magdalena ; pop. 4,500. Important fluvial port, 500 m. from
Barranquilla, and head of the Medellin Railway.
PUERTO COLOMBIA, dep. of Atlantico, 10° 59' N. lat.,
at a short distance from the mouth of the Magdalena ; pop.
2,500. It is the seaport of Barranquilla, some 50 m. higher
up the river, with which it is connected by railway. It
possesses a long pier for sea-going steamers, extensive quays
and warehouses. Also known as Savanilla, from the old
settlement, now a suburb of the port.
PUERTO WILCHES, prov. of Bucaramanga, dep. of
Santander, port on the Magdalena and head of the Puerto
Wilches Railway ; pop. 2,600.
PUPIALES, prov. of Ipiales, dep. of Narifio, 0° 55' N. lat. ;
10,012 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,000. Built on the site of
an Indian town ; curious ruins still to be seen. Agricultural
centre.
Q
QUIBDO, cap. of the Intendencia del Choco, 5° 37' N. lat. ;
138 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 15,750. A busy trading centre,
where European goods are exchanged for gold dust, rubber,
vegetable ivory, and other forest products. But the chief
172 COLOMBIA
industry of the whole district is the working of the platinum
and gold placer mines.
QUIPILE, prov. of Facatativa, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 46' N. lat. ; over 4,300 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,000.
Agricultural centre.
R
RAMIRIQUI, cap. of the prov. of Marquez, dep. of Boyaca,
5° 24' M. lat. ; 7,452 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,800. This
is the old priestly centre of the casique of Tunja, and many
ruins with curious hieroglyphics still remain. Manufactures of
blankets, cloaks, etc. Agricultural and coal-mining centre.
REMEDIOS, dep. of Antioquia, 7° N. lat., 2,348 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 6,267. Founded in 1560, on account of its
extraordinary rich alluvial gold deposits, which are still
worked.
RICAURTE, prov. of Girardot, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 16' N. lat. ; 1,093 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,950. Excel-
lent tobacco grown in the neighbourhood ; large cigar factory
in town. Cattle breeding carried on extensively . Thermal
sulphur springs.
Also Ricaurte, prov. of Barbacoas, dep. of Narifio ; pop.
3,100.
RIO DE ORO, cap. prov. del Sur, dep. of the Magdalena,
8° N. lat. ; over 4,200 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,900. Mining
and agricultural centre.
RIOHACHA, cap. prov. of Riohacha, dep. of the Magdalena
1 1° 33' N. lat. Was founded in 1545 under the name of " Our
Lady of the Snows " ; pop. 9,400. Situated at the mouth of
the river of the same name on the Goajira Peninsula. Busy
trading centre ; an important weekly market is held. Chief
exports : cattle, horses, divi-divi, rubber, vegetable ivory, gold
dust, hides, and timber.
RIONEGRO, dep. of Antioquia, 6° N. lat. ; 7,058 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 15,231. A pleasant residential town, not far
from Medellin.
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 173
RIONEGRO, prov. of Bucaramanga, dep. of Santander,
6° 58' N. lat. ; 3,175 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 14,300.
Important agricultural centre.
RIOSUCIO, cap. of the prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas,
5° 19' N. lat. ; 5,942 ft. above sea-level, on the river of the
same name ; pop. 16,500. Gold and silver mining districts.
The alluvium of the Rio Sucio are very rich. A busy
commercial centre.
Also Riosucio, prov. of Atrato, district of Choco ; pop. 950.
ROLDANILLO, cap. of prov. of Roldanillo, dep. of the
El Valle ; 4° 23' N. lat. ; 3,152 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
9,200. Agricultural centre.
ROSARIO (EL), prov. of Cucuta, dep. of Norte de San-
tander, 7° 34' N. lat. ; 1,133 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,300.
Agricultural centre. Founded in 1734. Birthplace of General
Santander ; and here the Congress was held which issued the
first Constitution of the Gran Colombia.
Also El Rosario, prov. of Juamanbu, dep. of Narino ;
pop. 3,900.
S
SABANALARGA, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 41 ' N. lat. ; 1,642 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 4,400. Important cattle-raising centre.
SABANALARGA, cap. of prov. of that name, dep. of
Atlantico, 10° 40' N. lat. ; pop. 16,000. Centre of an
important cattle-raising district.
SABOYA, Prov. Occidente, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 31' N. lat. ;
9,194 ft. above sea-level, near the R. Suarez ; pop. 11,572.
Agricultural centre.
SAHAGUN, prov. of Chinu, dep. of Bolivar, 8° 9' N.
lat. ; 406 ft. above sea ; pop. 10,100. Cattle-breeding and
agricultural centre.
SALAMINA, cap. of the prov. of Salamina, dep. of Caldas,
5° 23' N. lat. ; pop. 18,200. Agricultural and cattle-breeding
centre. Salt mines.
Also Salamina, prov. of Santa Marta, dep. of Magdalena;
pop. 2,800.
174 COLOMBIA
SALAZAR, prov. of Cucuta, dep. of Norte de Santander,
7° 33' N. lat. ; 2,797 ft. above sea-level, on the river of the
same name. Founded in 1553 for the working of the cele-
brated San Pedro silver mines. Rich coal seams abound.
At present coffee planting is the chief industry. An important
fair is held here annually.
SAMACA, prov. del Centro, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 29' N. lat. ;
pop. 5,000. Centre of cereal trade. Possesses foundry and
textile factories.
SAMANIEGO, prov. of Tuquerres, dep. of Narifio ; pop.
9,900. Important gold centre. Several quartz mines are
equipped with English and American machinery and capital.
SAMPUES, prov. of Sinceljo, dep. of Bolivar ; pop. 6,000.
Cattle-breeding and agricultural centre.
SAN AGUSTIN, prov. of Manzanares, dep. of Caldas ; pop.
5,900. Agriculture and cattle. Close by here are interesting
remains of an old and forgotten civilization.
SAN ANDRES, dep. of Antioquia ; 6° 18' N. lat. ; 2,512 ft.
above sea-level, on the R. Guacu ; pop. 7,500. Agricultural
centres. On the shores of Lake Ortices, close by, choice
cotton is grown.
SAN ANDRES, cap. of prov. of San Andrds, dep. of San-
tander, 6° 39' N. lat ; 6,808 ft. above sea-level, on the R.
Guaca ; pop. 12,700. Agricultural district. Close by is
Lake Ortices, on whose banks the best quality of cotton is
grown.
SAN ANDRfiS DE SOTAVENTO, prov. of Chinu, dep. of
Bolivar ; pop. 6,800.
SAN ANTONIO, temporary cap. of the Comisaria of Goajira,
10° 58' N. lat. ; 3,480 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 3,375. Trading
centre for exchange of goods (horses, cattle, and forest
products) with Indians.
Also San Antonio, prov. of San Martin, Meta.
SAN FRANCISCO, prov. of Manizales, dep. of Caldas ;
pop. 10,200. Agriculture and cattle.
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 175
Also San Francisco, prov. of Mompos, dep. of Bolivar ;
pop. 2,500.
SAN GIL, cap. of prov. of San Gil, dep. of Santander,
6° 20' N. lat. ; 3,628 ft. above sea-level, on the river of the
same name ; pop. 9,970. Founded in 1689 as Villa de Santa
Cruz y San Gil de la Nueva Baeza. Possesses wide streets,
with well-built private houses and public edifices ; good
water supply and electricity ; factories for the production of
hats, blankets, cotton sheeting, etc. Tobacco is largely
grown.
SAN JOSE, prov. of Barbacoas, dep. of Narifio, 1° 38' N.
lat. ; pop. 4,100. Agricultural centre.
SAN JUAN, prov. of El Carmen, dep. of Bolivar, 9° 56'
N. lat. ; pop. 13,100. Agricultural centre.
SAN JUAN, prov. of Guaduas, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 50' N. lat. ; 4,087 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,900. Agri-
cultural centre, situated on a plateau overlooking the
Magdalena.
SAN JUAN DE CESAR, prov. of Riohacha, dep. of Magda-
lena, 10° 41' N. lat.; 460 ft. above sea-level; pop. 4,900.
Centre of tropical agriculture.
SAN LUIS, prov. of Ibague, dep. of Tolima, 4° N. lat. ;
1,682 ft. above sea-level; pop. 6,500. Four gold and silver
mines.
Also towns of the same name in Antioquia and in prov. of
Ciicuta, Norte de Santander.
SAN ONOFRE, prov. of Sincelejo, dep. of Bolivar, 9° 47'
N. lat. ; pop. 11,300. Situated in a plain, celebrated for its
rice fields.
SANTA ANA, prov. of Banco, dep. of Magdalena, 9° 20'
N. lat. ; pop. 5,400. Agricultural centre.
Also towns of same name in prov. of Ricaurte, Boyaca, and
prov. of Honda, Tolima.
SANTANDER, cap. of prov. of Santander, dep. of Cauca ;
pop. 9,900.
176 COLOMBIA
SANTA BARBARA, dep. of Antioquia, 5° 49' N. lat. ; pop.
13,000. Agricultural and mining centre. Coffee and tobacco ;
coal, salt, and limestone.
SANTA MARTA, cap. of the prov. of Santa Marta and
dep. of the Magdalena, 11° 15' N. lat.; pop. 8,350. An
excellent harbour on the Atlantic, at the mouth of the Man-
zanares. Founded in 1525. Possesses cathedral, public
library, hospital, many schools, covered market, good water
service and electric light. The private houses, almost all of
only one storey, are commodious and elegant. A line of small
steamers connects Santa Marta with Barranquilla, and a rail-
way runs out to Cienaga and Fundacion. Active commercial
centre for the central and northern sections of the department,
but is chiefly interested in the enormous and fast-developing
banana trade.
SANTA ROSA DE CABAL, prov. of Pereira, dep. of Caldas,
4° 35' N. lat. ; 5,576 ft. above sea-level. A centre of the
" Panama " straw hat industry.
SANTA ROSA DE OSOS, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 30' N. lat. ;
8,568 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 15,800. A centre of alluvial
gold mining.
Also towns of Santa Rosa in prov. of Cartagena, Bolivar,
pop. 2,600 ; prov. of Tundama, Boyaca, pop. 5,400 ; prov. of
Caldas, Cauca, pop. 1 ,200 ; and prov. of Guaduas, Tolima,
pop. 5,000.
SANTO DOMINGO, dep. of Antioquia, 6° 26' N. lat. ; over
5,800 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,746. Situated on the
eastern slope of the Central Cordillera, between Medellin and
Puerto Berrio. A commercial, mining, and agricultural
centre. Cattle-rearing receives considerable attention.
SANTUARIO, prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas, 6° N. lat. ;
6,894 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,700. Agriculture and cattle.
Town of same name in dep. of Antioquia, pop. 7,600.
SAN VICENTE, prov. of Zapatoca, dep. of Santander,
6° 40' N. lat. ; 1,642 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,400.
Agricultural centre.
Towns of the same name in the prov. of Tulua, El Valle ;
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 177
prov. of Zapotoca, Santander ; and in the district of the
Caqueta.
SARAGOZA. See Zaragoza.
SASAIMA, prov. Facatativa, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 53' N. lat. ; over 4,200 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,400.
Agricultural centre.
SEGOVIA, prov. of Pereira, dep. of Caldas ; pop. 6,900.
Agriculture and cattle.
SESQUILE, prov. of Guatavita, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 58' N. lat. ; 8,703 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,850. Large
salt mine, owned by the State, now closed down. Big
potteries.
SILVIA, cap. of prov. of Silvia, dep. of Cauca, 2° 37' N. lat. ;
8,275 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,000. Agricultural and
cattle-breeding centre.
SINCE, prov. of Corozal, dep. of Bolivar ; pop. 16,300.
Cattle-breeding and agricultural centre.
SINCELEJO, cap. of prov. of Sincelejo, dep. of Bolivar,
9° 26' N. lat. ; 722 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 14,000. A
picturesque town on a foot-hill of the Sierra Flor, a spur of
the western Cordillera. Possesses fine streets and buildings,
and is in direct communication for good roadways with Tolu,
on the Gulf of Morrosquillo, and Magangu6 on the Magdalena.
A busy cattle-breeding and agricultural centre, well known
for the excellent quality of its sugar production.
SOACHA, prov. of Bogota, dep. of Cundanamarca, 4° 34'
N. lat. ; 8,436 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,200. Agricultural
centre.
SOATA, cap. of prov. del Norte, dep. of Boyaca, 6° N. lat. ;
6,710 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,650. Commercial and
agricultural centre. Chief crops : sugar-cane and dates.
Curious fosiliferous caves in the neighbourhood.
SOCORRO, cap. of the prov. of Socorro, dep. of Santander,
6° 16' N. lat.; 4,120 ft. above sea-level; pop. 11,200.
Founded in 1681 ; seat of a bishopric. It was here that the
178 COLOMBIA
Comuneros insurrection against Spain in the eighteenth cen-
tury began, and here again, in 1810, that the first step towards
independence took place. Possesses factories for the produc-
tion of straw hats, blankets, fruit preserves, etc. An
agricultural centre.
SOCOTA, prov. of Valderama, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 57' N.
lat. ; 8,010 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,100. Large tanneries
here. Well known for its cheeses, and horse and mule-breeding.
SOGAMOSO, cap. of prov. of Sugumuxi, dep. of Boyaca,
5° 38' N. lat. ; 8,325 ft. above sea-level, on the Moniquira
river ; pop. 14,647. The ancient Sugumuxi was the head-
quarters of the Chibchas priests, and was captured by Quesada
in 1537. Busy commercial centre for cereals, cattle hides,
etc.
SOLEDAD, prov. of Barranquilla, dep. of Atlantico, 10° 57'
N. lat. ; pop. 8,200. Situated on a low-lying, but a damp
plain. A centre of cotton weaving.
Town of same name in section three of Comisaria of
Goajiro.
SONSON, dep. of Antioquia, 5° 43' N. lat. ; 8,364 ft. above
sea-level ; pop. 29,350. Founded in 1785 ; was the capital
of the former dep. of the same name. A flourishing town, the
centre of a busy agricultural, industrial and mining district.
In the town are factories for the production of carpets, cotton,
and woollen fabrics, straw hats, etc. Large herds of cattle
are raised on the surrounding fertile fields. There are gold,
silver, and salt mines close by.
SOPETRAN, dep. of Antioquia ; 6° 22' N. lat. ; 2,476 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 10,600. Pleasantly situated amidst
palm groves. Is a centre of the " Panama " straw hat
industry. In the neighbourhood are gold and coal mines ; also
salt springs.
SOTAQUIRA, prov. Centro, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 44' N. lat. ;
about 8,880 ft. above sea-level, on the banks of the river of
the same name ; pop. 8,637. A centre of textile production
and agriculture.
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 179
SUAITA, prov. of Socorro, dep. of Santander, 5° 58' N. lat. ;
5,679 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,400. Agricultural district,
producing maize, cotton, etc.
SUBACHOQUE, prov. of Facatativa, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 52' N. lat. ; 8,821 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,900. Iron,
coal, and salt mines. The important iron mines and foundry
of La Pradera are in the neighbourhood.
SUPIA, prov. of Riosucio, dep. of Caldas, 5° 23' N. lat. ;
over 4,000 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,700. Gold and silver
mining district. The gold mines are the property of the State,
and are leased to an English Company (the Colombian Mining
and Exploration Company), who have installed electric power.
T
TAMBO, prov. of Popayan, dep. of Cauca, 2° 26' N. lat. ;
pop. 13,000. Mining and agricultural centre.
TAMBO, prov. of Pasto, dep. of Narino, 1° 23' N. lat. ;
7,288 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,855. Agricultural and
mining.
TAMESIS, dep. of Antioquia ; 4,820 ft. above sea-level ;
pop. 10,000. Centre of coffee-growing and cattle-breeding
district.
TENA, prov. of Tequendama, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 37' N. lat. ; 4,284 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,200. Ancient
pleasure resort of the Chibchas chiefs ; reported to be the
hiding-place of vast treasures.
TIBANA, prov. of Marquez, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 19' N. lat. ;
8,256 ft. above sea-level, near the R. Jenesano ; pop. 8,655.
Manufacturing and agricultural centre.
TIMANA, prov. of Garzon,dep. of Huila, 2° 16' N. lat. ;
4,438 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,700. Founded in 1537 on
site of an old Indian town. Possesses valuable deposits of
emery, amethysts and rock crystal. Considerable factories of
" Panama " straw hats, pottery, etc.
TIMBIO, prov. of Popayan, dep. of Cauca, 2° 22' N. lat. ;
pop. 12,700. Agricultural and mining centre.
180 COLOMBIA
TIMBIQUI, capital of province of Micay, dep. of Cauca,
2° 41' N. lat. ; pop. 11,900. Great gold-mining centre.
TITIRIBI, dep. of Antioquia ; 5° 56' N. lat.; 5,187 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 13,700. Founded in 1313, in a very
mountainous part of the Cordillera Central. A great mining
centre, rich gold and silver deposits being worked. Here are
also iron and coal mines, with foundry annexed.
TOCAIMA, prov. of Tequendama, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° 26' N. lat. ; 1,416 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,300. Thermal
sulphur springs bathing station. Formerly both gold and
copper were mined here.
TOLU, prov. of Sincelejo, dep. of Bolivar, 9° 32', on the
Gulf of Morrosquillo ; pop. 4,078. Founded in 1535 by
Alonso de Heridia. A centre of commerce for balm of Tolu,
resins, timber, sugar, lard, etc. This is the town of Tolu
Viejo. New Tolu is a little farther south, and has a population
of 5,528.
TOTA, prov. of Sugumuxi, dep. of Boyaca, 5° 26' N. lat. ;
close to the lake of same name ; pop. 5,200. Textile products
and cattle breeding.
TULUA, cap. of prov. of Tulua, dep. of El Valle, 4° N. lat. ;
3,319 ft. above sea-level, on river of the same name. The
Spanish town was founded in 1794 on the ruins of an old Indian
stronghold ; pop. 10,800. Extensive cocoa plantations ; also
cattle farms.
TUMACO, capital prov. of Nunez, dep. of Narifio, 1° 49'
N. lat., situated on an island of the same name, close to the
Pacific coast ; pop. 11,700. Important commercial port.
Seat of a Custom house. The town is very picturesque,
surrounded by palms and other tropical vegetation.
TUNJA, cap. of the prov. of the Centro, and the dep. of
Boyaca, 5° 32' N. lat. ; 9,168 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 8,791.
This is the ancient Hunza, cap. of the Zaque, or chief of the
Muyscas Indians, the Spanish city having been founded in
1539 by Gonzalo Suarez Rondon. It was long one of the
chief towns of the colonial days, and possesses besides its
cathedral (1540), episcopal palace, Convent of Santa Clara
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 181
(1572), many fine old Spanish mansions. Eclipsed for a
time, it has regained its commercial place in the community.
There are numerous small factories, the Banco Boyaca,
Union Comercial, the Compania de Energia Electrica (which
lights the town), the Compania Nueva del Acueducto (pro-
viding a good water supply), open market, where periodical
fairs are held, hospital, theatre and other establishments. Its
main source of activity is due to agriculture. There are
thermal mineral springs in the neighbourhood, and also coal
mines.
TUQUERRES, capital of prov. of Tuquerres, dep. of Narino ;
1° N lat. ; over 10,000 ft. above sea-level, situated in a plain,
overlooked by the three great volcanoes : Tuquerres, Cumbal,
and Pasto ; pop. 15,650. Industrial and agricultural
centre.
TURBACO, prov. of Cartagena, dep. of Bolivar, 10° 18'
N. lat. ; 711 ft. above sea-level, situated on a hill in close
proximity to Cartagena, of which it is a pleasure and
health resort ; pop. 6,000. Possesses fine mineral water
baths.
U
UBALA, prov. of Guavio, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 45'
N. lat. ; 6,253 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,400. Copper and
iron mines.
UBAQU£, prov. del Oriente, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 30'
N. lat. ; 5,856 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,300. Popular
holiday and health resort for Bogatanos. Site of an ancient
Indian town, near a sacred lake.
UBATE, cap. of prov. of Ubate, dep. of Cundinamarca,
5° N. lat. ; 8,469 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 9,600. Built on
the site of an old Indian town, on the Sabana of Bogota.
Centre of a very active cattle-breeding and agricultural
district.
UNE, prov. del Oriente, dep. of Cundinamarca, 4° 24'
N. lat. ; 8,758 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,850. An
agricultural centre.
13— (3248)
182 COLOMBIA
UNION. See La Union.
URRAS, dep. of Antioquia, 6° N. lat. ; 6,326 ft. above
sea-level, on the R. Panderisco ; pop. 13,000. Centre of
cattle-raising and agricultural district. Some rich salt mines.
V
VALLEDUPAR, cap. prov. of Valledupar, dep. of Magda-
lena, 10° 21' N. lat. ; 436 ft. above sea-level, on the banks
of the river Guatapuri, in a fertile plain ; pop. 7,300.
Agricultural centre. Silver, copper, and lead mines.
VEGA. See ~La. Vega.
VELEZ, cap. of the prov. of Velez, dep. of Santander ;
5° 54' N. lat. ; 7,190 ft. above sea-level, built on the slopes of
a mountain ; pop. 8,600. Agricultural centre.
VERGERA, prov. of Guaduas, dep. of Cundinamarca ;
5° N. lat. ; 4,268 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,800. Agricultural
and mining district.
VILLAVICENCIO, capital of the Intendencia del Meta ;
4° 15 N. lat. ; 1,496 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 4,800. Situated
in a pretty valley, surrounded by forests, in which the wild
cocoa-tree grows. Trade mostly in rubber and forest products.
Coal seams abundant in this district.
VILLETA, prov. of Facatativa, dep. of Cundinamarca ;
4° 56' N. lat. ; 2,753 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 5,600. Situated
in a pleasant, but rather hot valley. Copper and iron mines ;
sugar-cane plantations. There are well-known thermal
baths here.
VIOTA, prov. of Tequendama, dep. of Cundinamarca,
4° 27' N. lat. ; 4,268 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 7,200.
Agricultural district.
Y
YACOPI, prov. Guaduas, dep. of Cundinamarca ; 5° 13'
N. lat. ; 5,022 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 6,400.
YARUMAL, dep. of Antioquia ; 6° 49' N. lat. ; 7,372 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 21,250. It is in direct communication
LIST OF IMPORTANT TOWNS 183
with the ports of Valdivia and Raudal on the Cauca. A
commercial, agricultural, cattle-raising and mining centre.
YOLOMBO, dep. of Antioquia ; 6° 35' N. lat. ; 4,823 ft.
above sea-level ; pop. 13,550. Agricultural and mining centre.
Z
ZAPATOCA, cap. of prov. of Zapatoca, dep. of Santander ;
6° 35' N. lat. ; 5,652 ft. above sea-level ; pop. 10,600. Situa-
ted on a plateau surrounded by hills. Chief industry, manu-
facture of " Panama " straw hats. Cultivation of tobacco
and other tropical plants. Lead mines.
ZARAGOZA, dep. of Antioquia; 7° 21' N. lat. ; 674 ft.
above sea-level ; an important port on the Nechi, an affluent
of the Magdalena ; pop. 2,452. Founded in 1581. A
commercial, and also gold (placer) and coal-mining centre.
ZIPAQUIRA, cap. of the prov. of Zipaquira, dep. of Cundi-
namarca ; 4° 46' N. lat. ; 8,700 ft. above sea-level ; pop.
9,917. Picturesque, well-built town, situated on a plateau,
at the foot of a huge rock-salt hill. Salt, lead, iron, sulphur,
and coal-mining. Busy market for these minerals and also
sugar, rice, cotton, tobacco, and textiles. Terminus of the
Ferroccaril del Norte.
APPENDIX A
LIST OF STEAMSHIP LINES AND RIVER SERVICES
Colombia is fairly well served by passenger and cargo
steamship services.
Atlantic Ports
From English Ports. — Southampton : The Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company : fortnightly service passenger and
cargo via New York and the West Indies to Puerto Colombia
and Cartagena. [This company, in conjunction with the
Scrutton Line, has a cargo service from various English and
Continental ports to the West Indies, calling at Colombian
ports when cargo offers.]
Liverpool : Leyland Line fortnightly passenger and
cargo service to Puerto Colombia and Catagena. Harrison
Line monthly passenger and cargo service to the same ports.
Elders and Fyffes, a weekly service to Santa Marta, out-
ward passengers only. [This line varies its English port of
sailing from time to time.]
From Continental Ports. — The Compagnie Generale Trans-
atlantique have two monthly sailings from French ports
for Colon and Puerto Colombia, calling at Cartagena when
required.
The Compania Transatlantica have a monthly sailing from
Barcelona to the West Indies and Colombian ports.
The Hamburg-American Line, sail from Hamburg twice a
month, calling at Puerto Colombia and Cartagena via New
York.
La Veloce, Navigacione Italiana a Vapore, has a monthly
sailing from Genoa to Puerto Colombia.
From the United States. — Besides the Royal Steam Packet
and the Hamburg-American (European service) Lines, which
call at New York on the outward and homeward voyages,
the latter company's Atlas Service has a weekly sailing
from New York to Puerto Colombia, calling at Cartagena
on the outward and Santa Marta on the homeward voyages.
185
186 COLOMBIA
The United Fruit Company has a weekly passenger and
cargo service from New York to Santa Marta, the ships calling
at Jamaica, Colon, Cartagena and Puerto Colombia. It
offers special facilities for the pleasure or tourist traffic
Pacific Ports
Buenaventura and Tumaco are visited fortnightly by a
coasting service of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company
(Royal Mail Steam Packet Company) from the port Panama.
The German Kosmos liners also call at these ports, but
somewhat irregularly.
River Service
Magdalena. — The " Empresa Aliadas " (an English Com-
pany) has a fleet of twenty-nine stern-wheeled steamers
(total tonnage, 6,000), which sail up to La Dorada and up the
Cauca, from Barranquilla. The " Empresa Hanseatica "
has a fleet of seven steamers (total tonnage, 1,269), sailing
from both Cartagena and Barranquilla. Both companies
run weekly mail services for Bogota and the intervening
ports ; and the former has an intermediate service. The
other companies are the Compania Antioqueha de Transportes,
two steamers (486 tons). The Compania de Santa Marta
Wharf, with regular service between Barranquilla and Santa
Marta (two steamers, 60 tons). The Compania de Transportes
de Soto (three steamers, 120 tons).
Cauca. — The Compania de Navegacion del Rio Cauca,
runs a good service between Cali and Cartago, 124 miles.
San Juan. — The Anglo-Colombian Development Company
runs a regular steam service from Buenaventura to San
Pablo, over 350 miles.
Patia. — At Tumaco there are five small steamers which
ply up the Patia and the Telembi to Barbacoas.
Zulia. — There is a good steam service of steamers from
Guerto Villamizar, united to Cucuta by rail, to the Venezuelan
port of Maracaibo.
Meta. — An irregular steamboat service is kept up between
Ciudadl Bolivar (Venezuela) and Orocue (fourteen days up
stream from Ciudad Bolivar, and seven days homeward).
#
'
,- sl| .,l
■
■-, , j
O = 504 got
■ n ■ '!<» "' <■■■■
....!■■) - one
38-9 cents
bolivianos
■ ■
'" '■■
Gold
5468
Milreis paper
16d.
■1 , 8-93 ::
Cold
'
240.1.
1-866 1
i i iy
l.s.t.
(63 (
About
ill
■
■ i. il.lv 111'"
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■
1
■
, 001
„
1<J 1
■
200d
lOOceni
ZOd
.i - |2 guldi ti
ECU * DO "
G
S„crf
4878
£1 = 1 condor or 10
paper money.
1
48d!
i
9-6d.
CI = 25 francs.
Gold
I-00S
'
54.50 d "
largely used.
Gold
«-619d
■9728
P, ... papiei
■ ■
,. 1 HO]
(1910)
Ouotations are often made in gold
dollars.at th. rat. of 1 . 5 |
(The gold peso is used far official
Peru
Gold
Sol ( = 100
4866J |
Sd
O = 10 soles, No paper money,
Uruguay
Gold
53d '"
Pe *°
1-034$
Ihc peso fluctuates, £1 = about
-i; S7d
- ' 4Sd )
•965 8
[9-3 cents
■ ,. f .Uvares (The bolivar
approximately = I franc | N.B,
Accounts are frequently reckoned
^Islands
(British
urreney)
APPENDIX B
COLOMBIAN CURRENCY
Before 1857 the unit of currency was the Peso Macuquino,
a coin of fine silver, equivalent to 8 Reales or " decimos de
peso." In 1857 a system based on the French decimal
coinage was adopted, and provision was made for the issue
of gold, silver, nickel, and bronze coins. Very little, however,
was issued, the metallic coins in circulation being practically
all those of foreign countries ; the real currency was paper,
which became greatly depreciated. In 1905 the Central
Bank was established, and the redemption of the paper money
was entrusted to it ; this has more recently been undertaken
by the Government. The ratio between the paper and the
gold currency was fixed at 10,000 per cent., i.e., 10,000 dollars
paper = 100 dollars gold, or in other words 1 dollar paper =
1 centavos.
By the law of 12th June, 1907, the unit of a gold peso or
dollar was established, equal to one-fifth of a pound sterling,
of the same fineness ("916), and of proportionate weight.
The coins authorised are as follows —
Gold.
Silver.
Nickel.
5 dollars = 20s. - $4-87
2\ „ = 10s. = 2-43
1 dollar (100
centavos) = 4s. *97
dollar = 4s.
= 2s.
„ (peseta) = Is.
(real) = 6d.
dollars (paper) — 2|d.
„ = Id.
= $u.
value
of 2
48'6 cents
243
121
5
2
1
dollars
old)
dollars (gold)
Legal tender. — Nickel up to the
{i.e., 8s.).
Silver up to the value of 10
{i.e., 40s.).
The paper dollar notes are the general medium of currency,
but in the Atrato Valley and in Cucuta and its neighbourhood
silver coins predominate.
187
APPENDIX C
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
The French metric system is legal in all the countries of
South America, and is obligatory in the Customs houses and
other government offices. The most important standards
are the metre (= 39*37 in.) and the kilogramme (= 2' 204 lbs.).
In commerce, however, especially in the interior, the older
systems often survive. These are confusing as the same term
may bear different values in different countries or districts.
Thus the old Brazilian system was based on the Portuguese
measures, which differed from the Spanish. In old Spain
itself the standards were not quite uniform, e.g., the yard
(vara) varied between 0847 and 0834 of a metre. In the
South American colonies this variation tended to increase ;
thus in Bolivia and Chile the vara = 0'836 m., in Argentina
and Paraquay 0*866 m., and in Brazil 11 110 m.
The more important of these older terms which survive
in Colombia, are given below with the English equivalents.
Colombia
The metric system was introduced into Colombia in 1857.
Vara (yard) = 80 cm. or 0*8 of a metre = 31*496 in.
Cuadra = 100 varas = 87*48 yards, British.
Libra = 1.102 lb. avoird.
Arroba = 25 Col. lbs. or 12 J kilos., = 27*55 lb. avoird.
Quintal = 100 Col. lbs. or 50 kilos., = 110*2o „
Carga = 250 Col. lbs. or 125 kilos., = 275*5 „
188
APPENDIX D
POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS
The postal, telegraph and telephone services of Colombia
are under the charge of the General Administration of Posts
and Telegraphs, but while the telegraphic and telephonic
branches are a State monopoly, the post office is not. That
is to say, although the existing postal organisation is at the
charge of the Government the Fiscal Code (Article 517)
declares that private persons may freely establish postal
systems throughout the country.
From the first years of the Republic the Government
organised a postal service, which had never been introduced
under the Colonial regime. The Department is regulated by
Law 869, 1888, supplemented by the Organic Decree regarding
the Postal and Telegraph Departments of 1892 and
Decree 881 of 1911. The Colombian Government joined
the Universal Postal Union in 1881, and subscribed to the
Postal Convention of Washington, 1897, and the Universal
Postal Convention of Rome, 1906. It has also become a
subscriber to the Convention on Exchange of Registered
and Postal Packets, but has not ratified the Conventions as
to (1) exchange of letters and packets with value declared,
(2) postal money orders, (3) postal recognition regarding the
rate for journals and periodicals from abroad.
Article 43 of the Constitution declares —
" Communications entrusted to the Department of Tele-
graphs and Posts are inviolable. Letters and private papers
cannot be intercepted nor entered on a register except by
authority, acting under the order of a competent official,
in cases, and under formalities, established by law, and with
the sole object of seeking judicial evidence. The circulations
of printed matter by means of the post may be controlled,
but not prohibited in time of peace."
Coin, jewellery, paper money and documents of public
import may not be sent in unregistered letters. If the postal
authorities have reason to suppose that a closed letter contains
189
190 COLOMBIA
prohibited articles, they may write thereon the words
" Atencion, poste restante," in which case the person to whom
it is addressed may be directed to open the packet in the
presence of officials, who, however, only satisfy themselves
as to the presence or not of such prohibited articles, and in
the event of these being found, they have the power to demand
double the duty chargeable.
The fees payable on " Valores Declarados " are 3 per cent,
on notes and gold, and 2 per cent., plus 4 centimes per 5
grammes on silver.
Senders of franked letters or parcels, desiring that these
should be delivered only into the hands of the addressee or a
formally authorised person, may ensure this by marking the
front of the envelope clearly with the words " Poste Restante."
It naturally follows that persons having their letters addressed
" Poste Restante " must provide satisfactory evidence of
identity.
There are over 500 post offices in the Republic.
Tariffs
Inland Mails
Ordinary Letters. — 2 centavos (gold) for every 15 grammes,
or fraction of 15 grammes. So a letter weighing less than
15 grammes pays 2 centavos ; one weighing 48 grammes
pays 8 centavos.
Post Cards. — 1 centavo single ; 2 centavos reply.
Printed Matter. — \ centavo per package up to 50 grammes,
and a | centavo more for any fraction of this weight. News-
papers not older than six months, free.
Business Papers. — 2 centavos up to 100 grammes, and
1 centavo more for every 100 grammes or fraction thereof.
Registration Fee. — 10 centavos, plus the ordinary postal fee.
Urban Service. — Letters posted and to be delivered within
an urban district, \ centavo per 15 grammes.
Letters marked " Urgente " for special delivery, 4 centavos.
Sample Post. — 1 centavo for every 100 grammes, or fraction
of 100 grammes.
Foreign Mails
Letters. — 5 centavos for every 15 grammes, or for every
amount exceeding the multiples of 15.
APPENDIX D 191
Post Cards. — 2 centavo, single 4 centavos, double.
Newspapers. — 2 centavos for every 50 grammes or fraction
thereof.
Samples. — 2 centavos for the first 100 grammes, and above
that weight, 1 centavo for every 50 grammes.
Telegraphs
Telegraphs are a State monopoly. Private persons may
not establish telegraphs without Government permission.
There are 524 telegraph offices and 11,248 miles of telegraph
lines within the Republic.
There is a branch cable between Panama and Buenaventura.
The charge for internal messages are 2 centavos gold per
word for the first ten words, and 3 centavos gold for every
subsequent word.
Telephones
In Bogota the telephone service is leased by the Govern-
ment to an English company, who besides service to houses
have a number of public call offices in the city. The charge is
5 centavos per call.
There are telephone services in Barranquilla, Cartagena,
Medellin and other towns.
APPENDIX E
DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR SERVICES
Colombian Representatives in the United States of America
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plen. : Julio
Betancourt. First Sec. of Legation : Roberto Mac Douall.
Also Consular officials at Baltimore, Boston, Mobile, New
York, New Orleans, Norfolk, Porto Rico, Philadelphia, St.
Louis, San Francisco, Los Angeles.
United States Representatives in Colombia
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plen. : James T. DuBois,
Bogota. Sec. of Legation : L. Harrison.
Also Consular officials at Barranquilla (Isaac A. Manning),
Bogota, Cartagena, Cali, Medellin, Santa Marta.
Colombian Representatives in the United Kingdom
Minister and Envoy : Pedro Maria Carrefio. Secretary of
Legation : Saturnino Restrepo, 25 Avenue Road, London,
N.W.
Consul-General and Fiscal Agent in London : Francisco
Restrepo Plata, Sicilian Avenue, W.C.
Also Consular officials at Liverpool, Southampton, Cardiff,
Glasgow, Dundee, Birmingham, Nottingham.
British Representatives in Colombia
Envoy Extr., Minister Plen. and Consul-General : Percy
C. Wyndham, Bogota. Vice-Consul : D. Young.
Also consular officers at Barranquilla, Cartagena, Honda,
Medellin, Santa Marta, Buenaventura and Tumaco.
192
APPENDIX F
DENOUNCEMENT AND ALLOTMENT OF PUBLIC
LANDS.
Law No. 56, April 29, 1905, Concerning the Adjudication
of Public Lands.
The National Constituent and Legislative Assembly of
Colombia decrees :
Article 1. Every person occupying Government lands,
who builds a residence thereon and cultivates said lands,
acquires the right of ownership to the cultivated portion
thereof and to additional land equal in extent to the cultivated
portion.
Art. 2. Any person who, as a colonist or agriculturist,
thinks he has any right of ownership to the cultivated land,
either because of having artificial pasturage, coffee plantations,
cacao plantations, wheat fields, cornfields, potatoes, etc.,
should apply to the respective survey and land office, filing
a report signed by three witnesses, giving the name by which
said lands or parts thereof are known, the province, muni-
cipality, township wherein the adjoining lands are situated,
and other particulars, giving a clear idea of the same. The
depositions shall be made in the presence of the municipal
judge in whose jurisdiction the lands are situated, and in the
presence of the municipal attorney, who shall be summoned
for that purpose, and in the absence of the latter said deposition
shall be made in the presence of the proper mayor.
In this statement the witnesses should declare the fact
as known to them that the applicant has established his
residence and has cultivated lands, stating also the character
of the crops. The statement made by the witnesses, together
with the petition making the denouncement, shall oe addressed
to the municipal board of the proper district in whose juris-
diction the denounced lands are situated. On the receipt
of said petition the survey of the land by an expert surveyor
shall be ordered, and the latter, together with the denouncing
party, shall be responsible for the accuracy of the survey.
193
194 COLOMBIA
The surveyor shall fix the boundaries by natural limits or by
magnetic directions and exact distances, and shall confine
himself to the scientific prescriptions, and upon drawing the
plans he shall be guided by established rules. After the
survey has been made, and it has been proved that the colonists
are such that they have cultivated fields, the municipal
board shall decree the provisional adjudication and shall
send the proceedings to the Department of Public Works
for final adjudication, which shall be granted if there is no
legal reason to prevent the same. The formal delivery shall
be made in accordance with the provisions now in force
relating to public lands and in such way as not to injure
the rights of third parties.
Art. 3. The title of ownership of the adjudication of
public lands shall be issued by the Department of Public
Works, in a record book^duly paged, in which there shall be
entered the extent and situation of the adjudicated land and
the name, residence, and nationality of the person acquiring
it. Said title should be recorded in the registration office
of the circuit where the said lands are located.
Art. 4. The procedure for the adjudication, delivery, and
registration of public lands by the sale thereof shall be made
in the same manner as that employed in the case of colonists
and agriculturists, and the witnesses shall declare that the
lands are not for any public use, that they are public lands,
and are situated at a distance exceeding 1 myriameter from
existing railways or those in construction, which statement
shall, in addition, be verified at the Department of Public
Works.
Art. 5. In order to verify at any time the accuracy of the
adjudicated lands by concessions made to companies or by
sales to private persons, the longitude and latitude shall be
determined in the proper plans with reference to the meridian
which passes through the Astronomical Observatory at Bogotai
Art. 6. In drawing all plans of public lands, whether
by sale or adjudication, the surveyor shall only estimate in
areas whole numbers of hectares on the scale of one-thousandth
or on a smaller one.
Art. 7. Public lands which have not been cultivated since
the promulgation of Law No. 48 of 1882 shall again become
APPENDIX F 195
ipso facto the property of the nation, and after it is proved that
they are not cultivated they may be denounced. Likewise,
in future, one-half at least of the extent of all public lands
adjudicated to colonists, companies, or agriculturists shall be
cultivated, since without such requisite the right of the
person to whom they have been adjudicated shall expire
within the term fixed in the title of said adjudication.
Art. 8. Agriculturists or colonists may freely sell the planta-
tions, buildings, and seed plots established on public lands,
the buyer thus acquiring the right of ownership of the seller
over the cultivated lands.
Art. 9. The title of ownership of adjudicated public lands
is the certificate issued by the Minister of Public Works stating
the final adjudication, and which is also recorded in the registry
office to which the respective municipality in which the lands
are situated belongs.
Art. 10. The possession of public lands is the holding of
the same by an individual with the intention of becoming
owner thereof, either for himself or in representation of third
parties, by virtue of acts of ownership, such as forming seed
plots, constructing buildings, and the cultivation of the land
in general.
Art. 11. No adjudication of public lands shall exceed
1,000 hectares, the Nation reserving to itself alternate areas
equivalent to those adjudicated.
Art. 12. The survey and other expenses incidental to
all adjudications shall be for account of the respective
concessionaires and grantees.
Art. 13. All adjudications of public lands now in force
by any title whatever and whose lands have not been cultivated
shall pay a tax equal to that which obtains on rural lands,
and the municipal boards of the respective districts in which
the said public lands are situated are authorized to collect
said tax, irrespective of the provisions of Article 7 concerning
public lands adjudicated subsequent to the promulgation of
Law 48 of 1882.
Art. 14. Colonists or agriculturists desiring to obtain
adjacent lands in adjudication may do so by purchase,
in accordance with the provisions of the present law.
Art. 15. On and after the date of the passage of
196 COLOMBIA
the present law the issue of territorial bonds is absolutely
prohibited.
Art. 16. The titles or bonds of public lands, in circulation,
must be recorded in the Department of Public Works within
the term of one year from the promulgation of this law. In
order to render it easier for the holders to make this registra-
tion, it shall be sufficient for them to exhibit their bonds to the
Municipal Treasurer of the respective district in which they
reside, and said official shall forward a statement to the
aforesaid department containing the following :
(1) The name, domicile, and nationality of the holder.
(2) The kind of bond, stating the date of issuance and its
origin.
(3) The amount of the bond.
Foreign holders of territorial bonds shall show their bonds
to the respective consul, and the latter to said department.
Art. 17. The final titles of adjudication of public lands
made either in exchange for titles or to agriculturists or colon-
ists must be recorded or registered immediately at the Depart-
ment of Public Works in order that they may be legally valid
afterwards. This registration must be made within two years
from the date of the promulgation of this law.
In order to avoid difficulties in making this registration
the same shall be made before the municipal treasurers of the
respective districts where the adjudicated lands are situated.
Art. 18. The municipalities shall enjoy the right of usufruct
of the public lands of their respective jurisdiction, with the
previous consent of the National Government, but this shall
not prevent their alienation and adjudication, which, having
been made, the right of usufruct shall cease.
Art. 19. The ownership of all public lands is in the Nation,
because of having recovered the absolute ownership over
those which belonged to the former States, in accordance
with the provisions of Section 2, Article 202, of the National
Constitution.
Art. 20. The titles of concession of public lands issued in
favour of said former States are hereby declared void, in
accordance with the law of the 19th of May, 1865, and Article
870 of the Fiscal Code with the exception of those which were
alienated before the issuance of the Constitution of 1886.
APPENDIX F 197
Art. 21. The adjudications of public lands in exchange for
titles already delivered in favour of companies or contractors of
certain public works, as a subsidy to the latter, shall not be
considered as final except in so far as the Government shall
declare that the contractors or concessionaires have complied
with the obligations by virtue of which the concession had been
made.
Art. 22. The Department of Public Works shall make
a statement of said adjudications, which shall be published
in the Diario Oficial.
Art. 23. In future no adjudications shall be made in
exchange of titles of the origin referred to in Article 21 unless
they have been duly recorded.
Art. 24. The free exploitation of National Forests is hereby
prohibited. The Executive Power is authorized to make
rules and regulations for the carrying out of such exploitation.
Art. 25. The Government is hereby authorized to create
agricultural boards or committees, the powers of which
shall be determined by Executive decrees.
Art. 26. All bonds paid shall be perforated, and in addition
shall be made void by a communication signed by the Secre-
tary of the Department of Public Works. The omission of
these requisites renders the chief of the respective division
responsible for the value represented by the bond and subjects
him to a criminal action for an attempt of a breach of trust.
Art. 27. Lands adjudicated to colonists and which have
not been cultivated owing to the last war will not be subject
to the provisions of Articles 7 and 13 of this law.
Given at Bogota on the 29th of April, 1905.
The President (of the National Constituent and
Legislative Assembly),
Enrique Restrepo Garcia.
The Secretary,
Daniel Rubio Parjs.
Executive Power, Bogota, April 29, 1095.
Let it be published and duly enforced.
[l.s.] R. Reyes.
The Secretary of Public Works,
Modesto Garces
14— (2948)
198 COLOMBIA
Decree No. 1113 of September 19, 1905, Relating to Law
56 of the present year, concerning adjudications of
Public Lands.
The President of the Republic of Colombia, in the exercise
of his legal powers, and
Whereas, by virtue of Law No. 56 of the current year some
of the provisions of the Fiscal Code, of the subsequent laws,
and of the executive decrees relating to the adjudication, sale,
and lease of public lands have been modified, and, consequently
the development of the former and the modification and
regulation of the latter, decrees :
Art. 1. The Nation transfers the ownership of public
lands as follows : By adjudication to agriculturists ; by
assignment to companies for the development of works of
public utility : to new settlements and to the settlers of
those already established, in exchange for bonds or titles of
concession, and to private parties by purchase for money.
Art. 2. The Nation recognises in favour of agriculturists
the right of ownership referred to in Article 1 of Law No. 56
of the present year, said agriculturists being obliged, how-
ever, to obtain the traditional legal title by virtue of the final
adjudication and the actual delivery decreed after the proper
proceedings.
Art. 3. Plantations, by virtue of which the right to the
acknowledgment of ownership by the Government is acquired,
must have been established previous to the application for
adjudication, in accordance with the provisions of the laws
and decrees concerning the matter.
Paragraph. The plantations established subsequent to the
adjudications for any other reason, when the lands again
become the property of the Nation, entitle the persons who
have established them only to an indemnization in conformity
with the civil laws relating to the interpretation and rescission
of contracts.
Art. 4. When, contiguous to cultivated public lands, there
are no uncultivated lands of sufficient area to complete the
equivalent to which the agriculturists are entitled to, only
the existing lands shall be adjudicated, and in case there are
several adjacent colonists, said uncultivated lands shall be
APPENDIX F 199
distributed in proportion to the extent of their cultivated
lands without reserving any portions thereof for the Nation.
Art. 5. If the uncultivated lands which, in accordance with
Article 11 of Law 56 already quoted, should be reserved
for the Nation adjacent to those adjudicated to the agricul-
turists are not sufficient to complete an area equivalent to that
adjudicated, only the excess shall be reserved to the Nation.
Art. 6. The grantees and the present owners or holders
of any title of public lands must grant in favour of the new
colonists or denouncers the right of way they may seek
through such lands, provided the interested parties should
justify or prove such need before the municipal board.
Art. 7. The municipal boards shall cause to be recorded
in the registry of real property of the respective district
the public lands which have not been cultivated, the adjudica-
tions of which are previous or subsequent to the time when
Law 48 of 1882 became effective ; shall cause said lands to
be appraised, and shall impose on them the proper tax ; this
to be done in accordance with Article 13 of Law 56 of 1905.
Art. 8. Whenever the municipal board has knowledge that
there are, within its municipal territory, uncultivated public
lands which have been adjudicated after Law 48 of 1882
became operative, it shall cause an ocular inspection to be
made, and when such fact is verified the board shall
communicate it to the Department of Public Works.
Art. 9. The provisions of Article 7 of Law 56 already
cited and the provisions of the preceding article are applicable
to public lands which have been adjudicated after the passage
of the aforesaid Law 48, should the cultivated portion not
bear the proportion prescribed in Article 12 of the Decree No.
832 of 1884.
Art. 10. By virtue of the right of usufruct, enjoyed by the
municipalities in accordance with the law of the public lands
not yet adjudicated, the respective municipalities may
administer them by leasing them or permitting private
parties to use them, but of an area not exceeding 1,000
hectares nor for a period of time greater than five years.
Art. 11. From the date on which this decree becomes
operative, all the licences and authorizations gratuitously
conferred by the authorities for the use of public lands that
200 COLOMBIA
have not been adjudicated shall be void. Consequently,
the municipalities shall recover the lands referred to in this
Article.
Art. 12. In the ten years prescribed by Article 7 of Law 48
of 1882 for establishing in the adjudicated lands some agricul-
tural or cattle industry, the time of the disturbance of the
public peace during the last war shall not be counted.
Art. 13. Persons to whom public lands have been adjudi-
cated after Law 29 of April 19, 1873, became operative, where
there have already been discovered coal mines or deposits,
shall communicate this fact to the Department of Public
Works within six months counting from the publication of this
decree, with the understanding that if they fail to comply
with this requisite they shall not have the right of priority in
the contracts for the exploitation of said mines or deposits
as the Government should make.
Art. 14. The prohibition contained in Article 11 of Law
56 of 1905, as a special and subsequent provision, prevails
over all contrary provisions.
Procedure
Art. 15. In the sworn statements of witnesses in which
the facts referred to in Articles 2 and 4 of Law 56, to which
this decree refers, are proved, the witnesses shall state the
reason of their allegations, in the presence of the municipal
attorney.
Art. 16. The respective municipal solicitors shall give their
opinion in all cases, in which the municipal councils shall
present a resolution in the proceedings relating to the
adjudication of public lands.
Art. 17. The denouncer of public lands shall be jointly
liable with the surveyor with regard to the accuracy of the
survey and other requisites required by the laws and the
decrees in force concerning the making of the plans, said
responsibility consisting of the obligation to pay to the nation
the value of the excess land or the damages caused by the
mistake, as well as the expenses incurred in the correction
of the same.
Paragraph. This provision does not divest the denouncer
of the rights granted him to the excess land by Article 940
of the Fiscal Code.
APPENDIX F 201
Art. 18. The surveyor shall mark in the plan, and it shall
also be stated in the certificate of adjudication, the place
through which the necessary road leading to the adjacent
lands shall be established, whether the latter are private
or public lands, and which lack direct communication with
public highways, taking into consideration above all the
greatest convenience and the shortest distance.
Art. 19. All kinds of adjudications, whether they be greater
or less than 100 hectares, require, in order to be granted, the
drawing of the plan in accordance with the provisions of the
law in force.
Art. 20. The oppositions made to the applications for
adjudication by occupants of public lands without final
title shall be decided by the respective municipal council
simultaneously with the issuance of the decision by virtue
of which they are provisionally adjudicated. The application
made by persons who show titles to property granted before
the denouncement shall be decided upon by the judicial power,
to whom shall be sent the proceedings and to whom the
interested parties shall apply.
Art. 21. The evidence which the denouncers shall produce,
according to the provision of Article 7 of Law 56 of the present
year, relating to the failure to cultivate the public lands
adjudicated after Law 48 of 1882, shall consist of the actual
personal inspection by the mayor, accompanied by the munici-
pal attorney and a neighbour, who shall be a landowner in
good standing, at the expense of the interested party.
Art. 22. The denouncers of public lands, in exchange for
territorial bonds or titles of the origin referred to in Article
21 of Law 56, and of those lands which for any reason have
not been registered in accordance with said law in the
Department of Public Works, and whose applications are
being acted upon, may exchange the same for others of
different origin already registered, before any decision is
reached concerning the final adjudication.
Art. 23. The certificate which constitutes the title of
ownership, referred to in Article 9 of Law 56 of the current
year, shall be issued by the Department of Public Works
as soon as the latter receives the proceedings from the respec-
tive municipality, together with all the documents relating
to the ownership to be finally filed.
202 COLOMBIA
Art. 24. From the decisions reached by the municipal
councils, in the proceedings concerning the adjudication of
public lands, there shall be no appeal except from those
regarding temporary adjudications, of which the Department
of Public Works shall have cognizance.
Paragraph. In the administrative proceedings relating
to adjudication of public lands, applications for repeal shall
only be allowed once.
Art. 25. The decisions of the officials referred to in Article
5 of Law 61 of 1874 may be brought on appeal before the
respective provincial alcalde or prefect.
Art. 26. When the denounced public lands are situated in
two or more municipalities the interested party may apply
for the adjudication of the same to any of the municipal
councils they may select.
Art. 27. The notifications of the administrative decisions
in matters concerning public lands shall be personally made
to the interested party or parties whenever they apply to
receive the same, or through a decree in case they should not
so apply, which dercee shall be posted twenty-four working
hours on the day following the one on which said notifications
have been issued.
Art. 28. After a period of five days shall have elapsed from
the date of the notification the same shall be considered
finally settled.
Adjudications by Purchase
Art. 29. The purchase of public lands referred to in Article
4 of the aforesaid Law 56 shall be made either in exchange
for titles of concession already issued or by purchase in national
money.
Art. 30. In denouncing public lands for the purpose of
obtaining them by purchase, the denouncer shall state in his
application the amount he offers to pay for them, which shall
not be less than 50 cents gold per hectare for lands suitable
only for grazing stock, and $1 gold for cultivated lands, and
shall deposit 10 per cent, of the total price as a guarantee of
the fulfilment of his pledge.
Art. 31. Once the denouncement has been accepted
by the Municipal Council, the latter shall direct that the same
be made known by means of decrees, which shall not be less
APPENDIX F 203
than three in number, and which shall be posted in the most
public places of the municipality, stating therein the boundaries
of the land and the price offered, in order that, during said
term, those desirous of making better bids may do so.
Art. 32. After thirty days shall have elapsed without
anyone having made a better bid, and the decrees having
been added to the proceedings with the respective notice
of having been posted and taken down, the procedure shall
go on without further requisite.
Art. 33. If while the said decrees are posted there should
appear persons who offer to increase the price of the first
bid, and the denouncer should agree to make his bid equal
to the highest made, the proceedings shall be continued in
favour of the latter bidder.
Art. 34. If the denouncer should not desire to make his
bid equal to the one already made, and the highest bidder
should deposit in the municipal treasury 10 per cent, of the
bid made, the proceedings in favour of the latter shall be
continued, adding to the said proceedings the receipt of the
deposit.
Art. 35. Before reaching a decision concerning the final
adjudication in favour of the purchaser, the latter shall show
the receipt of having deposited in the National Treasury the
sum offered as value of the lands which shall be adjudicated
to him.
Sales of more than 1,000 hectares
Art. 36. Public lands exceeding 1,000 hectares in area
may be sold by the Government, provided the bids for their
acquisition are made directly to the Department of Public
Works, accompanied by the vouchers required for the adjudi-
cation of public lands in accordance with Law 56 of the present
year, stating the sum offered for the same.
Art. 37. The application, made in accordance with the
foregoing article, shall serve as a basis for making the bids,
and shall be made in accordance with the rules established
by the Fiscal Code concerning the sale of Government
property.
Adjudications for the Establishing of New Towns, and
made to New Settlers
Art. 38. The adjudication of public lands intended for the
204 COLOMBIA
establishment of new towns and to new settlers shall be made
after the National Government has made the grant of the land
necessary to the respective municipalities, in conformity
with the following articles :
Art. 39. The grant shall be applied for the respective
municipal councils, stating the number of hectares required
for the establishment of a new town, or for the new settlers,
with proofs as to the quality of the public lands in question.
Art. 40. In view of the application and of the proofs
attached thereto the National Government shall decide
whether the grants of public lands for the purpose indicated
shall be made or not.
Art. 41. After the grant has been made, the respective
municipal councils shall proceed to make the distribution
and adjudication to the settlers, using for that purpose the
provisions of Law 14 of 1870 and those of Decree No. 520 of
1878 with regard to the duties of the surveyor and of the
agrarian committees.
Art. 42. It is understood that the provisions of the fore-
going articles shall not impair the rights which settlers already
established on said lands have to solicit said adjudications.
Art. 43. Public lands containing heron roosts or sleeping
places for herons shall not in future be adjudicated, being held
to be leased to private parties who may so desire to lease them.
Registration and Annulment of Titles
Art. 48. The municipal treasurer, to whom the bonds
or titles of final adjudication are presented for registration,
shall write a note thereon, under his signature, stating therein
the number and date of the entry of the book wherein the
registration was made in the Department of Public Works,
as soon as he receives the data which should be sent him from
said Department, together with the proper voucher that the
said registration has been made, holding the titles while this
is being done.
Art. 49. The municipal treasurers shall forward to the
Department of Public Works the statements of the bonds
or titles of grants and the titles of adjudication presented
to them for registration, in accordance with the provisions
of Articles 16 and 17 of the aforesaid Law 56, and shall leave
APPENDIX F 205
a copy of said statement in a book which shall be kept
for this purpose.
Art. 50. The provisions of the articles above quoted do
not prevent the holders of bonds or titles of adjudication from
presenting them directly to the Department of Public Works
in order that they may be registered in that Department.
Art. 51. The Department of Public Works shall, for the
purpose of registering the titles or bonds of grants of public
lands in the order of dates, series, and origin, retain them the
time necessary to verify the greater number of one kind, with
the details relating thereto, and record them in one single
proceeding, issuing a provisional receipt to the parties
presenting them.
Art. 52. The inscription in the registration book shall be
made in an inverted order to that of the respective date of the
issue of the bonds or titles of grants.
Art. 53. If, on making the registration in the Department
of Public Works of the bonds or titles of grant or adjudication
presented for that purpose, it should be found that they belong
to the kind referred to in Article 21 of Law 56, before cited,
the registration shall not be made until it shall be proved by
the interested parties or until official proof is furnished that
the contractors or grantees have complied with the obligations
by virtue of which the title was issued in their favour or the
adjudication was made to them.
Art. 54. No title or voucher of adjudication of public lands
issued after Law 48 of 1882 became effective, and which has
been issued for a period greater than ten years, shall be
registered in the Department of Public Works until the inter-
ested party proves that the adjudicated land has been cul-
tivated to the extent prescribed by Article 12 of Decree No.
832 of 1884.
Art. 55. The titles or bonds of concession of public lands
which, at the time of registration in the Department of Public
Works, should prove to be counterfeit or to have been taken
from proceedings already concluded shall be perforated and
annulled, the owner thereof reserving to himself the right to
proceed against the person who may have sold or indorsed them.
Art. 56. The titles or bonds of concession of public lands
which, notwithstanding that they have been registered, are
206 COLOMBIA
counterfeit or have been stolen, shall be declared void by the
Department of Public Works and a description of them shall
be published in the Diario Ofwial (Official Gazette).
Art. 57. The titles or bonds of grants of public lands which
after the term fixed by Article 16 of the said Law 56 shall have
expired have not been registered in the Department of Public
Works are declared void, and shall not therefore have any
value whatever thereafter.
Art. 58. The bonds or titles of grants of public lands which
are the property of private persons deposited for any person
in the Department of Public Works shall be registered after
being duly examined and verified for the purpose of proving
their authenticity.
Paragraph. In case it should appear that said bonds or
titles are counterfeited or stolen the proper officials shall
proceed to void and perforate the same, the receipt issued for
them being thereby cancelled and annulled.
Art. 59. If a deposit has been made to guarantee the fulfil-
ment of the obligations contracted in favour of the nation
by virtue of contracts entered into with the Government, and
it should appear that the titles or bonds of the grant are
counterfeited or stolen, after the annulment of the same,
a new guarantee shall be required of the person contracting
the obligation.
Art. 60. For the annulment and perforation of the titles
which shall be carried out in conformity with the foregoing
articles, the proceedings prescribed in Article 26 of Law 56
of the current year shall be followed.
Art. 61 . Decree No. 832 of 1884, and circular No. 94 of the
15th October, 1884, are hereby amended, in so far as they
conflict with the present decree, as well as all other similarly
conflicting provisions.
Given in Fusagasuga, on the 19th September, 1905.
Let it be published and enforced.
R. Reyes.
The Secretary of Public Works,
Modesto Garces.
APPENDIX F 207
Work and Wages
Although the population of Colombia is undoubtedly very
scanty in proportion to the area of the country, there are
certain portions of the interior of the Republic where the num-
ber of inhabitants per square kilometre is almost comparable
to that of Belgium or Holland. There are therefore regions
practically uninhabited and uncultivated, and other regions
in which the population sometimes surpasses the productive
powers of the soil. Hence, where the population is numerous,
employers find all the hands they require and wages are low.
This is the case in the temperate and healthy districts, such as
the famous Valley of Tensa, the Valley of Pereira, and in high
and fertile districts, like the Plain of Bogota, and in the Valley
of the Rio Negro in Antioquia. In these districts the wages
of the ordinary workman do not exceed 35 to40centavos (gold).
In the departments of Boyaca and Cundinamarca, with their
great haciendas, with their system of co-operative subtenancies
(somewhat on the metayer system), the workman receives a
wage apparently smaller, because the balance is given in
the form of his board and reduced rent for his holding.
Elsewhere the workman contracts to work for the proprietor
of the estate on certain days in the year at a low wage, in
consideration of the part of the estate which he occupies
and exploits on his own account.
In tropical and therefore less populous districts, where the
agricultural and pastoral industries require more labour, the
unskilled workman receives higher pay, especially if this
district is unhealthy. Here the rate rises to 50 or 60 centavos.
In the Antioquia mines the rates are still higher, the minimum
being 1 peso (gold) per day. Wages are smaller in remote
country districts than in the neighbourhood of the large
towns, and smaller in the neighbourhood of the towns than in
the towns themselves. An unskilled workman earns in Bogota
60-70 centavos for labour which in the country is worth less.
On the railways the navvy earns 70-80 centavos in tropical,
and 50-60 centavos in colder districts.
Generally speaking the supply of labour exceeds the demand
in Colombia. Within the same territory there are migrations
from district to district in search of work. There is from
Antioquia a constant stream of emigration to Cauca, Tolima,
208 COLOMBIA
and Cundinamarca. Through Valley of Tensa in Boyaca,
large bodies regularly emigrate to populate less favoured
districts.
This excess of supply over demand, coupled with the fact
of large tracts of uncultivated land, accounts for the lack of
European emigration to Colombia. The European peasant
is on the whole better paid than the Colombian ; but, on the
other hand, his standard of living is higher. As a result,
European emigration will not spontaneously flow towards
Colombia ; the European workman cannot compete in point
of wages with the Colombian.
Therefore to promote emigration to Colombia, the Govern-
ment must pass special laws to counterbalance or abolish
the present conditions. Failing this, private enterprise with
the object of increasing the value of the land, will at no very
remote period, deal with the diversion towards Colombia of
European emigration. This will be a harder task than may
appear, since the European workman has of late years shown
less disposition to emigrate to N. and S. America than was
formerly the case.
APPENDIX G
Conventions and Treaties
Between United States of America and Colombia
Amity, Commerce and Navigation. — Made with New
Granada in 1846 ; revised by Colombia and the United States
in 1909. One of the articles of this Convention provides for
the neutrality of the Isthmus of Panama.
Consular Convention, 4 May, 1850. Y
Extradition, 7 May, 1888 ; Amended 1889, 1890 ; Proclaimed
6 Feb., 1891.
Postal and Telegraph Convention, 18 Jan., 1889.
Panama Ship Canal, 22 Jan., 1903, and 9 Jan., 1909. The
treaty provided for : The renunciation by Colombia of rights
and contracts relating to construction ; Grant of use of ports
to U.S. ; Assignment by Republic of Panama to Colombia of
the right to receive payment from the United States ; Freedom
of passage for Colombian mails ; Colombian products to enter
Canal Zone at same duty as those of the United States ;
Payment of tenth annual instalments to Colombia of
$250,000 as from 1908.
The 1909 Treaty (between the United States, Colombia and
Panama) did not become operative owing to the refusal of
Colombia to accept some of the conditions.
Between Colombia and the United Kingdom
Amity, Commerce and Navigation, 16 Feb., 1866. This
treaty contains clauses dealing with the Consular service.
Law, Foreigners and Nationalization, 15 Nov., 1888.
Postal and Telegraph Convention, 1881, 1885, 1891 and
15 June, 1897.
Parcel Post, 1887, and 15 Sept., 1899.
Extradition, 27 Oct., 1888.
Convention on Industrial Property.
Arbitration, 30 Dec., 1908.
209
INDEX
Abejorral, 148
Acardi, 148
Agates, 114
Agency, 70
Aguas claras and aguas negros, 7
Agriculture, 102-111. See also
Gazetteer, passim.
, Sugar-cane, 102-3
, Tobacco, 103-4
, Cocoa, 104
, Plantains, 104
, Bananas, 105
, Coco-nut, 106
, Rice, 106
, Cotton, 106
, Coffee, 107
, Cereals, 108
, Imports, 138
Aguadas, 148
Aguardiente, 103
Aipe, 148
Alcohol, 131
See also Beverages.
Alcaldes, 46, 48
Algarroba, 98
Almaguer, 148
Alum, 113
Amaga, 148
Amain, 148, 120
Ambalema (prov.), 42
(town), 75, 84
Amaime, 148
Amber, 114
American Agave
See Maguey, Henequen.
Amethysts, 114, 179
Ammunition, 140
Anapoima, 148
Andes (town), 149, 121
Angostura, 149
Animals, Live (imports), 140
, (exports), 141
Animal products (exports), 141,
143
Anolaima, 149
Anori, 121
Anserma, 149
Antimony, 113
Antioquia (department), 24-27
, Mining, 115-6
(town), 149
Apia, 149
Aranzazu, 149
Arauca (comisaria), 44
(town), 149
Arbelaez, 149
Arbobedas, 149
Arjona, 149
Armenia, 150
Army, 46-7
Arraco, 98
Arsenic, 113
Art Materials (imports), 138
Aspacia, 150
Asphalt, 114, 117, 118, 119,
161
Atlantico (department), 27-8
, Mining, 116
Atrato River, 80, 93
Avebury-Holguin Agreement, 54
Balata, 98, 100
Balsams, 97
Bananas, 26, 105-6
, Export figures (1912), 142
See also Gazetteer.
Banco (prov.), 38
(town), 150
Central, 52, 56
Nacional, 51
Banking, 56-58
Bankruptcy, 69
Baranoa, 150
Barbacoas (prov.), 40
(town), 150
Barbosa, 150
Barichara, 150
Barley. See Cereals.
211
212
INDEX
Barranquilla (prov.), 28
(town), 90-1, 150
, Social life, 62
Baudo, 150
Beans, 26, 108
Belalcazar, 16
Belen, 151
Beltran, 151
Beverages (imports), 138
Birds, 12
Biterima, 151
Boa vita, 151
Bochalema, 151
Bochica (mythical), 14
Bogota (prov.), 35
(town), 151
, Climate, 6.-7
, Public Institutions, 64
, Railways, 84-5
, Social Life, 59-61
Bolivar, Simon, 19
(department), 28-9
, .Mining, 116
(town), 152
Boots and shoes, 126-7
Boyaca (department), 29-31
, Mining, 116
(town), 152
Battle of, 19
Brewing, 131
Brokers, 69
Bucaramanga (prov.), 41
(town), 83, 85, 86, 114, 153
Budget, 47-8
Buenaventura (prov.), 37
(town), 83, 93-4, 153
Buga (prov.), 36
(town), 153
Buttons, 130
Cacao. See Cocoa.
Caceres, 153, 121
Calamar, 153, 82
Calarca, 153
Caldas (department), 31-2
, Mining, 117
(prov.), 33
(town), 83, 154
Cali (prov.), 36
(town), 95, 154
Caloto, 154
Camilo Torres (prov.), 33
Campo de la Cruz (prov.), 28
Campoalegre, 1 54
Candelaria, 154
Candles, 106
Caparrapi, 154
Cap ilia de Cocuy, 154
Capybary, 11
Caqueta (Comisaria), 44
Caqueza, 155
Carabobo, Battle of, 19
Caramanta, 121, 155
Carmen (prov.), 29
(El), 155
de Carupa, 155
Cornelians, 114
Carriages (imports), 137
Cartagena (prov.), 29
, 62-3, 91-2, 155-6
Cartago (prov.), 36
, 156-7
Cattle, 108-111
See also Gazetteer.
Cauca (department), 32
, Mining, 117
, River, 76, 80, 186
Caucho. See Rubber, Balata.
Cayambe, 2
Celluloid, 139
Cement, 130-1
Centro (prov.), 31
Ceramics (imports), 138
Cereals, 107
See also Gazetteer.
Cerete, 157
Cerrito, 157
Cesar, River, 76
Champans, 75
Charala (prov.), 41
(town), 157
Chia, 157
Chibchas, The, 14, 30
Chicha, 103
Chiles, 2
Chimininguagua, 14
Chinacota, 1 57
Chinu (prov.), 29
(town), 157
Chipague, 157
Chiquinquira, 157
Chiriguana, 157
INDEX
213
Chiscas, 157
Chita, 158
Choachi, 1 58
Chocolate factories, 131
Choco (Intendencia), 42-3
, Mining, 120
Choconta (prov.), 35
(town), 158
Cienaga, 1 58
Cienaga de dro, 158
Cinchona, 51, 99, 100-1
Circasia, 158
Coal, 113-4, 116, 117-9
See also Gazetteer, 148, 154, 160,
162, 168, 169, 172, 174, 181, 182
Cocoa, 26, 104
See also Gazetteer.
Coconucos, 3
Coco-nut, 97, 100, 106, 132
Cocuy, 158
Codes, 48-9
Coello, 158
Coffee, 107
, Export figures (1912), 142
production (1911), 26
See also Gazetteer, 149, 159
Coins. See Currency.
Colegio. See El Colegio.
Colombia, First republic, 19
, Second republic, 20
, Third republic, 21
, Administrative divisions,
23-44
, Area, 1, 23
, Boundaries, 1
, Climate and Health, 5-8
, Discovery and Conquest,
14-17
, Early civilisation, 13-14
, Fauna, 11-12
, Flora, 9-11
, Geography and physical
features, 1-4
History, 13-22
, Mountains, 2-3
, Population, 1, 24
, Presidents, 22
, Rivers, 2-4
, Seasons, 6
, Spanish rule, 17-18
, War of Independence, 18-19
15— (2248)
Colours (imports), 139
Comisarias, Government, 46
, Names and description, 43-4
Commerce, Methods of, 132-4
Commercial Courts, 48-9
Laws, 67-73
Travellers, 133-4
Treaties, 208-9
Conception, 159
Concessions, First, 99, 100
, Land, 110
, Manufacturing, 126
, Mining, 122
Condiments. See Food-stuffs.
Confederation Granadina, 20
Congress, 47-8
Constitution, 45-9
Consular Invoices, 133
Consuls, Colombia — United King-
dom, 192
, Colombia — United States,
192
Contracts, 69-70
Convention, 159
Copaiba, 97
Copper, 113, 116, 148, 162, 167
Cordilleras, 2
Corozal (prov.), 29
(town), 159
" Corozo," 167
Cost of Living, 61
Cotton Mills. See Textiles and
Gazetteer, 150
Credit, Trade, 135
Cucuta (prov.), 40
(town), 159, 85-6
Cucutilla, 159
Cumbal (town), 159
(Mt.), 2
Cundinamarca (department), 34-
36
, , Mining, 117-8
Currencies, South American,
General Table, 186-7
Currency, 50-53, 56
, Colombian, 187
Currucai, 98
Dagua, 160
Debt. See Finance
Defence, 46-7
214
INDEX
Departmental Assemblies, 45-6,
74, 48
Departments, 23-44
Diplomatic Services, Colombia —
United Kingdom, 192
— Colombia — United States,
192
Disease, 7
Distilling, 131
Donkeys, 109
Drugs (imports), 137
Duitama, 160
Education, 46, 64-5
El Buey (Mt.), 3
— Colegio, 160
— Penon, 160
— Quindio (Mt.), 3
— VaUe (dep.), 36-7
, Mining, 118
Electrical Appliances (imports),
139
Emeralds, 115-7, 152
Emery, 113, 118, 179
Esparto Matting, 160
Estacion Santander, 76
Executive, 45-6
Explosives, 140
Exports, 135-147
(1911), 141-2
(1912), 142
FacatativA (prov.), 35
(town), 160
Federmann, 16
Fibres, 98, 100, 106, 129, 155
Finance, 50-58
External Debt, 50-54
Internal Debt, 54-5
Revenue and Expenditure,
55-6
Fique, 145. See Maguey.
Firavitoba, 160
Firearms and Ammunition, 140
Florencia, 160
Flour Mills, 131-2, 151-2, 156
Fomeque, 160
Food-stufifs (imports), 137
Foreign traders, 132-3
Foreigners, Position of, 63
Forests and Forest Products,
97-101
Foundries, 148, 154, 166, 174,
179, 180
Frailejons, 10-11
France, Exports and Imports,
136-147
Fredonia, 160
Frontino, 161
Fuel, 99
, (imports), 138
Fusagasuga, 161
Gachala, 161
Gacheta, 161
Galena, 112
Garagoa, 161
Garnets, 114
Garzon (prov.), 37
(town), 161
Germany, Exports and Imports,
136-147
Gigante, 161
Girardot (prov.), 35
Girardot (town), 161, 75, 84
Girardota, 162
Giron, 162
Goajira (comisaria), 43
Goats, 109
Gold, 112, 115-120. See Gazetteer.
, Export figures, 26, 124-5
, (1912), 142
Governors, 45
Granadina. See Confederacidn
Granadina.
Ground Nuts, 26, 108, 132
Guaca, 162
Guacheta, 162
Guadas (prov.), 42
Guaduas (prov.), 35
(town), 162
Guai barilla, 162
Guamo (prov.), 42
Guapi, 94
" Guara," 130
Guarapo, 103
Guasca, 162
Guatavita (prov.), 35
(town), 162
Guateque, 162
Guaviare, River, 81
INDEX
215
Guavio (prov.)» 35
Guayacan, 97
Guayata, 163
Gucari, 162
Gutierez (prov.), 31
Gutta percha. See Balata.
Harbours, 90-96
Hato, 163
Henequen fibre, 98, 107, 129, 155
Heredia, 76
Hides and skins (imports), 139
(exports), 141
Honda (prov.), 42
(town), 163, 75, 84
Horses, 109
House of Representatives, 47-8
Huila (department), 57
, Mining, 118
Huaila (Mt.), 3
Ibagu£ (prov.), 42
(town), 163
Imports and Exports, 135-147
(1911), 136-141, 143-147
, Textiles, 137, 143-5
, Wearing apparel, 144-5
, Sacks, 145
, Machinery, 145
, Electrical goods, 145-6
, Carriages, 146
, Leather, 146-7
Import Duties, 48
Indian tombs, 151
Inks (imports), 139
Inland Communication, 74-89,
120-122
Navigable Rivers, 74-81
Railways, 81-87
Roads, 87-89
See also Travelling.
Inscriptions. Rock, 148, 169
Intendencies, Government, 46, 47
, Names and description, 424
Ipiales, 163
Iron, 113, 116-9
See also Foundries.
Ismande, 163
Istmina, 163
Ituango, 164
Jamundi, 164
Jasper, 114, 117
Jenesano, 164
Jerico, 164
Jesuits, 18
Jesus del Rio, 76
Maria, 164
Jewellery, 167
Joint-adventurers, 72
Joint Stock Companies, 70-1
Juanambu (prov.), 39
Judicature, 48-9
Junin, 164
Junta de Amortizaci6n, 52
Conversion, 53
Jurado (comisaria), 43, 44
Labour, 207-8
La Cruz (prov.), 40
(town), 164
Dorada, 75, 84
Mesa, 164
Palma, 165
Plata (prov.), 37
(town), 165
Quiebra, 76
Union, 165
Vega, 165
Land, Colonisation, 110
, Denouncement and Allot-
ment of Public, 193-7
Las Papas, 2, 3
Law. See Litigation.
Lead, 113, 117, 119
See also Gazetteer.
Leather, 130
Lebrija, River, 76
Legislature, 47-8
Libano (prov.), 42
Lighting (imports), 138
Limestone, 149, 150, 176
Literature, 65-6
Litigation, 67-8
Llanos, 4
Lorica, 165
MAGANGUfe (prov.), 29
(town), 165, 76
Magdalena (department), 37-8
, Mining, 118
, River, 74-80
216
INDEX
Magdalena, Canalisation of, 77-8
, Steamship service, 186
Maguey, 10, 98, 107, 129
Maize, 26
P See also Cereals.
Majagual, 165
Malaga (prov.), 41
(town), 165
Manganese, 113
Manioc, 107
Manizales (prov.), 32
(town), 165, 121
Manto, 97
Manufactures and industries, 126-
134
, Government protection, 126
(exports), 124
See also Gazetteer.
Manzanares, 166
Marble, 158
Marmato, 166, 121
Marquez (prov.), 31
Marulanda (prov.), 32
Matanza, 166
Measures, 189
Medellin, 166, 76, 83
Medicines. See Drugs.
Mercury, 113, 116
Mesa. See La Mesa.
Meta (Intendencia), 43-4
, River, 81
, , Steamship service, 186
Metals (imports), 137
Mineral waters, 131
Mines, Mining, and Minerals, 26,
112-125
, Laws, 122-124
, Timbers used in, 122
, Schools, 65
, Exports (1911), 142
, Imports, 138
See also Gazetteer.
Ministers, 45
Mint, The, 53
Miraflores, 167
Mocua, 167
Mogotes, 167
Molagavita, 167
Mompos (prov.), 29
(town), 167
Moniquira, 167
Mosquera, Tomas Cipriano, 20
Monteria, 167
Motor vehicles, 146
Muiscas, The, 14
Mules, 109
Mule packs, 88-9
Municipal Councils, 46, 47
Courts, 48
Musical Instruments (imports), 140
Narino (department), 38-40
, , Mining, 118-9
National Assembly, 47
Navy, 47
Nazareth, 168
Nechi, River, 121
Neira (prov.), 31
(town), 168
Neiva (prov.), 57
(town), 168, 75
Nemocon, 168
New Granada, Spanish Provinces
and administration, 18
, Republic of, 20
Newspapers, 66-7
Nitrate of Soda, 113
Nitre, 113
Norte (prov.), 31
• de Santander (department),
40
, , Mining, 119
Novita, 168
Nunchia (prov.), 31
(town), 168
Nunez (prov.), 40
, Rafael, 21
Oban do (prov.), 39
Ocafia (prov.), 40
(town), 168
Occident e (prov.), 31
Oils (imports), 139
Onyx, 114
Orchids, 10
Oriente (prov.), 31, 35
Orocue (prov.), 44
Pacho, 168
Packing, 134, 88-9
Pacora, 169
Padilla (prov.), 38
INDEX
217
Padua, 169
Paipa, 169
Palma. See La Palma.
Palmira (prov.), 36
(town), 169
Pamplona (prov.), 40
(town), 169
Panama, Province, 18
, Department, 20-21
, State, 20
, Canal, xi, xii, 209
, Revolt and independence, 2 1
, Colombian Exports and
Imports, 136-147
, (town) Foundation, 15
"Panama" Hats, 129, 148, 176,
178, 179, 183
, (Exports) (1912). 142
Pandi, 169
Panela, 103
Paper (imports), 138
Partnerships, 70-72
Pasto (prov.), 39
(town), 169
varnish, 98
Patents, 72
Patia, River, 80-1
, Steamship service, 186
Penon. See El Penon.
Pensilvania, 170
Pereira (prov.), 32
(town), 170
Perfumery (imports), 139
Pesca, 170
Petroleum, 114, 116, 119
, Government rights in, 124
. Refining, 156, 167
Piedecuesta (prov.), 41
(town), 170
Pitalito, 170
Plantains, 26, 104-5
See also Gazetteer.
Plata. See La Plata.
Platinum, 112, 117, 120, 164
, Export figures, 125 ; see
also 26
, (1912), 142
Popayan (prov.), 33
(town), 170
Porce, River, 121
Ports. See Harbours.
Posts and Telegraphs, 46, 189-191
Potatoes, 108
Precious stones, 114-5
Prefects, 46
Presidents, List of, 22
Powers, 45-47
Designado, 48
Press, The. See Newspapers.
Providencia, 29
Puebloviejo, 171
Puente Nacional, 171
Puerto Berrio, 171, 76, 83
Cesar, 106
Colombia, 90, 171
Santos, 76
Wilches, 171, 76, 83
Pulque, 98
Pupiales, 171
Purace (Mt.), 3
Putumayo (Comisaria), 44
, River, 81
Quesada, Gonzalo, 16
Quibdo, 171
Cjuimbayas, The, 14
Quipile, 172
Railways, 81-87
, Antioquia, 83
, Barranquilla, 82
, Cartagena, 82
, Cauca, 83
, Colombian National, 84
, Cucuta, 85
, Great Central Northern. 83
, La Dorada, 84
, Northern, 84
, Sabana, 84
, Santa Marta, 82
, Southern, 85
, Projected lines, 85-87
Railway Stock (imports), 137
Ramiriqui, 172
Registration of Letters, etc.. 190
Remedios, 172, 120
Resins, 98. 151
Reyes. Rafael, 21
Ricaurte (prov.). 31
(town). 172
Rice, 26, 106
Rio de Oro, 172
218
INDEX
Riohacha, 172, 92
Rionegro, 172, 173
Riosucio (prov.), 32
(town), 121, 173
Rivers, Navigable, 74-81
See also under Steamship Lines.
Roads, 25-6, 27, 28, 30, 39, 40,
87-89
Rock crystal, 114, 117, 118, 179
Salt, 113, 183
Roldanillo (prov.), 36
(town), 173
Rosario (El), 173
" Ruanas " (woollen fabric), 162
Rubies, 114
Rubber, 97-8, 100, 153, 167, 171,
182
, Export figures (1912), 142
, Imports, 140
See also Gazetteer.
Ruiz (Mt.), 3
Sabanalarga, 173
Saboya, 173
Sahagun, 173
Salazar, 174
Salamina (prov.), 32
(town), 173
Salt, 113, 117-8, 148, 149
Samaca, 174
Samaniego, 174
Samples, Commercial, 133-4
, Postal regulations, 190-1
Sampues, 174
San Agustin, 174
San Andres de Providencia, 29
Andres (prov.), 41
(town), 174
de Sotavento, 174
Antonio, 174
Francisco, 174, 175
Gil (prov.), 41
(town), 175
Jose, 175
Juan.. 175
— de Cesar, 175
-, River, 80. 93
-, Steamship service, 186
Luis, 175
Martin (prov.), 44
Onofre, 175
San Pablo. See Istmina.
Roque, 120
Vicente, 176-7
Santa Ana, 175
Barbara, 176
Isabel, 3
Marta (prov.), 38
(town), 176, 63, 92-3
Railway, 82
Rosa, 120
Rosa de Cabal, 176
Osos, 176
Santander, Francisco de Paula, 19
(department), 40-41
, , Mining, 119
(prov.), 33
(town), 175
, See also Estaci&n Sant-
ander.
Santo Domingo, 120, 176
Santuario, 176
Santurban, Paramo of, 3
Sapphires, 114
Saragoza. See Zaragoza.
Sasaima, 177
Savanilla. See Puerto Colombia
Segovia, 120, 177
Senate, 47-8
Sesquile, 177
Sheep, 109
Silver, 112, 115-119, 148
Silvia (prov.), 33
(town), 177
Since, 177
Sincelejo (prov.), 29
(town), 177
Sinu (prov.), 29
, River, 80
Soacha, 177
Soap, 106, 108
(imports), 139
Soata, 177
Social Conditions, 59-73
Socorro (prov.), 41
(town), 177
Socota, 178
Sogamoso, 30, 178
Soledad, 178
Sonson, 121, 178
Sopetran, 178
Sotaquira, 178
INDEX
219
Spain, Exports and Imports,
136-147
Steamship Lines, Ocean, 185-6
, River, 186
Stocking net mill, 128
Storax, 151
Suaita, 179
Subachoque, 179
Sugamuxi (prov.), 31
Sugar-cane, 102-3, 261
See also Gazetteer.
Sugar refining, 131, 150, 152
Sulphur, 113, 161, 166, 183
Sumapaz (prov.), 36
Superior Courts, 48
Supia, 121, 179
Supreme Court, 47-8
Sur (prov.), 38
Tagua, 97, 100. See also
Gazetteer.
, Export figures (1912), 142
Talc, 118-9
Tambo, 179
Tanning, 130, 152, 156. 163, 166
Tapir, 11
Telephones, 191-2
Tena, 179
Tequendama (prov.), 36
Falls, 34
Textiles, 127-129
, Imports, 143-5
, Factories, 151-2, 156, 159
162,164,165,166,170,171
Thermal Springs, 148, 158, 159,
160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 172,
180, 181, 182
Tibana, 179
Timana, 179
Timbio, 179
Timber trade, 101
, Export figures (1912), 142
(imports), 139
Timbiqui, 180
Tin, 112, 113
Tisquesusha, 14
Titiribi, 180, 121
Tobacco, 103-4
, Export figures (1912), 142
, Manufacture, 130
Tobacco, Produce (1911), 26
See also Gazetteer, 155
Tocaima, 180
Tolima (department), 41-2
, Mining, 119-120
(Mt.), 3
Tolu, 180
, Balsam of, 97
Tortoise-shell and Horn, 140
Tota, 180
Trade Materials (imports), 138
Trade or Commercial Marks, 72-3
Transit Duties, 48
Transport. See Inland Com-
munication.
Travelling, 61-63
See also Inland Communication.
Trees. See Forests ; Timber Trade.
Tulua (prov.), 36
(town), 180
Tumaco, 94, 180
Tundama (prov.), 31
Tunja, 30, 180
Tuquerres, 181
Turbaco, 181
Ubala, 181
Ubaque, 181
Ubate (prov.), 36
(town), 181
Une, 181
Union. See La Union.
United Kingdom, Commercial
Treaties, 209
— , Exports and Imports,
136-147
See also Consuls ; Diplomatic
Representatives.
United States, Commercial
Treaties, 208-9
, Exports and Imports,
136-147
See also Consuls ; Diplomatic
Representatives.
Universities, 64-5
Uraba (Comisaria), 44
Urras, 182
Valderama (prov.), 31
Vailed upar (prov.), 38
(town), 182
220
INDEX
Valparaiso, 121
Varnishes (imports), 139
Vasquez (territory), 31
Vaupes (comisaria), 44
Vega. See La Vega.
Vegetable ivory. See Tagua.
Vegetable products, 141, 143
(exports)
Velez (prov.), 41
(town), 182
Vergera, 182
ViUavicencio (prov.), 44
(town), 182
Villeta, 182
Viota, 182
Wages, 207
Wax palm, 97, 98
Weights and Measures, 189
Wheat. See Cereals.
Woollen Mills. See Textiles.
Yacopi, 182
Yapura, River, 81
Yarumal, 120, 182
Yolombo, 120, 183
Yucca, 26. See also Manioc.
Zambrano, 76
Zapotoca (prov.), 41
(town), 183
Zaragoza, 183
Zea, 121
Zinc, 113
Zipaquira (prov.), 36
(town), 183
Zirconium, 114
Zulia, River, Steamships, 186
Press of Isaac Pitman & Sons, Bath, England.
(2248)
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