9 -^ 4 2 9 — -< 2 5 9 Transport, li!l!}!lilln!!f!l!fl!lill!!!!!l!lir j"v<ooi;!iS aiK?! Material' Li^AKEE !r.l!!liiiii:!!ll ii II iiilllli! I iiill<li!iiltllii.llliii! i III !illllUiliiIiiIi|IIIU|i '1 !i Presented Td BAKCfiaFTUBItMa^ OCT 1-mt BY AMY REgUA LONG Transportation OF Troops and Materiel MAJOR CHAUNCEY B. BAKER, Quartermaster's Department, United States Army. FRANKLIN HUDSON PUBLISHING CO.. KANSAS CITY, MO., U. S. A. 1905. Copyright, 1905, by Franklin Hudson Publishing Co. Kansas City, Mo. GONTRNTS. Page. Prei'ace 5 Introcluctory V Troops, Depots, and Supplies 9 Base and Lines of Communication 15 Kiver Transport 17 Harbor Service Boats 19 Tngs. Lighters, Barges, Cascoes, etc 20 Wharves, Landing and Loading Facilities 22 Transport of Troops and Tm]-)edim(-nta on Ocean-going Vessels 24 The Army Transport Service 25 ]\rovements b}' Sea 27 Transportation of Animals - 41 Handling and Carriage of Freight 46 Evolution of the Transport Service 50 Au.xiliarv Transports 57 Preliminary Knowledge 61 Convoys 62 Comments 63 History of ^lilitary Use of Railways 67 Organization and Oj^eration of Bailroads 71 Forwarding and Terminal Stations 77 Railway Equi])ment 79 Providing for the Movement 82 Details of Arranging for l\Tovemeiit 85 Loading tlie Impedimenta 88 3 394820 4 CONTENTS. Page. Entraining , 9i Conduct on Board 96 Detraining 98 Entraining and Dispatch of Ijargi; Bodies 103 Memoranda for Operating Department, Union Pacific Kail- road Company 110 Construction and Kepair of Eailroatls 118 Comments 122 Logistics 125 The Final Gap 130 Eoads, Bridges, and Trails 131 Means of Transport— Animals 133 Means of Transport — Materiel 137 Organization and Field Transport 142 Organization of the Train 148 Operation of Trains 149 Variation from the Xormal Organization under Special Circumstances 153 General Field Transportation Order 154 Relation Between Impedimenta and Transport 168 Method of Utilizing Transport When Living on the Country 173 PEEFACE. The object of these pages is to bring together in compact form •the elements of military transportation, and to briefly consider the means of providing, organizing, and operating the same un- der varying conditions. The endeavor has been to give a general view of this im- portant subject, in a logical and consecutive manner, and it is hoped that the work v,i\\ be found a means of ready reference, and of practical value to those entering upon the military profes- sion, and in the hands of the oflicers of the Militia and Volunteers. jSTo attempt has been made to elucidate the purely technical features of transportation problems with the execution of which the Quarterm.aster's Department is charged: but rather, while outlining the duties of the staff oflicer under the conditions cited, to also indicate to the line oflficer the scope of the problem, and his own responsibility in connection with its solution. Conditions are taken as they are found, with the idea in each case of utilizing to the best advantage the means at hand. It is fully realized that in many instances conditions could be improved by -legislation, but consideration of that phase of the subject has not been contemplated. Various regulations, manuals, and official reports have been drawn on in the compilation of this work. It is the desire of the writer to make especial acknowledgment to General C. F. Jlumphrey, Quartoriiia>tor-(Teneral. V. S. A., 6 PREFACE. « and to the Dopartriient of which he is the iiead, for the oppor- tunities afforded, and without which the preparation of this volume would not have heen practicable. Chaunccy B. Baker, Major and Quartermaster, U. S. A. Washington, D. C, 1905. Transportation of Troops and Materiel by Water. I. INTKODTJCTOEY. The maintenance of an army in the field in a thorough state of efBciencY is in degree of importance little short of winning victories. Tn fact, the winning of victories, whilst immediately the result of discipline, tactics, and correct combinations, is vastly influenced by the state of the efficiency of the army, which in turn depends for its efficiency largely upon the state of supplies and equipment, its recruitment and the disposition of the sick, and the facilities that provide for its mol)ility. These are the subjects that will be entered into in these pages. If it sliould appear that details have been too largelv en- tered into, let it be borne in mind that it is often much easier to illustrate by concrete examples than to promulgate geueral principles; and that it is much easier to follow a parallel case than to develop an original line of action from abstract principles. It is believed that the commander who stands first to win is the one who has tiie capacity for seeing farthest into the future, and who possesses the means of providing most completely 7 8 TRANSPORTATlOxV OF TltOOPS AND MATERIEL against the unexpected in the little things that cause delay and uncertainty. Viewing conditions along these lines, it is believed that the reader will bear patiently while going over what may seem some very trivial matters. The importance of making full pro- vision for the transportation service in all its branches before tak- ing the field has been too fully exemplified within recent years to need further emphasis at this time. After a long period of peace, ■details along all lines grow dim if they are not constantly in use or kept always in mind in peace-training. When it is remembered how very sudden is the transition from peace to war, it cannot •fail to be impressed upon you that the necessity of working over even the minor, and what may seem non-essential details, is very great. II. . TROOPS, DEPOTS, AXD SUPPLIES. Troops. — At the beginning of hostilities between this nation and any other, the Army will be found, as at the outset of the Spanish War, to consist of many small bodies of troops compris- ing from one to twenty-five companies at each location, scat- tered at various small posts throughout the country. There will be also this new feature, that a considerable portion of the forces will be in service at distant points beyond the sea, in our insular dependencies. These organizations will probably be on a basis of from 50 to 60 per centum of war-footing, rendering necessary the sup- ply of recruits to bring them up to authorized strength, possibly after the declaration of hostilities, as was the case in 1898. The Regular Army thus increased will be supplemented by enlisting volunteers, or by calling out the Militia, and all these troops must be gathered from every quarter, and placed in con- veniently situated camps of concentration, for equipment, instruc- tion, and discipline, before it will be possible to use them in tlie field. From the concentration camps transportation must be fur- nished to the vicinity of active service, and further provision must then be made for bringing up recruits and reinforcements, properly transferring the sick and wounded, and for maintain- 10 TRAXSPORTATIOX OF TKOOPS AND MATKRIEL ing the ceaseless movement, back and forth, of the tide of human life that puta the healthy and vigorous to the front and with- draws the wasted and worn to the rear. The polic}' pursued in providing troops for the national defense is one that does not interest us here, but the question that does concern us is the means employed to bring together and transport the detachments and organizations which will finally make up the body of the iVrmy. Supply. — In treating of the subjects of the transport of troops and materiel it is altogether impossible to separate it entirely from the question of supply. The two, together with the movement of armies, constitute that portion of the art of war known as Logistics. Xo effort will be made in this paper to treat particularly, or even generally, of the subject of supply, i'arther than is necessary to show the methods of collection and distribution, and the principles upon which are established gen- eral depots, sub-depots, and iield depots. In the Uiilitary service, stores, supplies, and munitions of war of whatever sort are, as a rule, collected in large central Bepots, and gathered from the surrounding country, and thence distributed to lesser depots for issue to the troops. Be pets. — fn an active campaign, central depots will be located in a safe position in the interior oE the home country. Sub-denots will be established, and advanced as the line of con-' tact is pushed forward. This will result in time, perhaps, in the establishment of a chain of depots, some of which will be abandoned as the Army proceeds or changes position, and others will be located in new positions, regulated by the character of BY WATEU. 11 *(]ic line of i-(iiiiiiiimit-;il ion- ami llic pobilioii.- of tin' vnv[)< or oiIkt unittj ol' the Army. If the Army proceeds- to ovor-6ea service, a depot will ho established at the port of embarkatiou and another at the point of disembarkation. 'J'he niiig-nitude of these depots and the quan- tities and the character of supplies handled will depend upon the strength of the Army and the character of the campaign. It is customary to accumulate in the central depots large quantities of scores and supplies, either manufactured by the Go^•eI•nment or purchased uncler contract. As rapidly as required' for use at the fronts these stores and su})plies are forwarded to the distributing depots, usually located at the base of operations, and thence on to advance depots, temporary depots, or ilying depots in the immediate vicinity of the troops; or possibly, directly into the hands of troops; dw care always being taken to avoid accuninlati'jg a ^iirphH of the class of stores that deteriorate in storage, and yet always maintaining a sufficient quantity so that no form of disaster will leave the Army destitute of supplies. During the recent war with Spain, the central depots of the various .-uiiply departments of the Army remained practically as in times of peace — usually near great centers of industry, where large quantities of all kinds of supplies could be readily procured to advantage, or where extensive manufacturing plants existed for })j-oviding arms, ammunition, clothing, etc. Imme- diately upon the deci.-ion to encamp a large body of troops in any locality, a secondary depot was estahlished at that point for their supply. As troops were embarked from Port Tampa for SantiMgo general supplies for the corpss were loaded with them. 12 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL On landing in Cuba a sea base was immediately established, the principal adjuncts of which were the depots of the supply depart- ments from which necessary issues were made, and temporary depots established and supplied, as the troops moved forward. The same method was pursued as to our troops in China, as well as with the forces operating against the insurgents in the Philippines. In making the preliminary arrangements for the supply of en army, it is of the utmost importance that the supplies, stores, and materiel to be furnished bear a correct relation to the num- ber of troops and the character of the service. It is simply a -double burden to transport cumbersome machinery aaid appli- ances of doubtful utility, and leave behind necessaries that could well take their place. It has sometimes happened that the bur- den of uselc.'^fe equipment taken Avith an army has been more detrimental to its movements than the lack of other essential supplies consequently left behind. It is of the first importance that the commanding general shall be able to calculate upon having certain supplies in the hands of his troops at a given time, and failure to accomplish this will inevitably result in great hardship, if not in positive disaster, and the usual result of such failure is to tie the forces to the ground until the supplies can be brought up. In order to accomplish this end, such methods should be adopted as will result in transmitting the supplies from the cen- tral or base depots, and placing them in the hands of the troops with the greatest certainty, the least degree of confusion, and with the most directness. Bl WATER. 13 Hemote from the front, the question of transportation and supply is comparatively a biniple one. The nia«,Miitude of the quantrties of supplies and the usually limited time are the only serious considerations. Difficulties, however, increase with prog- ress towards the point of contact, and finally to get the supplies upon tlie firing-line, both of ammunition and subsistence, with absolute sureness and without confusion, is the most difficult of all the problems of transportation. Transport. — To effect this chain of eommunication, from the central depots to the final point of contact with the enemy, is the duty of the transportation service of the Quartermaster's De- partment, and in the prosecution of this work, as well as in the ordinary service of the Army in times of peace, every known de- vice for transport is made use of, the various classes of which may be grouped as follows: A. Water Transportation: 1. Ei^er steam.ers and other vessels; 2. Tugs, launches, lighters, barges, cascoes, lorchas. etc., for harbor service; 3. Wharf facilities; 4. Ocean-going vessels. B. Tiail Transportation. C. Land Transportalion : 1. Wheel: 2. Pack (either animal or by coolie bearers) ; 3. In the Alaskan service, by means of dogs and sledges. 4. Traction ensfine- and automobiles. 14 iltAXSPOKTA'ilOX OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL According to the inaimer in wliioli the transportation is pro- \[i\('i\ and the extent to which it is controlh'd bv iiiilitarv author- ity, it jna}^ properly be st^ded as : 1. Military Transportation.— That which is the property of, or chartered by, the Government, and wholly under military control. 2. Auxiliary Transportation.- — That which is hired or char- tered for the special service required. Any or all classes of transportation may be provided from that OAvned by the (xovernment, or from auxiliary transportation ;proenred by engagement under formal or informal contract or charter, by requisition when the country in which the Army is operating will be called upon to furnish it. by seizure or force, or by capture from the enemy. The methods of procuring transportation under formal or informal contract will vary according to the exigencies under which its provision becomes necessary. In peace, when ample time is available, proposals may be advertised for, and full com- petition may thus be had, or the service may be immediately re- quired, in which event it may be had by prompt offer and accept- ance, as is common amongst business men. Ocean transportation may either be owned by the Govern- ment, or chartered for military purposes, under a great variety ol conditions, according to the most practicable method at the time it is required. Vessels may be engaged to carry troops and supplies without recourse to charter or formal contract. The same is true of railroads and other classes of transportation lines, BY WATER. 15 the officer acting for the Government ninking use of the larifts in effect with the general public. Jn some cases where the Gov- ernment has owned its railway or equipment, it has engaged in passenger and freight transportation as would any private cor- poration. Similar means may be used for providing wheel and pack transportation. All of these methods are provided for under the Regulations of the Army. The otllcer engaging service by contract will, as a rule, be the officer responsible for the disbursement of the funds paying the transportation accounts, and the methods he pursues should be wise and economical for the Government, but at the same time such as to produce the best results to the service, with the re- quired degree of promptness. The character of his contracts •will be subject to the careful scrutiny and approval of his com- manding officer, his bureau chief, and the accounting officers of •the Treasury, and the necessity of exercising wise business judg- ment is a matter as personal to him as it is important to his Government. ni. BASE AXD LINES OF COMMUNTICATTOX. In order to liave a hill comprehension of the subjects of sup- ply and transportation it is necessary to consider them in con- nection with the l)ase and the lines of communication and in their relation to the other sta/f functions under control of the commanding sjeneral. 16 TP.AXSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL For each Army in the iield or expeditionary force a general officer will be placed in command of the base and the lines of communication. His staff will consist of the following subordi- nate chiefs^ or so many as may be required: A. A commander at the base — line officer. B. A chief of transportation — an officer of the Quarter- master's Department. C. A chief of the railway service — an oilicer of the Quar- termaster's Department. D.' A chief of transport by water — an officer of the Quar- termaster's Department. E. A chief commissary of base and lines of communica- tion — an officer of the Subsistence Department. F. A chief ordnance officer — an officer of the Ordnance Department. G. A chief paymaster — an officer of the Pay Department. H. A chief medical ofiicer — an officer of the Medical Department. I. A chief of telegrajDh and telephone service — an officer of the Signal Corps. K. A provost marshal of base and lines of cummunication — usually a line officer. In many cases it will no douljt be found practicable to com- bine to advantage two or more functions in the same staff officer, who on his part will be provided with the necessary assistants to properly attend to details — e. g., as in San Francisco at this time the Depot Quartermaster performs the duties of Chief of BY WATER. 17 Transportation, Chief oi Railway Sorvico, and C'liicif of Transport by Water. The matters pertaining to administration and the protection of the base and lines of communication devolve upon the com- mander of the base and incidentally upon the various staff offi- cers attached thereto. When the line of communication crosses the seas, its pro- tection devolves wholly upon the Navy, and the manner in which that shall be accomplished is a question that is left altogether to that department. The completeness with which that function !has lately been performed has been the subject of congratulation and caused an outburst of popular national pride, the like of which has not been known for more than a generation. IV. EIVEE TEANSFOirr. Formerly the rivers which traverse our country were quite generally used as a means of comnninication, and for the trans- portation of troops and military supplies. This was particularly the case during the Civil \Var, when the Potomac, Tennessee, Ohio, Cumberland, Missouri, and Mississippi were especially made use of as great arteries by means of which troojis, stores, and supplies Avere sent to the front, and \.h(t sick and wounded, hroken munitions cf war, and cri])pled animals were carried to the rear. These ineans of transportation were particularly ad- vantageous, inasmuch as they could be wholly controlled by mil- itary authority, whereas railroads, owned by private corporations 18 TRANSPORTATION* OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL aiid operated by civil oi'ticials, did not always lend themselves so Ireadily to orders emanating from the military establishment. In addition, the vessels on these waterwa^-s were far less subject to annoyance and damage by the enemy than were railroads con- necting important points, ^vhich were constantl}' the object of raids. Eiver steamers were, as a rule, when in dangerous terri- tory, convoyed by river gun-boats, mostly improvised vessels that served very well as a defense against ordinary attacks by land forces. l"lie question of t.nbarkation, disembarkation, and shipping Troops and supplies by river steamers and other craft is greatly simplified as compared with similar traffic on ocean-going ves- i^els. The means employed for loading and unloading at wharves are less varied, and the cargd is always taken through ports in- stead of through hatchways, v/hich greatly facilitates the load- ing and discharging. In addition, the certainty of encountering fair weather on iho trip and the frcjuent opportunity to land removes the neces- sity to provide many of the features required in ocean-going vessels. The greatest of the expeditions by water during the Civil War was that of General McClellan, which resulted in transfer- ring an army of 1:20,000 men, with all of its materiel of war, ■artiller}^, cavalry, munitions, baggage, trains, and equipage, from the lines in front of Washington to the lower Chesapeake; and after the reverses lie lore Eichmond these troops and materiel were again withdrawn and re-established in front of Washington by BY WATER. ' 19 the mean? gotten together by the Quartermasters Department, which purchased and chartered every available vessel on the Atlantic ci>a:=t, and took into its service all vessels as rapidly as they could be completed. Junks. — The particular kind of river craft used will, of ^urse, depend upon the character of the waters, and, as in all other classes of transportation, that native to the waters will be used whenever available. As axi illustration of the adaptability of our service to new conditions, I will quote from the report of General Humphrey, chief quartermaster of the expeditionary force to Pekin: "Our forces at I'ekin received their supplies from Taku, thence to Tientsin by junk, 40 miles, thence 105 miles to Tung- chow by junks; for the remaining 15 miles they were sent to Pekin by wagon. The single line railroad was little used by our troops, as it was kept busy serving the other nations. "It was necessary for the junks to reach the head of naviga- tion before the ice covered the river. The river too was very shallow and constantly falling. "The junks were very light draft, about 2 feet, and were poled in both directions. It took al)out ten days to make the round trip from Tientsin to TnnaT-how." V. HAKBOR SERVICE BOATS. The harbor service boats provided for prior to and during the Spanish-American War were of almost every pattern of tug, light- 20 TRANSP0I^TAT10^' OF TKOOIS AND JMATERIEL er, and barge afloat. The Quartprmnster's Department has now- developed a series of boats for harbor service, which it is beheved will be found wholly suitable for the service required, and equally so in time of peace as in Avar. These boats are intended in time of peace to serve the inilitary stations and batteries in and about cur harbors. They are divided into three classes, according to their capacity, and are called first-, second-, and third-class harbor boats. They are arranged for both passenger and freight service, and will stand a reasonable amount of rough weather. In case of an expeditionary force along the coast or to the nearby islands, it is believed that the harbor boats of the first and second class would answer exceptionally well as lighters for troops and stores, and, being wholly under the control of the department, would possess many advantages over hired service of this character. YI. TUGS, LIC4HTEES, BARGES, CASCOES, ETC. For the prompt and safe embarkation of an expeditionary force in this country it will not be difficult to procure by hire the necessary means in wharfage facilities, tugs, lighters, water- boats, etc. When the force, however, arrives at its destination, on hos- tile shores, another condition of afTairs is presented. For harbor service and to assist in expeditiously unloading such a force from transports, both passengers and freight, it will be necessary to call into requisition all classes of harbor boats BY WATEi;. 21 available, including tugS;, launclior, lighters, barges, c-ascoes, lorehas, etc. It will never, however, be reasonable to expect to find such auxiliary means ready at hand and available for the use of an expeditionary force, no matter how friendly the shores may be. The only case ^vhen reluuice should be j)laced in such means is when conditions have been so favorable that an olFicer can have been sent in advance to a friendly port to canvass the means obtain- able to assist in discharging vessels of the passengers and cargo. In all other cases full and suflicicnt means for setting the troops and cargo ashore should accompany the expedition. Tugs, light- ers, and barges should travel under their own steam, and, of course, such selections should be made as will give vessels with sufficient speed not to unduly retard the movement. Our experience has shoAvn that there should be no attempt to tow lighters, unless the conditions of distance, season, state of the enemy, the neces- sities of tlie case, etc., should render that course unavoidable. Full use should be made of the launches and ships' boats if nec- essary. Should tliere be no other sufficient means, a typo ■of flat-bottomed lighter to carry from 10 to lo tons, weighing about 4 or 5 tons, with doul>le l)ottom, should accompany the expedition, carried on the deck of the transport. Such a lighter, with a draft of not more than 2^2 feet, would carry 10 to 15 ani- mals and GO to 100 men for a short distance on smooth water. A oufficient numl)er of such barges could bo carried to discharge the <'ar<io in the time to he aliottcd. 22 TRANSPORTATION OF TKOOrS AND MATERIEL Great advantage will be found in using the owned harbor boats of the Government en such an expedition, rather than hired or chartered boats. The masters of the latter class will be far more interested in the safety of their owners' property than in rendering elficient service. For that and other reasons all avail- able owned harbor boats could be withdrawn to accompany the expedition, and their service temporarily replaced b}- hired or chartered boats. Both the British and Gennans have undertaken to provide for such service in a measure by the use of sectional vessels. Our Government has built one experimental vessel of this character with a displacement of about 72 tons. This experi- ment has been suHiciently satisfactory to warrant the belief that it is without question a valuable adjunct under conditions favorable to putting it together. VII. WHARVES, LANDING AND LOADING FACILITIES. With an expeditionary force by sea, when uncertainty exists as to the condition or existence of wharves, or as to the point of disembarkation, it is essential to take along such means of con- structing or repairing temporary landing-places as the means at hand or available will permit, including piles and the means of sinking them, planking, bolts, spikes, rope, etc., for repairs to wharves, and also the means for building ramps and floats and other facilities for disemliarkation. In the landing at Guanica, Porto Rico, the ])ontoon-l -ridge train was used to make a floating 31 "WATEi;. 23 wharf, and over it Averc landed easily and without accident sonic- thiiifr more than a thousand animals and most of the heavy mair- riel of the Army. As a rule, once a harbor is gained, landing facilities in sonn', form will be found to be available. The earliest reliance, how- ever, it, to be placed in the means carried with the expedition, and these are to l)e supplemented with every facility the waters afford. Ultimately the local means will in most cases become the chief dependence for landing supplies. Platforms on pontoons, or casks, or stages resting on boats and rafts, can Ik- used as an improvised means of landuig troops tind stores in protected harbors. The (;onncction witli the shore may be made, if need be, by means of a trestle bridge. Separate landing-places should be set aside, as far as j)rac- ticable, for the troops of the various arms, and for stores and sup- plies. The supplies on being landed should at once be separated and sent to their proper storage-places. Liberal use should be made of placards, so that all necessary information can be had concerning landing- and storage-places without the necessity of asking questions; and if facilities can be provided, separate wharves or portions of the beach should be set aside for receiving each class of stores. As, for example, at Alexandria, Virginia, during the Civil War. there were separate wharves for forage, clothing, horses, mules, camp equipage, hos- pital equipment, ordnance and ammunition, and railroad and bridge material. 24 TRANSPOKTATIOX OF I'lIOOrcJ AND ISIATEKIKL TKANSPOET OF TKOOPS AN^d IMPEDIMENTA OX oceax-goixct vessels. Troops, animals, and supplies are carried over sea (1) on commercial vessels under special contract or under ordinary pub- lic tariff, and (2) on the owned and chartered vessels of the Government. The transportation furnished by commercial vessels, either under special contract or ordinary commercial tariff, will, oi course, vary in importance from the carriage of one man or a single package to the full capacity of the vessel. The method adopted for obtaining this transportation is by use of transportation request and bill of lading furnished the carrier by an agent or officer of the department. Such request or bill of lading will l)e issued upon invoices and receipts in the case of property, or proper travel order in the case of men, due authority being cited in each instance. Such carriage will not differ in any essential respects from that afforded the public, l)ut as the bulk of water travel of true military aspect v.-ill. as a rule, l)e by OAsned or chartered vessels, the particular measures to i)e ,vdo])ted have Ijcen given attention under that head. Under ordinai'y conditions, even in cases where established commercial lines exist connecting points between which much iraffie is to move in times of peace, commercial lines fail to fur- nish the measure of comfort, care of the sick, and convenience BY WATKl;. 2.') alfordiHl t'oi the soldier upon owned tiiinsj)ort-f. nor would the military requireineiitri be aderjuatoly nu't. if tiic sthedulc of the vestiol and facilities provided wero nuide sul).servient to eonunereial interest. Furthermore, earefully kei>t btati.-lic? on this question dis- close rlie fact that the ordinary operations of the present trans- port service show a material saving to the Government as com- pared witli service of equal merit furnished by commercial lines. Under the urgency of war conditions, when military requirements of dispatch and certainty become o? the first importance, the value of an owned transport ser\ ice is materially increased. THE AKMY TRA.N'SPOET SEUVICi:. Ihe Ainiy Transport Service, comprising owned vessels of the CJovernment, is engaged in transferring troops and supplies between home ports and over-sea points. Jt is assimilated in its juethods of administration to those of commercial steamship lines as far as practicable, such modifications being made as are neces- sary to adapt it to military requirements. The Army Transport Service is conducted Ijy its own officers under the «ui)orvision of the Quartermaster-General. It is a Lraneh of the transportation of the Arjny practically independ- ent of the other branches of the department; such matters, how- ever, as relate to the Medical and Subsistence Departments are under the control of those bureaus. There are two home ports for the service, one at San Fi-an- ■cisco and the other in iS^ew York. Each of these ports is proviRed with suitable terminal facilities. includiTig wbarfagi' for shi]is and 26 TRAN"SPOETAi:iON OF TROOPS AJSID MATERIEL storage for freight, and with :i ^uitaljk force of employees to con- duct the business of the sei'vice. The equipment of both these- orfices has been materially reduced with the decreased require- ments of the transport service. That at tlie port of New York i& now practically on paper. The general organization, personnel, and duties of the Army Transport Service under the Eegulations are as follows: 1. General Superintendent. 2. Assistant to General Superintendent. 3. Subsistence Superintendent. 4. Medical Superintendent. 5. Transport Quartermasters and Transport Com- missaries. 6. Transport Surgeons. 7. Marine Superintendent. 8. Assistant to jNlarine Superintendent. 9. Superintending Engineer. iO. Assistant to Superintending Engineer. 11. Port Steward. 12. Quartermaster's Purveyor. 13. Chief Stevedore. 14. Army Transport agents at over-sea ports. The Transport Eegulations provide for the regulation of the- duties of each of tliese officials, as well as the duties of all the ship's officers, and the conduct of troops on shipboard in such a manner that there can ije no conflict of authority, no interference- of duties, and no divided responsibilities. BY WATER. 27 MOVE.An^^NTS BY SEA. Emharhaiion. — The Trausport Regulations ijrovide for the embarkation, disembarkation, and conduct of troops on Ijoard transports. For conveyance by siiip, wliether of men or stores, applica- tion will be made to the Quartermaster-General of the Army. The statement of the commanding officer accompanying the application should show fully all persons for wliom transporta- tion is required. The quantity and character of baggage will also be reported. The commanding officer of the troops to be embarked should sejid a staff officer to precede the command to the port of enibarkatiou, to arrange with the general superin- tendent or other officer in charge of transport service for proper assignment of quarters on board the transport. The staff officer should at the same lime consult with the transport quartermaster as to the number and stations of tlie sentinels durmg embarkation. Commanding officers whoso regiments receive orders to pre- pare for over-sea service will take proper precaution to see that all concerned are fainiliar with the essential points in the Trans- port Regulations covering the transportation of troops. The arrival of the troops at the point of embarkation should be so timed, when organizations are being dL^patched singlj-, that they can be directly embarked aboard the transport without the necessity of making a temporary camp or bivouac. All fatigue details necessary to carry out the provisions of Transport Regulations should be made previous to embarkation, and all members of such fatigue details should be fullv instructed 28 TRANSPORTATiOX OF TDOOl'S AND ^MATERIEL as to their iTj;])Oiisli)ilitii'S and duties in advance, so as to avoid confusion at a time when it is dilhcult to promulgate orders to a command in process of embarkation. These fatigue details should be amply large to handle the baggage, etc.. in the most expeditious manner possible, 'i'hey should be well officered, and should not be permitted to loaf at their duties. The work of the fatigue details should be performed under the supervision of an officer. The ammunition will bo loaded first and put into the maga- zine, which will he locked. If the heav}- baggage is accompanTing the command, it should be sent on board m advance of and kept separate from the field equipage, if the latter is to be used immediately upon landing. If the movement is a mere change of station, however, it is not necessary to separate the two classes of baggage, except so far as to make the light equipage first available. The property and baggage of each company will be stored -eeparately. and should be so stored as to l)e Lonveniently reached immediately on disembarkation. The baggage of troops should be securely packed and care- fully marked with the name of the organization and the destina- tion if known. No package should weigh more than 150 pounds. Such baggage as will be allowed in staterooms, as well as all other freight and baggage, should be sent on board in advance of the troops. The commanding officer should take pains to come to a full tinderstanding with the transport quartermaster regarding ar- Tansem.ents for loading and embarkation. Failure to have a BY WATKK. 29 complete understanding in the beginning will surely result in a play at cross-purposes, with the result that annonng delays will occur. He should have a reconnoissancc made of roads and streets leading to the wharf, in order that troops can be marched to the proper point without interfering with other traffic. All sentinels should be posted aboard the vessel before the troops are embarked, and should be thoroughly instructed by the ncAv oflicer of the day, assisted, if necessary, by the transport quar- termaster. Troops should be embarked by companies, packs and equipments properly stowed, and rifles placed in racks. Troops once located in quarters should not he permitted to leave them until all are embarked. The manner in which this is performed is as follows : The berths on the transports arc numbered consecutively from 1 up. The numl)er will be found tied to each bunk. Prior to embarkation the commanding olficer of the troops will be furnished with a diagram of the troop compartments showing the numbers of the berths, and he will make his assignments by companies accordingly. The troops will not be given individual numbers before they are marched aboard and located, but will take the number found on the berth at M-hicli they are placed when marched aboard. The knapsack containing the necessary articles of equipment to 1)0 used on the voynge and immediately upon disembarkation is hung on a hook at the head of the bunk provided for that purpose. After all the troops are aboard and knapsacks are stowed, the arms are placed in the arm-racks. 30 TRANSPORTATION OF TItOOrS AXD MATERIEL Early opportunity should be taken to furnish necessary in- structions as to messing, bathing, latrijics, wash-rooms, etc., and it is considered desirable that these instructions be given the men before they leave their stations at bunks. The duty of instruc- tion upon these points falls upon company commanders. The embarkation should be so timed that it shall be accom- plished, if possible, between regular meals. The command should be c-n board at the next regular meal hour. The meal will be served from the ship's galley. Commanding officers are held responsible that nothing but authorized baggage and persons of their commands are taken on board. Proper returns of the troops will be made by the command- ing officer before sailing. Commanding officers will be held re- isponsible for the disciphne and movements of the men of their commands. They will not be permitted to leave the ship without due authority. Conduct on Board. — A bulletin-boaxd will display extracts from the Transport Regulations relative to the discipline and ■conduct of the troops on board. Officers and non-commissioned officers are charged with proper police and cleanliness of the parts of the ship occupied by their men, and with the enforcement of the regulations relating to the conduct of enlisted men. A non-commissioned officer will be in charge and at all times present and alert in the quarters of each company. Officers and enlisted men will not make complaints to offi- cers of the ship or direct to the crew, and will not enter into con- BY WATER. 31 "troversies with tliem concerning deficiencies of service, equipment, or supplies. If there is sufficient reason for such complaints, they will be made by oflicert- to the police otiicer. the mess officer, or the officer of the day, according to circumstances. In exceptional cases tlie commanding officer may be addressed. Casuals, recruits, and convalescents on board will be organized into temporary com- panies. Officers and non-commissioned officers will be detailed for their control. The Commanding Officer. — The commanding officer of the 1:roops embarked will be responsible for the discipline and conduct of all the troops on board the transport, including such casual, dis- charged, and furlonghed soldiers as may be given transportation aboard the ship; he will also be responsible that the Transport Regulations concerning such passengers are understood and obeyed. He will also be responsible for the proper cleansing of quarters occupied by troops, including mess-decks. The commanding officer of troops is bound to pay attention to any representation for the good of the service made by the -quartermaster, and to remember that the master is responsible in all matters connected with the safety of the ship and the passengers. In all matters of navigation and m emergencies in the con- trol of the ship, the authority of the master of the ship is absolute. The commanding of^cer is charged not to interfere with the duties and prerogatives of the transport quartermaster and master, and under no circumstances to interfere with the con- trol of the ship except in grave military emergencies involving the health, discipline, or safety of the command. The routine of the troops on board, and the uniform to be worn on deck, are 32 ' TRAXSPOKTATIOX OF TUOOPS AND MATERIEL io be proserihcd l.y tlie oHiciT coinmanfling the troops. The commanding otiieei-, accompanied by the transport quartermas- ter, the officer oi' the day, the police oificer. the surgeon, and the master, will inspect tiie Itertli- and mess-decks, datrines, bath-rooms, liospital galleys, etc., each day at a fixed houi-. Prior to disembarkation, return will be furnished to the transport quartermaster showing the number of persons, all ranks, carried to destination. The Police Ofjirer. — A suitable olTicer of the command will be detailed Ijy the connnanding officer as police officer, wdio wall have general charge of those parts of the ship occupied by the troops, especially the berths, latrines, and mess-decks. Tie will see that the troop- and mess-decks are sw-ept clean each morning and after each meal. He will accompany the com- manding officer daily on his inspection. Suitable non-connnissioned officers and privates will be de- tailed as his assistants. Minor matters relating to troops or dis- cipline will be reported by police officers to the immediate com- manders of those affected. Such commanders will report any minor defects regarding ventilating, wash-room, or other apparatus to the police officer, who will report the matter to the transport quartermaster. Such reports will not be made direct to any of the ship's officers or crew. Officer in Charge of Mess.—X suitable officer will be placed in charge of the enlisted men at mess ; he will be detailed by the commanding ofiicer hefore embarkation. All orders affecting the men at mess will be given to the transport commissary by the oificer commanding the troops direct, or through the officer in BY WATKH. 33 charge of the mess. The tiiess oliieer, in consultation with the transport cominissary, will draw up a schenio for the service of messes in accordance Avith the facilities of the ship; after approval by the commanding officer, this plan will be published in orders. Such non-commissioned officers and men, as assistants to the cook, bakers, and waiters, as may be necessary, will be detailed on special duty. - Boutine on Board. — The commanding oificcr M'ill cause to be published the list of calls affecting the troops on board. At reveille the Jiien will stand at attention at their bunks, and im- mediately afterward their bedding will be cared for under regu- lations to be prescribed by the police oflicer, and not in viola- tion of the Transport Eegulations. The berth-decks of the men will be cleared each morning of all persons, save those detailed to clean them, between hours provided in Transport Eegulations. The commanding officer of the troops will prescribe the hours for daily exercise or drill. The command will be exercised in such manner as to best utilize the space available. Bathing facilities will be fully utilized under regulations prescribed by the com- manding officer of the troops. Inspection of troops will be held by company. Inspection in underwear should, be held weekly, or oftener if necessary, at which inspection the surgeon should be present. llie Guard. — The detail for the guard will consist of an officer of the da}', one or more officers of the guard if prac- ticable, and such number of non-commissioned officers, trump- eters, and privates as necessary. A separate place will be assigned for the guard. Guard duty 34 TRANSPOKTATION OF THOOl'S AXD MATERIeI Oil =liij)-board will follow the ])iiiKiples laid down in the Manual of Guard Daty, with such modifications as are rendered necessary by environment. In general, the duties of the guard will be to preserve order, protect property, deny access to certain portions of the ship, and to assist in enforcing the regulations governing the troops. Officer of the Day. — The officer of the day is responsible that the troops preserve good order and comply with the regu- lations governing troops on ship-board. He will post sentries to effect this end, and be responsible that sentries are properly posted and instructed; will give particular attention that the troops wean the prescribed uniform, that there is no disorder at the serving of the meals, airing of bedding, bathing, etc., and that they are excluded at all times from forbidden parts of the ship; will see that meals are served to troops at proper times, attend when bedding is aired, take means to prevent introduction or use of intoxicating liquor, and inspect between decks after taps when necessary. Tlie Officer of (lie Guard. — If there are two officers of the guard, one will always be present with it and on the alert. If there is but one, he will leave the senior non-commissioned officer in charge during absolutely necessary absences. The senior offi- cer of the guard will cominand the guard, and assist the officer of the day in the execution of duties required of him, and will be responsible for the posting and instruction of sentinels. He will make frequent inspections, both day and night. Sentinels. — Tlie special orders for sentinels will be prescribed bv tlie officer of the dav under orders oF the commandino: officer. J3V \VA'n:u. '.id It will !)(' till' duty of sentinels to be constantly on the alert whilst on post, and see that the Transport Kegulations are ol)served by the men of the o(fininand. They will arrest soldiers failing to obey their orders, or showing disrospeet to sentinels. Fire. — In case of discovery of fire, the report is made quietly to the ship's Match-ollieoi' and the olTicer of the guard. The commanding olficer will at once offer such assistance to the master and quartermaster as may be needed. Immediately on embarking, stations will be designated where each company Avill form in case the alarm of fire is given. On the alarm of fire, company commanders v/ill form their commands and remain \\ith them quietly awaiting instructions. All details for assisting at the pumps or hose or rendering any other assistance in case of fire or accident will have been made directly after embarkation. These details will have been carefully instructed in their duties and the use of appliances, and will be ])racticed daily in taking their posts. On the alarm of fire, they will take their places without waiting for command. DiscmbarJx-ation. — On nearing port preliminary arrangements will be made for facilitating the prompt discharge of the baggage and impedimenta. A guard will be detailed and funned previous to the arrival at the wharf, to furnish the necessary sentinels to guard the bag- gage and control the men of the command. The commanding iofBcer of the guard should consult with the officer in charge of the wharf as to the location of sentinels and posts of the guard. If the landing-place is already occujned by troops, a staff olfiei'r will meet the cominaud at the wharf. 36 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL The troops will leave the ship b}' company in the inverse order of embarkation, and they will form on the wharf or in its vicinity under their ollicers. The necessary details for wharf guard, handling baggage, police, ammunition, etc., Avill have been made and formed under officers or non-commissioned officers, before the troops leave the ship, in order to be at once available. They will leave the ship with the command, stack arms, and at once report back on ship- board to the officer who will be in charge. The fatigue details, each under an officer or non-commissioned officer, will be the following : One to report to the police officer to clean up those parts of the ship vacated by the troops; One detail to report to the quartermaster of the trans- port to assist in discharging the baggage; One to report to the quartermaster of the troops to assist in unloading the ammunition. The regimental and battalion quartermasters and the regi- mental and company quartermaster-sergeants will, in conjunction with the ship's officers, have charge of the unloading and sorting of the baggage, airnnunition, and impedimenta and of its trans- fer to camp. As the baggage and impedimenta will not be listed on the manifest, it will be the duty of the regimental and conipany quartermaster-sergeants to keep a close watcli over the loading and discharge of the propert}', to guard against miscarriage and losses. Each wagon-load should be provided, if necessary, with a guard en route to camp. No men except the authorized details will be allowed to re- BY WATER. 37 turn to the j^hip, and the guard on ship-board will not leave until all the nien and baggage are ashore and the police of the mess- and berth-decks is completed. When the ship is unable to come to the wharf, the landing will be made by lighters, barges, and small boats. The details of unloading will be similar, except that the fatigue details will remain on board. Great care will be taken to avoid over-crowdingj and the commanding officer will observe in this respect the advice of the official in immediate charge of the discharge of the ship. When there is no wharf, each ship's boat will be manned by men of the crew to row and beach the boat after its release by the launch. AVhen the command cc^n^ists of a force carried in several transports, the disembarkation should be under the supervision of one o'Ticer. It is l)olievcd that the best results will follow if he is made an assistant to the chief quartermaster or the quarter- n aster in charge of the wharf. If no other detail is made, the quartermaster in charge of the wharf will fiSt^ume charge of the disembarkation. He should be assisted by .such officers as may be necessary, and the details of the plan of disembarkation will be communicated by him to the several transports as early as practicable, each being assigned a strip of the beach, or being notified as to its turn for coming to the wharf. The officer superintending the disembarkation, if not at a wharf or regular landing-place, will have a temp'.trary headquarters on the beach, marked by the quartermasters guidon, and he ^594820 38 TUAXSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL should Jiave at lii? disposal tlic means of coininunication with the transports and the various Umding-places. He should have ample assistance in order that his orders may be promptly and intelligently coinmunicated and that proper records of the programme of the disemharkation may be kept and communicated to the commanding general. It is essential that in this, as well as in all other matters con- cerning the movement of troops, qniet and orderly method must prevail in order to procure the best results. If the troops are the first to land on a hostile shore, it will be necessary to effect the landing by way of surprise, and it will invariably be covered by naval vessels, and in most cases be pre- ceded or accompanied by a landing of njarine forces. Once the landing-place is decided upon, it is essential that the movement be carried forward with the utmost dispatch. It 'is not intended Jiero to discuss what shall lie the strategical or tactical features in selecting such a landing-place, but it is desir- able that it be so selected as to afford ready means of effecting a isafe and expeditious landing Avith the means at hand, and if cir- cumstances permit, it should be so selected as to insure the early •possession of a well-protected portion of the coast, acd, if possible, a bay or harbor. Once the landing-place is decided upon and the landing is commenced, it becomes the first duty of the commanding gen- eral to organize the administration of his base and lines of communication. In most foreign services, especially the British, in which all campaigns are conducted on foreign shores, a carefully planned BY WATF.K. 39 j^ohonio is provided lor this sorvice. whicli iiicliulcs .ill tlic staff departments, as well as all arms of tlic comijalaiil imops. With us, liowover. it is usuall}' held in hand bv {\\c commanding gen- eral, who not only commands the base and lino of communica- tions and the advancing- army as well. 1)iit i)er forms oftentimes these dual functions with the same stalT. Tliis paper, however, is only conceniod witli the transport feature of the service, which still is so important a part of the administration of the base and line of communications that it seems necessary to say this mucli. It seems to be conceded tliat it will scarcely be possible for any country with a long line of sea-coast to prevent the landing of a determined and enterprising enemy that holds the command of the sea. As to whetlier sueii a landing, once made, can be defended and developed into a l)ase of operations is a question that will be left to the debate of the battlefield, but it will l)e very unwisely undertaken unless the means for keeping up a How of men and supplies are such as must ultimiately give to the invaders the superiority. Transports engaged in carrying an expeditionary force should lie numbered, carrying the numbers in large figures on both sides of the ship, bow and stern. A special system of signals Avill be provided to enable the troops aboard any vessel to identify themselves. We have no pub- lished regulations on this subject, but the provision would 1)0 made upon the organization of an expeditionary force, and they should. 40 TRAXSPORTATIOK OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL be of such character as to insure a fall understanding, with no chance for mistakes. Troops which are to land ahead of the supplies should be required to carry in their haversacks a sufficient amount of rations to provide against shortage until the supplies can be unloaded. In disembarkation the men and animals naturally take prec- ^edence, and even if the facilities are fully adequate, it is obvious that everything cannot be unloaded at once;* consequently this is one of the times to be recognized as an emergency, and the sol- dier jnust therefore carry his rations for a necessary period along with his ammunition and shelter-tent. The English overcome this difficulty in a measure by sending along with the expedition a special subsistence ship, which be- comes a floating commissary depot and furnishes the subsistence supplies immediately required on landing. It is to be doubted, however, if this method will so entirely meet the case as the method of having each man carry the rations immediately re- quired. With us a certain proportion of subsistence supplies are carried with the company and regimental property, and if the f.icilities for unloading are good, they can be had almost imme- diately; otherwise some waiting is likely to be entailed, when the remedy is a resort to the haversack, which under conditions herein cited should contain not less than three days' rations. BY WATER. 41 IX. TRANSPORTATIOX OF ANIMALS. Arrangement and Construction of Stalls. — The stalls will be so arranged that animals will stand athwartship, and provision will be made so that the heads can bo reached, for purposes of feed- ing and watering, and the rear, for cleaning the stalls. The jmimals should be fed from the floor, and there is no bet- ter or more economical way for watering them than from buck- ets carried by hand. The size of stalls will be 7 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches between centers. The animlal should fit comparatively snug into his stall as to width, but it is desirable that he have free play fore and aft, as this freedom enables him to get his sea legs and keep his position. The regulation stanchions forming the corner posts of the stall are of 3-inch wrought-iron pipes. Malleable iron cleats are secured to the stanchion to support the side boards. The rear stanchions are provided with fittings admitting of the rear string- ers to run in continuous lengths, which are made of 2-inch by 12-inch pine; side boards are 2-inch by 10-inch pine. A space of 14 inches will be left below the stall boards at sides and back. Xo breast bars will be provided, but halter chains with end and center snaps will be provided, so that they may be used long or short. They will be well secured, two for each stall, to the front stiinohion. The deck, after being coated with tar or properly painted, will be sheathed, except at drainage-ways, with 2-inch plank laid on 42 TR.AXSrORTATlOX OF TROOPS AND IMATEPJEL 2-ineh by 4-inch stringers running alhwartship. Six fore-and- aft cleats, 11/4 inches by 3 inches, will be put down in each stall, with an athAvartship cleat of oak, 2 inches by 3 inches, tetwecn stalls. A portion of the passage-way at the heads of animals will be arranged for feeding hay and grain on the floor. Eye-ljolts will be placed overhead, for securing with breast and body slings. Back of stalls will be padded and sides left smooth. Stanchions, when of wood, should be 4 inches by C inches. Special attention nuist be given to providing ventilatViu. This should be accomplished by means of electric blowers. The am.ount required by regulation? is 135 cubic feet per minute per animal. Emljivlcoilon. — The process of embarkation should be carried on as all other work in connection with animals, very quietly and without excitement. When it is possible to use ramps, they should be availed of, as the work can proceed by their use much more rapidly, and quietl}', and without getting on the nerves of the animals. If ramps are impossible, then Hying stalls or slings will be made use of, in which case the floor of the liying stall will be well covered with hay or sawdust to prevent injury to the animals in case they are thrown on their knees. Similar jjrotection should be afforded at the point of contact in using the sling. If ramps are used, the animals should, be started by putting the gentlest ones' in the lead, when they should be kept going in a continuous string, and upon reaching the deck should be led at once to the most remote unoccupied stalls, or, on leaving the ship, to the temporary picket-line. If a stubborn animal refuses the BY WATEK. 43 ramp, he should he led aside, so as not to excite his lu'ighbors, ami if need be, he can be easil}- forced up the ramp by means of draw- ing forward on ropes alhulu'd to the ^or\^"ard end of the ramp and passed back of his haunches. A method frequently resorted, to in discharging animals in the stream or roadstead is to rig a plank through a port and to lead the animal out on this plank, then force liim (mi until he overbalances and is plunged into the sea. This method, when pursued, is eifective, and without danger to the animal if properly carried out. A few of the first animals unloaded may have a line attached to the halter ajid be shown the way to the shore by meanf* of leading from a boat. The others will follow. If Ihi'rc is much surf, the danger is that the animals may become frightened and turn back to sea. In lowering horses into lighters the utmost care is necessary, if there is a swell on, to prevent injury, and tlie tackle must be instantly slackened as the animals' feet touch the lighter. Ca7'e of Animals. — Horses before being embarked should be shod before and behind, if for immediate use on landing, and the Toyage is sliort. They should not be in high condition, and steady work with low diet will put them in good condition for a sea voyage. They should he neither watered nor fed before being put on board. The stable ordeilies will remove the manure as fast as it collects, and render such assistance to horses in trouble as they may require. In case of accident to any of the animals, they will at once notify the proper non-commissioned officer or other pei'- son in charge. 44 I'ltAXSPORTATIOK' OF TKOOl'S AND MATERIEL Tliere should be not less than one caretaker to every ten animals, with proper non-commissioned officers for their super- vision, and veterinaries for care of the sick. For the first day little feed and no hay should be given. The oats ration will then be reduced to 5 pounds and 5 pounds of bran will be fed daily. The hay ration should be reduced. Mules will be fed 5 pounds of oats and 4 pounds of bran. Free use of salt of the Artesian variety should be made. Some slings should be provided, so that in smooth weather v/hen required they can be adjusted so as to give the animal a chance to rest himself by throwing his weight into them. Slings will, however, be found of little practical use, if there is space available where the animal can be given an opportunity to lie down. Watering. — The animals should be watered three times a day-— in the morning before feeding, at noon, and before afternoon stables. Grooming. — Horses should be groomed daily, particular at- tention being paid to hand-rubbing the legs and joints and spong- ing the eyes, nostrils, and dock. Every occasion should be taken to afford the animal an opportunity to change his position and get a little exercise. Care must be taken to keep the deck clean. It is better to remove manure as fast as it accumulates, rather than to wait for a regular hour for stable police. Sich Animals. — A few large stalls should be available for sick animals. In fair weather it Avould be well to supply litter for the sick animals to lie down, rather than to use the sling. In rough weather the animal should be given as free oppor- tunity to use his legs as possible, and he will soon accommodate BY WATER. 45 himself to the motion of the ship. He is a much b.-ttor sailor than the average of liis keepers, and, if free to move witli the ship, will preserve his poise. Unless absolutely necessary, animals should not be used for several days after landing, but they should be given gentle exer- cise, careful grooming, and good care. Major J. C. Byron offers the following suggestions; on car- ing for animals at sea: "The salient points which ought to be considered in the order of their importance are. fresh air, plenty of cool, fre=h water, facilities for cleanliness, exercise space, stalls, slings and appli- ances, feeding, and organization of force. "iSTo padded stalls should ever be placed on this ship, but smooth boards, boarded to within 16 inches from the floor; if more space is left, the animals kick each other; if less, they get their legs under when they fall or lie down and cannot get them out. Ventilation, flow of urine, and ease of cleaning require that they should not be boarded way down. The stalls should be narrow, about ? feet i inches wide, to keep them from. pitch- ing about in rough weather, and as long as the ship's beam will permit. I have measured the sway of animals on the upper decks in heavy weather, and found that from the point of the shoulder to the buttock they would pass over 7 feet G inches, while tlie ordi- nary length of the animal is not above 5 feet. Stalls say 6 f€^et 9 inches are all right, if it is necessary to make them that short." If transportation is to be in quiet waters, harbors or rivers, and for short distances, four or five animals may be placed to- gether in a stall. They should be sufficiently confined to be kept in position athwartship. 46 TKAKSPOKTATION OF TEOOI'S AND MATEKTEL X. HANDLING AND CAKRIACE OF FEEIGHT. The baggage, equipage, stores, rations, animals, etc., in the hands of the troops are handled l)y tlie iroops under supervision of their officers. All ropes, lines, slings and gear are. however, manipulated b}- the ship's crew or stevedores. All other classes of freight, stores, supplies, and baggage are handled and accounted for in the t]'ans])ort service much as the same is done in the merchant marine. The ship's manifest shows all freight, stores, supplies, and baggage carried, except. such as is in the hands of the troops, and feuch company and. regimental impedimenta as has been stored un- der the immediate supervision of regimental and company officers, and such mess-kits, etc., as will be in daily use. The manifests are made up from the check-lists, verified as the freight is sent aboard. To insure a correct tally, each load ■sent to the ship for loading should bo accompanied by a loading ticket, giving the list of the property; this is receipted by the proper official on the wharf, and insures the property being placed on the manifest. The freight, etc., on being discharged from the ship, is again checked against the manifest. Formerly there was great difficulty in securing a proper check of the manifest, both in loading and discharging, which was largely due to the fact that many invoices of stores were necessarily split up in being sent to the wharf for loading, and in some cases an invoice ^\ould go in parts on sev- eral different transports. As the in\oice goes direct to the con« BY WATER. 47 tignee, tliere was no way for (lir tiansport officials lo kiiow whether i;he complete invoice was shipped or not. x\s a result, when but :a portion of the invoice arrived at destination, the property was checked short, and when the remainder arrived, an apparent over- age would be created, and for a time much confusion resulted. These defects are now remedied, and it is believed that the pres- ent losses are vastly less than those of the average commercial lines. The stevedores and lorcha nuen in foreign ports are, as a rule, expert thieves, and it is exceeding difticult to prevent petty thiev- ing. This can be remedied in a measure by furnishing a guard, bnt a far better method has been found to be to furnish each lor- cha with a transfer bill of the property and charge any loss or damage pro rata against the crew. ^lajor Aleshire, who for a long period had charge of tlie water service in the harbor of Manila, states that this method, while taking some time, produced tlie best possible results. The method of stevedoring, checking, and accounting does not differ from that in vogue in the commercial world. It has been found far more stisfactory to hire our own stevedores, rather than to contract for the work at a certain rate per ton. The necessity for providing storage for freight, stores, and supplies, in the immediate vicinity of the landing, should be one of the first things attended to. As in our service the same branch that provides for the transportation also provides the shelter, no reason exists for delay or neglect in this matter. If the landing is to be made on the open beach, paulins and storage tents will be ihe substitutes. 48 TUAXSrORTATlON OF TP.OOPS AXD MATERIEL The elementary princijsle involved in loading and discharg- ing freight and impedimenta from the transport is the sequence in which it is necessary to land the troops and stores on arrival at the point of disembarkation. If the transports are not under convoy, the fastest will naturally convey the troops and stores that should first be landed. If under convoy, then those offering the best facilities for disembarkation and discharge of cargo should carry the troops and stores to be first landed. The disem- barkation is so dependent for successful results upon the proper embarkation that it is essential that the former proceed upon ra- tional lines and entirely with a \iew of facilitating and expediting the latter. It is impossible to lay down general rules that will fit special cases further than to say that the articles first required \^t11 go in last and the others in the inverse order in which they are required; yet the greatest necessity exists that such rules be made so as to remove all questions of doubt and to afford all con- cerned the necessary information to work in full accord. The duties connected with the disembarkation and embarka- tion will devolve upon an officer of the Quartermaster's Depart- ment and will involve the following matters : 1. The supervision of all arrangements for transferring the- troops, animals, provisions, stores, and war materiel from the ship and receiAdng them on shore. 2. The removal from the wharves of all stores, supplies, and materiel not in the hands of troops, and providing storage therefor. 3. Providing for embarkation of sick and discharged men, return of surplus supplies and stores, and troops returning for anv reason. BY WATER. 49 4. As a rule, the same oflicer will have under his charge the provision of the laud transportation required to forward the stores thus received as the troops advance, whether by rail or overland. The local office of the oiricer in charge should be marked so as to bo readil}' distinguished. Size of Packages. — One great defect of handling our stores until recently was in the size and strength of the packages. It was not unusual to find packages in not very strong boxes weighing as much as 500 and COO pounds and even more, and a 400-pound box was an ordinary thing. Kecently, however, the packages of our supply departments have been reduced in weight, and the maximum now allowed is 150 pounds. Several sizes are afforded, all of which meet conditions carefully figured to fit into an escort wagon box and at the same time of proper size to pack conven- iently on mule-back. A package of this size can always be easily handled by two men. The great saving, however, is in the mat- ter of breakage. The large packages before mentioned scarcely ever reached the storehouse with a whole skin, whereas the lighter boxes are rarely broken. On the march to Pekin the packing of the British supplies from India and that of the Japanese was greatly commended. The latter only under extreme circuniKtances permitted their pack- ages to exceed 100 pounds; they were, as a rule, reinforced with rice straw matting, which affords a very light packing material. The British package is covered with a jute casing and the packages seldomi exceed 80 pounds — one-half load for their pack- mules. 50 'rn.vx.si'oiriwi'iON ' or tijoops and :\[atei!Iei, The Iius^^ian, French, and German packages were all of mixed sizes. Many of them, however, showed from their marks that fhey had been procured in the Eastern markets and were not the normal packages for military stores. Marking Packages. — Original packages of stores and sup- plies in our service are always marked for identification. The (commissary stores with the crescent in black; the ordnance with the shell and flame in black ; the engineer stores with the castle in black; medical stores with the caduceus in red; Signal Corps, its device in black; the Quartermaster's Department, its device of wheel and eagle in black. Company, regimental, and other prop- erty is marked with the letter of the company, the number of the regiment, etc. XL EVOLUTION OF THE TRANSPORT SERVICE. From the time of the Civil War up to ISUS the Laiited States had experienced no need for the movement of troops by ocean i-outes, and at the outbreak of the war with Spain in April of that year the War Department waa without a single ocean-going vessel suitable for the transportation of troops and supplies for service over-sea. ^ It becoming at once evident that armies of occupation would have to be dispatched to the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, the Quartermaster's Department was called upon to im- OTiediately take steps to furnish and equip the necessary vessels for that purpose. There were available for the transport service ]i\ WATEK. 51 only the smaller and inferior types of ships; some of them pro- vided willi limited passenger accoiniiKKlat iiiii>. and consisting princiitallv of vessels engaged in eoaslwix' rrciglit iiig. Jn providing the transport fleet for the movement to Cuba <md Porto Kico, the charter of every available steamship of Amer- ican registry on the Gulf and Atlantic coasts was considered, and the majority of them were inspected to ascertain their fitness. Those found most suitable were selected and hurriedly fitted up for the service required. The faults of the transports thus provided were that they were small, over-crowded, poorly ventilated, un- sanitary, and unsatisfactory, especially for the warm climate of the W^'est Indies. The naval victory of May 1st at Manila created a similar ^niiergency on the Pacific for the transportation of troops to the Philippines. Fortunately, numerous trans-Pacific steamers of sufficient capacity were available, which furnished a better basis for the transport fleet in those waters. Temporary provision was made as on the Atlantic to meet the changed requirements from commercial purposes to the necessities of the military service. The work of refitting the vessels of both these fleets was necessarily performed under pressure for time and conditions of particular disadvantage. It was not found practicable to estab- lish in the beginning more than a general policy in refitting, and the fitting up of temporary transport vessels had to be left in a great degree to the judgment of those charged with the work. This resulted in the use of more or less diverse means for the accomplishment of the ends in view. 52 TRANSPOETATIOX OV TROOPS XSD MATERIEL It was clearly developed, however, that the use of chartered vessels, fitted as might be found possible at the immediate time of use, was at best an unsatisfactory method of handling troops, animals, and Government stores. Therefore it was soon decided to purchase the most suitable vessels obtainable on both coasts and reconstruct them into transports. In doing this it was found that the steamship companies were, of course, unwilling, except at very high prices, to dispose of their best vessels, and those offered were principally second-rate ships. ITence, in order to avoid exorbitant prices, the Government was forced to make selection from a rather varied assortment of the older type of foreign-built ships, with the exception of the fleet of one of the large Xew York and London lines, the Atlantic Transport Company. This company, through its American president, tendered practically its entire fleet for sale to the Depai-tment, and eight of its best and fairly modem steamships were purchased. These ships were engaged principally in the transportation of general freight, cattle and dressed meats; the la,rgest vessels were fitted to carry a few first-class passengers. In all, 23 ocean-going ships, 5 coastwise ships, and numer- ous tugs, lighters, barges, dispatch-boats, etc., became the prop- erty of the Government. Under emergency, resort was still had to charter to fill temporary additional needs. At the height of the development the owned and chartered vessels of the trans- port service, including all classes of craft, numbered a total of 125. In addition to these, upwards of 200 small craft were em- ployed in the inter-island service of the Philippines. The work performed by this transport fleet from the out- liY WATER. 53 break of the war to June 30, 1903, exclusive of inter-island traMi(\ consisted briefly as follows : Armies were transported consisting of — 17,460 men to Porto Rico; 65,6l5i men to Cuba; 75,731^ men to the Philippine Islands; 3,000 men to China; With animals, impedimenta, attaches, camp-followers, and stores. The total service furnished comprised the following: 620,787 persons; 73,438 animals; 772,709 ton? of materials; 6,000,000 miscellaneous packages; 5,000,000 pounds of mail matter; And betw^een $30,000,000 and $40,000,000 in currency and coin. This entire work was performed without the loss of a single life chargeable to any act or neglect of the service. Following their acquirement, the owned ships, as rapidly as possible, were completely reconstructed to meet the special re- quirements of the military service as evidenced by the experience gained. This process of reconstruction consisted of stripping the vessels to the bare hulls, leaving in position only the lower decks, watertight bulkheads, and parts of the machinery. The matter of refitting was made the subject of careful study, and the necessary provision was made for the sleeping, messing, and exercising of the men; hospital and isolation wards; lavatory, latrine, and 54 ■!'i;a.\m'()i;t.\tion of ri;ooi's and aia'1'i:j!1KL bathing facilities; troop gaJleys and bakerie?, storerooms, ice- houses, and cold-storage chambers; troop laundries and mess-kit washing facilities, electric plants, ventilating plants, distilBng plants, sanitary, fire, fresh water, and heating systems, and a miititude of other necessar\' fittings for the successful transporfa- tion and maintenance of from 1.500 to 2.-100 human lives for a period of from thirty to sixty days at sea. In refitting these ships, the 'tveen- and orlop-decks were used as l)erthin^-spaces for the troops, and on the best, type of .transport 116 cubic feet of air-space is allowed for each berth, making available space for about 1,800 berths. These berths are of the metal standee pattern, placed in dou- ble and single rows, and in tiers of three high, rigidly fitted in position, yet so arranged as to be portable if required to clear the space for other purijoses. The bottoms are of canvas laced in position, and can be removed and laundered after each trip. Aisles are provided between tiers, along the ship's sides, at ends of com- partments, and at convenient spaces every 18 to 24 feet across the ship. Easy access from these aisles is arranged to companion ladderways in each hatchway. Over the berths are placed racks for life-preservers, and along the sides and ends of each compartment are arranged the gun-racks for storage in place of the troops' arms. At the head of each bunk suitable hooks are fixed, upon which knapsacks and other accouterments are hung. The main deck is principally set aside for messing and lava- tory accommodations, the extreme forward end teing cut off for use of ship's crew. On this deck wash-rooms and lavatories are n\ \\ATi:n. oo provided, ono foiAvard and another aft. 'Vhav lavatories extend the full width of the ship, and conipriM' a total length of 80 feet. Accommodations of this character have l)een found desirable in fhe following proportions : Washbasins, 8 per cent of total persons carried; Bathing facilities (showers). 1 per cent; Watercloset aeconimodations, 5 per cent; Clotlies-washing tnl)s. ahoul 1 ' -j per rent. Entirelv se]iarate toilet pr()vi>i()ii i> iiiaile for the erew. Water, salt and fre-li. is provided, hot nr eold. as desired, in all toilvt-roonis thrnughout the vessel. The troops' mess-rooms occupy three central compartments of the main deck, Avith a total length of 250 feet by 50 feet in width. Folding mess-tables and benches are provided for GOO men at a sitting. When not in use. tliese are folded and slid into racks or slung from o\ ei'lii';iil. 'i'lic -imce thii> clejii'ed is a\ ail- able for drill, exercise, and recreation. Sinks, or long troughs, with running water and heating coils, arc provided along the si'deg of the mess-deck for washing mess-kits and utensils. The galley is equipped with modern devices for economical service of food, and is located between the mess-rooms. This galley is arranged with a serving-window its entire length, from which the troops are served as they file past to mess- rooms. The experience of the department has5 been that this is the most expeditious method of messing and accomplishes the distribution of the food with greatest precision and least confusion. The hospital is placed at the after end of the main deck and is calculated to furnish .accommodations for S'/o per cent of the 56 Ti;ANSl'01?TATI0>f OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL total persons carried. The berths are of the usual type, white enameled, in rows, two tiers high. Diet kitchen, dispensar}', operating-room, surgeon's ofiice, attendants' quarters, separate toilet and lavator}-, and linen-room adjoin and connect with the hospital ward. Two decks ahove the main hospital, and connected with it by stairs, are the isolation ward for contagious cases, and the refractory ward for insane patients. Separate toilets and lavatories are provided, connecting with each of these wards. The midship section of the spar-deci: is reserved for cabin accommodations, dining-saloon, and other similar purposes for officers and their families. The greater portion of the spar-deck is separately cut off, and arranged with reading- and writing-room, and for exercise and recreation space for enlisted men. The promenade-deck is arranged for first-class cabin accom- modations for officers and families, and on this deck is placed the office of the transport quartermaster. The freight-holds, baggage- and mail-rooms, storage-room for ship's commissary and hospital stores, and refrigerating-cham- bers are variously arranged below the lower troop berthing-decks. Owing to the fact that the service furnished by these vessels is largely in the tropics, and on runs averaging sixty days or more, especial attention has been given the subject of refrigeration. It has been found advantageous to provide a number of chambers capable of being simultaneously run at differing temperatures. The plant consists of two 8-ton refrigerating machines. Mechanical ventilation is provided capable of furnishing 100,000 cubic feet of air per minute throughout the living quar- BY WATER. 57 lers of the ship below the promenade-deck, and this fresh air is supplied cold or heated as the season may require. Fresh water is provided in the customary m.anner by storage in double-bottom compartments supplemented by distillation. XTI. AUXILIAKY TRAj^SPOKTS. It is not to be supposed that our existing transport system taxed to its full capacity will be able to meet the requirements for transporting an expeditionary force of large magnitude without ihe supplementary aid of additional vessels procured by charter. Commercial vessels of the class usually available for short-term charter are unsuited, without considerable refitting and alteration, for the carriage of troops and military supplies and stores, or for the successful transport of animals. Inasmuch as the temporary refitting of vessels chartered for ocean transport service is an operation requiring great dis- patch, the alterations and additions will be made, as a rule, at the port from which the movement is scheduled to take place. In order to ell'ect this without delay, it is necessary to have at hand certain information gathered in advance, and regularly kept up to date through a system of reports so arranged as to give accurate data at any time desired. By this means it will be an easy matter to meet the requirements of practically any condition that may arise with a 'degree of exactness, and avoidance of con- fusion not otherwise obtainable, so far as the fleet available for •charter will make it possible. 58 Tfx'AX.-irOKTATiON OF TltOOrS AND .MAT]:i{7F.L 1. ^Maintain on file dock-plans and an accurate description of every vesi^el available for charter for transport service, show- ing also name of owner and rate at which charter would be made and the alterations required to temporarily fit her for military transport service — showing l)riefly the requirements for infantry and freight, cavalry or artillery and freight, freight exclusively, and animals exclusively. 2. In each instance indicate the number of each class of mechanics required to do the temporal-}' reiitting in. say, five to twenty days' time, counting twenty-four hours, with three daily shifts of eight hours each. 3. Tn indicating the changes to be made, a precise descrip- tion should be given not only of the interior structural modifica- tions within the vessel, but the mechanical or other appliances to be installed should be plainly described and illustrated. These should be simple and of readiiv dlitaiiialile character, and men- tion should be made of methods by which appliances may be im» provised from means at hand in case necessity should arise for makeshift measures. There sliould also be shown such means as should be provided for loading and unloading, additional boatsj launches, barges, etc. 4. A list should be made of the various ports from which expeditions M^ould be likely to set forth, also a full description of the facilities to be found available for dispatching an expedition without unduly interfering with the current traffic, and the names of firms and individual.- at each Iroin wlioiii rcrpiired material and la.bor could be quickly ol)tained in case of emergency, and in WATKH. 5*.) showinir tlie ruling jiriri^? for tlie different ela.-sis of material and labor likely to bo required. By the advance provision and maintenance of this informa- tion, it .would be pos>il)le to charter ship> at available point?, place them in the hands of a suital)le olYicial of good judgment in such matters, atVord all the information relating to the exist- ing statu? and. necesgary change? in a certain ship for whatever class of service required, put aboard of her wherever found the mechanics and material? in specific number and quantity as pre- viously calculated by a competent expert, immediately hegln the work of refitting wliile en ronlr to designated port of embarka- tion, and complete the required changes with a degree of accu- racy, economy, and rapidity by no other means obtainable ; all in conformity to a general plan of action shown by experience to be the best. As an illustration of the possibilities in this connection in a small way. it may be stated that in .\i)ril. 1002. just ])ri'vi(iu> to the evacuation of Cuba bv the American forces, it became nec- essary to remove within a limited time, owing to quarantine con- ditions, a large number of animals and attendant? from the island. Not a single ship was immediately available in Cuban waters for the service. Those offered in response to informal invitation for proposals were not fitted for the .-pecial service required, and most of them were, furthermore, at ports in Mexico, South .Vmcr- ica. Central America, and the Gulf State?, or they were on Um high seas to or from such ports. 60 TUANSPORTATIOX OF TKOOi'S AKD MATERIEL A definite plan of refitting was established and the neces- sary orders were given that resulted in the inauguration of the alterations along this general plan while the vessels were still ait the various ports where engaged. The work was prosecuted while -at sea en route to points of embarkation and between points of embarkation. As a result, without confusion, and without the loss or injury of a single animal or man, contracts were made, vessels fitted and assembled, and 3,000 animals and 800 attend- ants were collected from eleven different points in Cuba, and dis- tributed to twelve different points in the United States dur- ing the twenty-seven-day period from April 4th to April 30th. Every vessel was provided with required accommodations for at- tendants and with facilities for feeding and watering, with neces- sary stalls and ample ventilation for the animals carried. These were furnished almost entirely by improvising the means from the material found at hand in foreign ports. The average cost of this shipment was the lowest ever made by the Department be- tween the points concerned. In calculating the number of troops that a ship will carry, a rough estimate can be had by dividing the gross tonnage by 4V2. This will permit the cai-riage of ordinary impedimenta. Animals will require from 7I/2 to 10 tons each. For a large comlmand of all arms, carrying animals and trains in full com- plements, 9 or 10 tons per man should be allowed. BY WATER. 61 XIII. PRELIMIXAKY KNOWLEDGE. When a state of war exists, all that is said in this paper on the subject of transport presupposes that naval action has antici- pated the movement of troops by water, and that the Navy has gained control of the sea, and is in a position to protect the trans- port fleets from the hostile demonstrations of the enemy. Whilst for short distances over-sea consecutive voyages may be relied upon, it is to be regarded as a principle only to be de- parted from under special circumstances that the first outward expedition should be complete, both in number of troops and munitions of war, sufficient to establish and defend a base, if not to undertake vigorous aggressive action ; otherwise the landing of an insufficient force on an enemy's coast may subject it to being overwhelmed before reinforcements can arrive. In contemplating the plan to be pursued in prosecuting a movement across the seas, the Army should be possessed of knowl- edge upon the following points through the Division of Military Information : , 1. As full a knowledge as possible of the theater of opera- tions, including its topography, its comnmnications, and facilities for transport. 3. An estimate of the strength and composition of the force it will be possible for the enemy to oppose to the disembarkation or which he can place across the prospective line of advance. 3, The resources of the district whose invasion is con- templated, and all local information, including information as 62 'ji;.\N''^i'Ojn ATiox oi' xnoors wu .mati;i;iel to canijj-j^itotf, climate, facilities for landing troops, defensive positions, etc. The Navy should he able to furnish necessary information upon the following points : 1. Tlu' naval force necessary to protect the convoy, and wlicthci- the connection ^^^ith the home ports can he maintained. 2. The proper point to be selected for disembarkation; the difficulties to be encountered and the advantages possessed; the character of the anchorage, tides, currents, etc. 3. The ports on the coast, their resources, facilities for en- trance, their dimensions, depth of water, and availability for protection. 4. The defenses of the enemy's coasts and the practicabil- ity of co-operation with the Army in attacking them. XIV, CONVOYS. Whether or not the transport will be placed under convoy of warships will be for the War Department to decide after con- sultation with the Navy Department. It ^vill l)e for the latter Department to render an opinion as to whether the seas are safe from the depredations of the enemy, and whether or not war- vessel? are available for convoy service. Once the question of convoy has been decided, absolute com- pliance with the orders and signals given by the officer in com- mand of the convoy will be enforced. BY WATEIi. 63 Should the transport become separated Irdiii the i-onvnv, everv effort will be made to regain it or reach the destination or ren- dezvou.< and to avoid capture by the enemy. Should the olVicer in command of the convoy have given orders covering the case of a vessel becoming separated from the convoy, those orders will he rigidly complied with. ^\'ritten orders, giving tlie general instructions for and sail- ing formation of the ships under convoy, and any signals that may be prescribed or agreed upon, will be given by the officer in command of the co7ivoy to the transport quartermaster, who will see that the master is furiiislied witli a copy thereof. XV. coMM I-: N'^rs. Our present transport system, counting active and inactive vessels; is capable of carrying 15.000 men, baggage, and camp equipage, with supplies for two months; not counting, however, on carrying any animals either for cavalry or transport, or for artillery. For the carriage of an army corps consisting of 36,570 men, together with the necessary animals, guns, and all classes of impedimenta, thoro would be re'|iiired not loss tluiii 320,00(» tons of shi]»piiig. and this would not iiic-lmlc any su])plics othei* than what will be required for immediate use. For the transport of an army of 100,000 men, fully equipped for field service, with a proper proportion of cav- alry, artillery, field transport, engineers, signal corps, hospital equipment, siege guns, etc., and with supplies sufficient to last 64 tr.ax.spoi.tatio.n of troops and materiel for a period of sixty days, a fleet of something mOre "than 1,000,000 tons would be required. In other words, were the combined fleets of the International Mercantile Marine, including as it does nearly all the great trans-Atlantic shipping companies, offered to the Government for the purpose of carrying to foreign shores an army of 100,000 men, it would fall short by some thousands of tons of accomplishing th6 purpose. The total American tonnage on the Pacific coast, exclusive of our transports, is 303,739. The total American tonnage on the Atlantic coast is 498,133. It can be figured that on the Pacific we can put to sea with an army of about -10,000 men, provided we can make use of all the American bottoms there afloat. On the Atlantic coast we could put to sea with an army of about 60,000 men. It is not intended to present here a plea for increasing our mercantile marine. Xor is it thought necessary to recount the advantages such an increase would be in enlarging our commerce, strengthening our J^avy, and giving value to our Army. But it is tliought proper to point out the limitation to our arms under present conditions. These conditions limit our aggressive war -making power on land across the sea to the following caseS; assuming that we first obtain control of the sea: 1. To those nations against which we can form an alliance and thereby procure a landing on friendly territory within strik- ing distance. B\ ^VATER. 65 2. To those nations that have weak colonies which may be overcome by the forces we can carry in a single expedition and augment more rapidly than can the enemy. 3. Those nations that are so weak tliat no force can be con- centrated greater tlian that curried by the fiv^i f'\i)edition be- fore it is augmented. The astounding developments of 1898 at once projected this country into the arena of world politics through the operation of forces, the origin of which no one foresaw, and the outcome of which no one can now foretell. Questions of the national defense have assumed an aspect hitherto undreamed of. The protection of our own coasts has hitherto been our most vital concern, involving as it would pro- vision against attacks by powers whose forces would likely be brought from points beyond the sea, witli practically every ques- tion of transport for them to solve, and with our position pecu- liarly happy from every standpoint of defense. To-day we have Porto Eico, a measure of interest in Cuba, the Panama Canal Zone, Hawaii, Guam, and other small islands of the Pacific, and in addition to these the complex problem of the Philippines; and finally, that national ])olicy we call the Mon- roe Doctrine, which is alike the despair of the commercial inter- ests and the problem of the di|)lonial.< of tlie great powers of the world. With interests so remote, and so widely scattered, the ques- tion has become one involving extensive operations of an offen- isive character in case of attack by any foreign power. Troops, supplies, and munitions of war must now be conveyed by us to (36 tuanspoim'atiois' of Ti.oors a^d :\[AJ'En]EL distant points of conflict, and the vast extent of the provision to be made is a point upon which we well may ponder. Xo effort has been made in this paper to indicate any method of enlarg- ing the means we now possess. Imt merely how to make good use of what will come to our hand. Added means would increase our power and broaden our possibilities. In the regulation and government of nations certain func- tions are natural and primary. The first of these is the war power, and without it no nation can have an independent exist- ence. Once the war power of the nation is limited, the influence "upon the civilization of the world is correspondmgly reduced. The ceaseless efforts of nations to attain supremacy in com- merce, wealth, and power liend every energ}^ to develop and strengthen the resources from which tho«e elements are derived. Only by the fullest development of those resources can be de- fended our common interests against tlie commercial aggressions of the nations of the world. When or under what circumstances friendly commercial rivalry will be converted into armed hostil- ity, who shall say ? Where or with what j^ower our next conflict is likely to arise is not for us to guess. May we not venture the hope that care- ful foresight and a constant state of increasing preparedness may be the price of peace? Transportation of Troops and iMateriel by Rail. I. HISTORY OF MILITAHY USE OF RAILWAYS. The first use of railways for military purposes was had in the Crimean War. After a period of great suiTering for the troops engaged in the siege of Sehastopol, owing to the difliculty of communicat- ing with the base at Balaklava, a single-track railroad was finally constructed. The railroad, however, never had sufficient capacity to carry the supplies required by the army engaged in the siege, and it was very evident that any shifting of the scene of oper- ation? would render the railway entirely useless. It was not until after the demonstration afforded by the Civil War that the power of railroads as an auxiliary means of transportatioi for troojis and sii])]>lios \\a> ])i-on()inieod by mil- itary men to b(^ cirrciivr. As:ain. in 1llo^^al■ IkIwcch Austria and I'riissia. ilic Franco- Prussian ^\'ar and tho Kusso-'J'urkisii War tlicy were used to the limit of tlieir capacity. The most extensive use made, however, of railroads for the supply of armies was during the Civil War. when the Union .irniif'S. both in the Knst and West, as well as the ("onfederatc 67 68 TRANSPOETATIOX OF TLOOPS AND MATERJEL armies, made every possible use of this means of transport and directed the best, efforts of their most energetic commanders at raiding and destrojdng this means of the enemy's communication. The operations of the great Siljorian llailway in the pres- ent war are exploited daily in the press and constitute a topic of daily discussion. It is interesting to note in passing that the first intimation of any military use to be made of railroads, so far as known, was made in an official report rendered in August,. 183fi, by General E. P. Gaines, of the United State Arm}', six years after the first railroad in the United States was put in operation, and at a time when there were scarce a thousand miles of road built. General Gaines in his report proposes that the Government construct railroads from a central point in our domain for the rapid transport of men and munitions of war to such points as might be threatened by an invading army. In his argument he offers the following: *' Against the loss of a fleet at sea, or the loss of several fleets in succession, added to the loss of our foreign commerce whilst threatened by victorious foreign fleets and armies arrayed against us from without, having our railroads held ready for action from within, we should find perfect security and retain the sure ele- ments of prosperity throughout our national domain; Whereas, if we give up the proposed system of railroads, the loss of our fleets would, in eflfect, be nothing less than the loss of our national existence." The most powerful ineans of auxiliary transport that will be available for military operations within our boundaries are BY JtAIL. 69 the railways of our country. Their valuf is so great that one turns instantly to them upon any order for mobilization. No other means aside from water routes are thought of. For- tunateh^ the system of railroads in our own country forms such a network that it is a comparatively easy matter to elTect a con- centration at almost any desired point by their use. The vast advantage that rail transport possesses over wheeled vehicles can be no more strongly emphasized than in quoting the following statistics : "In 1860 only 36,000,000 pounds of freight were carried by caravan westward over the old Santa Fe Trail, but it required over 11,000 men, 800 horses, nearly 7,000 wagons, 7,000 mules, and 68,000 oxen to do the work. "The freight charges amounted to $5,400,000. "To-day a single freight train, with consolidation engine and a crew of 7 men, takes 50 loads, more than 3,000,000 pounds of freight, over this same old Santa Fe Trail, from the river to the mountain. "Eunning sixty minutes apart, twelve hours will see all the freight moved over Eaton Pass that the army of freighters in 1860 took twelve months to carry." The manner of using railroads for an expeditionary force is materially different from the manner of usipg ocean-going ves- sels, which are brought more or less under the complete control of Government authority, either by purchase or charter. And again it differs from tlie land transport, as the latter is usually also subject completely to military control. 70 TRAXSPORTATlOy OF TROOPS AND ^tlATERIEL Tho railroads of the country will not like]}", however, in time of stress be placi'd under military control, though during thd^ Civil War^ under the Act of January 31, 1802, the President was authorized to take military possession of all railroads in the United States. A general order was issued by the War Depart- ment technically assuming this military possession, thereby reu'* daring the railroads of the country subject to direct military au- thority. I'he railway service, ho^vever, was performed so zeal- ously and satisfactorily by the railroads of the loyal States that it was never necessary actually to exercise this military authority; over any road not within the limits of an insurgent State. During the early part of the Civil War tlie railway servicd- for the Army, though promptly performed, suffered from the com- plaints and rivalry of the various transportation companies, and especially for the want of a fixed and uniform basis of compen- sation. This ^^'as later corrected by pul^lication of an order by the Secretary of "War pi'oviding a uniform basis of settlement. This was not wholly satisfactor}-, however, and in the spring of 1862 a convention of managers was called and a uniform tariff' for military service Avas adopted and accepted by all but two of the roads operating in the loyal States. As the Army advanced southward the Quartermaster's De- partment took possession of and repaired railways abandoned by their owners and managers, furnished equipment for them andi operated them in some instances until the close of the war. iSTearly all of the then existing roads in Northern Virginiai were operated in this way. In the West the roads leading to the theater of operations were taken possession ol', repaired, equipped' and operated in the >aiiie way. !n a t'>'\v >U(li instances, nota- bly the Baltimore v^- Ohio, Louisville c^v: Xashville, and ^lissonri .Kailroad. the roads made thcif ()\\ ii rcpaii's. kept up their operations, and were paid for their services l)y the Department. All the Continental powers of the first class either own or control the railroads of the country, and have it in their power to assume entire control for military purposes on the outbreak of war, whether within the field of operations or not. In (ireat Britain the railroads are in the hands of private companies; pro- vision is made by law, however, that jiives the military a quasi control of the railroad systems of the JCin])ire in time of war. There can be no doubt of tlie desirability of the Govenimeiit having a hand in the ]naintenance and operation of railroads in war times. ^A'hilst no provision of law exists for such action on the part of our Govenmient, yet the wai' ])ower presumes the authority to assume charge of I'aili'oads witliin the theater of war or adjacent thereto, as far as may be necessary for military purposes. 11. OEGANJZATTON AXD OPERATION OF IJAir.KOAPS. In order to efl'ect a proper division of duties and to provide a method of management for railroads, the folloAving classifica- tion of the principal duties is made : 1. The physical care of the road and pro]ierty e«m- nee ted therewith ; 2. The operation of the road, which includes all func- tions concerned in the liandling of train- and maintenance of equipment; 72 TRAXSPORTATTOM OF TROOI'S AND MATERIEL 3. The commercial feature of getting business and making rates; 4. Tlie collection of revenue, bookkeeping, and aud- iting; 5. The custody and disbursement of revenue. The general officers who care for these functions of the road constitute the staff of the president or general manager, and they are usually — 1. The chief engineer; 2. The general superintendent; 3. The traffic manager; 4. The comptroller; 5. The treasurer. There are in addition to these functions other necessary du- ties, such as those of the legal department, purchase of supplies, hospital service, etc., which do not, however, concern the special subject discussed in these pages. In order that movements may take place expeditiously and harmoniously, it is necessary that a complete understanding be had between the railroad authorities and the military. In order that this result can be attained, it is essential that the mil- itary authorities charged with arrangmg the transportation know the powers and the limitations of the railroad, including all its features, Iwtli physical and orgaJiic. On the other hand, it is equal- ly important that iht railroad officials fully understand the require- ments and needs of the military service and comprehend the means bv which tlicv are to be met. IJY KAIL. 73 Id all matters pertaining to the operation of railroads those skilled in such operations should have full authority, and under no circumstances should the military undertake to interfere un- less the circumstances are such as to demand that the military take charge of the road and its operation, and the law provides for such action; in which case none but skilled operatives should be made use of in the service. In no service of any character is it necessary to pay such close attention to details as in the operation of railways — a mis- placed switch, a forgotten signal, a mistake in color, a figure concealed in a put! of smoke, may be the precursor of dis- aster. Xone know this so well as the railway operatives them- selves. When it is said that the operation of the road must be left to those skilled in its methods, it is not to be understood that the military otficer in charge of movements shall have nothing to say as to provisions to be made so far as relates to troops, im- '^edimenta, and stores concerned. In fact, in complicated move- ments it is wholly impossible to effect a smooth dispatch of the business without the most complete understanding between the operating department of the road and the officer charged with the movement. It is not only necessary that all the small details be under- stood on both sides, but also that all of the minor provisions for entraining and detraining, loading and unloading, shall have been understood and provided for in advance; and not only is it iuecessary that those in charge have a complete understanding, but all subordinates must be equally well informed so far as their duties extend. 74 TRAXSPOUTATJOX OF TKOOPS AND MaTFRTEL Where the line of road is a single line and the necessity exists to keep it continuously open, extra care must be taken that a complete understanding in ail respects exists; otherv/ise blockades of a serious character are sure to occiir, which will result at least in delay, if not in disaster. The causes of such blockades are many. ■The primary ones are to be noted in an ill-advised dispatch of large quantities of stores, materiel, and supplies of all sorts before a sufficient means has been provided for disposing of them and placing them under cover, and the neglect to bear in mind the necessity for unloading and withdrawing empties as well as for- warding loaded trains. Great care should be taken in estimating the supplies re- quired for a force of troops and a correct relation should be maintained not only between the number of troops and the amount of supplies, but also with due regard to the oppor- tunities for rene^ving supplies. The disposition is rather to overestimate than to underestimate the needs of a command which results in overstraining the transportation facilities in taking care of an unnecessary accumulation of stores. lu addition, such accumulations result in deterioration of the surplus stores, and make it necessary to subsequently reship and store again a large part of such supplies. Whilst we are all more or less familiar with shortcomings of this character at the beginning of war, it is unfair to blame the feupply departments for the evil. They simply furnish the article's in such quantities as directed, and usually in response to urgent H\ I.'AIL. 4.") demands from the front. Agam, wlieii we admit our o\\n sliort- comings in this respect, it is not to be supposed that, we alone have been anilty in this particular. There ha.^^ never been a mili- tary campaign in which there ha.s not bei-n an aceunuilation of more or less surplus stores, or some shortage of others, and without exception ihere has exish'd the same sort of blockade of railway lines wlienever they have been made use of. This was true of the campaign between Prussia and Austria in l.SlKi, when we read in an official report that only very limited means were avail- able for the removal from the i-ailroad station of the stores in- tended for the arm}-, resulting in blockades at every station alo)ig the line; yet for twejity-one consecutive days the roads carried daily an average of between 9,000 and lO.Ono men and more than 3,000 animals, until the Prussian Army nf nearly 200,000 men had been assembled. During this jirn'od, how- ever, civil business was practically at a standstill, as it had been during tlie preceding fortnight, whilst the reserve troops were being brought forward to their regiments. Again in 1870 similar congested conditions arc complained of by both the French and the Prussians, although the latter for ^ight consecutive days transported over nine railway routes an average of 55,000 men per day, or a little more than 6,000 m(*n over each route. The distances were an average of twelve to iifteen hours' run. The concentration of the army of 440,000* men was completed between July lOtli and August 3d, including the time allowed for the reserves to reach their regiments. The movement of French materiel and stores bv rail on this 76 TRAXSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL occasion was perhaps the most unfortunate episode of its class recorded. There were not only forwarded great masses of in- l^xplicahly mixed materiel, l)ut supplies that had no relation to one another. Trains bound for one part of the frontier carried the rations ifor the men. Trains for another destination carried the men ■themselves. Ammunition became separated from the guns for Avhich intended, and in many instances valuable mainitions were lost sight of until the close of the war. The Germans, in spite of their experience of only four year» previous in the Avar with Austria, in the beginning encountered much difficulty in advancing the supplies to the men. This was due to the method of furnishing supplies to the German Army. The contractors at this early period, as a rule, made their con- tracts for delivery to the Army, and made separately their own , $)rivate agreements with the railway companies for transporta- jtion and delivery. As a result, stores, supplies, and munitions of war poured in from all directions, and it was not possible to free the cars and. forward the stores with the means at hand. As' a result, the raihvays became congested and serious loss of time was experienced in the movement of trains. In the Russo-Turkish War a repetition of these scenes occurred. In the early days of August, 1877, forty loaded trains blocked the single line of road on the Eoman-Bucharest line at Bucharest for days, and the effect of it was felt for hundreds of miles, and crippled the Army for weeks. BY HAIL. 77 The customary iiitthod of procedure with us under circum- stances related above is to find fault with the transportation companies. As a matter of fact, the true explanation is that no com- plete understanding has been had between the railway people and the militai'y ollicers in charge of movements, no adequate provis- ion having been made for receiving, storing, and forwarding the supplies. As a rule, the necessity for making full provision for these features is not fully appreciated until the situation lic- comes forced. TIL FORWAEDIXG AND TERMINAL STATIONS. Forwarding Stulion. — The forwarding station should l)o pro- vided with spurs, side-tracks, and switches, to permit of setting in the cars to be loaded, also for receiving cars that are coming in loaded with supplies, stores, etc. T"'he extent to which such special trackage will be provided will depend upon both the vol- ume and character of traffic to be carried forward; whether con- sisting chiefly of freight, passengers, or animals. The provisions for extra trackage, platfiorms, ramps, chutes, and storage should be sufficient to keep the business moving freely without congestion. The station should be so arranged that each class of stores can bo cared for independently without the necf^ssity of mixing supplies. An adequate force of clerks, foremen, laborers, and othrr em- ployees should be employed to move the traffic without confusion. Terminal Station. — The terminal station must be similarly provided with the necessary yard trackage to accommodate in- 78 TRAXSPORTAllOX OF TROOPS AXD MATERIEL coming loaded cars until they can be unloaded, and the empties until they can be dispatched. The terminal station will always be provided with suitable platforms, ramps, and other devices for un- loading. This station will be as near the troops as possible, and as the army pushes forward or changes its position, the terminal station will also be changed, and a new one established at a more convenient location on the same line of railroad; or, as will often happen, the line of supply may be switched to another railroad. It may be necessary even to build a new line or extend an old one to completely meet the conditions. Yards, Spurs, Suitches, aitd Sidmgs.— It is necessary that l»otli the forwarding and terminal stations be so equipped with additional yards, spurs, switches, and sidings as will accommodate the traffic without blocking the way at the time of dispatch or again at the terminal station. The general rule for accomjilishiiii:- this ]iur])ose is to keep the traffic on any one track ah^ays moving in the same direction. In other words, lines of traffic should never be permitted to cross or reverse ^vithin the yards. Trains arriving at a detraining sta- tion should leave by continuing by the same track, to be with- drawn after clearing the yard. Separate points for detraining troops, unloading baggage and impedimenta, and supplies and munitions of Avar should be provided, all so located as not to interfere with one another. All the supply • depots for various departments should be located adjacent to the station for unloading stores and supplies. \:\ i;ai I . 7'.> IV. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT. In calling for equipment for any movement the various •classes of equipment usually required for military purposes will ■be found to consist briefly as follows : 1. Passenger Cars. — (a) Day Coaches — Ordinarily for day travel only; full ■seating capacity, from (dO to ')5 persons. Seating capacity for 40 men, allowing 3 to every two seats. Except for very short dis- tances, to be provided with sj)ecial water supply. (6) Standard Sleepers. — For oflicers and sick. Contain from 12 to 10 sections, with drawing-room and state-room, each containing 2 double berths, accommodating ordinarily from 28 ■to 36 persons. (c) Tourist Sleepers. — Ordinarily furnished for night trav- el of enlisted men. Differ from standard sleeper mainly in that furnishings and upholstery are not so elaborate. 2. Freight Cars. — (a) Baggage — For free transportation of 150 pounds of baggage for each person carried ; to carry travel rations not dis- tributed to enlisted men. and to provide for messing en route. To be furnished open end where so required. Average baggage capacity, 40,000 to GO.OOO pounds. (b) Boa;.— Average capacity, 40,000 to 60.000 pounds. For transportation of impedimenta, general supplies, etc., liable to damage by exposure, or subject to loss by theft. 80 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL (c) Refrigerator. — Average capacity, 30,000 pounds. For carriage of meats and perishable supplies. (d) Flat and Gondola Cars. — For movement of heavy or bulky freight not liable to injury by weather and incapable of be- ing loaded on box cars, wagons, ambulances, guns, caissons, etc. Capacity, 40,000 to G0,000 pounds. 3. Stock Cars.— (a) Ordinari]. — Slatted, without stalls. Accommodating 16 to 20 animals. Fitted for feeding hay, but not grain. Animals must be unloaded every twenty-four hours for rest, feed, and water. (&) Palace. — Are fitted with stalls. Accommodations usu- ally for from 16 to 2-1 animals and for man in charge. Stock can be fed and watered en route without unloading. Extra charges are made for these cars in addition to freight. Track Capacity for Cars. — Tn order to afford a basis for cal- culating trackage required in terminal and forwarding station yards, etc., the following table of lengths of standard cars will be useful: Focomotive and tender, 68 feet: Day coach, 6-5 to 75 feet ; Standard sleeper, 65 to 75 feet; Tourist sleeper, 65 to 75 feet; Baggage car, 65 to 70 feet; Box car, 31 to 36 feet; Furniture and vehicle car, 50 feet; Refrigerator car, 40 feet; Flat car, 36 feet; special, GO feet; \i\ IIAIL. 81 Gondola ear, 30 to 38 tVet. Stock ^ar, ordinary. 30 to 3-1: feet; e-apaiity. 1(5 to 'M head ; Stock car, i)iilace, 3G to 40 feet; cajweity. Ki to "^O head; special, 50 feet. Pdssengcr Ef/iilpmait Tiequired for J ,000 Ojf'iccrs and Men. (a) Sleeping-ear equipiuGnt: 42 otiicers, 1 standard sleeper 75 feet long. 958 men, 24 tourist sleepers 1748 fc«t long. Total 1823 feet long. Note. — This allowance includes 1 foot additional for each sleeper for couplings, I'tc. (h) Day-coach e«|uipniont: 22 cars, 40 men each KilO feet. It is to he understood that t'le asscnihliug of the Army and its concentration, preliminary to an active campaign, and the sup- ply of such an army during the campaign, are two distinct opera- tions. In the concentration of the troops it is important that all the energy of the service he given to accomplishing it in the sh<n-t- est possible space of time, and with the least degree of hardship. The second object, that of supplying the Army, should he so pro- vided for that a continual stream of trallic is kept moving forward, carrying stores, supplies, and munition^ of war and taking to the rear the sick and wounded, and surplus and l)rok('n materiel. Only the closest attention to all the details will eU'ect tiiis desired re- sult so as to avoid delay and concestion of trattic. 82 Ti;A>;arui;TATio^' or iTiOOis and .matikikl PEOMDIXG FOE THE MOVEMENT. In any movoinenls of troops, whether in large numbers, few, or as individuals, the basis for furnishing the transportation is the order pro\dding for it. Acting under this order, the quar- terniaster enters into agreements with the railroads, inviting them to offer bids for the movement, giving such particulars as to num-" bers, pounds of impedimenta, animals, wagons, etc., as may be necessary to enable the transportation company to form a proper judgment as to the extent of the service required. When time is limited, when no competition is to be had, and when single individuals or small numbers are to be transported the public tariffs of the roads may be used. In any case the transportation request issued by the quartermaster will be ex- changed for the necessary tickets covering the route. Individuals and small parties will travel on the regular trains. Special coaches may be furnished for the trip if justified by the numlier to be transported. If the body of troops is larger than one company of infantry at war strength, with camp equipage and impedimenta, a special train will usually be required. As far as practicable, the breaking of military units should be avoided, but as the size of the trains will necessarily be left to the railroad officials, it will not always be possible to prevent it and in case units are broken, it is essential that the command- ing officers know in advance how their troops are to be carried BY KAIL. 83 ill order that arraiigomeiits can bi- made tor provisioning and oarin.g lor the troops in each section. 'J'hc Quartermaster's Department ha.- never made annual con- tracts M'ith raih'oad companies for tlie transportation of either troops or suppUes, but, as a rule, uses the taiiil' rates for individuals and for mo^ements of small bodies. By the aimual contract the Government would be limited to a single road bitwecn points, and A\Guld be excluded from imiliiig comixtitioji for the business in moving large bodies of troops. It is believed that the present method is in the end the less cunnbrous and more economical. Within the last year contracts for the Jiiovement of large bodies of troops have been made for as low as 7-10 of a cent })('r mile. In addition, in war times especially, it is not considered ad- vantageous for the department to limit its business to a single line between terminal points, as it may frequently happen that all available lines will be required to satisfactorily effect the traffic. Baggage. — A certain j)ortion of the ])ersonal baggage of men and officers is carried free by the railroads. This free liaggage allowance, however, does not extend to camp enuipinent and im- pedimenta or Government stores. The usual method, and the most expeditious one, is to load the baggage into special baggage or freight cars, and i)lac(' it under charge of responsible privates or non-commissioned oillcers. The baggage thus carried is not listed on the bill of lading, but shown in bulk; nor is it checked by the railroad officials, and the responsibility for its safety rests with the men in charge. Freight. — Freight, as distinguished from impedimenta in the liands of tlie troops, includes all supplies, stores, and materiel not 84 TRAXSPOIiJ'ATIOX OF TROOPS AND >IATEU1EL jet in the li.-uuls of the troo[>?;, Imt intended for the depots at des- tinatio]]. Sueli propert}' is usually shipped independently of the troop trains and when a matter of snffieient consequence, and the time is limited, the freight should be traced by wire, so that its locality may be constantly known. In some foreign services im- 13ortant supply trains are accompanied l)y supercargoes, whose duty it is to carry all l)ills of lading and invoices and who are charged with instructions as to the disposition of the cargo. In war times it is essential that a paper giving the content* of each car be secured to \he door; it is not suihcient to send a list of car numl)ers, or to rely upon the bill ol lading. The lat- ter may be delayed and the former will almost certainly not be at hand ^\hen needed. If the list is attached to the door, no mistake can he made. In addition, the duplicate of the loading ticket for each car should be placed inside the door — ^this gives a com- plete history of the car, and even in the absence of the bill of lad- ing the car can be safely and intelligently unloaded and the con- tents disposed of and checked against the bill of lading later. This can only be attained, however, by furnishing the necessary instruc- tions to the consignor in advance. Animals. — As a rule, if the shipment of animals is large, the only equipment will be tlie ordinary stock cars; these permit of the animals heing fed hay, hut as a rule, not grain, nor is there ordinarily provision for watering. They ^vill he unloaded once in every twentA'-four hours to he watered and fed. If palace or improved cars are furnished, the animals need not be un- loaded, except on long journeys, as they can he watered and fed without removal. In case the animals are to he unloaded for rest and water, the transportation companies should state HY KAIL. 85 in athanct' at what points siic-h stops will ho made, in order that the quarterniaster of the troops can niakf .siu-li special arrangements as may be deemed necessary. VI. DETAILS OF AKRANGIiNTG FOE MOVEMENT. CalUiig for Equipiueat. — As soon as the (|nartci-niaster re- ceives the orders directintr the furnishino- of the neeessary trans- portation to convey the troops and impedimenta, lie will at once call upon the commanding officer to .furnish a retui-n showing the strength and composition of the command, together with the amonni: of property to be shi])ped and lists thereof including im- pedimenta, camp ecjuipage, animals, vehicles, if any, and upon these figures will be based his estimate of the number and kind of cars to be furnished b ythe railroad. If the command is to take the field, the orders of the commanding officer should specify with particularity the amount of equipment to he taken on the expe- dition — €. g., tlie numher and kind of tents, means of cooking, transportation and other ca]np equipage, tools, etc. This order should be specific as to Ihe limitations of baggage and equip- ment in the field, and shoidd limit )iot only the luinihci' of pounds, but also the character of e(piipmei)t. The quartermastiM' will then call upon the railroads to fur- nish the nec-essary e(|uipnient at a stated time and designated point. In estimating for the ])assenger coaches, he should allow two double seats for three men. In estimating for tourist sleep- <'rs, he should estimate two douhle herths for thi'ee men. And for each oflficcr one douhle herth in stnudai'd sleeper. 86 TRAXSPORTATIOX OF TROOPS AND :MAT1:1!IKL He Avill call for the exact niiiuber of flat cars, box cars, stock cars, baggage cars, passenger coaches, or tourist sleepers and standard sleepers needed to accommodate the command. The instructions to the railroad company should not only give the exact number of cars of different kinds, l)ut should also indicate the order in ^^']licll they are to bo placed from front to rear, and the direction in which the train is to head. Thus: Two flat cars; Three box cars; Five stock cars — 90 animals; One box car for forage; One baggage car, open ends, for rations, provision for making coffee; Eight ])assenger coaches — 4(i men each: 3 men to each two seats; One Pullman sleeper, standard. Headed east. To he placed at named siding at 8 a. m. Date, August 1st. There is nothing so discouraging to railroad men as to be disappointed in matters of schedule or to find that details given are incorrect and nuist be changed. It sometimes happens that no attempt is made to give the exact amount of freight equipment, but a rough estimate is made, which ^'it is thought will be suffi- cient," and in many cases must be changed by cutting out a car found to be in excess of requirements. There is no real neces- sity' for such orrcns. and they are always a sure indication of neg- lect. The freight and baggage equipment should be called lor i;^ i;aii.. 87 ill aiii])K' liiiH' ill iulvaiuc to iicniiil (n' a ilioioiiLjli inspoclioii. careful and inetliodieal loading without iuuTy or confusion, and to allow time for assembling ilie fatigue details between the eonehisiou <>!' ilic loading of freight and ba^rgage and the time fixed for tlic cnd-aining of llii^ troops. As a rule, the raihoads will have little ditlieulty in furnish- ing the freight and baggage e(|uij)inent in advance of the pas- senger equipment, though when the eonninmd is small or the amount of freight and baggage is small, it will be found simpler to set in the entire equipment at one time. Where there are sev- eral trains to be moved, however, this is un(lesii'al)le. as they occupy too much trackage, and if made u]) entire, the freio-bt and bag- gage cars are likt'ly to be iniouNcniently pbued for loading. In such cases the freight, baggage, and stock cars should l)e set in in advance and conveniently placed for loading. These details should be in the hands of one man. Any at- tempt at direction by superior authority after the details have been worked out by a staff officer and promulgated can result only in disarrangement and delay. The commanding officer, if he has left matters to his staff ollicers, sliould give detailed orders with caution unless he has kept himself constiintly in touch with the details as they have been developed. Above everything else, avoid changing the scheme in the niid~t of its accompUshment. as such a cliajige will disturb the free operations of the railroad, and i-csult in disjointed and unsatis- factory service and most annoying delays. In case the railroad has but a single track, it is highly desir- able that all the movements in the processi of concentration be 88 'ri.'.vxsroPiTATiox of moors axd :\r.vTi:i;iEL completed from one dire'.tion Ijeforc they are taken up from the opposite direction; otherwise the road i.- almost certain to hecome blocked at its sidings by movement of an nmisual traffic in oppo- site directions at the i^ame time. This is a matter that can be provided for in tlie orders given by the commanding general, di- recting the concentration of the troops. Simihirly, in dispersing troops fi'om a point of concentration, tliose going in the same direction should be disiDatched togetlier, leaving those going in the opposite direction to be dispatched together. Yll. LOADIXG 'JITE rA[PEnT:\lEXTA. The impedimenta, baggage, and rations should be so loaded that no difiiculty v.ill be had in unloading and separating them and distributing them to the proper owners. All such property, except the liglit hand-baggage of officers and lilanket-rolls or knapsacks of enlisted men, should be placed in the iDaggage cars prior to entraining tlie troops, leaving noth- ing to go into the passenger coaches and slee]iers except that which will be carried on the backs of the men and in the hand, so that as the troops are detrained the coaches will be left entirely free of any form of iiiipedinienta. and can at once be carried away by the railroad company to some convenient place of storage. The property and baggage of each company will be stored separately as far as possible. When practical)! e, a car should be given to each two companies, which will enable each company to avail itself of the end of a car. For light can)p equipment this I!V IIAIL. 80 will bo a too liberal allowanoo. and a r^ingle car for each battalion shoaltl suffice. Every article of baggage and property and every package should be plainly marked or labeled. It is not practicable to fur- nish checks for this class of iirojjerty. The travel rations for the journey, unless distributed to the troo]is. should be placed in an opt'n-end baggage or freight car, next the leading coach. This car for long journeys should be pro- vided with the means of making cofTee. If not already so pro- vided, one of the field ranges can be sot up in an improvised man- ner for the purpose, care being taken to guard against danger from fire by setting the stove up in a shallow box filled with sand. Transportation of Wagons, Horses, etc. — In loading the field transportation for carriage by rail, the first essential particular, and one never to be lost sight of, is the necessity of keeping the parts to be used so marked and located that they can be at once identitied and parts belonging to the same vcliicle on the same train can be put together without delay. This may seem a very simple statement, as simple as say- ing to the storekeeper, "You must not put your nails in the box with your sugar"; yet I have often seen inexperienced troops in moving unable to find a bolt, perhaps essential to hold the wagon together; a tongue misplaced, the harness of the small lead mule being placed where one expects to find the harness of the big wheeler, and dozens of other similar annoying details out of joint. These things seem small, yet delays, inconvenience, humili- ating predicaments, discomfort, and not infrequently absolute 90 TRAX-SPORTATJON OF TROOl'S AND ilATERlEL disaster, result on account ot' just such altoii-othcr avoidable- oversights or omissions. It ■nill not be undertaken in these pages to indicate where the nuts, l)olts. linch-pins or wrenches belonging to each vehicle should be put. furtber than to say that they should be placed in a bag for the purpose, where the wagoninastcr or other employee, or the teamster, if he accompanies the exjtcdition. can be held responsible for their safety. It is not sufficient that the teamster alone should know where the various articles belonging to his wagon and team are to be found, but it is essential that there be one place for all such arti- cles, and that they are always placed there. The wagonmaster or non-commissioned officer in charge should have oversight of all these details, and be responsible that they are carried out. Each wagon will have a separate number and the detachable parts will have corresponding numbers, to provide for ready assembly on unloading. The wagon, for long journeys, will be knocked down; linch- pins, nuts, bolts, wrenches, etc., will be placed in a bag and secured in the jockey-box. The harness will l)c placed in gunny-sacks, and each sack tagged with the number of the team. The harness is usually loaded into the car with the forage if there is room. The halter-atraps should be taken charge of by the wagon- master, and should be immediately available on detraining. They should be placed in the car carrying the forage for the teams. Transportation of Troops. — In calling upon the transporta- tion company for tlie equipment to accommodate the troops, the i!V i;ail. 91 quartermaster slioiikl t'urni::li hoth the niuulier of troop? ami the class of equipment desired. In ease the movement is a short one and to te made entirely b}' day or before miiluight, day coaches will be used. The quar- termaster, in calling for the e(iuipment. slioiild flirurc tliree men for each doable seat, unless the day coachc.- are to be used tlirougli the night, in which case one man will be figured for each double seat. Da}- coaches should l)e used at night, however, only when it is impossiple to provide jourist slet'pers. which latter will iie provided whenever the journey is of a length of tAventy-four hours. Should the command be a small one, insulhcient in size to warrant the use of a standard sleeper for the officers, each offi- cer will be furnished with one full section in the tonrist sleo]v er, curtained off from the sections used by the men. The coaches or tourist sleepers Mill come immediately after the ration car. The standard sleeper for officers will follow the tourist sleepers or coaches. Movement of Freight. — The heavy freight, surplus ammuni- tion, surplus rations, etc.. will be separately loaded into freight cars, and may accompany the ti'oops or may be billed independ- ently of the troop train. The desirable method, however, when troops are assembling in camps of instruction or moving to a point of concentration, is to have all freight eai-ly required by the troops, as well as baggag'' a!i<l camp e(|uii)age. move with the troop train. Transportation of Aiilnials. — Aninuils will be led into the cars facing alternately head and tail, and, except in very hot weather, the tighter they can be packed into the cars the better. Ordinarily there is no difficulty in inducing ammals to entrain. 92 TRANSPORTATION OP TROOPS AND MATERIEL The lioad-linltor:- should he left on animals and straps removed. Teams of nmles should be loaded and should stand in the cars as thev are drhen together in the team. ]\[ules should be tagged with numbers, so as to be quickly identified. Horses used to service together should be loaded together into the cars. If necessary for identification, they should be tagged. The forage for the animals will be carried in a freight car attached tc the tiain next to stock cars. '>» In calling for the equipment, the number of animals should be given, and it should be stated whether they are mules or horses; as a rule, from one to three more mules than horses can be placed in a common stock car. It is usual to furnish palace stock cars for the movement of horses belonging to officers, if there are enough horses to justify this special service. Usually when animals are transported by rail in large num- bers, the ordinary stock car is used. A suitable ramp will be provided for loading and unloading, preferably a platform ramp. If such platform is not availa])le, however, ordinary chutes will answer the purpose; as many should be provided as necessary to load the train with dispatch. The floor of the car should be coated with an inch or two of sand, earth, or sawdust, to prevent the animals from slipping when the floors become wet. Sometimes hay is used as a substitute; this, however, is not good practice, on account of the danger from fire. The animals may be shipped either shod or unshod. If they are to be used immediately upon hmduig, they should be shod ; otherwise they had best be shipped unshod. i'.Y IJAIT.. 93 Animals, as a I'ule. stand long joiirnt'vs best if jiot in high condition; they should be fed and watered before entraining. On long journeys they should bo detrained once every twenty- four hours, at which time they should be watered and fed. In leading the animals aboard, they should be K'd ((uietly and gently, and in a continuous string without interruption. The first to go aboard should be a gentle animal; shoidd any refuse the ramp, he should be led aside and later be blindfolded and. if need be. urged forward with a rope passed in rear of the haunches. Ordinarily there will be one or two attendants for each car- load, unless the animals belong to an artillery or cavalry command, or a wagon train, when a detail will be told off for the animals. Animals traveling on board train should be fed the fall ra- tion of hay and a limited quantit}- of oats when practicable. Hospital Trains. — In time of war, when troops arc encain])ed in large bodies, it is found necessary to relieve the troops in camp of their sick. This is done l)y providing hospital trains, which remove the sick from the field and division hospitals as fast as the medical officers in charge projiounce them convalescent and V^uitable subjects for sick-leave for recuperation at some central hospital or at their homes. These trains are solid Pulhnan trains, with a corps of medical officers and nurses and all neces- sary provisions for taki)ig eare of the sick and Avounded. The large proportion of sick alwa\s to be found with the Army in the field emphasizes the necessity of relieving the Armv of their care })y every proper means. The promptest and surest is the hospital train, and these trains should be equipped in such numbers as to furnish means of withdrawing the sick to central ^4 TKAXSroUTATION OF TKOOI'S AND MATERIEL hospitals or points of recuperation as rapidly as they accumulate. This results in an advantage to the sick transported, to those left behind, to the hospital authoritios, and to the Army at large. V'lII. ENTIJAIXING. The comniandiiig otiicer of the troops should detail an otii- cer as entraining officer, to proceed to the point of entraining in advance of the arrival of the command, to arrange, in conjunction with the quartermaster, for the proper assignment of the cars to the command. He should cause all cars to be marked, designat- ing the organization to occupy each. The commanding oiFicer should cause the staff officer who visits the train to inspect it, and to assign the space, to make a reconnoissanc« of the approaches, so that the entraining can take place without confusion or delay and without interruption to other traffic. The troops should be marched to the entraining-point, not more than fifteen minutes before the time fixed for the departure of the train. If nece&sary, a guard will be establislied in the vicinity of the point of entraining, the necessity of which will be determined, under direction of the commanding officer, by the staff officer sent to reconnoiter the route. If a guard is required about the ap- proaches, it will precede the troops: and as soon as the latter are entrained, it will quickly follow. , The entraining officer will, as the command approaches, in- dicate to each company commander the car or cars he is to occupy, BY KAIL. 95 and the company eouniiandcr will inarcli liis comiiiiiiKl directly aboard^ using both onds of tlie ca,r when he i.s to occupy the en- tire car. The men in the leail should he directed to proceed at fence to their places in the car. so as not to block the aisles. The ears of each train should be marked on or near the for- f\vard step on the side toward the entraining station in chalk wflli ithe designating number of the train ; also each car should bo sim- ilarly marked with its number in the train, fixing the order of (precedence, and each car should also be marked with the name of the organization. It is the duty of the station entraining officer to super- vise this marking; he Mill furnish each organization with a written memorandum, showing the number of the train, num- ber and kind of cars, the direction headed, the point where lo- cated on the tracks, the point for entraining, and the hour for entraining and dispatch. The men as soon as entrained will at once be cautioned in the economical use of water, as few cars are equipped to furnish more than a meager supply. A supplementary supply can be provided by arranging witli the railroad company to place a barrel filled Avith Mater on the platform of each coach. Commanding officers will be held responsible that no un- authorized person or baggage is permitted on boai'd the train. It is the duty of the quartermaster in charge of entraining to see that proper facilities are furnished for entraining the ani- mals, and to see that skids are provided for running wagons and trucks aboard flat cars. If facilities are not at hand, it will be necessary to improvise such ramps as the means at hand will aiTord, making use of any 96 TRANSPORTATIOX OF TROOPS AXD MATERIEL plaukS;, rail?, railroad tics, bales of hay, sod, earth, etc., as may be required. Wagons should be shipped knocked down as required by reg- ulations. If, however, the run by rail is a short one and they are required for immediate use on arrival at destination and delay in detraining will occasion delay in coJiibinations, the vehicles may be run on liat cars and shipped by merely removing the wheels, when the latter should be placed in the beds of the wagons. No emergency will justify the shipment of vehicles without remov- ing the wheels ; they should be thoroughly chocked and tied with rope, so as to prevent them from changing position. Artillery carriages are moved on flat cars and in a manner similar to the movement of wheeled transportation. The harness, saddles, bridles, etc., are cared for in a manner similar to the care bestowed upon the harness for the wagon trains. IX. COXDUCT OX BOArvD. Duties 011 Board. — All officers and noii-commissioned officers are required to give close attention to the police and cleanliness of the coaches occupied by their men. The commanding officer will provide such regulations as will prevent damage to Lhc coaches and secure the orderly conduct of the troops. A non-commissioned officer should be in charge of eacli coach, and should at all times be present and alert, and sliould be respon- sible for the conduct of the men in the coach. r;Y ifAJL. 07 'Ihe coiiiiuanding olTicer is responsible for the discipline of the troops on board, and should establish such guards and take such other steps as will secure proper discipline ainongst the troops and prevent interference or anno3'ance in the operation of the train. The eonimaudJng ollicer, accompanied by the. olTicer of the day and the quartermaster, should make frequent inspections of the train. If the transportation company has failed to furnish trans- portation as provided in the contract, the commanding officer Avill report the deficiencies to the quarterinaster furnishing the transportation. Police. — The commanding officer should designate an officer, preferably the officer of the day, as police officer, whose duty it will be to have general charge of the police of all parts of the train occupied by troops. He should see that seats, floors, clos- ets, and wash-rooms are kept clean, and that there is no waste of (water. A non-commissioned officer should be detailed to assist the police olficer, and he should have immediate charge of the general police, and particularly of the closets, wash-rooms, etc. The non-comraissioned officer in charge of each car will be subject to the orders of the police officer in all that affects the police of the car. The Commissary. — The subsistence officer will liave charge of the mess arrangements for the enlisted men. An open-end haggage or freight car, provided with facilities for makmg coffee, should be regarded as essential, except in time of great stress of traffic, when it may not be possible to procure one. 9S TRANSPOIirATIOK OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL The commissary ofiicer should prepare a scheme for the service of meals, so that there wiJl be the least confusion and discomfort possible. Inspections. — Inspections without arms should be held as required by regulations. The Guard. — ^The detail for the guard should consist of an officer of the day and such other officer and non-commissioned officers and privates as in the opinion of the commanding officer may be necessary for good discipline and to insure the carrying out of his orders. The guard should be given a separate place on the train. 'The guard should be used to preserve order, to protect property, to deny egress from the train, and to enforce the orders of the com.manding officer. The officer of the day should establish such posts and should make such inspections as will insure the accomplishment of the purpose of the orders of the commanding officer. He will espe- cially be on his guard against the introduction of intoxicating liquor aboard the train. X. DETEx^INING. Physical Features of Roads, Yard, etc. — If the detraining is to take place at a concentration camp or in its vicinit}', it will be necessary that provision be made for side-track, spurs, and switches, to facilitate and expedite nsovements, and to place freight, baggage, stock, and flat cars in such positions that they J5Y HAIL. 99 can be unloaded independently and without blocking the road at points where the passengers are to be detrained. The temporary yards should be so located as to be readily accessible to the carap site, and they should be level if possible, especially where it is expected to detrain and entrain passengers and to load and unload freight. A separate location should be "had for the temporary store-houses that will not interfere with shipping of cars and the entraining and detraining of troops and materiel. Yet it should be in the near vicinity and readily acces- sible. Ordinarily, for hasty movements, the building of platforms, for convenience in entraining and detraining the men, is not con- sidered essential. Platforms should, however, be built for dis- charging freight and supplies, for the various supply departments. It is not considered essential, on the other hand, that platforms be built for the discharge of the baggage and impedimenta of the troops arriving in camp. The spurs of track on which the cars will be located that carry such equipage and impedimenta should be separated sufficiently to permit baggage wagons to be brought up to the car doorg and receive their loads directly from the cars. Order and Method. — The detraining should be in the hands of the same officer of the troops who had charge of the entrain- ing. The labor of loading and unloading the baggage and equi- page o'f the organization should be performed by a detail of en- listed men, and the sajne detail should perform both services. The officer of the troops in charge of their detraining should have definite instructions as to the time and place of reporting to the staff officer at destination under whose direction the detrain- ing is to be effected. 100 TKANSI'ORTATIOX OF TEOOl'S AND JMATliFvIKL A non-commissioned officer from each organization should be in charge of all property and supplies required in camp. The troops upon being detrained should at once be formed at a short distance from the train. The troops on leaving the train will at once step out to such a distance as will leave the immediate vicinity of the train clear. Under no circumstances should any member of the detraining organizations be permitted to return to the passenger coaches, which should be free and re- leased within a few minutes of the time that the engine is halted, the freight, baggage, and animal cars being at once detached and men on freight spurs in position for prompt unloading, the non-commissioned officer in charge remaining with the baggage and impedimenta. As soon as the troops shall have left the train, the passenger equipment should be removed to storage tracks. The railroad authorities should be impressed in advance with the necessity of promptly removing these coaches to a point more or less remote, in order not to block the road for succeeding trains. The fatigue details should at once be made available for unload- ing the camp equipage, baggage, and stores foi^ immediate use. The non-commissioned olncers in charge of stores for each organization, having accompanied the freight and baggage cars, will note their final location on the storage tracks and serve as a guide to the detail sent to unload the camp equipage, etc. As soon as the troops have been detrained, the station de- training officer should place in the hands of the commanding officer of the troops a copy of all necessary memoranda afford- ing information immediately required, indicating the method of procuring needed supplies for his camp, such as food, water. BY RAIL. 101 appliances for sinks, forage, bedding if any, and any other de- tails essential to be known at the time. Bemoval from the Vicinity of the Railroad. — The station detraining officer should tell off an assistant or an orderly, if no 'staff officer has been sent for the purpose, to guide the command- ing officer with his troops to his place in camp. The officers with troops charged with the details of detrain- ing should not wait until the train stops at its destination to •make the arrangements for detraining, but all details should be anticipated and provided for in advance, so that the instant the' signal is given to detrain, every man will move as one and will Icnow in advance just what to do, and if a mem])er of a detail, he will be previouply told where to report — e. g., at the forward end of the train on the detraining side. Or the fatigue details may be assembled on board the train, and upon detraining will then be marched direct to the scene of their work. The location of the station detraining offiicer will be indicated by the quarter- masters guidon, and any information desired may at once be had by application at tliat point. Staff officers with proper instructions from the commanding general should meet the arriving command and guide the troops to their proper place in camp. The troops should leave the train by company, and should be assembled by battalion or in any other manner that the command- ing officer may direct. If the fatigue details have been told off and assembled before the troops reach the point of detraining, they will detrain inde- pendently under the orders of the officer in charge. 102 TUANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL "J^he following details will be required: One group to report to the quartermaster of the troops to unload tlie hand-baggage of officers and carry it to camp ; One group to report to the quartermaster of the troops to unload ammunition, rations, and baggage. Those details will be assembled promptly under charge of an oflficer, and should be amply large and sufficiently provided with non-commissioned officers to accomplish expeditiously the follow- ing services simultaneously: 1. The unloading of mules, horses, and wagons; 2. The unloading of baggage, camp equipage, rations, and ammunition; 3. The drawing of supplies — viz., wood, forage, and water, unless other provisions have been made for the above; 4. The procuring of such camp supplies as are fur- nished by the Quartermaster's Department — viz., sink-frames, barrels, lime, oil fuel, hay for bedding, etc. , The quartermaster of the troops should inform himself in advance, if possible, whether or not he will be obliged to rely upon the wheel transportation brought with him, or if he will be temporarily supplied by the depot quartermaster in camp. BY KAIL. 103 XT. ENTEAINING AND DISPATCH OF LARGE BODIES. In providing for the dispersal of a large body of troops, the details of providing railroad equipment, entraining, and dispatch of trains must be worked out with the greatest care, for details and full information must be provided to all concerned, both troops and railway officials. It is believed that these points can be most satisfactorily illustrated by a concrete example, quoting from the l-eport of the Chief Quartermaster of the Maneuver Division at Fort Eiley, 1903 : "Arrangemenls for Return Journey — I'rovisions for the re- turn journey were made well in advance. Information showing the equipment to be furnished in each case, the number of each train, and its location on the tracks; a schedule showing time of departure and from what point each train would be dispatched; carefully prepared instructions as to where and in what manner bills of lading for freight accompanying each movement of troops would be completed, together v/ith other necessary instructions in detail, were furnished commanding oflicers and quartermasters well in advance of the date set for breaking camp. By this means oversight or errors in calling for equipment could be discovered and remedied in ample time. The m^ke-up of trains was worked out with great care, and by reference to memoranda below it will be seen that the make-up of entire individual trains was provided for in detail. "Quartennasters and commanding officers were requested to notify connecting lines by wire of the hour at which their trains 104 TRANSPOKTATION OF TROOPS AXD MATERIEL would arrive at junction points, giving the number of men, amount of baggage, equipment, etc., in order that prompt service might be insured. Agents at such junction points were notified by the Chief Quartermaster of the hour of departure of all trains, but it is obvious that it would be impracticable to keep in touch with all detachments of troops dispersing to various parts of the country after their leaving camp. ''The result of the arrangements made proved successful The first embarkation of troops occurred on the morning of the 27th of October. The schedule prepared for the entraining of the various militia organizations allowed three hours and thirty minutes; the time actually consumed was three hours and twenty- five minutes, for twenty-one trains, several of which were doubled as far as Manhattan going east, and Junction City going west. These twenty-one trains distributed troops to nearly two hundred different points, and all agents of railroads at connecting points were notified by the Chief Quartermaster of the time of depart- ure. The trains were dispatc'hed at intervals of fifteen minutes, and, with the exception of one provisional regiment, the first em- barked, which was thirty minutes late, there were no delays. "In the movement of the regular troops, similar satisfactory results were obtained, under far less advantageous circumstances. The night preceding was wet and stormy, and the morning of the movement very disagreeable, under which circumstances all work would ordinarily have loeen very sIoav. All trains, however, were dispatched precisely on schedule time, M'ith the exception of a sin- gle cavalry regiment. BY R.VIL. 105 "The following memoranda were published by the Chief <Juartermaster by authority of the commanding general, with the view of expediting and systematizing the entraining and depart- ure of troops : 1. "Office of the Chief Quartermaster, "Provisional Division, "Fort IJiley, Kas., October 25, 1903. *'The Commanding Officer, "By authority of the Division Commander. "Sir, — I have the honor to inclose herewith a memorandum showing the number of the train, and the equipment therefor, which will convey }our command from this encampment on the morning of November 1, 1903. It is understood that an order will be issued by the Adjutant-General of the Division directing the regiments to strike their heavy tentage, and place all heavy baggage and equipage aboard the freight trains which will be made up on the siding during the 31st inst., and to clear their camp sites, returning quartermaster's supplies and stores not needed to points from which drawn, so as to leave as little work as possible to be done on the day of breaking camp. "All freight, baggage, and stock equipment of the railroad will be set for all trains by 8:00 o'clock a. m. on the 31st inst., when they will be available for your command to load. Each car' of this equipment will be marked with the number of the train. Please send your quartermaster to the office of the Chief Quartermaster for instructions in case there is anything what- ever in doubt as to the metliod by which the details of this en- training shall take place. 106 TE-iNSPOKTATION OF TPtOOPS AISID MATERIEL "It is contemplated that the first organization will leave camp at seven o'clock a. ni., after which other organizations will leave until the last shall have departed, at intervals of fif- teen minntes between trains. "It is desired that nothing be left undone to be ready with the baggage loaded for the moveaient, as any delay will neces- sarily disjoint the schedule and result in multipiying the delay. "The freight, baggage, and stock equipment will be marked wth the number of the train at the east end of the car, on the side towards the camp. "'Very respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster." 2. "Headquarters Provisional Division, "Chief Quartermaster's Ofiice, "Fort Eiley, Kas., October 28, 1903. "The Quartermaster, "Through the Commanding Ollicer. '■'Sir, — You will report at the olfice of the Depot Quarter- master, at the end of Spur No. 4, Pawnee Flats, on the morning of the 3ist inst., at nine o'clock, to arrange for tlie completing of the bills of lading for Government property to be carried on tlie railroad equipment transporting your command to its home station. "A representative of the Quartermaster's Department will be a"t that place to arrange all details, as will also a representa- tive of the raUroad company, who will sign all bills of lading as each equipment is loaded. BY RAIL. 107 "It is intended to complete all bills of lading on the 31st instant. Quartermasters and acting quartermasters will be ex- pected to bill their ovm property and to provide necessary trans- portation requests. 'Tery respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster." 3. "Headquarters Provisional Division, "Chief Quartermaster's Office, "Fort Riley, Kas., October 28, 1903. "The Quartermaster, "Through the Commanding Officer. "Sir, — As soon as the freight and baggage equipment of youT company shall be completely loaded and ready for the make- up of the train, on the morning of the 1st proximo, the Chief Quartermaster, or his representative who will be stationed at the switch on the main line, will be at once notified. "As soon as troops are aboard their respective trains, the Chief Quartermaster, or his representative at the same point, will be notified, when signal will be given for dispatch of the train. "Very respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster." 4. "Headquarters Provisional Division, "Chief Quartermaster's Office, "Fort Piley, Kas., October 26, 1903. "The Commanding Officer, ^^y authority of the Division Commander. 'Sir, — Reference to the return of your command to its proper 108 TRANSPORTATION OF 'J'ROOPS AND MATERIEL station, it is respectfully suggested tliat you cause your quarter- master to wire the various routes with which your organizations connect, in order that prompt service may be had from junction points. "The Chief Quartermaster of the Division has arranged trans- portation for leaving this encampment, but it is ■obvious that it will be impossible for him to keep in touch with the movements of all the detachments of troops dispersing from this camp in or- der to arrange prompt connections. This should be done by the commanding officers and quartermasters whose commands are concerned. 'Tlailroad agents should be notified of the time to expect arrivals at junction points, and the number of men and amount of equipment in each case. "All baggage should be carefully marked, so that it can be promptly identified, and it should be stowed together in such a way as to avoid confusion when removed from baggage cars at destination. "Very respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster." 5. "Headquarters Provisional Division, "Chief Quartermaster's Office, "Fort Eiley, Kas., October 28, 1903. "The Commanding Oilicer, "By authority of the Division Commander. "Sir, — I have the honor to request that chutes for loading JiY RAIL. \09 itock be all placed the night of the 31st instant, and that stock be loaded at daylight, or as early thereafter as practicable, on the morning of November 1st, in order to expedite the entraining of animals. '^''eiy respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster." G, "Headquarters Provisional Division, "Chief Quartermaster's Office, "For Riley, Kas., October 28, 1903. "The Quartermaster, "Through the Commanding Oilicer. «Sir^ — It is respectfully recommended, in order to facilitate and expedite the labor of loading on the morning of breaking camp, and departure of troops therefrom, that the same fatigue details oised during the 31st for the loading of cars be continued for the following day, and that these details be made sufficiently substan- tial so that no delays can result on account of insufficiency of help. ^^ery respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster," It was found desirable to furnish the foregoing memoranda, in order that all concerned should become acquainted with the de- tails of entraining. "In perfecting the arrangements for this movement of troops, the followanc: forms of memoranda were made use of: no TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL > Headed west. V Headed west. "MEMORANDA FOK OPERATIXG DEPARTMENT, UNION" PACIFIC RAILROAD COMPANY. "The following- trains !?hould be made up complete, and set on the siding at Pawnee Flats by eight o'clock on the morning of October 26th, for the Texas Provisional Regiment: "To go via M., K. & T. : 1st train : 3 baggage cars, 6 tourist cars, 1 Pullman, standard, 2d train: 2 baggage cars, 6 tourist cars, 1 Pullman, standard, "To go via Rock Island route: 3d train: 2 freight cars, ] 4 SfcS? \ Headed east. 1 Pullman, standard, J "Also the f olloAving at the west end of Spur No. 4 : 1 vehicle car, 2 furniture cars, 1 stock car, 1 flat car. "Also the following freight and baggage equipment, which will be numbered from east to west; therefore, in placing equipment, read up: Nebraska: 4th train: 1 stock car; 4 baggage cars. 5th train : 1 stock car ; 4 baggage cars. 6th train: 1 stock car; 3 baggage cars. Iowa: 7th train: 1 baggage car; 1 palace stock car, 16 horses. 8th train: 1 baggage car. 9th train: 1 vehicle car, large; 1 baggage car. Missouri: 10th train: 1 stock car, palace, 17 horses; 1 baggage car. 11th train: 1 baggage car. Kansas: 12th train: 1 flat car; 2 stock cars; 1 freight car; 1 furniture car; 6 baggage cars 13th train; 1 stock car; 6 freight or baggage cars. 14th train: 1 flat car; 2 stock cars; 2 freight cars; 1 bag- gage car. 1 5th train : 2 stock cars ; 4 freight or baggage cars. BY RAIL. Ill "In addition to this, it is desired to have the following pas- lenger equipment placed upon the other spars: "On Spur Xo. 2, the following : Nebraska: 4th train: 1 Pullman, standard; 12 day coaches. 5th train: 10 day coaches. 6th train: 1 PuUmao, standard; 5 day coaches. "On Spur No. 1, the following: Iowa: 7th train: 1 Pullman, standard ; 7 tourists. 8th train: 1 Pullman, standard; 6 tourists. 9th train : 1 Pullman, standard ; 7 tourists. "Spur No. 3, to be used for freight and baggage : Missouri: 10th train: 12 day coaches. 1 To be run on to siding as soon nth train: 10 day coaches. J as Texas is out. "There should be niade up as near to, and as available as pos- sible to the Pawnee Flats, the following passenger equipment in sections as follows: Kansas: 12th train: 8 day coaches. 13th train: 11 day coaches. 14th train: 4 day coaches. 15th train : 5 day coaches. "The following trains should be made up complete, and set on the siding at Pawnee Flats by eight o'clock on the morning of October 31st. 'T!n making up trains for the movement of these troops, it is absolutely necessary that either a baggage car with doors in ends, or a freight car similarly provided, be placed next the pass- enger equipment, so as to admit of ingress and egress, on account of travel rations to be carried therein. 112 TRANSPORT ATIOK OP TROOPS A]\D MATERIEL 2d Via U. P. K. K. to J bit D. A. Russell, Wyo. Infantry: 1st train: 1 baggage car; 1 ordinarj' freight car; 2 ordinary- stock cars; 2 gondola cars; headed west. Via U. P. R. R. and D. & R. G. to Fort Logan, Colo. 2d train: 1 baggage car; 1 ordinary freight car; 4 ordinary stock cars; headed west. ^^ia U. P. R. R. and D. & R. G. to Fort Logan, Colo. 3d train: 1 baggage car; 1 ordinary freight car; 3 gondola, cars. "Also the following freight and baggage equipment, which will be numbered from east to Avest ; therefore, in placing equip- ment, read up. Equipment to be placed on Spur Xo. 4 as far as possible, and the overflow taken up with Spur No. 3. 1st Batt. & Via U. P. R. R. to Fort I'ouglas, Utah. Headq'rt'rs 12th Inf't'v. Cos. "I" & "M," 21st Inf't'y. Cos. "K" & "L," 21st Inf't'y. 4th train. 1 baggage car; 2 ordinary freight cars; 2 or- dinary stock cars; 1 palace car, 8 horses; 4 gondola cars. Via U. P., C. G. W. and N. P. to Ft. Lincoln, N. D. 5th train: 1 baggage car. Via U. P., C. G. W. and N. P. to Ft. Keogh, Mont. Afso 5th train : 1 baggage car; 1 furniture car; 2 ordinary stock cars; 2 gondola cars, 28 mules, 4 horses. Via U. P. and C. M. & St. P. to Ft. Snelling, Minn. 6th train: 2 ordinary freight cars (1 with open end, placed next passenger equipment); 2 ordinary stock cars. Via U. P. & N. W. to Ft. Snelling, Minn. 7th train: 2 furniture cars (1 open end, placed next pas- senger equipment); 1 palace horse car; 1 gondola car. 25th Inf't'y. Via U. P. & F. E. & M. V. to Ft. Niobrara, Neb. 8th train: 1 baggage car; 4 ordinary freight cars; 4 gon- dola cars. Via U. P and F. E. & M. V. to Ft. Niobrara, Neb. 9th train: 1 bag.gage car; 5 ordinary freight cars. Via U. P. to Fort Leavenworth, Kans. 10th train : 1 baggage car ; 4 ordinary freight cars; 1 palace horse car, 16 horses; 1 gondola car. 21st Inf't'v. 21st Inf't'y with Head- quarters. eth Inf't'y. BY RAIL. 113 Signal and Via U. P., Big Four and C. & O. to Washington Barracks Hospital and Fort Myer, Va. Corps. 14th train ; 1 baggage car ; 2 freight cars. "In addition to the above, it is desired to have the following passenger equipment placed upon other spurs: "On Spur No. 2 : 4th train: 5 tourists; 1 Pullman, standard. 5th train: 6 tourists; 1 PuUman, standard. 6th train: 6 tourists; 1 Pullman, standard, "On Spur No. 1: 7th train; 7 tourists; 1 Pullman, standard. 8th train: 5 tourists; 1 Pullman, standard. 9th train" 5 tourists; 1 Pullman, standard. • (Buffet car desired, if possible, on 9th train; 17 officers, 25th infantry, on this train.) 10th train: 6 daj' coaches, one of which should be chair car. To be held as near Pawnee Mats as possible, and run in on the first available empty spur. "The entire equipment for trains Nos. 11, 12, and 13, carrying the lOtli Cavalry, will be made up and made available at the long spur running into the quartermaster's corral. This on account of the large number of animals to be loaded there. The complete equipment of these trains will be as follows: 10th llth train; 4 ordinary freight cars; 7 ordinary stock cars; 2 Cavalry: palace horse cars, 31 horses; 9 gondola cars; 1 tourist. 12th train: 1 ordinary freight car; 24 ordinary stock cars; 1 tourist sleeper. 13th train: 2 baggage cars; 9 tourists; 2 Pullman, standard. "The first two trains should be put on this siding, so that freight can be loaded on the m(.rning of the 31st, not later than 8 o'clock; passenger equipment can be run in after freig'ht equip- ment has been loaded and AvithdraAvn. The former should be held near at hand. 114 TRAXSrOI!TAT]OX OF TROOPS AM) M.VTKRIF.L "Traill Xo. 14 sliould be held in liaiul ready to run to Pawnee Flats, as early as possible, as follows: 14th train: 3 tourist sleepers; 1 Pullman, standard. "All tovirist sleepers above enumerated to be sixteen section or equivalent. '^ery respectfully, , "Chief Quartermaster." "The following consolidated memoranda were prepared for use in the Chief Quartermaster's office, and copies were furnished for necessarv use of all concerned: Organiza- tion. 6 d Route. 3 O 6 6 4 7 6 7 d a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 o O Q Baggage. Freight. o o fa 6 u 1 "S u 3 fa TEXAS NEBRASKA IOWA MISSOURI.. KANSAS . . . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 U. P. & M. K. T.. U. P. & M. K. T.. U. P. & R. I Union Pacific Union Pacific Union Pacific U. P. & Burl U. P. & Burl U. P. & R. I Union Pacific Union Pacific Union Pacific U. P. & M. K. T.. U. P. & R. I Union Pacific 12 10 5 12 10 8 11 4 5 3 2 1 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 i« 6 1 2 1 6 2 4 1 1 1 1 1* It 9 i 2 2 1 1 1 * Palace, 16 horses. X Palace, 17 horses. ** Vehicle. XX Q. M. fur. car, to be loaded 26th. I'.Y KAIL. 115 Organization 2d Infantry. 12th Infantry. 21stlnf., Cos. I &MandK&L 21st Inf., 1st & 2d Batt... •25th Infantry. €th Infantry. . 10th Cavalry. Signal & Hos- pital Corps Route. U. P U.P.D.&R.G. U.P.D.&R.Q. U. P. U. P. &N. P.& C. & G. W. U. P. &I. c. & M. & St. L... U. P. &N. W. U. P. & F. E. M. V U. P. U. P. to Fort (Via Sidney).. U. P., Wab., Big Four and ' C. & O Destination. Fort Rassell... Fort Logan . . . Fort Logan . . Fort Douglas.. Fort Lincoln . Fort Keogh... Fort Snelling. Fort Snelling. Ft- Niobrara.. Ft.Leavenw'th Robinson Washington. . Remarks. 6 horses. Orl baggage car.openend. 10 horses. *'Open end baggage;25th Inf. desire buffet car for 17 people. *1 chair car, 10 horses. ♦31 horses. Air-brake box cars. 116 TRANyPOKTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL "The following form of schedule was prepared and dis- tributed : SCHEDULE OF DEPARTURE OF TRAINS, TRANSPORTATION MILITIA TROOPS FROM PAWNEE FLATS, FORT RILEY RESERVATION, TUESDAY MORN- ING, OCTOBER 27, 1903. Texas: Train No. 1 2 3 Nebraska : 4 5 6 Iowa: ' 7 8 9 Missouri; Kansas: 10 11 12 13 14 15 . 7 . 7 . 7 . 7 . 8 . 8 . 8 . 8 . 9 . 9 . 9 . 9 .10 .10 .10 :00 a. m- :15 a. m- :30 a. m. :45 a. m- :00 a. m. :15 a. m. :30 a. m. 45 a. m. :00 a. m. :15 a. m. :30 a. m. :45 a. m. :00 a. m. :15 a. m. :30 a. m. SCHEDULE OF DEPARTURE OF TRAINS, TRANSPORTATION REGULAR TROOPS FROM PAWNEE FLATS, FORT RILEY RESERVATION, MONDAY MORN- ING, NOVEMBER 1, 1903. Train No. 1 7:00 a. m, " 2 7 :15 a. m. " 3 7:30 a.m. " 4 7:45 a.m. " 5 8:00 a. m. " 6 8:15 a. m> " 7 8:30 a. m. " 8 8 :45 a. m. " 9 9 :00 a. m. " 10 9:15 a. m, " 11 9:30 a. m " 12 9:45 a. m " 13 10:00 a. m 2d Infantry : 12th Infantry; 21st Infantry: 25th Infantry : 6th Infantry: 10th Cavalry : Signal Corps and Hospital Corps • 14 10:15 a. m. BY KAIL, 117 ''In addition to the foregoing, the following detailed form of memorandum was furnished each organization and to officials of the railroad company: KANSAS NATIONAL GUARD, Organization. Train No. 12. Brg. Hqrs., Co. A ]stRegt.,Batt. B Co. F and Band Co.G Co. H and Hqrs Co. I & Hosp. Corps. Co.K Train No. 13. Co. B, 1st Regt. Co. C Co.D Co.E Co, L Co. M Co. C, 2d Regt. . . . Co.F Co. D, Reg. Hqrs, Co. I and Band.... Train No. 14. Co. A and Batt. A. Co.B Co. E Train No, 15. Co.G. Co.H. Co.K. Co. L. Co. M. Destination. Route. Topeka Hiawatha.. . . Sabetha Lawrence. . . . Manhattan... Atchison Burlingame. . Burlington.. . Chanute Ottawa Yates Center. Fredonia Sterling Larned Newton Emporia Wichita Wellington. . Hutchinson. Osborne Ellsworth Lindsborg Concordia.. . . Saliua Union Pacific, do do do do do U. P., M. K.& T and S. F U. P., M. K.& T do do U. P. and M. P. M. K. &T., S. F do do do do U. P. and R. I. do do Union Pacific. do do do do Cars req'r'd 1' 2 1 1 1 1 1 Remarks ♦Furnt. oar. 20 horses, pal. 1 20 horses, pal. 9 horses. 7 horses. 4 horses. (2 horses go with baggage.) 5 horses. 118 TKAXSPORTATIOiN" OP TKOOI'S AND iMzVT]:UlEL "In conehidiiig the subject of entraining and transporting the troops on their departure from tills encampment, it will be noted that three distinct steps marked the arrangement of the details of the transportation feature, in order to ensure a thorough understanding of all particulars, both by the troops to be carried, and by the railroad officials furnishiug the equipment and service : "1st. Each individual organization with a separate destina- tion was taken up in turn, and its routing fixed. "2d. These were then consolidated, and a common routing given as far as practicable, until full trains were made up. The detailed equipment required was then tabulated as previously shown herein. "3d. There was then furnished to the operating department of the railroad a memorandum of tlie make-up of each individ- ual train, giving the order in which the cars pertaining to each train were to be ])laced on each track, and the direction each was to head. The necessary schedules were prepared, showing hours of departure, also giving other details of the movement, and fur- nished to all parties at interest." XII. CONSTEUCTIOX AN^D EEPAII? OF RAILROADS. The occasions in these days will be frequent when it will be found necessary in the midst of an active campaign to construct railroads of considerai)le length. In the past several notable examples exist of the construction of railroads during the prog- ress of the campaign, the most notable of which were the roads constructed by Iiussia in the campaign of 1877 between Bender i:v liAii.. 119 and CJalatz. 'I'ho length cons^triutcd was KiT miles, and the time occupied was from the middle of Juno until the following Xovember. In the present war both contestants are bending every energy to build new roads and repair old ones and to increase the power of the latter by increasing the number and length of the sidings. During the Civil ^Vi\v very extensive railroad construction iw^as undertaken, and the systematic method with which repairs were accomplished, and destroyed portions of the roads restored, is one of the marvels of that gigantic struggle. In many cases a road that had been torn up for miles, tics burned, bridges de- etroyed. and rails bent and twisted, was again in operation before the lapse of forty-eight hours. Not only was the material, including ties, rails, spikes, switches, and bridge material, on hand for reconstruction, but in many instances, the bridges were actually framed and ready to be put together, and were loaded on cars, and sent to the point of destination within a few hours after the report of destruction was received. This was notably the ea-se with the connections with the Arm}' of the Potomac. Every bridge between the Poto- mac Eiver and the advanced position of the army was duplicated, framed, and stored, so as to lie available lor immediate use on the lines of communication, in case the original was destroyed. And the advantage of this wise foresight was many times ex- em.plified in the course of the campaigns. In the second year of the war there were in operation 930 miles of railway which were repaired, equipped, and managed by the Ouartermaster's Department. Some of these roads were 120 TRAN'SPOKTATION OF TUOOPS AND ]\IATEKIF.L destroyed many times, and the feats of i-tconstTuction and bridgt- building would be very creditable at this day with the improved facilities and appliances now available. Across the Chattahoo- chee Eiver near Atlanta a bridge 750 I'eet in length and 92 feet high was placed in position, in four and one-half days. This at a place remote from any point affording a supply of railroad materials. As an incident showing the full development of the military railroad service, the case of tlie Orange & Alexandria E. E., under Col. McCal] urn's management, may be cited. It was declared by General Burnside that it was not capable of supplying a column of more than 10,000 men. After a few weeks' repairs and placing of sidings and terminals, its capacity was practically increased eight-fold. During Sherman^s march to Atlanta the railroad in his rear was constantly raided and destroyed, yet at no time was his connection interrupted for a longer period than five days though it was necessary at times to cover gaps in the road by making transfers. The organized forces for repairs were so complete and so perfectly equipped that even with the com- paratively crude methods of forty years ago, no raiding party could create a serious check in the forwarding of supplies by destro5dng the roads. It is certain that to the skill with which the railroads behind General Sherman's army were repaired is due in a large degree the success of his movements, and it is certain that no one was so much surprised as the enemy to find that his work of destruc- tion never checked the forward movement of supplies for so long BY ILUL. 121 a period as five days, and checked the forward movement of the army itself not at all. The most extensive destruction of road in this campaign was that eifeoted by General Hord's Army in October, '64, when he destroyed 35 Mj miles of track and 455 lineal feet of bridges all of which was repaired and trains were running in thirteen days. This occurred after General Sher- man had occupied Atlanta. During the last year of the M^ar, in the Department of the Cumberland, 1769 miles of military railway were repaired, main- tained, stocked, and operated by the Quartermaster's Department. The officials and employees of these roads were men who were familiar with construction, repair, and operation of rail- roads, and who had been trained to that service. In the repair of railroads, the Department went to the length of constructing a new rolling mills for re-rolling the rails. As soon as peace was declared, steps were taken to transfer all railroads in the hands of the Government back to their orig- inal owners as soon as loyal directors and owners could be elected to take charge. In some cases the roads were transferred to Boards of Pub- lic Works in the States. The Government made no charges for repairs or reconstruc- tion of any of these roads. Nor, on the other hand, did it admit any liability for damages. Many patent devices for temporary railways to be built by quick construction for military purposes have been considered by different services abroad; none of these, however, have ever been deemed to be practicable with us, and none of theni have 122 TRANSPOKTATION OF TROOPS AND ]M\TKl!n;L ever met with favor in this country. There is little doubt, how- ever, that if the necessities of war require railroad-construction on the part of our Government, little time need be lost in estab- lishing any essential roads. Suck are the resources of our country and our Government that it is believed that little consideration need be given in advance to s])eeial devices of this character, especially as in any case the conditions and location will large- ly control the means to be used. Many temporary devices are made use of in the commercial world for hasty construction of tramways, which would be useful in military operations, especially at terminal military stations, in siege operations, permanent camps and winter quarters and on wharves, etc., but it has never been considered desirable in this country to elaborate a special system of them for military jmrposcs. It would seern desirable however to have a limited amount of equipment of tliis character on hand in case it should 1)0 required for immediate use. In any case, such equip- ment should not dilfer from that in commercial use, as, in case it were necessary to suddenly add to it, there should be no delay on account of inadequate machinery available to accomplish its manufacture. Such equipment should be complete and include the track and means of laying it, the cars, and the necessary engines. Such provision would be especially valuable in handling heavy guns and similar munitions and in promptly removing large accumu- lations of stores from congested points. Both contestants in the present war are making use of this character of equipment for supplying their troops in winter quarters. ii\ i;.\iL. izS XIII. OOMMEKTS. Most writers on the saibject of field equipment for armies are strong advocates of some form of field railwa}-. They hold up to public view the heavy expenditures necessary in building powerful forts, equipping them with the heaviest guns, and re- newing these every time that an invention is made that will in- crease their power, in maintaining and storing groat reserves oi" powder and projectiles, small arms, and camp equipment of every class; all a'waiting the deelai'ation of war and the mobilization of troops. These writers hold it as neglectful not to prepaje a form of field railway that can be rapidly constructed. It is thought, however, that such reasoning should have little weight with us, where the construction of railways, both light and boavy, is constantly progressing under the development of our commer- cial industries, and in furthering interests many fold more concerned with securing the best devices and most modem equip- ment of the age. On the other hand, in the development and improvement of the munitions of war those alone are interested who make warlike preparations a vocation. The immense activity in tlie construction of railways in our country, aggregating thousands of miles of new road every year, "the building of hundreds of locomotive engines, and thousands of cars of every kind, ])laces well within our ])ower the means of prompt construction and 0(juipment of any military railroad that we are likely to require. It is said tbat the Germans have with their field equipment about one thousand miles of field railway, which however is so 124 TBANSPOUTATION" OF TROOPS AXD MATERIEL light that it becomes easily deranged under heavy loads. Whilst such equipment has its proper place, as in siege operations, certain portions of lines of communications, at landing-places and terminal stations, and with armies in more or less permanent quarters, it is belicTed that its use should be limited to such cases. It is apparent that to build a railway into the immediate presence of active operations will reduce the mobility of the Army, which can be preserved by wheel and pack transportation only. If the Army were to delay its movements, or depend upon the laying of a new line of field railway, it is believed that it would be too much tied to one position, and would not be pos- sessed of the free mobility necessary to enable it to move with promptness and precision at the will of the commander. Furthermore, when it is understood that all the skill, in- dustry, and experience of the patriotic citizens who build and operate railroads will be at the disposition of the Government in time of stress, it would seem a wrong departure to undertake to train soldiers to the building and operation of railroads ; yet it is not to be understood by this that they will have nothing to say or do with the operations. On the contrary, the closest link wiU connect the militar}'^ with the railroad interests in the field of operations. The latter cannot accomplish the fullest pos- sibilities without a perfect knowledge of the precise object to be attained. And this is true, no matter whether the question be a large one of policy, involving the construction of a new line with terminals, or the very small question of the precedence of cars and the manner in which they are to be placed on the side- tracks. Transportation of Troops and Materiel by Land. I. LOGISTICS. "Whilst in the discussion of any subject connected with the Art of War the same degree of precision cannot be applied as in dealing with the exact sciences, yet it is to be borne in mind that the more completely the element of chauce can be eliminated the greater will be the probability of success in any military undertaking. It is to effect this desirable end that we make stud- ies of the Art of War in all its bearings. That branch of the Art of War pertaining to the movement and supply of armies is called Logistics. In order to cover the ground which belongs to the subject of Logistics, so far as it relates to the question of transportation of troops and supplies, the following questions will be for the commanding general, or the War Department, to determine : 1. The amount and kind of .supplies; which will depend upon The number cf troops of the various arms of the service, and the character and extent of the expedition or campaign, the cli- mate and season. 125 120 ti;\\>I'0!;tatio.v of tuoois and materiel . 'i. Tht' manner ir. v/hich such supplies and stores shall 1)C procured, whether b}' manufacture in the depots and arsenals, or by purchase in the n:a:ktts as amongst business men, or under proper contracts, will be questions lo Ije decided under super- vision of the Secretary <jf War by the bureau from which the f.upplies will be drawn. 3. The question of the storage and delivery of such sup- plies will be one requiring the joint action of the general com- manding the forces and the War iJepartment, and will depend upon the character and extent of the operations and theater of war. 4. The commanding general will state his needs and a gen- eral outline of the scope of the campaign, and the Supply De- partments will provide the stores in required quantities, which in turn wdll be forwarded by the transportation branch of the Quartermaster's Department to destinations designated by the commanding general. These and iiiMny other questions concerning supplies and transport will call for decision after the plans are matured, the conditions varying according as the troops are to be in garrison, ,c-antonment, temporary camp, or in active campaign. In order, then, that one may have fi general view of the sub- ject, there .should be a known comprehensives outline of the pol- icy of the War Department in furnishing supplies and materiel to the Army, so as to meet the needs of the Army in active cam- paign, and to give the commanding general a means of basing his calculations upon a fixed and reliable standard. This stand- ard is to be found in the supply tables. BY LAND. 127 The study of militarv history and campaigns will lone upon ithe student a realization of the careful bonds of union that have held together successful armies, and enabled them to move and camp, and move and fight, and move again, at the will of the commander. The strength of such an army has existed in the sufficiency of its supply and the certainty of its means of transport. Before we can intelligently enter upon the consideration of the subject of the transportation of the Anny and its supplies, within the field of operations it will be necessary to consider the conditions under which armies operate. During the feudal period the operations and movements of armies were gi'eatly restricted on account of the necessity of liv- ing on the country. It was rarely possible to fight a battle at the will of the commander, but rather to do so when the commander found himself in a district well supplied, and engagements most frequently occurred when he found himself more or less by acci- dent in the \-icinity of the enemy. With wholly inadequate means of transportation for supplies, he found it necessarv- to distribute his troops over a vast extent of territory, with a view to procur- ing subsistence, and in order to do battle, it was necessary to as- semble the scattered elements of his army. History records many instance? in which it was necessary for a superior army to disperse in order to subsast, when by remain- ing assembled it could without doubt have won decisive victories. A ver}' common device of war was that of laying waste the onemVs country, thereby destroying his source of supply and hin- dering his movements, and modern civilization has not wholly ended this means of crippling a foe. 128 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL The armies of to-day, it is true, when in the field, are more or less spread over a wide extent of territory, but not for the same reasons. The supplies are not, as a rule, gathered wholly from the country within the theater of war, but are rather forwarded from safe magazines and depots at the rear. The object of dis- tributing the force over a large extent of territory is to get suit- able and sanitaiy camp sites, properly provided with water and with such communications with the rear and laterally as will not hecome choked with the transportation of troops and supplies, ■and also to occupy such positions as may be necessary to properly restrict the operations of the enemy. The means, however, will be constantly at hand by which prompt concentration can be ef- fected and maintained, and an uninterrupted flow of supplies kept up, so that the forces in a properly organized command can, with a minimum of delay in time, be made available for battle with the maximum degree of certainty as to the supply of the Army in any position that the will of the commander may direct it to assume. The limit of time allowed for assembling the army for battle under such conditions is usually put at twenty-four hours. In order to accomplish the supply of the Army in the most satisfactory manner possible, the forces that are to be placed reg- .ularly on the fighting-line should be independent of those charged with procuring and forwarding supplies. The stores, supplies, and munitions of war are provided in our service by the various supply departments of the Army and forwarded by the transpor- tation branch of the Qaartermabter's Department. The problems of supply and transport for an army are feat- ures that rarely appear upon the pages of history, yet they cause BY LAND. 129 mor :-e anxiety and perplexity to governments anrl generals than does anything else short of the outcome of the battle itself, for in nearly everv campaign the questions of supply and transport cut so large a figure, that upon the efficient working out of these prob- lems the results often depend. Perhaps the best illustration of the sufferings of an army on account of the lack of organization in its transportation service is to be found in that of the British before Sebastopol ; where they remained on account of insufficient land transport, although then- objective was not n'jore than one good day's march distant. Colonel C. R. Shcrinton. of the British Army, thus describes the conditions of the transport provided to serve that army : '•'A heterogeneous rabble recruited in lln' puHious of our cit- ies, while muleteers and drivers ignorant alike oP the British tongue and European requirements arrived from every quarter. Mules from Spain, Italy, and Asia Minor, l)ullocks from Egypt, camels from Aral)ia, poured in without stint and regardless of cost; while vehicles of every class and character that the world could produce or ingenuity devise were landed at Balaklava. "Such Avas the land transport corps of the Crimea." Ample in materiel and personnel, but without in the begin- ning any organization whatever. As a result, the army was al- ways hungry and always ill supplied. A hungry army is sure to lose its discipline and esprit, and loo often will find in its necessities the license to plunder and loot. If, in addition to lack of food and clothing, the ammuni- tion suppy is not kept up, the army cannot fight and the cam- paign is lost. Once the supplies are exhausted, the time is 130 TEANSPOETATIOX OF TltOOI'S AND MATERIEL short that will convert an army into a disorganized, disheart- ened mob. It is quite as important for the mobihty of the Army that it be relieived of its sick and wounded as that it receive regularly its supplies. The absolute necessity, then, of constantly forwarding re- cruits, supplies, and nmnitions of war and of withdrawing the sick and wounded, and broken materiel, is. as great as the exist- ence of the Army itself. To accomplish these enlds, the staunchest means, the most direct and simple system, and the most careful organization, coupled with energetic action and a keen eye for looking into the future, are essential. We have followed the Army, its materiel and supplies, and had a glance at the manner in which this function is performed upon the water, and again over the systems of our railroads reach- ing to the limits of our sea coast and frontier in every direction. THE FINAL GAr. The final gap between the temporary depots and the Army itself will always be closed by means of lanjd transportation; either by wheeled vehicles, wagons, or carts, or by pack-animals of one variety or another — in our service chiefly by mules, or, as in the East, by use of coolie bearers, supplemented under favor- able conditions by traction engines and temporary field railways. The details of the operation of the ocean transport service wiU necessarily be left to those familiar with steam vessels; the details of operating railroads and the care of the railway equip- ment will be left to those versed in railway matters; instructions BY LAND. 131 and orders emanating from military authority on these classes of service will be of such character as will supplement the operation of the vessel or the road, and furnish a means of arriving at a full and definite understanding of the ends to be attained, and the manner and means of attaining them without friction and by the most direct methods, and cannot enter into the details of a service which is a class of its own. When, however, it becomes a matter of land transportation by wag(ms or pack-trains, a sub- ject is reached which it is believed the American Army has solved more completely so far as means are concerned, than any other service in the world. III. ROADS, BRIDGES, AND TRAILS. On the continent of Europe military operations overland will be carried forward along well-made roads as a rule, and compara- tively little difficulty will be experienced on account of these. In this country, however, no matter where the operations are carried forward, the roads will be at best indifferent, and from that to exceedingly bad or to those that are practically impassable in bad weather. It not only becomes the business of the Quartermaster's De- partment to organize and operate the trains, but to build and repair roads, and to keep the bridges in condition for crossing marshes, streams, and ravines. All the devices of road- and bridge-building are employed to accomplish this purpose. All the difficulties of road-construction may be encountered in the course 132 TRANSPORTATION" OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL of an active campaign. It may be necessary to build the road through marshes, over mountains, through a wildemessj or across rivers and quicksands. It will be necessary in almost every case to make use of the means to be found at hand for road-construc- tion, as the transportation will already be fully taxed with its regular work. The corduroy roads built through the swamps of Georgia and South Carohna by General Sherman's improvised battalions of pioneers are among the best examples of military road-bnildiug in the experience of our armies. Bridges may be built or repaired by the means to be found .on the ground, or, as has in some instances occurred, they may be sent complete from the base. The bridge-train of the engineer troops will afford an imme- diate means of crossing streams or ravines and of temporarily closing a gap in a brolcen bridge. Its legitimate use, however, is to move forward with the x\rmy and increase its mobility. There- fore upon the line of communications bridges of a more perma- nent character will necessarily be provided. For the satisfactory building and repair of roads and bridges a special service will be required. This service has usually been organized from civilians under military supervision, as the occa- sion in war has arisen. Such a service will be organized not only for the construction of the roads, but also for keeping tbom in repair, much after the fashion of the gangs of men on the railways of our country. Whilst it is believed that better results would follow if such gangs were enlisted in the service, it is thought that even then it would be necessary to employ great numbers of citizens as occasion might require. BY LAND. 13.'i lY. MEANS OF TRANSPORT— ANIMALS. (a) The Mule — The principal motive power upon which the Army depends for the transport of its stores., supplies, and munitions of war in active campaign is the mule, and a more reliable, trustworthy animal for the purpose does not exist. In peace times these animals are purchased under contract after due advertisement and according to specifications which read as follows : "Mules purchased for the Army by the Quartermaster's l)e- partment should conform to the following conditions: They should be strong, compact, sound, and kind; they should be free from defects m every particular; four to nine years old, 850 to 1200 pounds in weight, 14 to 16 hands high and suitable in all respects for the transportation service of the Army. If for draft purposes, they will be well broken to harness; pack-mules need not be broken, and may be not less than 131/2 hands high, if oth- erwise suitable." Animals fulfil] ing these specifications will be found very perfect for the aceomplishment of the purposes for which they are purchased. The great advantages possessed by the mule over other animals used for similar purposes are his great en- durance, his capacity for hard work on scant rations, his great recuperative powers, his quick response to fair treatment, his susceptibility to thorough training, and his willingness to al- ways do his best. 134 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL (&) Horses. — The use of the horse for draught purposes in our service is confined almost exclusively to the artillery arm in furnishing draught power for the guns and caissons. They are quicker in action, less likely to be stampeded under fire, but they require more careful attention and more forage ihan the mule. They are never now used for military draught purposes, other than those above indicated. (c) Oxen. — Formerly oxen were in great favor in our serv- ice for draught animals. They were especially used in the great supply trains that crossed the plains to our frontier posts one or two generations ago. In those days there was ample grass to be found along the trails, and in the neighborhood of the watering- and camping-places. These animals lived wholly on grass gath- ered along the trails, and were therefore valuable on account of their low ration bill; as the grass grew scant they were gradually forced out of their occupation, and have now given way to the mule. They are very slow, making not more than two miles an hour. They were largely used in the Boer War in South Africa, when they were yoked in teams of thirty-two animals, and hauled one principal wagon and tvi'o or three trailers. {d) Cardbao. — The carabao was much used in the supply trains in the Philippine Islands before a sufHcient number of mules had been sent out from the United States. These animals were very slow, from 1 to 2 miles per hour being their maximum speed on good roads, and about five miles per day being their limit. They were attached to the native two- wheeled cart; and possessed the advantage of being easily cared for, as they coulid live whoUy upon the country. They possessed BY LAND. 135 the disadvantage of having but little endurance; it is necessary to unyoke them every three or four hours and give them an oppor- tunity to wallow in the mud and water, to refresh themselves; and if no water is to be had in which to wallow, mud and water must be thrown over their bodies. If not treated jn this manner, they become crazed, and, incapable of being lillrained, will plunge madly through the jungle, until death ensues. (c) Coolies. — Chinese bearers were used for a time in the Philippines, and at one time were attached to companies. Colonel C. P. Miller has the following to say of them : "Four coolies for each company were allowed. During ac- tion, these men were of great use in carying off the dead and wounded, and in bringing up ammunition, and, considering their class and small pay, showed commendable courage in their work. While they would hug the ground and shake with fear during an action, when ordered forward for work which they recognized as theirs, with rare exceptions they were up and off, intent upon their duties; their fear forgotten. When the active campaigning with large bodies of, troops was over, there was a tendency in the com- panies to require these 'Chinos' to do all the dirty work about the kitchen and camp, handle all supplies, etc., thus tending to make the men think they could be called upon to do nothing but march and fight. Hence it was then thought best by the major- general commanding to discharge all 'Chinos' with companies." Especially good result? folloA\'ed from the use of these men at hospitals. In the advance on Pekin coolies were very largely used, both as laborers and wharf men, and for pack purposes. 136 TRANSPOKTATION OF TltOOPS AND MATERIEL When used as a means of transport or for any other purpose, they should be organized as carefully as one would organize a pack train or wagon train. Gangs should not number above 20, as that is the number that one man can properly overlook. One man, a superintendent, can then supervise four or five of these gangs. An oiTiuv will find it practicable to direct the oper- ations of five or six such units — i. e., a total of 500 or 600 men. (/) Dogs and Sledges. — Dogs are used in the Arctic regions both as pack animals and draught animals, principally for draw- ing sledges, and without this valuable means of transport those regions would be practically uninhabitable. Mules are also packed in this region when the trails can be properly broken. (g) Means Used by Other Nations — The English make much use of camels and elephants in their Indian and African service. The elephant is used both as a pack and draught ani- mal. The Japanese, in addition to an army of coolie carriers, make use of a light strong cart, ordinarily drawn by a pony led by B. man. This cart is frequently used as a hand cart, and can, if occasion require, be picked up with its load and carried over rough places by a number of men; a very useful feature in cam- paigning in rough and mountainous country. The ultimate test of the value of any means of transportation when all supplies must be carried from the rear will be found in its capacity to carry its own means of subsistence. Based on this calculation, our four- and six-mule teams will probably travel farther than any other means, except perhaps a Chinese coolie. Based on this test, the four-mule team carrying a load of 2,500 pounds will support itself for twenty-six days; on half ration of hay, for thirty-six day.-^: on short forage, grain only, sixty days. BY LAND. 137 The Chinese coolie will carry his own food for forty clays; the Japanese one-horse cart with driver, tor a niininiinn of fifteen days. V. MEANS OF TRANSPOHT— MATERIEL. (a) The Army Wagon. — Long before the outbreak of the Civil War, the six-mule army wagon had demonstrated its serv- iceability and utility in the transportation of supplies and muni- tions of war for the Army to the remote stations on the frontier. This wagon was found to be alike suitable for service on rough mountain roads, the sandy plains, and in crossing the shifting and uncertain beds of "Western rivers. It was used throughout the Civil War for heavy transport, and is still in use in our Army for like service; and it is not believed that for the services to which it is put there is any vehicle superior to it. It has been criticised for various reasons and improvements, so called, have been at- tempted, but iisually to discover after trial that the improvement has resulted in destroying some essential feature. Certainly no pattern that is used by any other army in the world would equally meet our requirements. It is strong, capacious, easily repaired, and its parts are interchangeable, so that, no matter what accident may happen, the wagon can be promptly placed in a state of serv- iceability by the addition of spare parts which are always carried with the train. If additional repairs are necessary, the traveling forge wdll accomplish them when the train parks for the night. The harness is equally strong and simple. Its weight is 2,100 138 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AtiB MATERIEL pounds, drawn b}' six mules driven by one man. Its load will be from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds, according to the character of the roads and the necessities for rapid communication, (&) 2' he Escort Wagon. — The escort wagon is lighter in its construction (1,600 pounds), is drawn by four mules, driven by one man, and carries a load of f^om 2000 to 3000 pounds, accord- ing to the character of the roads and other conditions. This vehicle has grown into great popularity during the war with Spain and subsequent thereto, especially in the Philippine Islands, where it has been given a mosi thorough test. When seen in China by the troops of other nations, rigged with four mules, guided by a single driver, always at the heels of the advancing troops, ready to supply them with camp necessities, and even luxuries, it was looked upon by foreigners as something amazing. And when they were told that this was our light form of vehicle, and that a heav- ier one, drawn by six animals,^ driven by a single teamster, was used for the heavier classes of service, they listened with polite- ness, but with very evident incredulity. The four-mule wagon as recently moditied, with broad tire, wooden hub, reinforced body, flaring sideboards, and other minor improvements that give the full capacity of the bed for carrs'ing the load, and with stores put up in convenient packages for completely and solidly load- ing the bed of the wagon, is believed to be almost perfect for mili- tary purposes on fair roads. It is not considered necessary to further discuss the classes of wagons provided by the Quarter- master's Department, farther than to state that it is the experience of more than a generation that the six-mule army wagon, for hard rough work, has met all the requirements of the most severe cam- BY LAXD. 139> paigEc ever engaged in by an army; and that the new four-mule wagon, for active operations and quick work, is superior to any similar transport known to any service. These wagons can prop- erly be referred to under the head of supply wagons. The two classes of vehicles here described are those upon which the Army will almost wholly depend for forwarding supplies and stort-s from the terminal railroad station, or wharves, and distributing them to the troops. The si.x-mule wagon will be used on the lines of communications and the four-mule wagon for regimental trans- port with the troops. Any increase in the variety of wagons for transport service should not be thought of, owing not only to the perfection of those now in use, but also to the difficulties always encountered in supplying spare parts to a multiplicity of varieties of wagons, even though differing very slightly. This was mark- edly exemplified during the Spanish-American War, when it was necessary to procure, practically at a moment's notice, all vehicles approximately suitable for the purpose that there were on the market. Even expert wagon men were greatly confused in assort- ing at depots the various spare parts, and requisitions coming in were almost never sufficiently precise in their descriptions to en- able intelligent compliance. All of which resulted in many wagons, of various commercial varieties, being for a considerable time laid up for repairs, many of which on the march would have been abandoned. (c) Special Vehicles. — , 1. For use at posts, mule carts and small hand carts are pro- vided. These, however, are never taken into the field. Alsa 140 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND ilATERlEL water wagons, sanitary carts, and other necessary means are fur- nished for post purposes. 2. .For hospital uses there is provided the ambulance equipped with stretchers for carrying the sick and wounded; also a form of travois is used for this purpose. For carrying sup- plies and equipage the four-mule wagon is used. 3. The Signal Corps is equipped with special wagons to accomplish the needs of that service. They consist of wire wagons, spar wagons, balloon wagons, dispatch wagons, etc. 4. The Engineer Corps is provided with a special trans- port of pontoon wagons, chess wagons, spar wagons, tool wagons, «tc. Tn addition to these special wagons, it is necessary to furnish supply wagons to these special corps for providing extra forage, rations, and other supplies, and for carrying necessary equipage. Other armies, in addition to wagons above named, also pro- vide in some cases for special wagons to be used as the company kitchens, the bakery, soup cart, etc.; also a special cart is used in some cases for supply of ammunition. 5. Traction Engines. — Many military writers on the subject of transportation in foreign armies highly commend the use of traction engines, and automobiles. Our own observers in the South African campaigns urgently recommend the use of auto- mobiles and mechanical traction instead of herds' of slow draught animals which require food and rest. In an official report it is stated that: "In Natal traction engines are used with the mov- ing army on all kinds of roads, crossing drifts in low water with- out difficulty. I believe (the report says) traction engines, auto- taobiles, and portable railways to be the most essential part of BY LAND. 141 the transport equipment of an army." Our liniitod experionco does not support this view. Undoubtedly, under favorable conditions automobile pas- senger vehicles would be useful for carrying goheral and staff officers on hurried tours of iu^-])oclion and for the use of tech- nical services. Motor cycles for use of messengers could also be advanta- geously used under similar favorable conditions. Traction engines and mechanical trucks for carrying supplii^s and war materiel on the lines of communications, supplement- ary to the general supply trains, when the road-bed will permit of their use and all other conditions are favorable, would un- doubtedly be advantageous. The limitations of the use of such vehicles, however, are many, and the radius of action very lim- ited. Their use would bo imyu'acticable in passing deep fords, marshes, muddy places, steep gradients, weakly constructed cul- verts and bridges, such as abound on our country roads. It is not understood under these circumstances how traction ■engines or automobile trucks can possibly be made the chief reli- ance of an army. The electric wagon must dbviously be excluded, as facilities will not exist for it.'^ recharging. The steam machine can only be used under favorable circumstances — viz. : 1. T^Hiere the Avater is pure and will not cause deterioration in the boilers. 2. Where the gradients are not too great, the road-bed good, the culverts and bridges strong, and where muddy and marshy stretches of road can be avoided. 142 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL In military operations in this country these favorable con- ditions are only occasionally met with. Undoubtedly, if along the lines of communications, such conditions exist, suitable use will be made of traction engines and automobile trucks. The main reliance of the Army, however, between terminal station and the front, will always 1)e upon animal transport. VI. OEGANIZATIOX OF FIELD TEA>sTSPORT. The transport of supplies and materiel for our Army in the field, exclusive of that carried by the special vehicles of the staff •corps, and of that which the soldier carries with him for imme- diate use, is accomplished normally by the four- and six-mule wagons with such auxiliary transport as may from time to time be hired or chartered under the pressure of special conditions. It has always been our policy in active campaigns to make use of purely military transport in contact with the troops, and, if neces- sary, to employ auxiliary transport on the lines of communications and at remote points. Pack trains are only used under circumstances when it is impossible to operate wheeled vehicles over very rough ground, mountain trails, and through marshy ground impassable for ■wheels. In the consideration of the method of organization, so as to produce the best results, the wheel transportation provided for an iirmy falls naturally into three general divisions: BY LAND. 143 1. The baggage wagons attached to regiments and other organisations, which carry the baggage of the troops to which they are attached, and only sufficient supplies of commissaries, about two days, and ammunition for immediate use. Usually one ambulance is also attached. This will be called regimental transport. 2. The supply trains that march with the army, and which may be organized as brigade, division or corps trains, to carry the supplies and materiel needed by the army, and perioJiqully distribute them. This class of transport will be called the divis- ional supply train, no matter whether it follows a corps, a divis- ion, a brigade, a regiment, or an inidependent detachment operat- ing alone. 3. The general supply trains which operate along the lines of communications and forward the supplies from the depot, or terminal rail station, which will always be a temporary depoet, to the advance or flying depot, where they can be reached by the ^livisional supply trains operating with the army. This class of transport will be called general supply trains. The usual organization fior the supply trains will be by divis- ion. The general repair shops for the field should also be by division, with a ininor shop with each brigade. The division shops should carry a full supply of spare parts, together with means of repairing all breaks. Tools, of course, will be carried for repair of wood-work, iron-work, and harness, and employees to effect the repairs will constitute a portion of the personnel. 144 TRANSPORTATION OF TKOOPS AND irATERIEL There will also l^e a well-equipped repair shop at the ter- jiiinal rail station for effecting repairs for the general supply trains, and if the line of communications is long, intermediate shops will be established for the same purpose. The duties of these three classes of transport are fixed and definite and provide for the complete mobility of the Army, with the least confusion and the greatest certainty and expedition. The regimental transport marches with the army and car- ries such impedimenta and stores as are required in making camp at night; this will include such camp equipage- baggage, cook- ing utensils, and rations as may be authorized by proper authority, ■and, under certain circumstances, to be determined by the com- manding general, an additional supply of ammunition. The divisional supply trains will march in rear of the army or organization to which attached in the order directed by the commanding general, and in general at the distances prescribed by the same authority. They will constitute the flying depot and will conform to the movements of the army, and serve the regi- mental trains with the stores, supplies, ammunition, etc., accord- ing to the orders of the commanding general, and will carry the surplus ammunition to be distributed on the eve of and during the battle. Ilie general supply trains \\'ill operate along the lines of communications, carr3dng forward ithe supplies and materiel from the temporary depot at the terminal station to the advance depot, where they are transferred to the divisional supply trains, which place them in the hands of the regim.ental trains for distribution to the troops. BY L A.ND. 145 The foregoing is a description of the method of supplying an arniy on the march. lender such conditions, only so many of the loads of the divisional supply trains will be delivered to the regimental train as the latter can carry for the ensuing day. Similarly the general supply colunm will deliver only what can be carried by the divisional trains. If necessary, the loaded gen- eral supply trains may temporarily join the divisional supply columns until their loads are required. The constitution of regi- mental trains will be fixed by regulations and orders, as will also the divisional trains. The general supply trains, however, will be variable in their number and strength according to the dis- tance it may be necessary for them to cover along the lines of communications. If the army halts in a position secure from attack, the gen- eral supply trains and the divisional supply trains may perform one service, that of general supply, and advance depots may be established in the vicinity of the troops, within reach of the regi- mental transport. This arrangement divides the work equally and ■gives all transport concerned an opportunity to rest. It may be that the troops will be encamped in the immediate vicinity of the rail station, when the functions of both general supply and divisional supply may disappear. Again, in the event of a detached organization on an inde- pendent expedition, as, for example, a raid for a definite period of time, it will be necessary to allot so much of the divisional or general supply transport to the expedition as will be necessary to carry the supplies for the entire period, unless other provision is. made for the supply of the detachment. 10 — ■ 146 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL Again, upon the change of the terminal station and estab- lishment of a new temporaiy depot, or the establishment of a new base, the entire transport -will, for the time being, conform to the movements of the army. All of these cases, however, are apparent modifications of ihe one proposed wherein the three lines of transport are pro- vided; and, on the other hand, circumstances cau easily be con- ceived when an additional line would seemingly be desirable. Yet for the maximum of mobility, with the minimum of confusion and friction, the three lines are necessary. The responsibilities of each clas§ are fixed and definite, and the responsibility for fail- ure can be definitely fixed. (a) Baggage Wagojis or Eegimental Trains. — The regi- mental train for infantry under the Field Kegulations consists of 1? escort wagons, 3 ammunition wagons and 1 ambulance. This allows for 850 pounds for tentage, 250 pounds for officers' baggage, 350 pounds for cooking utensils, with two days' ra- tions, and grain for the animals; giving a load of about 2300 pounds. With beef on the hoof, no tentage, scant vegetables, 1 escort wagon loaded \vill supply a company for ten days. The provision for a cavalry regiment is 29 escort wagons and 1 am- bulance. For a battery of artillery, 3 escort wagons. These fig- ures, whilst they are given in the Eegulations, may be increased or dimnished according to circumstances, an increase being per- mitted, however, only under authority of the Secretary of War, The conditions of service vary so greatly that it will almost always be necessary for the commanding general of an expedi- tionarv force, a sej^arate army, or an independent organization. ]}Y LAND. 147 to fix the allowance of baggage and transportation for the occasion. The object of the regimental train is to provide for carrying everything that will be immediately needed on going into camp, and preceding an action. The regimental train may be called the first line. (&) Divisional Supply Trains. — The second line would be the divisional supply column, which will carry the necessary ra- tions, forage, ammunition, and other supplies for the early needs of the command. Ammunition Column. — The supplies and materiel carried in the divisional supply trains will not include what is known as the reserve supply of ammunition, which will be carrifed in a separate ammunition column, attached to the divisional supply train, and which will not be distributed except on the eve of action. This train will be under the command of an officer, who will keep in constant communication with the chief of artillery. During an engagement he will maintain a designated place with his train; the position should be marked by a designating iiag, in order that he may be readily located. All interested commanders should be notified of this location. The divisional trains ■\^'ill consist of such number of teams and wagons as will be necessary to carry the reserve supply of am.munition. rations for not less than three days, division hos- pital equipment, the ambulances of the divisional ambulance companies, etc. This number will vary with the conditions of the campaign and with the size and composition of the command. 148 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL (c) General Supply Trains. — The general supply train* will consist of such numbers of teams and wagons and ambulances as may be necessary to carry forward to tlie division trains the sup- plies required and to return to the base the sick and disabled. The number of such trains, as well as the number of teams in a train, will vary according to the character and length of the line of communications. No nation in the world pretends to main- tain in time of peace the field transportation that w;ill be required in time of war. The inost that is done is to maintain the form, 'so that it can bo filled out and expanded, with the least amount of delay, 'and still be controlled by those familiar with the duties and requirements of the service. It does not seem necessary to speak here of the desirability of providing an enlisted force for such organization in our service, which will furnish at least a framework of experienced men, for expansion in time of need. VII. ORGANIZATION OF THE TEAIN. The most satisfactory and most mobile organization for wagon trains in our service is as follows: For each train : ?7 wagons and teamsters, 1 wagonmaster, 2 assistant wagonmasters, 1 watchman, 1 cook, 1 extra teamster. BY LAND. 149 Where trains operate separately, a blacksttnith-farrier should be added to the personnel. Where a number of trains operate together, they will be un- der the general supervision and control of a trainmaster, who will be responsible, under the orders of the quartermaster, for their conduct and operation. This organization of the train gives a unit which is suitable, with a slight reduction, for the full field service of a, regiment of infantry, and ample for carrying the necessary equipage and gupplies on a march of ten days^ duration. It is susceptible of being divided into minor units of three parts, to each of which raay be allotted a separate class of stores, or each one of which can be assigned, if desired, to a battalion when operating inde- pendently, and each one of which will have a wagonmaster. or as- sistant wagonmaster, in charge. The number of wagons to each train can be increased or reduced if temporarily desired, with- out destroying the organization and integrity of the train. In the increased condition the train can be subdivided into three sec- tions for use according to local needa and constantly changing conditions. VIII. OPEEATION OF TRAINS. In a large general corral established in Havana in 1898 for the transportation of supplies and materiel from the wharves and depots in Havana to the troops of the 7th Army Corps anld other organizations in and about the city of Havana, an organization similar to that al)OVG mentioned was in etlect. 160 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS A>iD MATERIEL This corral was made up of eleven wagon ferains, each organ- ized practically as above outlined. In the organization of a body of transportation of such magnitude, it was necessary to employ a system as complete as that which regulates the organization of a regiment. The wagons were numbered consecutively from 1 up, ex- cept that all wagons in excess of 25 in each train took the con- secutive letters of the alphabet — i. e., 25A, 25B, oOA, SOB, etc. If trains were reduced below 25, the vacant numbers were omitted. This method simplified identified tion of any wagon, team, or driver, and at the same tijne provided an easy means of designating trains, which were called Train 25, Train 50, Train 75, etc., using the highest number in the train. If the trains were loaded with mixed supplies, the corresponding wagons were always loaded with the same class of supplies; e. g., 1 to 10, 2& to 34, etc., with commissaries; the next ten witli ainnviini- tion; the lettered wagons with forage, etc. The corral, and all the personnel, supplies, and materiel connected therewith, as well as the operation of the trains, were controlled by a superintendent of corrals, who was intrusted with the immediate administration of the service. His work- ing staff consisted of: 1st. A corral master, responsible for the orderly arrange- ment of the corral and for the discipline and general arrange- ment and management of the animals and men of the trains while within its limits. In addition to these duties, the corral master had charge of the men's mess. 2d. A superintendent of transportation was in charge of the EY LAND. 151 outside work of the trains. He had 'general supervision over all teams at work, and was responsible for their performance of the required duty with the greatest possible degree of efliciency, and that the wagonmasters and assistant wagonmasters understood and carried out their orders and maintained ])ropor discipline within their trains. He was also responsible for the operation, equipment, and efficiency of all trains. In each train the wagonmaster was responsible for its con- dition, discipline, and operations ; he had for his assistants two as- sistant wagonmasters, to whom he could delegate certain portions of his duties. Each teamster was made responsible for the con- dition of his team and wagon, and its equipment, and for all property placed in his possession, and supplies entrusted to him for transportation. Each teamster, as his wagon was loaded, re- ceived a a dray ticket, for which he was responsible to his wagon- master. The latter in turn was cliargcd with getting tickets re- ceipted upon delivery of the load, and finally depositing them with the shipping clerk. 3d. The foragemaster was responsible upon signed receipts for all forage delivered at the corral, for its issue, and for its proper feeding. 4th. A superintendent of shops direc-ted the work of re- pairs of the blacksmith's, wheelwright's, saddler's, painter's, and other shops, and within each of these shops there was a working foreman, who was wholly responsible for the character of work performed. oth. A foreman of laborers was made responsible for the unskilled lalior. 152 TRANSPORTATIOX OF TROOPS AX7) ifATERIEL 6 th. A property clerk kept the individual property account of each employee, and for all property in the corral and train? for which the quartermaster wds responsible. This employee was required to give a property clearance slip before payment •was made to discharged employees. He also made requisitions for supplies and materials required for repairs, and kept the store- house record of all property required for. expended, and on hand, within the corrals. Each of these employees had well-defined duties to perform, and no conflict of authority could arise. These wagon trains operated over a distance of eleven or twelve miles of rough road, and carried the supplies for the Army Corps in a satisfactory manner, and in a state of reduced num- bers was finallv disbanded on Mav 20. 1902. after handlinff manv himdreds of millions of pounds of stores, during nearly four years of operations, without the loss of a single article, except, in the beginning, a few minor items of commissary supplies, for which the teamsters responsible for the loss promptly paid the value in each case. These wagon trains were organized for the class of service that we have called general supply. Their organization was com- plete and their responsibilities fixed, so that without confusion or delay, they were able to leave the corral at any time, for any class of service required, for a period of a few hours to many days or weeks, and with the feeling on the part of the responsible officer that whatever their operations might be, tiiey coidd be safely re- lied upon to do their work in an entirely satisfactory manner. "Without doubt, the best form of transport is an enlisted per- sonnel, weU provided with non-commissioned officers, and a ma- BY LAND. 153 teriel of uniform pattern owned by tlie Government. Yet all our wars except that of the Kevolution have been fought with a civilian personnel in the transportation service. IX. YAEIATIOX FEOM THE NORMAL OEGAXIZATIOX UXDEK SPECIAL CIRCUMSTAXCES. It will rarely be found that the provisions of the Eegulations for r^imental transport will ervactly suit the conditions and en- vironment. It will in some eases be found desirable to increase the regimental transport at the expense of the divisional and gen- eral transport In other cases it "wtU without doubt be found desirable to reduce the regimental transport and increase the other forms. During the Civil War the r^imental transport varied from thirteen wagons in the beginning to one wagon at the close for each regiment. The conditions that will influence the command- ing general in reducing the r^imental transport below the figure ^ed by regulations or current orders wiU be, (1) From neces- eity, by reason of inability to procure the full amount; (2) On account of the space it takes up on the march and the consequent encumbering of the ground needed for the movement of troops; (3) On account of close proximity to the enemy and consequent danger of damage or capture and the necessity for freedom of movement; (4) The c-onsideration of economy, or nec-essity for limiting expenditures for lack of means. As a concrete example of such adaptation, and as an illus- tration of a system capable of expansion or contraction as de- 154 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS Al^D MATERIEL sired; the following order was recommended in a recent camp of maneuver. So much of the order was published as covered the case in point. The order is a composite one, consolidated from the principal transportation orders issued at various times to our armies in the field. GENEEAL FIELD TEANSPORTATION OEDEK. The figures given in this order may not seem, in some cases, to be adequate. However, the endeavor has been to cover all reasonable points of requirement, on the subject of wheel and pack transportation, leaving it to special circumstances to de- termine the practicability of adopting or altering the figures re- cited. It is believed that such requirements in some form are essential for a mobile army, and they should be susceptible to change according to the requirements of varying conditions. "General Orders. "1^0. Headquarters Provisional Division. "The following orders, prescri|bing the means of transporta- tion and camp and garrison equipage for the Provisional Divis- ion, supersede all former orders with which they are in conflict.^' The object of this order is to fully cover all points con- nected with the subject of organization of wheiel and pack trans- portation. The first paragraph of the order reads as follows: BY LAND. 1 55 "1. The wagon and pack trains attached to the Division will be concentrated in central corrals. Those of the cavalry bri- gade at such point near the eastern boundary of the camp as will be indicated by the Chief Quartermaster of the Division. Those for all infantry organizations^ and such other organizations as may be designated under the orders of the Division Commander, at a point to be indicated by the Chief Quartermaster near the western boundary of the camp. "The trains of the Engineer Corps, the Signal Corps, and the Hospital Corps, and riding horses of mounted officers will be parked in camp with their respective organizations. "So much of the transportation of the artillery as may be required for camp use, under the approval of the Division Com- mander, will be held in the camp of that organization. The re- mainder will be placed in park in the general infantry corral. "All trains will be parked in the central corrals according to directions to be given by the Chief Quartermaster of the Division." The object of providing for this means of parking the trains in this particular case was that the ground did not lend itself ac- ceptably to the parking of the various trains in camp with the organizations to which they were attached. In view of the limit- ed amount of space, the compactness of the camp was provided for by this method of parking. In addition, it is often found desirable to detach a certain amount of transportation from some organizations in camp, and assign it to other organizations arriving \\ithout transportation, in order to equalize the trans- portation. While this may not seem acceptable to regimental" 156 TRANSPORTATION OP TROOPS AND MATERIEL •commanders in all cases, yet it is believed to be for the good of the whole establishroent. The trains of the Signal Corps, Engineer Corps, and Hos- pital Corps will remain with their respective organizations, for the reason that this transportation is of a distinctive character, and mainly useful only to the organizations to which it is attached. The second paragraph of the order reads as follows : "2. The organization of the transportation service for regi- ments, squadrons, batteries, and other organizations assembled in camp of maneuver will be as follows as far as possible : "Each regiment of infantry will have seven wagons set aside for its use; each squadron of cavalry will have five wagons set -aside for its use. These wagons will be under the immediate or- ders of the regimental or squadron quartermasters. Each bat- tery of artillery will have two wagons set aside for its use. ISTine wagons in excess of the regimental wagons will be subject to the Orders of the brigade quartermaster, forming a supply train for each brigade. All wagons in excess of this number remaining after allotment to brigades and regiments will be subject to the orders of the Chief Quartermaster of the Division, and will be k)rganized into a separate division train for the service of ammu- pition, commissary supplies, forage, and reserve medical supplies and equipment. In addition to this, the Chief Quartermaster will have a separate general supply train for the service of storehouses, depots, and for the exceptional services required in a camp of this character. "The police train of contract wagons will perform the ser- vice of policing the kitchens. BY LAND. 157 "Kegimental ti'ansportation should be assigned for infantry on the march as follows: "One wagon to two companies, and one wagon to regi- mental headquarters, field and staff. "For cavalry, one wagon to each troop, and one each to squad- ron and regimental headquarters. For artillery, two wagons for each battery, and one for bat- talion headquarters. "For brigades operating independently, the transportation for brigade headquarters and reserve supplies will not exceed nine wagons, which will be subject to the orders of the brigade quar- termaster. Eegimental ' quartermasters will call upon brigade quartermasters for any transportation needed in camp in excess of regimental transportation for special purposes. Should the brigade quartermaster not have it available, he should call upon the Division Quartermaster for such transportation. Eequests for transportation should not reach the Division Quartermaster until all the resources of the regiments and brigades have been exhausted." The object of organizing the trains in this fashion is to pro- vide for an equitable distribution of all the transportation assem- bled and to provide at least a nucleus for all classes of transpor- tation, in order to exhibit the system upon which the transpor- tation of the command would operate and the uses to which all is put. All transportation assembled in camp is thus allotted and provision is made for the equitable use of all. The full al- lowance provided in General Orders of the War Department is not available with the transportation assembled. M58 TRANSPORTATION OF TEOOl'S AND MATERIEL By the provisions of this order it is proposed that each reg- linieht of infantry, squadron of cavalry, and battery of artillery Bhall have a certain amount of transportation available for its im- mediate use in camp, and a similar amount on the march and in bivouac. In addition to this, a certain additional amount is set aside under the orders of the brigade quartermaster, who will be able to carry for his brigade a small amount of stores m case the brigade acts separately, and he will be able to provide for its needs from these supply wagons for a limited length of time; or, in case a regiment is detached with instructions to act separately for a longer period of time, the supplies can be furnished by the brigade wagons temporarily assigned to the regiment. Or should a brigade take the field for a longer period of time than supplies can be carried by the brigade wagons, the division trains may be drawn upon to furnish supplementary transportation. The division train provides for additional supplies for the division should it take the field; and the general supply train provides for the keeeping up of the continual forwarding of the supplies to points where they can be picked up by the division trains, and, in case it is practicable to do so, may go forward and substitute witli the division trains, all of which will have an organization similar to the organization of the general supply trains. This organization, it is believed, will also be found useful in the service of the camp, inasmuch as, it provides for all proper camp services, all in consecutive order, in such a way that the service should be had without confusion; and should an organi- zation find itself insufliciently supplied with transportation for BY laVND. 159 any special purpose, a read}' means is indicated as to how the difficulty luay be remedied. Paragraphs 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 read as follows: "3. For the transportation of headquarters of the Majoi-r General commanding^ and such officers as are attached thereto, such wagons and light spring wagons, saddle horses, and camp equipage will be allotted as may be deemed necessary from time to time, to be assigned by the Chief Quartermaster at Division Headquarters. "4. For the headquarters of a brigade, one escort wagon, which will be part of the brigade train, two extra saddle horses for contingent wants, one hospital tent for the office of the bri- gade commander, one wall tent for the brigade commander, and one for each officer of the brigade staff. "5. For a regiment of infantry, squadron of cavalry, bat- tery of artillery, and other organizations in permanent camp, the camp equipage will be as prescribed in existing orders. The transportation for camp service will be as prescribed in paragraph 2 of this order. "6. The allowance of baggage wagons and pack mides for officers when on temporary detached service will be as follows: To every three officers, one pack mule; to every tw^elve company officers, one wagon, or four pack mules. This transportation to be drawn from regimental or brigade transportation, or, if not available there, application will be made to the Chief Quarter- master of the Division. "7. For camp service and for bivouac the transportation for the troops will be as follows : For each regiment of infantry. 160 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL one wagon for every two companies, one wagon for field and staff ^ for cavalry, one wagon for each troop, one wagon for each squad- ron headquarters and one wagon for regimental headquarters; for artillery, two wagons for each battery, one wagon for head- quarters artillery battalion.'^ As it is contemplated that part or all of the command will be from time to time in bivouac, it is deemed desirable that the amount of transportation for such bivouac be prescribed, in order that it may be uniform throughout the division. "8. When the division bivouacs, the following will be the maximum amount of tentage allowed: "For division and brigade headquarters, one wall tent lor division and brigade commanders, and one for every two staff officers. "To each full regiment of infantry, for the colonel, field and staff, three w^all tents. "For all other commissioned officers, one shelter tent each. "For every two non-commissioned ollicers, privates, team- sters, etc., as far as they can be supplied from the tentage on (hand in the organization to M'hich the}- belong, one shelter tent. All other tentage than the above will remain standing in camp under guard. "For each cavalry squadron, one wall tent for headquar- ters and staff. Other tentage as prescribed for a regiment of infantry." It is believed that an order should set forth with a good deal of preciseness what will be expected of the officers and organ- BY LAND. 161 izations in the way of teiitage in bivouac, and tliat none of flTis should Idc left to the discretion of tlie officers concerned. "9. The allowance of oliicers' baggage in bivouac will be limited to a bedding roll, not to exceed sixty pounds in weight, one small valise, and a ivasonublc moss kit for each mess. The men going into bivouac will carry no baggage except blan- kets and shelter tents."' This prescribes the maximum allowance of baggage for biv- ouac, which it is believed should also be set forth in orders. "10. The foregoing wagons and pack mules will include transportation for all personal baggage, mess chests, cooking utensils, field rations for immediate use, desks, papers, etc. "All transportation and camp and garrison equipage in ex- cess of this order will be inmiediately reported to the Chief Quar- termaster of the Division, who will indicate the disposition to be made thereof. "The brigade supply train will, on the march, curry the nec- essary supplies for the brigade. "The division supply train will, on the march, carry the nec- essary reserve supplies for the division. "The general supply train will place the stores where they can be reached by the division supply train, and, under certain circumstances, will be interchangeable with the division supply train." The foregoing paragraph indicates the difference between what can properly be called baggage wagons for the regiments and squadrons, etc., and the supply trains, which carry the supplies required, such as ammunition, subsistence, forage, etc. n — 162 TRANSPOKTATIOX OF TROOPS AjSD MATERIEL "11. The division supply trains "and; general supply trains will each uniformly consist ofl twenty-seven wagons to each train ; each wagon will be completely equipped with proper extra parts, and will be supplied with the usual necessary accompanying tools, wagon covers, etc., ''Each train will be under the control of a wagonmaster, as- gisted l)y two assistant wagonmasters, and will be provided with one extra teamster, one cook, and one watchman." The foregoing paragraph gives, it is believed, a most satis- factory wagon train organization; thoroughly cit'ective as a whole, easily divisible into three effective units, if desired, equal or un- equal in size, and equipped in every way for producing the best results for the ser^dce. "12. For the artillery and small-arms ammunition train, transportation will be furnished as follows ; "For 50 rounds of ammunition for each piece of field ar- tillery ; t^vo wagons for a batter}^ o£ six guns. One hundred rounds per man, each for infantry and cavalry ; three wagons per 1,000 men. Eeserve revolver ammunition. GO rounds per man, for 1,000 men; one wagon lightly loaded. "N"ecessary wagons to carry this amount of ammunition will be provided from the division trains whenever the commanding General shall direct. "13. In estimating weights to be carried on wagons and pack mules, they will be figured as follows: Pounds. Weight of 1 field ration 4 . 1.000 rounds ammunition, infantrv and cavalrv 80 BY LAXI). 163 Pounds. 1,000 rounds amniunition. rr-voUfr 37 Vj 100 rounds shrapnel -^,000 1 ration, grain, mide - 9 1 ration, grain, horse 1"^ '"The usual load for a pack mule is 200 pounds; under the most favorable conditions and the greatest necessity, this ma}' be increased to 250 pounds for short distances. "The load for an army wagon varies from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds. The load for an escort wagon varies from 2,000 to 3,000 pounds, according to the condition of the roads. "Conmianding officers will be held responsible that the reg- imental baggage wagons are not overloaded. Quartermasters in charge of trains will be held responsible that supply trains are not overloaded. Hay will not be carried on the march in baggage or supply wagons." The two preceding paragraphs give all the data necessary for estimating the number of wagons required for the transpor- tation of any desired quantity- of gubsistence, ammunition, and forage. It is deemed desirable to give this in orders, as it will not always be found con^ enient to search the manuals for these figures. Figures are given in round numbers. a,s it may often happen that wagonmasters, or even teamsters, may be called upon to figure the weights of their loads. "14. For the general brigade and division supply trains, to carry sufficient subsistence supplies for five days for every 1,000 men, cavalry and infantry, and short forage for the teams will require seven escort wagons. 164 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL "To the cavali\y division, and for the artillery brigade, should be allowed, when in active campaign, the necessary number of wagons to carry the weight of forage, rations, and other supplies for the period that is contemplated that it shall be in active opera- tions away from depot.'' ' The preceding paragraph shows the number of wagons re- quired for supplies for certain numbers of troops for fixed periods^ and provides that for cavalry, artillery, and other organizations, when detached, transportation shall be furnished, depeniding upon the period for which they will be detached. "15. The unit of organization for the transportation or suo- sistenc«, ordnance, and general supplies will be by division. The Chief Quartermaster of the Division will be responsible for the conduct and discipline of the supply trains. Brigatle quartermas- ters will be responsible for the conduct and discipline of the bri- gade trains. Eegimental quartermasters will be responsible for the regimental property and baggage, and the trains under their charge, "Quartermasters will attend in person to the drawing of nec- essarv' supplies at depots, and will habitually accompany their trains on the march." This paragraph provides for the proper conduct and disci- pline of trains. "16. Commissary stores and forage will be transported in the supply trains, and not in the regimental and squadron bag- gage wagons, except that which is required for immediate con- sumption. When the supply trains are not convenient of access and when troops act in detachments, the Quartermaster's De- BY LAND. 1 65 partrtient will assign wagons or pack mules for the purpose of carrying supplies for immediate use, but the baggage of officers or troops, or camp equipage, will not be carried in the wagons, or on animals so assigned." This paragraph prescribes certain definite property to be carried' in baggage trains, and prohibits cei'tniii other property from being carried in supply trains. '"'l?'. The wagons allowed to a regiment or other organiza- tion will carry nothing but forage for their teams, cooking uten- sils for the men and ofiicers, field rations immediately required, and the authorized officers' baggage. It is contemplated that each Tjaggage wagon, except those of the ammunition trains, will carry the necessary forage for its own team for immediate use." By '^rations for immediate use" is to be understood rations to be used imtil such time as it is contemplated to draw upon the division supply trains accompanying the command, about two days. The following paragraphs are disciplinary in character: ''18. On the march, unless otherwise ordered by the com- manding General, the baggage train of each brigade will follow in the rear of the brigade except when an early engagement is antici- pated, when all transportation except the ammunition train will follow in the rear of the army or will be otherwise disposed as the commanding general shall direct. Brigade trains will be under the direction of the brigade quartermaster, who will use every effort for the preservation of thej strictest order and discipline.^' "19. Freight trains will be driven at a walk. Any teamster found trotting or running his team will be awarded such punish- ment as the case merits. i 166 TRANSPOKTATIOX OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL "Unneeessarv locking of wheels is prohibited." "20. jSTo soldier shall ride in loaded baggage wagons, nor in empty wagons except by special instructions to that effect, to be given by proper authority.'"' "21. The division supply trains will, as a general rule, fol- low the baggage trains of the troops for whom the supplies are •intended. Should a train be delayed by accident on the march, it will be dra\>'n to one side of the road, while those in the rear will close up the interval. Whenever trains or wagons for any rea- son halt from any cause, they will, as far as possible, be drawn to one side of the road, so as to admit of free passage of troops* 'artillery, and otlier trains that may be en route to the front." "22. If trains meet on the road, those advancing towards the enemy will be given right of way, and those going to the rear will halt if there is not room to pass while in motion." "23. In drawing supplies from tlie depot, the officer or other person in charge of the train to be loaded with supplies will park his train at a point to be indicated by a representative of the Quar- termaster's Department in the vicinity of the depot, then report to the depot officers for instructions as to the time and manner of bringing up his train to receive the supplies." "24. Mess for Teamsters. — In cases where teamsters have no separate mess, but mess with their organizations, suitable pro- vision will be made by commanding officers, so that teamsters may not be delayed in procuring their meals." "25. Wagons and their covers will be designated by the fol- lowing markings on wagon bodies and wagon covers: ?,Y LAND. 167 "■Iieginiciitel baggage \vagx)iis will siiuw the designation of the regiment, above or iu front of proper brigade and division device. "Brigade baggage and supply wagons will bear the proper brigade and division device. "Division wagons will bear the division device, and the 'wagons making up the division supply train:^ will bear the device pf the supply department whose supplies they carry, in addition •to the division device. In addition, the ammunition train will ishow in colored and horizontal bands six inches wide, in light blue, red, or j-ellow, wdiether the ammunition carried is for in- fantry, artiller)^, or cavalry. "The wagons pertaining to the hospital service will bear the device of that service, in addition to the device of the division. The Signal Corps and Engineer Corps Avagons will be similarly marketl. "The devices for marking wagons will l)e as" follows: "For the division, a red 'M' except the cavalry brigade wag- ons, which will bear a 5'ellow 'M.' "The infantry brigades will be shfAvn by black numerals, 1, 2, 3, 4. . "The artillery brigades by crossed guns and notation of the battery."' The object of tlie preceding paragrapii is apparent. It is the intention to provide all wagons with distinctive markings which can be placed upon the -sides of the wagons and covers, so thiit each wagon can be at a glance identified, and the character of its supplies known. 168 TRAXSIORXATIOX OF TROOPS AXD MATERIEL "26. In order that acting quartermasters may receive full benefit from the Antiiran Maneuvers, the troops, when in biv- ouac, will be supplied with wood and forage from the \icinity of the bivouac as far as possible. "Quartermasters and acting quartermasters should supply themselves with the necessary blank forms to enable them lo render the proper accounts, which will be paid by tlie Chief Quartermaster. It is not to be supposed that in a camp of maneuver all of the provisions of the foregoing order can be carried out, nor is it contemplated that they shall. It is desirable, however, to ex- hibit the order as complete as practicable, that such variations be made from it as may be necessary under special conditions and requirements. It is interesting to note in passing that the provisions of this order allot something less than one-fourth the amount of transportation to each regiment that was allowed in the first gen- eral transportation order of the Revolutionary War. XI. RELATION BETWEEN IMPEDIMENTA AND TRANSPORT. It is essential that the young officers of the Army, and those not already familiar with campaigning, be educated to a full understanding of the difference between the comforts to be ex- pected in a permanent garrison or cantonment, a more or less permanent camp, and a bivouac, in which the zVrmy is stripped BY LAND. 169 and ready for immediate service on the firing-line, and the still further stripping of the army; for service ajctually on the firing-line itself. The troops should pass from one of these situations to an- other freely, and without the embarrassffnemt of carrying superflu- ous equipage and property of any character. In leaving the cafmp or garrison for active field service, the baggage should be cut down to the lowest practicable amount, and all that is superfluous should be left behind, either under proper guard or turned into depot. It is believed that the allowance of tentage, baggage, and trans- portation for camp and bivouac, and the march, indicated in the Regulations is a liberal one. All of this baggage, except that car- I'ied on the persons of the men, will again be left behind when the troops take actual engagement on the firing-line, and will only ■be advanced to the troops after the fighting is over. It is to be noted in this connection that the earliest transpor- tation orders issued to our armies during the Civil War provided from ten to thirteen wagon? per regiment. In the last transpor- tation order issued to the Army of the West, which solved prob- lems of transportation that had never been Imown in the armies of civilized nations in the world before, the allowance for the baggage was one six-mule wagon to each regiment. A similar amount of transportation was allowed to the Army of the Poto- mac in its final advance to x^ppomattox. The total number of wagons, however, per thousand men, including thie brigade, divi- sion, corps, and army supply trains, wa': not reduced in the same proportion, but was as follows : about from thirty-four to 170 TRANSPORTA'J'ION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL thirty-seven wagons per thousand men in the A¥estern Army, and twenty-two per thousand men in the Army of the Potomac. General Ingalls, C'hief Quartermaster of the Army of the Potomac, reported that on the 1st of July, 1862, after the seven- days battle before Eichmond, his transtportation was forty wagons per thousand men. After Antietam the number was forty-nine per thousand men. General Batchelder, Chief Quai-ternuaster of the Army of the Potomac, reported that in the Appomattox campaign there were twenty-two wagons per thousand men. In the past^ ^Yhen difficulties have arisen with the transpor- tation service, the fault has not been wholly with the department furnishing that service. The line itself has not always been rea- sonable m its demands. As an ilhistraticn of the rehitive amount of baggage con- sidered necessary for the use of the troops in a semi-permanent camp, and that to be taken by them when moving forward from such camp towards the point of active operations, as well as its effect upon the mobility of the trocps, tlie movement of the Florida, via Port Tampa, to Santiago, Culja, will be a most pertinent one, as it is fresh in the minds of all persons inter- ested in military affairs. It will be remembered that twenty-five escort wagons had been designated by orders froni the War Department as an allow- ance of transportation for a regiment of infantry in the field. Colonel Bellinger, the Depot Quartermaster at Tampa, in speaking of this subject, says: BY LAMU. 171 '■'During the incveiiiont of the troops from their camps in and about Tampa to Port Tampa, where they were to embark upon the transports, in order to save time by avoiding the necessity of carefully stowing the baggage in the cars for the short trip of nine miles, an average of from seven to eight box cars were allot- ted to each regiment for the transporting of the cuinpany and regimental baggage. "So little was the problem of transportation appreciated by some of these troops that in one case a regiment whose strength was less than 700 men used fourteen box cars to take its baggage from Tampa to Port Tar/ipa, and in no case did any regiment confine itself to the baggage which its allowance of wagons could have hauled on the march. "It will be readily seen that tbc taiving of this large amount of baggage reacted in eveiw conceivalilo way against the efficiency of the troops and against their personal comfort. "1. By impeding their entraining. "2. By preventing the running of the trains from Tampa to Port Tampa on the schedule arranged for the movemenr. "3. By impeding the detraining of the troops at Port Tampa. "4. By impeding the embarkation of tlio troops on the transports. "5. By rendering it absolutely in^possible to unload this baggage at Santiago or to have moved it forward had it been un- loaded. Xor would any use have been made of a great deal of it, had it been practicable to get it up to the troops. "A great deal of this baggage remained in the holds of the 172 TT.'ANSPORTATIOX OF TROOl'S AMU MATERIEL transports and was returned to the United States without ever leaving the vessels. "Besides the superfluous and unnecessary amount of prop- erty taken by the troops to Cuba, large quantities of personal as well as regimental property were left by the troops in their per- manent camps at Tampa. "Had a systematized policy been maintained regarding the amount of property toi be used in their permanent camps by the officers and men, and in making the movement had a systematized and very much reduced amount of baggage been decided upon for the troops to carry forward with them, much loss of time and property, as well as just and unjust criticism of the military authorities, would have been avoided." As a rule, it will be no part of the duty of the quartermaster to prescribe what shall and what shall not be transported; that as the province of the commanding general. The quartermas- ter will merely indicate what quantities can be transported by the means at hand. When an engagement is imminent, the most important ele- ment to be carried is the ammunition — after that, the hospital supplies- and after those, the rations. At this juncture both the hospital supplies and rations should be siinplified as much as pos- sible — it is impossible to provide the same comforts for the sick and wounded at the front as can be found at the base hospital. These things should be siniple, etfective, and easy ot transportation. The same is true of the ration. The simpler and Tighter at this juncture the more certain it is to reach the men promptly. It is believed that the certainty of having hard tack, bacon, and BY LA.ND. ''•> coffee in hand will ]uore than make up for the knowledge that a more elaborate menu exists somewhere in the rear if it could only be brought up. The general rule will be in active campaigns to relieve the transport of every unnecessary burden, in order that it need not fail in its proper functions. XII. METHOD OF UTILIZING TRANSPOET WHEN LIVING ON THE COUNTRY. Transporlation Order of General Sherman. Report of General Easton. In order to give a comprehensive view of the operations of the transportation service of the Western Army in the Atlanta campaign and the march to the sea, illustrating the manner of using transport when living on the country. The following quo- tation is made from General Sherman, and from General Lang- don C. Easton, his Chief Quartermaster. This is believed to be the best example of its kind in our history. "Upon November 9th, before leaving the vicinity of Atlanta, General Sherman issued the following orders : "Extract. "1. For the purpose of military operations this army is divided into two wings. The right wing, Major-General 0. 0. Howard commanding, composed of the 15th and 17th Corps; the left wing, Major-General H. W. Slocum commanding, composed of the 14th and 30th Corps. 174 TRANSPORT ATlOxV OF TROOIS AND MATERIEL ''2. The habitual order of march will be, wherever prac- ticable, by four roads as nearh' parallel as possible, and converg- ing at points hereafter to be indicated in orders. The cavalry, Brigadier-General Kilpiitrick commanding, will receive special orders from the Commander-in-chief. "3. There will be no general train of suppl}^, but each corpa Avill have its ammunition train and provision train, distributed 'liabitually as follows: Behind each regiment should follow one "wsigon and one ambulance; behind each brigade should follow a ,due proportion of ammunition wagons, provision wagons, and ambulances. In case of danger, each corps commander should change this order of march by having his advance and rear bri- 'gades unencumbered by wheels. The separate columns will start habitually at 7 a. m. : and make about fifteen miles per day, un- less otherwise fixed in orders. '^(5_ * * * ^g fQj. horses, mules, wagons, etc., belonging to the inhabitants, the cavalry and artillery may appropriate freely jand without limit — discriminating, however, between the rich, who lare usually hostile, and the poor and industrious, usually neutral and friendly. Foraging parties may also take mules and horses to replace the jaded animals of their trains, or to serve for pack mules for regiments or brigades. In all foraging, of whatever 'kind, the parties engaged will refrain from threatening or abusive language, and may, where the officer in command thinks proper, give written certificates of the facts, but no receipts; and they will endeavor to leave with each family a reasonable portion for their maintenance. BY LAND. 175 ag :;: * * The organization at oiicc of a good pioneer Ijattalion for each army corps, composed, if possible, of negroes, should be attended to. This battalion should follow the advance guard, repair roads, and double them, if possible, so that the col- umns will not be delayed after reaching bad places. Also army com]iianders should practice the habit of giVing the artillery and wagons the road, marching their troops on one side, and instruct their troops to assist wagons at steep hills, or bad crossings of streams. In his interesting "Memoirs" the General tells us that — "The greatest possible attention had been given to the artil- lery and wagon trains. The" number of guns had been reduced to 65, or about one gun to each thousand men, and these were generally in batteries of four guns each. Each gun, caisson, and forge was drawn by four teams of horses (eight horses). We had in all about 2,500 wagons with teams of six mules each, and 600 ambulances with two horses each. The loads were made ■comparatively light, about 2,-500 pounds net; each wagon carry- ing in addition the forage needed by its own team. Each sol- dier carried on his person 40 rounds of ammunition, and in the wagons were enough cartridges to make up about 200 rounds per man, and in like manner 200 rounds of assorted ammuni- tion were carried for each gun. The wagon trains were divided equally between the four corps, so that each had about 800 wag- ons, and these, usually, on the march occupied five miles or more of road. Each corps commander managed his own trains; and habitually the artillery and wagons had the raod, while the men, with the exception of the advance and rear guards, pur- 176 TKAXSPOR'JATIO^' OF TUOOPS AND MATERIEL sued paths improvised by the side of the wagons, unless they were forced to use a bridge or causeway in common." And again, in regard to the march from Savannah through the Carolinas to Goldsboro, we have the General's remarks as follows : "'Thus M^as concluded one of the longest and most important marches? ever made by an organized army in a civilized country. The distance from Savannah to (ioldsboro is four hundred and twenty-five miles, and the route embraced five large navigable riv- ers — viz., the Edisto, Broad, Catawba. Pedee, and Cape Fear, at either of which a comparatively small force, well handled, should iiave made the passage difficult, if not impossible. The country generally was in a state of nature, with innumerable swamps, with simply mud roads, nearly every mile of which had to be cordu- royed. In our route we had captured Columbia, Cheraw, and Payetteville, important cities and depots of supplies; had com- pelled the evacuation of Charleston city and harbor; had utterly liroken up all the railroads of South Carolina, and had consumed a vast amount of food and forage, essential to the enemy for the support of his own armies. We had in mid- winter accomplished the whole journey of four hundred and twenty-five miles in fifty days, averaging ten miles per day, allowing ten lay-days, and had reached Goldsboro with the army in superb order, and the train almost as fresh as when we had started from Atlanta." In his report of the great march from Atlanta to Savannah, General Easton, Chief Quartermaster of the Army states that: *1Jpon leaving Atlanta, November 15, 1864, the army consisted of four corps of infantry and one cavalry division, as follows: BY LVXP. 177 "14th Coi-ps: 15,680 men, 1,-iOS horses, 4,43G mules. 571 wagons, and 112 ambidances (38 wagons to 1,000 men) ; "15th Corps: 18,000 men, 2,164 horses, 5,736 mules, 666 wagons, and 146 ambulances (36 wagons to 1,000 men) ; "17th Corps: 11,000 men- 2,156 horses, 3,107 mules, 385 wagons, and 77 ambulances (35 wagons to 1,000 men) ; "20th Corps: 14,000 men, 1,740 horses, 4,341 mules, 598 wagons, 105 ambulances (41 wagons per 1,000 men) ; "Cavalry Corps : 5,000 men, 7,000 horses, 1,800 mules, and 300 wagons — total, 63,680 men, 14,768 horses 19,410 mules, 2,520 wagons, and 440 ambulances. "The following was ordered as the allowance of transporta- tion for baggage, etc., on the march : "One wagon to each regiment; two wagons to each brigade headquarters; three wagons to each division headquarters; five wagons to each corps head({uarters ; one wagon to each battery (there was one battery to each division). The balance of trans- portation was directed to be distributed as follows: "Three wagons to each division for hospital purposes; one wagon to every 100 men, including artillery, for ammunition, and the remainder, 1,476 wagons, was used in transporting forage, subsistence, etc. "The army started from Atlanta with four days' grain. 12 178 TRANSPORT ATIOJSr OF TROOIS AND MATERIEL "The subsistence transported for the whole army was as follows : '•'Hard bread, twenty (?0) days' rations; salt meat, five (5) da}-3' rations; sugar and coffee, thirty (30) days' rations; soap, rice, candles, five (5) days' rations; salt, eighty (80) days' rations. "The army started from Atlanta with 5,476 head of beef cattle in addition to the above. The army marched by corps, and on roads as near parallel to each other as could be found. Each corps had its own pontoon train, and each division its own pioneer force, and with these organizations streams were crossed, roads repaired and sometimes made, without retarding the move- ments of the troops. The management of the trains differed some- what in each corps, but I think the best arrangement was where the train of the corps followed immediately after its troops, with a strong rear guard in the following order : "1st. Corps headquarters baggage wagons; "2d. Division headquarters baggage wagons; "3d. Brigade headquarters baggage wagons; "4th. Regimental headquarters baggage wagons; "5th. Empty wagons to be loaded with forage and other supplies taken from the country with the proper details for loading them; "6th. Ammunition train; "7th. Ambulance train. "8th. General supply train. "As the empty wagons reached farm houses and other points "where supplies could be obtained, a sufficient number were turned IJY L.VXD. 179 out of the road to take all at the designated point, and so on through the da}-, until the empty wagons were loaded, making it a rule to take the first supplies come to, and to leave none on the road until all the wagons were loaded. The empty wagons could he loaded by the time the rear of the general supply train came up to them, and they would fall into their proper place in the rear of the division trains, if in time, or in the rear of the general supply train, without retarding the march. This arrangement worked well, and is probably as good as any that could be made for procuring supplies. As a general thing, the wagons were re- quired to go but a sliort distance from the line of march to obtain supplies, there being sufficient near by." It is obvious to the most casual observer that the real neces- sities in furnishing an effective transport seawice and providing for the greatest possible mobility, are that there must be a rela- tive adjustment between the equipage and stores and supplies to be provided, and the amount of transport to be furnished. It must be apparent that the character of the campaign, the season of the year, the ends to be attained, and the nature of the country to be traversed will impose limitations as to the baggage, fequipage, and supplies to be carried, and will thus afford a basis upon which the commanding general can figure the amount of transport required to accompany the army. If the troops are to travel lightly equipped through a rich country where supplies are readily obtainable, the effectiveness of the transport will be greatly increased ; in many campaigns it will be found, hovv'ever, that a great proportion of the transport ani- mals will be engaged in the carriage of their own food. When it 180 TRAXSPOll'L'ATlON OF TKOOl'S AND MATERIEL is remembered that a four-mule wagon can transport through a country destitute of forage onl}^ full forage for its own team and rations for the driver for froin twenty to thirty days, the limita- lions of animal transport can at a glance be appreciated. It is 'therefore of the first importance that all considerations be carefully weighed in the. outset, and that stringent regulations limit the amount of baggage, C(]uipage, and supplies to be taken by the troops to- tliose that will actually be required. In the beginning of the Civil War the wagon trains so ham- pered the Army that it was difficult for it to move. Quantities of baggage and impedimenta and numerous camp-followers en- cumbered the traius. A general order upon the subject was found necessary. Experience soon disclosed the true requirements for active service; baggage was dispensed with; unnecessary impedi- menta left behind, heavy tentage soon feU into disuse, and in the later campaigns the shelter tent served for officers and men alike. In the beginning of the war with Spain the allotment was twenty-seven wagons to each regiment of infantry. In the be- ginning of the Civil War the allotment was thirteen wagons ta each regiment of infantry. In the Final campaigns both of the Western Army and the Army of the Potomac the allotment for baggage was one wagon to each regiment, although the total number of wagons assigned to serve 1,000 men was not greatly reduced below the number required in the early campaigns. Napoleon's maximum allotment of wheel transport was lim- ited to twelve wagons for each 1,000 men. With this number of wagons he calculated on carrying supplies sufficie'nt to last la' L.V.N J). 181 for thirty days^ counting, however, that each soldier carried eight days' rations on his back. When it is considered that the great master of the Art of War relied solely npon his wheel transport and the supplies of the countr}', and was without rail communications, or, as a rule, a geueral supply train, the limi- tations placed upon the requirements of his troops can readily be understood. No nation in the world maintains in tijnes of peace anything like the full complement of transport required for the conduct of a war of magnitude, or even to provide for the complete mobili- i-ation of the forces from time to time assembled. Most Conti- nental powers provide by law for procuring the necessary amount by requisition. It is the policy of our Government to maintain a small stand- ing Army, and to rely upon volunteer troops for the bullv of the forces to be used in time of war. This gives rise to the necessity for an exceptionally elastic system of supply and transport capable of accommodating itself to a sudden increase in the Army. The transport, whether by water, rail, or land, will be vastly expanded by purchase, charter, hire, or service agreement, to meet the new conditions. And in that event it will be necessary that the exieting peace organization and methods be so extended as to control and operate the added transportation service with as little embarrassment as possible. At present the actual handling of all classes of military as well as all auxiliary transport is in the hands of civilians under greater or less control of the military authorities; from the army 182 TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND MATERIEL wagon train, in which the Government owns all means and mate- riel and merely hires the man to drive the team, to the railroad or steamship company, where the control of the Grovemment is limited to designating the manne/r in which its business shall be handled and the route it shall travel. In time of war it is not likely that these methods will, to any great degree, be departed from, but the necessity for effective organization must be apparent to all. As an illustration of the magnitude of the number of animals required for the operations of a vast army, it is interesting to note that during the first year of the Civil War there were purchased for all purposes 109,789 horses and 83,620 mules, exclusive of those bought in the field under emergency, or acquired by capture, which would probably swell the total to an aggregate of a quarter of a million animals or more. During the second year 197,457 horses and 11,068 mules were purchased in like manner. After every battle or considerable march, large numbers of animals Avere turned in to depots disabled. These had to be re- placed from depots; many of those turned in died, and those recuperated, together with others purchased, formed the supply for further issues in the same inanner. To provide for such an expansion and produce the best re- sults, it is necessary that the peace organization be along such lines of proven efficiency as will assure a nucleus upon which dependence may be placed ; a unit available in any class of work ; an organization capable of moving coherently as a whole, with BY LAND. 1S3 liniformity in detached units, and of operating under every cir- cumstance with all possible precision. Upon the ability of its officers to bring about such conditions will depend the welfare and success of an army, and methodical organization and systematic forethought alone can be relied upon to produce results so much to be desired. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below ti8V:'£<J-«llfi3 1988 Form L-B 20m-l, •42(8519) \mv: ^■"^NIA r (,2 aKKIVA .I<1S 270 Baker - B 1 7t TrciTisp c rteU ut of troops and materiel. 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