Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES

 
 SERMONS, ADDRESSES 
 AND ESSAYS

 
 -I8ERT RIX
 

 
 SERMONS, ADDRESSES 
 
 AND ESSAYS 
 
 BY 
 
 HERBERT RIX, B.A. 
 
 PUBLISHED AS 
 A MEMORIAL OF HERBERT AND ALICE RIX 
 
 With an Appreciation by 'Philip H. Wichteed 
 
 LONDON 
 WILLIAMS & NORGATE 
 
 14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN 
 1907
 
 6V 
 
 *' Through such souls . . . 
 God stooping shows sufficient of His light 
 For us in the dark to rise by." 
 
 " Work unsevered from tranquillity."
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 SERMONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. ADAM, THE SON OF GOD ...... i 
 
 2. LAMECH 18 
 
 3. NATHANAEL 40 
 
 4. LOVE OF THE WORLD 57 
 
 5. RELIGION: GOOD, BAD, AND INDIFFERENT . . 73 
 
 6. MAN THE ABSOLVER 90 
 
 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 1. SOME MODERN MALADIES no 
 
 Rivalry and Routine 
 
 2. SOME MODERN MALADIES . . . . . 135 
 
 Luxury and Want 
 
 3. SOME MODERN MALADIES . . . . . .156 
 
 Parasitism of the Rich and of the Poor 
 
 4. INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? EITHER? NEITHER? 
 
 OR BOTH? 177 
 
 5. THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 203 
 
 6. THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER . . . . 227 
 
 vii
 
 viii CONTENTS 
 
 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. THE RETURN TO NATURE 241 
 
 2. THE REUNION OF PROCESS AND RESULT . . . 260 
 
 3. THOUGHTS ON THE REMOVAL OF FURNITURE . . 283 
 
 4. THE PERSIAN BAB 295 
 
 The Making of a Gospel 
 
 5. THE PERSIAN BAB ....... 302 
 
 Legends of his Childhood and Youth 
 
 6. THE PERSIAN BAB 311 
 
 An Ethical Reformer 
 
 7. THE PERSIAN BAB 318 
 
 The Babi Martyrs
 
 NOTE 
 
 THE following pages contain selections from the manuscripts 
 and published papers of the late Herbert Rix. With the 
 exception of a few pieces at the end of the volume they 
 represent him as the religious teacher and as lecturer on ethics 
 and social reform. 
 
 From the rich store of material left to us the task of selection 
 has not been easy. Where all is so excellent it is hard to 
 decide what shall be omitted. 
 
 Apart from some necessary verbal alterations the Addresses 
 and Lectures are printed from the manuscripts as he left them 
 in the form in which he had been accustomed to deliver 
 them in public utterance. The concluding papers are re- 
 printed from the pages of Seed-Tlme and The Ethical World. 
 
 Readers of this book who have not heard the living voice of 
 the speaker will hardly realise the full significance of his mes- 
 sage. Yet they will discern that these are no ordinary pulpit 
 or platform discourses ; they will discover here the fruitage of 
 a large and liberal culture, wrought to finest use by free and 
 sometimes profound and always reverent thinking the gift of 
 a mind richly stored with knowledge but never burdened or 
 obsessed by it j they will reap some of the results of a long and
 
 x NOTE 
 
 serious brooding over the problems of religion and philosophy 
 and social life. The grave and measured discussion of these 
 problems is relieved and often illumined by the play of a delight- 
 ful humour ; the severe criticism of orthodox beliefs and con- 
 ventional modes of living is balanced by the lofty idealism of a 
 constructive faith. The whole is made beautiful and con- 
 vincing by the enchantment of a style at once clear and 
 vigorous and chastened. 
 
 The book is issued as a real though very inadequate 
 memorial of a life devoted to the noblest ideals and of a robust 
 and rare intelligence a life and an intelligence such as only 
 those who knew and loved Herbert Rix can ever duly 
 appraise ; nor indeed can they. The words of this book are 
 his, but the influence and charm of another is here also : the 
 spirit of Alice Rix breathes through its pages as a presence of 
 light and beauty and joy. 
 
 The words of Philip Wicksteed, which stand as a prologue 
 to this memorial volume, express, perhaps as fully and faithfully 
 as language could express, that tribute of enlightened affection 
 and sympathy for which the friends of Herbert and Alice Rix 
 will always be grateful and glad.

 
 HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 AN APPRECIATION OF HERBERT AND ALICE RIX 
 
 THEY only lived in Headland Cottage for eleven years, 
 about a quarter of her life and a fifth of his. Before 
 that time their characters had already been formed, and 
 many of their ideals had taken shape, hers in spontane- 
 ous and harmonious reaction with her environment, 
 his under the stress and pressure first of mental 
 conflict, then of more or less uncongenial occupations 
 and a felt desire for escape ; and they had already 
 found each other, and found support and fulfilment to 
 their lives in ten years of married happiness. But it was 
 in those eleven years in Headland Cottage that their 
 lives came to full and perfect expression. Finis coronal 
 opus. Those who knew Headland Cottage could read 
 all the story of the earlier years of Herbert and 
 Alice Rix in the full light of their final outcome ; as 
 though for once they were taken into the counsels of 
 providence, could see the end from the beginning, and 
 understand every step that led to it. Neither of them
 
 xii HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 was old in years, but they realised what Dante presents 
 as the chief grace of old age : " Wherefore, after our 
 own proper perfection, which is acquired in manhood, 
 that perfection should also come which enlightens not 
 only ourselves but others, and man should open out like 
 a rose that can no longer keep closed, and should spread 
 abroad the perfume which has been generated within." 
 
 Herbert Rix was born in December 1 8 50, and was 
 only fourteen when severe attacks of rheumatic fever 
 left him with the heart troubles to which he ultimately 
 succumbed. He recovered sufficiently to enable him to 
 live a strenuous and hard-working life ; but a certain 
 deliberation and composure, avoidance of sudden strain 
 and abrupt transition, became imperative, and these 
 physical limitations doubtless helped to determine 
 certain mental characteristics that corresponded to 
 them. Herbert Rix was a hard thinker and a hard 
 worker, and in his official life he could get through 
 an immense amount of business ; but all must be 
 and was done deliberately and considerately. Nothing 
 was rushed. No masses of work were forced through 
 by sheer thrusting power. He always knew what he 
 was at, and wasted no strength in random experiments 
 or flustered impatience to get forward. 
 
 As a boy he was fascinated by the idea of being a 
 missionary ; and though for a time he tried a clerkship
 
 DOCTRINAL SCRUPLES xiii 
 
 at a Colonial warehouse, he turned quite early to the 
 ministry and entered the Regent's Park College, under 
 Dr Angus, as a theological student. He took his 
 B.A. at the London University, and was regarded as a 
 most promising student in his college ; but he became 
 growingly uneasy on the point of his own Baptist 
 orthodoxy. It was the doctrine of eternal punish- 
 ment on which his doubts began to shape them- 
 selves. With characteristic conscientiousness and 
 precision of mind, he laid his difficulties before the 
 authorities, and ultimately felt obliged to relinquish 
 his hopes of entering the Baptist ministry. He looked 
 with longing eyes towards the Church of England, 
 where he was told by some of his friends that he would 
 have far more practical liberty than he could hope 
 for in his own communion ; but the uncompromising 
 explicitness of the formulae offered an insuperable 
 objection. " For instance," he urged, " how can a man 
 say in the Athanasian Creed : * which faith, except 
 everyone do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he 
 shall perish everlastingly,' if he is not sure that there 
 is everlasting perdition in store for any son of man ? " 
 He was apparently not aware at this time of the 
 existence of any religious community unbound by 
 formulas or subscriptions, and he could find no escape 
 from the apparently paradoxical conclusion that he
 
 xiv HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 must give up all hope of preaching the " glad tidings 
 of great joy that shall be to all peoples " in any 
 recognised or official capacity, because he doubted 
 whether any soul should " perish everlastingly " ! 
 Through the influence of Dr Angus, who had acted 
 throughout with the greatest sympathy and kindness, 
 the young heretic got an appointment as classical tutor 
 at the College at Pontypool, and soon afterwards a 
 "door was opened to him," and he became assistant 
 to Mr Allanson Picton at St Thomas's Square, in 
 Hackney. This engagement, however, was soon 
 brought to a close by Mr Picton's resignation ; and 
 although in after years Mr Rix had many opportunities 
 of finding settled pastoral work in Free Christian or 
 other churches, he had perhaps already discovered that 
 his bent was rather towards preaching than towards 
 the general duties of a pastoral charge. At any rate 
 he never accepted a settled ministry, but preached or 
 lectured frequently wherever a pulpit or platform was 
 open to him. In 1879 ne received the appointment 
 of Clerk to the Royal Society, and in 1885 succeeded 
 to the position of Assistant Secretary, which placed 
 him at the head of the staff. 
 
 Amongst the pulpits that he had occupied from time 
 to time was that of Mr Tipple of the Central Hill 
 Chapel, Norwood. There he met Alice Russell, his
 
 ALICE RIX xv 
 
 future wife. Alice was born in December 1862, 
 and was thus almost exactly twelve years the junior 
 of her future husband. She was only five when her 
 family came to Norwood, and for the delightful old 
 house and garden which were her home there she 
 always retained the deep love which springs from the 
 associations of a happy childhood and strong family 
 affection. She had early felt the influence of her 
 pastor, Mr Tipple, and from twelve years old had 
 taken a serious interest in his broad, undogmatic, and 
 deeply spiritual teaching, which opened her mind to 
 wide views of life and religion, refined and strengthened 
 her moral perceptions, and gave the initial impulse to 
 the full development of her religious thought and 
 moral life. Her devotion and gratitude to her earliest 
 spiritual guide remained as vivid and unqualified to 
 the end as they had been in her girlhood. She 
 always had the gift of discipleship without surrender 
 of her own personality. She was gratefully and 
 enthusiastically receptive of fresh possibilities of 
 thought and insight, but nothing was imposed upon her 
 by authority. Everything she received she assimilated 
 by intellectual or spiritual affinity. Hence she was 
 enabled to go through life with all the strength and 
 gladness of hero-worship without the penalty it so 
 frequently brings of disillusions, revulsions, and the
 
 xvi HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 wearying drag of liabilities that cannot be met and can- 
 not be repudiated. And this is but one instance of 
 her gift for life and joy, a gift which spread to all 
 who came in contact with her, a kind of contagion of 
 happiness. Her small and girlish figure made her 
 look almost a child when she had already grown into 
 womanhood, and the freshness of her delight in life 
 often made her feel like one ; and she would half 
 shyly apologise, sometimes, when she caught herself 
 literally dancing for joy a propos of nothing but life in 
 general. One of the best of her photographs shows her 
 surrounded by her doves, perched upon her shoulder 
 and feeding from her hand ; and one who knew and 
 loved her well, standing at her grave-side whispered : 
 "Our lady of the dove." But the "dove" was not all 
 that was in her. There was nothing of the " serpent " 
 indeed, but the rich colouring of her hair and complexion 
 told of fire and passion as well as innocence and joy. 
 
 Her keen intelligence and moral enthusiasm made her 
 a favourite pupil of Miss Arnold at the Dulwich High 
 School, where, in spite of extremely defective eyesight, 
 she afterwards taught mathematics, a subject by which 
 she was always fascinated, and for which her eagerness 
 in following any constructive line of reasoning, and 
 her habit of testing the steps of every intellectual 
 process, gave her a special aptitude.
 
 MARRIAGE xvii 
 
 It was not till the autumn of 1884 that Herbert Rix 
 and Alice Russell saw much of each other ; and in 
 August 1885, soon after Herbert had received the 
 appointment of Assistant Secretary to the Royal 
 Society, they were married. The exuberant joy and 
 physical energy, combined with the rare spiritual 
 and intellectual qualities of the girl, had slowly drawn 
 the shy, reserved and deliberate student out of himself ; 
 and he declared, in his last days, with solemn and im- 
 pressive emphasis, that her moral character had arrested 
 him at a critical point of his career, when tendencies 
 to a materialistic philosophy were threatening to warp 
 his thought, and even his character. He declared that 
 he owed his moral salvation, and indirectly his philo- 
 sophical enlightenment and regeneration, to the wife 
 whom, as the years went on, he came " almost to 
 worship." Her health and vigour and the permanent 
 depression of his strength consequent on his heart 
 trouble reversed the normal relations of man and wife 
 in some respects. It was she that had to watch over 
 and spare him ; and he accepted the situation with 
 a humorous and tender frankness that gave it dignity. 
 He liked boating, he would say, "as long as I steer 
 and Alice rows." When, near the end of their lives, 
 the strain on her powers became more than her 
 strength could bear, it was partly this habit of de-
 
 xvili HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 pendence that blinded him to the real condition of 
 things, and partly his ignorance of his own critical state 
 of health, which by urgent medical advice was as far as 
 possible concealed from him. He had little idea of the 
 unremitting anxiety of watching that was laid upon his 
 wife, and could not comprehend the minute restrictions 
 by which his own doings were unobtrusively but 
 effectively hedged round. 
 
 It was many years before this, when they were living in 
 the spacious and somewhat formal official apartments in 
 Burlington House, that I first knew them. He was a 
 perfect secretary, with rare powers of organising and 
 arranging details, punctual, systematic, upright and con- 
 scientious ; sometimes, especially in the later years, when 
 his heart trouble made the burden of his work heavier 
 than he could rightly bear, he showed some irritability of 
 temper ; but he was unfailing in generosity, scrupulous in 
 giving credit to his subordinates and securing recognition 
 for their services, stern in the face of anything in the least 
 degree shifty, but frank in his allowance for errors frankly 
 admitted, giving his staff the sense of being called into 
 fellowship of work by a friend rather than ordered by a 
 superior, but bracing them by his example, his character, 
 and his tacit expectation to the highest and exactest 
 quality of work of which they were capable. He won 
 their enthusiastic loyalty and the steady respect of his
 
 OFFICE AND PERSONALITY xix 
 
 colleagues and employers. He consulted all tastes and 
 considered all susceptibilities, without any belittling 
 diplomacy, and kept everything in smooth working 
 order. He was full of courtesy and sympathetic kind- 
 ness, but the fire would be struck from him by anything 
 approaching an imputation against the Society of which 
 he was the servant. On one occasion a disappointed 
 interviewer, who had hinted that some wire-pulling 
 might have affected the selection from the candidates 
 for membership, suddenly found himself passing through 
 the door as the secretary held it uncompromisingly 
 open. This is the only action of Herbert Rix's of 
 which I have been able to find a record that I should 
 describe as " abrupt." 
 
 Yet though his character impressed itself upon his 
 work and made it what it was, his heart was never 
 wholly in it. He was a living refutation of the 
 saying that we can do nothing well unless we like it ; 
 for he longed to escape from all the routine of his 
 duties and to give his whole life to the preaching that 
 could now only claim his fragmentary leisure, and to 
 the philosophical retirement in which already his soul 
 lived. Not that he sought the life of a hermit ; for 
 in spite of what struck strangers or casual acquaint- 
 ances as astonishing taciturnity, he dearly loved the 
 society of his friends, and he had a veritable gift
 
 xx HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 for friendship. Amongst his intimates his conversation 
 was at once easy and pregnant. Though he never 
 " talked without saying anything," he was entirely free 
 from the sententious and didactic style, and his talk was 
 lightened by an unfailing sense of humour, which (like 
 all true humour, as distinct from wit) was never irre- 
 levant, never obtrusive, never distracting, but always 
 illuminating and humanising. Such a man could not wish 
 to withdraw from contact with his kind, but he wanted 
 a simpler life than he could live in his official resi- 
 dence and amid his official relations. He wanted a life 
 more contemplative, in directer communion with nature, 
 and in closer contact with primitive and essential human 
 relationships. Even the atmosphere of scientific thought 
 in which he lived ministered but slightly to his higher 
 aspirations ; for he had no great love of science except 
 in its simpler applications to the study of nature and 
 in the bearing of its general conclusions upon problems 
 of philosophy. So, though he did his work as perfectly 
 as if his whole heart had been in it, knew what all 
 the scientific world was doing, and could direct any man 
 who wanted information to the source from which he 
 could obtain it, he had not found the true home of 
 his spirit, and longed for freedom to live a life more 
 after his own heart. Theologically he had travelled 
 very far from the position in which the verbal inspira-
 
 SIMPLIFICATION xxi 
 
 tion of the scriptures and the doctrine of eternal 
 punishment were the two points on which he had 
 " doubts." In his social and personal ideals, Words- 
 worth, Emerson, Thoreau, and latterly Tolstoi had 
 influenced him deeply, and the Brook Farm experi- 
 ment made a strong appeal to his imagination and 
 affections. He had joined the " Fellowship of the 
 New Life" from which the "Fabian Society" ulti- 
 mately sprang. The principle of the Fellowship was 
 to "treat all men as ends in themselves, none merely 
 as means to others' ends," and to embrace gladly the 
 simplification of life which seemed to be involved in 
 that principle. So the life for which he now longed 
 was to be devoted to the systematic study of social, 
 and especially religious, problems, and was to be 
 lived in the simplest surroundings. But the very 
 remoteness of his practical life from this life of his 
 dreams had led him to form a somewhat doctrinaire 
 conception of the outward conditions of the latter. 
 He had built a cottage at Limpsfield (where some of 
 his friends had already pitched their tents), which was 
 in some respects more nearly an artistic symbol of 
 the life he wanted to lead than a practical instrument 
 to enable him to lead it. I think his scheme was to 
 live there with his wife on 100 a year, and to vary 
 sermon writing by cultivating his little plot of land.
 
 xxii HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 But when his retirement at last came, in 1895, things 
 worked out somewhat differently. The Society he 
 had served so admirably showed its appreciation by 
 voting him a pension, and he still retained some 
 secondary official appointments and duties which neces- 
 sitated journeys to London, but materially increased his 
 income ; so that in one way or another his resources, 
 though modest, were very considerably greater than those 
 on which his ideal scheme had been built. The " simpli- 
 fications " of his cottage turned out to be productive of 
 many " complications," both physical and mental, and 
 he often expressed an intention (unhappily never carried 
 out) of writing " The Confessions of a Simplifier." Had 
 he done so, it would have been rich in humour, tender- 
 ness and wisdom. 1 But what happened at Headland 
 Cottage was not the relinquishing of a foolish dream, 
 it was the realisation of a beautiful and noble ideal. 
 Details and machinery were altered, additions and changes 
 modified the cottage ; but ideals were not sacrificed, 
 only they were brought into closer working relation with 
 reality and were purged of all suspicion of preciosity. 
 
 The Rixes were amongst the early discoverers of 
 Limpsfield ; and one friend after another, attracted 
 by their presence, came and settled in their neigh- 
 bourhood. Headland Cottage soon became a centre of 
 1 See page 227.
 
 LIMPSFIELD xxiii 
 
 philosophic thought and a fountain of spiritual influence 
 of deep, perhaps even of wide, significance. Now that 
 he was able to shape his life as he would, Herbert Rix 
 impressed his friends more and more as one who had 
 found for himself, and illustrated for others, a rare 
 harmony between the spheres of thought, emotion and 
 action. His philosophy, his religion and his practical 
 conduct of life exercised a steady mutual pressure upon 
 each other, and no one of them was allowed to get out 
 of touch with the others ; they were seeking, and in no 
 small measure finding, a complete harmony, and no one 
 branch of life was allowed to get so far away from the 
 others as to lose its sense of responsibility to them. It 
 was this that gave so strong a sense of reality to all he 
 said, and of significance to all he did. But there was no 
 strain, only a steady forward pressure about it all. He 
 never had any wide reputation as " a great preacher " ; 
 yet his preaching was great, for every discourse was 
 the record of thought, feeling and action coming straight 
 from the life of a living man, and therefore it intimately 
 touched and affected the lives of others. 
 
 His interest in metaphysics had been early roused 
 by Allanson Picton ; and now, under the guidance 
 and stimulus of his friend Maurice Adams he entered, 
 together with a group of other friends, upon a syste- 
 matic and comprehensive study of philosophy which
 
 xxiv HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 extended over a number of years. He entered upon 
 this inquiry with a purpose. He wanted to know 
 what light philosophy had to throw on the nature and 
 destiny of man, the meaning of duty and moral re- 
 sponsibility, and the relation between man and God. 
 These were the things he cared about, and it was on 
 their behalf that he questioned philosophy. He was 
 inspired by the hope that she might yield some definite 
 contribution to the reconstruction and fortifying of 
 religious faith. This hope was in no small degree 
 realised ; and the provisional results of his investigations 
 are presented in the very remarkable series of lectures 
 which he delivered to the " Croydon Ethical and 
 Religious Fellowship," and which he published in 
 1 903 under the title of A Dawning Faith. 
 
 The creed of A Dawning Faith is a devout monistic 
 idealism, in which the material universe, time and 
 space, and, above all, every kind of evil and wrong, 
 can have no more than a relative existence, determined 
 by the limitations of the sub-organisms of human 
 personality. To the absolute and eternal conscious- 
 ness these things, as such, cannot exist. 
 
 I believe that he never relinquished this monistic 
 faith, and that he found in it an exalted strength and 
 consolation. But, perhaps, he never succeeded in 
 bringing it into complete and satisfactory relations
 
 "A DAWNING FAITH" xxv 
 
 with the whole field of his own religious life and 
 spiritual experience. He was emphatically a sincere 
 thinker, and would allow no consideration of con- 
 sequences to warp the inevitable advance of an in- 
 tellectual argument along intellectual lines. Hence 
 a scrupulous determination not to stretch the results 
 of philosophic inquiry further than they can rightly go 
 towards meeting the demands of heart and conscience. 
 Whether or not Philosophy will give to the spiritual 
 nature all it requires, at any rate no attempt must be 
 made to extort false witness from her. And an under- 
 current is traceable, even in A Dawning Faith^ indi- 
 cating that there are such unsatisfied demands, seeking 
 for some justification and support beyond the ground 
 as yet made sure by the unquestioned warrant of 
 Philosophy. But here it is only an under-current. 
 For the lectures, as the title indicates, are an attempt 
 to forecast an ultimate harmony ; and the stress does 
 not fall on discords as yet unresolved. 
 
 Afterwards, however, these defects and difficulties 
 in his harmonising of religion and philosophy asserted 
 themselves more stubbornly. Towards the close of 
 his own life, and especially in the last weeks when 
 his wife's death seemed to him to have brought the 
 perspective of life and the relative significance of 
 things into distincter consciousness, he demanded a
 
 xxvi HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 more definite assurance, and more clearly formulated 
 conceptions concerning personal life, death and im- 
 mortality than those he had so beautifully embodied 
 in A Dawning Faith. Nor could he rest in the belief 
 that the evilness of evil and the sinfulness of sin, of 
 which he was deeply conscious, were merely relative 
 conceptions. He thought not only of sin as something 
 to be vanquished and put aside, but of a sinful act as 
 something that ought not to have been. Yet he could 
 not put this into terms of the monistic faith which he 
 still held to be our highest conception of the ultimate 
 truth. For, in the timeless Being, what has been is ; 
 and, in the Absolute and Perfect, that cannot be 
 which ought not to be. And yet the conception that 
 sin is sinful and that evil is evil not only refused to 
 be dislodged from his practical thought, where it was 
 within its rights, but asserted its claim to a place in 
 his religious, his philosophical, even his contemplative 
 life itself. If we could see as God sees, these contra- 
 dictions would surely disappear ; but meanwhile it was 
 as though we could formulate, utter, and sometimes 
 feel, a higher truth than as yet we could understand, 
 act upon, or use as the key to our own experiences. 
 So at least I interpret the last words I ever heard from 
 his lips. It was on the very day of his death. " No ! " 
 he said, "for man it must be dualism; monism is for God."
 
 PALESTINE xxvii 
 
 Second only, perhaps hardly even second, to his 
 devotion to the problems now indicated, was his 
 interest in the Gospel story and his desire to make 
 some contribution to the critical reconstruction of the 
 life of Jesus of Nazareth. He had laid down an 
 extensive plan for the study of the Fourth Gospel, in 
 which he was convinced that valuable traditional matter 
 was embedded. Moreover, he had made the subject of 
 Palestinian geography especially his own, and six years 
 before his death he fulfilled one of the dreams of his 
 life by a journey, with his friend W. J. Jupp, to the 
 Holy Land. The record of this side of his thought 
 and study may be found in the volume entitled 
 Tent and Testament^ on the proofs of which he spent 
 some hours on the very day of his death, and the 
 significance and value of which has been amply re- 
 cognised by the experts ; and in three lectures, " Rabbi, 
 Messiah, Martyr," published since his death. 
 
 If we were making any attempt to enumerate 
 Herbert Rix's chief studies, we should have to include 
 Wordsworth, to whose Duddon Sonnets in particular 
 he had devoted that combined gift for topographical 
 investigation and vivifying spiritual insight in which 
 he was a kind of specialist. Nor could Wordsworth 
 himself have felt more deeply than did he the 
 sanctity of the simple and elemental relations and
 
 xxviii HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 conditions of life. His gift for friendship extended to 
 all those with whom he came into close relationship. 
 The old labourer who helped him with his beloved 
 garden was indeed bewildered by his refusal to , shoot 
 or snare the jays that made havoc of his work, and was 
 baffled by his declaration that " he loved the jays at 
 least as much as the green peas " ; but nevertheless he 
 understood him well enough to love him, and to know 
 that he had in his employer a friend and brother. 
 Indeed Herbert Rix, more fortunate than Wordsworth 
 in this, succeeded in making his affection for the 
 peasantry mutual, and Headland Cottage was not only 
 loved by those who found it a centre of high and 
 earnest thought, but by all those also who could under- 
 stand " the charities that heal and soothe and bless." 
 
 But he alone could never have made Headland 
 Cottage the temple of joyous and earnest worship of 
 the Spirit of Life that it was. His wife Alice, that 
 Martha and Mary in one, felt, perhaps with less effort 
 and more unfailing instinct than his own, the oneness 
 of material and spiritual things. And she had not only 
 gifts of management and administration, as well as 
 keen intellectual insight, but a genuine love of dealing 
 with all the material things on which life is built. 
 There was something even better than " plain living 
 and high thinking " in her home ; for the phrase
 
 MARY AND MARTHA xxix 
 
 suggests an austerity which was precluded by the wealth 
 and generosity of Alice Rix's nature and her delight in 
 everything she handled. But one felt that there was 
 nothing to eat, to drink, to touch, or to look at, that 
 was not spontaneously and inevitably doing its full 
 share in supporting the life of the spirit that pervaded 
 the house. The feeling of unity superseded the stock 
 contrasts and distinctions which only come into pro- 
 minence when there is war of some kind between 
 sense and soul. And in her there was no such war. 
 
 She seemed never to forget and never to neglect 
 anything. New claims and new possibilities entered 
 her life without displacing anything that was already 
 there. She had the genius of order that makes the full 
 life of its privileged possessor less crowded and hustled 
 than the empty one of another. She would spend long 
 hours week after week or month after month by the 
 bedside of a suffering neighbour. Her own defective 
 sight filled her with tender sympathy for the blind. 
 She served on the Committee for the revision of the 
 Braille system of writing for the blind, and, with a 
 friend, transcribed a translation of the whole of Dante's 
 Comedy, of which she was a devoted student, into the 
 Braille type. She loved to remember birthdays and 
 send or bring flowers by way of greeting. The many 
 presents she made were considered and purposeful,
 
 XXX 
 
 "with their faces towards the receiver," signs not 
 only of affection but of insight, helping her friends 
 to things they wanted. Her visits to saint and sinner, 
 to the whole and the sick, " consoled the afflicted, and 
 added sunshine to daylight by making the happy 
 happier." On one occasion she asked a friend to 
 take her place in visiting a poor neighbour who was 
 suffering from a torturing disease. To come " instead 
 of Mrs Rix" did not seem a promising introduc- 
 tion ; but the poor sufferer found the chance she had 
 never had before, and from her bed of pain sang her 
 hymn of love in praise of her constant visitant. To 
 have been able to speak freely of her to a good 
 hearer was for one while as good as having seen 
 her ; so that the substitute came away after all 
 having given and received true comfort. But she 
 was not one of those who impoverish their own 
 lives by giving freely to others. I have spoken in- 
 cidentally of her mathematical talent and her love of 
 Dante. She shared her husband's love of Wordsworth. 
 She was a keen student of social questions and brought 
 to her study of the ethical aspects of political economy 
 the severity and accuracy of thought of which moral 
 enthusiasm is too often impatient ; and no friend will 
 forget the zest with which she entered into the dis- 
 cussions which made her husband's study a laboratory
 
 COURAGE xxxi 
 
 of the truly " higher " thought. When her face was 
 in repose she might have sat for the Mary or Rachel in 
 whom the mediaeval imagination symbolised the con- 
 templative life. And even when she took no spoken 
 share in the discussions her presence was part of 
 them ; and from time to time a smile would play 
 over her face, as if suggested by some inward reserve 
 of her instinctive insight, as she followed every turn of 
 the argument, and saw more clearly than the disputants 
 themselves how it bore upon some fact of spiritual or 
 practical life that was, to her at least, outside the potency 
 of ratiocination to lift up or to cast down. She had 
 great powers of organisation too. It seemed as if 
 everything she undertook went smoothly, and that 
 she accomplished everything on which she was bent ; 
 and yet you would not say she had a commanding 
 personality, but rather, as a friend put it, a permeating 
 one ; and of all her characteristics none stands out 
 more prominently than her unflinching courage. It 
 did not fail her even at the last. The constant strain 
 upon her of her husband's critical state of health, the 
 long watchings at the bedside of a dying friend, 
 afflicted with a terrible malady, and, finally, a serious 
 bicycle accident, broke her power of endurance, but not 
 her courage or her faith. Foreseeing with perfect 
 clearness the inevitable and absolute collapse of her
 
 xxxii HEADLAND COTTAGE 
 
 over-strained powers, she remained in perfect and 
 calm self-possession, making all arrangements with 
 tender prevision, until the strain reached the break- 
 ing point. She died on August 2ist, 1906. Her 
 husband survived her only a few weeks. 
 
 By their neighbours Herbert and Alice Rix were 
 deeply loved. Herbert served as a manager of the 
 village school, in which he took a continuous interest. 
 He gave much attention to the library, offered prizes 
 for nature study, and had little groups of boys and 
 girls at his home to look at microscopic slides and 
 other aids to study and enjoyment. Children were 
 devoted to both Herbert and Alice. Herbert con- 
 descended to every artifice, from the box of sweet- 
 meats that he habitually carried with him to elaborate 
 and sustained correspondence, in paying court to the 
 little queens of his heart. And of course children 
 loved Alice by instinct. But it was not children alone 
 that loved them. There was no trouble which they 
 did not seem able to lighten, no perplexity or difficulty 
 which they could not help to remove, no public or 
 private possibilities of an enlarged or more gracious 
 life which they were not daily engaged in opening with 
 balanced and inventive wisdom. 
 
 They were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in 
 their death they were not long divided.
 
 SERMONS 
 
 I. ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 
 
 "Adam, which was the son of God." LUKE Hi. 38. 
 
 THESE words occur in one of those quaint pedigrees 
 of Jesus which I suppose were considered to be a 
 kind of triumph at the time when they were written. 
 I cannot tell you how interesting those pedigrees are to 
 me. Their delightful naivete^ their obviously unhis- 
 torical character, and their curious mutual contradictions, 
 show with what a childlike mind these ancient Christians 
 came to all questions of external fact how independent 
 of external fact the truth they lived by really was, and 
 how true it was of them (to quote the phrase of the 
 Apostle Paul) that they had their treasure " in earthen 
 vessels " ! 
 
 The two genealogies which have come down to us in 
 Matthew and Luke are, of course, controversial docu- 
 ments. They were not written for biographical but for
 
 2 SERMONS 
 
 doctrinal purposes. That is to some extent true of the 
 whole gospels, and it is one thing that we always have 
 to take into account when we attempt to read the gospels 
 historically. But it is particularly and specifically true 
 of these two pedigrees, in which the line of descent is 
 traced, for Joseph the husband of Mary, from Adam in 
 the one case and from Abraham in the other. 
 
 Of course, when these genealogies were compiled, the 
 question at issue was not whether Jesus was incarnate 
 God ; that did not come till long afterwards. The 
 question then at issue was a less exalted one. The 
 burning controversy at the time when the gospels of 
 Matthew and Luke were written was whether Jesus 
 was Messiah. That had not been settled yet. There 
 were serious arguments to be met. It was averred, for 
 instance, by the opponents of the Christian movement 
 that Jesus was not of the line of David ; and if so, it 
 was certain that he could not be the Christ. That was 
 one point in the controversy. And these genealogies 
 were written as a contribution towards setting that 
 point at rest. The brethren should be confirmed, the 
 waverers should be convinced, the hostile Jews should 
 be converted. His descent should be traced through 
 the line of David. It should be proved that he was of 
 royal blood. 
 
 I. That, then, is the first point that I want you to
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 3 
 
 notice. It is a point of similarity between the two 
 pedigrees. Afterwards we shall notice a point of 
 difference. 
 
 The point of similarity is that both the genealogists 
 trace the pedigree of Jesus through the line of David. 
 Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, Micah, 
 Zechariah had all prophesied that in the golden age of 
 the future a descendant of David would hold sway 
 over Israel as king. It appeared, therefore, to the early 
 Christians to be a matter of infinite moment to show 
 that Jesus was of the line of David. They trusted 
 that it should be he who should redeem Israel, and 
 how should that be if he were not the son of David ? 
 To us Jesus is neither greater nor less for his descent 
 from David or from another : to Jesus himself it 
 appears from the gospel story to have been a matter of 
 no consequence ; but it was not so to the Christians 
 of the first and second century. The Messiahship of 
 Jesus was a burning question of their time and their 
 circle, and all agreed that the descent from David was 
 one crucial point in the discussion. 
 
 This seems to us to-day so strange, so trivial, so 
 unreal ! But how like it all is to the religious con- 
 troversies of a later day, to our own religious contro- 
 versies ! How plain it is that the religious conviction 
 came first, and the proof followed afterwards ; that
 
 4 SERMONS 
 
 faith was foremost and reason brought up the rear ! 
 How plain that the followers of Jesus felt that he was 
 the Christ ; that they saw him to be the Messiah ; that 
 they experienced his delivering power ; and that, because 
 they had this immediate perception, they set to work 
 to square their theology to it ! It is exactly the way 
 that we go to work to-day. Faith comes to men now 
 as it came to them then, not through the understanding 
 but through the heart. It comes to us by way of 
 grief and love by feeling and affection ; and then, 
 when we have experienced the faith and seen the 
 divine splendour, our uneasy brains, puzzled by an 
 inconsistent theology, set to work to theorise and 
 account for our experiences. Just as the artist perceives 
 beauty, recognises it at once, intuitively and unhesitatingly, 
 and does not, until that recognition has taken place, 
 begin to analyse and account for it, so too with the 
 religious man : the elevation of a great character, the 
 moral beauty of a noble life, flashes in upon him, is 
 recognised swiftly, completely, and undoubtingly for 
 what it is ; and not until this act of insight has taken 
 place does the intellect begin to consider and sub- 
 stantiate and buttress up the experience of the heart 
 by a system of theology or a formulated creed. 
 
 I think it is of great importance for us all to get a 
 clear grip of this truth, that no theology is essential
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 5 
 
 that the most it can do is to enshrine and more or less 
 imperfectly express an experience which in its essence 
 is not intellectual at all, which is independent of the 
 system which contains it, and which will remain alive 
 even though that system may pass away. 
 
 These genealogies, which were compiled with so 
 much pains, are easily seen to be entirely worthless ; 
 when they are compared together they mutually destroy 
 each other. But the vital truth which they were 
 meant to support, and which for a time they did 
 support, remains although the genealogies are gone. 
 Jesus was the Messiah. Religiously, spiritually, ethic- 
 ally he was the anointed one of God. He headed 
 a new spiritual era. He established a new principle. 
 He brought an obscure experience into vivid con- 
 sciousness and practical life. He turned things upside 
 down, showing convincingly the worthlessness of the 
 most esteemed qualities, the utter vanity of the most 
 coveted prizes, and the value (the vital and enduring 
 value) of just those qualities in man, and just those 
 things in life, which had till then been most lightly 
 esteemed. 
 
 If a man who thus altered the whole face of things and 
 gave us a new principle to live by, and who revolu- 
 tionised the whole world of human affection, was not 
 anointed of God then there is no God and no
 
 6 SERMONS 
 
 anointing ; there is no power which makes for right- 
 eousness and no outpouring of that power on man ; 
 there is no reality in life and no genius in humanity. 
 But if there is a reality in life, and if that reality 
 expresses itself in genius, then Jesus, we say, bears 
 every mark of being an expression of that reality. 
 He is one of those, the highest (as we think) of those, 
 who have been anointed to the work of regenerating 
 human life. That is the vital truth which, all uncon- 
 sciously, these ancient controversialists had at heart. 
 That is the truth which enshrines itself in all sorts of 
 theologies and supports itself by all kinds of arguments. 
 From time to time the creeds and arguments tumble 
 into ruins ; but the faith remains, because it is a matter 
 of spiritual experience. Through that course all 
 theology has invariably run. Theology is an inevitable 
 science ; we cannot help it. It must grow up, it must 
 be elaborated and debated and built upon. And also, 
 it must be superseded. It alters with new knowledge 
 and new philosophies, and with the prevailing analogy 
 of each successive age the analogy of mechanism in 
 one age and of organic evolution in the next. 
 
 " Our little systems have their day, 
 
 They have their day and cease to be. 
 
 They are but broken lights of Thee, 
 
 And Thou, O Lord, art more than they."
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 7 
 
 II. This, then, is a point of agreement between the 
 two genealogies. But now let us look at a very 
 significant point of difference. One of the pedigrees 
 goes back to Abraham and there stops : the other goes 
 back to Adam. 
 
 Here, again, is an echo of long-past controversies a 
 sort of fossil we may call it telling us of the life that 
 once breathed and moved and struggled a weapon 
 dug from the battlefield of ancient strife. The one 
 pedigree, it is plain, must have grown up in Jewish- 
 Christian circles, the other in Heathen-Christian. The 
 one represents Jesus as Israel's Messiah, the other 
 claims him for the whole human race. The difference 
 takes us to the very heart of the first controversy which 
 convulsed the Christian Church. It carries us back to 
 the little community at Jerusalem, the sect of the 
 Nazarenes, who lived there so lovingly and harmoniously, 
 true to their Judaism as well as to the memory of their 
 Master. It takes us back to the first heretic, the first 
 dissenter, the first free-thinker, the first martyr, the 
 first man among the Christians who had views, and 
 who dared to proclaim the doctrine that the Spirit 
 of Christ was contrary to the spirit of Judaism, and 
 that the external precepts of the law would ultimately 
 be rescinded and the service of the temple superseded : 
 it takes us back to Stephen. And it takes us back to
 
 8 SERMONS 
 
 the fiery young Pharisee who was present at Stephen's 
 death and who distinguished himself by his zeal in 
 persecuting these innovating Christians. It takes us 
 back to Antioch, the centre of this newer, freer 
 Christianity, which under the leadership of Paul began 
 to free itself from the old, narrow Jewish conceptions. 
 
 What zeal, what earnestness, what struggles to bring 
 to birth these new and living truths, what life and 
 energy breathed and pulsed under these ancient con- 
 troversies ! And how entirely dead and gone they are ! 
 
 And yet, no ! if you come to think of it, they are 
 not so dead they are only transformed. Indeed, they 
 are going on around us at this very day. The strife 
 between the old and new conceptions is a never-ending 
 strife. The battlefield is changed, but not the battle. 
 We^ too, are confined by the manacles and fetters of 
 creed and custom ; and now and again a modern Stephen 
 or a modern Paul calls upon us to break them and go 
 free. The life and thought of our own age find the old 
 thought and life something of a burden and an incubus. 
 The garment is too narrow, and it begins to burst ; 
 and already the hum of the looms is heard weaving the 
 garment of the future. 
 
 " You are going too far ! " cry the judicious up- 
 holders of the ancient faith. " You are going too far ! 
 hold your hand ! the creeds and customs are endangered
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 9 
 
 by your rashness ! " Just as of old Matthew's genealogy 
 might call aloud upon the genealogy of Luke : " You 
 are going too far ! stop at Abraham ! Abraham is the 
 orthodox resting-place ; it is not safe to go so far as 
 Adam ! " But the pedigree that went up to Adam won 
 the day. The human conception won the day. The 
 Messiah of all mankind was the Messiah that came to be 
 believed in. Not all the sacredness of Jerusalem, nor 
 all the venerableness of the law, nor all the prestige of 
 the eleven personal disciples could keep the Christian 
 Church tied down to Judaism. The spirit of Jesus, 
 the spirit of wide, free, fearless truth, the spirit of a 
 boundless life was in it, and down went the old walls of 
 Jewish creed and custom, and away, away, over the wide 
 human world sped the religion of Jesus. 
 
 So it was and so it will be. Where there is earnest, 
 truthful thought ; where there is wide and generous 
 love ; where there is the heart and the spirit of 
 liberty there is life, and there lies the secret of the 
 future. 
 
 These, then, are the two main lessons which the 
 genealogies of Jesus teach us : first, that Jesus has verily 
 been, what the Jewish Christians said he was, a 
 Messiah, an anointed spirit ; and secondly, that he is 
 so not in any exclusive Jewish sense, nor in any exclusive 
 Christian sense, much less in any exclusive evangelical
 
 io SERMONS 
 
 sense, but in a broad human sense and by virtue of a 
 great human message which he brought us. 
 
 Have I said enough ? Or may I dwell yet a little 
 further on this great truth of Adam's sonship this 
 greater Christianity which all along was folded in the 
 lesser, but which we only now by slow degrees are 
 beginning to apprehend ? 
 
 " Adam, which was the son of God ! " We, all of 
 us, sons of God ! The human race, Greek and Jew, 
 bond and free, all of them sons of God ! How great 
 a thought this was to seize upon any age ! How great 
 a thought if it were more fully realised even in our 
 own ! We have all, I suppose, got beyond Jesus the 
 son of David in our beliefs all of us outrun even 
 Jesus the son of Abraham. We have by this time mostly 
 grasped the truth that Jesus was the son of Adam ; but 
 have we arrived yet with any fulness of conviction at 
 this last step " Adam, the son of God " ? 
 
 It will be said, perhaps, that, after all, this pedigree- 
 text only makes us sons of God by bodily descent, or, 
 rather, bodily creation. Well, take it so. I think it 
 implies much more than that ; but take it that way first. 
 Is that nothing ? Is it nothing to believe that the body 
 came from the hands of God, that the great physical 
 Adam corporeal humanity is the son of God ? Is it 
 nothing to know that the body of man is the temple of
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD n 
 
 the Holy Spirit ? Believe me, we should be a better 
 and a happier people if we believed that truth more 
 firmly. Learn to reverence the body your own body 
 the bodies of others. Learn that dirt is a sin, that 
 unwholesome habits are a wickedness, that injurious 
 trades are trades that should not be followed by our- 
 selves or demanded of our brothers and sisters, that the 
 man who can find amusement (amusement, forsooth !) 
 in the bodily danger or the bodily distortion of his 
 fellows is a degraded being. Learn this, get it well 
 into your head and heart as a practical conviction, and 
 you will have learnt a lesson of infinite value and a 
 lesson that is profoundly Christian. 
 
 Adam is God's son his body as well as his soul. 
 This amazing structure this epitome of wonders 
 this catalogue of countless thoughts this correlated 
 group of marvellous intentions, so fearfully and 
 wonderfully made this is God's ; it is sacred sacred 
 in its design and purpose, if desecrated in its use and 
 history. This body of man is a holy thing, and yet we 
 use it how ? We use our own and each other s bodies 
 how ? The newspaper will tell you with ghastly 
 faithfulness. We enslave it for our enrichment, 
 exhaust and consume it by cruel labours and, when it 
 serves us no longer, fling it aside as forgotten and use- 
 less lumber. We contort and degrade it for our
 
 12 SERMONS 
 
 amusement, stare open-mouthed upon its abuse with 
 no thought of reverence, no touch or hint of brotherly 
 human regard for it as the work and care of God. 
 We defile it by our lust, and fill the prisons, fill the 
 asylums, by all kinds of social sins. This is how we 
 treat the bodies of these sons and daughters of God, 
 our brothers and sisters, which he has consecrated to 
 himself as temples of his Presence. And we scarcely 
 treat our own any better. Even in matters where we 
 have the power and the ability and the liberty to 
 honour our bodies, we degrade them and defile them 
 and neglect them and maim them by our stupid and 
 vicious and thoughtless ways of living. 
 
 Yes ; if you say that only the body comes from Adam 
 and the soul comes from God, I reply that body and 
 soul both come from God, that the body no less than 
 the soul is God's and that what we Christians above 
 all other people have to learn is that, until the body is 
 rightly reverenced, the soul will never grow to be of 
 much account. 
 
 III. But now, in speaking thus upon t\\zphysical truth 
 of this doctrine the truth that in body we are all sons 
 of God we must not lose sight of the greater truth 
 that much more are we his sons in spirit. That ancient 
 Scripture, " In the image of God made he man," has 
 for us a deeper intent than the physical : it speaks to
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 13 
 
 us of a spiritual kinship with the Highest. Man has 
 a spiritual nature. He is the expression of a spiritual 
 reality. The universal Adam is to some extent In- 
 carnate God he has the God-germ within him, which 
 is always working, and driving him to strange and vast 
 and unearthly issues. 
 
 Do not think that I am speaking the language of 
 fancy. I am speaking the language of sober truth. 
 The tokens of this spiritual nature are to be seen in 
 familiar life. Look, for instance, at the familiar but 
 most mysterious fact that men everywhere are impelled 
 in one super-humanly prescribed direction : that men 
 and nations are eternally driven by some unseen 
 power to seek their bliss in one order of actions, one 
 set of relations that there is no permanent bliss in 
 any other direction ; that, when this impulse is obeyed, 
 the being rises into grandeur ; when it is resisted, ruin 
 and degradation are the fruit. Look at this universality 
 of the moral imperative, and say whether this is not a 
 sure token that we are spiritual in our make and fitted 
 for a higher than physical life. 
 
 Again ; do we not get an inkling of this truth in 
 the self-discovery which sometimes happens to us ? We 
 have all, I suppose, discovered at times quite un- 
 suspected depths of feeling, quite hidden springs of 
 emotion ; some new form of beauty has awakened a
 
 i 4 SERMONS 
 
 response within us that we should never have believed 
 possible ; some unfamiliar phase of virtue has revealed 
 to us a capacity for admiration, a moral enthusiasm, 
 with which we did not credit ourselves. Self-discovery 
 of this kind brings home to us the truth that " we are 
 greater than we know," and assures us of a spiritual 
 essence which interpenetrates us, a spiritual atmosphere 
 which, all invisible and intangible, we breathe a 
 spiritual world in which all unconsciously we live. 
 
 When I speak of this spiritual nature as universal, 
 I am, of course, not saying that the spiritual sense is 
 in all men equally developed. I am not even saying 
 that the potentiality is possessed by all in equal degree. 
 It is certainly not equally developed in all ; whether it 
 is equal potentially in all I cannot say. All that I am 
 saying is that the spiritual reality which gives rise to 
 it exists in all, and that in this sense the whole race of 
 Adam is the son of God. 
 
 I suppose there are few who have not felt in them- 
 selves at times possibilities which have not been 
 realised. Do you not find yourself sometimes feeling 
 that it only wants a little more some quickening of the 
 blood, some clearing of the thought, some strengthening 
 of the memory, some added drop of vitality here or 
 there in your composition, to enable you to be and to 
 do somewhat far greater than you have ever yet attained
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 15 
 
 to ? You feel a kinship (do you not ?) even with the 
 greatest a persuasion that in some other life where 
 circumstances might be less oppressive, or the will 
 more vigorous, or the mental powers raised in some 
 way by just a few degrees, you might be such a one as 
 those whom we now revere as the wise and great. 
 We are not one in attainment ; but in essence, in kind, 
 in inward genesis, we are all one, and all divine. 
 
 This divine sonship of mankind is a universal truth. 
 Churches and sects have set up special claims which 
 can seldom be maintained. Such societies are of 
 eminent usefulness ; but, like all things human, they 
 too are subject to decay, but the "Word of the Lord 
 endureth for ever," and that " Word " is not " bound." 
 
 True spirituality is a matter of vast importance, but 
 that which calls itself so is often something very 
 different. The spirituality which arises from man's 
 sonship, the gift of insight, the prophetic touch, the 
 inherited spark of poetic fire this is not a thing to be 
 despised. It is a precious gift, some modicum of which 
 we all hold in some recess of the nature, though, no 
 doubt, in varying degree. But that which calls itself 
 " spirituality " is often far enough removed from this. 
 Just as " caste " apes " breed," so " Pharisaism " apes 
 spirituality. The fact that spiritual insight has degrees 
 a certain natural scale or spectrum of spirituality
 
 1 6 SERMONS 
 
 is seized upon by the sectarian temper to set up a false 
 scale, based upon doctrinal or sacramental tests, in which 
 the possession of religious gifts is pretended where it 
 does not exist. And this accounts for many curious 
 paradoxes : as, that the men who most loudly lay claim 
 to religion show the least fruits, that the religious news- 
 papers are the most bitter and ill-tasting, that the relig- 
 ious societies are the most rife with petty disputes, that 
 the religious books are the most disgustingly morbid, 
 that the religious novels are the most intolerably 
 stupid, and that the self-styled religious world is often 
 the most hateful world in which a man can be called upon 
 to live. But if it is true, native, inborn spirituality that 
 you seek the spirituality which makes Adam the son 
 of God you will often find it in another quarter 
 altogether : you will find it where the publican stands afar 
 off and will not lift so much as his eyes to heaven in 
 the man who has lived, suffered, sinned, repented, made 
 shipwreck of his life, but whose heart is still tender and 
 whose love goes out to all who wear this same suffering 
 and sinful nature. 
 
 And now, in conclusion, let me say that I am not 
 one of those who find pleasure in the cheap sarcasm or 
 the sour derision with which that ancient doctrine of 
 the God-man is too often met by the so-called " free- 
 thinker."
 
 ADAM, THE SON OF GOD 17 
 
 The sacredness of human nature of all human 
 nature this, I believe, is what the spirit of truth 
 was leading men to, through the sacred channel of 
 parable and poem, when the Messiah-doctrine issued 
 at length in the doctrine of the incarnate God. 
 
 God comes down into a little baby-child and so 
 sanctifies humanity. Men wanted to believe that 
 human nature was sacred. They did believe it in their 
 inmost spirit, in a sort of groping, half-unconscious 
 fashion ; and, out of that dim desire which lay beneath, 
 there sprang the strange but lovely legend of the 
 baby-God born in a stable. It is frue, as all such soul- 
 begotten legends are true. But how true it was those 
 who wrote it did not fully know. Only, in this 
 Gospel of Luke all through this human Gospel of 
 Luke there is a dim suspicion, a vague kind of guess, 
 of some greater truth, of a wide human kind, not yet 
 fully revealed. There is a new human texture in this 
 gospel, a deep sympathy with this nature which we 
 wear ; and it was out of that that this little bright and 
 burning spark was struck : " Adam, which was the son 
 of God."
 
 II. LAMECH 
 
 "And Lamech said unto his wives, Adah and Zillah, hear my 
 voice ; ye wives of Lamech, hearken unto my speech : for I have slain 
 a man for wounding me, and a young man for bruising me. If Cain 
 shall be avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy and sevenfold." 
 GEN. iv. 23, 24. 
 
 THE book of Genesis consists, as you well know, of 
 a number of interwoven legends obtained from various 
 sources, and combined and edited at a much later date 
 than that of the legends themselves. And the earlier 
 chapters of Genesis, in particular, consist of two legends, 
 written by very different men in very different language, 
 with very different conceptions and in very different 
 styles. 
 
 Now, the tradition to which our text belongs, 
 although it is broken up and mixed into several 
 chapters, has a wonderful unity, not only of style but 
 of doctrine. A certain way of looking at things and a 
 certain belief about the arrangement of the universe 
 and the way in which it is ordered (or, rather, disordered) 
 
 18
 
 LAMECH 19 
 
 pervades the whole. The writer, like all these early 
 Hebrew writers, had strong moral convictions and used 
 his material to enforce them. He selected his traditions 
 to illustrate certain beliefs which were deeply graven in 
 his mind. The truth of conscience was the main thing 
 with him, and history was valuable chiefly in so far as 
 it illustrated certain doctrines in which he most pro- 
 foundly believed. 
 
 Foremost among these doctrines the central point, 
 in fact, upon which all turns was the belief that man 
 is ever tending downwards. Every step he takes, 
 according to this writer, is a step in the wrong direc- 
 tion a further fall from innocence. 
 
 This idea runs right through the legend. It repre- 
 sents men as beginning with a state of innocence and 
 falling away more and more as time went on. Adam, 
 the father of all men, ate of the tree of knowledge, and 
 from that time forth everything went wrong. God had 
 never meant that man should grow out of the state of 
 happy ignorance. Men had purchased knowledge at 
 the price of peace. Thorns and thistles grew up and 
 the strife of man with Nature began. Evil passions 
 sprang up and the strife of man with man began. All 
 flesh, both man and beast, grew more and more rude 
 and wild, till the Lord, seeing that there was nothing 
 but evil in his creatures, repented that he had made
 
 20 SERMONS 
 
 them and opened the windows of heaven to destroy 
 them by a universal flood. 
 
 This is the theory of life which the legend presents 
 to us the theory that man is continually falling away 
 from grace ; and that theory has lived on into the 
 Christian Church until these latter days, when it has 
 fallen into some discredit. 
 
 It has fallen into some discredit ; but it contains, 
 nevertheless, a vital truth the truth that the aspiring 
 in every age are haunted by a sense of deficiency. 
 It may not be true, nay, it is not true, that the whole 
 human race is actually progressing toward evil. Our 
 Christian faith forbids us to accept for a moment any 
 such dismal doctrine. But for all that, though the race 
 be advancing as a whole, though there be a glorious 
 future for mankind, and a glad hope for all of a " rest 
 that remaineth," it is true now, as it was true when 
 this ancient writer penned his story, that within us 
 there is a power which tends to hold us down, a power 
 which continually withstands and hinders the attracting 
 force of the divine love, a spirit of evil against which it 
 behoves us to contend, and in presence of which we 
 dare not delude ourselves with the loose fancy that 
 evolution is going to do everything for us, and that all 
 we have to do is to let things go their own way. 
 
 It is not, however, upon this general theory that I
 
 LAMECH 21 
 
 intend at the present time to speak. We are to speak 
 this morning upon a specific phase of this theory which 
 our text brings before us the doctrine, namely, that 
 civilisation is itself one form of this downward ten- 
 dency a manifestation and token of the evil that 
 dwells in man. 
 
 You will have noticed that our writer has a suspicion 
 that the root of the evil is man's ambition to know. 
 The disaster began by Adam's eating of the tree of 
 knowledge and culminated in the confusion of Babel, 
 which was the device that God was obliged to adopt to 
 prevent men from becoming as gods and scaling the 
 very heavens in their sinful ambition. Now, this old 
 song of Lamech's furnished the chronicler with a very 
 apt illustration of his idea. The fathers of the arts 
 and crafts, he tells us, were all descended from the 
 first murderer. Jabal the father of herdsmen, Jubal 
 the father of musicians, and Tubal-Cain the father of 
 metal-workers were all the sons of Lamech, and 
 Lamech was the direct descendant of Cain. The 
 other legend of which I spoke makes Lamech to 
 belong to the righteous line of Seth, whose de- 
 scendants first taught men to call upon the name of 
 the Lord ; but this legend makes him to belong to 
 the family of Cain. 
 
 And not only so. Not only were the beautiful and
 
 ll SERMONS 
 
 useful arts "altogether born in sin," but they justified 
 their birth in bringing disaster and unhappmess to men. 
 In their eager ambition after knowledge, men had learnt 
 how to get metal out of ore, and how to bend the 
 metals and to edge them a vast improvement, as they 
 thought, over the old-fashioned stone implements 
 which their fathers had used. This new-fashioned 
 bronze was tougher and could be worked more readily 
 into special shapes. If you wanted to make an axe, 
 you did not have to chip away for a couple of days 
 before you got it into shape ; and you could get a much 
 finer edge to it, and a much broader surface than one 
 of those clumsy old wedges that had been in use 
 before. " Yes ; and what was the upshot of it all ? " 
 asks our writer. Only that men were more savage 
 and overweening than ever. Woe to the man who 
 dares to touch Lamech now ! His son Tubal-Cain has 
 given him a new bronze axe, and henceforth a wound 
 shall be punished with death. " I will slay a man for 
 wounding me, and a youth for bruising me." 
 
 Fate has been kind to Lamech. It has given him 
 clever sons. He and his sons have an advantage over 
 their neighbours. They have learnt how to make 
 instruments of metal. And they use their advantage 
 how ? To make the lot of their neighbours better ? 
 To supply them with tools, or teach them how to
 
 LAMECH 23 
 
 work them for themselves ? Not so : they use their 
 advantage only to execute a seventyfold vengeance on 
 any who should wrong them. " If Cain shall be 
 avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy and seven- 
 fold." Thus the new time is ever worse than the 
 old ; and, the further men progress in knowledge, 
 the further it would seem are they separated from 
 innocence and bliss. 
 
 Let us examine this doctrine and ascertain what of 
 truth there is in it and what of partiality or of error. 
 
 And, in the first place, let me remark that the 
 doctrine, whether it be true or false, is exceedingly 
 widespread. It is one of those beliefs to which men 
 continually revert. Deny it, disprove it, deride it, it 
 may pass out of fashion for a time ; but presently up it 
 conies again in some new garb, or some slightly altered 
 shape. Sometimes it is a Rousseau who lauds the 
 nobility of savage nature ; sometimes a Carlyle who 
 weeps over the degeneracy of the present and praises 
 the honesty and earnestness of the past. Then again 
 it is a Ruskin who calls to us to return upon our foot- 
 steps to root up our railways, overthrow our factories, 
 and return to the agricultural simplicity of olden time ; 
 or a Tolstoi who dons the garb of a peasant and 
 abjures the whole system of society ; or an Edward 
 Carpenter who regards our social life as a disease and
 
 24 SERMONS 
 
 writes a book on Civilisation : Its Cause and Cure. 
 This cry is perpetually recurring : " The elaboration of 
 our life is an evil. Let us go back to the old simplicity. 
 Things were better in the days of our fathers." And 
 the names of those who take up this cry are often very 
 great names. 
 
 You remember how, according to the book of 
 Exodus, the Lord said unto Moses : " If thou make 
 me an altar of stone, thou shalt not build it of hewn 
 stones ; for, if thou lift up thy tool upon it, thou hast 
 polluted it." The Lord has been saying that same 
 thing to a great number of people since the days of 
 Moses. Nature is sacred : the hand of man pollutes. 
 The untouched world is sacred : Art perverts. The 
 hermit, the wild wanderer, the devotee of Nature, are 
 sacred : civilisation vulgarises and distorts. This con- 
 secration of the unhewn has been, I repeat, a word of 
 the Lord to many since the days of Moses. Religions 
 have always favoured it, poets have always followed it ; 
 and in no age do men quite feel the human, common, 
 manipulated present to be sublime. The old, the 
 simple, the untouched by human hands, these are the 
 hallowed among men. 
 
 Now, when we find a sentiment like this so deeply 
 rooted in the hearts of men that they return to it 
 again and again in spite of all disproofs and disillusions,
 
 LAMECH 25 
 
 you may be sure that there is some living truth at the 
 core of it. There may be prejudice and fallacy and 
 confusion of thought associated with it ; but, behind 
 and beside all these, there is certain to be some vital 
 verity as well. And it is our duty, in such cases, to 
 distinguish as well as we can what is fallacious and 
 misleading from what is useful and wholesome. 
 
 This, then, is what we have to do in the doctrine 
 which lies before us. It is startling, perhaps, to be 
 told that civilisation is one manifestation of man's 
 imperfection and that it is upon the whole more 
 of a curse than a blessing. We see at once that 
 there must be here the overstatement which usually 
 accompanies a violent protest. And yet we shall find, 
 when we come to look closely at the matter, that this 
 recurring protest of poet and prophet has its truth. 
 There is in this startling doctrine a certain core of 
 truth which is both wholesome and useful to be 
 known. 
 
 Is it not a truth, for instance, which lies upon the 
 forefront of our experience, that civilisation, like every 
 other blessing, is continually used for selfish ends ? 
 
 It seems almost a paradox, a self-contradiction, for 
 civilisation to lend itself to selfishness. The very nature 
 of civilisation is social. It is social in its origin, social 
 in its means, social in its aims the very reason for its
 
 26 SERMONS 
 
 existence is social ; and that this this outcome of the 
 social side of man's nature this product of associated 
 life, should lend itself to individual greed and selfish 
 isolation, seems surely to be the very irony of fate. 
 And yet nothing is more certainly the fact. 
 
 Civilisation means greater productiveness. Far 
 more work can be done, far more wealth produced, 
 by twelve men associated than by twelve men living 
 apart. But productiveness is not in itself a blessing. 
 It is no blessing that Lamech and his sons can make 
 a metal axe if they use it only to avenge themselves 
 seventyfold for every injury. There are many ques- 
 tions to be asked about a tribe or a nation, besides 
 the question how much wealth is produced : as, for 
 instance, who produces it ? and who gets the products ? 
 and whether the wealth produced is the kind of wealth 
 that brings happiness ? Now, a wealth -producing 
 civilisation very often means little else than a small 
 number of people becoming inordinately rich and a 
 large number of people being made very miserably 
 poor. This is the case, and always will be the case, 
 so long as the spirit which inhabits and inspires the 
 body of our civilisation is a selfish spirit. 
 
 It may not be true to say that civilisation is no 
 blessing ; but it is perfectly true that a selfish civilisa- 
 tion is not only no blessing, but a downright curse.
 
 LAMECH 27 
 
 The very fact that civilisation means greater wealth 
 makes it all the more a curse if it is selfish. A 
 superabundance is a trouble and a responsibility, even 
 to the best of men. At the best it is a crown which 
 makes the head of the wearer lie uneasily. But when 
 the man to whom the superabundance comes is not the 
 best of men, when he is puffed up by the spirit of 
 ostentation or accumulates wealth only that he may 
 consume it upon his own lusts, then this super- 
 abundance becomes a terror and a danger : like the 
 axe in the hand of Lamech, that which ought to be 
 a tool becomes a weapon. The wealth of a selfish man 
 is a weapon that wars against society. It is an injury 
 in a hundred ways. It diverts the streams of industry 
 into useless channels ; it employs upon luxuries for the 
 rich, labour which might have been employed upon 
 necessities for the poor ; it corrupts the innocent and 
 tempts the weak ; even justice itself it frequently per- 
 verts by ruinous and unrighteous litigation, enabling 
 an evil man to crush his opponent with cruel retaliation, 
 like Lamech singing to his wives : " I will slay a man 
 for wounding me and a young man for bruising me." 
 
 So that civilisation, I say, in its character of a wealth- 
 producing system is not in itself 'a blessing. This much, 
 at least, must be conceded to those who inveigh against 
 it, that the blessing lies, not in the thing itself, but in
 
 28 SERMONS 
 
 the way that it is used. That organised association of 
 men which we call " civilisation " is a mighty engine 
 for the production of wealth ; but wealth is merely 
 power, and power is a blessing only when it is wielded 
 by wisdom and a good heart. 
 
 Then, again, a selfish civilisation, besides putting into 
 the hands of a few tremendous power, irrespective of 
 their moral qualities, has this further radical defect 
 that it is and always must be fiercely competitive. And 
 you know what that means. It means all that it meant 
 in the days of Lamech and a good deal more. In 
 Lamech's days it meant warfare ; and it means warfare 
 now. In Lamech's days it meant taking your neigh- 
 bour at a disadvantage rejoicing that you have a 
 bronze weapon while he has only a clumsy tool of stone ; 
 and it means the same thing now. It means wide- 
 spread suspicion and almost universal distrust : my 
 hand against every man and every man's hand against 
 me. And, because the same evil spirit which reigned in 
 Lamech's day has continued to reign till now, all our 
 advances in knowledge, all our multiplication of in- 
 ventions, all our elaboration of comforts, all our rapidity 
 of communication, our cities and governments and 
 commerce and art and literature have failed to make 
 us happy. For into all these comes this fierce strife 
 for masteries. We learn for personal fame, invent for
 
 LAMECH 29 
 
 personal advantage, govern for personal ambition, trade 
 for personal wealth, and write and paint and lecture 
 and preach and build and dress and converse, not that 
 we may use naturally the powers that God has given us 
 and make men happy by their use, but that we person- 
 ally may be esteemed and courted and admired. This 
 is our disease this lust of outdoing our neighbour. 
 And from this comes half our modern miseries our 
 strikes and lock-outs and sweating systems and all 
 the exhaustion and agonising wear and worry of our 
 business life. We live our active life in this atmo- 
 sphere of selfish competition ; and, from the market and 
 the warehouse, the studio and examination-room, we 
 carry it into the home and the church. To live, not for 
 each other but against each other, that is the wicked aim 
 that we have continually before us. 
 
 This, then, appears to me the first great truth which 
 lies behind this widespread distrust of civilisation. 
 Civilisation, as we have hitherto known it, is framed 
 upon this evil principle of individual greed ; and, so long 
 as that is the spirit which animates it, the poets and 
 prophets are right to mistrust it. This old Jahvistic 
 writer is quite right : it is better to have no improved 
 metal implements at all than to use them as Lamech 
 meant to use them. 
 
 But now it may perhaps be said that all this relates
 
 30 SERMONS 
 
 merely to the perversion of civilisation, not to civilisation 
 itself. " It may be true that we use our civilisation for 
 selfish ends ; but is that any reason for sacrificing the 
 glorious products of modern associated life ? Is there 
 any sense or reason in the gospel of Ruskin and Tolstoi 
 and Carpenter ? Why should we not cover the land 
 with mills and railways ? Why should we not live in 
 palaces and create and maintain our mighty cities, if 
 we have the energy and wealth to do so ? Let us get 
 rid of our selfishness if you will and, instead of com- 
 peting for individual wealth, let us work together for the 
 common wealth ; but let us not fling away this wonder- 
 ful elaborated life this amazing creation of the latter 
 days, with its bodily comforts and its material splendour ! 
 To do so would be for Lamech to fling away his new- 
 found bronze and go back to the old stone age, as if it 
 were the axe that had been murderous and not his own 
 wicked heart." 
 
 There is, of course, an immense deal of truth in this 
 position ; and those teachers to whom I have alluded, 
 who proclaim the revolt against civilisation and the 
 return to simple nature, have been guilty again and 
 again, as it seems to me, of an overstatement of their 
 case. That they have a word of God I do not doubt ; 
 but too often they have surrounded it with human 
 and personal prejudices. It would be madness to
 
 LAMECH 31 
 
 throw to the winds those institutions and inventions 
 which really minister to human happiness. 
 
 Only there remains, of course, the question : What 
 institutions and inventions do really minister to happi- 
 ness ? And it is in this direction, 1 think, that we 
 shall find the really important truth which these men 
 have to teach us. Supposing that we bring about ever 
 such an unselfish civilisation, the question will still 
 remain whether we have not allowed it to reach an 
 undue elaboration. The first and most important 
 question, no doubt, is whether our civilisation is not 
 too selfish ; but there is a second question above and 
 beyond this, and that is whether our civilisation is not 
 too elaborate. 
 
 We quote and quote again the familiar precept of 
 our Lord : " Take no thought, saying, what shall we 
 eat, or what shall we drink, or wherewithal shall we be 
 clothed ? " but we never seem to understand it or to 
 learn it. And yet, if you read through your New 
 Testament with this doctrine in view, you will find 
 that he really meant it and that he was perfectly con- 
 sistent in his teaching of it. He meant precisely what 
 he said that we spend too much thought upon our 
 outward life, to the great impoverishment of the inner 
 man. And this evil has increased. It has increased to 
 such an extent that nine-tenths of us live a life of
 
 32 SERMONS 
 
 perfect worry and distraction and have completely 
 starved and killed the inner man. So absorbed are we 
 in the arrangement of life that the life which we seek to 
 arrange has eluded us. The machinery of life has so 
 exhausted our attention that we have quite forgotten to 
 supply the machinery with anything to grind. Our 
 comforts and luxuries have so multiplied that the wear 
 and worry of providing them have robbed us of the 
 power to enjoy them. A third of our waking life we 
 spend in earning and arranging our food, a third in 
 earning and arranging our clothing and the remaining 
 third in performing and undergoing useless ceremonies. 
 Which three things are precisely the three things that 
 Christ taught us not to do ; and yet we never seem to 
 doubt for a moment that we are Christians. 
 
 Consider, if you will, two respects in which an 
 over-elaborated civilisation wars against the soul, quite 
 irrespective of the selfish competition which has 
 hitherto animated it. In the first place, it cuts us off 
 from Nature. 
 
 Now here I know that I do not speak to all of you. 
 You are not here cut off from Nature to the same 
 extent as those of your countrymen are who live in 
 the overgrown cities which have spread their vast areas 
 to such an appalling extent in the last two or three 
 generations. And, being yourselves free to some extent
 
 LAMECH 33 
 
 to look upon the face of Nature, you have not perhaps 
 realised the condition of those who seldom or never 
 see her solemn beauties. Moreover, it is apparently 
 not to every one that Nature is a spiritual necessity. 
 But to some it is, and to these I speak. Let those, 
 then, who think this an unimportant consideration 
 bear with me for a few moments. I shall come 
 presently to a second consideration which must appeal 
 to you all. But to those of you, now, to whom Nature 
 is no mere luxury but a necessity of life a word of 
 God without which the soul cannot live in health 
 consider how this elaboration of our material life cuts 
 us off. The very conditions of space make communion 
 with Nature impossible as our life is now arranged. 
 The vast areas of our great cities cut off at one fell 
 stroke several millions of our countrymen from all 
 such possibility ; and some millions more are limited 
 to two or three weeks in the year, with occasional hours 
 snatched from the fangs of the enemy. It is not with 
 us as it was with our fathers even those of our fathers 
 who were doomed to live in towns. With them, 
 half an hour of walking sufficed to take them into the 
 presence of the august mother of us all ; but with 
 us (those, at least, of us who live in London, or in any 
 of our great manufacturing centres) a weary and a 
 costly journey must be undertaken before we can find 
 
 3
 
 34 SERMONS 
 
 ourselves among the silent hills or the solemn woods. 
 It is hard that we should be cut off from Nature's 
 voice that her beauty, her serene majesty should be 
 so far removed. And what have we got by way of 
 exchange ? For what have we bartered these sacred 
 opportunities ? We have bartered them for elaborate 
 indolence and enervating luxuries, alternating with 
 exhausting worry and ruinous tension. Maddening 
 hurry at one moment, impotent collapse at the next 
 these two, in ceaseless and monotonous alternation, are 
 what we have accepted in place of the sweet breath 
 of fields, the solemn wonder of the heavens, the 
 breadth and calm and glory of God's world. And 
 then, besides the conditions of space which have thus 
 cut the soul off from its appropriate food, there is 
 the imperative round of mechanical duty which our 
 elaborate civilisation necessitates all the petty and 
 meaningless acts, the automatic, unthinking and joyless 
 acts which we have to perform by the thousand every 
 day in order to keep this great scheme of civilisation 
 going. There are all the ceremonies of Society the 
 letters and calls and meaningless conversations and 
 idiotic smiles and hypocritical compliments and mutual 
 grimaces and attitudinisings which so effectually 
 separate soul from soul and man from Nature. Our 
 attention is absorbed, our mind is distracted, our
 
 LAMECH 35 
 
 emotions atrophied by this mechanical life ; and the 
 sum total of it is just one gigantic barrier, hopelessly 
 hiding from the human heart that sublime vision of 
 the Divine Presence which was meant for man. 
 
 " The world is too much with us ; late and soon, 
 Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers : 
 Little we see in Nature that is ours ; 
 We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon ! 
 This sea that bares her bosom to the moon j 
 The winds that will be howling at all hours, 
 And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers ; 
 For this, for everything, we are out of tune ; 
 It moves us not. Great God ! I'd rather be 
 A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn ; 
 So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, 
 Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn j 
 Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea ; 
 Or hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn." 
 
 And now, if this seems to any of you to be a mere 
 sentimental grievance if, like Samuel Johnson, and 
 Gotthold Lessing and many others, you do not care 
 much for Nature and find your revelation of God 
 almost entirely in Man, let me ask you whether your 
 case is any the better. Let me put it to you whether 
 this elaborate civilisation in the midst of which you are 
 doomed to live is calculated to bring you very near to 
 man. Very near to men, in the sense of being one in 
 a crowd, it certainly brings you ; but, alas, how far away
 
 36 SERMONS 
 
 it is apt to remove us in heart and affection ! Is the 
 mutual dependence which it creates of the kind that 
 makes us neighbours and helpful and loving ? Is the 
 money-bond, which is the bond upon which our civilisa- 
 tion now mainly depends, that which most closely knits 
 the soul of one man with the soul of another ? I do not 
 think so. I do not think that your dependence upon 
 the milkman or the baker or the butcher or the dress- 
 maker, or their dependence upon you, whichever you 
 like to call it, is of the kind that kindles a mutual 
 affection and interest. I have seen in the old rural 
 life, I have seen even in town life, between poor neigh- 
 bours, the mutual affection and interest which can be 
 kindled by mutual help and interdependence ; but I 
 have not seen it, as a general thing, produced by the 
 money-bond of our twentieth century city life. A 
 barren, hopeless bond it is, drying up the source of 
 natural affection, and issuing in monster strikes and 
 commercial wars and miles upon miles of competing 
 advertisements and all that makes our business life 
 discordant and hideous. And the whole of this, as it 
 seems to me, might be saved by a simpler mode of life, 
 a less elaborate civilisation, a certain restraint in matters 
 of luxury, a less material, more spiritual type of life. 
 
 And now, I daresay it may seem to you that I have 
 strayed very far away from my text. But this, you
 
 LAMECH 37 
 
 see, is just the axe of Lamech. This civilisation is his 
 new bronze axe which was such an improvement upon 
 the old stone hatchet, and with which he immediately 
 sallied forth to do seventyfold vengeance on the young 
 man who bruised him ; the only difference being that 
 we, with the greatly improved axe of our modern 
 civilisation, do vengeance not so much upon others as 
 upon ourselves. We wound ourselves with our civilisa- 
 tion, do injury to our own souls, bleeding them to 
 death with our multiplied material comforts, while at 
 the same time we torture them with our manifold 
 worries and distractions. But, whether the lesson follows 
 obviously from the text or not, I am truly anxious that 
 you should understand it. I am so convinced myself 
 that it is practical as well as important so convinced 
 that it will have to be learnt some day, if ever we are 
 to be other than a depressed and careworn generation. 
 The sooner we learn it, the sooner shall we be in the 
 road to happiness. It is not my message : the wisest 
 have preached it ; the greatest have taught it ; Jesus 
 himself proclaimed it again and again ; and it is written 
 for us in the book which we have taken from our 
 Sacred Scriptures. 
 
 Let me, then, in conclusion, summarise in a few 
 words the practical lesson which I have sought to bring 
 before you : Civilisation, properly understood, should
 
 38 SERMONS 
 
 mean the harmonious perfecting of man both individu- 
 ally and socially. Man is individual and needs to be 
 individually complete needs, that is, to be free and 
 self-respecting. Man is social and needs to be socially 
 environed affectionately helpful and gratefully helped. 
 If civilisation really does this for a man, then it does 
 everything and is an unmixed blessing. 
 
 But civilisation, as we have hitherto known it, has 
 lamentably failed in both respects. It has failed to 
 perfect man as an individual, by being too material. 
 It has not had due regard to the spirituality of the indi- 
 vidual ; and, in a certain over-anxiety to surround him 
 with physical comforts and conveniences, it has entirely 
 swamped him, smothered his better part, his spiritual 
 part, by the very superabundance of those conveniences 
 and comforts. And socially it has failed, too, for it has 
 not developed the social affections in their purity. By 
 the unequal and often unjust distribution of its pro- 
 ducts it has separated men into widely-sundered 
 classes making a few disastrously and unhealthily 
 rich and a vast number very miserably poor. The 
 practical upshot of all which is just this to rid our- 
 selves as soon as possible of the idea that evolution is 
 going to do everything for us, that civilisation is a 
 big machine endowed with perpetual motion, and that 
 all we have to do is to let it alone. The practical duty,
 
 LAMECH 39 
 
 I say, is to rid ourselves of this idea, and to understand, 
 once for all, that we have to work out our own 
 salvation. We must look after our civilisation. As 
 citizens, as thinking men, as reasonable and social 
 beings with a certain degree of influence among our 
 fellows, we must labour to alter the type and character 
 of our civilisation. We ourselves must beware of 
 luxury, beware of indolence, beware of a material and 
 mechanical life and a spiritual paralysis. We must 
 learn to live less selfishly, more sincerely, more 
 earnestly, more spiritually learn, above all, to be less 
 dependent upon physical and sensuous comforts, to be 
 braver, truer, hardier, purer and more " kindly affec- 
 tioned one to another in brotherly love."
 
 III. NATHANAEL 
 
 " Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile ! " JOHN i. 47. 
 
 THE gospel of St John is the gospel of ideals. Its 
 value lies less in its historic materials than in its exalted 
 presentment of spiritual truth and its succession of 
 ideal characters. Who Nathanael was we have not 
 the least idea : he is never mentioned by the synoptics ; 
 and even in this gospel he is mentioned only in this 
 place and once again in the appendix. Who he was we 
 do not know ; but we would not lose for a good deal 
 this brief sentence, in which his character is outlined 
 by one sweep of the pencil, and in which Jesus is 
 represented as exulting in the simple beauty of a 
 guileless soul. 
 
 There is a school of critics, you know, who hold this 
 gospel to be of small account because the characters 
 and the history depicted in it are idealised. The 
 picture of Jesus, for instance, as it is here presented, 
 differs considerably, they tell us, from that which is 
 
 given in the other three gospels. The Jesus of St John 
 
 40
 
 NATHANAEL 41 
 
 is sublimated and etherealised and differs from the 
 historical Jesus much as the Socrates of Plato differs 
 from the historical Socrates. The events, too, are 
 different, and many of them seen as through a golden 
 mist, magnified and softened and to some extent trans- 
 formed. And so the historical and scientific school of 
 critics is apt to regard this gospel in much the same 
 light as that in which Luther regarded the Epistle of 
 St James when he called it (because it did not aid him 
 in his doctrine of justification by faith) an epistle of 
 straw. 
 
 But our feeling, I apprehend, will rather be with 
 those who consider that the idealised gospel has a 
 function and a message of its own. 
 
 Consider we would say to these devotees of historic 
 fact consider whether a gospel of ideals is not a 
 gospel which we want. Is the world to be all prose to 
 us ? all science ? all accurate and sifted fact ? Are we 
 to have no fancy ? no prismatic mist ? no sunlit land- 
 scape ? no gleam of that " light which never was on sea 
 or land " ? Do you really want to have an Enoch who 
 died in his bed, a Moses whose face did not shine, an 
 Elijah without his fiery chariot ? a gallery of saints 
 with their halos painted out, and accurately clothed in 
 the vestments of the period ? Do you really want this ? 
 
 I suppose they do want this. Our age is an age of
 
 42 SERMONS 
 
 fact. Our aim is truth literal and unvarnished truth 
 that kind of truth which is determined to get the 
 external relations right at any rate. And 1 suppose 
 that these literalists see no need of making things 
 appear more beautiful or sublime than their naked 
 material existence seems to say they are. They are 
 quite content with the body; they do not want the 
 soul. Or, if that is not quite just, we may say at any 
 rate that they want the soul exactly as it is, not as it 
 might be or shall be : with the soul in its promise and 
 its potency they have nothing at all to do. 
 
 But there comes a time when dogmatic science has 
 spent itself and the heart begins to hunger. " Give 
 us a little of the bread of beauty ! Slake our thirst 
 with a draught of the sublime ! This bread-and-water 
 of the finite fact does not satisfy us." And then we 
 begin to recognise the existence of another world 
 besides the world of finite fact, and of other laws 
 besides the laws of the physical universe, and of another 
 human faculty besides the faculties which apprehend 
 the phenomena and the laws of the material world. 
 And we understand that the spiritual world must be 
 interpreted, and the spiritual laws must be apprehended, 
 and the spiritual part of us, which lives for the infinite 
 and the perfect, must be sustained and fed. And then 
 this gospel of ideals may help to meet our need. We
 
 NATHANAEL 43 
 
 may find refreshment and stimulus and warmth as we 
 contemplate these ideal characters passing one by one 
 before us the guileless Nathanael, the steadfast 
 Peter, the eager Samaritan, the humble and believing 
 Syrophenician, and many another ; and, in the midst, 
 the glorified and lovely figure of Jesus uttering sublime 
 and mystic thoughts. 
 
 I. This, then, is the first point to which I desire to 
 call your attention in connexion with our text the 
 spiritual value of the ideal. It is implied, you see, in 
 this exclamation of Jesus : " Behold an Israelite indeed" 
 It is plain that Jesus had been looking about in Israel 
 for an Israelite an Israelite that satisfied his idea of 
 what an Israelite should be. In other words, he had 
 been cherishing an ideal. And it is the value, not so 
 much of this particular ideal as of the ideal' in general, 
 that I invite you to consider ; because many things of 
 late years have led us away from this : the rapid and 
 enormous strides of mechanical invention, the fasci- 
 nation of physical discoveries, the intensified eagerness 
 of our commercial life, the increased attention given to 
 the practical side of education, the strain and hurry of 
 our life and the lack of leisure which has to some extent 
 starved the reflective, and to a very great extent starved 
 the spiritual and religious side of our nature. All 
 this, 1 say, has led us away from the ideal, so that we
 
 44 SERMONS 
 
 have come to consider it of little value, or at any rate 
 have been obliged perforce to thrust it into the back- 
 ground of our minds. 
 
 Now, I think we may say broadly that the value of 
 the ideal lies in this, that it keeps alive within us the 
 sense of the infinite. It lifts us to another plane of 
 life than that upon which we habitually live. It is easy 
 to pass our days upon the practical plane and lose all 
 thought of this higher reflective plane to which the 
 better and more enduring part of us properly belongs. 
 And the ideal, the poetic, and, in a certain restricted 
 sense, the religious help us into this higher and larger 
 life. It re-awakens that side of our nature which is 
 turned away from the finite and which is more 
 especially akin to the infinite which lies beyond. 
 
 i. Consider, for a moment, how our life is enriched 
 by having alive within us this perception of the infinite. 
 
 There exists, and always has existed, a rare race of 
 men (particularly rare at this present time) who have 
 the power to awaken it. Beauty of colour, form and 
 sound have been among their means : a certain select 
 few of those who handle these media and use them for 
 our pleasure having (superadded) the higher gift of so 
 handling them as to suggest heights and depths and 
 breadths of experience infinitely exceeding those which 
 the bodily senses can compass, and so of ministering,
 
 NATHANAEL 45 
 
 not merely to our pleasure, but to our spiritual capacity 
 and power. There have been those, too, who use 
 what is perhaps the highest medium of all, the spoken 
 word, suggesting, appealing, arousing, moving the 
 heart, penetrating the conscience, and often revealing, 
 both in heart and conscience, vast and unsuspected 
 depths. Greatest of these was Jesus Prophet of all 
 prophets Poet of all poets Maker and Inspirer to 
 the end of time of loftiest dreams. 
 
 Such dreams, such revelations of the spirit, are a 
 necessity to all of us. We cannot live or love without 
 them. But it is given to few men to create them. 
 And so to certain artists, musicians, poets, we come 
 and come again, drinking in life for our spiritual part 
 from the deep wells of their creative souls. 
 
 That is what the poets (the great poets) do for us. 
 They furnish us with ideals. Whether in colour or 
 form or sound or words, or if there be any other 
 medium of communication, they present to us that 
 which liberates us for the time being from the finite. 
 They awaken the infinite. They make us aware that 
 the soul has another side which mostly slumbers. 
 They let the light into that chamber and the soul 
 stirs a little and opens its eyes ; and for a moment we 
 see what the world really is. 
 
 I suppose that, if it were not for the poets in their
 
 46 SERMONS 
 
 various sorts, we should as good as die. For these 
 dreamers these visionary and unpractical people 
 have given us all that makes life worth living. Strip 
 life of its poetry and what remains ? The children no 
 longer play their games or tell their tales, the men and 
 women have neither faith nor hope nor love in what 
 they do or say or think. There are no homes, but only 
 houses ; no wedded love, but only marriage contracts ; 
 no friendship or courtesy or modesty or courage ; no 
 touch of chivalry and no suspicion of romance ! 
 What a bald thing life has become and how very little \ 
 
 The infinite has gone out of it ! Then comes the 
 poet ; and music speaks, and colour thrills, and the 
 heavens look with eyes upon us, and Nature moves us, 
 and the children's games are full of merry fancies, and 
 the men and women begin to hope and love, and there 
 are eyes that weep, and cheeks that blush, and hearts 
 that beat, and lips that smile, and all the world is alive 
 once more, because the soul has stirred. 
 
 That is what poets do for us or that, at any rate, 
 is what the poetic, the creative spirit does for us. It 
 may come from the diffused influence of forgotten 
 men, or it may come from definite creations of 
 individual souls. But it comes always and only from 
 the religious and ideal as distinct from the material 
 and the utilitarian influence. And that is what Jesus
 
 NATHANAEL 47 
 
 did. His soul was touched with the fire of the eternal 
 world. He lived full in view of the ideal and never 
 for one moment suffered the actual and sordid world 
 to drag him down to its own level. And so, wherever 
 there was a heart for whom the world had proved too 
 strong, it leapt forth to meet this life-giving touch. 
 The old half- forgotten dreams of life's possibilities 
 rose up in the mind once more in bright and living 
 colours. Men threw aside their nets and their money- 
 bags and left their receipt of custom and followed after 
 this dreamer of dreams, because these dreams are the 
 most precious things which the heart knows. 
 
 2. Consider, again, how valuable the ideal is in 
 giving to life its true perspective. Through it the 
 great is felt to be great, and the mean to be mean. 
 Until you have met a great man I mean a man of 
 intellectual or moral or religious greatness you do 
 not perceive how small the small man is ; and, until 
 you have come within sight of a high ideal like this 
 one of our text a guileless Israel, a guileless nation, 
 a society founded upon simplicity you do not get to 
 see how very small our ordinary ideas are our ideas 
 of a Society founded upon wealth or upon fashion or 
 upon force of arms, measured and valued by these 
 things. 
 
 It is with nations as with men. A morally great man
 
 48 SERMONS 
 
 is nearly always guileless ; and he who measures a man 
 by his social position or his wealth or his brute power 
 simply has not understood what greatness is. He 
 moves in a world of small ideas and does not know 
 how great the real world is. He is a sort of villager 
 in the moral universe. And so it will be when the 
 great nation arises the nation that is not merely big 
 or strong^ but spiritually great. 
 
 You will generally find, I think, that at the bottom 
 of any sad perversion of character, whether in a nation 
 or an individual, there lies some mistaken ideal. Men 
 ruin themselves in character and conscience and 
 health by fiercely struggling for the means of ostenta- 
 tious living ; women fall into miserable snares, and fret 
 away the best part of their lives because they cannot 
 get the means of gratifying their foolish social 
 ambitions ; and all this because men and women have 
 never perceived the dignity and charm of simplicity. 
 How deep the soul may sink through these mistaken 
 standards, the record of any single day, as it is given 
 us in the public prints, will testify. And, where they 
 do not end in crime and social disaster, they end, and 
 always must end, in a worn and weary heart, a fretful, 
 discontented mind, a spoiled, disfigured soul. Across 
 the face of nine-tenths of our English life as it is lived 
 to-day the old prophetic word might be inscribed :
 
 NATHANAEL 
 
 49 
 
 " Why do ye spend your money for that which is not 
 bread, and your labour for that which satisfieth not ? " 
 Yes, " why do they ? " We re-echo the question. 
 Because they have had dreams misleading dreams : 
 false visions of a false happiness, false notions of a 
 false greatness, wrong ideas of life's aims and the 
 relative scale of their importance. But the true ideal 
 does this for us : it gives us a worthier standard of life 
 and brings us to see it in a true perspective. 
 
 3. And it does more : /'/ inspires us with hope and 
 stimulates us to action. It is not only a priceless treasure 
 for the present, but it is a sure prophecy for the future. 
 
 For the ideal the moral ideal goes deeper than the 
 fancy : it touches the conscience. And these aspirations 
 of the conscience, these visions of spiritual loveliness, 
 open up before us the path of spiritual advance. They 
 are at once a prophecy and a stimulus. They tell us 
 what is coming if not in our own day, then in some 
 future generation. For all that an enlightened con- 
 science aims at will one day be achieved : not perhaps 
 in the limited and narrow mode which our own minds 
 picture, but in some wider and worthier mode which 
 will grow from that. I never heard that this dream of 
 Jesus was fulfilled in the narrower sense. I never 
 heard of Israel becoming a guileless nation, but rather 
 the reverse. But I am quite sure that some day this 
 
 4
 
 50 SERMONS 
 
 ideal will be realised in a much fuller sense, and that 
 the heavens will look upon, not merely a guileless 
 nation, but a guileless humanity. 
 
 A prophecy and a stimulus yes, both are involved in 
 these aspirations of the conscience : a prophecy, because 
 conscience posits the universal law which cannot but 
 work itself out in history ; and a stimulus, because the 
 moral ideal partakes of that imperative quality that 
 attribute of urgency which belongs by nature to the 
 inward voice. That voice commands and it attracts ; 
 it impels and it persuades, so majestic is it and so 
 lovely. And such is the ideal ; such is the spiritual 
 imagination when it seizes on the soul. It is a fire 
 which burns, a light which draws us. To neglect it is 
 to die ; to obey it is to live. Like life itself it both 
 consumes and creates us ; a zeal which eats us up, and 
 yet a buoyancy, a hope, an inspiration which knits us 
 in immortal union with the unseen world. 
 
 II. And now let us briefly look at the complementary 
 truth. Take the text now as history, or take it at any 
 rate as representing an experience known to us in human 
 life the realisation of the ideal. Turn from the ideal 
 of guilelessness to the fulfilment of that ideal in this 
 Nathanael, and we shall see that ideals, precious as they 
 are, are not enough. The ideal is the prophecy, and is 
 valuable as such ; but, when we meet with our ideal
 
 NATHANAEL 51 
 
 realised, then the prophecy is justified and an immense 
 support is given to the moral life. 
 
 You can enter, can you not ? into the spirit of this 
 glad outburst of discovery " 'Behold ! behold ! an 
 Israelite indeed ! " Call to mind what a tide of satis- 
 faction flooded your own heart when, after long search- 
 ing and disappointment, you found at last a man who 
 touched a line near to the level of your dream a man 
 of sincerity amid all the vanity and folly of society, or 
 a man with free thoughts and a large heart in the midst 
 of a narrow and custom-bound life. And then, in the 
 intensely human experience of Jesus, imagine the sense 
 of repose, of attainment, of sweet satisfaction as he 
 exclaimed : " Behold an Israelite indeed ! " 
 
 These moments of discovery are grand epochs in a 
 life. When the philosopher lights upon some principle 
 to harmonise his facts, or when the astronomer sees at 
 last the living light of the planet which his calculations 
 told him must exist, the glow of success must no doubt 
 be very great. But a man is more to us than a whole 
 galaxy of stars. And when we have tracked at last the 
 orbit of a human spirit and found the man after our 
 own heart the man who verifies by his existence our 
 spiritual calculations, what a triumph that is for a soul ! 
 How roomy and healthful the world becomes ! how 
 well worth living life seems ! and how strong we feel
 
 52 SERMONS 
 
 in our reliance upon the inward voice which has not 
 played us false, but which told us truly that the good 
 was possible ! 
 
 This, then, it seems to me, is the office of the real. 
 The ideal is the prophecy of conscience ; the real is our 
 assurance that the prophecy was no mere dream. Yes ; 
 we need the real as well as the ideal. It is not enough 
 for the plant to have the light, it needs to have the soil 
 as well. And we, too, cannot live by merely reaching 
 forth ; we must go on from strength to strength, 
 feeding in the heart upon this one and that one who 
 shows in his living person that virtue to be possible 
 after which we so dimly strive. The man who realises 
 in his own person the secret surmises of the heart, 
 who corresponds to conscience and justifies our faith, is 
 eminently helpful. The soul leaps to him, clings to 
 him and climbs by his aid further toward heaven than 
 it could ever have gone alone. 
 
 Let us not think, therefore, that religion comes only 
 from the temple. It comes from the world as well ; it 
 comes from the battlefield and the senate-house and 
 the settler's farm and the counting-house and the 
 ship's deck. Wherever men can live and do and die, 
 thence may come this verifying response to the prophecies 
 of conscience. We feed upon what men do as well as 
 upon what they think and feel. We are nourished by
 
 NATHANAEL 53 
 
 their characters as much as ever we are nourished by 
 their thoughts. And when there rises to view a man 
 of probity or courage, or of refreshing simplicity and 
 candour, of strength or beauty of life, there goes forth 
 from our hearts a cry like that which went from the 
 lips of our Master a cry of gladness for the fulfilment 
 of our most sacred hopes the fulfilment in one man 
 of that which we look for in the race. 
 
 And let us remember this. As the good life lived 
 by others is helpful to ourselves, so the good life, if 
 it is lived by ourselves, will be helpful to others. 
 Whatever beauty of character we exhibit in our lives 
 will serve just this purpose with our fellow-men : it will 
 enable them to believe in goodness. In every man 
 there dwells some divine foreshadowing of a beauty 
 that may perchance be yet revealed : show the man 
 that beauty realised and you will at once give shape 
 and substance to his hope. That was just what was 
 needed to change his hope into faith and his faith into 
 assurance. A good man helps us to believe in God. 
 Groping, stumbling, feeling blindly in the labyrinth of 
 life, there bursts upon us this light of a good man's 
 life. In an instant the way becomes clear and the life 
 becomes glad. We were not mistaken ! God is 
 possible ; heaven is possible ; the redemption of mankind 
 is possible. For here before us stands a good man, a
 
 54 SERMONS 
 
 guileless man, a true Israelite : the dayspring from 
 on high hath visited us, and now we need but to wait 
 with patience for the perfect noon. 
 
 I set before you, then, these two the ideal and the 
 real ; and I assert that both are needful for our growth 
 in the Divine life. We need the ideal the poetic 
 imagination and the prophetic dream. We need it to 
 bring us into emotional relation with the infinite, to 
 keep alive within us the faith in a coming glory. We 
 need it to give to the pursuits of life their true per- 
 spective, to inspire us with hope and stimulate us to 
 action. And we need it, I may add, to give definition 
 and currency to the aspirations of the soul, to furnish a 
 language for the heart, presenting to the mind's eye in 
 concrete shape the impalpable breathings of the inward 
 nature after spiritual loveliness. 
 
 And also we need the actual, the realised ideal. 
 We need it as a verification of the inward prophecy, 
 as a confirmation of that in which we have believed. 
 The real justifies our faith and defines our dreams. 
 Like him who was the Bread of Life, so is every 
 good man food for the soul. 
 
 And now, in conclusion, consider how these two 
 are related. They are related as the two sides of one 
 transcendent fact. The one is the inner experience, 
 the other the outer perception. The one speaks from
 
 NATHANAEL 55 
 
 within, the other answers from without. Is the one 
 more divine than the other ? I think not. Both 
 together are divine ; and yet neither without the other 
 is complete. 
 
 I wonder whether this is not the truth which lies 
 at the heart of that ancient doctrine of the Church 
 the Divine Three in One ; whether this striving and 
 hoping and thirsting for the divinely beautiful is not 
 the breath of the Holy Spirit within us ; and whether 
 the beautiful revealed in man the righteousness lived 
 before our eyes is not the son of God, the divinely 
 sacred in the outer human world ? And I wonder 
 whether that which completes the doctrine does not 
 also complete the relation between the ideal and the 
 real the one transcendent God, Father of all, encom- 
 passing, embracing, sustaining the twofold life, within 
 us and without ; one life in which they both unite, 
 one source from which they both spring, one end to 
 which they both tend " One God and Father of us 
 all, who is above all, and through all, and in you all." 
 
 God the Father speaks in man and speaks to man. 
 He speaks in man ; and sometimes we call his voice the 
 Holy Spirit, sometimes we call it conscience ; sometimes, 
 when it works through the medium of imagination, we 
 call it poetry or prophecy. But, by whatever name we 
 call it, the ideals that are thus inspired must and will
 
 56 SERMONS 
 
 be some day fulfilled. They belong to the eternal 
 world ; they are the promises of God ; and God is not 
 a man that he should lie or the son of man that he 
 should repent. 
 
 " All we have willed or hoped or dreamed of good, shall exist ; 
 Not its semblance, but itself; no beauty, nor good, nor 
 
 power 
 Whose voice has gone forth, but each survives for the 
 
 melodist 
 
 When eternity affirms the conception of an hour. 
 The high that proved too high, the heroic for earth too 
 
 hard, 
 
 The passion that left the ground to lose itself in the sky, 
 Are music sent up to God by the lover and the bard ; 
 Enough that He heard it once : we shall hear it by-and-by."
 
 IV. LOVE OF THE WORLD 
 
 " Love not the world, neither the things that are in the world. 
 If any man love the world, the love of the Father is not in him." 
 I JOHN ii. 15. 
 
 WHAT does this writer mean " Love not the world " ? 
 He is using, of course, the language of symbol the 
 language of poetry. He does not mean any visible 
 orb any realm of nature or tangible arrangement of 
 men or things ; he means some spiritual relation or 
 influence. There is some danger which he has felt ; 
 some lovable, attractive sphere of things, which he has 
 found poisonous to the soul. And this sphere of 
 dangerous attraction, this channel of poisonous influ- 
 ence, he calls " the world." 
 
 The difficulty, of course, is one of language. These 
 early Christians had a vocabulary of their own which 
 they used to express their religious experiences ; and 
 this vocabulary has partly become obsolete. When we 
 speak of " the world," we generally mean some definite 
 arrangement of things or of people of wide extent. We 
 
 57
 
 58 SERMONS 
 
 either mean this earth or we mean the whole visible 
 universe ; or, yet again, we mean the whole scheme of 
 human institutions. But the New Testament writers 
 did not mean that ; or, if they did, they meant that 
 with a very special emphasis laid upon the relationship 
 which such things bore to the soul. It was not so 
 much Nature or Humanity which they had in mind 
 when they spoke of " the world," as it was a certain 
 attitude of the soul towards " Nature " or Humanity. 
 
 Now, if you will consider it, we have to-day a 
 certain analogous use of the word. That is to say, we 
 sometimes mean by " the world," not the visible orb 
 of men and things, but the relation which that orb 
 bears to us. For instance, the inquiring mind plays 
 upon this web of Nature's wonders, and you get the 
 scientific " world." The sense perceptions, informed by 
 the spirit of beauty, play upon the same sphere, and 
 forthwith you have the artists " world." The study of 
 human relations with a view to human well-being gives 
 you the political world. The consideration of Nature 
 and of man with reference to the informing spirit of 
 the whole gives you the religious world. And similarly 
 you may go through the whole range of human 
 faculties and interests, and you will see that there are 
 just as many " worlds " as there are sides to human 
 nature. Nay, you may go further and say that mas-
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 59 
 
 much as we are all different each one looking out 
 into this sphere of wonder with individually different 
 eyes there are in truth just as many worlds as there 
 are men. The soul contributes something to the making 
 of the world. Each man in large part makes his own 
 world. The world will be to you what you are. 
 
 Which, then, of all these worlds was " the world " of 
 which the apostle was so much afraid ? Was it the 
 scientific world, or the artistic world, or the political 
 world, or the social world, or some other world ? The 
 answer is that it was no one of these worlds, in and by 
 itself, but it was all or any of them in a certain relation. 
 What that relationship is, he has told us with great 
 clearness, and it is very important for us to understand it. 
 
 It is important for us to understand it, because we 
 must all test our world. Since there are so many 
 different worlds, we must have some criterion by which 
 to judge our world. This scene of things has many 
 aspects. The human heart creates many worlds. But 
 every man has some one prevalent world. Tour world 
 is different from my world, and my world is different 
 from that other man's. I wonder whether my world is 
 a wholesome world ! I wonder whether your world is a 
 beautiful and lovable world ! I wonder whether that 
 other man's world is a poisonous and forbidden world ! 
 How are we to know ? What standard shall we apply ?
 
 60 SERMONS 
 
 How shall we determine the character of the particular 
 world in which we live ? 
 
 Our text answers this question, and answers it, I 
 think, with extraordinary insight. " Love not the 
 world, for that which is in the world is not of the 
 Father.'" That is the criterion. There you have the 
 true test as to the character of your world. Does it 
 come from the Father ? 
 
 The relations which the world bears to the soul are 
 manifold ; but spiritually they are all reducible to two : 
 either it proceeds from the Father and speaks of 
 him, or it proceeds from a small circle of material and 
 sensuous interests ; and then it does not speak of the 
 Father, it speaks of death. There are as many worlds 
 as there are men and women ; but there are only two 
 kinds of worlds. There is a world which fills you with 
 life, and there is a world which robs you of life. My 
 world, your world, does the one or the other. It is life 
 to you, or it is death to you. The world which is alive, 
 which wraps you round as a hallowing presence, which 
 lifts you up like a benediction that is the divine 
 world. The world which is dead, which is mechanical 
 and cold and earthly ; or the world which is small and 
 paltry, which exists for my particular purposes and my 
 little enjoyments, and is significant of nothing beyond 
 them that is the forbidden world. The one is the
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 61 
 
 world of the child, of the poet, of the saint, of the soul ; 
 the other is the world of the worldling, the cynic, the 
 time-server and the flesh. 
 
 At first sight this may seem a little difficult. If we 
 are going to formulate a practical rule for our life, we 
 seem to want something simpler than this. It is all 
 very well to say that the forbidden world is mechanical 
 and cold, but how can you expect the average man to 
 have any very clear ideas as to whether the world is 
 mechanical or whether it is spiritual ? It is all very 
 well to say that a man's world must not be small and 
 paltry, but suppose he is a peasant in a little country 
 parish who knows nothing about the great world of 
 humanity beyond it ? 
 
 In short, we need to have this forbidden " world " 
 a little more fully described before we can feel sure 
 that we have understood the doctrine. 
 
 Well, the context of our passage does this for us ; 
 it explicitly sets forth those attributes which belong to 
 the world in that particular relation in which we may 
 not love it. 
 
 I. In the first place, it assigns to it the attribute of 
 sensuousness. 
 
 " All that is in the world, the lust of the flesh, and 
 the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life, is not of the 
 Father." The world which touches only the senses,
 
 62 SERMONS 
 
 and penetrates no farther, is not a world that we may 
 safely love. This, at first sight, may seem a severe 
 and ascetic rule. Why were our senses given to us if 
 we are not to use them ? And how, indeed, can we 
 come into relation with the world at all, except by 
 using them ? But here, again, that phrase, " it is not 
 of the Father," explains the doctrine : it is not that the 
 pleasures of sense are forbidden fruits ; it is not that 
 the scent of hedgerows or the gleam of waters or the 
 gaiety of crowds are poison to the soul ; it is that the 
 senses should be a channel to the heart, a golden ladder 
 for the angels of God, and that if they are not this, if 
 beauty speaks of no deeper harmony, but ends in lust, 
 if gaiety is not the natural expression of a heartfelt 
 gladness but only the fevered aim of an unhealthy 
 craving, if life with its stir and its endeavours is the 
 scene, not of helpful activity, but of personal ambition 
 and of pride, then the world in which we live is not of 
 the Father and is no fit home for a child of God. 
 
 Man is the child of God that is the key to the 
 conundrum. He is the child of God, and his world 
 should come from the Father and lead to the Father. 
 For the animal^ a world of sheer sense is a perfectly 
 right world. The lower creatures are "lower," just 
 because they have no more than the barest rudiments 
 of reason and conscience. Their world is almost
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 63 
 
 entirely a sense-world, and when they live in it they 
 fulfil the law of their being. With man it is not so. 
 In him the world of sense is but the porch leading to 
 the temple. He cannot enter the temple except through 
 the porch ; but, having entered the porch, he must not 
 stay there. I am sure that you yourselves, if you 
 follow our golden rule of consulting your own ex- 
 perience, will see that this is true. I am sure that 
 you have at some time in your lives experienced the 
 dissatisfaction that comes from indulgence in sense- 
 pleasures that led on to nothing else. When some lust 
 of the flesh or lust of the eyes has ended with itself 
 and awakened no wider life in the affections or the 
 religious feelings, the experience has ended (has it not ?) 
 in a feeling of emptiness^ if not of disgust or self- 
 reproach. The day's pleasure which found no outlet 
 for unselfish thought ; the dance, the novel, the lounge, 
 the dinner, or what not, which was accepted and 
 indulged in for the sake of self and with no reference to 
 the larger area of life you know that there was not 
 much real pleasure in it. It palled. It ended in disgust 
 or in ennui. The full human nature was not satisfied. 
 It was " not of the Father." This surface-world, then, 
 when it has no reference to the inner sacred world of 
 the spirit, is that of which the writer speaks ; and its 
 shallowness, its mere sensuousness, its separation from
 
 64 SERMONS 
 
 all life of conscience or of heart, of affection or of 
 worship, is one characteristic by which we know it. 
 
 It is difficult, I know, for the young to believe this. 
 The delights of colour and music and fragrance ; the 
 charm of the gay world, the thirst for love, the zest 
 and hopefulness of life are vividly felt and keenly 
 enjoyed. And all this is as it should be. It is the 
 voice of Nature calling to the young heart. That is 
 the first voice that comes to us, and it is quite right 
 that we should follow it. Be gay and glad, young 
 friends ! Rejoice in your youth, and walk in the ways 
 of your heart and the sight of your eyes ! Only, know 
 that beyond all these things there is a deeper depth, a 
 wider life, a larger blessedness. You are at the first 
 edge of life. You have scarcely crossed the threshold. 
 You stand yet within the porch. A few more years 
 and you will learn that these things, apart from that to 
 which they lead, are fleeting. They are not sufficient in 
 themselves. In a little while you will learn more 
 perfectly that of which perhaps you have already had a 
 hint and a suspicion : that the brightness of the world 
 is no longer bright unless it is echoed by a brave and 
 cheerful heart ; that the music of the world is a very 
 empty noise unless it speaks the deeper harmonies 
 of life ; and when that time comes all the zest of life 
 will melt away like a morning cloud, unless it is linked
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 65 
 
 to some lasting purpose, some spiritual and hidden life. 
 The pleasures of sense are not worthless ; but, as the 
 nature becomes fuller and richer, they are felt to be 
 unsatisfying in themselves, and precious, not so much 
 for what they are as for what they suggest. They have 
 little depth or endurance, unless they lead the spirit 
 on to a larger world of thought and to the doing of 
 God's will on earth, where the great human realities 
 abide the realities of character, the realities of self-for- 
 getting love, the realities of devotion to God's will. 
 
 II. Again ; this passage gives us a second attribute 
 of the forbidden world, its evanescence. "Love not 
 the world, for the world passeth away and the lust 
 thereof ; but he that doeth the will of God abideth for 
 ever." The world that changes, the world that passeth 
 away, the world that comes and goes and leaves the 
 man no richer in character or sympathy, this is not 
 the world for an immortal soul. 
 
 The apostle contrasts the passing world with the 
 Eternal Father, the ever-changing forms of life with 
 the perennial spring of life itself, the ever-shifting 
 shapes of outward things with the Eternal Spirit who 
 lies behind all things and shines through them and 
 lives in them and never changes. " Do not love the 
 changing" says the apostle ; " for if you love the 
 changing you cannot love the eternal ; if you are wholly 
 
 5
 
 66 SERMONS 
 
 set upon the mere shows of things you cannot take any 
 strong hold upon their essence ; if you love the world 
 you cannot love the Father." 
 
 Here, again, the spiritual quality is that which is 
 mainly intended. It is not that there is any particular 
 virtue in liking our joys to last. That all men 
 desire. The worldling, or at least the money-getting 
 type of worldling, has this for his very special aim. 
 To secure his wealth, to fortify himself against 
 privation, to lay up goods for many years this is one 
 of the chief aims of Dives. But what Dives has not 
 learnt is where to find joy that lasts. Your barns or 
 your bank may be as safe as the world can make them, 
 but the trouble is that the joy passes. It is possible 
 to have hoards of wealth, and yet, for all the joy that 
 it brings, to be as good as paupers ; to dwell in the 
 midst of beauty and sicken of it ; to move in the midst 
 of gay crowds and be very lonely. It is the joy itself 
 that is so evanescent. Hell itself may quite possibly be 
 a wealthy and busy place a city, as Shelley said, very 
 much like London ; but a place of joylessness it must 
 be, because its wealth and its business have no root of 
 reality. 
 
 Can you, in fact, imagine a worse hell than to 
 live for ever in a world of shams ; to drag the length 
 of your eternity through meaningless ceremonies and
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 67 
 
 shallow pomps ; to walk through the ages in a pre- 
 tence of greatness or of virtue ; to be beset for ever 
 and for ever, haunted through endless time by phantom 
 faces smirking, flattering, fawning, incapable of a gleam 
 of real joy or a smile of genuine love ? Can you 
 imagine any more horrible depth to which a soul can 
 plunge than to wear for ever a face which is not your 
 own, play for ever a part which is not your own, live 
 for ever a life which is not your own, to seem and never 
 to be, to know always that there lies behind a soul and 
 a sin which does not show itself, and a rotted, blighted 
 love that has sickened into impotence ? Aye, that is 
 hell ! And there is a great deal of that hell in existence. 
 Shelley was quite right : " Hell is a city very much like 
 London." 
 
 This, therefore, gives us a second touchstone of the 
 world in which we live. Do you live in a world of 
 reality ? Do you really love the things that you 
 pretend to love ? enjoy the things that you appear to 
 enjoy ? Does your whole heart go into your work and 
 pleasure ? Is it the essence that you love, or only the 
 accidents ? Is there a soul in your pursuits ? 
 
 If not, if your world is not a permanent world, but 
 only an evanescent pretence, then do not dare to love 
 it. To have your affections entangled in a world of 
 mere show and seeming is to hazard your very life.
 
 68 SERMONS 
 
 Many of our uses of the term " worldliness " are 
 framed upon the feeling that nothing can be permanent 
 which is not rooted in eternal principle. We call a 
 man " worldly " when he seeks to associate with people 
 of high position, not because he esteems them or loves 
 them or believes in them, but because he hopes for a 
 little reflected lustre from their rank. We call a man 
 " worldly " when he apes the ways of well-bred people 
 in minor and accidental circumstances without seizing 
 upon the essence of their refinement, the subtle grace, 
 the fine, discriminating fellow-feeling which is the 
 central principle of courtesy. We call him " worldly," 
 again, when he temporises, when he forsakes his ideal 
 and lets himself down with the stream, when he drops 
 a principle for the sake of getting out of a difficulty. 
 These uses of the word are perfectly just : they illus- 
 trate that attribute of evanescence of which we are 
 speaking. To care more for outward show than for 
 inward grace, to depend upon "luck" and "chance" 
 instead of upon eternal right, to trust to temporary 
 expedients instead of to consistent action, these are but 
 varying forms of one spirit that spirit which trusts to 
 a world which " passeth away " instead of to that which 
 " abides." 
 
 These, then, are the two attributes of the forbidden 
 world its sensuousness and its evanescence. And these
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 69 
 
 two are one. The evanescent is the sensuous, and the 
 sensuous is the evanescent. " The world passeth away 
 and the lust thereof." 
 
 The changing is the outward, the permanent is the 
 inward ; the changing is the material, the permanent is 
 the spiritual ; and the nearer we get to the spiritual 
 the nearer we get to the truly lovable. 
 
 This is no new doctrine ; long before it was written 
 in this epistle it was well known to every devout heart. 
 There was a psalmist in very ancient days who said 
 that there were pleasures which God held in his right 
 handyor evermore. What pleasures were they ? What 
 were these eternally enduring pleasures ? He tells 
 us. All his delight, he declares, is first in God 
 himself, and secondly in the excellent among men. 
 Yes, there are many pleasures in this beautiful world, 
 but there is none to compare in depth or in per- 
 manence with the pleasures of character and of 
 religion the pleasure of admiring brave and good 
 people, and the pleasure of reverent wonder as we 
 stand amid this amazing world. These are the two 
 chief pleasures of life, and all experiences lead 
 naturally up to them ; if they stop short of them, 
 then they are mere surface-pleasures which have no 
 eternal root. 
 
 My friends, there are two opposite views of our
 
 yo SERMONS 
 
 relation to the world of sense, both of which are very 
 prevalent, but neither of which is very Christian. 
 
 One view is that the wisest thing we can do is to 
 enjoy ourselves : to eat and drink and sleep and laugh 
 and love and make music while we can, and keep 
 death out of our thoughts ; that this is the main, 
 and indeed the only discoverable purpose of life, and 
 that we had better leave the inscrutable alone and give 
 ourselves to this while we may. The other view is 
 that the preparation for death is the main end of life, 
 that the man who enjoys himself here cannot expect to 
 enjoy himself yonder, and that the pleasures of sense 
 are on this account a hindrance to the soul. 
 
 Neither of these, as you very well know, is a very 
 wholesome view of our relation to the visible world. 
 Men of serious mind have always been averse from the 
 first ; but neither are they in our day altogether content 
 with the second. And so we find an ever increasing 
 multitude of those who attempt a middle course. 
 They try to do a little of each : a little grasping and a 
 little giving, a little feasting and a little fasting, a little 
 of the church and a little of the world ; the ball-dress 
 to-day and sackcloth to-morrow. This seems to us 
 to-day the golden mean. " Be religious, of course, but 
 not too religious ; enjoy the world, of course, but 
 cautiously. Do not go too far ; do not let the world
 
 LOVE OF THE WORLD 71 
 
 interfere with your religious duties ; but neither, on the 
 other hand, need your religion altogether cut you off 
 from the pleasures of the world." 
 
 This middle course between sense and soul recom- 
 mends itself to many in our time. The life is divided 
 into two ; and what they call " the worldly" that is, the 
 pleasurable ', half, is indulged in, so far as may be, 
 without altogether neglecting what are conceived to be 
 the grey and monotonous, but safe and wholesome, 
 offices of religion. But in this Laodicean middle course 
 there is neither salvation nor delight. Wisdom does 
 not lie half-way between : it lies in the fusion of the 
 two. It is not given to man to steer his course half- 
 way between God and the world ; but it is given him to 
 make the world the way to God. Let your joys be 
 duly subordinated in the scale of duty, and then frankly 
 accepted, ^//experiences save those of sin may lead you 
 on to God. Your eating, drinking, sleeping, laughing, 
 loving, dancing, working, playing may all be means of 
 grace to yourself and blessings to those about you. 
 
 If this seems to you paradoxical or impossible, it is 
 perhaps that you are mistaken in your notion of the 
 true purpose of life. Of course, if you think that the 
 end of life is enjoyment (the lust of the flesh, and the 
 lust of the eye, and the pride of life), why, then, you are 
 sure either to throw religion overboard altogether, or
 
 72 SERMONS 
 
 to degrade it into a perfunctory price which you have 
 to pay to make your enjoyment safe ; but if you once 
 see clearly, if you are once convinced, that the end of life 
 is not enjoyment but ennoblement, that to get the soul 
 pure and strong and true is the very purpose of your 
 being in the world, then the world will easily and 
 naturally find its proper place as a means to this end, 
 and the whole life of sense, instead of being a phantom, 
 a mirage, a continual disappointment, and a cloying, 
 sickening joy, will shine upon you as a radiant sky, 
 will descend upon you as a refreshing dew and make 
 the soul to respond with fragrance and beauty to him 
 who is the Father both of soul and world. 
 
 Let us live, then, with a glad heart in that world 
 which God has given us ; let us love the world and the 
 things that are in the world ; let us love the world 
 with a pure heart fervently, for all that is in the world 
 is not of the world, but is of the Father.
 
 V. RELIGION: GOOD, BAD, AND 
 INDIFFERENT 
 
 " Pure religion and undefiled before our God and Father is this, to 
 visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep himself 
 unspotted from the world." JAS. i. 27. 
 
 THIS text is instructive, not only by reason of what it 
 expresses, but also by reason of what it implies. It 
 implies that the thoughts and feelings and actions which 
 we call " religious " are not necessarily good. It re- 
 minds us that our religion must be pure and undefiled, 
 and implies that it may be impure and befouled. 
 
 Nor does the contrast which the writer has in mind 
 seem to be that of religions true and religions false. 
 He is not setting Christianity against Paganism, or 
 the worship of God against the worship of devils, or 
 anything of that kind. It is possible, he seems to say, 
 to have a knowledge of the true God, to believe in 
 him, and fear him, and yet to be all astray, and far off 
 from the pure and perfect worship. " The devils also 
 believe and tremble." 
 
 73
 
 74 SERMONS 
 
 Now the inquiry which the passage suggests is 
 what " religion," in this sense, can mean. If there is 
 good religion and bad religion, what can there be 
 common to them both ? Why do we call them both 
 " religion " ? When Saul went " breathing out 
 threatenings and slaughter against the disciples of the 
 Lord," was he religious ? and if he was, what remained 
 with him, what did he take over with him when, 
 from being the persecutor, he became the persecuted ? 
 The fact y of course, is familiar enough ; very cruel 
 things are constantly done from the most sincerely 
 " religious " motives ; Jesus himself told his disciples 
 that the time would come when those who killed them 
 would think that they were doing God service. The 
 fact is familiar, but what does this familiar fact involve ? 
 Why do we continue to connect such deeds, in some 
 sort, with religion ? What is it that lies at the root 
 of these mistaken or wicked deeds which compels us 
 to recognise them as, in a certain sense, " religious " ? 
 
 Well, there is something, I believe, common to all 
 experiences to which that term is attached. There is 
 something simpler and more fundamental than that 
 noble passion which is the flower of life " religion " 
 in the highest sense a certain something which belongs 
 to the root. It is not confined to the active side of 
 our nature, nor to the emotional ; but it underlies
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 75 
 
 them both. Those surgings of the soul, those despon- 
 dencies and ecstasies and enthusiasms, which the 
 emotional nature recognises as " religious," have a core 
 or nucleus from which they spring. And those works 
 of our hands, those outpourings of good deeds, that 
 visiting of the destitute and keeping spotless from the 
 world, in which, on the other hand, St James considers 
 that religion lies, these, too, have a certain core or 
 nucleus. And the nucleus is in each case the same. 
 There is one principle which lies at the centre of all 
 religious experiences, whether those experiences be of 
 the heart or hand. The religious life is based on 
 something simpler than itself. The superstructure of 
 hopes, convictions and energies, which in a specific 
 sense we call "religion," is built upon a foundation 
 laid in the very fabric of the soul, which also, in a 
 certain general sense, is called " religion." This founda- 
 tion belongs to the very make of man ; it is born with 
 him, lives with him and never leaves him. 
 
 In what, then, you will ask me, does this foundation, 
 this core, this root of our religious life, consist ? It 
 consists, I answer, in a certain natural sense of the 
 Infinite. It is a universal perception of a living 
 Presence which besets us. It is a recognition of 
 Mystery, a dread of the Unknown, a whisper of 
 Inscrutable Life. It is not an acquired possession, or
 
 76 SERMONS 
 
 a man-made faculty ; it belongs to us by virtue of our 
 humanity. It is woven as a thread into the warp of 
 the human soul by the hand of life ; and, for good or 
 for evil, there it will remain till the hand of death frays 
 out that warp and woof and scatters the shreds of them 
 upon the wide winds of eternity. The human heart 
 goes forth in vague wonder to the Infinite Unknown. 
 Through the windows of the soul shines the world of 
 land and sea and sky, pressing upon us at every point 
 with unspeakable thoughts and mystic feelings. In 
 the heart of the child, in the heart of the savage, in 
 the heart of the most uninstructed peasant, there abides 
 that same dread sense of the superhuman which in 
 other forms moves the mind of the philosopher or the 
 heart of the poet. 
 
 This it is which lies at the root of religion a feeling 
 for the Infinite ; and, for good or for ill, this feeling 
 is possessed by every soul of man. It may be strong 
 or weak, crude or developed, constant or occasional, 
 instructed or ignorant, but to some degree and in 
 some form it is the birthright of us all. 
 
 And now, returning to our text, we begin to see 
 why we are warned that our religion must be " pure 
 and undefiled." This perception of the infinite, which 
 lies at the root of religion, is not necessarily a good 
 thing. It does not of necessity bring happiness or
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 77 
 
 virtue. In itself it is indifferent. It is good or bad 
 according as we use it. Just as intellect is neither good 
 nor bad except as it lends itself to truth or error ; 
 just as emotion is neither good nor bad except as it 
 robes itself in love or malice ; just as perception is 
 neither good nor bad except as it discriminates aright 
 and sees the beautiful to be beautiful ; so the religious 
 aptitude is, in itself, neither good nor bad, but yet may 
 be good beyond all goodness, or bad beyond all badness, 
 lifting a soul to mountain-heights of the sublime or 
 plunging it into the very pit of ruin. Our weak 
 humanity is so apt to pride itself upon its feelings, so 
 apt to persuade itself that all is well because, forsooth, 
 it has some stirring of religious feeling in its folds. But 
 religious feeling is not enough. It is not enough to say 
 " Lord ! Lord ! " It is not enough to prophesy, or cast 
 out devils, or even to perform many wonderful works ; 
 for it is possible to do all this and yet to "work 
 iniquity." 
 
 I do not know whether it is necessary to illustrate 
 this truth by modern instances. A score of such per- 
 versions of religion will occur to most of you. 
 
 Have we not all known of homes overshadowed with 
 a religion of fear ? homes where the days are made 
 irksome by a thousand unnatural restraints and rules ? 
 Have we not known little children taught that they
 
 78 SERMONS 
 
 must pass through all kinds of dark experiences before 
 they can come into the shelter of God's protection ; and 
 have we not seen them, poor little souls, creeping 
 along the path of life, shivering with the dread of a 
 hereafter which they scarcely dare to think of ? Have we 
 not seen them at last give way before the strain and 
 buy their safety at the cost of inward truth persuading 
 themselves of experiences that they have never known 
 and of repentances which they do not need ? Or, to 
 take another illustration, have we not known examples 
 of what is called the religious press, in which the religion 
 was anything but " pure and undefiled " ? Take the 
 average religious newspaper. Consider the spirit which 
 animates it the bitter, contemptuous, sarcastic spirit. 
 Read the denominational organs of the various so- 
 called Christian sects and see how every line strikes 
 chill upon a loving soul, how they hide the light and 
 warmth of heaven and yellow all the world with a 
 thick fog of sectarian suspicion ! 
 
 Or, again, consider what are called the " religious " 
 bodies the sects and churches and associations devoted 
 to religious ends. Are they always kindly, humble, 
 helpful, cheering and charitable bodies ? Is the fact 
 that they are religious that they are concerned, that is to 
 say, with the problems of infinite being sufficient in 
 itself to assure their being good ? Is their indwelling
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 79 
 
 spirit of necessity an angel of light ? Is there no strife 
 for masteries, no jealousy, no envy, no fanatic hatred 
 of the theologically erring, within the borders of the 
 churches ? Is it not plain that the strife and railing 
 and fanaticism are intensified tenfold by the very fact 
 that the subject-matter of them is religion ? And if 
 all this be true, do we need further illustration of the 
 fact that religious feeling often allies itself with dark 
 and bitter thoughts, with cruel and worldly deeds ? 
 
 It is not enough, then, I repeat, to have " religion," 
 if by " religion " you merely mean that sense of mystery 
 which is forced upon us by the conditions of our life. 
 Pagans, persecutors, fanatics, sectaries of every kind 
 are possessed of such religion. If the cold-hearted 
 professor needs to be reminded that his religion, to be 
 of any value, must be warm and living, so, too, does 
 the fiery enthusiast need sometimes, on his part, to be 
 reminded that his religion, besides being warm and 
 living, must be " pure." 
 
 But now, let us consider briefly the converse truth. 
 Granted that, if a man have religion without goodness, 
 that man's religion is vain, does it follow that good- 
 ness without religion is enough ? By no means. That 
 perception of the Infinite which we sometimes call 
 " religion " may be all insufficient unless it is joined to 
 goodness ; but equally is a cold goodness all insufficient
 
 8o SERMONS 
 
 until it be wedded to religion. I do not say, you will 
 observe, that it is worthless ; I say that it is insufficient. 
 It is not the best that man can attain to. The correctly- 
 ordered career is very admirable in its way, but it is not 
 the highest possibility of life. There is a righteousness 
 which exceeds the righteousness of Scribes and Pharisees 
 a righteousness which belongs to the children of the 
 kingdom. There is a life sublime in its devotion, a 
 goodness all aglow with love, a glorified morality, a 
 soul fired with that passion of humanity which, careless 
 of censure, careless of praise, careless of life or death 
 or fate, casts itself, all heedless, on the overmastering 
 current of an uncalculating piety. 
 
 Learn this, O man of the world, O cultivated and 
 reputable Christian ! A man may be what thou art, 
 doing that which it is his duty to do ; he may be an 
 intelligent, lively, agreeable and polished man, a 
 good-natured and sociable man ; he may be a successful 
 man, may win for himself a competency and an esteemed 
 position ; and the end of it may yet be the frightful 
 conviction that his life has been one hopeless and 
 irredeemable mistake. 
 
 For he who lives in such a way that no heart is 
 touched, no nature bettered, no fire of devotion kindled 
 by his presence in the world, has missed his mission. 
 It was not for this that he was sent here. It is a small
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 81 
 
 matter that he goes through life without censure, if he 
 also goes through life without love. A man who never 
 gives himself away, never forgets himself, never spends 
 himself, never loses himself, never steps beyond the 
 bounds of duty into the illimitable region of devotion, 
 has not fulfilled his being. 
 
 You remember who it was that said : " This ointment 
 might have been sold for much and given to the poor " ? 
 It was one whose actions were regulated by the opinion 
 of an outside world and who felt no response to the 
 abandonment of adoring love. He spoke the words 
 which two-thirds of the respectable and moral world 
 would in like circumstances have spoken. They were 
 the words of calculation and common sense. They 
 were the words of a sober prudence which hated 
 sentiment and hated waste. But they revealed a great 
 lack in the nature that prompted them. The nature 
 that could prompt those words was a nature with no 
 enthusiasm and no power, therefore, to estimate the 
 costly gift of an unbounded gratitude. But Jesus 
 knew. He instantly divined the spirit of the gift ; and 
 well he understood that the woman who could so 
 kindle to generous devotion was not the one to live 
 untouched by the sorrows of the poor. Let the warm 
 heart have way ! let the aching love the ardent, 
 painful passion of the lonely soul have vent ! " She
 
 82 SERMONS 
 
 hath done what she could. And verily, I say unto you, 
 wheresoever the gospel shall be preached throughout 
 the whole world, that also which this woman hath done 
 shall be spoken of for a memorial of her." Such was 
 the mind of Jesus on this matter. He could praise 
 good deeds ; he could praise the useful giving to the 
 poor. He had a word of commendation for the widow's 
 mite and for the noble restitution of Zacchaeus. But 
 that which he most praised in them was the spirit from 
 which they sprang. That which he regarded above 
 all was the condition of the heart : its warmth, its 
 earnestness, its power to love. And the useful morality, 
 the calculating economy, of Judas, untouched by any 
 glowing piety of feeling, found little favour in his eyes. 
 Religious feeling, then, although it is valueless as a 
 criterion of action, and unavailing as a justification of 
 that which is evil in itself, is far from being valueless 
 or unavailing when it is associated with good deeds. 
 It cannot make bad deeds good ; but to good deeds 
 it may give a heightened value : it may lend them 
 force and fervour, and may raise them from the 
 merely useful into the region of the beautiful and 
 sublime. And this, my friends, seems to me the 
 greatest spiritual problem of our age : how to bring 
 these two into their natural alliance. The secularist 
 says that he has no need of religion, that religion
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 83 
 
 contains nothing of any value that cannot be found in 
 ethics. And the religionist says that he cares little 
 enough for ethics, that he does not want your moral 
 discourses and that if a man has religion he is sure to 
 go right. So goodness boasts herself that she has no 
 need of religion ; and religion retorts that she has no 
 need of goodness. But that^ at least, cannot last for 
 ever. Religion and goodness shall yet go hand in 
 hand ; and from their union shall spring that " pure 
 religion and undefiled " which alone can reconcile the 
 schism in the camp. 
 
 Meanwhile, we may be forgiven if we ask how these 
 things can be. How can we, in an age divided 
 between a dry morality and a fanatical religion, bring 
 our good deeds and our religious sense into this 
 desired alliance ? How is our morality to be touched 
 with this emotion, our emotion to be cleansed by this 
 morality ? 
 
 To which we answer : In many ways and by many 
 means ; but chiefly by having regard to one special 
 sphere of religious contemplation in which the fusion 
 has already taken place. 
 
 I spoke, at the commencement of my discourse, of 
 that perception of the Infinite which lies at the root 
 of our religious experiences. Now there is another 
 infinite, besides the infinites of space and time and
 
 84 SERMONS 
 
 power ; and upon this we must make it our endeavour 
 to take hold. If there were no infinite but the infinite 
 of space and time, then our religion might culminate 
 in a vague wonder ; if there were no infinite but an 
 infinite of power, it might culminate in an overwhelm- 
 ing terror. But there is another infinite the infinite 
 of goodness which carries us away from the physical 
 and introduces us to the spiritual. This " infinite," 
 which is more correctly called the "perfect," is the 
 most fruitful object for our contemplation ; and it is 
 by the contemplation of this that our morality kindles 
 with emotion. 
 
 Learn to know the noble lives that have been lived ; 
 learn to look upon the noble lives still living ; give 
 yourself the chance of catching the divine flame. It 
 is not of the wise and prudent that I speak ; not of 
 those who, under advantageous influences, have main- 
 tained the level of family tradition or of official virtue ; 
 I do not speak of the righteous who have moved 
 among the sinners with blameless step, content to 
 be unstained and to win the esteem of the world by a 
 life of respectability, self-sufficient and self-content : I 
 speak rather of those who, often among many errors 
 and many passionate sins sins as black, perhaps, as 
 those of David in the old time, of Burns or Shelley in 
 the new have yet, like them, been capable of great
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 85 
 
 and chivalrous deeds, of deep and self-effacing love, 
 whose natures suggest, though they so lamentably fail 
 of, the divine and perfect goodness. 
 
 Such natures, I say, suggest the perfect ; for the 
 perfect can only be suggested. By the coldly good it is 
 not even suggested ; by them the region of which I 
 speak is not approached. For the infinite of goodness 
 is a region by itself. It is the region of great deeds. 
 Only when self is wholly forgotten in the doing of such 
 deeds is that region entered ; and what I desire to 
 bring home to you is that one such deed, though it 
 happened in a bad and broken life, is a suggestion, a 
 revelation of a kind of goodness which belongs to the 
 eternities, and which lies clear beyond and above the 
 temporal calculations of our decent moralities. 
 
 This, then, is the region which I would have you 
 often enter, at least in thought ; these are the lives that 
 I would have you study ; these are the men whom I 
 would have you know ; for it is from these, and from 
 these alone, that you will catch the flame. 
 
 A religious society should properly be a society in 
 which the members encourage each other to great, 
 passionate deeds of goodness. At certain times and in 
 certain places the Christian Church has been this ; full 
 of splendid poetry, both of feeling and action. At 
 present it is prose downright, deadly prose. It is
 
 86 SERMONS 
 
 ethical without being religious. It has scarcely a touch 
 of the infinite about it. The great deeds are nearly all 
 done by the sinners. I could tell you of deeds done 
 by anarchists, revolutionists, outcasts, unbelievers, 
 atheists deeds of personal self-sacrifice and burning 
 love, which if we realised them would put our little 
 trivial goodness to utter shame and bring us to our 
 knees. Why should we have to look in such quarters 
 for the crucifixion of the self ? Such deeds belong of 
 right to the Church of Christ. But no : the Church 
 is too respectable and too rich. It is like the young 
 ruler who came to Jesus and felt that he wanted some- 
 thing, he knew not what : he wanted to get to the 
 other side of the cold, crystal wall which hemmed him 
 in ; he wanted to get into the world of greatness and of 
 life which he could dimly see, beyond. But, when 
 Jesus showed him the only possible way, so far as 
 he (the young ruler) was concerned, he found it was 
 beyond his strength. 
 
 That is what the Church is like. It is good but it is 
 not religious. It is respectable but it is weak. I do not 
 think, therefore, that we shall in this matter get much 
 help from the Church as it now is. It can help us in 
 the practice of virtue, it can organise our practical 
 efforts, it can restrain us from gross and sensual sins, 
 it can marshal the forces of decency and order. And
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 87 
 
 all this is very good and very necessary. But what it 
 does not now do (as it has done in some of its more 
 vital periods) is to lift us into the ideal region. It 
 does not make us realise the poetry, the romance, the 
 unspeakable beauty of self-sacrificing deeds. 
 
 But that which you may fail to find in the useful 
 moralities of the Church visible you may yet discover 
 in the Church spiritual. There is a Church whose 
 boundaries are not circumscribed by creeds or rites a 
 Church which contains many a man who passes for a 
 worldling ; the publicans and sinners are often found 
 within its invisible walls ; and there you may find the 
 souls, there you may find the deeds, there you may find 
 the matchless beauty of a spiritual order. Learn to 
 know those men, learn to love those deeds, clear the 
 eye and the heart that it may perceive the grandeur of 
 the human soul. Have a place in your reading, in your 
 memories and affections, for fine character and great 
 actions. And above all make some effort to understand 
 Jesus of Nazareth chief among the outcasts of his 
 day and chief among the religious heroes of all time. 
 Let us regard that life as it was really lived. Let us 
 contemplate him who took his motive, not from the 
 surrounding world, but from the indwelling Spirit ; 
 who did good deeds, not because they were approved, 
 but because he so greatly loved. Let us look upon
 
 88 SERMONS 
 
 a life that flung itself all trustingly upon the world, 
 that poured itself forth in an agony of love for that 
 poor neglected, destitute mob which thronged about 
 him. Let us remember how he cast honour behind 
 him, braved the respected and the great, withstood 
 the wicked in high places and died for truth. And 
 then, if we really see him as he is, we shall not fail to 
 be touched with a sense of the beauty of such goodness, 
 the eternal life which comes from the dying of the 
 self ; and when that takes hold upon a man, when it 
 governs his thought, and stirs his heart, and fashions 
 his life, then that man is saved. He is saved because 
 the world of the spirit is opened to him and he sees 
 this universe all alive with love a love which broods 
 upon us, watches us, dwells around us and within us 
 and never sleeps ; and he himself is penetrated by that 
 love, even the love which is the fulfilling of the law, 
 the only religion which is for ever pure and undefiled. 
 
 There are those who in their social work seek to do 
 much by the gospel of culture, who make it their 
 endeavour to bring refinement and a love of beauty 
 into degraded lives ; and God speed them in their 
 work ! But let them not think that this is all man 
 needs. Whatever be our day-dreams of a golden age, 
 when knowledge shall be freed from prejudice and 
 error, and beauty be perceived by every eye ; whatever
 
 RELIGION : GOOD, BAD, INDIFFERENT 89 
 
 be our day-dreams and our hopes, let us be assured of 
 this : that what men most need is faith in the kingdom 
 of God and his righteousness. Yes, that is what they 
 need ; they need to have opened to them the world of 
 spirit, and to realise that this universe is all alive with 
 love a love which broods upon them, watches them, 
 dwells around them and within them and never sleeps. 
 Morality ? temperance ? honest and decent lives ? Oh 
 yes, let us teach them that ; let us send men who will 
 help them to that ; but let us teach them, above all, 
 with the teaching of a compassionate heart, that 
 character which never faileth, that love which is the 
 fulfilling of the law !
 
 VI. MAN THE ABSOLVER 
 
 " And Jesus seeing their faith saith unto the sick of the palsy, Son, 
 thy sins are forgiven. But there were certain of the scribes sitting 
 there, and reasoning in their hearts, Why doth this man thus speak ? 
 he blasphemeth : who can forgive sins but one, even God ? " 
 MARK ii. 57. 
 
 THE Scribes were startled ; and I do not wonder. Who 
 would not be startled ? For how can a man forgive 
 sin ? How can a man say : " You have broken through 
 the universal order, but / forgive you " ? How can a 
 human atom in this infinite universe take upon itself to 
 pronounce sentence in the name of that unfathomed 
 life ? Consider what it means. Here, in a side-eddy 
 of the sea of life, is one tiny pulse a speck of con- 
 sciousness only half aware of its own being. It knows 
 almost nothing of the nature of that life of which it 
 forms so infinitesimal a part. At the most it has 
 spelled out one or two of its endless secrets. Into that 
 solemn ocean of ordered being an attempt has been 
 made to bring disorder. Defiance has been uttered 
 
 against its discipline ; self-will has set itself against its 
 
 90
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 91 
 
 laws ; folly has risen up and scorned it. And this 
 insignificant speck of consciousness takes upon itself 
 to say to the rebel : Thy defiance is forgotten ; thy 
 rebellion is as if it were not ; thy sins are forgiven ! 
 
 Were not the Scribes right ? " Why doth this man 
 thus speak ? he blasphemeth : who can forgive sins but 
 one, even God ? " 
 
 As to the forgiveness of personal injuries, that, of 
 course, is another matter. Jesus had taught that we 
 ought to forgive our enemies ; and I do not know that 
 the Scribes had ever objected to that What they 
 objected to was his forgiving sin. There is a great 
 deal of difference between forgiving personal injuries 
 and forgiving sin. The sin of which the Scribes accused 
 this sufferer aye, and of which the multitudes who 
 looked on, and the very friends who bore his couch, 
 accused him was some deadly, hidden sin against 
 God. No one, they held, could be afflicted as this 
 palsied man was, unless he had grievously sinned 
 against heaven. A wrong, in so far as it is committed 
 against ourselves, may be forgiven by ourselves ; but, 
 in so far as it is committed against the eternal laws, 
 it can only be forgiven by God. That was a doctrine 
 taught, not only by the Scribes, but by Jesus himself ; 
 and yet he says : " Son, thy sins are forgiven " ! 
 
 Now, there are three proposed solutions of this
 
 92 SERMONS 
 
 problem. There is the theological solution, the ecclesi- 
 astical solution and the human solution. 
 
 The theological view is this. It is quite true that 
 God only can forgive sins ; but Jesus was God, and 
 therefore Jesus could forgive sins. This view, as we 
 shall presently see, has its truth, and it errs principally 
 by its dry technical way of stating that truth. The 
 truth as it is set forth in the evangelical text-books 
 comes under no known law and can be explained by no 
 known analogy. It is a sort of cypher writing with 
 the key lost ; it carries no meaning to the mind and no 
 feeling to the heart. It is not sufficiently organic. It 
 is bald and hard and scholastic, and attempts to state 
 truths which lie near to the warm sources of life by 
 means of formulae as lifeless as the #, y, z of algebra. 
 Its poetry has gone, and with its poetry have gone its 
 significance, its vital power, its saving truth. 
 
 The second solution is the ecclesiastical solution 
 that the office of absolver was delegated by God. In 
 apostolic times it was the Christ who received power 
 from God to forgive sins ; in later times it was the 
 Christian priest. According to this view, the forgive- 
 ness of sins rested ultimately with God himself ; but the 
 divinely-appointed representative of God the Christ 
 or the Christian priest, as the case might be exercised 
 on God's behalf the function of forgiveness.
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 93 
 
 In this solution also I think we may say that there 
 is a certain partial truth. But, again, it has lost its 
 poetry, and therefore its life. It is the official view, the 
 legal view. A kind of power of attorney has been 
 executed. There is, in this churchly interpretation of 
 the truth, no emotional play, no moral depth, no 
 welling up of the eternal springs. We cannot bring it 
 into touch with human experience. 
 
 In contrast to these two views we have the third 
 view, the human view, which I cannot but think is 
 that which Jesus had in mind. " You cannot forgive 
 sins," said the Scribes, " for you are but a man." " I 
 can forgive sins," answered Jesus, "just because I am a 
 man." " You have no authority," urge the Scribes. 
 " My authority rests in my humanity," answers Christ ; 
 " for the Son of man man as a spiritual being, man 
 as possessed by the Divine life hath power on earth 
 to forgive sins." 
 
 This is what I call the human or natural view, and 
 this view is vital. It touches us in our most living 
 part. It is proved by experience. We recognise in it a 
 process of the soul. It is a profound and far-reaching 
 view, carrying with it an exalted estimate of human 
 nature and a penetrating insight into the nature of sin 
 and the nature of forgiveness. Human nature purified 
 and inspired can forgive sin. Human nature tran-
 
 94 SERMONS 
 
 scendent and spiritual touches God. When the 
 soul speaks, it is God that speaks ; and when the soul 
 forgives, it is God that forgives. Such was the view 
 which Jesus took of this question of forgiveness. 
 
 This, then, is the doctrine of forgiveness which we 
 are to consider a little more closely this morning. It 
 embraces the whole theory of pardon, both human 
 and divine ; and if we are to get at the root of the 
 matter we shall have to speak of them both. We must 
 speak of divine pardon and of human pardon, and of 
 the connection between the two ; how our notion of 
 human pardon affects our understanding of the divine, 
 and how our experience of the divine pardon should 
 raise our conception of the human. In this way we 
 may perhaps get a clear view of what it was that Jesus 
 claimed when he said that he had power to forgive sin. 
 
 Now, there is a certain sense in which it may be 
 truly said that God never forgives. If we confuse 
 between " forgiveness " and the " annulling of conse- 
 quences " ; if we suppose the remission of sin to be 
 the same as the remission of penalties, we may 
 emphatically declare that in that sense there is no 
 forgiveness. Stick to that old pagan notion that by 
 sacrifices of some sort God can be bought off, and 
 there is nothing for it but to deny the whole doctrine 
 outright. That God forgives is most certainly true ;
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 95 
 
 but that he will excuse us from our punishment is most 
 certainly false. No instance of such a thing has ever 
 been known. We never meet with it in our daily life. 
 God does not let us off from the results of our wicked- 
 ness or folly. " Be not deceived ; God is not mocked. 
 What a man soweth, that shall he also reap." 
 
 Look at the truth upon its physical side. Did you 
 ever, in the physical sphere, find causes that were not 
 followed by effects ? Did you ever find the violation 
 of physical law go unpunished ? Did you ever know 
 a wild youth that did not lead to a crippled age ? 
 Aye ; and, however much the wildness of youth 
 may be repented, the aged sinner continues crippled. 
 Repentance may do him spiritual good, but it will not 
 do him any physical good. Effects will follow causes, 
 however much we may pray for pardon. If the 
 physical effects cease, it is because the physical causes 
 cease, not because we are sorry we transgressed. The 
 amending or annulling of the physical ruin which a 
 man has brought upon himself is not the meaning of 
 divine forgiveness. 
 
 And in the spiritual sphere the same holds good. In 
 the unseen world of the human spirit, retribution 
 follows the breach of law as surely as ever it does in 
 the visible world. God does forgive, and he does 
 redeem ; but his forgiveness and redemption do not
 
 96 SERMONS 
 
 consist in the withholding of due penalty for committed 
 sin. The sin against conscience brings the reproach 
 of conscience ; and, if it continues, it brings what is 
 worse the deadening of conscience. And that sequence 
 is as certain as any other sequence of cause and effect. 
 God never breaks his laws. He never makes exceptions. 
 He never separates effects from causes or causes from 
 effects. He keeps the physical sphere intact ; he keeps 
 the spiritual sphere intact. Every sin will have the 
 full effect of its own past. In the moral as surely as 
 in the material world we shall have to pay the price. 
 The penalty will follow, be it physical, be it spiritual, 
 inevitably, irresistibly, inexorably. Physical disorders 
 will bring their full measure of suffering without 
 abatement ; spiritual disorders will bring their full 
 spiritual punishment worked out to the bitter end. 
 " Sin, when it hath conceived, bringeth forth death " ; 
 and God has never yet been known to stay the process. 
 In that sense he never forgives. 
 
 In what sense, then, is it true that God does forgive ? 
 It is true in the profoundest sense. Solemn and 
 inexorable as is the law of retribution, the law of 
 forgiveness is no less certain. All history testifies to 
 it. The literature of every nation has recorded it. 
 The daily experience of every devout and repentant 
 heart discovers it. It is a great human consciousness,
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 97 
 
 a truth which we know, because we see it in its effects 
 and feel it in its working. Everywhere around us and 
 within us there is going forward this great process, 
 this power and influence, this operation and movement, 
 transmitting, vitalising, re-creating, redeeming, healing, 
 blessing, making all things new. 
 
 We shall understand the matter best, perhaps, by 
 reflecting upon the human analogy. In human forgive- 
 ness there is both a noble and a base sort. The base 
 sort is that which lets off the culprit, not because the 
 sentence is unjust or the victim irresponsible, but 
 because the judge is weak. But there is also a high 
 and noble sort. The highest human forgiveness is 
 that which recognises a change of moral attitude and 
 freely offers the old affection. A man is in the deepest 
 sense forgiven when the stubborn pride has given place 
 to love. 
 
 I can conceive of a father who might know better 
 than most fathers how to forgive his children their 
 faults, and yet might make it a rule never to excuse 
 them from the punishment. For exemption from 
 punishment is not the essence of forgiveness. The 
 essence of forgiveness is the re-establishment of moral 
 harmony. And I can imagine a father who gravely 
 and sorrowfully and without anger administered un- 
 waveringly the full punishment in every case of wrong- 
 
 7
 
 98 SERMONS 
 
 doing, and yet never failed to meet, with an immediate 
 response of tenderness, the first motion of repentance. 
 
 That seems to me the highest type of human forgive- 
 ness. When the father, inexorable in penalty, yet wins 
 back by tender sympathy the child's affection ; when 
 he knows how, in spite of punishment, to melt the 
 hard, obstinate feeling from the child's heart, then you 
 have the true forgiveness. It is the renewal of the old 
 affectionate relations. It is the healing of the breach. 
 In such a case the parent knows that, just because he 
 has not remitted the penalty, he may safely indulge the 
 free expression of tenderness. And the child knows 
 that, although the price of past sin must be paid, sorrow 
 for that sin has removed every cloud. The child in 
 such a case is truly forgiven ; he is forgiven with a 
 spiritual forgiveness. Love upon the one side and 
 repentance on the other have brought parent and child 
 into spiritual harmony. And it is quite conceivable 
 that such a reunion of hearts may take place even while 
 the penalty is in the very act of being paid. 
 
 Now, this seems to me to be the true nature of 
 divine forgiveness. When I ask whether God can 
 forgive, I do not mean will he turn aside the penalties 
 of sin ? What I want to know is something very 
 different : I want to know whether communion with 
 the Eternal mind and a sense of the Father's love can be
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 99 
 
 re-established when it has once been broken through. 
 I want to know whether God loves me even though he 
 should chastise me, and whether he will open up to me 
 a path to a purer life. Have I shut myself out from 
 all hope of goodness by my evil doing ? must I bear 
 the stain to all eternity ? must I be a creature of a 
 lower grade because I have sinned against the light ? 
 or is there any way back to holiness ? That is what I 
 want to know. 
 
 It is not for remission of penalty that we shall cry 
 if we are wise : rather shall we welcome all needful 
 penalties for the discipline and correction of our hearts. 
 Let us pass through the fires that we may be purified. 
 Let us tread the rough road that we may find our 
 home. Let us suffer nature's purgatory for our 
 eternal cleansing. Only give us faith to know that the 
 free play of love shall be restored ; make us sure that 
 God loves us and that we may love God. Give us 
 back that communion of hearts, that mutual tenderness, 
 that benediction on the one hand and that " trust " 
 upon the other, without which life itself is death. 
 
 That, my friends, is the only forgiveness for which 
 we ought to pray. Is that forgiveness possible ? Is 
 that re-establishment of divine communion possible ? 
 It is not only possible, but it is a daily fact. We see 
 it all around us. Everywhere we see the process of
 
 ioo SERMONS 
 
 reconciliation going on. Everywhere we see the 
 hardening of the heart arrested, pride broken down, 
 love springing up, the sunshine and sweet air of heaven 
 pouring into the sinner's life. 
 
 Cease from sin, and immediately the regenerating 
 forces begin to play upon the soul, helping it to recover 
 its lost estate. By a thousand means the hearts and 
 lives of men are renewed : by the beauty and boun- 
 teousness of nature, by the sweet memories of childhood, 
 by the tenderness and truth and love which cluster 
 round the home. Old memories come welling up in 
 the silent hour. Lost faces, forgotten words, come to 
 life again at some chance suggestion of circumstance 
 or place. The heart is softened, the affections are 
 renewed. Sorrow touches us and makes us new beings ; 
 joy uplifts us and drives away our dark humours ; 
 hope enters by some crevice in our hard lot ; faith 
 arouses from her slumbers. We come into touch 
 with some fresh life ; we learn to admire some newly- 
 discovered character. Some picture, some play, some 
 book, some man, some history, takes a hold upon us 
 and re-baptizes us in the clean waters of a holy spirit. 
 And such spiritual renewal is the only and the sufficient 
 evidence of divine forgiveness. 
 
 And now pause. Let us ask ourselves what has 
 taken place when a man is thus renewed in his inner
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 101 
 
 being. A very notable thing has taken place : a new 
 moral force has entered his life. If we did not take 
 account of this fact, our doctrine of retribution and 
 forgiveness would be incomplete and shallow. The 
 world is not a mere chain of causes and effects ; it is a 
 network : there are other lines coming into the system 
 on all sides at every point. And it is the same with a 
 human life. It is not a mere single line of causes and 
 effects ; it is a system, a complicated and widely spread- 
 ing system. And so it is possible for a new spiritual 
 force to enter the system and to modify the play of the 
 old forces. We may follow up the physical analogy 
 with which we opened our statement of retribution. 
 Suppose a man, whether through ignorance or wilful- 
 ness, falls into unhealthy habits and does his body 
 some physical harm. That harm may be of such a 
 kind and degree as to be irrevocable ; but, on the other 
 hand, there may be physical forgiveness for him. If he 
 physically repents that is to say, if he stops his un- 
 healthy way of life then the world is full of healthy 
 things : fresh air, clean water, silence and sleep, which 
 may virtually make a new man of him ; they are new 
 powers which enter the system of his life. And it 
 is just the same in the spiritual sphere. It is just 
 possible (and that is a very terrible thought) that the 
 moral harm the man has done to himself has been so
 
 102 SERMONS 
 
 long-continued that he is almost beyond amendment. 
 The conscience has become deadened and hardened. 
 Perhaps only a convulsion something that may come 
 to him beyond death can save him. But often, gener- 
 ally, the nature is open to the play of a new moral 
 influence. It enters his life and modifies the direction 
 of the forces there. The effects of the bad old life will 
 long be a hindrance and a misery ; but even over these 
 he may so triumph at length as to be a new creation. 
 And thus the law of retribution is always open to this 
 light. It is true that causes will always produce their 
 effects. But repent that is, stop the causes then there 
 will at any rate be no added effects ; and, what is more, 
 you give occasion to the redeeming powers of the world 
 to play their part. They may enter as new causes 
 and so transform the whole system that the man may 
 become a new creation. There is forgiveness with 
 God, that he may be feared. 
 
 Life in its chief intent is an inward transformation. 
 And accordingly we find that life is full of instances of 
 divine forgiveness. Wicked ways are abandoned, evil 
 hearts are renewed, proud spirits are broken, the winter 
 of despair is vanquished. Again and again in our 
 own experience, when our footsteps had well nigh 
 slipped and the powers of darkness were upon us, we 
 have found ourselves brought back by this kind
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 103 
 
 discipline and set once more in the ranks of light, 
 fighting with man against evil instead of with evil 
 against man. And in such experiences we have, 
 not merely the pledge, but the very fact of divine 
 forgiveness. 
 
 II. And now let us turn again to our text. I have 
 tried to tell you what life seems to teach us about 
 divine forgiveness. What, then, did Jesus mean when 
 he took upon him to say : " Son, thy sins are forgiven " ? 
 
 If you read the full narrative, you will find that the 
 absolution is given in a twofold form. First, Jesus 
 sees these men making their determined effort to get 
 healing for their friend, and recognises something which 
 he calls " faith " ; and thereupon he quietly announces 
 the fact of the man's forgiveness : " Son, thy sins are 
 forgiven." He does not himself absolve, but he assures 
 the man that God absolves. Then come these carping 
 critics, these Scribes, accusing him of blasphemy, saying 
 that he has no right and no authority to declare such 
 absolution. Whereupon, with that magnificent audacity 
 which belongs to genius, he turns upon them and takes 
 them at their word. " What ! " he cries, " you will 
 not let me even tell a sinner that God forgives him ? 
 You accuse me of usurping God's place and forgiving 
 this man on my own behalf ? Well ; I accept the 
 accusation ; I admit the crime. I will take God's
 
 io 4 SERMONS 
 
 place ; and I do^ in my own name as a son of man and 
 the possessor of a human conscience and a human 
 heart, forgive this man \ For the Son of man hath power 
 upon earth to forgive sins." 
 
 I tell you I think that is grand. It is a magnificent 
 flash of insight, a sublime and a most holy blasphemy ! 
 
 For consider what he meant by it. Look into your 
 own experience and interpret it by that. There is a 
 certain experience which few of us have not known at 
 one time or another in our lives : an impersonal for- 
 giveness ; a forgiveness based upon sympathy and 
 conscience ; an absolution which we pronounce with 
 confidence, and which issues from some very deeply- 
 seated region of our nature. Often have we forgiven 
 the penitent in the name of that common humanity 
 which we share with him forgiven him because we 
 understood him. Every sympathetic and candid heart 
 has at times silently pronounced such absolution. Our 
 own experience enables us to weigh the circumstances 
 of a life and the strength of a temptation, and thereupon 
 a healthy conscience will often pass an emphatic verdict. 
 " Whatever man may say," declares the voice within us, 
 " that sinner will find mercy at the hands of God." 
 There is something within us which seems to rise at 
 times above the normal level ; it transcends the average 
 life and the average morals ; it goes outside the circle
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 105 
 
 of the individual soul ; it reveals itself as a larger being, 
 a greater self, which extends beyond the area of the 
 individual self, and it is this that speaks. 
 
 Every man is to some degree a combination of two 
 beings a small, conventional, regulated being, judging 
 things by the code which his particular circle of acquaint- 
 ance has established ; and a larger, emotional and tran- 
 scendent being, which recognises a kinship with souls 
 widely removed from that narrow circle of acquaintance. 
 
 That greater Being judges conduct with a wider 
 sympathy, with purer motives, with juster standards. 
 Its existence within us is the profoundest fact in human 
 life. It testifies to the human possession of the uni- 
 versal soul. It rests upon our kinship with an unseen 
 world. It is the Universe within us, God speaking 
 through us, the light of the One Unbroken Spirit 
 shining in the human fragment. 
 
 Therefore it is that the Son of Man man in the 
 larger sense has power to forgive sins. It is not the 
 narrow self, it is the universal self, that forgives ; not 
 the temporary and local man, but the spiritual man. 
 When you forgive in this higher sense, it is not your 
 prejudices that speak, but your purest sympathies. 
 The prejudices of your class will often excuse, and excuse 
 wrongly ; but to forgive impersonally, impartially, justly, 
 it is the conscience that must speak the conscience
 
 106 SERMONS 
 
 purified, uplifted, enlightened, which is the voice of 
 God in man. 
 
 This, then, seems to me the truth which flashed forth 
 from the soul of Jesus in that indignant protest against 
 the petrified piety of the Scribes. This is the warm 
 human truth which lay at the heart of his saying. 
 The phrase " Son of man " may, indeed, have borne 
 a certain Messianic sense. His disciples may have 
 understood this high function of absolution to belong 
 to Jesus by virtue of his messiahship. But upon the 
 lips of Jesus that phrase always had something more 
 than a theological meaning. If it meant messiahship 
 it always meant, with him, messiahship in the peculiarly 
 human sense Messiah as the representative man. 
 And thus the truth remains unimpaired. It was as 
 Man that he forgave sins. 
 
 And now, before I close, I am bound in all honesty 
 to admit one serious difficulty in the story, and do my 
 best to meet it. In accepting the challenge of the 
 Scribes, Jesus seems also to accept their view of the 
 evidence for forgiveness. He seems to suppose that 
 the healing of the man was evidence that God had 
 forgiven the man. The story reads as though Jesus 
 thought it a harder task to cure a paralytic than to 
 forgive a sinner ; and as though he were arguing that 
 because he could cure the man, therefore much more
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 107 
 
 could he absolve him. " God has given me power to 
 heal the body ; much more, therefore, has he given me 
 power to heal the soul." Such seems to be the argu- 
 ment of Christ ; and we are very sure that such an 
 argument is not sound. 
 
 Well, there are two possibilities in the case. We 
 have to remember that these gospel stories come down 
 to us by tradition, and that the tradition is one which 
 was handed on by the lips of ignorant peasants, so 
 that we can never be quite sure that we have the precise 
 truth about any incident. This may be the case here. 
 The incident may have been distorted in accordance 
 with the preconceptions of the Galilean country-folk. 
 
 Or, on the other hand, the incident may be true, 
 and we may have here only an instance of those human 
 limitations through which the divine spirit in Jesus 
 worked. This may be one of those cases in which 
 the genius of the Nazarene prophet shines through a 
 mist of local or temporary belief. Jesus was a world- 
 force, a sublime Son of heaven, but he was also a 
 Galilean villager. 
 
 Either of these possibilities may explain the curious 
 incongruity of such an one as Jesus adducing bodily 
 healing as evidence for spiritual pardon. 
 
 I am inclined, however, to put this by as a mere 
 accident of time and place. What the rustic adherents
 
 io8 SERMONS 
 
 of Jesus never could invent was such a saying as this : 
 " The Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins." 
 They could not invent such an utterance as that, just 
 because it was foreign to all their preconceived notions. 
 There you have the mark of an individuality ; and 
 there you have the splendid saying of a poet. 
 
 Let us, then, set aside the Galilean superstition, and 
 fix our attention on the universal truth. There is the 
 vital matter ; there is the saving doctrine ; there is the 
 truth that we are called to live by : the Son of man hath 
 power on earth to forgive sins. Purified humanity, 
 inspired humanity, humanity in touch with God, has 
 the power to forgive sins. And that power is the pledge 
 to us that there is forgiveness with God. 
 
 Even we, all imperfect as we are, find in ourselves 
 some dim reflection of that divine experience. We, 
 too, are sons of men, and know what it is at times, by 
 virtue of our humanity, to silently pronounce absolution 
 on another. In ourselves we sometimes find that same 
 emphatic protest against unrelenting human law. Such 
 are we even now, and it doth not yet appear what we 
 shall be. We live, perhaps, at too low a level as yet 
 to speak the words of absolution with assurance. 
 
 That which we whisper to ourselves we hardly dare 
 to pronounce aloud. The true self the eternal self 
 from which such forgiveness comes, is hidden too far
 
 MAN THE ABSOLVER 109 
 
 away, too little realised, too little known. But there 
 is more in man than man himself yet dreams of. " We 
 feel that we are greater than we know." And in some 
 far-off glory of the future, man may yet dare to take 
 up the divine prerogative which he has forfeited, and 
 may speak, with conviction and with power, those 
 healing words for lack of which many a human soul is 
 now driven to despair. 
 
 Meanwhile, let us think, even now, more worthily 
 of our humanity. Nay, rather, let us have nobler 
 thoughts of God ; and instead of denying to his Spirit 
 all power to work in present days, let us freely confess 
 that every pure impulse of our hearts, every good 
 thought of our minds, and every holy motion of our 
 human wills, is the breath, the voice, the power of his 
 indwelling life ; and brightest of all the thoughts, 
 purest of all the feelings, let us ascribe to him the 
 glory of our human pity, thanking and praising God 
 " who hath given such power to man," and hath made 
 it possible for the Son of man to " forgive sins also."
 
 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 SOME MODERN MALADIES 
 I. RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 
 
 As an ethical society we are not immediately concerned 
 with economics. In ethics we deal primarily with 
 character, the . inward life ; in economics with con- 
 dition^ the outward life. And yet you cannot satis- 
 factorily deal with character without taking condition 
 into account, nor with condition without taking 
 character into account. The two are very closely 
 related ; so that an ethical society, after all, is indirectly, 
 if not directly, concerned with economics, or the external 
 arrangements of life. 
 
 It is perfectly true that the only fundamental and 
 lasting reform is the reform of the heart ; and yet 
 it is also true that the reform of the heart may be 
 helped or hindered by the external conditions of the 
 life. It is perfectly true that the best riches are
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE in 
 
 the riches of character ; but it is also true that 
 some physical conditions make it very hard to win 
 them. 
 
 In short, there is no real contradiction between 
 promoting a spiritual reform and altering those con- 
 ditions of personal or social life which are obstacles to 
 that reform. 
 
 Now, in what I have to say in this lecture it is with 
 character that I am concerned, but with character as 
 affected by some of the external conditions under which 
 we live. There are certain circumstances which now-a- 
 days are affecting character injuriously, and it is our 
 business to study them and ask how they may be 
 altered. Most of us, I suppose, could draw up a long 
 list of such circumstances, and we might find it difficult 
 to choose among them all and say that these were more 
 harmful than those. But we shall find, I think, that 
 many of the dangers to character run up into two great 
 fundamental dangers. There are two mighty forces 
 which operate to produce many of our modern evils. 
 They are ro0/-forces. They go very deep into our 
 nature, and we shall see in the end that they are 
 closely related. So I shall begin with these, and ask 
 you to consider them, and to remember them, and to 
 be always seeking, as good men and good citizens, for 
 some remedy or alleviation something which, if it
 
 ii2 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 cannot abolish them, may lessen and weaken them as 
 obstacles to the spiritual life. 
 
 These two forces which are so characteristic of our 
 time are rivalry and routine. Of course they are not 
 new forces ; there is nothing new under the sun. But 
 the exaggeration of them is new ; the extreme to which 
 they are carried is new ; their power in controlling and 
 penetrating all our life is new ; their influence over 
 our spiritual part, the way in which they weave them- 
 selves into the very fabric of our souls all this is new. 
 They have always existed, but they have never before 
 existed with their present intensity. 
 
 I. To take the first of them Competition or 
 Rivalry. In the old days there was the rivalry of cold 
 steel ; there was the competition of sinew and muscle 
 and brute force ; and it must have been very terrible 
 to live in a time where that kind of strife was the 
 normal state in which men existed. But I doubt 
 whether even that was so fierce and so degrading as 
 the fight which is now fought in the market and the 
 exchange. War is now an anachronism. It lingers 
 among us, but we know that it is wrong, and we are 
 going to get rid of it. It is too stupid to live for ever. 
 But we are far from being convinced, I fear, that this 
 modern warfare, this competition of the commercial 
 and industrial sort, is injurious or wrong.
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 113 
 
 And yet, see what it does for us ! See how it 
 exhausts us ! See how it bleeds away our strength ; 
 how it drains off our physical and mental energy ; how 
 the very process of acquisition withers up the power to 
 use what is acquired ! And see, also, how it contracts 
 us ; how it narrows the man's area ; how it starves him 
 into a mere personal point ; how it whittles him down 
 to a poverty-stricken thing which is scarcely worth the 
 name of " soul." 
 
 Of course I know that the commercial is not the 
 only world in which rivalry reigns. I know that it 
 reigns in the educational world, the social world, the art 
 world, the literary world, the political world, and even 
 (O tell it not in Gath !) in the religious world ! 
 
 But it is not to these worlds that I desire at present 
 to turn your thoughts. We confine ourselves in these 
 lectures mainly to the commercial and industrial world, 
 because here we see the race for wealth in its most 
 glaring and obvious form, and it is with the race for 
 wealth that we are immediately concerned ; also because, 
 whether we realise it or not, this is the world whose 
 arrangements and whose informing spirit affect an over- 
 whelming proportion of our fellow-citizens, far more 
 than are affected by those limited and special worlds 
 which I have mentioned. 
 
 Confining our attention, then, to this department of 
 
 8
 
 1 1 4 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 life, is it not true that a fierceness of competition now 
 obtains which was unknown in olden days, and which 
 results in an exhaustion, mental, physical, and moral, 
 which sucks away the very marrow and meaning of 
 life ? 
 
 I am told I have often been told by business men 
 that the furious competition of modern trade and manu- 
 facture makes business a worry, that it robs it of its 
 zest and interest, and makes it simply difficult and 
 wearing. I am told that a man cannot now care for 
 his business on its own account. It is too exacting for 
 that ; the heart has gone out of it ; it is now a means 
 to money and nothing more, and even to that only by 
 incessant vigilance, lest the advantage won from rivals 
 should be lost again. 
 
 I can believe that. I have lived a somewhat varied 
 life, and have had in early manhood some experience of 
 the things about which I speak. But what I am most 
 concerned about is the fact that something more than 
 a man's pleasure in his work suffers ; his character 
 suffers too. It is not only that a man's business falls 
 to a level below that of his proper work and interest, it 
 is that the rest of his life is impoverished too. The 
 margin of life is absorbed. The wider spiritual interests, 
 the higher levels of attainment are encroached upon, 
 the fuller mental life is atrophied starved by the
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 115 
 
 sheer physical exhaustion of the fierce competitive 
 struggle. 
 
 What a mockery to talk about fervour of feeling or 
 energy of beneficence to a man who has barely time to 
 snatch a hurried morning meal before he is plunged 
 into a whirl of toil and worry which lasts till night ! 
 How vain to spread before him a banquet of great 
 thoughts, to talk of God's wonders in the earth, of the 
 thrill of heroic lives, of the tender grace and beauty which 
 lurk in hidden places, when he comes home weary, 
 spiritless, and jaded, his brain exhausted, his nerves 
 benumbed, and he himself fit for nothing but to take 
 the sleep he needs for the next day's battle ! There 
 are thousands, nay, millions, whose life is one ceaseless 
 strain upon the bodily and mental strength, who are 
 subjected every day to a process of exhaustion which 
 drains dry the very fountains of life ; and to expect 
 from that arid soil the rich fruits of the spirit noble 
 feeling, glowing thought, quick sympathy, bright 
 imaginings, eager interest in life's movement is a 
 vain and futile dream. From such a life you can get 
 nothing but poverty of soul. 
 
 This, then, is what the competitive system is doing 
 for us. I speak with conviction. I know that this is 
 so. It is exhausting us, and at the same time it is 
 dwarfing us. The area of life is becoming narrowed.
 
 n6 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 The spirit is becoming cramped and confined, its 
 energies exhausted or diverted. And if the process is 
 continued it will issue in a creature who can calculate, 
 but cannot think ; who can bargain, but cannot feel ; 
 who scans the share-list but cares nothing for the world ; 
 whose heart is in the market, and to whom admiration, 
 hope and love the things by which men truly live 
 are empty or flimsy dreams. 
 
 II. The fierce rivalry of our time, then, is one con- 
 dition to which our spiritual degeneracy may be very 
 largely attributed. And now let us turn to a second 
 condition I mean the deadening influence of routine. 
 
 Now, here I know that a certain qualification is 
 needed. You will not all feel this to be in any special 
 degree a characteristic of the present day. To a certain 
 class life is less of a routine now than it was fifty or 
 a hundred years ago. We travel faster and wider ; 
 we see more of men and things ; and life is more intense 
 and more vivid, and has altogether a wider reach than 
 it had in the days of our fathers. This is so with a 
 large class ; but with a far larger class the opposite is 
 true. The enormous increase of mechanical appliances 
 and the vast extension of the principle of division of 
 labour, both tend to increase routine and to diminish 
 the scope for individual contrivance and interest. 
 
 In the factory this is obviously the case. A machine
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 117 
 
 can of necessity perform only a fraction of the whole 
 process which was formerly performed by the man, and 
 the man's task is now reduced to the tending of the 
 machine that performs that fraction. Thus a division 
 of labour takes place which is precisely parallel with 
 the division of the process. 
 
 And this subdivision of human functions has passed 
 into commercial and official work. The mechanical 
 conception has infected the whole community. Mark 
 Rutherford tells in his Deliverance how a copying 
 clerk in the counting-house where he worked used to 
 try to introduce some variety into his life by passing 
 from steel pens to quills, and quill pens back to steel. 
 And that is typical. I have often met such cases. 
 The hopeless numbing of the powers by prolonged 
 monotony, the feeling that consciousness is becoming 
 extinguished, the mind becoming withered, is one of 
 the most horrible experiences through which a man can 
 pass ; and that is the lot of many thousands of our 
 countrymen. 
 
 You may say that it cannot be helped, that we shall 
 never be able to go back to the pre-mechanical age, 
 and that since there is no fault to be found, there will 
 be no injury to character, however distressing the effects 
 of this prolonged routine may be. But I reply that 
 there is injury to character, and that we can see it ;
 
 n8 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 and that this is just why I am seeking to bring the 
 matter home to you. Why do you suppose that 
 three-quarters of the operatives in many manufacturing 
 towns are gamblers ? Because their lives are just one 
 deadly monotony, and excitement of some sort they 
 must and will have. Why, in certain trades, do the 
 majority of workers drink ? Because they can no 
 longer bear the routine-life, and forget it in some way 
 they must. A clergyman who works in a suburb in- 
 habitated mainly by the inferior class of city-clerk told 
 me the other day that he could find no single point in 
 the clerk's mind to take hold of ; there was nothing, 
 nothing^ in heaven or in earth that the clerk of that 
 grade cared for ; science, art, literature, politics, even 
 athletics, were nothing to him. Why is that ? because 
 the mechanical toil of the counting-house, the deadly 
 routine of the department of a department of a depart- 
 ment of the office has killed the poor fellow's mind 
 and dwarfed and starved his soul. That is so. There 
 are millions in our land of whom that is true. There 
 are millions of men who are nothing but bodies, with 
 a bit of clockwork where the brains should be, and an 
 affectionate but almost microscopical little soul attached 
 to an infinitesimally small number of things and people 
 dwelling within the narrow breast. I know that what 
 I say is true. I have seen it and suffered it.
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 119 
 
 This, then, is the fatal influence of routine. This 
 is the damning effect of that indiscriminate division 
 of labour which turns men and women into mere 
 machines, stupefied or brutalised as the case may be, 
 by the eternal repetition of some small mechanical 
 operation, performed perhaps all the better for being 
 performed without the interference of either thought or 
 feeling. 
 
 Now, if you will consider it, these two attributes of 
 our modern life, rivalry and routine, stand to each 
 other in a very remarkable relation. At first sight 
 they appear to be opposed. Competition has the ring 
 of battle about it ; routine has the sound of death. 
 The one looks like too much life ; the other like too little. 
 The one speaks of agonising effort ; the other of dull 
 lethargy and grey existence. And yet they are, as we 
 have seen, to some extent complementary. They exist 
 by reason of each other's existence. It is the fierceness 
 of competition which has led to the increase of routine. 
 It is the organisation of routine which makes the larger 
 forms of competition possible. 
 
 The fact is, that there is involved here one of those 
 paradoxes which pertain to the essence of human 
 nature. The two principles really are in a sense 
 opposed, and yet they are both found in one and the 
 same man. They belong to two sides of our nature,
 
 120 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 and both sides are necessary to our being. We com- 
 pete because we are individuals ; we form habits and 
 routine because we are members of society. We are 
 none of us individual only, we are also social ; we 
 are none of us social only, we are also individual. 
 Competition, rivalry, is necessary to our individuality ; 
 habit, routine, is equally necessary to our sociality. 
 And therefore, strange as it may seem after what I 
 have just been preaching, it is nevertheless the fact 
 that no life is livable which has not some degree 
 of both. 
 
 This, then, ought to throw some light upon the 
 question for us. 1 have condemned the rivalry of 
 our day as unfavourable to the spiritual life ; and I 
 have condemned the mechanical routine which our 
 associated life exacts as being equally hostile. And yet 
 both are inevitable and both are good. And neverthe- 
 less my condemnation holds. 
 
 If this sounds like a riddle, it is a riddle which is 
 easily solved. Many things which are good in them- 
 selves are bad in excess. There is nothing bad in 
 rivalry as such. It is right that boys should try their 
 strength against each other ; that they should compete 
 both in games and work. It is only so that a boy 
 learns where he is strong and where weak that he gets 
 to define himself to himself and to correct his own
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 121 
 
 deficiencies. It is right that men should compete 
 with each other in excellence of work, in power of 
 service, in self-development, and even self-assertion for 
 the common good. It is only so that men can take 
 their natural places in the scale of ability and strength 
 their natural ranks in the social order. 
 
 And so, on the other hand, routine is not harmful in 
 itself. In some of its aspects it is absolutely necessary. 
 A man would not walk any better for meditating upon 
 each step that he had to take, or reckon any better for 
 recalling the mathematical grounds of every rule that 
 he applied. Even in the sphere of morals the effect of 
 mere habit is partly beneficial. It forms a support to 
 the will and becomes of material service in moments of 
 temptation. It continues the effect of a past impulse 
 and carries the will beyond the critical point. It helps 
 a man over those positions where the mechanism of his 
 virtue might come to a deadlock bears him through 
 and away from the disturbing action of present entice- 
 ment and onward into the region of normal and regu- 
 lated motives. 
 
 Habit, therefore, is not in itself a mischievous influ- 
 ence, and I can quite see that in its industrial application 
 in manufactures, in the organisation of business and 
 the like, routine, system, uniformity, even monotony, 
 has its necessary and beneficial place. The suppression
 
 122 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 of the single will, in degree, and in the proper place 
 and time, is inevitable and wholesome. 
 
 No ; it is not the principles that we blame. The 
 principles, both individual and social, are right enough. 
 Rivalry and routine are both wholesome in their degree. 
 It is the indiscriminate application of the principles that 
 we condemn. It is when they are applied to the 
 wrong process, or applied in excessive degree, that we 
 cry out against them. It is when communal sympathy 
 is sacrificed to individual greed that competition is so 
 fatal. It is when, on the other side, individuality is 
 killed out by an exacting community that routine is so 
 fatal. And the condemnation of our present industrial 
 and social system is that it commits both these sins. 
 It drives us to compete, man with man, nation with 
 nation, continent with continent, with a fury the like of 
 which the world has never seen before. And, on the 
 other hand, it drills vast bodies of men, by force of 
 threatened starvation, into the performance of a 
 mechanical and weary round which robs life of all its 
 interest and worth. 
 
 I say that this is characteristic of our times. I dare 
 say it has existed in other ages in some degree. In 
 fact, we know that this is so. But in our own day new 
 elements have entered which have enormously intensi- 
 fied the process. And I hold that the critical point has
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 123 
 
 now been passed. A healthy rivalry has now grown 
 into a ruinous and degrading warfare ; and a useful 
 and tolerable routine has become a benumbing and 
 deadly monotony. So that it behoves us to take this 
 matter up, to consider more carefully the causes of 
 this exaggerated intensity, and to ask whether there is 
 any cure or any alleviation for the evil. 
 
 To this question, then, let us devote a few moments 
 of the brief time which remains to us. What is the 
 cause, or what are the causes, of this modern intensifica- 
 tion of the spirit of rivalry, and of its correlative 
 automatic or mechanical routine ? The answer which, 
 no doubt, will leap to the lips of many is that the cause 
 is the selfishness of men. This fierce fight for masteries 
 is due to the fact that we " look every man on his own 
 things." 
 
 This, no doubt, is true. The ultimate, or rather 
 penultimate, cause of our social warfare is doubtless 
 selfishness. Absolute selfishness, if intelligently applied, 
 would cure all possible evils of the social kind. 
 
 And yet I do not think it is of much use for the 
 preacher to go round raving. A mere imperative is 
 not enough. We must deal not merely with spiritual 
 causes but with material conditions. The understanding 
 and removing of obstacles, as I said at the beginning of 
 my discourse, is a large part of our duty in these
 
 i2 4 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 matters. What, then, is the proximate cause or imme- 
 diate condition of this exaggerated rivalry of our time ? 
 
 The answer to this question, I think, is obvious. 
 These two modern maladies depend for their greatly 
 increased intensity mainly upon one thing the modern 
 mastery of natural forces. 
 
 I have already touched incidentally upon this fact. 
 I have mentioned that competition and routine are 
 both of them increased by the increased use of machinery. 
 But it will be just as well for us to realise the extent to 
 which this is the case. It is a cause which operates 
 not only directly, but indirectly. In so many modes 
 and so many directions this influence is at work. For 
 instance, the great controlling fact about modern 
 competition is this : that it now goes on mainly 
 between corporations rather than individuals ; and with- 
 out machinery that would not be possible. The vastly 
 increased rapidity of communication works in three 
 ways to bring this about. In the first place, it enables 
 a larger population to reside on the same area, and at 
 the same time extends the area itself from which a 
 factory or warehouse can be served ; so that far larger 
 bodies of men can be employed in one and the same 
 industrial centre than formerly. This of itself increases 
 enormously the magnitude of the competing unit. 
 Secondly, this competing unit, if it is of the manu-
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 125 
 
 facturing order, can be supplied with raw material 
 from an immensely extended field. The whole globe 
 can be laid under contribution, so far as the means of 
 transport is concerned. And thirdly, when the raw 
 material has been worked up, distribution now takes 
 place from the one centre to widely scattered markets. 
 The factory is able to pour forth its goods to the very 
 ends of the earth. Here, then, is the prime factor of 
 the situation. Competition is no longer between men, 
 but between huge masses of men organised into gigantic 
 units ; the battle is no longer between ancient muskets, 
 but between batteries of artillery. 
 
 And upon the individual workers, also, this same 
 rapidity of communication has its own effect. Dense 
 populations of workers crowd round the industrial 
 centres. They are enabled to live in this congested 
 state solely by the modern possibilities of transport. 
 A generation ago such a London as now exists could 
 not have been fed even for a single day. It is main- 
 tained in existence now solely by means of railways and 
 steamships. It is machinery, then, that brings together 
 and keeps together these dense populations ; and the 
 result, of course, is that when work is slack the fight 
 for life between the workers themselves the com- 
 petition for bread between man and man is such as the 
 world has never seen before. That is what lies at the
 
 126 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 root of modern competition. And the very same thing 
 lies at the root of modern routine. The monotony 
 from which the modern factory -worker suffers is 
 occasioned by the minute mechanical division of the 
 process. A man is no longer a man ; he is the mere 
 tender of a machine. Formerly a man passed through 
 a long series of intricate and varied steps in the pro- 
 duction of an article ; now a minute fraction of that 
 series is performed by a machine which has to be tended 
 by a man. The result, of course, is that the man's 
 motions become very largely automatic ; his work 
 becomes almost entirely mechanical. He must be alert 
 and attentive, but he does not have to think and 
 contrive. 
 
 That is one way in which machinery produces 
 monotony. And another is by rendering possible the 
 organisation of larger bodies of men. The larger 
 the bodies that are organised, and the more perfect 
 the organisation, the less will the individual count. In 
 this way the warehouse and the office have become 
 mechanised as well as the factory. Huge bodies of 
 men are ready to hand kept upon one available area 
 by facility of transit and transport ; and so division of 
 labour is possible to a degree which was formerly never 
 dreamed of. 
 
 These, then, are the conditions with which we have
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 127 
 
 to deal. The old rivalry between individuals has 
 issued in combinations for the sake of more effective 
 fighting. Competition leads to organisation. Indi- 
 vidual workers combine in groups ; the groups pass 
 into great companies ; and companies now tend to be 
 absorbed into gigantic trusts. And these vast com- 
 binations grapple with one another in deadly strife. 
 The workers, on the other hand, massed together in 
 comparatively small area, vie with each other in times 
 of crisis for a share even in that deadly monotony 
 which at least brings them bread. And those who 
 organise the workers the masters, the capitalists, the 
 traders-in-chief, the manufacturers carry on at all 
 times, times of crisis and normal times alike, a cease- 
 less warfare. The competition, formerly distributed 
 among the million, is focussed into fierce centres of 
 white-hot battle. Now and again one of the leaders 
 goes down, the company is broken, the master is bank- 
 rupt, and with him he drags into the abyss the hundreds 
 or thousands who depend on him. It is warfare, and 
 warfare on an ever-growing scale. That, I say, is a 
 characteristic of our time ; and that, my friends, is 
 what we have to mend. 
 
 That is what we have to mend. What a hopeless 
 task it seems ! Where are we to begin ? Nay, how 
 are we to begin at all ? Are we, for instance, to
 
 128 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 abandon the principle of the division of labour ? The 
 man who attempted it would soon be in the workhouse. 
 Are we to follow Ruskin's advice and give up using 
 machinery ? Of any such attempt we may say the 
 same. Are we to give up competing and let our rivals 
 in business work their will ? That, again, means ruin. 
 We are caught in the maelstrom of a great social force, 
 over which the individual has next to no control. We 
 are borne along with it ; and in the end it will work its 
 will. Society itself cannot annihilate it ; it can only 
 modify and direct it. As to the individual, he can do 
 almost nothing. What possible remedy, then, can we 
 hope to find ? 
 
 Well, I am not sure that the finding of a remedy is 
 the business of an ethical lecturer. The remedy is for 
 the practical man to find ; the business of ethics is to 
 find the principle. And the principle, the fundamental 
 principle, has been written down in a very ancient 
 scripture, which is as sound to-day as it ever was : a 
 passage in an old Jewish letter which says : " Look not 
 every man on his own things, but every man also on 
 the things of others." 
 
 That is the main principle. It speaks of a communal 
 interest which must set a limit to the aims and ambitions 
 of the individual. The other man's welfare in trade, 
 the other man's success in manufacture, is to be a
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 129 
 
 matter of concern to us as well as our own. And it 
 speaks of human sympathy. It cuts at the root of the 
 complacency with which we see our workmen or our 
 clerks labouring at the treadmill of routine. That is 
 the principle. The other man is one with me ; and if 
 he suffers, I suffer too. "Look every man on the 
 things of others." 
 
 But while the principle speaks of communal interest, 
 it also recognises the individual claims. It is not solely 
 and exclusively on the things of others that we are 
 to look. There is an " also " in the dictum. Look 
 on your own things, yes ; but also on the things 
 of others. The principle is two-sided ; and that is 
 important. Whatever practical measures we adopt to 
 meet the great evils of which we have been speaking, 
 they must have regard to both poles of the principle. 
 They must not contravene either of the fundamental 
 facts of human nature its individuality or its sociality. 
 
 Starting from this twofold principle, then, we begin 
 to see the kind of measures that must be adopted. The 
 extreme individualist says that individuality is every- 
 thing. Give unrestricted freedom. Let each man be 
 complete in himself. Give up the whole idea of 
 organised government, organised armies, organised 
 education, organised communities, and life will forth- 
 with right itself. The extreme Socialist, on the other 
 
 9
 
 1 30 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 hand, says that the society is everything. Put compul- 
 sion on any and every individual so far as is necessary 
 for social stability and development, and never mind 
 if some individuals do suffer. And individualist and 
 Socialist seem to me to be both wrong. Both elements 
 in humanity must be taken into account. Man is both 
 individual and social. Our practical measures, therefore, 
 must be such as will limit competition so far as it is 
 destructive of community, and limit mechanical routine 
 so far as it is destructive of individuality. 
 
 I know very well that this will please neither party. 
 It is not sufficiently logical. It is not sufficiently ideal. 
 It is merely practical. The Socialist says that competi- 
 tion must be abolished ; 7 say that it must be restricted. 
 Certain industries where the evil is most flagrant may 
 be gradually taken over by the community. Certain 
 manufactures, certain means of transit, certain prime 
 necessities of life, in which a whole municipality is con- 
 cerned, may be taken over by the municipality. All 
 such measures help to diminish and to limit competition. 
 Gradually, wisely, and with the general consent, such 
 communal action may, step by step, be taken. The 
 process is already begun, and I think we shall all be 
 wise to help it. I know you do not all agree with me. 
 Some will even bitterly disagree. Well ; go and find 
 out for yourselves how else the principle may be
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 131 
 
 applied. The principle is the great thing. "Look 
 every man also on the things of others." 
 
 On the other hand, some extreme individualists like 
 William Morris have thought that because mechanism, 
 as applied at present, is killing out individuality, therefore 
 machinery ought to be given up altogether. To me, 
 all that seems wildly impracticable and unadvisable. 
 And yet I so far agree with them as to think that from 
 certain pursuits it ought to be excluded ; that it ought 
 never, for instance, to be applied to art. The whole 
 meaning of art is the communication of individual 
 feeling ; here, therefore, repetition is dangerous and 
 routine is fatal. I also so far feel with them as to 
 hold that machinery should never be allowed to absorb 
 a mans whole life. We have no right to degrade our 
 workers by mechanical routine. I am not prepared to 
 say that drudgery has no spiritual value. It may well 
 be that the patient performance of our share of the 
 world's routine may be good for us. But if I shoulder 
 off my share on you, so that your whole life is reduced 
 to monotony, why, then, it is good neither for me nor 
 you. I grant you, we cannot revert to the old, slow 
 systems of the past ; but this we can do, and this we 
 are bound to do : we can give back t o the world's 
 workers in another form that of which we have robbed 
 them. If we make men into mill-horses, that we may
 
 132 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 get through the work of the world more quickly, we 
 are bound to do our best to make the mill-horses into 
 men again. We are bound to give back some portion 
 of the time which the routine method has saved ; and 
 equally are we bound, so far as in us lies, to fill that 
 leisure with humanising influences. I do not hesitate 
 to say that a large portion of the leisure which has been 
 earned at such a bitter price belongs, of right^ to those 
 by whom the price has been paid. It seems human, it 
 seems just, to give to the routine- worker the oppor- 
 tunity of regaining, for at least a portion of his life, 
 something of that manhood which by no fault of his own 
 he has lost. 
 
 That will, I hope, serve to indicate the kind of 
 measures which seem to me most likely to mend, or, 
 at any rate, lessen the evils which at present are so 
 degrading to our manhood. I believe in common 
 ownership and common action, in so far as it tends, 
 as it often does tend, to free the individual worker 
 and to soften the severity of competition. I believe 
 in the municipalisation of those things in which the 
 whole municipality is concerned, and the nationalisation 
 of those things in which the whole nation is concerned. 
 But, in the process of thus combining for common 
 purposes, I also believe in a very tender regard being 
 had to individual freedom and individual development.
 
 RIVALRY AND ROUTINE 133 
 
 Where a vast concern is managed for the sake of a 
 community there is necessarily a very elaborate human 
 machine organised for the purpose ; and that means 
 a deal of monotony and routine. In all such cases a 
 jealous eye must be kept upon individual liberty and 
 leisure ; the workers must not be made into slaves ; 
 their working-hours must be shortened in proportion 
 to the monotony of their work. 
 
 I will not to-day go into more detail about practical 
 measures. The evils, the maladies, of which I have 
 spoken are certain ; the practical measures are matter 
 for study. We may differ about them now, and for 
 some time to come. But one appeal at least I may 
 make, and in making it I cannot be wrong : it is to 
 turn your minds with greater zeal and concentration 
 to this great subject. To you, as social beings, as 
 members of a community, who have some degree of 
 social influence, it belongs to attack this problem. 
 Whatever you have of ability and leisure you owe to 
 this great end. 
 
 It is the Sphinx riddle ; and, if it is not guessed, it 
 will certainly be death. Seek, then, earnestly, honestly, 
 impartially, for the solution. Ask yourselves whether 
 there is no conceivable remedy for the present condi- 
 tion of the labouring masses, no possible cure for the 
 exhausting, the degrading competition of our com-
 
 134 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 mercial life. Make this, if you can, the subject of 
 serious and continuous study. For I hold it to be our 
 duty as citizens and men not to let such questions solve 
 themselves by revolution and disaster, but to use the 
 reason which Nature has given us and the leisure 
 which many of us possess both to learn and to teach 
 the means by which revolution and disaster may be 
 disarmed. Let us get rid of this indolent acquiescence 
 and this despairing lethargy. For the question of our 
 time is one of the utmost gravity ; and upon the temper 
 in which we face that question, and the industry which 
 we give to its solution, the future of the State depends. 
 If we are content with our own freedom while others 
 are enslaved, if we are indifferent to misery or 
 injustice, and defend ourselves with Cain's question : 
 " Am I my brother's keeper ? " we shall be responsible 
 for more than physical ruin or material disaster ; we 
 shall be responsible for starved souls, for hardened 
 hearts, for blighted lives, for embruted humanity, for 
 the spiritual ruin of one generation at the least and 
 perhaps of many. It is for souls as well as bodies 
 that we shall have to answer to future generations, if 
 in this matter the call of conscience meets with no 
 response.
 
 SOME MODERN MALADIES 
 II. LUXURY AND WANT 
 
 " Give me neither poverty nor riches ; feed me with food convenient 
 for me : lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord ? or 
 lest I be poor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain." 
 Prov. xxx. 8, 9. 
 
 ON a previous occasion we spoke of a certain charac- 
 teristic of our times which is detrimental to the inward 
 life the prevalence of intense competition on the one 
 hand and of deadly routine upon the other. To-day we 
 are to speak of another danger to character which is also 
 very characteristic of our day the existence of excessive 
 wealth alongside of extreme poverty. We shall find, 
 I think, that the causes of the one pair of evils are 
 fundamentally the same as those of the other pair, and 
 that in principle the cure is the same for both. 
 
 But first let us speak of the phenomenon itself, the 
 fact of inequality, and let us consider the proposition 
 that luxury is harmful, that want is harmful, and 
 
 135
 
 136 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 that the existence of luxury and want side by side is 
 more harmful still. 
 
 Of course there is nothing new in the existence of 
 wealth and poverty, and there is nothing new in the 
 harmfulness of their spiritual effects. The/ have 
 always existed, and they have always had their dangers. 
 The new element, the modern danger, does not arise 
 from their existence but from their magnitude. The 
 riches are greater, the poverty is deeper, and the gap 
 between the two is much wider than ar any former 
 time ; and it is especially the existence of this wide 
 gap, removing the wealthy by such vast difference of 
 circumstances from the poor, that constitutes the peril 
 of our day. 
 
 As to the bad effects of riches or poverty as such, 
 you see what this old proverb says. The man who 
 wrote it feared to be too poor lest he might curse God 
 in his misery ; and he feared to be too rich, lest he 
 might forget God in his comfort. Those were the two 
 religious dangers which he saw as threatening the 
 luxurious and the needy. Well, the same two dangers 
 exist to-day. It is still degrading to live in abject 
 poverty, and it is still unwholesome to live in extreme 
 wealth. Riches destroy the sense of dependence upon 
 God. The rich man gets to believe in riches. They 
 are strong, and can defend him. They are powerful,
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 137 
 
 and can work his will. There is no upward lifting of 
 the eye to that realm whence true power issues. He 
 comes to regard his riches as a part of himself. It is 
 he who is so powerful he the rich man, he the centre 
 and the mainspring of a mighty social machine. Wealth 
 he understands and sees and feels ; he stretches out the 
 long arm of wealth and strikes ; it is his ; nay, it is 
 himself : " Who is the Lord ? " 
 
 On the other hand there is the great spiritual danger 
 of poverty the danger of bitterness. The poor is 
 tempted to blaspheme ; not always, perhaps, against 
 him who is theologically called " God," but against 
 the divine order of the universe which permits so 
 fearful a thing as starvation or want. The world 
 seems all wrong. Man is hard and cold, and the very 
 universe seems cold and hard as well. There is no pity 
 in the heavens. The soul of the poor is embittered ; 
 and that is a dreadful thing, a spiritual disease. 
 
 Such are the moral and social dangers of poverty and 
 wealth ; and these derive their harmfulness, not only 
 from the existence of poverty or of wealth as such, but 
 especially from their simultaneous existence within the 
 same community. They arise when great wealth and 
 great poverty exist side by side ; when there is a gulf 
 separating the two classes, so that the rich are proud by 
 reason of their position above the poor, arrogant by
 
 138 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 reason of their power over the poor ; and the poor are 
 tempted to be sly and envious and hostile when they 
 compare their lot with the lot of their more powerful 
 brethren. 
 
 And now, if these are the normal 'and necessary 
 effects of poverty and wealth, applicable to every time 
 and place where human beings are gathered together, 
 what are we to say of our own time ? Does Britain, 
 does Europe, does the Western World, come under this 
 natural law and spiritual sequence ? 
 
 Of our own time we say this : that the exaggeration 
 of the causes has produced the exaggeration of the 
 effects. Never were there such extremes of riches and 
 want as now. Never was there such a yawning gulf 
 between the lot of the wealthy and the poor. We go 
 to Jerusalem and see the site of Solomon's gardens ; 
 we gaze at the pools which tradition ascribes to him ; 
 we can reconstruct his parks and his palaces and all the 
 wonders over which Ecclesiastes shakes his head : and 
 we smile to ourselves. Any one of a thousand second- 
 rate towns can show finer things to-day. We count 
 up the personal property of Solomon, and we know 
 that a modern millionaire could buy the lot with his 
 spare cash. 
 
 Or we turn to the Middle Ages with their powerful 
 kings and barons, and we see that their wealth cannot
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 139 
 
 compare with that of modern days. Here and there, 
 it is true, we may wonder at the ruins of a castle which 
 overtops most things that our modern art can show ; 
 but never before in the world's history were there 
 streets upon streets of palaces, mile after mile of luxurious 
 mansions. Never before could a single country show 
 a score of autocrats each one of whom held in the hollow 
 of his hand thousands of men absolutely dependent 
 upon him for their bread. Never before did con- 
 spiracies of the rich exist to deliberately make bread 
 dear, to make light dear, to make water dear, to make 
 the roofs over our heads dear, to make a thousand 
 things dear, and to batten upon the death of a nation. 
 The wealth, the power, the arrogance, the luxury which 
 exist to-day on both sides of the Atlantic are such as 
 the world has never seen before, and I would fain hope 
 will never see again. 
 
 And the poverty ! ' Has the world ever before 
 looked upon such abject lives, such unspeakable 
 horrors, as those which fester in the slums of London, 
 Liverpool, Manchester, New York, Chicago, and many 
 another city of dreadful night ? The drink, the filth, 
 the vice, the crime, the madness, the hopeless suffering 
 of those courts and alleys ! the black ignorance, the 
 foul stream of obscene and loathsome language ! the 
 utter degradation of those lives ! That is a poverty
 
 i 4 o ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 more sickening in kind, more overwhelming in mass, 
 than the world has ever seen before. 
 
 John Burns, I know, with that optimism which is 
 both the stimulus and the just reward of service and 
 achievement, asserted recently that " London is better 
 than it was " ; and that, 1 daresay, may be true. But 
 this relative improvement of a portion of one city is far 
 from depriving of its dreadful significance the appalling 
 mass of destitution which yet remains in almost every 
 great city of Europe and America. 
 
 I have myself seen sights in London, and heard facts 
 from those officially engaged in work upon the housing 
 of the London poor, which persuade me that what I 
 have said is literally true : " The sun has never before 
 looked down upon such horrors." 
 
 London may be better than it was ; but it is still true 
 that incidents like one which was recorded a little while 
 ago are of weekly and almost daily occurrence in one 
 or other of our towns. I daresay many of you saw it 
 mentioned in the daily press: A house-painter threw 
 himself into the Grand Surrey Canal at Peckham and 
 was drowned. At the inquest the motive of the suicide 
 was inquired into. It was not far to seek. Pinned to 
 the clothes of the unfortunate man was a piece of paper 
 with three words written upon it. The three words 
 were these : " Not a chance."
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 141 
 
 " Not a chance ! " That seems to me to sum up 
 the whole situation. " Not a chance " ; no hope ; 
 nothing left to live for. " Not a chance " no work, 
 no bread ; no way to get either the one or the other. 
 Plenty of wealth in the country, plenty of wealth in the 
 city, money poured forth in streams over trifles, gold 
 lavished over some new toy some means of rushing 
 aimlessly along the roads some fresh amusement or 
 device for killing time. Plenty of wealth, plenty of 
 means ! Why, in London alone there are 740 people 
 who pay jiooo a year each for the rent of their 
 houses ! These are the people who sleep in silk sheets. 
 I daresay you saw a recent county court case in which 
 the evidence showed that one sheet and two pillow- 
 cases cost j2O. That is the kind of thing, I say, which 
 you have at one end of the scale ; and, at the other 
 end of the scale, " Not a chance" 
 
 And so, my friends, I am bold to say that, comfort- 
 able as some of us find ourselves, peaceful as is the 
 even tenor of our lives, this is a dreadful age in which 
 we live. This new world of ours, with its new powers 
 and its new politics, is a dreadful world. And it behoves 
 us to seek into the causes of its spiritual horrors. Look 
 bravely at the dark gulf which yawns between the rich 
 and poor, and let us ask why it is so much wider and 
 darker to-day than it has ever been before. And what
 
 1 42 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 can be done ? Can anything be done to lessen the 
 horror of it ? If we cannot close it, can we perhaps 
 bridge it ? Can we lessen the artificial difference of lot ? 
 Can we return at least to that condition of natural 
 inequality which corresponds to the natural difference 
 of ability ? If we cannot get love, brotherhood, perfect 
 equality and sympathy, can we not at least get justice, 
 a lot more nearly apportioned to merit, work for 
 those who are willing to work, means for those who 
 are able to use them ? Can we not at any rate give our 
 fellow-countrymen " a chance " ? 
 
 Those are the questions which I have at heart, and 
 to some of them let us briefly address ourselves in the 
 short time at our disposal. 
 
 And, first, there is the question of the cause or 
 causes of this evil. What are the causes the proxi- 
 mate causes of this immense difference in the fortunes 
 of the two great classes ? Why is the distance between 
 the possessing and the non-possessing classes so greatly 
 increased ? 
 
 In this matter I am afraid that our proverb will not 
 help us much. The ancient world possessed very little 
 idea of causation ; the antiquated East of to-day is still 
 almost totally devoid of the idea. If you look at our 
 text you will see how the matter was regarded in pre- 
 scientific times. The man of old sought for the roots
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 143 
 
 of poverty and of riches, not in human arrangements 
 nor in physical environment, but in the dispensation of 
 God. " Give me" he says, " neither poverty nor riches." 
 Perhaps, on the whole, an industrious man would be 
 more likely to thrive than a sluggard ; but often and 
 often a drought or a storm sent by God would cancel 
 all his thrift. It was, after all, God who settled the lot 
 of man. Poverty and riches came from Him. For 
 the old Hebrew an omnipotent God held in the hollow 
 of his hand the fate of the individual man. He meted 
 out to him poverty or wealth, with all that those might 
 mean to soul or body. 
 
 The modern outlook is different. God in these latter 
 days has revealed himself as law. He works through 
 Nature and the rules of Nature. He reveals his action 
 as cause and effect. His faithfulness never swerves. 
 There is nothing arbitrary in what he does. We look 
 for the causes, and we know that they will fit the effects. 
 
 We recognise, too, in these latter days what the 
 ancient did not at all understand that the individual 
 is the product of society. If we see prevailing poverty 
 we are certain that it is due to social conditions. If we 
 see overweening and plethoric wealth we are sure that 
 something in the social system produces or allows it. 
 A man is to us not an isolated person ; he is a member 
 of society. God works not only through Nature as a
 
 i 4 4 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 whole ; he works through humanity as a whole. And 
 so we do not think it sufficient to send up a prayer to 
 God : " Give me neither poverty nor riches " ; we know 
 that we must ask why he gives us poverty or riches ; 
 and how he is to be prevented from giving us such 
 poverty how he is to be hindered from making us 
 so disastrously rich. 
 
 This modern way of regarding the problem ought 
 long since to have superseded the old Hebrew way. 
 It has not altogether done so, but it ought to have done. 
 That, at any rate, is to be our point of view this 
 morning. We are to look at the matter socially. 
 There are two classes of people that trouble us, and 
 we are to ask how they come to exist. We are 
 troubled to find among us folk who are miserably 
 and wretchedly poor. And we are equally troubled to 
 find among us a class of people who are most unhappily 
 and unhealthily rich. We are very sorry for them, and 
 we ask ourselves how it comes about, and how we can 
 prevent their being so rich, and standing such a poor 
 chance of the kingdom of heaven. 
 
 Now, looking at the matter in this light, there are 
 certain physical conditions which we must take into 
 account. They are not, strictly speaking, the causes of 
 the evils, but they are the occasions. The causes are 
 spiritual : they are ideas, and feelings, and characters ;
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 145 
 
 but these physical conditions give the opportunity, and 
 we must take them into account. 
 
 I need hardly go through them in detail. Let me 
 only remind you that the great fundamental fact is the 
 modern control over Nature, the understanding of 
 certain natural laws and the application of certain 
 natural forces to the processes of manufacture and 
 transport. There is the ability to obtain and transform 
 raw material in huge quantities by mechanical powers, 
 and to convey it whither we will. The materials which 
 mother earth provides are tossed hither and thither as 
 if by magic. A wave of the wand, and all that is 
 needed for the erection of a mansion, for the clothing 
 of an army, for the feeding of a city, is gathered at the 
 necessary spot. By a touch, the energies of Nature 
 are unlocked and the material is transformed into the 
 comforts and luxuries of life ; and forthwith the same 
 unseen powers carry them to and fro round the surface 
 of the globe. All this enormous power of production 
 and transport has been developed in our lifetime the 
 lifetime of a single generation. 
 
 There is, futhermore, the fact of vaster human co- 
 operation closer human organisation. Facilities of 
 transit have brought masses of men within reach of one 
 another who formerly were widely sundered. What 
 
 you have now is a palpitating human nucleus with a 
 
 10
 
 146 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 sparsely populated zone of feeding-ground around it. 
 Armies of men can be brought at any moment to given 
 centres and maintained there in a manner that half 
 a century ago was impossible. 
 
 This, upon the physical side, is the significant factor, 
 the occasion of the mighty changes which we see going 
 on around us : man's new control over Nature's powers. 
 To the believer in Providence it cannot but wear the 
 aspect of a divine challenge God's challenge to man. 
 The education of humanity seems always to have gone 
 on in that way. Some new power is given into man's 
 control, and the new power always means a new 
 problem. The power which in the past century was 
 entrusted to the human race is perhaps the greatest 
 which has ever yet been handed to him, and the 
 problems, the social problems, which it has created are 
 tremendous. 
 
 This problem of luxury and want is one of them. 
 It is a question set by our great schoolmaster for our 
 age to solve. Into our midst this new thing has been 
 cast. Into our hands this new power has been put, 
 and the voice of time cries to us that God will have us 
 use that power and solve that problem. 
 
 And now, see this : the first step in the solution 
 of the problem is that we should understand ourselves 
 better, and what it is that we have all along been doing.
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 147 
 
 The control of certain energies of Nature is the occasion 
 or opportunity for that vast difference of lot among men 
 which we are considering ; but it is not, properly speak- 
 ing, the cause. We must go a step further back, to find 
 the cause yes, even to find the proximate or human 
 cause. Increased production could not of itself create 
 this vast difference between the rich and poor. It is 
 not the increased production, but the mode of apportioning 
 the product^ which has magnified that difference. 
 
 That, I suppose, is obvious to everyone. So much 
 extra wealth has been produced by improved mechani- 
 cal appliances. Suppose we had it lumped in a heap 
 before us, or set down in figures in a universal bank- 
 book, and suppose we were set to distribute it. It 
 is plain that we might so distribute it as to equalise 
 the lot of men ; or so distribute it as to maintain the 
 original difference of lot ; or yet again, we might dis- 
 tribute it in such a way as to accentuate and increase 
 the original difference. We must not, therefore, put 
 the whole blame of our increased social inequality upon 
 machinery ; the blame (if any blame exists) rests 
 primarily with our mode of apportioning the increased 
 wealth produced by machinery ; in other words, it rests 
 with our " rules of payment." 
 
 What, then, do you suppose is the rule observed ? 
 In what proportion, on the average, is the distribution
 
 i 4 8 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 made ? What, in other words, is that rule of appor- 
 tionment which always made a difference, but which, 
 when applied to an increased production, increases the 
 difference, and increases it not proportionally but out of 
 all proportion ? It is a little question in arithmetic, the 
 arithmetic of proportion ; and it is worth a little 
 attention, for the want of a clear realisation of it is 
 fraught with momentous results. 
 
 Suppose, for instance, that the extra wealth produced 
 by modern methods had been equally divided among 
 the individuals concerned that the owners of the 
 machinery and the workers of the machinery had in- 
 dividually received equal shares of the increase. I do 
 not say that they ought to receive equal shares ; but 
 suppose, for the sake of argument, that they did ; 
 then the original difference between them would not be 
 increased ; it would not even remain what it was ; it 
 would actually be diminished. It would be diminished, 
 that is to say, relatively ; the recipients would be nearer 
 than they were before to a state of equality. That is 
 a simple fact of every-day arithmetic. 
 
 Suppose, again, that the owners of the land or the 
 plant received considerably more than the workers, 
 but only in proportion to their previously existing 
 incomes ; then their difference of lot would of course 
 remain just what it was before.
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 149 
 
 But when we come to ask what has actually taken 
 place, we find that it is neither of these things. The 
 actual result of the increased wealth produced by 
 modern methods is this : taking the working-class 
 as a whole, a certain small section of them, consisting 
 of the specially capable workers, are somewhat better 
 off" than they were in the pre-mechanical age. But if 
 you take the rich as a whole, an increase of wealth has 
 taken place in their class which is out of all propor- 
 tion to the general betterment. Speaking roughly, 
 you may say that, if the more efficient workers are 
 twice as well off as before, then the wealthy class is 
 something like fifty times as well off as before, while 
 the non-efficient and average workers are actually 
 worse off than they were under the old conditions. In 
 brief, some of the poor are a little less poor, but most of 
 the rich are enormously and preposterously more rich. 
 
 What, then, can the rule be under which such a 
 result ensues ? What principle of payment leads to 
 such a strange apportionment ? Well, the broad fact is 
 this (and the economic developments of the past half- 
 century have brought it out into glaring light), the 
 broad fact is this : the powerful classes, the possess- 
 ing classes, the classes who hold in their hands the 
 means of production, have always appropriated the 
 surplus product over and above the cost of subsistence.
 
 150 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 Exceptional ability, because of its rarity, will always 
 have a price of its own ; but the average worker has 
 always received just so much as will keep him in 
 working order, and the owners of the land or the 
 machinery, ninty-nine per cent, of whom have never so 
 much as seen the mills, the railways, the mines which 
 they own, these have taken all the rest. That has always 
 been the rule, and that is the rule still ; and that is 
 why, when new methods and new discoveries give to 
 the nation an increase in wealth, the poor remain 
 pretty much as they were, while the eyes of the rich 
 " stand out with fatness, and they have more than 
 heart could wish." 
 
 Formerly the surplus was not very great, and 
 though the possessing classes appropriated it, it did 
 not make such a very enormous difference between 
 them and the workers. But now, machines produce 
 such mighty wealth, materials are drawn from such 
 mighty distances, the areas of competition are so vastly 
 widened, that the surplus is tremendous. And this 
 tremendous surplus follows the old rule. The means 
 of producing it are new, but the rule of distributing 
 it is old. The powerful classes take it nearly all, just 
 as they took it before. 
 
 Now it is not necessary to be an anarchist, or a 
 socialist, or anything else dreadful ; it is not even
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 151 
 
 necessary to be a Christian ; it is only necessary to be 
 an honest man, to see that this rule of distribution is 
 not a very righteous rule. Considering that no living 
 man invented the application of steam to manufacture, 
 or of electricity to transport, or discovered the principles 
 of mechanics, or invented the extraction of metal from 
 ore, or did a thousand things which were necessary 
 before the mechanical process could be put to the work 
 of supplying human needs ; considering that the whole 
 generation is the inheritor of those large factors in the 
 problem one class, the possessing class, the capitalist 
 class, ought not to take all the increased output which 
 the control of Nature has given us. And yet this is 
 very nearly what they have done. 
 
 I have said enough, then, I think, to show you that 
 if we are to seek the cause of the great gulf fixed 
 between Dives and Lazarus I mean the gulf which 
 exists in this life we shall not find it in the invention 
 of machinery (that is only the -physical occasion, the 
 means we use\ but the cause we shall find in our 
 principle of payment, our method of payment, our 
 method of appointment ; and the cause of that cause, 
 the motive of the whole, we shall discover in the 
 selfishness of the human heart. That, I am afraid, 
 is the truth of the matter. I am not, of course, 
 accusing individuals ; it is the system which I am
 
 152 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 accusing. The selfishness is organised ; it is legalised 
 selfishness ; it is an inherited system of selfishness ; and 
 it would, no doubt, be very difficult for the individual 
 to do anything against it. But do not let us hide the 
 true nature of the system. It is essentially a selfish 
 and an unjust system. As to individuals, I have 
 known capitalists, owners of land or of machinery, both 
 in this and other towns, who are by no means rolling 
 in wealth, men who live an anxious and harassed life 
 and are by no means overpaid. But you know very well, 
 if you know anything at all about the social conditions 
 of our time, there is another class of owners, men with 
 vast property in affairs which they do not themselves 
 manage, who live in gross luxury. But even that 
 class I pity rather than blame. As individuals I do 
 not believe we are a bit worse now than we have 
 always been. We are, as I have said, merely following 
 the old, well-established custom ; and I am not at all 
 inclined, therefore, to scold at the rich men and say, 
 " You are a lot of selfish, God-forsaken souls ! " But 
 I do say that we ought now to begin to see what our 
 system of payment means, because the developments 
 of the last fifty years have written it upon the wall in 
 letters of fire. They have brought out the intrinsic 
 nature of that system in such a startling way that we 
 ought now to begin to understand it ; and if we
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 153 
 
 have any conscience left we ought to, and we shall, 
 condemn it. 
 
 And now, in the next place, let us ask what is the 
 cure for this state of things. We have inherited from 
 our fathers a competitive system from which the 
 individual cannot altogether break away. What, then, 
 can we do ? We have inherited a set of rules which 
 are based upon the assumption that the employer of 
 labour, the possessor of land, the owner of plant, has 
 the right to all the product that he can get, which 
 generally amounts to all but the barest living wage. 
 These principles of social antagonism and social selfish- 
 ness are inwoven into the very fabric of society. It is 
 society itself, with all its rules, that must be revolu- 
 tionised. And how can that possibly be done ? 
 
 Those who have tried to do it have generally been 
 crucified, or stoned, or burnt, or banished, or shot, or 
 hanged. Is there no other way than that of passionate 
 revolt ? I believe there is. I believe there is one way. 
 It can be done by the slow appeal to reason. Men 
 must be taught ; they must be shown where their 
 happiness and salvation lie. Force is no remedy ; and 
 even martyrdom, though morally stimulating to the 
 survivors, is no permanent solution. Education is 
 the only sure instrument education intellectual and 
 moral. The mind must be instructed, the conscience
 
 154 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 must be touched. If this is done, if this process is 
 earnestly carried on, it will issue at last in legislation : 
 in legislation and in altered customs, corresponding 
 with the new ideals. 
 
 The revolution of which I speak will have to come. 
 Society cannot be permanently founded upon self-seeking. 
 A nation cannot permanently exist in a state of mutual 
 antagonism. Human sympathy cannot permanently 
 be disregarded. There is no permanence^ no stability^ in 
 the dry money-bond. The eternities are against such 
 notions. The make of the universe forbids them. 
 They must go. If they can be replaced by means of 
 education and through moral conversion, well and good ; 
 society is saved. 
 
 If they cannot be so replaced, then the inevitable will 
 follow ; the " inevitable " of forcible revolution ; from 
 which may God in his mercy preserve us ! 
 
 This, then, is the prime word we have to say about 
 the cure. The cure must be social, and a large social 
 education and conversion must be the first stage 
 towards it. What economic measures may meantime 
 be gradually adopted I indicated in the last lecture, 
 and I will not repeat them now. But I will add 
 just this one word about the individual duty : The 
 individual has his own immediate duty, as well as 
 that of taking part in any larger social movement.
 
 LUXURY AND WANT 155 
 
 We are, after all, not mere driftwood. We cannot 
 change the flow of the stream, it is true, but we can 
 battle against it ; and there are many matters in which 
 we can effectually act in a spirit contrary to the spirit 
 of the world. We can sometimes soften the rivalry 
 which is the world's great principle. We can often act 
 in co-operation and fellowship even in business-matters. 
 We can humanise our relations to our employes. If 
 we have the misfortune to be very poor we can guard 
 ourselves from servility, we can cultivate a free and 
 independent spirit, and we can watch against bitterness 
 and envy. If we have the still greater misfortune to be 
 very rich, we can anxiously study how to give away 
 our wealth without harming those to whom we give. 
 It is a dreadful task to be put upon a man, an arduous, 
 almost a hopeless task ; but it can be done. From 
 such duties the individual cannot be relieved on the 
 ground that the malady is mainly social. Personality 
 is a fact from which we cannot get away. We must 
 influence society so far as we can ; but we must also 
 try to shape our individual lives in accordance with our 
 individual ideals.
 
 SOME MODERN MALADIES 
 
 III. PARASITISM OF THE RICH AND OF THE POOR 
 
 OUR subject to-day is Parasitism, and its connection with 
 our last two subjects is obvious. In our first discourse 
 we treated of Rivalry and Routine, and we saw how 
 the rivalry of individuals, which had always existed, 
 and which is, indeed, fundamental to human nature, 
 had in these last days issued in a new and magnified 
 commercial rivalry the rivalry of huge organised 
 bodies, companies and trusts, which compete with one 
 another, and which are maintained at the competing 
 centres by our new mechanical means of transport 
 and manufacture. We saw how the correlative, or 
 necessary, accompaniment of this magnified competi- 
 tion was a deadly routine by which the individual 
 worker was robbed of his individuality and reduced 
 to a fraction of a man who does the fraction of a 
 man's work. 
 
 That is the great fundamental change characteristic 
 
 156
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 157 
 
 of modern times, the outcome of the modern control 
 of natural forces. 
 
 In our second discourse we saw that this condition 
 of things issued in a greatly widened gulf between 
 the rich and poor. The immensely increased output 
 secured by the employment of machinery is not appor- 
 tioned either equally or proportionally between owners 
 and workers, but is appropriated almost bodily by 
 the possessing classes, leaving the poor almost where 
 they were, and so increasing, and greatly increasing, 
 the difference in lot which already existed between the 
 classes. 
 
 And now we get the third stage. Just as the extremes 
 of wealth and poverty issue out of the modern mass- 
 competition, so the disease of parasitism issues out of 
 the extremes of wealth and poverty. Parasitism is a 
 social disease, and it inevitably follows from those social 
 conditions described in my previous addresses. 
 
 Before, however, we attempt to deal in detail with 
 the causes and the cure of this modern malady, let me 
 explain what I understand by the term parasitism. 
 
 Etymologically the word parasite means one who 
 feeds at another's table ; and it is metaphorically applied 
 to an animal that lives at the expense of another 
 animal, haunting its body and sucking its blood, or 
 to a plant that lives at the expense of another plant,
 
 158 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 using up the juices which its host extracts from the 
 soil for its own nourishment. 
 
 Now, not only do animals and plants have their 
 parasites, but human society has its parasites as well. 
 There are folk who suck the life from the social order. 
 There are people who exercise no social function, con- 
 tribute nothing to the social well-being, but whose life 
 is mere absorption. The healthy and honest life is the 
 life that both gives and takes, and that gives at least 
 as much as it takes ; and the parasite is the man or the 
 class of men that does not do this. Society would be 
 better off without some people ; the social organism 
 would be actually richer and healthier if certain folk 
 were removed ; such people are parasites. Of course 
 the function performed by the honest life need not 
 necessarily be in the material sphere. Pictures have 
 been painted, books have been written, perhaps even 
 (occasionally) sermons have been preached which were 
 worth the food and clothing that they cost. A man 
 may do intellectual or spiritual work for the world as 
 well as manual. But some function, physical or spiritual, 
 some real function to enrich and bless society, a man 
 must perform, before he has any right to the gifts of 
 society, or even any right to live. " If any man will 
 not work, neither let him eat." 
 
 This, then, is what we mean by parasitism, and this is
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 159 
 
 the phenomenon we are to consider. There are two 
 kinds of it : the parasitism of the rich and the parasitism 
 of the poor. It will be instructive to consider them each 
 in turn. 
 
 And first, as to the rich parasite^ let me begin by 
 saying this guarding word. Do not suppose that it is 
 of every rich man that I am speaking. Bear in mind 
 the definition which I have just given you. Do not 
 be carried away by the crude imaginings of ill-instructed 
 revolutionists. Not every rich man, not every man, 
 that is to say, who is relatively rich, is necessarily a 
 parasite. Many a man who to the poor seems " rich," 
 has performed and is performing social functions of 
 which his " riches " are merely the means and the 
 instruments, justly earned, rightly proportioned, and 
 usefully employed. A man may have large posses- 
 sions because his public functions are large. So long 
 as he genuinely employs those possessions for the 
 general good, we may indeed pity him that he 
 should have to manage and use such elaborate social 
 machinery, but it would be absurd to condemn him. 
 The dead level of mathematically equal property we 
 shall never attain to, and it is not desirable that we 
 should. 
 
 The riches, however, of such a man as that are neces- 
 sarily of very moderate amount as fortunes go now-a-
 
 160 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 days. You cannot but know that there are rich men 
 whose riches are out of all proportion to their services, 
 whose wealth has never been earned and cannot by any 
 possibility be usefully employed. There are men who 
 simply consume and waste, whose very generosity, when 
 they exercise it, is a danger to the State, pauperising 
 the individuals, the institutions and the communities 
 upon which it is lavished, and inhibiting the healthy 
 function of the social body. There is no millionaire in 
 existence whose wealth can by any possibility have been 
 earned earned, that is, by proportional individual 
 services to society. Such fortunes always must, under 
 existing circumstances, have been obtained either by 
 conspiracy to divert the natural flow and distribution of 
 wealth, or by some system of taboo legalised under un- 
 just or antiquated laws. And there are thousands of 
 lesser fortunes of which the same may be said ; thousands 
 of men of mere middle-class success, who have never 
 fed, nor clothed, nor housed, nor instructed, nor organ- 
 ised, nor protected, nor in any other healthy way served 
 society, but whose wealth has been got by various kinds 
 of gambling, or else by performing some totally useless 
 part in a decaying social system. 
 
 These are the rich men of whom I speak ; whether 
 their fortunes be colossal or what is called " moderate," 
 if they have not been obtained by service and are not
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 161 
 
 used for service, such men come under the ban of 
 " parasitism." 
 
 I want to get you to understand what this means. 
 I want you to see the fact from the right angle. I 
 want you to apprehend that Nature is against this 
 order of men, and that there is a new version of the 
 old Scripture going forth to us to-day a voice which 
 cries aloud to men who are heedlessly engaged in getting 
 wealth by any and every means ; a voice which speaks 
 to every young man who is choosing his profession and 
 making his start in life ; and that it says in new phrase 
 just what the old Scripture said in days gone by : 
 " Who is on the Lord's side ? " " Choose ye this day 
 whom ye will serve." 
 
 In a very remarkable work entitled The Tree in the 
 Mids^ Dr Greville Macdonald has recently furnished 
 a striking illustration of the truth that Nature is against 
 the luxury that preys upon society. He gives an 
 account of the process of evolution and the secondary 
 laws which it involves ; and in speaking of luxury, he 
 takes as an example the prehistoric monster known as 
 the ichthyosaurus. 
 
 The ichthyosaurus was one of a whole series of 
 creatures horrible in character, function and form 
 which existed in an early age of the earth's history. 
 
 It was a reptilian fish, thirty feet in length, with the 
 
 ii
 
 1 62 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 backbone and tail of a fish, the jaw of a crocodile, and 
 the skin of a whale. Its- eye was held in a socket 
 eighteen inches in diameter and was protected by an 
 armour of bony plates. It had a most extraordinary 
 range of vision, and it could see in the dark. 
 
 This monster, therefore, was highly gifted. It was, 
 in fact, actually in advance of its age. It had points of 
 advantage not existent in any other creature at that 
 time. It anticipated the higher possibilities in structure. 
 It was far on in the line of evolution. 
 
 Why, then, did it disappear ? Why was not the 
 process of evolution continued along that line ? Why 
 is it now an extinct creature, telling us its story only 
 by the petrified remains of its terrible body which are 
 dug out from its rocky grave ? 
 
 Most significant is the answer to this question. // 
 died out because life was too easy for it. The world did 
 not desire it. It did nothing but feed and propagate 
 its kind ; and it did this with no effort on its own 
 behalf. It was undesirable from the point of view of 
 upward evolution. That this was the truth concerning 
 it is proved by its remains. There is evidence of its 
 swallowing fish and reptiles in quantity far larger than 
 it could digest, far larger than could be necessary for 
 its own maintenance and the transmission of its species. 
 Its awful jaw, its enormous stomach, its impenetrable
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 163 
 
 armour, its great fleetness, made other creatures such 
 an easy prey to it that labour or painful effort was an 
 experience it never knew. Its only enemies were its 
 prey ; and these enemies were altogether powerless to 
 resist it, while its food was always superabundant. 
 
 And so the ichthyosaurus died out. It died of too 
 much ease. Its extinction was the inevitable result of 
 its luxury. Vital energy began to ebb, structural re- 
 finement did not increase, because it was not wanted ; 
 the size and strength of the monster meant diminished 
 need for intelligence, and the ascent of intelligence was 
 checked. Nature was against it. It transgressed the 
 fundamental law of upward-moving life, and it was 
 swept into the limbo of forgotten things. 
 
 Now, that seems to me just typical of the rich 
 parasite who feeds upon society to-day. Those rich 
 and mighty robbers who victimise society, and whose 
 misdeeds are condoned only because they act upon so 
 large a scale that by simple folk their actions are not 
 fully understood they are the ichthyosauri, the greedy, 
 brutal, loathsome, insatiable monsters who prey upon 
 the feeble in the teeming ocean of modern life. 
 
 But Nature is against them. They lose their souls, 
 and you can actually behold the process. It is not they 
 or their like who ultimately inherit the earth. 
 
 Of course I know that the philosophic person will
 
 164 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 call out upon me at this point. He will say : How 
 can Nature be against these monsters, whether biological 
 or social, seeing that they are themselves a part of 
 Nature ? 
 
 To which I answer : These social questions must be 
 fought out upon the human plane. If you decide upon 
 the parasitic life, Nature will certainly in an ultimate 
 sense not be against you ; she will use you, but she will 
 use you by destroying you. There was a sense in 
 which Nature was not against that weird monster of 
 which we have been speaking. Nature knew how 
 to make it useful. It could not evolve itself, but it 
 unwittingly helped forward the evolution of others. It 
 helped them by its very terrors. Its tyranny was one 
 of those evils which had to be overcome. It acted as 
 a stimulus, an occasion for effort, a motive for increased 
 intelligence, and a tonic for the will. 
 
 Well ; are you willing to help the world forward in 
 that way ? You, the wealthy speculator, who are 
 meditating some commercial stroke which shall benefit 
 yourself at the expense of the community ; you, young 
 man, who are about to choose a career in life which 
 you know to be socially unproductive or even harmful, 
 merely because it is lucrative, are you careless whether 
 the world shall go forward in spite of you or by your aid ? 
 If that is your decision if you decide to be rich what-
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 165 
 
 ever happens ; if you decide that it matters little to you 
 whether you are useful or not so long as you are 
 wealthy then Nature, in a way of her own, will make 
 you useful : she will make you useful by your very sin ; 
 she will make you the victim of that society which you 
 victimise ; she will make you a foil and a warning, a 
 soul to be shunned, an evil to be loathed, a power to 
 be opposed by all the righteous and the just and the 
 excellent of the earth. And if that satisfies you ; if you 
 still say : " Riches in spite of all," why, then, all that 
 can be said is that you are already a lost soul. 
 
 That is the practical lesson for the individual. That 
 is how the social duty of the man appears. We have 
 no right to justify ourselves by appealing to necessity 
 and to inevitable law ; and if we do so justify ourselves 
 and hold on our way regardless of the social effects of 
 our actions, that law to which we appeal will vindicate 
 itself in unexpected ways. 
 
 And now, before we leave this subject of the rich 
 parasite, let me briefly touch upon another aspect of 
 our individual duty in this matter. Many years ago 
 Ruskin distributed with his own Fors Clavigera a 
 pamphlet by his friend Mr Girdlestone. In this 
 pamphlet an attempt was made to classify society, and 
 the classification which the writer proposed was this : 
 English society, he said, consists of workers and non-
 
 1 66 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 workers ; and the non-workers are of two sorts : 
 they are either beggars whose victims are willing 
 persons, or stealers whose victims are unwilling 
 persons. 
 
 You will anticipate what kind of people he places 
 among the stealers. There are the thieves who 
 promote companies that are never meant to succeed, 
 or that produce no real, usable wealth ; there are the 
 thieves who make their money by artificially driving 
 the market up and down, who raise or depress the price 
 of stocks and shares by false rumours and the like ; 
 there are the speculators who make " corners," or help 
 in making " corners," in necessary or useful articles ; 
 and there are all those who by their wealth, their rank, 
 or their knowledge, are extortionate or unfair to 
 another's disadvantage. Such men, whether they act 
 legally or illegally, act immorally, and are in a literal 
 sense thieves. 
 
 This is simple enough. But the difficulty begins 
 when we begin to deal with the beggars. What, for 
 instance, shall we say of the man who lives upon the 
 rent or interest of inherited property ? What shall we 
 say of the sleeping-partner in a business whose income 
 accrues, not as the wages of superintendence, but as 
 dividends on a capital which he did not earn ? 
 
 Such a man is, in Mr Girdlestone's sense, a beggar
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 167 
 
 that is to say, he does not directly do anything for 
 society in return for what he receives. 
 
 As a matter of classification that is all very well, but 
 what moral are you to draw as a matter of individual 
 duty ? Now, upon this point Mr Girdlestone makes 
 an important remark, in which I think we may follow 
 him. He says that the rich beggar of this class may 
 wipe the dishonour from his shield by taking his fair 
 share in that unpaid work which society is always 
 needing to have done by volunteers. That society 
 should permit any man to grow rich without working 
 is of course a defect in the social system ; and that 
 there should be any unpaid work any work which 
 must be done and yet which society does not pay for 
 is again a breakdown in our social arrangements. But 
 the individual has to take the social system as he finds 
 it, and make his part in it as just and honourable as he 
 can. And things being as they are, may we not agree 
 that the right thing for the individual in such a case to 
 do is to accept that which society so foolishly gives him, 
 and to use it for strenuous work of the kind which 
 society so foolishly leaves unpaid ? By this means 
 he may enter the special class of beggars which Mr 
 Girdlestone calls serviceable beggars. He cannot indeed 
 cease to be a beggar, and that he may as well keep in 
 mind ; but he may cease to be a parasite.
 
 1 68 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 Such a man is rich through misfortune. He is 
 born rich, or property is left to him. His inner life 
 is cumbered and choked by huge possessions. It is 
 the fault of society that this is so. In a well-ordered 
 society it would not be so. We should be sorry for 
 such people ; they are suffering from a social disease. 
 Their only way to health and peace is to use that great 
 wealth as speedily and as wisely as they can for the 
 social good. But the fool who is wilfully rich, who 
 actually tries to be rich, who positively endeavours to 
 catch this disease of mammon, who purposely smothers 
 his better part by the possession of material wealth 
 what are we to say of him ? Of him we say that, if 
 that is indeed his aim, if his aim in life is not to serve 
 society but to gather riches, if he accepts the wealth 
 that comes to him, with no fear, and no sense of duty, 
 and no adequate return to the community that enriches 
 him then he has no true life in him ; his life is parasitic. 
 
 So much, then, for the rich parasite ; and now just 
 a word or two about the poor one. We do not need 
 to dwell at any length upon this side of our subject, 
 because people are unfortunately so much more ready 
 to admit the evil in the case of the poor than they are 
 in the case of the rich. Of course there is no diffi- 
 culty in assigning to his proper class the burglar or the 
 pickpocket. These cannot be called useful members of
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 169 
 
 society : they receive without giving. Nor is there 
 any difficulty about the beggar who whines after you 
 in the London street, or the country tramps who come 
 begging at your kitchen door. These are all parasites 
 pure and simple ; and they largely exist by reason of 
 the diseased and disordered state of the community. 
 The difficulty begins when you come to consider the 
 workers who do useless work. These are not " workers " 
 in Mr Girdlestone's sense : they do not enrich society. 
 A man who turned a useless crank all day long, or who 
 shovelled gravel from one end of a yard to the other 
 in order to shovel it back again, might do a deal of 
 labour, but he would not be exactly a honey-bee in 
 the social hive ; he would not in the productive sense 
 be a social worker. And there are people of this sort 
 in modern Europe ; only the difficulty is to know 
 precisely which are of this sort, because we may differ 
 a good deal as to what work is productive and what is 
 useless. 
 
 For instance, there is a class of persons for whom I 
 have a very high esteem the domestic servants. I 
 think that, fairly and justly considered, there is no 
 class more estimable or more praiseworthy. The 
 patience, the industry, the forbearance, the orderly 
 and regular lives which the great majority of them 
 exhibit, are an example to many who consider them-
 
 i yo ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 selves their superiors. But when we come to consider 
 the work which they are called upon to do, we are 
 obliged to admit that a large number of them, especially 
 in the households of the rich, are, through no fault of 
 their own, engaged upon useless labour. One of the 
 greatest mischiefs wrought by the luxurious class is this 
 misdirection of life and this waste of labour. They 
 are obliged to have numbers of servants to perform 
 offices that bring nobody either profit or pleasure, but 
 only serve the vain purposes of ostentation. Then 
 there are all the other persons that the rich man 
 employs the jockeys, the footmen, the architects and 
 builders of unused or half-used mansions ; the makers 
 of false or foolish jewelry, the painters of meaningless 
 portraits or other joyless pictures, the composers of 
 lascivious music, the vulgar or indecent dancers, the 
 mimics and courtesans and ministers of debauch 
 there are these and a hundred others who contribute 
 nothing to the true life, either of the individual or of 
 society, but who require, all of them, to be fed and 
 clothed and housed by means of labour that might be 
 used, and ought to be used, for the supply of physical 
 necessities or of noble pleasures. These, in so far as 
 they consume without any wholesome production, 
 belong to that melancholy class, the parasites of the 
 parasites.
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 171 
 
 But when we come to ask what is, in their case, the 
 individual duty, the answer is far more difficult to find 
 than in the case of the rich. With these, to oppose 
 the social system does not mean the mere abandonment 
 of superfluities, it often means the loss of the prime 
 necessities of life. In the case of those who minister 
 to sin or to sheer sensuality the case admits, of course, 
 of no doubt ; but in the case of those who perform 
 offices more or less frivolous and unmeaning offices 
 of a ceremonial sort, in which they can take no serious 
 interest it may be a question whether they should 
 starve rather than perform such duties. The Son of 
 Sirach, indeed, in his downright way, takes the bull 
 by the horns. " Be not an underling," he says, " to 
 a foolish man." And I confess I should like to see 
 something of that spirit abroad. I should like to see 
 that sort of strike among workmen's unions not 
 strikes for better pay or shorter hours, but strikes 
 against the foolishness of their masters. I should like 
 to hear of a factory stopped because the men refused 
 to work for an employer who squandered his wealth 
 upon wickedness or folly or silly ostentation. There 
 would be some hope of the world if that sort of strike 
 were instituted. " Be not underling to a fool " ; yes, 
 that is where the individual duty lies in the case we 
 are considering. So far as is possible, strive in that
 
 172 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 direction. Do not always engage yourself to the master 
 who pays best ; engage yourself to the master who is 
 richest in wisdom. Serve the man who serves the State. 
 Work for the man who works for the world. Choose 
 the place which will give you the best opportunity of 
 doing wholesome, productive, and useful duties. Some- 
 thing, surely, might be done in that direction by those 
 whose lot in life it is to serve. 
 
 And now we must pass from the individual to the 
 social point of view, and consider very briefly the causes 
 and the cure of this social disease. The two classes we 
 have been considering the rich parasites and the poor 
 parasites, who eat without working, consume without 
 any true production are standing dangers to our 
 civic life. They suck the blood of the nation. They 
 impoverish the social organism. They undermine 
 the commonwealth. It was by such that Athens fell ; 
 it was by such that Rome fell ; it is by such that nearly 
 every dead empire of ancient or modern times has fallen. 
 Luxury breeds them, and they imitate the luxury by 
 which they are bred ; and so the action and reaction 
 goes on, the disease spreads, and the whole body-politic 
 decays. 
 
 That is the disease. Whence does it spring ? It 
 springs, so it is said, from the sudden expansion of 
 our human powers. And that, no doubt, in a sense
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 173 
 
 is true. It is true, as we saw in our previous discourses, 
 that the modern evil is accentuated by our new control 
 of Nature's powers. We have linked ourselves to the 
 forces of Nature ; we have yoked the horses of the sun 
 to our chariot, and we have harnessed the thunderbolts 
 of heaven. Fire and lightning are our servants, and we 
 have bound them in chains of steel. The control of 
 these mighty agencies of electricity and heat is the proxi- 
 mate cause of that massing of economic force which 
 has issued in enormously increased wealth, leading to 
 that luxury which has given rise, in its turn, to this evil 
 of parasitism. 
 
 This, I say, is doubtless the occasion of the evils 
 which we deplore. But the cause lies further back. 
 The cause is in the human heart ; and for that there is 
 only one cure : that which our fathers very rightly called 
 "conversion." We must be converted \ we must see 
 things in a new light. We must turn ourselves round 
 and look at things from the opposite quarter ; we must 
 realise the horrible character of the evils under which 
 we live ; we must set ourselves to amend and regenerate 
 the whole system of society. 
 
 All those evils which in these three addresses I have 
 brought before you fierce competition, deadly routine, 
 enervating luxury, distressing want, and this last evil 
 of functionless and useless life all these grow up
 
 174 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 under common conditions ; they are knit together in a 
 common system ; and it is the whole system that must 
 be amended. 
 
 The detailed measures by which this is to be done it 
 is not my place to set forth, but the principles upon 
 which the reform must be carried out are these : 
 
 1. By the adoption of common action and common 
 enterprise, rivalry and emulation must be limited. It 
 must be limited to such an extent and in such a 
 way that at any rate the necessaries of life shall be 
 honourably accessible to all who are not absolutely 
 undeserving. 
 
 2. By common consent, all mechanical routine which 
 tends to deaden consciousness and destroy individuality 
 must be limited in duration ; so that a fair proportion 
 of a man's day shall be reserved for him to follow his 
 native bent and restore his individuality. 
 
 3. Society must, by common consent, appropriate for 
 the common good that part of a man's wealth which the 
 community and not the man has earned. 
 
 4. And, lastly, all parasitism must be discouraged. 
 The legislature should always have an eye upon it, 
 and so frame the laws as to make it difficult. In its 
 extreme forms, such as that of gambling and betting, 
 whether on the exchange or in the public-house, it 
 should even be directly and openly punished.
 
 PARASITISM OF RICH AND POOR 175 
 
 All legislation must base itself on the ideal of exchange 
 of service as sharers of a common life. That is the true 
 principle, the principle which condemns all parasitism, 
 the only principle upon which a wholesome social life 
 can be built up. We are members of an organism ; 
 we are sharers of a common life ; and as such, the 
 only way in which we can live rightly and cleanly, with 
 advantage to the community and with respect for our- 
 selves, is by performing mutual service. 
 
 I dare say that these principles which I have set 
 before you will not wholly satisfy either of the con- 
 tending factions ; they are not exactly what the in- 
 dividualist would like, and they are not at all what the 
 communist would like. I think that is because each of 
 these looks at only one side of human nature. We are 
 individual as well as social. We are social as well as 
 individual. The problem is to harmonise those two. 
 No man has the right to follow his individual wishes at 
 the expense of the common good ; neither is that a 
 well-ordered community which crushes out of the in- 
 dividual all the individuality and character and special 
 gift which gives zest to life. We have to harmonise 
 those two ; that is our tremendous problem to-day. 
 Some will see more of one side and some will see more 
 of the other ; so it is not likely that what I have said 
 will wholly please either party.
 
 i y6 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 But I sincerely believe that the principles which I 
 have laid down are the true principles the principles 
 upon which we must build reform ; and therefore I 
 have thought it right to set them plainly before you. 
 
 But I repeat again, that first of all we need 
 " conversion." A change of heart, that is what we need ; 
 for it is certain that none of us will ever do the right 
 things until he comes to love the right things.
 
 IV. INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM ? 
 EITHER ? NEITHER ? OR BOTH ? 
 
 Individualism and Socialism, these are the two terms 
 which are placed as alternatives in the tide of my 
 lecture ; and they are terms which one hears from 
 everybody's lips, which in books, reviews, conversation, 
 lectures, one is constantly finding compared and con- 
 trasted. What do they mean ? What is Individualism ? 
 what is Socialism ? and what is the real relation 
 between the two ? Are we obliged to choose between 
 them ? and if we are, which shall we choose ? which 
 shall we uphold and follow and fight for ? in which 
 of them lies the hope of the future ? In either of 
 them ? in neither of them ? or in both ? These are 
 the questions which I propose to discuss. 
 
 " An Individualist," wrote Grant Allen, " is a man 
 who recognises without stint the full, free, and equal right 
 of every citizen to the unimpeded use of all his energies, 
 activities, and faculties, provided only he does not there- 
 by encroach upon the equal and correlative right of 
 
 177 12
 
 178 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 every other citizen " ; and he supports this definition 
 by an appeal to those whom he calls the Individualist 
 Fathers Mill and Spencer. To Mill and Spencer, 
 then, we turn, and we find that the definition seems to 
 be borne out at least, we find much in the writings of 
 these philosophers (both of whom are recognised as 
 authorities by individualists) which supports the view 
 that the full right of every citizen to the unimpeded 
 use of all his faculties is the ideal at which to aim. 
 John Stuart Mill, in his little book on Liberty, has 
 worked out the whole doctrine in logical sequence. 
 He has a long chapter on " Liberty of Thought and 
 Discussion," followed by another long chapter on " Indi- 
 viduality as one of the Elements of Well-being." He 
 shows how greatly our happiness depends on perfect 
 liberty for the individual : on free development of 
 individuality, free choice of one's own plan of life, 
 free following of one's own taste, free formation and 
 expresssion of one's own opinion ; and, in the case of 
 men of genius especially, how important it is, not for 
 the man only, but for the whole community, that genius 
 should be allowed to unfold itself freely both in thought 
 and practice. 
 
 Herbert Spencer is equally explicit. His first principle 
 is that " Every man has freedom to do all that he wills 
 provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 179 
 
 other man." The State, he says, is a voluntary associa- 
 tion for mutual protection, and we ought to be very 
 jealous of any step which the State may take beyond 
 this ; we ought very carefully to watch lest, in the 
 endeavour to benefit a few, the State should cripple the 
 individual energies of the many. Civilisation, he says, 
 is a progress towards the complete manifestation of 
 every one's individuality. "To be that which he 
 naturally is, to do just what he would spontaneously do, 
 is essential to the full happiness of each, and therefore 
 to the greatest happiness of all." 
 
 Mr Grant Allen's definition, therefore, seems to be 
 made out. If Mill and Spencer are the Individualist 
 Fathers, then individualism is pretty much what Mr 
 Allen says it is "the full, free, and equal right of 
 every citizen to the unimpeded use of all his energies." 
 
 I do not say, mind, that is the sense in which the 
 term is always used to-day. I shall show you presently 
 that practically it means something very different. But 
 it is the sense in which the term is sometimes used, 
 and in which it was originally meant to be used. It is 
 the sense which those attach to the term who oppose 
 Socialism on the ground that it will prevent develop- 
 ment and variety of individual character ; who laud 
 Individualism as promoting that development and 
 variety. And so I say, for the present let the definition
 
 i8o ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 stand. Individualism shall be, for the nonce, the system 
 which favours the full, free, and equal right of every 
 citizen to the unimpeded use of all his energies. 
 
 And now, what does " Socialism " mean ? Socialism 
 is a term used in a multitude of senses. Anybody 
 who preaches Land-nationalisation, Co-operation of any 
 kind, Profit-sharing on any scale, calls himself now-a- 
 days a Socialist. And even those who preach no 
 positive amelioration of any kind, but only destruction 
 of the existing order of things, are often called Socialists 
 and reviled accordingly. But what is Socialism in its 
 essence ? We have appealed to the Individualist fathers 
 for their doctrine of Individualism. What, according 
 to the Socialist fathers, is the doctrine of Socialism ? 
 
 Well, I am not sure who the socialist fathers are. 
 Herbert Spencer has himself been reckoned among the 
 socialist fathers, though he used to be much hurt at 
 this assertion, and indignantly protested that he was 
 nothing of the sort. But if we go back a little further, 
 we shall come to undisputed ground. Owen, St Simon, 
 and Fourier, these at any rate belong to the early fathers 
 of socialism ; and in the discussions which arose in con- 
 nection with one of them, the very name " socialism " 
 took its rise. 
 
 What, then, was the aim and doctrine of these three 
 venerable fathers ? Robert Owen, in his Book of the
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 181 
 
 New Moral World^ insisted upon the influence exerted 
 upon man by external circumstances. The way to 
 permanent peace and happiness, he declared, was in 
 equalising those external circumstances. Equality of 
 education and condition among mankind this was his 
 aim ; and society, he declared, if only it were united 
 in promoting that aim, possesses illimitable power to 
 remove those inferior debasing circumstances which 
 weigh down so large a portion of the race illimitable 
 power to replace those debasing circumstances by better 
 and wholesome and more elevating conditions. 
 
 St Simon, the founder of French socialism, insisted in 
 like manner upon the necessity of a new and positive 
 reorganisation of society. His vision was that of an 
 industrialist State directed by modern science. The 
 social aim, he said, was to produce things useful to life, 
 and the goal of all our activity should be to encircle 
 the globe with one vast association directed to this 
 useful production. 
 
 Fourier, the third of the patriarchs, was a somewhat 
 fantastic man ; but through all his vagaries there ran 
 this fundamental doctrine, that competition is wasteful, 
 that co-operation is economical, and that society, as a 
 whole, must be organised on the lines requisite to give 
 full scope to co-operation. 
 
 If these, then, are to be taken as the fathers of
 
 1 82 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 socialism, it is pretty clear what socialism means : it 
 means greater equality of opportunity and condition, 
 closer association for the production of useful things, 
 and greater freedom from the wear and tear of com- 
 petition ; and all this to be attained by subordinating 
 the individual interest to the common good. Socialism, 
 in short, is the denial to the individual of the right to 
 fight his own way to wealth or greatness, irrespective of 
 the effect which this free fight of the individual has 
 upon the well-being of the mass. It substitutes 
 association for isolation, co-operation for competition, 
 the good of the whole for the advancement of the few. 
 
 Now, concerning these two systems, 1 put three 
 questions : Either ? Neither ? or Both ? First I ask, 
 Will you have either of them ? Will you choose 
 between them accept one and decline the other, with 
 (or without) thanks ? If not, it must be either because 
 they are both so bad that you prefer to decline them 
 both, and your answer is therefore " neither " ; or else 
 because they are both so good that you cannot do with- 
 out either of them, and your answer therefore is " both." 
 
 In the first place, then, we have to put the question 
 " Either ? " Will you choose one or the other of the 
 two principles ? And to put the question effectually, 
 we must consider fairly and somewhat more fully the 
 principles between which we are called upon to choose.
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 183 
 
 Let us consider first the principle of individual liberty. 
 
 I suppose there is nothing in the world of which we 
 are more firmly convinced than we are that every man 
 has a right to think freely. I do not say that every 
 man has a right to believe what he likes ; that is a 
 right which no man has. A man's right is not to be- 
 lieve what he likes, but to believe what is true. But 
 in the process of finding out what is true in order that 
 he may believe it, all kinds of thoughts must pass 
 through his mind ; all kinds of opinions must be can- 
 vassed ; and he has a perfect right, every man and 
 woman has a perfect and indisputable right, to carry on 
 this process for himself, to till his own mental soil and 
 grow his own mental crop, and to sort out the weeds 
 and burn them at his pleasure. " If all mankind, minus 
 one, were of one opinion," says Mill, " and only one 
 person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would 
 be no more justified in silencing that one person than 
 he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing 
 mankind." 
 
 Liberty of thought and discussion, then, I put down 
 as the first element in individual liberty, without which 
 all else is nothing worth ; and the second element 
 is like unto it. For scarcely less important than 
 liberty of thought is liberty of action. Scarcely less 
 important, and far more neglected, is this second element
 
 184 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 of personal liberty. If the fire of truth has for the 
 most part been kindled by the sparks dropped in the 
 clash of reason with unreason, so, too, has the fire of 
 virtue. To live rightly, we must live freely. We 
 shall never find out the best way of living till we are 
 freer to experiment. Strange as it may sound to some, 
 I believe that there is far too much restriction in our 
 mode of life. In our efforts to suppress the evil, we 
 too often suppress the good as well ; we root out the 
 wheat along with the tares. Cranks, no doubt, are 
 troublesome people social lunatics we have ever with 
 us ; never mind, give them free play ; now and then 
 you may be entertaining a philosopher unawares. Let 
 the worth of different modes of life be proved practically 
 by anyone who thinks fit to try them. Let individu- 
 ality be not only allowed but encouraged. Without it 
 there is no happiness and no national greatness. 
 
 An evening party has been aptly described as an 
 assembly in which everybody knows what not to do. 
 And our whole civilised life, I fear, is rapidly becoming 
 just such an evening party as flat, stale, dull, and un- 
 profitable : we have to dress alike, however hideously ; 
 to behave alike, however absurdly ; to think alike, 
 however irrationally ; to believe alike, however base- 
 lessly. Our feelings are so tender that nobody dares 
 to speak his thoughts till he has groped all round about
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 185 
 
 his companion and found out exactly to which sections of 
 the body politic, the body ecclesiastic, the body artistic 
 and the body social he belongs. Everybody belongs 
 to some section, nobody is himself, and every section 
 regards certain sins of the other sections as unpardon- 
 able. To one vast section, the unpardonable sins 
 are to wear fustian or to do useful work ; to another 
 the unpardonable sins are to keep a shop, to drop 
 your h's, or to speak the truth. But to be himself^ 
 to speak his convictions without offence, to follow his 
 tastes without contempt, to live his life in the light of 
 day without patronage and without reserve, this, in the 
 present state of society, it is not given a man to do. 
 
 Now, so far as our definition has carried us at present, 
 you will see from my tone that I am a throughgoing 
 individualist. I believe in liberty, in individuality, 
 in unrestricted freedom for individual development. 
 But a difficulty arises when we take into account the 
 fact that we are not merely individuals ; that we are 
 also social. There are not many men who would be 
 content with liberty and nothing else. If anybody 
 says he would be so content, we may set him down in 
 some vast wilderness where roads and railways have 
 not yet reached, and say : " Very well, my dear sir, here 
 are blackberries, and here is water, and here too is 
 unlimited freedom ; live and be happy." There have
 
 1 86 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 been hermits of that kind in the past, but they have 
 been comparatively few, and mostly mad. On the 
 whole, we have to recognise the fact that man is social ; 
 and that is as good as saying that absolute individualism 
 is impossible ; for directly you admit that some con- 
 verse with your fellow-men is a necessity of life, you 
 admit at the same time that there must be some limit 
 to your individual freedom. Society is necessarily 
 founded upon give and take. So long as you live 
 alone in the wilderness you may take as many black- 
 berries as you like, and nobody's fingers will be pricked 
 but your own ; but directly you admit a brother hermit 
 to your cell, your liberty will be somewhat restricted. 
 You must not meddle with the berries which he has 
 gathered for himself ; you must not lie in the sun and 
 make him gather berries for you ; you must not sing 
 jubilant psalms when he wants to sleep ; and if you 
 have only one drinking- vessel, you must go turn and 
 turn about. No conduct that injures the interest of 
 another, no selfishness that lives upon the labours of 
 another without adequate return, must be left un- 
 checked. Liberty, if that be liberty, must be restricted. 
 The definition of Individualism, as I quoted it at 
 the beginning of this paper, provides for this. It says 
 that " every citizen has a right to the unimpeded use 
 of all his energies provided he aoes not thereby encroach
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 187 
 
 upon the equal right of every other citizen." But modern 
 individualism has practically confined itself to one part 
 of this definition ; it has contented itself with emphasis- 
 ing individual liberty without mentioning its restrictions. 
 Unlimited competition, unrestricted freedom of con- 
 tract, a minimum of interference with individual 
 action, and especially with the individual action of the 
 capitalist this is its teaching, and hence comes socialism. 
 
 To socialism, then, it is now time for us to turn. 
 Socialism lays stress upon just that part of our dictum 
 which individualism is apt to slur. It finds in man an 
 evil selfishness which makes him forget that his own 
 liberty must be limited by the equal right which every 
 other citizen has to the same liberty. It maintains 
 that the warfare of class with class and man with man 
 is productive of immense and needless evils, and " it 
 holds that it is the function of the State to moderate 
 this warfare and to remedy these evils. In short, it 
 insists on the principle that the rights of the individual 
 are subordinate to the well-being of the whole society." 
 
 So long as individualism held undivided sway, 
 " children from seven to ten were working in factories 
 and mines, starved, stunted, squalid ; women were 
 losing their womanhood in degrading forms of labour ; 
 millions were living in dwellings unfit for swine, and 
 were sinking into a state of brutal degradation. The
 
 1 88 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 wealth and luxury of the rich stood out in glaring 
 contrast with the hideous poverty of the poor. The 
 share of the labourer in the fruits of his labour was 
 diminished by the middleman who came between him 
 and his capitalist employer." l " These things," said 
 socialism, " ought not so to be " ; and, by dint of 
 measures which were socialistic in principle, some of 
 them have ceased. Too many, alas, remain. 
 
 Now, the moral of this is, that liberty sometimes 
 means liberty to oppress your fellows, liberty to take 
 your neighbour at a disadvantage and enslave him, 
 liberty to starve and dwarf your children, to degrade 
 your women, to let four-fifths of a generation grow 
 up in ignorance, and that, when personal liberty comes 
 to mean this, personal liberty must be curtailed ; man 
 must be reminded that he is social as well as individual, 
 and that he has duties to society as well as to himself. 
 
 " Our legislation," wrote a high ecclesiastic some time 
 since, " our legislation on the tenure of land in Ireland, 
 on Sunday Closing Acts, our systems of State-aided and 
 compulsory education, our measures for the further pro- 
 tection of children, our Allotment Acts, are all essenti- 
 ally protests against the laissez-faire, laissez-aller of a 
 pure individualism. The popular cries for local option 
 or other regulations of the drink traffic, for an eight- 
 1 Dean of Wells.
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 189 
 
 hours' day of labour, for free education, for compelling 
 landlords to improve the dwellings of the poor, for three 
 acres and a cow, for a graduated income-tax, are all 
 essentially socialistic in their nature. They set aside for 
 the common good the rights of individuals in their 
 freedom or their property. They assume that the State, 
 in the order of God's government, is the creator of 
 property, and may therefore, while it protects its rights, 
 insist on the performance of its duties." In the face of 
 this description of Socialism and its tendencies, I think 
 it will be hard for any man to deny that the socialistic 
 movement, in the main, is beneficial. 
 
 " But suppose we were to treat Socialism as we have 
 treated Individualism," one may ask, " and try to carry 
 it to its logical extreme, would it work ? " We may 
 admit that it would not. At least, we may admit that if 
 you mean by Socialism some unimaginable state of things 
 in which the limitations of individual liberty were con- 
 tinually increased and individual liberty itself gradually 
 reduced to //, such a socialism would be uncomfortable. 
 If the State is to say how long I am to work, what I am 
 to work at, what goods I am to receive in payment, and 
 how much of them ; when I am to be married, whom 
 I am to marry, and how many children I am to be 
 allowed to have ; where I am to live, what I am to read, 
 and how I am to travel ; and in general to regulate every
 
 1 9 o ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 detail of my life why, then, I had rather be as I am. 
 But all this, though it is State-interference, is not social- 
 ism, and I only imagine such a state of affairs for a moment 
 in order to bring out the chief point at which I have 
 arrived. What that point is I will now briefly state. 
 
 I have hitherto supposed that the essence of individ- 
 ualism is individual liberty, and the essence of 
 socialism is a restriction placed upon individual liberty 
 for the social good. And these are, in fact, the mean- 
 ings of the terms as they are frequently used. Now, 
 what I want to bring home to you is this that in this 
 sense of the words " Individualism " and " Socialism " 
 you cannot choose either one or the other. To the 
 question whether you will have either of them, you 
 must answer "Neither" and you must also answer 
 " Both" Carried to their logical extremes, you can put 
 up with neither. It is impossible to have unlimited 
 individualism without going mad ; and it is impossible 
 to have unlimited socialism without committing suicide. 
 Either by itself is an inconceivable mode of existence ; 
 and the only answer to the question " Either ? " is 
 " Neither." But if you are content to be a little less 
 logical, and a little more reasonable and practical, you 
 will see that there is another answer possible and that 
 is " Both" We will have personal liberty so far as it 
 is compatible with the general good, and we will have
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 191 
 
 community of interest, even at the expense of some 
 sacrifice of personal liberty. We will have both 
 Individualism and Socialism, free scope for all our 
 faculties and capacities, but limited by the necessity of 
 giving equally free scope to others. 
 
 The fact is that, whatever opposition exists between 
 these two principles, lies in the very make of our minds. 
 The economic antithesis is based upon a psychological 
 one. Every man is at once personal and impersonal, 
 individual and social ; and no form of government, no 
 form of social life, can ultimately be satisfactory which 
 does not take account of both sides of our nature. No 
 socialism is sufficient which does not give free scope 
 for individual development and individual action ; no 
 individualism will ever be satisfactory unless it enables 
 and encourages men to live in a state of harmony 
 instead of a confusion of warfare ; to live a brotherly 
 and kindly and truly social life, each for all and all 
 for each. 
 
 But now, if we revise our definitions, and if we take 
 Individualism, not in the sense in which the term was 
 originally intended, but in the sense in which it is 
 now too generally used, we shall find that the opposition 
 between the two is much more real. There is a sort of 
 phantom warfare continually going on in the papers 
 and elsewhere between the terms, used in the sense in
 
 1 92 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 which I have hitherto been using them. The phantoms 
 hit each other tremendous blows ; but the whole thing 
 lacks reality, because there is no true opposition involved. 
 But alongside of this, or mixed up with it, there is a 
 real battle going on as well, and one which will wax 
 hotter and hotter as the years go on ; and it behoves 
 us very carefully to distinguish between the shadow 
 and the substance, lest we waste our zeal upon the air. 
 
 If Individualism meant really that which it is so often 
 said to mean if it meant indeed full liberty of action, 
 limited only by equal freedom in others we might all 
 be individualists. But what it practically means to-day 
 is something very different. The individualism of the 
 Liberty and Property Defence League means practically 
 little else than the privilege of a small and fortunate 
 class to protect their own liberty and property at the 
 expense of the slavery and pauperism of a large and 
 unfortunate class. An individualism " which sets out 
 with the indefensible principle that one man may own 
 another as his private chattel, or may hold an inalienable 
 lien over some portion of another man's time or labour, 
 or the product of his labour, or may monopolise more 
 than his own fair share of the common stock of raw 
 material .... is not individualist [in the sense of free- 
 ing the individual energies of all, but quite the contrary] ; 
 it is simply rapacious, predatory and lawless." It is
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 193 
 
 against this kind of Individualism that Socialism unfurls 
 the standard and sets the battle in array ; and if it 
 comes to a question between Socialism and Individ- 
 ualism of this sort, then my answer would no longer 
 be "Neither," and would certainly not be "Both." 
 For now we have two real opposites ; and now the 
 call comes to every man to choose, and the time already 
 approaches when between those two, by every thinking 
 man, the choice will have to be decided. 
 
 Let me, then, put the antithesis in what I conceive to 
 be its true form. The true antagonism is not between 
 socialism and individualism, but between socialism and 
 capitalism. That capitalism has come to be called 
 " individualism " I regard as a misfortune. It confuses 
 words and leads to confusion of thought. True indi- 
 vidualism, I hold, will be the outcome and the fairest 
 flower of socialism. But capitalism, the system of 
 private and competing capitals, is quite another thing ; 
 and between this and socialism there is a great gulf fixed. 
 
 Let me, then, keeping in view this true antithesis, 
 put my questions over again, Either ? Neither ? or 
 Both ? 
 
 To the question " Either ? " you cannot answer 
 " Neither," for you must have one or the other. And 
 you cannot answer " Both," for they are in principle 
 mutually exclusive. 
 
 13
 
 i 9 4 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 One or the other, I say, you must have. There is 
 no middle course. Certain middle courses have been 
 proposed, such as Nationalisation of the Land, Co- 
 operation, or Profit-sharing. But none of these will give 
 us a position of stable equilibrium : none is thorough- 
 going. I do not say they are useless as steps to a more 
 complete application of the principle, but they cannot 
 be regarded as ultimate. Land-nationalisation cannot 
 completely save us so long as tools, machinery, means 
 of transit and the like remain in the power of competing 
 capitalists. Co-operative societies are of no great use so 
 long as their co-operation is applied only to distribution 
 and not to production, and so long as they are themselves 
 only big competitors in the universal scramble. Profit- 
 sharing is no cure for our ills so long as it is merely a 
 concession granted by the employers out of charity, and 
 not a legal right that can be insisted upon by the work- 
 men. When land-nationalisation is supplemented by the 
 nationalisation of other instruments of production, then it 
 will be of great use ; but that is Socialism. When Profit- 
 sharing means that the whole of the profits are shared by 
 the producers, that will be of great use ; but that, again, is 
 Socialism. When the co-operative society expands to 
 a co-operative nation^ that will indeed be a cure for all 
 our economic ills ; but that, once more, is Socialism. " It 
 is the severance of capital from labour which has done
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 195 
 
 all the mischief," wrote the Dean of Durham a week 
 or two ago, in a letter which I hope you all read. And 
 that is the root-principle of Socialism. Are capital and 
 labour to be severed or united ? That is the question 
 which I am putting to you. 
 
 So that, in principle, I say there is no middle course. 
 Whether the socialistic ideal is immediately feasible, 
 or whether it will ever be feasible in its entirety, is. a 
 separate question. But, in principle, you must choose 
 one or the other. In the last resort you are driven 
 either to the present system of competing capitals, or 
 to the collective ownership of all the means of pro- 
 duction. Capitalism and Socialism are in principle 
 mutually exclusive. When the question comes to you, 
 therefore, " Which will you have ? " you cannot answer 
 "Neither." One or the other you are driven to 
 accept. 
 
 And equally impossible will it be to answer " Both." 
 It is true there are certain features of the present 
 system regarded by some as individualistic which 
 many socialists would nevertheless retain ; and it may 
 seem at first sight as though this were an attempt to 
 plead for Both. But upon further consideration it will 
 be found that these do not affect the first principles of 
 socialism, and that socialism and capitalism remain 
 mutually exclusive.
 
 196 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 For instance, freedom of demand is not inconsistent 
 with socialism. There is no reason why the means of 
 life and culture should be officially allotted, why every- 
 body should be made to live alike. There is no reason 
 in the world why one man should not live in a big 
 house and another in a small house, under a socialist 
 regime ; why one woman should not wear silk and 
 another cotton, one indulge in horses and another in 
 pictures, and another in tea-meetings and platforms. I 
 know very well that some socialists speak and write as 
 though this would be a violation of equality. It would 
 be nothing of the sort ; it would be a manifestation of 
 equality. Equality does not consist in being all 
 clipped with the same shears to fit the same bed ; 
 it consists in all having an equal right and an 
 equal opportunity for natural development. The one 
 who indulges in silks will not perhaps be able to have 
 so many expensive books and pictures, and the one 
 who is content with cottons can have more of them. 
 The only difference will be that the silks and cottons 
 will then mark differences of taste ; not, as they do 
 now, differences of rank. 
 
 Again, there is no reason (in spite of the descriptions 
 of the social future indulged in by some socialists) why 
 individual domestic freedom should not be retained. 
 Those horrible arrangements of public dining-rooms
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 197 
 
 and the like, which some regard as such a delightful 
 feature of Utopia, are not essential to socialism. You 
 may have your chop at home if you prefer it and yet 
 be a sound socialist. 
 
 And lastly, you may, I believe, even admit into the 
 socialist state so pronounced a feature of our capitalist 
 era as a fluctuation of wages (within limits), and yet not 
 violate the socialist principle. I know I am sailing 
 rather near the wind here, and I admit this feature of 
 capitalism not because I like it, but because I think 
 it may perhaps prove necessary. Without it I doubt 
 whether it would be possible to keep labour, pro- 
 duction and demand in economic equilibrium. 
 
 Karl Marx's plan of making the standard of value 
 a definite fraction of the aggregate social labour-time 
 is attractive at first sight, but it seems doubtful whether 
 such a plan would work. So far as I have studied the 
 question (which I am bound to confess is not a very 
 long way), it seems to me that there is much in the 
 objection which Dr Schaffle raises in his very able book, 
 The Quintessence of Socialism. I suspect that to make 
 socialism work, there would have to be a certain 
 concession in the direction of fluctuation of wages 
 that a lower wage would have to be given for the 
 production of goods for which the demand was less 
 than supply, and a higher wage for the production of
 
 198 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 goods for which the supply was less than the demand : 
 very much as we find to be the case under our present 
 system. The only alternative for this would be a 
 system under which workmen would be ordered away 
 from one place to another place, from one industry to 
 another industry, or under which purchasers would be 
 deprived of the liberty of buying what they liked and 
 as much as they liked ; a system also which would run 
 the risk of breaking down from the sheer impossibility 
 " of maintaining and directing so great a body of 
 labour, production and demand in equilibrium," and 
 so enormous a mass of bookkeeping as would be 
 thereby entailed. 
 
 Only what I would insist on is this that such a partial 
 reintroduction of one of the features of the present 
 capitalist system would not amount to capitalism : it 
 would not affect the first principles of socialism. The 
 fusion of capital and labour which results from making 
 the whole State the capitalist and that is what we mean 
 by Socialism would still remain, and with it would 
 remain all the blessings that such a social state must 
 bring greater equality among social classes ; something 
 more than the bare necessaries of life to every willing 
 worker ; a sense of joint responsibility in relation to 
 poverty and misfortune ; a more certain check against 
 overwork and against the neglect of children and women ;
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 199 
 
 the hindrance of exploitation by private interest ; the 
 removal of idleness and of unproductive parasitic life ; 
 the prevention of corruption, of boundless, luxury, of 
 crimes against property, of bitter competition, of 
 exhausting business worry. For all these ameliora- 
 tions, I believe, would follow in the train of Socialism 
 rightly understood. 
 
 And now, in conclusion, let me again urge, and urge 
 with greater emphasis, that Socialism, so far from being 
 opposed to a true Individualism that is, to the full 
 and free development of the individual is the only 
 way to it. The only way to individuality is by the 
 road of socialism. 
 
 You say that you have freedom now ; that this is a 
 free country ; and that our delightful system of what is 
 called " free contract " secures the greatest possible 
 amount of liberty to all. But what, let me ask, does 
 this boasted liberty amount to ? What freedom is there 
 even for that comparatively small class whose liberty the 
 system is intended to secure ? What real liberty does 
 the wealthy capitalist himself enjoy ? The exaggerated 
 inequality which the iniquitous system produces shuts 
 him up in the little circle of those he calls his equals. 
 The great mass of his fellow-countrymen consist of two 
 classes who are equally cut off from him. One class has 
 been really rendered unfit for his friendship by the
 
 200 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 iniquitous system under which they live ; the other 
 class, although they are not really unfit, and form, 
 indeed, the most interesting part of the community, are 
 socially tabooed, and he dare not mingle freely with them, 
 however much he may wish to do so. 
 
 " A free and living intercourse with all the various 
 classes of mankind " is one of the chief conditions of a 
 happy life. And yet, as Tolstoi has very justly pointed 
 out, " the higher people rise in the world the more must 
 they miss this important condition of happiness. The 
 higher the position of men, the narrower and more 
 limited is the range of their intercourse, the lower, in 
 their intellectual and moral development, are the few 
 who form that charmed circle out of which there is no 
 issue." So that, even for the capitalist class itself, I 
 would contend that the enormous gulfs between the 
 various sections of society which are opened by the 
 prevailing system forbid all possibility of a truly free 
 and happy life. 
 
 And if the life of the wealthy is spoiled by the 
 regime of private capital and free competition, what 
 shall we say of the poor ? What shall we say of that 
 man whose strength of sinew or of brain is all that he 
 has, and that " all " at the mercy of his master ? Is 
 there, as a matter of fact, for the proletariat, either 
 intellectual or manual, any shadow of true freedom ?
 
 INDIVIDUALISM OR SOCIALISM? 201 
 
 Can they choose their work ? choose their master ? 
 choose their place of abode ? Do they live in slums, 
 then, because they like it ? live in the filth and poison 
 of these great cities because they love them ? work 
 twelve to fifteen hours a day because their work is so 
 delightful ? Or is it, rather, because if they don't, 
 they'll starve ? They are free, you say ; they are no 
 longer bound to the soil. No, they are not. If they 
 were, their masters would not have the right to 
 discharge them when they will. If they were, they 
 would have the power, which they possessed of old, 
 to labour for their own advantage for at any rate a 
 portion of" their time. If they were, they would have 
 at least the means of subsistence. But as things are, 
 serfdom itself would often be better than the wage- 
 labourer's " freedom." He is free now to own land, 
 but has no means to buy it. He is free to go where 
 he pleases so long as he does not go where he mustn't, 
 and that is almost everywhere. His freedom is, in 
 fact, a barren thing, of no use to him whatever, but of 
 great use to his master, who gains thereby the right to 
 discharge him when he will, and that is the whole secret 
 of the matter. 
 
 Labour is free, but it is helpless. It is helpless 
 without capital, and therefore lies at the capitalist's 
 mercy. And herein is the root of roots of the whole
 
 202 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 question. It is this schism between capital and labour 
 which is the source of all our want and half our crime. 
 So long as the labourer owns neither tools nor material 
 there is small chance for him. So long as stuff and 
 tools are both another's, so long he will be compelled 
 to hand the produce of his labour to that other be 
 compelled to hand it over, all except one small fraction, 
 which will be carefully pared down to the minimum 
 that will keep him going. 
 
 He can strike, you say ? He can, and more and 
 more he will. But if you think that an eternity of 
 strikes is a blessed future to look forward to, I don't. 
 And yet, under the present system, that is the only 
 alternative. Starve or strike ; this is the only choice, 
 so long as capital is in one man's hand and labour in 
 another's. This, then, is the remedy proposed : make 
 the labourer his own capitalist, make the capitalist his 
 own labourer. When that is done the oscillation 
 between starve and strike is ended. And Socialism is 
 just that : it is the amalgamation of labour and capital. 
 By it the labourer becomes part owner both of tools 
 and stuff; by it he becomes his own capitalist ; the 
 schism is ended, the slave is freed, and at length the 
 man begins to live.
 
 V. THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 
 
 I 
 
 THIS subject implies a postulate which, though many of 
 those whom I now address accept it, an average audience 
 will scarcely grant the postulate that the life we are 
 living is unsatisfactory and needs simplifying. In 
 support of this view of the unsatisfactoriness of life as 
 we live it we may, however, quote several of the 
 prophets of our time. Wordsworth, but half a century 
 dead, sang : 
 
 " O friend ! I know not which way I must look 
 For comfort, being, as I am, opprest, 
 To think that now our life is only drest 
 For show j mean handiwork of craftsman, cook, 
 Or groom ! " 
 
 Carlyle complains that " we have sumptuous garnitures 
 for our life, but have forgotten to live in the middle of 
 them." Ruskin mourns over air made pestilent " to 
 
 supply London and other such towns with their iron 
 
 203
 
 204 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 railways, vulgar upholstery, jewels, toys, liveries, lace, 
 and other means of dissipation and dishonour of life." 
 Thoreau, Emerson, Tolstoi, and Edward Carpenter all 
 write in the same strain. 
 
 Such, then, is the disease. What is the cure ? The 
 cure, like the disease, is complex. The disease is partly 
 social, partly personal ; and so must be the cure. This 
 morning we deal only with the personal question : Can 
 the individual do anything to counteract the deadening 
 influence upon himself of a sated and luxurious society ? 
 That is the question before us. 
 
 It would be difficult to say by whom the doctrine of 
 simple living was first taught. Wherever a complex 
 civilisation has arisen, there has probably been some 
 protest against the dangers of luxury. Plato, in the 
 second book of the " Republic," represents Socrates 
 as describing the mode of life in the ideal state. His 
 citizens were to have clothes and shoes and houses, and 
 to feed on barley and wheat, " made into noble puddings 
 and loaves," which, to save the kitchen-work, should 
 be served up on a mat of reeds or clean leaves. For a 
 relish he concedes salt and olives and cheese and onions, 
 and for dessert, figs and pulse and beans. We know 
 also that the historical Socrates did actually live a life 
 of extreme simplicity. " He had a maxim that to want 
 nothing belonged only to the gods, and to want as little
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 205 
 
 as possible was the nearest approach to the godlike that 
 man might reach." 
 
 Jesus of Nazareth also taught his disciples that they 
 were not to fret about what they should eat or what 
 they should drink, or how they should dress ; he 
 reproved the woman of Bethany who was " cumbered 
 about much serving" ; and he emphatically declared the 
 great disadvantage of being too rich, because it made it 
 almost impossible for a man to pass through the narrow 
 gate of a spiritual life. For ages these sayings of Jesus 
 took no great or general hold except when adopted 
 from motives of self-mortification. But now, in these 
 last days, there has begun a revival of this Nazarene 
 doctrine. Wordsworth heads the movement, Thoreau, 
 Tolstoi, Carpenter and others follow in his wake, and 
 carry the doctrine to its logical extreme. 
 
 But what, more precisely, do we mean by simplicity ? 
 We mean two things : 
 
 1. The renunciation of superfluities. 
 
 2. The renunciation of artificialities. 
 
 i. The advocates of simplicity often speak as though 
 their main idea was to abandon all the conveniences of 
 life. The reasonable man will abandon only the incon- 
 veniences of life. We must remember, however, that 
 inconveniences are of two kinds, those that come from 
 too little and those that come from too much. We do
 
 206 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 not always realise the extent to which we are oppressed 
 by the latter the superfluities of life. There is 
 scarcely one of us who does not, through them, separate 
 himself more or less from reality, who does not do 
 things that he does not want to do, pretend to enjoy 
 things that he does not enjoy, and allow himself to be 
 drawn more or less into the toilsome stream of fashion. 
 The extremists perhaps carry their doctrine too far. 
 They say, keep your leisure by sacrificing household 
 goods and the whole household system. But though 
 this is the obvious solution, I am not sure that it is 
 the right one. It may be worth our while to sacrifice 
 a certain measure of liberty for the attainment of a 
 certain measure of comfort. The difficult question is, 
 What measure ? The answer to that difficult question 
 depends upon what the comfort is for. Is it for comfort's 
 sake or for lifes sake ? It also depends upon who the 
 individual in question is, and what are the needs of his 
 particular nature ; so that the definition of a reasonable 
 simplicity is reduced to this : " That degree of plain- 
 ness in living which for the individual in question con- 
 tributes to liberty, repose, or any other spiritual good." 
 A life to be rich must be social ; also, it must have 
 varied experience and a large outlook. And these 
 suggest certain limitations to the extreme doctrine 
 of simplification. The truth remains, however, that
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 207 
 
 nine-tenths of us burden ourselves and others with 
 a mountain of labour, the outcome of which is a 
 heap of superfluities which do not increase our 
 happiness or comfort, but which decrease our liberty 
 and leisure. 
 
 We may perhaps illustrate the principle of simplicity 
 by a reference to art. Simplicity in art consists in 
 omitting the irrelevant. No beginner in art is ever 
 simple. The beginner puts in all he sees ; and it is 
 only by degrees that he gets to see the essential, and by 
 degrees that he gains courage to omit the non-essential. 
 As in art, so in life. Living is, in fact, one of the fine 
 arts ; and the lives of the majority their homes, their 
 domestic arrangements, their pursuits are lacking in 
 the grace of simplicity. They are not like the picture 
 of the great artist, simple in all their variety ; they 
 are like the production of the tyro, crammed with 
 teasing detail. 
 
 In answer to all this, there are two main objections 
 which one continually hears. 
 
 First, there is the stock objection that it is asceticism, 
 a word which is supposed of itself to be a sufficient 
 condemnation of anything to which it is applied. As 
 if anything worth accomplishing had ever been accom- 
 plished without asceticism ! As if acncijcris, self-restraint, 
 the athletics of the soul, were not the very backbone
 
 208 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 of every worthy and redeeming movement ! That 
 moderation, that self-discipline, that wise economy of 
 force which is often foolishly confounded with fanatic 
 gloom, is in fact the very salt of human character and 
 the very soul of social reform. 
 
 Secondly, there is the objection so often urged that 
 simple living would destroy art. In a simpler state of 
 society the frippery-monger would probably disappear, 
 bric-a-brac might vanish from our midst, beauty, on 
 the whole, would be less divorced from utility, the 
 general tendency would be rather to make the useful 
 beautiful than to crowd the home with beautiful 
 inutilities ; but art itself would be the very last thing 
 to suffer in our New Republic. 
 
 II 
 
 But there is another great branch of the subject the 
 simplification which wars against artificialities. I think 
 our life needs amendment in this respect also, and yet 
 I would begin by observing that this artificiality is not 
 an unmixed evil. There is a certain rationale in most 
 conventions of which it will be well for us to take heed 
 if we wish to avoid hasty and ill-founded judgments. 
 
 For instance, in that form of convention which we 
 call " fashion " that imitativeness which makes any new
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 209 
 
 style spread through the community like an epidemic 
 there is, after all, much more of reason than the 
 cynic is apt to allow. Englishmen of a certain genera- 
 tion furnish their houses in a certain way. With the 
 past generation it was all gilded consoles and wax 
 flowers ; now it is all overmantels and screens. Or we 
 dress alike ; we all make ourselves ridiculous for a year 
 or two with one style of garment, and then, discovering 
 its absurdity, we proceed to make ourselves ridiculous 
 in another style of garment. Whereupon the cynic 
 cries out upon our lack of individuality, upon the 
 servility or the silliness which compels us to follow in 
 the monotonous sheep-walk of fashion. But the cynic 
 is wrong. The absurdity of fashion does not lie in the 
 consensus. The consensus, on the contrary, is the one 
 redeeming point about it. The consensus results from 
 our corporate life. We furnish alike and we dress 
 alike because we belong to a community ; and the 
 question where individual differences are to have free 
 play, and where communal sympathy is to curb them, 
 is not so simple a question as the cynic implies. 
 
 The consensus is necessary to give the restful unity 
 amid the stimulating variety. It is quite right that we 
 should agree upon some vogue, some common standard, 
 some type or norm, from which to branch out into 
 individual diversity. The only pity is that the accepted 
 
 14
 
 210 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 theme upon which we are doomed to play our variations 
 is often of so low a type that no music of the finest 
 soul can altogether redeem it, no amount of individu- 
 ality raise the whole effect very far above the vulgar 
 or inane. 
 
 This, then, is the first concession which I wish to 
 make in favour of " fashion " in general. I acknowledge 
 our gregariousness ; I know that it lies at the very 
 base of our humanity, that it belongs to that community 
 of Nature which underlies our individuality ; and 
 I recognise it as inevitable, nay desirable, that this 
 gregariousness should find outward expression in a 
 common style, whether in dress, furniture, architecture, 
 etiquette or what not. 
 
 But there is another concession which I think we 
 ought to make. Convention springs not merely from 
 the natural imitativeness of our common life, it springs 
 sometimes from another and a still more vital root. 
 It results from the fact that we are spiritual beings. 
 Spiritual relations between individuals have to be 
 expressed which can find expression in no other con- 
 ceivable way than by conventional signs signs arbitrary 
 and unmeaning in themselves, but which we agree 
 together are to represent such and such ideas. And so 
 with many of our conventions : they are the language 
 which we speak, the signs which stand for values ;
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 211 
 
 social life could no more do without them than algebra 
 without its x y z. By such arbitrary signs we build a 
 bridge of communication between soul and soul, for 
 souls can only meet by symbols. Hence it comes 
 about that all life is covered by concentric circles of 
 ceremony : great ceremonies and small ceremonies, 
 political ceremonies and social ceremonies. It could 
 not be otherwise in a world where the spiritual is 
 expressed by means of the material. Without form 
 there is chaos. 
 
 But now, having made these two large concessions, 
 I come to the more fruitful inquiry whether life might 
 not, all the same, be vastly simplified upon its cere- 
 monial side. Granting all that has been urged, we 
 shall yet find, I think, that our life is fettered and 
 spoiled and falsified to no inconsiderable extent by 
 perfectly needless and entirely disastrous artificialities. 
 
 Let us consider, then, at what point the necessary 
 and natural convention passes into the unnecessary and 
 the harmful ; and let us ask ourselves how far and in 
 what way it is possible for us in this matter to simplify 
 our lives. 
 
 In the first place, all conventions which curtail the 
 liberty of the individual with no adequate advantage to the 
 community are harmful and ought to be resisted. 
 
 To take the most obvious illustration, that of etiquette.
 
 212 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 There are two classes of habits to which the term 
 " manners " is applied. There are the " manners " of 
 which William of Wykeham spoke when he framed 
 his famous motto, " Manners makyth man " ; and of 
 which Cicero spoke when he began his oration against 
 Verres with the exclamation, " O tempora, O mores ! " 
 In this, the major sense, the term " manners " seems 
 to be used for those great and imperative lines of 
 conduct for which we now reserve the term " morals." 
 But the same word " manners " is also used for those 
 minor social ethics, together with those purely conven- 
 tional courtesies which, all mixed together in an undis- 
 tinguished heap, form a body of rules considered only less 
 imperative than the major " manners " of the moralist. 
 
 Now, in process of time, a great deal which was 
 formerly indifferent has come to be considered as 
 imperative. When Catherine gave receptions to the 
 Russian nobility she found herself obliged to publish 
 certain rules of etiquette which were something more 
 than ceremonial and which would be unnecessary now 
 for any but the roughest boor. Gentlemen were not 
 to get drunk before the feast was ended ; ladies of the 
 Court were not to wash out their mouths in the drink- 
 ing glasses ; noblemen were forbidden to strike their 
 wives in company ; and so on. Or, if you wish to see 
 what rules for social intercourse it was necessary to lay
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 213 
 
 down even in England a couple of centuries ago, you 
 may consult a little book published in 1653 entitled 
 The Accomplished Ladys Rich Closet of Rarities, or 
 Ingenious Gentlewoman's Delightful Companion. The rules 
 there enunciated are of the most primitive kind, and 
 serve to show the point from which we have advanced. 
 
 This movement, then, is continually going on. 
 Matters which in one age are regarded as belonging 
 to the minor manners, in the next age enter the sphere 
 of the major. They are sublimated or assimilated. 
 They enter a new phase of being. They become part 
 and parcel of the social existence. But as this process 
 goes on (and here is the point) there is always a 
 certain residuum. The minor manners are not all 
 ethical ; some are purely ceremonial. And therefore, 
 while some rules, at one time regarded as indifferent, 
 afterwards became axioms of conduct, others remain 
 indifferent. They belong by right to the sphere of 
 convention are recognised as essentially and perman- 
 ently artificial, serving a temporary purpose, perhaps, to 
 indicate by common consent this or that human relation, 
 but capable at any time of being modified, suspended, 
 or superseded. 
 
 Now, it is upon this, the purely ceremonial side of 
 politeness, that the danger lies. If we define " polite- 
 ness " proper as a minor benevolence, then etiquette is
 
 2i 4 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 that body of conventions which are used to express 
 that minor benevolence. But suppose they no longer 
 express it ! Suppose that many of the conventions 
 are empty survivals, expressing nothing, and imposed 
 upon us merely from long and unthinking habit ? 
 Then what follows ? " Nothing," you say, " that 
 matters." Something that matters very much, I 
 answer the needless curtailment of freedom. 
 
 Some curtailments, no doubt, are needful ; they are 
 of advantage to the community, and so contribute to 
 the larger life of the individual himself. But the con- 
 ventions which are of no advantage to the community 
 deprive man of his freedom without giving anything in 
 return ; they forbid, with the whole weight of social 
 bann, certain actions or expressions, modes of life, or 
 personal preferences, which, for all we know to the 
 contrary, are necessary to the full development of the 
 individual life. 
 
 This, therefore, is one consideration adverse to the 
 multiplication of social rules. One would not grudge 
 a certain loss of liberty in the observance of conventions 
 which are intended to convey just and right relations 
 between men ; but when the liberty is sacrificed to 
 what is neither necessary nor beautiful, when the man 
 is reduced to the condition of Gulliver, tied down by 
 ten thousand pigmy bonds, one is apt to rebel and to
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 215 
 
 feel at times like poor Rollit in the play, when he had 
 been taking lessons in the art of deportment : " Don't 
 you worry me ; I've been a gentleman for a month, 
 and I'm going to have a morning off." Precisely 
 because the tyranny of custom is such as to make 
 eccentricity a reproach, it is desirable, in order to break 
 through that tyranny, that people should sometimes be 
 eccentric. You cannot, as Mill said, get a coat or a 
 pair of boots to fit you unless you either have them 
 made to measure or have a whole warehouseful to 
 choose from ; and people think, forsooth, that it is 
 easier to fit you with a life than with a coat. 
 
 Again, there is this second touchstone Convention 
 is harmful when it wars against equality. 
 
 I know quite well the walls that here stand ready for 
 me to run my head against. I know that no two men 
 ever were, ever are, or ever will be, equal in all respects. 
 I know that we are born into the world unequal un- 
 equal in physique, unequal in intellect, unequal in 
 aesthetic and even in moral susceptibility ; and that 
 when two or more of us do happen to be born equal 
 in any one of these respects, inequality of fortune and 
 opportunity will often cause one to outstrip the others. 
 But I know also that where such inequality does not 
 exist it is often made to appear as if it did ; that where 
 it does exist it is emphasised and magnified out of all
 
 216 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 proportion ; and that an immense body of conventions 
 is maintained for this sole purpose and no other to 
 produce an appearance of inequality whether the reality 
 is there or not. Equality of worth in character, equality 
 of rank in intellect, ought to be recognised wherever 
 they are found ; but our conventions often run distinctly 
 counter to this principle. 
 
 Hodge may be as holy as St Francis of Assisi, but 
 if he lives in a half-crown cottage he is simply Hodge. 
 Mr Smith may be as clever as Shakespeare and as brave 
 as Coeur de Lion, but if he lives over his shop he will 
 always be Mr Smith ; never, until he attains to the 
 dignity of a semi-detached stucco villa in the suburbs, 
 will he be entitled to the mediaeval military title of 
 " Esquire," and then only in the suburbs. 
 
 These distinctions are, in fact, much like that tra- 
 ditional sentinel in the old War Office story, who was 
 placed to keep off the people from a newly-painted 
 seat, and whose successors continued for a century or 
 more, in due military routine, to mount guard at the 
 same spot, though the seat had long crumbled into dust. 
 The distinctions, the living distinctions, have long since 
 ceased to exist : the esquire no longer bears the shield, 
 he only puts it on his spoons ; but the sentinel still 
 mounts guard over the fancied rank, every bit as 
 jealously as if that rank were real.
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 217 
 
 Tolstoi complains that our whole life food, dress, 
 dwelling, cleanliness, and even education is purposely 
 artificialised, with the deliberate intention of placing a 
 gulf between the ruling classes and the workers. " For 
 a rich man," he says, " it is out of the question to invite 
 a poor person to his table. One must know how to 
 hand a lady to table, how to bow, how to sit, to eat, 
 to use a finger-bowl, all of which the rich alone know 
 how to do." The same with dress. We must have 
 all kinds of dresses. Evening-dress coats, frock-coats, 
 lounging-coats, shooting-coats ; one coat for our work, 
 and another for our sport, and another for our parties. 
 Nay, even our cleanliness is used to create a social 
 difference ; our very shirt-front becomes an impassable 
 barrier. 
 
 And so, too, with our education. Lord Beaconsfield 
 meant it cynically when he called Eton an " expensive 
 ceremony " ; but in all sober truth a good deal of our 
 education is nothing else. It is ceremony of the worst 
 kind ; it is conventional, uselessly conventional, wickedly 
 conventional. Do you think that the piano is always 
 learnt from love of music ? that Greek and Latin are 
 learnt from admiration of the classics ? that the algebraic 
 formulae for the permutations and combinations of all 
 the letters in the word " parallelogrammatically " are 
 crammed up because it is such a splendid discipline for
 
 218 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 the intellect ? I tell you that in nine cases out of ten 
 the parents have these things taught to their children, 
 not because they think that their lives will be enriched, 
 their minds made flexible, their hearts made happy, but 
 because these things will stamp them and mark them 
 off from the lower classes. Talent or no talent, hated 
 or loved, the piano must be strummed and the Latin 
 verses scanned, for the same reason that digging, build- 
 ing, scrubbing, cooking, must be eschewed. Tolstoi is 
 quite right : more than half our education is purely 
 exclusive in its aim. 
 
 I plead, then, for equality, for an equal recognition 
 of worth wherever it is found ; not by knighting every 
 brave butcher or baker, or canonising every holy grocer, 
 but rather by forgoing and, as far as may be, disusing 
 all distinctive titles which are retained through mere 
 social viscosity after the distinction has become unreal ; 
 for all such distinctions which have no basis in the man 
 himself are apt to become fertile roots of petty jealousy 
 and fancied slight and artificial reserve of vanity on 
 the one hand and resentment on the other ; and the 
 man who strives to simplify our manners in this respect 
 is doing much to uphold the spirit of justice and to 
 strengthen the bonds of brotherhood. 
 
 But if conventionality sins against liberty and against 
 equality, that is not all. There is a greater sin than
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 219 
 
 these ; these may be forgiven, but there is another sin 
 a fundamental, deep-seated sin a sort of sin against 
 the Holy Ghost, unpardonable and irremediable unless 
 it be wholly rooted out and utterly destroyed ; and it 
 is of this that conventionality is often guilty I mean 
 the sin of untruth. 
 
 The conventional man is generally an insincere man ; 
 and when in this respect we teach simplicity, it is, in 
 fact, sincerity that we teach. All simplicity is a kind 
 of sincerity. 
 
 When social conventions have become hollow ; when 
 social life is sicklied over with the unwholesome taint 
 of pretence ; when the free and living man, the human 
 soul with his glorious possibilities, is doomed to walk 
 in a vain show, fettered, dwarfed, and maimed by a 
 million meaningless restraints, things once serving as 
 the expressions of inward meanings, but now the very 
 incubus by which those meanings are stifled and the 
 real world of men and things obscured, then I think 
 it is not unfit that we should take into consideration 
 even this trivial subject of social convention. 
 
 Most serious seem to me the multitudinous minor 
 insincerities into which we are by our social usages 
 betrayed. I had occasion a year or two ago to study 
 the contents of books of manners of different ages ; but 
 of all such books, ancient or modern, the most doleful
 
 220 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 and dreary which I came across bore this truly ghastly 
 title : Society Small-talk ; What to Say and When to Say 
 It. Consider the condition of a society which could 
 possibly call forth such a manual as that. The utter 
 dreariness and the miserable sham ! What a masquer- 
 ade, what a marionette-show, such a society must be ! 
 How far removed from the vitality of truth, from the 
 spontaneity, the living fire, the warmth and light and 
 thrill of real spiritual contact and communion ! And 
 yet three-fourths of the speech which takes the 
 place of such communion among us is of this order 
 prescribed for us by the social code. You shall not say 
 what you will, you shall say what is expected that or 
 nothing. 
 
 The age-long habit of society to pretend that things 
 are as they are not, to feign respect for whom no 
 respect is felt, obedient service of those who are not 
 served, and admiration where there is supreme indiffer- 
 ence this pretence of prudery where there is neither 
 modesty nor shame, of worship where there is no 
 reverence, and love while the heart is cold this vast 
 web of sham, in the midst of which we live and move, I 
 will tell you what, in the end, it does for us it blinds 
 us ; it prevents us from seeing things as they are. 
 
 And as it is with things, so it is with men. To 
 know a human soul is a great gain, a more profoundly
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 221 
 
 interesting knowledge than any knowledge whatever 
 of the lower creation. We were meant to know each 
 other ; man is the proper study of man. Nature has 
 set us face to face with kindred souls, so that the fire 
 may play from soul to soul ; she has given us the 
 spiritual eye that we may love the beauty and admire 
 the strength, and wonder at the play of light and 
 shadow in the heart of man. And what have we done ? 
 We have all with one consent set ourselves to defeat 
 these beneficent and gracious ends. We have agreed 
 to make life a masked ball and go about with false 
 faces. We have learned to screen ourselves behind a 
 web of hypocritic smiles and compliments. We have 
 blinded our eye that we may not see our fellows, and 
 we have taken good care that our fellows shall not see 
 us ; and therefore our intercourse, which was meant 
 to be a communion between living spirits, has become 
 a series of regulation remarks, ridiculous attitudes, 
 petty flatteries, smirks, simpers, bland pretences, and 
 polite shams. That is what, to a large extent, we have 
 substituted for the poetry of life. 
 
 We learn this art ; we are carefully taught it while 
 we are still young, and by the time that we have 
 reached middle life it has become a second nature. 
 And now we are all busy teaching it to our children, 
 that the next generation also may have the advantage
 
 222 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 of politeness, even though it be at the expense of truth. 
 We are not content with being dull people ourselves 
 who dare not depart by a hairsbreadth from established 
 custom, we are anxious that our children should grow 
 up dull people too. But, O for that kingdom of 
 innocence, that realm of the childlike, where hearts never 
 grow cold, and manners never harden into mannerisms, 
 and faces never tell false tales ! " Except ye become 
 as little children," said One except ye have the open 
 heart, and the clear eye, and the truthful lip " ye 
 cannot enter the Kingdom of Spirit." Yes, that is 
 what we are doing ; shutting ourselves and our children 
 out from the Kingdom of the Spirit ; bartering our 
 birthright of mutual knowledge, and moral insight, and 
 spiritual fellowship, for that cheap mess of pottage 
 called respectability, decorum and social rank. 
 
 And now, if we at all realise what social life might 
 and ought to be how glad and loving, how full of 
 interest and zest, how bright and brave and spiritually 
 significant, we shall not think it vain to attempt some 
 remedies for the depression and constraint from which 
 it too often suffers. 
 
 We might, perhaps, speak in the aesthetic vein, use 
 the analogy of art and reduce our remedies to the 
 formula which I used in speaking of the superfluities 
 of modern life, "omission of the irrelevant." In
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 223 
 
 fact, there are certain kinds of conventionality which 
 fall more readily under this aesthetic formula than 
 they do under a more rigidly ethical rule. The 
 aesthetic formula is specially applicable to cases where the 
 convention is not so much socially exclusive or hypo- 
 critically insincere as simply silly and superfluous. It 
 is all very well for certain of the chief human relations 
 to be symbolised and embodied in ceremonies, but we 
 don't want everything symbolised. Such over-symbolisa- 
 tion is an artistic quite as much as an ethical blunder. 
 
 However, we may, I think, upon the whole and in 
 the vast majority of cases, more fruitfully employ an 
 ethical than an aesthetic analogy. Simplicity, I have 
 said, is a kind of sincerity, and the remedies we need 
 for the false and foolish conventions of our modern 
 intercourse are of an ethical kind. 
 
 Two such remedies I would suggest. The first is 
 Courage. Courage lies at the root of all virtue, 
 especially of the virtue of veracity ; and the only cure 
 for the evils of convention is the courage to be yourself. 
 The great men, the prophets who have brought us 
 back to truth, have all been men of courage. Even 
 the eighteenth century that century of shams had 
 its three truthful men who faced the fiery furnace of 
 public opinion : Lessing in Germany, Voltaire in 
 France, and brave old Samuel Johnson in England.
 
 224 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 And the Song of the Three Children has been taken 
 up by many since. Goethe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Emerson, 
 Thoreau, Whitman, and many a minor prophet have 
 refused to bow down to the idol of the moment at the 
 sonnd of harp, sackbut, and psaltery. Such men, by 
 sheer force of manly independence veracity upheld 
 by valour have cleared the way for us ; and their 
 lesson, I believe, has sunk deeply into the consciousness 
 of the present generation. 
 
 But what we need now, I fancy, is not so much a 
 Lessing to bring our cultured classes back to native 
 homeliness, a Johnson to " clear our minds of cant," 
 another Carlyle or another Ruskin ; what we need is 
 a whole body of the rank and file the united influence 
 of a number of ethically-minded people bent upon 
 courageously living a free and sensible and sincere 
 personal life undeterred by the fear of exciting remark 
 or of losing caste. Profoundly wise were the words 
 of one of our wisest, " that there is no alleviation for 
 the sufferings of mankind except veracity of thought 
 and of action." And those words of Huxley's are true, 
 not only of the greater sufferings of nations, but also 
 of that mass of smaller sufferings the soreness and 
 heart-burnings caused by class-difference, the weariness 
 and the monotony caused by ceremonious sameness, 
 and all those other petty social evils which follow from
 
 THE SIMPLIFICATION OF LIFE 225 
 
 a complex and unnatural code of manners. Of these, 
 too, it may be said that " there is no alleviation for them 
 except veracity of thought and action." 
 
 Our second remedy is Love : that love which seeks 
 to get near to the living soul of one's fellows, and whose 
 impulse is to sweep away all barriers of false dignity or 
 vain conceit. Love good fellowship this is the cure 
 for half of our social boredom and half our social friction. 
 Dip, if you will, into one of those doleful little volumes 
 of social rules, and see how the rules assume throughout 
 that all one's acquaintances are anxious and waiting to 
 take offence, their tempers nicely balanced in a state of 
 most unstable equilibrium. Then think of Charles Lamb 
 and his Wednesday evening parties ; or think of any of 
 your own younger experiences, before you were over- 
 come by the pigmies of convention ; social gatherings 
 of old schoolfellows or college chums, where good, kind, 
 healthy human feeling swept all ceremony to the winds, 
 and liberty, equality, fraternity were the only rules. 
 What is the secret of it ? Just this : that there is a 
 thoroughly good understanding between the various 
 members of the circle ; and Jack doesn't care a rap 
 whether he sits at the top or bottom of the table, nor 
 Tom whether he is helped first or last, so long as you 
 listen to his song or laugh at his joke when his turn comes. 
 
 A good and kind and healthy feeling among the 
 
 IS
 
 226 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 members of society that, I say, is what we want. But 
 that is what, under present circumstances, it is most 
 difficult to get. Schopenhauer said that society was 
 like a family of porcupines who were obliged more or 
 less to hold themselves aloof and make others keep their 
 distance by reason of the abundant prickles with which 
 a beneficent Providence had endowed them. And that, 
 I fear, is largely true and will remain true while classes are 
 so widely sundered and our whole life is so far removed 
 from Nature. But that better organisation of society for 
 which we look, and that better state of heart for which 
 we all of us hope and in our measure work, will of 
 themselves do away with a whole world of false dignity 
 and a whole body of useless rules. These two motive 
 forces, then, these two moral qualities, we need if we 
 are in any degree to rid ourselves of the incubus of 
 unnecessary convention. 
 
 First, courage ; because courage lies at the root of 
 truth, and truth will speedily destroy the monotony of 
 convention. Second, love ; because love lies at the 
 root of that sense of equality, that recognition of a 
 common nature, which will set aside half our artificial 
 class-distinctions. The first of these will give us social 
 variety, the second social unity ; and not until we get 
 a perfect fusion of unity and variety shall we arrive at 
 that rational and healthy social state for which we look.
 
 VI. THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 
 
 f_NoTE. The MS. of the following address, given by Mr Rix as 
 the opening of a debate on Simplification of Life, was found after the 
 rest of the volume was in print. Mr Rix intended, had he lived, to 
 write an article under the above title which would probably have been 
 an expansion of this address. J 
 
 I COME before you this evening, not in the character 
 of a preacher and reformer, but in that of a penitent 
 a man who has miserably failed to attain his ideals. I 
 have been asked to speak to you upon simplicity of 
 life ; but I do not myself live simply. I once had 
 dreams of doing so, and even made some small attempt 
 in that direction ; but, whenever I attempted to cross 
 to the land of Canaan, I found there was a very rapid 
 current down stream ; so that at the age of fifty I find 
 myself landed in a residential neighbourhood full of 
 desirable mansions. I never wear fustian trousers : 
 the smock-frock which I wore about three times is 
 kept in the box-room ; I indulge in a most enjoyable 
 intercourse with several sinners who live in villas both 
 
 at Limpsfield and especially at Sanderstead ; I keep a 
 
 227
 
 228 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 servant ; I eat meat, and always have a pudding after- 
 wards ; I never call in the disreputable tramp to dine 
 with me ; and my acquaintance with the poor is limited 
 to a few of the most interesting and respectable of the 
 villagers, not in the land of milk and honey (those simple 
 articles of diet), but much nearer, I am afraid, to the 
 shores famous for dead-sea apples. 
 
 Well, I will ease myself by making a clean breast of 
 it. In those long-past days when the Fellowship of 
 the New Life indulged in shining dreams I was caught 
 by the enthusiasm. I had visions of a labourer's 
 cottage, an acre of fruit trees and a market cart, an 
 oasis in some remote wilderness whence 1 should issue 
 week by week, lay aside my mattock and pruning-hook 
 and preach the gospel of simplicity to the benighted 
 dwellers in Babylon. I had a vision of corduroys and 
 a smock-frock, the spade relieved by the pen, a close 
 acquaintance with wild Nature, a total divorce from 
 villadom, a dinner of one course, no servants, no con- 
 ventions, no flesh-food, a place at table for the needy 
 wayfarer, and an intimate fellowship with the poor 
 and the oppressed. 
 
 This was my vision. And now what is the out- 
 come ? My labourer's cottage is a rather comfortable 
 little villa, my economic acre boasts flower-borders and 
 a lawn. My wilderness is full of thousand-pound
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 229 
 
 residences. What right, then, have I to come and 
 preach to you about simplicity ? None, my dear 
 brethren, none ! My only comfort being that very 
 few of you are any better than myself. 
 
 In part, as I have said, this lapse from the ideal is 
 due to the strong current of social opinion which too 
 often sweeps the simplifier off his feet. There was my 
 architect an excellent fellow, but utterly incapable 
 of conceiving the simple life. I tried hard to make 
 him understand that what I wanted was a labourer's 
 cottage that I was going in for a life of the soil, 
 that I wished to get near to Nature, that I wanted 
 no conventions, that it was not necessary to provide a 
 drawing-room because I desired to live in the kitchen, 
 that he need not provide a passage (or what I think is 
 called a hall by some people, i.e. a minute tunnel 
 2 feet 10 inches wide), for I wished the door to open 
 straight out of the garden into the living-room. Very 
 well, said he, such a cottage could be built for ^300. 
 But he never seemed to think I meant it. Then, 
 there was the partner of my life. She said she did 
 not want any cooking in the sitting-room and we 
 must have at least a scullery with a stove in it. 
 She thought it would be cold in winter to have the 
 door opening straight out into the garden and we must 
 have an entry. My friends, that scullery grew into a
 
 230 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 kitchen, the kitchen grew into a parlour, and the entry 
 grew into a passage (commonly called a " hall "). The 
 cottage, it is true, still looked fairly simple on paper ; 
 but when it was built well the parish refused to 
 rate it as a cottage. 
 
 Let me give you another instance of this strong 
 perverting current of social opinion. I thought it 
 would be nice and simple if, when you went to a 
 friend's house, you were to shake hands with the 
 servants. I did not see why servants should be treated 
 differently from other people. It seemed to me to be 
 one of the false refinements of our elaborate social 
 system ; and I desired to simplify in this direction. 
 So I started with the thin edge of the wedge. I used 
 to preach at that time at a chapel where the minister 
 was very much of an invalid and spent some months 
 of each year upon the continent. It was his practice 
 to lend his house on those occasions to the people 
 who preached for him, together, of course, with the 
 services of his domestic staff. This seemed to offer 
 a fair field for a commencement there were the 
 servants to practise on and no host to criticise. Well, 
 I went there several times and I always shook hands 
 with the servants. They seemed surprised ; but they 
 did not refuse this token of friendship. The invalid 
 minister came back and invited me to spend a Sunday
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 231 
 
 with him. And now came the tug of war. I had to 
 do it with the host there Dear friends ! I cannot 
 proceed ! You must permit me to draw a veil. I 
 gave up shaking hands with servants. 
 
 These are, I know too well, the confessions of a 
 weak man. But, my friends, have you ever estimated 
 the strength of the current of public opinion in these 
 little matters ? A man may abjure the top-hat ; he 
 may wear sandals ; he may give up umbrellas and 
 wrap himself in a Scotch plaid ; he may clean his own 
 boots or paint his own house ; he may be a vegetarian, 
 an anti-tobacconist, a socialist or a free-thinker ; may 
 go to church in a builder's shed up a dark entry or 
 not go to church at all, and his neighbours will only 
 regard him as a harmless lunatic. All this may be 
 condoned, and many of his friends will still be true to 
 him (especially if they are not very well to do) ; but, 
 if he wishes to shake that social edifice to its founda- 
 tion, if he wishes to estimate the strength of the social 
 current, let him fetch his dinner-beer from the public- 
 house, smoke a clay pipe upon his door-step, or shake 
 hands with the servants. 
 
 And now, having made my confession, it occurs to 
 me that it may be edifying to consider the causes of 
 my lapse from grace. Well, in addition to that 
 feebleness of will for which no man dares to plead
 
 232 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 excuse, however inevitable and inborn it may seem 
 to himself, there have, I think, been two things which 
 have prevented the realisation of early dreams one 
 of them inevitable and excusable, the other a fault 
 or at least an instinctive defect. 
 
 The one was a somewhat serious lack of physical 
 health a complaint which made impossible that 
 manual toil which is a most important condition of 
 a primitive way of life. This could not be helped, and 
 it is instructive only as indicating one noteworthy 
 limitation which must always be taken into account in 
 planning a simple way of life for oneself. The other 
 is a very important defect, and one which ought to 
 furnish the principal subject-matter for your considera- 
 tion this evening : I mean the lack of some clear 
 principle or principles to which the practice of simplicity 
 ought continually to be referred and ought gradually 
 to be conformed. 
 
 Let me ask you, then, to make this the chief aim 
 of your debate this evening. Try, if you can, to 
 formulate some intelligible principle to which this 
 question of simplicity can be reduced. Or, if it cannot 
 be reduced to one such principle, set forth the principles 
 which ought to underlie our practice, that we may not 
 be the victims of delusion and disappointment, and 
 that we may not justly be termed faddists or fools,
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 233 
 
 but may be able to give some reason for the faith that 
 is in us. 
 
 Let me briefly illustrate the necessity for this by 
 putting before you the two extremes of simplification 
 as they have come beneath my own notice in the course 
 of my career. 
 
 Edward Carpenter once drew the attention of the 
 New Fellowship to the existence of a Society called 
 "The Fellowship of the Naked Truth." The chief 
 and, I believe, the sole article of its faith was that 
 people should not wear clothes. Its members were 
 very simple people, and this was how they expressed 
 their simplicity. It is obvious that life would be much 
 simplified if we did not have to wear clothes. Our 
 needlework would be simplified, also our bedroom 
 furniture. The hatstand and the wardrobe would both 
 be abolished. Our thoughts would be liberated from 
 the consideration of the fashion-plates ; and the time 
 which we spend upon the toilet would be much 
 reduced. 
 
 It is true that the Fellowship of the Naked Truth 
 was not altogether free from the vice of compromise. 
 The English branch of the Society, at any rate (it was 
 of Indian origin) consented to wear some articles of 
 attire when they appeared in public, though they reduced 
 them to a minimum. But in their committee meetings,
 
 234 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 I am told, they adhered strictly to principle. That is, 
 they appeared in the character of what Carlyle calls 
 the " forked radish." 
 
 This, my friends, represents one pole of the doctrine 
 of simplicity. 
 
 The other pole is represented by a noble earl who 
 once heard me lecture and afterwards invited me to 
 his mansion for a private interview. In the course of 
 that interview he explained to me that he was much 
 attracted by the doctrine of simplification, but did not 
 see how he could go any further than he had gone 
 already. 1 inquired to what point he had attained. 
 Well, he said, he was much hampered by the existence 
 of the mansion in which I then sat. He held it as 
 a trust, not only for unborn heirs, but also in some 
 sense for the nation. It was full of antiquities and of 
 very precious works of art ; and in that he did not 
 see how he was to do with a smaller staff of footmen 
 or of female servants than he at that time employed, 
 which he admitted was pretty numerous. 
 
 That, my friends, is the other extreme of the 
 doctrine of simplicity. 
 
 Now, for the most of us the practicable and, I think 
 I must say, obligatory degree of simplification lies 
 somewhere between these two extremes. I cannot 
 think we are bound to embrace the first extreme ; I
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 235 
 
 feel sure we ought to attain to a greater degree of 
 simplicity than is indicated by the second extreme. 
 And yet I am not at all satisfied that a medium course 
 is right merely because it is a medium. If it lies 
 between the extremes, it lies there because there is 
 some principle which has placed it there some 
 principle other than mere compromise or love of 
 moderation. There must be some sound principle 
 for adopting a degree of civilisation, there must be 
 some equally sound principle for not adopting all its 
 elaborations. What is that principle ? This, my friends, 
 is what I invite you this evening to debate ; this is 
 the golden truth which I invite you as truth-seekers 
 to disinter. 
 
 Perhaps it may assist discussion if I just mention 
 some of the considerations which have in my own case 
 strongly attracted me to a simple way of life. In my 
 acknowledged character of " A prodigious failure " I 
 can of course only give them for what they are worth. 
 You must thresh them out and see if there is grain in 
 them. You must consider whether these which I give 
 you merely as motives may be dignified by the name 
 of principles ; and, if they may, whether they can all 
 be reduced to one embracing principle which may give 
 us a solid and spacious foundation for our faith. 
 
 In the first place, a strong attraction to me was the
 
 236 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 greater freedom which comes with a simple life. The 
 life of the average Philistine is exceeding laborious 
 and exceedingly trammelled : in both respects simplicity 
 makes for deliverance. It gives ease and it gives 
 emancipation. 
 
 It is true that a simplifier often works exceedingly 
 hard, and so seems sometimes to belie this doctrine. 
 He attempts, perhaps, to do all the work of the house 
 himself ; and his friends exclaim : " Well, if that is 
 what simplification means, save me from simplifying." 
 But the fallacy here is very obvious. You are working 
 with two variables. Have the same amount of labour 
 at command, and it is a truism that a simpler way of 
 life will enable you to use less of it. But, of course, if 
 you reduce the work to be done and at the same time 
 reduce still more the working-power, the life becomes 
 not easier but harder. If I employ two servants to 
 keep an eight-roomed house going, it does not follow 
 that I can dismiss them both and keep a six-roomed 
 house going without help. That is the kind of thing 
 the simplifier often does, and so simplification gets a 
 bad name. 
 
 The fact is the simplifier is generally a man who 
 dislikes hired labour, and so the simplifier's wife has a 
 hard time of it. But if by co-operation or communism 
 or some other scheme of life hired labour can be
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 237 
 
 abolished without bringing all the manual labour of a 
 house upon one individual, it is very clear that simplifi- 
 cation makes for liberty. 
 
 From the trammels of convention, the weariness of 
 routine, the ghastly bondage of civilisation as it is 
 ordinarily understood, it is still more evident that 
 simplicity of life (which includes simplicity of manners) 
 is a great deliverance. 
 
 A second motive which induced me to attempt 
 simplification was the feeling of equality. This feeling, 
 I have observed, varies enormously in different people. 
 People are born with different degrees of it ; and early 
 surroundings have also an important influence in 
 fostering or checking it. But, given a certain degree 
 of this democratic feeling, the established mode of 
 life in so-called " civilised communities," and especially 
 in England, is literally " painful." I frequently see 
 girls standing behind the chairs, doing up the boots, 
 cleaning the clothes or the rooms of young middle-class 
 women who are in almost every way their inferiors. 
 The " servant " is frequently superior in appearance, in 
 manner, in fine feeling, in moral characteristics to the 
 quasi-fashionable person whose dirty work she does : 
 and it hurts me. It hurts me to see an elderly butler 
 who has passed through life's discipline and become 
 mellowed in character and refined in feeling and
 
 238 ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 affection (as is very often the case) standing mum and 
 respectful in the presence of some supercilious young 
 snob. It hurts me to see some aged labourer left out 
 from the festal gathering of his daughter because she 
 has married a shopkeeper or a postman. These gulfs 
 between class and class which characterise English 
 society from the very bottom to the top of the artificial 
 ladder are painful to a degree ; and they would be 
 greatly lessened and in time obliterated by a simpler 
 way of life. It is the differences in wealth and style 
 in clothes and food and petty luxuries far more than 
 the differences in education, which make the gulfs. 
 
 A third characteristic of the simple life is its sincerity, 
 and this again forms an immense attraction. I was 
 much struck in reading Kropotkin's Memories of a 
 Revolutionist, by his account of how the two character- 
 istics of the love of equality and the love of sincerity 
 went hand in hand. The young revolutionists of 
 Russia who gave up everything rank and wealth and 
 friends and went to live among the people, invariably 
 exhibited toward each other great sincerity, while they 
 exhibited toward the peasantry the sense of human 
 equality. The two things always went together. 
 
 Probably the same motive lies behind them both. 
 There is in the simplification of the material basis of 
 life a certain moral impulse which is near akin to the
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF A SIMPLIFIER 239 
 
 sincerity which impels to veracity and a certain uncere- 
 moniousness in social intercourse. To be sincere is to 
 be simple. But I leave to the philosophers who shall 
 follow me in this debate to work out this suggestion 
 and reduce it to consistent thought. 
 
 Fourth and last, there is, as it seems to me, an 
 Aesthetic pleasure in simplicity. I never could see that 
 the " greenery-yallery, Grosvenor gallery" young man 
 was the true aesthete. I never could understand why 
 crockery-ware hanging upon walls in perilous positions, 
 fans, screens, overmantels, Liberty-frippery and nic-nacs 
 should be called aesthetic. Which gives the higher 
 form of pleasure all this teasing nonsense, or the 
 repose of a simply-furnished farmhouse ? The one is 
 the manufactured pleasure of an idle life, the other the 
 natural pleasure of a life near to Nature. The one is 
 the unhealthy pleasure of elaboration, the other the 
 pure pleasure of simplicity. 
 
 The aesthetic quality of simplicity in everything in 
 food, in dress, in dwellings, in society, in literature, in 
 dancing, in gardening, in music and in painting, in 
 household arrangements and in the entertaining of guests 
 cannot be too highly valued. With more simplicity, 
 life would be a different matter. It is not that I object 
 to variety : let us have all the variety you will ; but 
 don't let us have it all at once. Don't let us set our
 
 2 4 o ETHICAL LECTURES 
 
 affections on strawberries at Christmas and peas in 
 spring, or try to find delight in half a dozen parties in 
 one evening. Don't let us suppose that the way to enjoy 
 Art is to go to the Academy and look at five hundred 
 pictures, expressing five hundred emotions (or five 
 hundred inanities as the case may be) all in one 
 afternoon and go home with a headache. Don't let us 
 imagine that the way to enjoy music is to sit for three 
 hours in a heated room listening to a long programme 
 of disconnected joys, till the manifold joys get mixed 
 into one very composite pain. Take things simply 
 enjoy them one by one content yourself with the 
 world as it was made. You were never meant to live 
 in all four seasons at once, nor in all the scales of 
 emotions at once, nor in every stage of thought at once. 
 Life was not meant to be a simultaneity, it was meant 
 to be a succession. Learn simplicity and gain repose.
 
 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 I. THE RETURN TO NATURE 
 
 "THE Universe," says Emerson, "is composed of 
 Nature and the Soul," and it is in this sense of the 
 term Nature that I am about to use it. I mean by 
 Nature all that we recognise as not ourselves all that 
 exists and lives apart from and uninspired by the 
 human soul. I recognise two spheres, distinguishable 
 in thought, whether or not they are distinct in fact : a 
 sphere without and a sphere within. The outward 
 sphere is not necessarily material in the gross and 
 earthly sense of the term ; and the inward sphere is 
 not necessarily ideal in the allusive and phantasmal 
 sense of the term. But the latter is a world which 
 we contemplate by turning backward and inward, and 
 in which we are, or think ourselves to be, causative ; 
 the former is a world into which we look outward 
 and around, and in which the nature -spirit has free 
 
 course and exercises undisputed sway ; and it is of this 
 
 241 1 6
 
 242 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 world that we speak when we speak of the return to 
 Nature. 
 
 Now the problem of the return to Nature, taken in 
 its widest sense, arises in this way. There is a certain 
 intersection of these spheres. The sphere of the 
 human soul impinges upon and penetrates the sphere 
 of Nature, and the figure of intersection embraces all 
 that in the widest sense we mean by art. Not only 
 the fine arts but the useful arts are the outcome of the 
 human soul ; they are the products of the mental in 
 its control over a small portion of the material sphere. 
 Music, painting, poetry, architecture, engineering, 
 drainage, navigation, are all the result of man's mental 
 part working in the material sphere. Art, in its widest 
 sense, is the mixture of man's soul with Nature. But 
 no sooner does man begin to meddle with Nature than 
 he is apt to distort Nature (not always or inevitably, 
 but very generally), so that there continually recurs the 
 necessity in every department of art or craft of going 
 back to Nature. 
 
 First, in respect of truth we have to return to the 
 origins of our work to study afresh the material and 
 the forces which fill the unadulterated sphere of Nature. 
 In the useful arts we have to get rid of all sorts of 
 a -priori notions of how Nature and Nature's forces 
 ought to work, and ask ourselves simply how they do
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 243 
 
 work. We have to question Nature and observe her 
 answers abandon fancy and return to fact and a 
 large part of experimental science consists in a clever 
 and careful propounding of these questions to Nature, 
 in the interests of the useful arts. In the fine arts and 
 in literature the same return to fact is continually 
 needed. Poetry, painting, architecture, are dishonoured, 
 when they are used to deceive when they try by mere 
 trickery to excite a vulgar wonder or to assert the 
 existence of that which does not exist. When the 
 builder, for instance, represents his material to be other 
 than it is, or decorates his surface with machine-made 
 ornaments, he degrades his art. I know a certain 
 seminary in our metropolis devoted to the inculcation 
 of theologic truth which boasts a magnificent hall, and 
 everyone of the pious folk who attend the devotional 
 gatherings occasionally held there, exclaims with uplifted 
 hands as he enters those grave portals : " What magni- 
 ficent carving ! " but in truth it is neither " carving " 
 nor " magnificent " ; it is plaster of Paris, painted, 
 grained and varnished. The whole room is a vulgar 
 lie. That is the degradation of art by untruth. 
 " Nobody," as Mr Ruskin says, " wants ornaments, 
 but everybody wants integrity." 
 
 And the same is true of poetry. For although it 
 has been said, and in a certain sense may be admitted,
 
 244 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 that "Poetry is never so brilliant as when it is un- 
 fettered by truth," yet it somehow happens that the 
 greatest poets have always been those who, revolting 
 from convention, have paid studious attention to truth 
 not, of course, the truth of photographic detail, but 
 that of a loving study of Nature, and of simple human 
 life. But all this is too well known. The revolt from 
 convention, the return to truth, applies to every depart- 
 ment of literature and art. One does not need to 
 quote Burns and Wordsworth, to dilate upon the 
 pre-Raphaelite movement, or to instance the revolt of 
 modern realism " that severe and pitiless truth " 
 which has of late entered alike into painting and into 
 fiction in order to illustrate so trite a matter. Man 
 cannot content himself with lies, nor even with that 
 falsehood which was once true, but which is true no 
 longer because the breath of its life has frozen in 
 presence of the Gorgon face of custom. 
 
 But it is not only in respect of truth that we need 
 continually to return to Nature ; still more perhaps do 
 we need it in respect of beauty. Theologians tell us 
 that there is a certain law by which man continually 
 gravitates to evil. Whether they are right or not in 
 this, I am pretty sure that there is some mysterious law 
 by which man continually gravitates to ugliness. What 
 but original sin could possibly make women dress as
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 245 
 
 fashionable women dress to-day ? And (to hold the 
 balance fair) who could possibly wear a chimney hat 
 but a child of the devil ? There is a blindness to 
 beauty, not only in such minor matters as these, but in 
 the great presence of Nature herself, which nothing 
 but some such " fall of man " can account for. You 
 remember, I dare say, the wail of Tolstoi over the 
 English people at Lucerne ; how he curses the tourists 
 whose false taste had torn down the old crooked 
 covered wooden bridge with chapels at its corners and 
 pictures on its roof, and had caused to be built instead 
 a granite quay, straight as a stick ; how he raves at 
 that granite quay with its rows of lindens set out and 
 provided with supports, and its green benches between 
 the lindens ; how he tries all the windows of the hotel 
 in the vain attempt to find one whence he may see the 
 blue lake, the moist, fresh green shores, the meadows, 
 gardens, dark green wooded heights, and the far vista 
 of mountains with fantastic peaks and crags and dead 
 white mounds of snow where he may see all this 
 without being obliged to see the promenade, the lindens, 
 and the green benches ; and how, where neither lake 
 nor mountain nor sky showed one single completed 
 line, one single unmixed colour, one single moment of 
 repose, but everywhere motion, irregularity, fantasy, 
 here " amid this indefinable, confused, unfettered
 
 246 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 beauty, stretched in stupid kaleidoscopic confusion, the 
 white line of the quay, the lindens with their supports, 
 and the green seats." This deadness to true beauty 
 and calm acquiescence in discordant monotony Tolstoi 
 lays to the too eager pursuit of money. And this, no 
 doubt, may be one cause of an unfeeling heart. But 
 whatever be the cause or causes, this much at present 
 I desire to note, that when the dead heart begins to 
 beat again, when some prophet's touch unseals those 
 eyes and the beauty of the world floods in upon the 
 soul, that also is one aspect of the return to Nature. 
 
 But there is a certain art upon which I have not yet 
 touched at all an art in which the soul is brought not 
 only into relation with Nature, but at one and the same 
 time into relation with other souls, and which is there- 
 fore the supreme and most difficult art of all I mean 
 the art of living. 
 
 I may seem perhaps at first sight to be using the 
 term "art" in a somewhat forced sense in this con- 
 nection. But a moment's consideration will show you 
 that living is strictly an " art " according to the defini- 
 tion with which I started. It is the overlapping of the 
 spiritual and the material spheres. For when I speak 
 of the art of living I merely mean the arrangement of 
 our material environment so as to subserve the purpose 
 of individual and social well-being. And in this art,
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 247 
 
 while the return to truth and the return to beauty are 
 both involved, there is a certain special form of the 
 return to Nature which is as imperative as either of 
 these can ever be, and that is the return to simplicity. 
 I know, of course, how this doctrine, like all doctrines 
 that ever were preached from the days of Noah, the 
 preacher of righteousness, till now, is capable of per- 
 version. I know the exaggeration of the doctrine 
 which was the inspiration, and probably the death, 
 of Thoreau. I do not believe in the yankee savage 
 of Thoreau any more than I do in the noble savage of 
 Rousseau. I do not believe even in our friend Edward 
 Carpenter when he echoes, as he sometimes seems to 
 do, this Thoreau heresy. To all men who rave against 
 the complexity of civilisation and laud the simplicity of 
 Nature, I am inclined to reply that Nature is simple 
 only at one end. The simplicity of Nature is a very 
 complex simplicity. Unity at one end, infinite variety 
 at the other that is the kind of simplicity we praise 
 when we praise the simplicity of Nature. And if end- 
 less variety is no detriment to the simplicity of Nature, 
 neither is it detrimental to the simplicity of civilisation. 
 I do not want your gaunt unhallowed life which has no 
 veneration for the hoary symbols of the past which can 
 walk the streets of Canterbury, Oxford, or St Andrews 
 and feel no breath from out the ages sending whispers
 
 248 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 through the soul. I do not want a life without variety, 
 to wake and dig and eat and sleep from day to day till 
 death do come. But when Mr Carpenter teaches us, 
 what is after all the pith and purpose of his teaching 
 on this matter, that the results of civilisation " will not 
 necessarily have to be rejected, but only to be brought 
 into subjection," then I for one say "Amen." But 
 how is it with us now ? We are so absorbed with the 
 means of living that we have no time to live. Meat 
 is more to us than life, and raiment than the body. 
 Civilisation and its results oppress us. We are over- 
 burdened with things that we do not want, and those 
 results of civilisation which might be a joy to us are 
 rendered nugatory by the lack of leisure which comes 
 from a ridiculous rivalry of accumulation on our own 
 part or on the part of those we serve. It would be some- 
 thing if this accumulation were only an accumulation of 
 things that were a joy to someone : if the clerk, the 
 shop-girl, the seamstress, the labourer, could feel that 
 they were sacrificed for the good of others, but they are 
 not even that. These goods that are " laid up for many 
 years " are a joy to none. They are a mere clog upon 
 the man's movements and a burden upon his soul. 
 The rich man, and even the man who would not be 
 accounted rich, is too often like the poor donkey on 
 the common with a log tied to his leg to prevent him
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 249 
 
 from straying. We no longer possess our possessions ; 
 it is our possessions that possess us. What dreams we 
 used to have as boys of wandering through the land 
 in gipsy-vans, or roving over wide oceans to see the 
 wonders of the world ! What a fascination every 
 book had which raised this delightful mirage of free 
 movement and adventurous travel ! But the boy 
 becomes the man, and the man never fails to tie a 
 millstone round his neck which he calls " comfort." 
 
 When we preach, then, the simplification of life, the 
 simplification which we preach does not involve of 
 necessity the abandonment of any product of civilisation 
 which is worth the keeping ; it necessitates only the 
 abandonment of that superfluous luxury, that multi- 
 tudinous collection of needless trifles, that congestion 
 of meaningless literature, of wearisome ornaments, of 
 miserable pictures, of useless servants, of toilsome calls, 
 condolences, congratulations, Christmas cards, and 
 crinkum-crankums in general, which feed neither the 
 body nor the soul. 
 
 In the words of Mrs Piatt's little boy to the tramp 
 outside the window : 
 
 " It's not so nice here as it looks 
 
 With china that keeps breaking so, 
 And five of Mr Tennyson's books 
 Too fine to look in is it, though ?
 
 250 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 If you just had to sit here (Well !) 
 
 In satin chairs too blue to touch, 
 And look at flowers too sweet to smell, 
 
 In vases would you like it much ? 
 
 If you see any flowers, they grow, 
 And you can find them in the sun, 
 
 These are the ones we buy, you know, 
 In winter-time when there are none ! 
 
 Then you can sit on rocks, you see, 
 
 And walk about in water, too 
 Because you have no shoes ! Dear me ! 
 
 How many things they let you do ! 
 
 Then you can sleep out in the shade 
 All day, I guess, and all night too, 
 
 Because you know, you're not afraid 
 Of other fellows just like you ! 
 
 You have no house like this, you know, 
 (Where mamma's cross, and ladies call), 
 
 You have the world to live in, though, 
 And that's the prettiest place of all ! " 
 
 And now let me narrow for a moment the meaning of 
 our phrase. Let us speak of the literal " Return to 
 Nature " so that we may see how far this is necessary 
 in order that we may win the " Return to Nature " in 
 its larger sense. In the larger sense of the phrase we 
 include all return to truth, beauty and simplicity of
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 251 
 
 life. How far, then, is it necessary to this end that we 
 should come literally into personal contact with the 
 life of the winds and woods and waters ? 
 
 The chemist, of course, may study the facts of Nature 
 in his laboratory. So with mechanics and physics. 
 Even geological and paleontological research is largely 
 carried on in museums. The science which formulates 
 and classifies calls us only occasionally into the midst 
 of Nature ; it does not necessitate that we should dwell 
 there. But if you would see Nature live ; if you 
 would acquaint yourself with that crowning fact, that 
 supreme outcome of Nature life how shall you see 
 it but by dwelling within reach of it ? It was not a 
 mere wayward whim of the old prophet of Brantwood 
 when in one of his Clavigeran letters he told his readers 
 that if they could not get at mother earth in any other 
 way they were to keep some pots in a back-yard, and 
 that without this they could not be his disciples. I 
 know by my own experience the pure delight and the 
 spiritual refreshment which comes from such con- 
 templation of Nature in a pot. But this is after all 
 but a corn of wheat for a hungry man ; it only seems 
 to make him hungrier. To know that every May-time 
 the hawthorn whitens for us, and the blackbird whistles, 
 and the king-cups fill the marshes with their golden 
 glory, and we poor prisoners drag our weary eyesight
 
 252 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 up and down the length of smoky bricks or desolate 
 stucco and lose it all, because we or someone else cannot 
 do without silk dresses, diamond rings, and hothouse 
 fruits ! What wickedness it is when one comes to 
 think of it ! 
 
 And there is yet another function of the soul, yet 
 another boon of Nature, for the full enjoyment of which 
 it is absolutely necessary that we should come personally 
 into the august presence of the living Mother of us all. 
 Nature, Emerson has taught us, is more to us than com- 
 modity or beauty, language or discipline ; it is symbol. 
 " It always speaks of spirit. It suggests the absolute. 
 It is a perpetual effect. It is a great shadow pointing 
 always to the sun behind us." " Nature is the organ 
 through which the universal spirit speaks to the in- 
 dividual, and strives to lead back the individual to it." 
 So says Emerson, and so, too, in his own way says 
 another great idealist, Novalis. " Let man honour 
 Nature," he writes, " as the emblem of his own spirit ; 
 the emblem ennobling itself, along with him, to un- 
 limited degrees." And such teaching finds an echo in 
 our hearts. Nature is not mere commodity but speech 
 an utterance from the spirit to the spirit a word 
 which if it were once all uttered all would be ended, 
 but which is never uttered but always uttering. Nature 
 is all this to us, and yet we forsake her and fill our ears
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 253 
 
 with the deafening roar of the city. Truly he who 
 would arrive at a knowledge of Nature needs, as 
 Novalis says, a training of the soul. He needs to 
 discipline his moral sense, to act and conceive in accord- 
 ance with the noble essence of his soul ; but he needs as 
 well, to quote the words of the great mystic, "long, 
 unwearied intercourse, free and wise contemplation, 
 attention to faint tokens and indications ; an inward 
 poet-life, practised senses, a simple and devout spirit." 
 For the attainment, then, of truth, these supreme 
 truths of mind and heart, we need a literal return to 
 Nature. 
 
 But how about beauty ? Surely we do not need to 
 baptize ourselves in Nature from the natural depravity 
 of a love of ugliness, when we have in our own land of 
 civilisation the Abana and Pharpar of poetry and art ? 
 Alas ! how shall either poetry or art appeal to us if we 
 are ignorant of Nature ? What branch of art, what class 
 of poetry, is independent of Nature for its suggestions 
 of majesty or beauty ? Both art and poetry are echoes 
 of Nature ; not mere echoes, I admit ; for every work 
 of art is a unification of impressions, a microcosmos in 
 itself; but still the material of which each such 
 miniature universe is composed is a reflection from 
 natural objects, and without that tender love of Nature 
 which comes from a familiar acquaintance with country
 
 254 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 life it is doubtful if art and poetry can ever make their 
 full appeal. I do not speak merely of landscape-painting 
 or descriptive poetry, but of all high literature and art ; 
 for all such are filled, if not with the form, at least with 
 the spirit of Nature. I doubt whether the aisles of a 
 cathedral are ever truly felt by one who knows not 
 the cathedral aisles of poplar or of elm ; whether 
 the full pathos of tender music ever reaches him who 
 is unfamiliar with the wail or sigh of wind and wave ; 
 and as for poetry, earth and sky are the very language 
 of the poets. How can a wholly town-bred man feel 
 the calm creep into his soul that ought to creep into it 
 when he reads such lines as these ? 
 
 11 Calm is the morn without a sound, 
 Calm as to suit a calmer grief, 
 And only thro' the faded leaf 
 The chestnut pattering to the ground : 
 
 Calm and deep peace on this high wold, 
 And on these dews that drench the furze, 
 And all the silvery gossamers 
 
 That twinkle into green and gold." 
 
 There are perhaps two millions or more of people in 
 London who never saw the dew-drenched gorse upon 
 the downs, and never heard the chestnut pattering to 
 the ground ; and how, I say, can imagery such as this 
 awaken an echo in a soul whose nearest approach to any
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 255 
 
 experience of the things of which the poet writes are, 
 perhaps, a tile pattering to the pavement or a watercart 
 drenching the asphalt ? Even of that moiety of 
 London which can afford to breathe pure air for one 
 month in the year, how many are there who allow 
 themselves to become familiar with Nature ? What can 
 they know, these souls who take town with them where- 
 ever they go and cannot live without a table d'Mte, of 
 
 " the pure delight of love 
 By sound diffused, or by the breathing air, 
 Or by the silent looks of happy things, 
 Or flowing from the universal face 
 Of earth and sky ? " 
 
 I declare that reading Anna Karenina the other 
 day, I almost wept to think that probably more than 
 half the people who read those delicious chapters 
 describing Levin in the mowing-fields read blindly in a 
 dead language. And even if this were not so, even if 
 it were possible for us to enter into the work of poet or 
 painter without the help of Nature, why should we be 
 content with this ? Why should we be content to have 
 these mediating priests between ourselves and the 
 shrine ? Why should we not, as Emerson has said, 
 " enjoy an original relation to the universe " ? It is for 
 this that the heart and the flesh cry out. Nature is not 
 a mere luxury ; it is a deep need. The love of it is
 
 256 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 fundamental to humanity. The thirst for it lingers 
 from generation to generation in our city slums. To 
 many, perhaps, this will seem mere sentimental non- 
 sense. The lower classes of our cities enjoy their 
 music-halls and taverns, their " free-and-easies " and 
 melodramas ; but to imagine that they are pining for 
 the beauty of the country, or could feel that beauty if 
 they saw it, is a mere sentimental delusion. When 
 Mrs Bardell and Tommy went with Mrs Cluppins 
 and Mrs Rodgers to the tea gardens, and when Mrs 
 Rodgers remarked to Mrs Cluppins how delicious the 
 country was, she was uttering the bare truth ; tea gardens 
 and country are all one to her and to her class. Such 
 is the avowed belief of not a few. I will mention, 
 however, two London sights which give the lie direct 
 to any such idea. One is a Sunday morning market in 
 St Giles's which I often pass, and where amid second- 
 hand boots and cast-off clothes and cheap crockery there 
 are invariably to be found many barrow-loads of gay 
 flowering plants eagerly bought by the natives of the 
 slums ; the other is the tramcars full inside and out, 
 following closely one upon another all Sunday afternoon, 
 from Clerkenwell, St Luke's, and Shoreditch, up to 
 Clapton Common, where, upon the melancholy strip of 
 green intersected by gravel paths, which calls itself by 
 that name, you shall see the toilers of the city with their
 
 THE RETURN OF NATURE 257 
 
 families crowded in a doleful attempt to enjoy the 
 nearest approach that they can get to country. To me 
 such sights are proofs as strong as they are pathetic of 
 the ineradicable instinct for natural beauty which lives 
 in the hearts of these prisoners of the town. 
 
 Why, does not every man at some time of his life 
 aspire to own a patch of earth somewhere ? Does not 
 every boy of twelve desire to be a farmer ? For my 
 own part I know that it was not until this desire had 
 been parentally sat upon with crushing persistence that 
 I reluctantly abandoned it, and informed my father 
 that, if that could not be, I should like to be either a 
 missionary or a lawyer. 
 
 Even in respect of sincere and simple living, direct 
 contact with Nature would seem to be an almost 
 necessary condition. Nature cannot fully teach us 
 unless we will follow her along the hedgerows and on 
 the hills, but then she will often touch us so profoundly 
 that her voice enters the very fabric of the soul, and 
 imparts to us not merely truths but truthfulness. 
 Doubt it who may, I feel convinced that life in the 
 presence of Nature and contact with her primal forces 
 are conditions most favourable to veracity. For honesty 
 and directness, simplicity and trustfulness, for trans- 
 parency of life and cleanliness of thought, I know well 
 where to look. I look for these where I have seldom 
 
 17
 
 258 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 failed to find them among the fishermen of our coast, 
 and the toilers in our fields, and the labourers in our 
 quarries. Among these you will find no fussiness or 
 fancies, no make-believes or social fibs or polite hints 
 and innuendos, such as largely compose our town-bred 
 talk. They are simple and sincere, because they live 
 in the best of company the company of Nature. 
 
 "Long, unwearied intercourse, free and wise con- 
 templation ! " Yes ; but how are these to be obtained ? 
 Granted that it is necessary for us, for the reasons which 
 I have enumerated, in a literal and material sense, to 
 " return to Nature " that our life, physical, perceptive, 
 intellectual, spiritual, depends upon our doing this 
 yet what distant chance is there that one in a hundred 
 of us, even at great sacrifices in other matters, could 
 return to Nature if he would ? 
 
 At the present time "the young citizen," as Mr 
 Grant Allen writes in this month's (May 1889) 
 Contemporary, " finds himself from the outset turned 
 loose upon a world where almost every natural energy, 
 and almost every kind of raw material, has been already 
 appropriated and monopolised beforehand by a small 
 and unhappily compact class of squatters and tabooers. 
 Not one solitary square inch of English soil remains 
 unclaimed on which he can legally lay his head without 
 paying tax and toll to somebody. He cannot sleep
 
 THE RETURN TO NATURE 259 
 
 without paying rent for the ground he sleeps on. He 
 cannot labour without buying the raw material of his 
 craft, directly or indirectly, from the lords of the soil, 
 the encroachers on the native common rights of every- 
 body. He cannot make anything of wood or stone, 
 for the wood and the stone are already fully appropriated ; 
 he cannot eat of the fruits of the earth, for the earth 
 itself, and all that grows upon it, is somebody else's. 
 The very air, the water, and the sunlight are only his 
 in the public highway ; nay more, even there for a 
 single day alone. His one right, recognised by the law, 
 is the right to walk along that highway till he reels with 
 fatigue for he must * keep moving. ' ' This is the 
 problem which we have to solve, and the system which 
 can solve it, whatever it may be, will, by the very fact 
 of that solution, be the gospel for our day.
 
 II. THE REUNION OF PROCESS 
 AND RESULT 
 
 I WAS asked, in the concluding issue of Seed-time, to 
 review some department of our work and the harvest 
 which might be counted upon from our seed-sowing as 
 already evinced in the springing blade. Accordingly I 
 reflected upon the signs of awakening life which could 
 be seen as resulting from our labours in the field of 
 domestic reform, especially in the simplification of our 
 domestic ways. And there seemed much to say, many 
 encouraging signs to note, a distinct and remarkable 
 effect in the personal lives and domestic arrangements 
 of many members of the Fellowship, the direct result 
 of our teaching and standard ; and looking abroad, a 
 wider movement in the same direction, the result of 
 a large and healthy social current of which our own 
 doctrine and effort is but a small side-stream a part, 
 though a concentrated part, of a larger whole. 
 
 But while I mused the fire burned. I was led on 
 
 to reflect anew upon the subject itself, and upon one 
 
 260
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 261 
 
 aspect of it which had not, perhaps, been explicitly 
 set forth. 
 
 In the little leaflet by which the " Fellowship of the 
 New Life " originally set forth its aims, the governing 
 principle of the whole was laid down as " The subor- 
 dination of material things to spiritual things " ; and, in 
 the methods set forth for attaining this end, next to the 
 " Supplanting of the spirit of competition by that of 
 unselfish regard for the general good," stood " Simplicity 
 of Living." This doctrine was elaborated in a later 
 manifesto (September 1885) ; servitude was forbidden, 
 and therefore household needs must be simplified ; in 
 dress the vagaries of fashion were condemned ; in house- 
 furnishing the furniture was limited to such as could be 
 kept clean and orderly without undue care and attention ; 
 in social intercourse a thorough sincerity and frankness 
 in speech and behaviour were demanded. These are 
 the main heads of the ideal of simplification, which, in 
 its early days, the Fellowship set before it. 
 
 The aspect of the subject which now occurs to me 
 touches our doctrine of Simplification at several points, 
 both in respect of simplicity of living with its saving 
 of labour and worry, and in respect of Simplicity of 
 Character, with that " sincerity and frankness " which 
 belong to it. But it points to a principle wider and 
 vaguer, and perhaps less practical. It is doubtful, indeed,
 
 262 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 whether it amounts to a practical principle at all. Yet 
 it brings together a number of significant facts of social 
 life, and is, I think, if not directly useful, at any rate 
 suggestive. 
 
 The broad fact which strikes me and arouses my 
 curiosity, and which it has occurred to me lies perhaps 
 near the root of the simplification question, is that in 
 every department of life we are tempted to hide the 
 process and exhibit the result. I am not saying that it 
 is right or wrong, that it is preventible or not ; I am 
 merely at present noting the plain fact. Indeed I may 
 as well confess at starting that I do not see how in some 
 matters the practice could be avoided, however desirable 
 it might seem. The division of process from result, 
 and the hiding of the process, seem to me often advan- 
 tageous, and sometimes inevitable. But into this we 
 shall presently have occasion to inquire more closely ; 
 at present I merely record the fact that you can hardly 
 name an item in the daily routine of civilised life in 
 which this separation and concealment are not practised. 
 The preparation of our meal is hidden away in the 
 kitchen ; the wood and the coal are kept in the back- 
 yard, and the back-yard is carefully screened from the 
 front entrance. The " residential neighbourhood " 
 shuns the cottages, by whose inmates it is served ; the 
 West End shuns the slums, by whose labour it subsists ;
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 263 
 
 the shop is shut off from the factory, the showroom 
 from the workers' den, the larder from the butcher's 
 shop, and the butcher's shop from the slaughterhouse. 
 In every detail of our life process is divorced from 
 result ; sometimes inevitably, as it would seem, some- 
 times benevolently, sometimes mischievously. 
 
 It will, perhaps, help us on our way to the formula- 
 tion of a principle if we first consider some respects in 
 which their divorce is mischievous and set them over 
 against some respects in which it appears to be beneficial. 
 
 In the first place, it is obvious that this divorce is 
 often mischievous in making our life elaborate. The 
 reunion of process and result would, in certain cases, 
 bring with it the advantages of household simplicity. 
 Life is less elaborate and, in many respects, easier in a 
 farmhouse kitchen where the joint is transferred from 
 the fire to the table, where the neighbour who calls takes 
 his place on the settle unannounced, where the servant 
 lives in one room with her mistress, than it can possibly 
 be when the divorce of process from result necessitates 
 the division into kitchen, dining-room and withdrawing- 
 room, with passages to be traversed, two sets of meals 
 to be provided, and all the elaboration of the answering 
 of doors, the announcing of guests, the leaving of cards, 
 the cleansing and care of three rooms and three sets of 
 furniture instead of one. This division may or may
 
 264 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 not, on other grounds, be desirable, but at any rate it 
 costs a price. Some simplicity, with its advantages of 
 less work and less worry, is lost by the division. It 
 may or may not be an advantage to have the preparation 
 of food hidden from the eye of the eater a sufficient 
 advantage, that is, to compensate for the additional 
 labour it involves ; but at any rate it is plain that the 
 abandonment of such concealment would result in less 
 elaboration of domestic life. 
 
 Again, the reunion of process and result would, in 
 certain cases, result in more reality, and in that interest 
 which such reality invariably brings. There is surely 
 infinitely more interest in the farmhouse kitchen 
 merely as a room, than there is in a surburban drawing- 
 room. The gun upon the wall, the flitches hanging 
 from the beam, the bright bit and bridle on their nail, 
 the whip standing in the corner, the bellows by the fire, 
 the many articles which tell the tale of the inmates and 
 their daily life, bring you nearer to the process of living, 
 and are full of vitality and human zest ; an infinite relief 
 from the dreariness of the nic-nacs on the wot-not. 
 
 Especially is this seen in works of art. The painter's 
 first rough sketch has a certain interest of its own which 
 the finished picture is sure to lose. It reveals the 
 process, and is therefore more human. The old silver 
 tankard is more beautiful than the new machine-made
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 265 
 
 one, not merely because of its antiquity, but because it 
 shows the hammer-spots and brings you up against the 
 fellow-creature who wrought it. Throughout the whole 
 range of handicraft we thirst for the sign of the human 
 hand at work, for that which the machine does its 
 utmost to obliterate the story of the process. 
 
 More deeply still does the principle apply to the life 
 of the community. The man who works upon the 
 process lives in the cottage, the man who consumes the 
 products in the villa ; and the chief aim of the villa is to 
 keep clear of the cottage. With what result ? What 
 is the consequence of this divorce ? That ghastly desert, 
 that horror of deathly gloom known as the first-class 
 residential neighbourhood : the neighbourhood in which 
 no house shall be built of less value than 800, in which 
 no trade shall be carried on, and in which therefore no 
 sign of active life or wholesome existence is ever seen. 
 " Desirable residences " herd together, building them- 
 selves just sufficiently far apart to look unneighbourly, 
 and at the furthest possible distance from all those who 
 carry on the processes of life, with the inevitable result 
 unreality and death. 
 
 Still more horrible is the effect of this separation in 
 the city, where the mansion draws its skirts aside from 
 the slum, and the enforced monotony of the productive 
 East is created by the voluntary monotony of the largely
 
 266 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 unproductive West. Nay, the town as a whole, with 
 its five millions of souls exiled from Nature, cut off from 
 all knowledge of the basis of their own life, ignorant of 
 the commonest processes by which the great Mother 
 supplies their simplest wants, is one mighty example of 
 that divorce of means from ends, of process from results, 
 of labour from its fruits, which tends more and more 
 to eviscerate our life and deprive it of all reality. 
 
 And yet, when we come to look more closely at the 
 matter, we are fain to confess that the union of process 
 and result is sometimes not possible, and often not 
 desirable. Even if the middle wall of partition between 
 dining-room and kitchen were broken down, and the 
 senses blunted to the disagreeables of cooking by force 
 of habit, or the repugnance overcome by sympathy with 
 the cook, yet still I suppose the scullery and the dust- 
 hole would remain outside ! The artist's sketch, it is 
 true, may be interesting from the tale which it tells of 
 hand and eye at work, but none but a commentator 
 could care for a poet's corrected proof. We should not, 
 I suppose, go to the theatre at all if we were doomed to 
 hear all the rehearsals of every drama we went to see. 
 The tuning of the violins before the oratorio com- 
 mences has, I admit, from associations, a certain charm 
 for me, but I do not know that I ever desired to hear 
 all the instruments tuned nor all the parts practised. It
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 267 
 
 appears, in short, that this notion of a reunion of pro- 
 cess with result does not amount to a practical principle. 
 It is not universally applicable. It is sometimes 
 desirable, but not always. And the question arises, 
 what other principle, over and above mere individual 
 taste, we can apply as a criterion by which to judge 
 when such a union should be attempted and when it 
 should be renounced. 
 
 Let us then, by way of arriving at such a criterion, 
 examine the roots of that divorce between process and 
 result which forms so marked a feature of our civilised 
 life. 
 
 I. The first root appears to be the economic advantage 
 of divided labour. Take the house, for instance, as a 
 result. I do not hesitate to say that a house, to be 
 perfectly interesting, should be designed, built, and 
 decorated by the sole labour of one man. It could be 
 but a cottage, but that cottage would in every part show 
 signs of individuality. It would be the expression of a 
 character. Practically, however, this is almost never 
 possible. Civilised life of even a very simple kind 
 requires a house which can be produced only by the 
 combined labour of many men. If the architect will 
 condescend to take a manual part in the actual decora- 
 tion, as was the case in a certain building in my own 
 neighbourhood, the house will be more of a poem than
 
 268 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 it could otherwise be ; but obviously it would be sheer 
 loss to the total result if he spent his energy and atten- 
 tion on carrying the hod for the bricklayer or nailing 
 the battens for the plasterer. 
 
 The architect is, in fact, the man whose business it 
 is to do spiritually what it is no longer possible, in the 
 matter of house-building, for any man to do physically 
 to combine the process and the result ; that is, to 
 build the whole house. If he truly knows his work 
 he will conceive every part of every process. When 
 Wren built St Paul's he personally examined the whole 
 material and personally checked every invoice and 
 account (and he did this, by the way, on a salary of ^150 
 a year). Only a man of Wren's versatility and bound- 
 less energy could do even this. But every architect 
 must in some degree combine a clear conception of 
 the result to be attained with a more or less perfect 
 knowledge of the means to be used. Now because an 
 architect does this because he is the man who holds 
 within his brain the whole process from beginning to 
 end and ideally creates the result to which that process 
 leads he is the man who necessarily stands at the head 
 of affairs in the building of the house, and the man, 
 1 do not doubt, to whom the house has the greatest 
 significance and the greatest interest. 
 
 But you observe that even this modified form of
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 269 
 
 that combination of which we are speaking is not 
 possible to all who are concerned. The builder, the 
 foreman, even the artisan, if he is an intelligent worker, 
 may certainly have more or less in mind, besides his 
 particular process, the result to be obtained. They, too, 
 may ideally combine to some degree process and result. 
 But imperfectly. And when we come to the labourer, 
 the man who fetches and carries, we reach the man who 
 is absorbed in pure process. Hence arises that which 
 is the great evil of our modern system of division of 
 labour the shame of manual work. How deeply 
 this has entered into the system of society, and what 
 a canker it is in the whole body of this sick nation 
 of ours, I am more deeply impressed with every year 
 that I live. 
 
 But now, while I admit it as inevitable that, for 
 most of those who take part in such a work, process 
 and result should be divorced ; and while I regard this 
 as in some respects a misfortune, I consider and this 
 is the important lesson that a way has been shown 
 to us in which that misfortune may be largely remedied. 
 
 Remember that no one of those who take part in 
 such a work could be spared ; that the whole body of 
 them form one organic whole ; a unity engaged in the 
 production of a unity. And then consider how this 
 strikes at the root of that false shame of which I have
 
 2 yo ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 spoken. It may not be possible in each individual to 
 unite result and process, but they may be united in the 
 organic whole, if only it were indeed organic. Why 
 should not every house that is built be dedicated to its 
 uses by a social gathering of owner, architect, builder, 
 foreman, artisans and labourers, in which by good 
 fellowship and hearty appreciation every individual who 
 has taken part in the building should be made to 
 feel that he has contributed to this result and is held 
 in honour therefor ; that as the home is one, they too 
 are one " every one members one of another " ? And 
 so with every great work that is performed. Nay, I 
 look to an ideal future in which the scarlet-coated 
 bodies of destroyers shall no longer parade their horrid 
 trade with bands and banners, but when those shall be 
 reserved for the constructors and creators ; when the 
 workmen shall march in regiments with colours flying 
 to their noble work of enriching the community, and 
 brave music shall inspire them to a sense of the honour 
 and the glory of their work ; when the workmen's 
 trains shall no longer swallow them each night, a sordid 
 and sullen band, and disgorge them in the morning, 
 rebellious at their fate ; but the men who build a 
 Museum, a People's Palace, or State Treasury, shall 
 be honoured by all, respected by themselves and 
 surrounded by every picturesque and poetic symbol of
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 271 
 
 public esteem in which their creative function should 
 be held. 
 
 Nor is the false shame of manual labour the only 
 evil attendant upon this separation of the workers from 
 the end to be attained. The vast operations of modern 
 civilised life are in all departments carried on by this 
 sacrifice of the individual. An army of half a million 
 men take the field with the dimmest notion, or no 
 notion at all, of the cause for which they are fighting, 
 still less of the immediate end to be attained. They 
 may be fighting to save their country, or merely 
 harassing some hill-tribe on the outskirts of the empire ; 
 carrying out some heroic and chivalrous policy or 
 some mean act of commercial treachery. It is all blank 
 to them ; they practically know nothing of the end which 
 the heads of the nation have in view ; if they think 
 they know, they are oftener than not deceived. 
 
 And it is the same in civil government. The whole 
 of official life is based upon the same divorce of process 
 from result. The result to be achieved is known to 
 very few ; the vast army of those employed are 
 engaged in pure process, carried on in blind obedience, 
 on the theory of no responsibility. 
 
 This it is which forms the strength of Anarchism. 
 The man, the individual man, has under the system 
 of organised life become an abstraction. He is the
 
 272 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 fragment, or rather the ghost, of a man ; and Anarchy 
 protests in favour of the whole man. In official life, in 
 military life, in organised industrial life, the individual 
 has no will and no intelligence as far as the ultimate 
 result of his day's labour is concerned ; he suppresses 
 the greater part of his individuality and becomes the 
 obedient tool of others. Anarchism teaches that these 
 things ought not to be so ; that the individual ought 
 to comprise both result and process ; that no occupation 
 is truly organised unless each individual has a clear 
 vision of the whole object of his work ; unless, that 
 is to say, his co-operation with others is purely 
 voluntary and carries with it the whole intelligence. 
 Because, by the present social system, the individual 
 is thus suppressed and the unit reduced to a fraction, 
 the Anarchist wages war upon the present social system. 
 It is on behalf of the individual man in his com- 
 pleteness that Anarchism raises the voice, and sometimes 
 the arm, of protest. 
 
 And surely it needs no great wit to see that Anarchism 
 holds the complementary truth which we need to 
 make our ideal of Society complete. Our so-called 
 " organised " bodies our armies, our trade-unions, 
 our public offices are not true organisms. In the 
 true organism the whole is in every part. And though 
 the Anarchist is often wrong because he is reactionary
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 273 
 
 and would reduce Society to a discrete mass of units, 
 in this he is right, that a body which is unified only 
 by compulsion is not truly unified at all, and that it 
 is only as we approach to the ideal in which the unit 
 reflects the intelligence which animates the whole and 
 freely identifies his own will with the will of the whole 
 that we approach to that truly organised society of 
 which our present social system is but a doubtful 
 promise, or for which it is at the best a rough first 
 stage of needful education. 
 
 II. A second root of that divorce of which we are 
 speaking is the physical repulsion which we feel from 
 certain processes^ which lead nevertheless to desirable results. 
 
 This, no doubt, to return to the simple illustration 
 of the kitchen and the parlour, is why the latter has 
 been invented. Yet it is not a law of Nature that you 
 should have someone to skin the rabbit for you before 
 you eat your rabbit-pie. The universe seems rather 
 to indicate that those who eat the rabbit should skin it. 
 The present arrangement of society by which one 
 order of people is devoted, so to speak, to the skinning 
 and cooking of rabbits and another order to the eating 
 of them an arrangement which appears to be so 
 entirely right in the eyes of the eaters, arises from the 
 fact that in the total act of feeding, the process 
 
 (cooking) is less pleasurable than the result (eating). 
 
 18
 
 274 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 The separation of process from result which in this 
 matter has taken place shows several stages. First 
 comes the simple person the completely simple 
 person who eats her dinner in the kitchen in which 
 she has herself prepared it. Then comes the separation 
 of the room into two : the kitchen splits itself into 
 kitchen and parlour. The goodwoman, wife of the 
 artisan or small shopkeeper, desires to forget for a 
 while the process by which this delightful result, 
 rabbit-pie, has been attained. Next she gets a " help," 
 who does some things for her the cleaning of fish, 
 the trussing of fowls, chopping of suet and the like, 
 but she makes the pastry herself. At this stage she 
 generally calls herself a lady. Then comes the full- 
 blown flower, the complete separation, when the lady 
 condescends to lunch on fowl and apple-pie in an 
 interval of poetry and letter-writing, but has no more 
 to do with the preparation of the pie than she has of 
 the poetry. 
 
 Now, as to the separation itself, it seems to me 
 quite reasonable that when the preparation is physically 
 repulsive, the result should be enjoyed in as complete 
 a divorce from that preparation as can be achieved. 
 I don't mean, of course, only in respect to the trade 
 of the cook, but also to that of the actor, the 
 musician, the gardener, the groom to every enjoyment
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 275 
 
 where some sense is offended in the preparation. But 
 I doubt whether the people should be needlessly 
 separated the preparer and enjoyer as well as the 
 preparation and enjoyment. I doubt, in the first place, 
 whether the enjoyer does not lose something of his 
 enjoyment by not having paid its due price ; whether 
 the fruit of the fig-tree tastes so sweet to anyone as it 
 does to the man who digs about and dungs it ; whether 
 the " coverings of tapestry " gave as much delight to 
 King Lemuel himself as they did to her " who sought 
 wool and flax and wrought diligently with her hands." 
 And in the second place I doubt whether anyone has 
 any right to any enjoyment who has not in some way 
 taken his share of the disagreeables of the world. We 
 cannot, indeed, all have a hand in the preparation of 
 the rabbit-pie, because some of us must break stones, 
 and some must cleanse the drains, and some must hear 
 the youngsters thump out their scales on the old piano ; 
 but if we have not done some such disagreeable work, 
 surely we have no right to the smallest slice. 
 
 This, of course, takes us back to our first root 
 division of labour an arrangement which cannot 
 be altogether helped. But when it can be helped, 
 when the disagreeable process is one which it comes in 
 our way to perform, when we cannot plead that we are 
 undertaking some other disagreeable in its stead, then
 
 276 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 that is the price we can and ought to pay, else we have 
 no right whatever to the enjoyment ; and, indeed, I 
 think we shall not get it, at any rate not the full flavour. 
 
 Decency is a motive which comes under the same 
 head. There are certain repulsive processes which we 
 are more than justified in hiding. Nature herself hides 
 many operations. Even in the animal the non- 
 human world, we already find this motive of decency 
 at work. A healthy cat or dog living in a natural state 
 (not in some town street) covers its excrement just as 
 the Israelites did under the law of Moses (Deut. xxiii. 
 13, 14). A horse declines to graze will starve rather 
 than graze in a field where there is a great deal of 
 horse-dung ; but he will put up with cow-dung. 
 Probably all decency has its origin in considerations of 
 health. The " Fellowship of the Naked Truth," in 
 their quaint crusade against clothing, may be justified 
 in teaching that decency is not an ultimate principle, 
 but they can never abolish decency where it safeguards 
 health or that which is also a branch of health morality. 
 
 This, of course, like those other processes of which 
 we have already spoken, is open to abuse. Fastidious- 
 ness, prudery, pruriency, are the distortions or the 
 reactions of decency. 
 
 III. A third root, and one that takes us much deeper 
 than the other two, is that of dramatic interest.
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 277 
 
 There is undoubtedly a genuine satisfaction in the 
 exhibition of the result as an isolated phenomenon. We 
 like to present the outcome of our labours as if it had 
 dropped from heaven. We like it to be a sort of 
 Melchizidek, without father or mother. The mystery 
 of the thing, the pretence of omnipotence in ourselves, 
 the joy of imagining ourselves and imagining each 
 other to be creators, and not mere makers, is a distinct 
 and perhaps a legitimate reason for sometimes hiding 
 the process. 
 
 The drama itself would lose some of its interest 
 but for the curtain ; the clergyman would not be so 
 effective a person if he smoothed his hair and put on 
 his surplice in sight of the whole congregation, instead 
 of marching out of the vestry as if he had worn it all 
 his life. We don't like to be reminded of our limita- 
 tions ; at least, we like now and then to forget them, 
 and to pretend that we can attain to results without 
 the use of means. We like to imagine the poet as so 
 celestially inspired that he can roll off his couplets 
 without running through a list of jingling words to 
 find a rhyme. The Persian standard of divine inspira- 
 tion is the untaught ability to pour forth unpremeditated 
 verse, and we Westerns cherish the same conceit. We 
 smile at Wordsworth short of a rhyme ; " pursued," as 
 he confesses, " by the malice of one luckless word." It
 
 278 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 is too commonplace, too incongruous with the " eye in 
 a fine frenzy rolling," too limited, and, therefore, 
 earthly. We like to forget that a great singer has to 
 practise. He should, we feel, if he be so truly great, 
 be able to sing like the angels, without rehearsing. 
 Rehearsals are inappropriate to angelic choirs. 
 
 And now, let us gather up our results, and see if they 
 point to any criterion which can help us to decide when 
 a reunion of process with result should be attempted. 
 
 Can we, from the foregoing considerations, deduce 
 any single criterion of action ? I do not know that we 
 can. It is plain, indeed, that in every case there is 
 some loss to the individual when he is excluded from 
 the result and limited to the process ; but that loss 
 apparently is often overbalanced by the gain. And 
 we seem left, so far as practical life is concerned, with 
 one or two rules which do not readily combine into a 
 single criterion. 
 
 First, it seems plain that in works of art, where the 
 expression of the individuality is such an essential 
 factor, the divorce of process from result is generally 
 mischievous. 
 
 Secondly, it is evident that where the process, or 
 our own connection with the process, is hidden, from 
 regard to a foolish social standard, such concealment 
 is self-condemned.
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 279 
 
 Thirdly, it is clear, I think, that many processes 
 which are physically repulsive are quite justly hidden ; 
 and 
 
 Fourthly, it is sometimes allowable to satisfy the 
 dramatic instinct which prompts us to exhibit the result 
 apart from the process. 
 
 But if no single criterion can be found to embrace 
 these practical rules, I think it is not difficult, leaving 
 the sphere of practice and turning for a moment to 
 the sphere of reflection, to find an all-embracing 
 philosophical principle which goes to the root of the 
 whole matter. The division of process from result 
 arises from the relativity of our human nature. In the 
 Absolute they are combined, or rather they are one. 
 In the eternal sphere there are no results but one 
 eternal process, and there is no process but one eternally 
 complete result. And it is our kinship with that sphere, 
 our dim consciousness of the universe within us, which 
 makes us for ever dissatisfied with our limitations. 
 
 We are driven to divide our labours, because no 
 great labour can be performed by that fragment of 
 the whole which calls himself an individual man. We 
 are driven to rules of sweetness and decency, because 
 the relations of individual to individual require those 
 rules ; in other words, because our limitations forbid 
 us to transcend them. We may refresh ourselves at
 
 2 8o ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 times by stripping ourselves from certain limitations 
 in imagination and fancying ourselves creators. We 
 may don the robe of dignity, strut upon the stage of 
 magnificence, or roll the drums of glory ; but to do it 
 we must hide the process. The glory is but the result 
 of tears, the stage we tread is hollow, and the robe 
 covers the nakedness of one of God's feeblest creatures. 
 And yet this is not all. As we are conscious of 
 the universal, so we dimly see how the limitations 
 which contravene it may come to be transcended. We 
 are not truly individuals ; we are fragments. We are 
 organs of the social body, members of a relatively 
 complete humanity. And by virtue of this complete- 
 ness to which we belong, and of which we are vaguely 
 conscious, we may sometimes rise above our limitations 
 to a plane upon which the process is combined with 
 the result. Our democracy is an attempt in this 
 direction. It is a splendid experiment, of which we 
 do not yet foresee the outcome ; an endeavour to make 
 each item of the body politic to combine its own frag- 
 ment of the process with the complete conception of 
 the result to be achieved. And hence the importance 
 of education to a democratic country. In an autocracy 
 or an oligarchy the means are provided, and the process 
 is carried out, by those who are ignorant of the result 
 to be achieved. But in a democracy that result must
 
 PROCESS AND RESULT 281 
 
 be understood in its main features by every member 
 of the community, so that he who provides the power 
 may know for what that power is used. A tremendous 
 task, seeming sometimes almost hopeless, but a task to 
 achieve which the very attempt is grand. 
 
 And this, which is the meaning of our politics, is 
 the meaning of many things to which we are slowly 
 moving. The fusion of the many in the one has a 
 thousand daily applications. What a drama that will 
 be when the star-actor and his attendant supers shall 
 give place to a cast animated by a clear conception on 
 the part of each of the result to be attained ! What 
 a city that will be when vestrydom and individual 
 interests shall give place to a pure desire for the public 
 good, informed by a clear intelligence and inspired by 
 a vision of ideal beauty ! What an army that will 
 be which shall no longer be a blind machine for the 
 capricious will of a few, but a living organism for the 
 righteous will of itself and the whole nation ! What 
 a nation that will be which shall be less exclusively 
 intent upon the diplomatic process, or the gaining of 
 a momentary advantage for its fragmentary self, and 
 shall see that process in the light of the wide result to 
 which every combination, and, indeed, its very life as 
 a nation, must ultimately tend the advancement of 
 humanity at large !
 
 282 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 Nay, deeper still we may go. Of sin itself we may 
 say, although it be with bated breath, and with a 
 certain tremor, lest we deceive ourselves or others, 
 that it is the inevitable result of human limitation, and 
 that, like all other limitations, sin itself may be tran- 
 scended. Even in the human sphere we may rise by 
 stepping-stones of our dead selves, climb by our very 
 sins, and attain the calm of an exalted faith, by com- 
 prehending in one ideal vision the sinful process with 
 the victorious result. And in the divine sphere, if 
 human reason may be trusted if we may speak of 
 that which, at the best, we can but see through a glass 
 darkly in that sphere which is the Whole Sphere, 
 the undivided Unity, the Life and Mind of God, there 
 can be no schism of process and result, neither sin nor 
 righteousness, defeat nor victory, but one untroubled 
 and Eternal Calm.
 
 III. THOUGHTS ON THE REMOVAL OF 
 FURNITURE 
 
 FOR the first time in my life I have had to move my 
 furniture. I have had to unmake an old home and 
 make a new one. It is an experience which, though to 
 the indifferent eye it seems so trivial, yet touches in 
 some respects, as indeed all human experiences do, the 
 very roots of life. 
 
 I have entitled this address " Thoughts on the Re- 
 moval of Furniture," but it is the whole process which 
 I have in mind : the disarranging of the furniture and 
 the rearranging of it, the disarranging of the house 
 and the rearranging of it, the disarranging of the life 
 and the rearranging of it. There are many subordinate 
 processes involved selection, rejection, estimation, 
 idealisation ; the imagination of the probable futurity, 
 the adjustment of means to realise that imagination, 
 the rejection of such appliances as will not help it, the 
 re-estimating of values under new conditions ; rejection, 
 
 for instance, of that which is useful only in town-life, 
 
 283
 
 284 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 acquisition of that which is necessary for the country. 
 There is a reviewing, too, of the past life, and a certain 
 degree of wonderment at what we have been and what 
 we have acquired, and what we have neglected. There 
 is a whole round of human thought and feeling and 
 volition in the process of household removal. It is, 
 I repeat, a symbol, in little, of vast cosmic processes. 
 Empires die and live again. Ages work themselves out 
 and are renewed. Worlds, solar systems, perhaps the 
 universe itself, is unmade and remade, dissolves and 
 is renewed. And the household removal is the same 
 process on a smaller scale and in the human sphere. 
 A " move " is, or should be, a reform. 
 
 The first and obvious thought, especially to a member 
 of the Fellowship, 1 when he has to " move," is to simplify. 
 Here is an opportunity, a gracious, heaven-sent oppor- 
 tunity, of getting rid of a portion at least of that heavy 
 burden of conveniences, that intolerable load of comforts, 
 that hateful entanglement of luxuries, which destroy the 
 chief comfort and greatest luxury of all, free movement 
 and leisure. Here at last is a chance of ridding oneself 
 of some of the impedimenta of life. The unravelling of 
 the web of household arrangements reveals the nature 
 of the threads of which that web is made. One learns 
 what superfluities, what lumber, what absolute ugliness 
 1 The Croydon Ethical and Religious Fellowship.
 
 THE REMOVAL OF FURNITURE 285 
 
 often one is surrounded by, to which the eye has grown 
 accustomed, and which half-unconsciously, by a sort 
 of reflex, automatic process, we have been taking care 
 of without wanting them, dusting, storing, arranging 
 perhaps for years, doing everything but getting rid of 
 them. The attention is called anew and in a new way 
 to the presence of these things, and the part they have 
 been playing in one's life ; that part being little else 
 than to perplex the eye, and smother what there is of 
 real beauty in the home. 
 
 All this has a bearing on the larger issues of life. In 
 the furniture of the mind it is the same. In the 
 purposes of the life there is a like disease. In thought 
 and in action we need to simplify, and to this end we 
 need sometimes to take stock of ourselves, to keep the 
 mind clear and the purposes direct and simple. Many 
 a man mars his effectiveness by attempting, not too much, 
 but too many. Force is dissipated by multitudinous 
 work almost as much as by an excess of pleasure. It is 
 characteristic, and unwholesomely characteristic, of our 
 age that nothing is done with thoroughness because 
 everything is attempted at once. Our life the life even 
 of our best men is a scramble. The greatest life which 
 we know was characterised by its simplicity, by great 
 intensity directed on a few high aims and a few great 
 root-ideas ; and when death came, the great Soul who
 
 286 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 had thus thought and worked was able to say with 
 emphasis and with truth, " It is finished" This is the 
 spirit in which we, too, must live : forgoing many 
 ambitions, abandoning many pet schemes, content to be 
 ignorant of many things and to leave undone many tasks 
 which we should like to attempt ; we must make it our 
 aim to "finish the work which God gives us to do." 
 
 This old doctrine of simplification is a keynote of 
 our Fellowship. But though it is one of our articles 
 of faith, and though we believe it to be a thoroughly 
 sound one, we need not make of it a fetish. And I 
 will proceed to suggest one or two limitations to the 
 doctrine which have occurred to me in the course of 
 my recent " removal of furniture." 
 
 In the first place, that which appears at first sight to 
 be useless for happiness, is not always really so. As 
 you lay aside, in the process of dissolution, those things 
 which you decide to part with, you are on the point of 
 adding to the rapidly-accumulating mountain some article 
 which you bought for its beauty, but to which you have 
 become indifferent. Suddenly, the crisis of parting with 
 it reveals to you that it is as beautiful as ever, that the 
 defect is in yourself. You perceive that it is really a 
 means of joy, and that what prevents you from enjoying 
 it is that the eye has become dulled. This is to all 
 of you a familiar experience. There are few, very
 
 THE REMOVAL OF FURNITURE 287 
 
 few things which the eye can meet daily in the same 
 relations, and not at length forget to see. The most 
 beautiful picture, the most exquisite statue, the most 
 perfect vase or bronze, will fail to impress you after a 
 time from force of custom. It is not that " it palls 
 upon you," as people say. Anything that palls upon 
 you should be got rid of at once ; it is too luscious, or 
 too luxurious, or too sensuous. The things I speak of 
 are not those of which you are sick ; they are really 
 beautiful and really wholesome, but the eye has become 
 temporarily exhausted for them, just as it becomes 
 temporarily exhausted for a colour by long and steady 
 contemplation. Now, in such cases one should not be 
 hasty to simplify the things away. The probability is 
 that in a new place and in new surroundings the eye 
 will regain the power to perceive their beauty, and they 
 will be once more a channel of joy to the life. This, 
 then, I state as a limitation to the doctrine of simplicity. 
 One may draw, of course, certain simple practical 
 lessons from this familiar experience, such as the wisdom 
 of changing the places frequently of things of beauty, 
 or the advisability of establishing an interchange among 
 friends of all such things, and so keeping the freshness 
 of impression intact, or renewing the vividness of a 
 dulled perception. One might perhaps in this way 
 rekindle consciousness by a change of arrangement just
 
 288 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 as one renews health by a change of air. This would 
 of course apply, not to things useful in a particular 
 place, such as articles of furniture properly so-called, but 
 mainly to things kept purely for their beauty to things, 
 that is, whose sole function it is to form a channel for 
 mental impressions of this order. 
 
 But there is another lesson, which has no near 
 connection with household removals, but which comes 
 under this same law of the weakening of a passive 
 impression by repetition. To rise from the sphere 
 of furniture to the sphere of friendship : how apt we 
 are from force of custom to slip into indifference to 
 another form of beauty beauty of character ! It is 
 not only in household furniture, it is in household 
 affection also, that one needs to be ever on one's 
 guard against the deadening influence of custom. 
 Beauty of individual character and disposition, when 
 it meets us every day, ceases sometimes to appeal to 
 us. We come to accept the affection of wife, parent, 
 child, as an undoubted right, and as a pure matter of 
 course. And too often it happens in family life that 
 we do not discover until too late that we have been 
 entertaining angels unawares. 
 
 How necessary, then, it is to keep the eye open and 
 the mind fresh to the moral as well as the physical 
 beauty by which we are surrounded ! The household
 
 THE REMOVAL OF FURNITURE 289 
 
 bully, the morose father, the indifferent husband, how 
 can they be what they are, we ask, in the presence of 
 such tender grace, and such sweet affection of wife or 
 son or daughter ? That has happened to them in the 
 moral sphere which happens to us all in the aesthetic 
 sphere when articles of beauty cease to please : the 
 eye is dulled. They no longer see that grace or 
 appreciate that affection. Partly, perhaps, selfishness 
 or other sin has blunted them, but partly, we may be 
 sure, that subtle source of indifference which we cannot 
 perhaps call " sin," but against which we need to be 
 ever upon our guard, has blinded them the influence 
 of familiar routine. 
 
 But now, to return to our furniture. The re- 
 awakening of sensibility to actual but forgotten beauty 
 sets one limit to simplification ; another and a more 
 sweeping limit is set by the consideration that a spirit 
 living in and by a material medium is in part de- 
 pendent upon the variety of that medium for richness 
 of life. Poverty of means does in a measure mean 
 poverty of life. The greater the soul the greater, 
 that is, the powers of creation and of enjoyment the 
 greater is the variety of material needed. A savage 
 who wears no clothes needs no wardrobe. A labourer 
 who cannot read needs no library. But a man of 
 cultivated powers, who finds delight and refreshment 
 
 19
 
 2 9 o ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 and opportunity of spreading and imparting as well as 
 of imbibing happiness from literature and art, needs 
 more appliances. 
 
 The mistake of asceticism is that it regards the 
 material world as a hindrance instead of an instrument 
 and a means. It seeks, as Caird has said, to reach 
 God by the via negativa. It is the outcome of a 
 mysticism which dreams of " pure spirit," spirit stripped 
 of all material form and acting apart from any material 
 medium. Such asceticism was not confined to the 
 Middle Ages ; it has come down to our own time 
 through the Puritan tradition, and lingers among us 
 in various forms. William Morris, in a debate which 
 followed the reading of a paper by myself on the 
 simplification question, accused the New Fellowship 
 (I think unjustly) of asceticism, and declared that 
 asceticism was " the most disgusting vice that afflicted 
 human nature." I do not think, for my own part, that 
 ascetism is so " disgusting " as sensuality, but both are 
 doubtless mistaken modes of life. They are mistaken, 
 not because they are extremes, not because you want 
 a little of each, or because you ought to steer midway 
 between the two, but because they imply a wrong view 
 of the relation of the physical world to the spiritual 
 life. The physical world and the spiritual life are not 
 alternatives. We are not called to choose the one and
 
 THE REMOVAL OF FURNITURE 291 
 
 to reject the other. Their true relation is that of means 
 to ends. That is what we have to learn we of the 
 Fellowship, whom William Morris calls " ascetics " ; 
 we have to learn that the true relation of the physical 
 world to the spiritual life is the relation of means to 
 ends. The life of sense is not to be suppressed ; it is 
 to be subordinated. It is a channel of grace, a means 
 of spirituality, an instrument of good. And hence I 
 say that in the practical work of simplification, when 
 it comes to the point of choosing or refusing, what we 
 ought to repudiate and abandon is, not the convenient 
 or the comfortable or the useful, but the convention 
 which is no convenience, the enervating or unhealthy 
 which is no true comfort, the superfluous and unneces- 
 sary which is not really useful. 
 
 I urge, therefore, this limitation to our favourite 
 doctrine that we should not abandon those things 
 which are really useful for our life. If the life is more 
 than meat, it is also true that the meat is needful for 
 the life. If it is true that the higher the culture 
 the greater the facility for getting joy from simple 
 things, it is also true that the higher the culture the 
 greater the power of using a multiplicity of things. A 
 powerful intellect can use a variety of instruments, and 
 so do a variety of work. To the untutored a houseful 
 of appliances is a houseful of lumber, but to the taught
 
 292 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 it may be a houseful of blessing. There is a limit, of 
 course ; the greatest mind cannot use more than a 
 certain number of things, and things unused are always 
 lumber, as Nature emphatically teaches us by means 
 of moth and rust. But within this limit, the greater 
 the spirit the greater the powers of creation and 
 enjoyment, and the greater the variety of material 
 which can be employed. I can well believe that if 
 there are intelligences higher than ours which there 
 very well may be they may need a complexity of 
 instruments of which we know nothing, a variety of 
 means such as is shadowed to us in the infinite diversity 
 and complexity which surround us in this earth. I can 
 imagine that if a greater spirit than our human spirit 
 needed to move into a new heavenly mansion, some 
 other zodiac, or some new quarter of the heavens, he 
 might have to take one or two planets with him, or 
 possibly a solar system, for his enjoyment or his use ; 
 but I am also sure that if he were a perfect spirit, 
 a fully-educated intelligence, he would not take with 
 him so much as a pebble or a blade of grass that was 
 unnecessary for his work or useless for his life. 
 
 But what is useless for our life ? That only which 
 we are too feeble to use too limited, too finite to use. 
 To the Infinite nothing is useless, and his simplicity 
 lies within endless diversity. In itself, nothing is
 
 THE REMOVAL OF FURNITURE 293 
 
 useless and nothing fruitless. And we must learn this. 
 If we hold the doctrine of simplification unreasonably 
 or superstitiously, if we think that bareness is a virtue 
 in itself and that a miserly and miserable existence is 
 praiseworthy, then we have to learn this. Go to 
 Nature and see how, besides her unity, she has endless 
 complexity. Look upon the world and see how its 
 mysterious simplicity branches with endless variety 
 
 Such gliding wonders ! such sights and sounds ! 
 Such joined unended links, each hooked to the next, 
 Each answering all, each sharing the earth with all ! 
 
 Were we as infinite as Nature, we too might revel 
 in boundless variety, uniting it only around the central 
 unity which dwells within us. But that unity must 
 be kept clear at all costs ; and for the sake of that 
 unity we must forgo much variety. Nature can 
 afford to be exuberant and prodigal, and careless to 
 what multiplicity she runs, for she has the secret of 
 doing everything perfectly. Her exuberance does not 
 interfere with her perfection. She does not attain 
 variety by slurring the individual parts. 
 
 I believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey-work of 
 
 the stars, 
 And the pismire is equally perfect, and a grain of sand, and 
 
 the egg of a wren, 
 And a tree-toad is a chefd'aeuvre for the highest,
 
 294 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 And the running blackberry would adorn the parlours of 
 
 heaven, 
 And the narrowest hinge in my hand puts to scorn all 
 
 machinery, 
 And the cow crunching with depress'd head surpasses any 
 
 statue, 
 And a mouse is miracle enough to stagger sextillions of 
 
 infidels. 
 
 But if we think that because, unable to follow Nature 
 in this perfection, we dare not give ourselves over to 
 a scrambled complexity of enjoyment or of work ; if 
 we think that because, to retain some unity, we are 
 obliged to sacrifice much variety ; therefore variety is 
 evil and multiplicity a sin, and we are called by the 
 voice of heaven to live a bare and barren life, to abjure 
 all wealth of experience and follow the life of a recluse, 
 then Nature in the glory of her infinite diversity laughs 
 at us 
 
 Smile, O voluptuous cool-breath'd earth ! 
 Earth of the slumbering and liquid trees ! 
 
 Earth of departed sunset earth of the mountains misty-topt ! 
 Earth of the vitreous pour of the full moon just tinged with 
 
 blue ! 
 
 Earth of shine and dark mottling the tide of the river ! 
 Earth of the limpid gray of clouds brighter and cleaner for 
 
 my sake ! 
 Far-swooping elbowed earth rich apple-blossom'd earth !
 
 IV. THE PERSIAN BAB 
 
 I. THE MAKING OF A GOSPEL 
 
 IT is somewhat strange that no detailed comparison has, 
 so far as I know, been made between the life of Jesus 
 Christ and the life of that modern Messiah who was 
 martyred in Persia half a century ago. Comparisons 
 between Christ and Buddha abound ; but I have not 
 met with any definite comparison between Christ and 
 the Persian Bab, 1 except one brief passage in the " Essex 
 Hall Lecture" delivered by Mr Estlin Carpenter in 
 i8 95 . 2 
 
 Yet, for the comparative study of religion, for striking 
 illustration of the probable way in which history passes 
 into myth, and myth into theology, and, above all, for 
 a direct and overwhelming negative to those belated 
 
 1 Bab = Gate : Ali Muhammad claimed to be the gate of com- 
 munication between the Twelfth or Hidden Iman and the Shi'ite 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 2 The Relation of Jesus to his Age and our Own. By J. Estlin 
 Carpenter. (London; 1895.) Pp. 41-44. 
 
 295
 
 296 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 theologians who still think the case of a supernatural 
 Christianity can be historically proved by evidence drawn 
 from the latter part of the first century, no movement 
 with which I am acquainted approaches in convincing 
 power the story of the rise and progress of Babism in 
 our own times. 
 
 Here we have what is practically a piece of the ancient 
 world brought down from the century to which it 
 properly belongs, and conveniently preserved in our 
 midst for modern eyes to see and modern brains to 
 study. It is true that Persia has now some telegraphs 
 (interrupted or broken nearly half their time). It is 
 true that the English have made a road from Peshawur 
 to Kabul, and the Russians have lately made another 
 from Resht to Teheran ; but fifty years ago, when Ali 
 Muhammad the Bab lived and died, even this veneer 
 of modern civilisation was wanting, and Persia belonged 
 practically to A.D. i. It was an Oriental country with- 
 out roads, railways, or telegraphs. 
 
 In this very ancient-modern country we have a 
 thoroughly Oriental (though not, indeed, a Semitic) 
 people, professing a thoroughly Oriental and Semitic 
 religion. We have, as the leaders of this religion, a 
 class of men the Mullas strikingly like the scribes of 
 ancient Palestine ; men strong and narrow in their re- 
 ligious prejudices, and too often sordid and hypocritical
 
 THE MAKING OF A GOSPEL 297 
 
 in their lives. We have a religious reformer leading a 
 revolt against this state of things, denouncing these 
 hypocritical scribes, scorning their theological prejudices, 
 attacking their vices, teaching a freer theology, and 
 announcing a kingdom of righteousness to come. And, 
 finally, we have the Mullas heading the orthodox party 
 against the spiritual reformers, and bringing to 
 martyrdom, after six years' ministry, the master whom 
 they loved and almost literally worshipped. 
 
 And this is but the beginning of the parallel. The Bab 
 had his John the Baptist ; he worked miracles, he was 
 transfigured, he had eighteen apostles, most of whom 
 were martyred. Birth legends have grown up around 
 his memory ; stories of miraculous precocity in boyhood, 
 proofs from prophecies fulfilled in his person. He had 
 his Joseph of Arimathea, a rich Babi, who begged his 
 body, shrouded it in white silk, and laid it in a tomb. 
 Almost every main incident in the gospel story has 
 its parallel in the life and death of the Bab, except the 
 resurrection ; and the absence of any resurrection- 
 legend can, I think, be accounted for. 
 
 Then we have an Apostolic period, with a Petrine 
 and a Pauline party ; we have the growth of gospels 
 by legendary accretions round a historical nucleus ; 
 and, finally, we have illustrated, in the most striking 
 way, the modification and even falsification of Scrip-
 
 298 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 tures in favour of theological theories and ecclesiastical 
 parties. 
 
 In support of this last statement I will add here a 
 brief account of the Tdrlkh-l-Jadid y or New History of 
 Mirza Ali Muhammad the Bab? which is a sort of Babi 
 gospel history. 
 
 I must premise that before the Bab died he nominated 
 one of his disciples, Subh-i-Ezel, as his successor. This 
 gentle, contemplative soul was, however, unfitted to 
 control the passionate energies of the Babi exiles who, 
 after the great persecution of 1852, were gathered at 
 Adrianople, the Pella of the Babis. An abler, or, at 
 any rate, more resolute man, Beha by name, came, 
 therefore, by degrees to usurp the headship of the Babi 
 community, and, in 1866 or thereabout, threw off his 
 allegiance to Subh-i-Ezel, and so caused the great schism 
 which convulsed the Babi Church, and which has never 
 since been healed. At the present day the vast majority 
 of Babis are Behais, not Ezelis, and it would have been 
 exceedingly inconvenient to have in circulation the 
 original and unaltered Babi Scriptures, from every page 
 of which the evidences of the wrongfulness of the Beha 
 
 1 This Persian book has been translated and furnished with copious 
 appendices and notes by Mr Edward G. Browne, lecturer in Persian 
 to the University of Cambridge (The Tdrikh-i- Jadid \ Cambridge, 
 1893).
 
 THE MAKING OF A GOSPEL 299 
 
 usurpation would stare the reader in the face, and 
 the old and original Babi views be all too plainly shown 
 to be identical with those of the despised and dying 
 Ezeli sect. 
 
 Now, before this great schism took place, there existed 
 a Babi history, written by one who not only had known 
 the Bab in the flesh, but was one of his earliest and 
 most enthusiastic disciples Haji Mirza Jani, to wit, a 
 merchant of Kashan. The book was called The Point of 
 Kafy and it was written between November 1850 and 
 October 1851, the Bab having been martyred, it must 
 be remembered, on 8th July 1850. Much of the 
 earlier literature of the Babis disappeared through 
 neglect, but this particular book showed no signs of 
 disappearing : it was too popular. There was but one 
 way to deal with it : it must be manipulated in the 
 interest of the later doctrine, and so superseded by a 
 revised, expurgated and amended edition. 
 
 This manipulation was duly carried out, and the 
 result was the Tankh-i-Jadid^ or New History. The 
 original history upon which it was based came to be so 
 completely superseded that Mr Edward Browne, our 
 chief English authority on the subject, after diligent 
 search in the East, came to the conclusion that it was 
 no longer extant. 
 
 And now comes a stoke of fortune such as has been,
 
 300 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 alas ! denied to Christianity. In the years 1855-58 
 there resided at the Persian capital a French diplomist, 
 the Comte de Gobineau, who studied the Babi religion 
 while it was still in its primitive state, and wrote a very 
 fascinating account of its origin and its founder. 1 In his 
 collection of MSS., which was bought after his death 
 by the Bibliotheque Nationale, was a complete copy of 
 Haji Mirza Jani's Point of Kaf. This MS. was unearthed 
 by Mr Browne in 1892, and we have now the means 
 of comparing the original Babi history with the later 
 Tendenz-Schrift, which was based upon it. It is, in fact, 
 as if we had recovered the original Logia of Matthew, 
 or the Ephesian romance which formed the nucleus of 
 that strange medley now known to us as the " Gospel 
 according to St John." 
 
 And now, what is the bearing of all this upon ethical 
 religion ? Just this. The Christian multitude will 
 perhaps never see where the true value of their own 
 or of any other religion lies until they learn how 
 hopeless it is to try to base religion upon historical 
 documents. Again and again, when I have urged 
 upon the popular Christian apologist the utter insecurity 
 of his historical foundation a foundation built of 
 documents subjected for many a long year to the work 
 
 1 Les Religions et let Philosophies dans I'Asie Centrale. Par M. le 
 Comte de Gobineau. (2me ed. ; Paris, 1866.)
 
 THE MAKING OF A GOSPEL 301 
 
 of interpolators, careless scribes, and even forgers and 
 falsifiers I have been met with the objection : " But 
 do such things really happen to any great extent ? 
 Your evidence is mainly internal ; your hypotheses 
 largely conjectural." 
 
 Well, here are religious histories produced under 
 conditions very similar to those of the Christian 
 gospels, and here we have the whole process carried 
 on in our own lifetime and almost before our eyes. 
 Here we have evidence, both internal and external, of 
 the way in which an Oriental people can and does deal 
 with its fundamental documents in the early stages of 
 a new religion. Given a strong doctrinal motive and 
 a state of civilisation in which the pen, and not the 
 printing-press, is still relied upon for the multiplication 
 of holy scriptures, and the whole series of phenomena 
 which New Testament critics claim to have detected 
 by careful examination of the Christian documents is 
 repeated even in modern times.
 
 THE PERSIAN BAB 
 
 II. LEGENDS OF HIS CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 
 
 WHEN I was a divinity student in an evangelical 
 college nearly thirty years ago, our tutors deemed it 
 sufficient proof of the historical validity of the gospel 
 narratives if they showed them to have been in existence 
 within a hundred years -of the alleged events. Already, 
 even in those days, innocent though the students 
 mostly were of any taint of literary criticism, there 
 were a few who had a vague suspicion that much might 
 have happened in those hundred years, that legends of 
 miracle and marvel do not in all conditions of society 
 take so very long to grow up ; but, for the most part, 
 the assumptions of the tutors were accepted, and they, 
 on their side, saw no need to reply to objections which 
 were, at that time, only whispered beneath one's breath. 
 To-day it may seem almost like " fighting extinct 
 demons" to show how rapidly such legends really 
 
 grow, how early in the history of a religion they appear. 
 
 302
 
 HIS CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 303 
 
 But in the story of the Persian Bab we have such a 
 striking modern instance of this an instance, too, 
 which in some respects is so illustrative of the growth 
 of Christian legends in particular that perhaps, for 
 the pure interest of the matter, I may be permitted to 
 give some brief account of these beginnings of a new 
 religion. Besides, I am not altogether convinced that 
 the " demons " are " extinct." It is a very common 
 fallacy for those who have themselves lived for some 
 years in a free atmosphere to assume that the whole 
 world now breathes the same air. Perhaps there are 
 dungeons still. 
 
 The plain facts of the boyhood and youth of the 
 Bab are these. Ali Muhammad, who afterwards 
 claimed to be the " Bab " or " Gateway " of communica- 
 tion with the spiritual realms, was born 9th October 
 1820, at Shiraz. His father was a cloth merchant, 
 and died while Ali Muhammad was still of tender age. 
 .The child was brought up by his maternal uncle, put 
 to school with a certain Sheykh Abid, and at the age 
 of sixteen, or thereabout, was sent to the port of 
 Bushire to engage in commerce. He traded there for 
 about five years, winning the esteem of all the merchants 
 of the town, and then went upon a pilgrimage to the 
 tombs of the Imams at Nejef and Kerbela. At the 
 latter place he listened to the preaching of Seyyid
 
 3 o 4 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 Kazim, the leader at that time of the heterodox sect of 
 Sheykhis, and for two or three months remained 
 beneath the spell of the new teaching. Thence he 
 returned to his birthplace, Shiraz, where he underwent 
 a period of great mental trouble a sort of " temptation 
 in the wilderness" which issued (after the death of 
 Seyyid Kazim) in the " Manifestations," as the Babis 
 call it. That is to say, just as Jesus, when John the 
 Baptist was put in prison, " came into Galilee, preaching 
 the gospel of God," so Ali Muhammad, when Seyyid 
 Kazim died, took up his master's teaching, setting it 
 forth in a broader and more radical spirit, and claiming, 
 on his own part, to be a " Gateway," or channel of 
 supernatural revelation. 
 
 Now, to speak first of the infancy and childhood. 
 No such poetic legends as those given to us in the 
 Gospels of Matthew and Luke have, so far as 1 know, 
 grown up about the infancy of the Bab. Perhaps this 
 might have taken place had not the stream of devotion 
 directed towards his person been afterwards diverted 
 to Beha, his self-proclaimed successor, so that in the 
 later development of Babism the Bab himself came 
 to occupy a secondary place. But although the Babi 
 legends are wanting in poetic elaboration as compared 
 with the Christian legend, although they have about 
 them too much of the purely thaumaturgic, too little
 
 HIS CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 305 
 
 of the sublime, yet they exist. Legends did grow up, 
 and are amply sufficient to illustrate our main point 
 namely, that in the beginnings of an Oriental religion 
 you must get very near indeed to the events if you are 
 to be sure that what you are reading is not myth but 
 historic fact. 
 
 It is narrated, for instance, in the T&rlkh-l-Jadid^ or 
 New History^ that at the moment of his birth the babe 
 exclaimed, " The kingdom is God's " (" El mulk 
 Tlllah ") ; that when he went to school he read the 
 Koran miraculously, without having learned a single 
 letter ; that, similarly, he wrote a dissertation on the 
 divine unity without having learned to use his pen ; 
 and, finally, that he debated in the subtlest manner 
 certain questions of Muhammadan theology till the 
 tutor, " speechless with amazement, led him back to 
 his home," and delivered him to his venerable grand- 
 mother, saying : " I cannot undertake the instruction 
 of this young gentleman." But his grandmother, says 
 the story, reproved him and sent him back to school 
 to learn his lessons like other boys. 
 
 These school stories, which may be read in full in 
 Mr Edward Browne's translation of the Tdrlkh-i-Jadid 
 (pp. 262-64), remind us strongly of the "apocryphal" 
 stories of Jesus how the tutor Zachyas, for instance, 
 in the Gospel of Thomas, was amazed at his precocity 
 
 20
 
 306 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 and said to Joseph : " Brother, verily this child is not 
 earth-born ; therefore take him away from me." But 
 they also illustrate the feebleness of the foundations 
 upon which those " canonical " accounts of the nativity 
 and childhood rest which are accepted by many as the 
 corner-stone of the doctrine of the " Incarnation." 
 
 For, consider : which is the stronger the evidence 
 for the Babi stories or for the Christian ? The Babi 
 stories (those, at any rate, about the boyhood) were 
 told by the Bab's own schoolmaster. The old man 
 was still alive when we were young. When the stories 
 were told, when they were written down and circulated, 
 there were plenty of the Bab's contemporaries still 
 living who could have contradicated them if they dis- 
 believed them. Nay, there are at this day (or were 
 until quite recently), exiles dwelling at Acre and in 
 Cyprus who saw the Bab in the flesh and had every 
 opportunity of ascertaining the truth of these and other 
 such stories, and who yet received them with undoubt- 
 ing faith. Moreover, the legends were recorded within 
 sixty years of the alleged occurrences and thirty years 
 of the Bab's death. What would not my evangelical 
 tutors have given for such evidences for their own 
 " Stories of the Childhood " ? 
 
 There are other like legends, such as the prediction 
 of earthquakes by the miraculous boy, and the foretell-
 
 HIS CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 307 
 
 ing of the sex of unborn infants ; but we do not need 
 to dwell upon them. The important point is the 
 rapidity with which such legends grow up and become 
 established in the creed, and this point is clear enough. 
 Neither these nor the foregoing tales appear in the 
 earliest Babi history the history written by Mirza 
 Jani within a few months of the Bab's martyrdom. 
 But they are all inserted in the TMkh-i-Jadid^ which 
 was based upon that history, and which was completed 
 in 1881-82. They took only thirty years to grow up, 
 become established and get themselves recorded in the 
 Babi Gospel. Thirty years ! Alas for my evangelical 
 tutors ! 
 
 More interesting than the legends of the childhood 
 are the legends which belong to the time when the Bab 
 became a disciple of Seyyid Kazim. Seyyid Kazim was 
 always recognised by the Babis as the forerunner of the 
 Bab, just as John the Baptist was recognised by the 
 Christians as the forerunner of Jesus ; and the parallel 
 is in several respects particularly striking. 
 
 Every New Testament student knows how debatable 
 a point it is whether John the Baptist ever had any 
 close personal communication at all with Jesus. The 
 critical process soon gets rid both of the cousinship 
 and of the supernatural foreknowledge of his Messiah- 
 ship, and leaves us with at most the possibility that
 
 308 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 Jesus may have been a favourite disciple in whom John 
 saw signs of future greatness, which greatness he fore- 
 told to some of his disciples. Precisely the same doubt 
 hangs over the personal relationships of the Bab and 
 his forerunner ; while legends of supernatural revela- 
 tion and prophetic announcement as to the Bab's future 
 greatness are told of Seyyid Kazim very similar to 
 those we find told in the later Gospels concerning John 
 the Baptist as the forerunner of Jesus. 
 
 It is historically true that Seyyid Kazim spoke both 
 in lecture-room and pulpit of the approaching advent, 
 of one greater than himself. 1 But the legends relied 
 upon to prove that these utterances had specific reference 
 to Ali Muhammad are such as these : Some of his 
 disciples one day asked him as to the manner of the 
 manifestation which was to succeed him. " After my 
 death," replied he, " there will be a schism among my 
 followers ; but God's affair will be clear as this rising 
 sun." As he spoke he pointed to the door, through 
 which streamed a flood of sunlight, and at that very 
 moment Mirza Ali Muhammad crossed the threshold 
 and entered the room. " We did not, however," the 
 narrator adds, "apprehend his meaning until his 
 holiness was manifested " a significant remark, re- 
 minding us of such passages in the Gospels as " These 
 
 1 See Browne's translation of Tdrlkh-i-Jadid, p. 31.
 
 HIS CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH 309 
 
 things understood not his disciples at the first ; but 
 when Jesus was glorified, then remembered they," etc. 
 In both cases we see the legend in the making. 
 
 Again, we read that one of Seyyid Kazim's disciples 
 unexpectedly entered the Seyyid's private apartment 
 one day and found young Ali Muhammad seated in 
 the place of honour and giving instructions to his 
 supposed master, who received the same humbly and 
 with deference, but changed his manner upon perceiving 
 that they were not alone. (Compare " I have need to 
 be baptized of thee, and comest thou to me ? ") The 
 disciple adds that he marvelled at what he beheld, 
 because he had repeatedly seen Ali Muhammad enter 
 the Seyyid's presence "without any special mark of 
 attention." * The words which I have italicised lead us 
 to suspect that in truth young Ali Muhammad, who, 
 after all, was not regarded as one of the Seyyid's regular 
 and permanent disciples, was in no way distinguished 
 from the rest of such occasional hearers a suspicion 
 which is confirmed by several unintentional hints 
 dropped by the narrators. 2 
 
 It is impossible in the limits of such an essay as 
 
 1 find, p. 341. Both of these stories are given in Mirzah Jani's 
 history, which was written, as I have said, only a few months after 
 the Bab's death. 
 
 2 See especially #/., p. 32, last paragraph.
 
 3 io ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 this to do more than indicate in the slightest manner 
 a line of comparison between the rise of the legendary 
 elements in these two religions, the ancient Christian 
 and the modern Babi ; but the line is one which might, 
 I believe, be made fruitful in the interests of ethical 
 as against supernatural religion. The task is, no doubt, 
 to some extent ungrateful. It is in part negative and 
 destructive. But it is only by such negative work that 
 the true power of either religion can be seen, only thus 
 that the central figure in each can be set forth in full 
 ethical beauty. The power of the Babi religion did 
 not lie in its mythology, nor yet in its mysticism ; it 
 did not lie, as the Bab himself protested, in the quasi- 
 miraculous works of healing which he accomplished ; 
 it lay in part, no doubt, in the ethical reform which he 
 endeavoured to carry out in the Muhammadan faith, 
 but still more in the admiration which the Bab himself 
 inspired an intense admiration for a character of great 
 purity and perfect self-renunciation. This is clear 
 enough when it is seen in a religion not yet sixty years 
 old. When will it become clear to those who follow 
 the greater religion of Jesus the Nazarene ?
 
 THE PERSIAN BAB 
 
 III. AN ETHICAL REFORMER 
 
 IN a very interesting letter with which not long since 
 I was favoured by Mr Edward Browne, the Lecturer 
 in Persian to the University of Cambridge, and a well- 
 known authority upon Babi literature, I was warned 
 that, as a rule, Europeans who study this movement 
 " are too prone to seek for definite ethical, or political, 
 or social aims. These," wrote Mr Browne, " even 
 when present, are subordinate." 
 
 Again and again I have turned over this warning in 
 my mind, and have asked myself in what sense was 
 the ethical " subordinate " ? What was the vital core 
 of the movement ? Was it theological or ethical ? 
 I have tried to imagine the Babi martyrs going to 
 torture and to death in witness of their belief in 
 the sacredness of the numeral 19, or the religious 
 superiority of the lunar over the solar year, or the 
 talismanic power of the derivatives of words ex- 
 
 3"
 
 312 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 pressing the divine attributes. I confess that 1 
 have not succeeded. The thing will not get itself 
 imagined. 
 
 " And yet," I shall perhaps be told, " men have died 
 for such things : they have died for metaphysics, for 
 theology, even for ridiculous superstitions." But have 
 they ? Such things may have bulked largely in their 
 professions ; on account of such beliefs they may have 
 been condemned. But can it truly be said that for these 
 they died ? Outwardly and professedly the ethical aim 
 may have been subordinate ; but was not the ethical 
 impulse all the time the true motive-power ? Has 
 it not in such cases been the love of veracity which 
 was the inspiring and fortifying power the ethical 
 feeling that to deny their faith would have left a moral 
 stain ? 
 
 I hold, therefore, that even if Babism, as a creed, 
 had consisted entirely of attenuated metaphysics or 
 of Oriental superstitions, we should still have to look 
 for some mighty ethical impulse which made it possible 
 for hundreds of Babi martyrs to face the cruellest 
 sufferings on account of these same superstitions 
 which made it possible for a high authority to write : 
 " There is, I believe, but one instance of a Babi having 
 recanted under pressure of menace of suffering, and 
 he reverted to the faith, and was executed within two
 
 AN ETHICAL REFORMER 313 
 
 years." 1 In Persia, of all countries, such an ethical 
 support is peculiarly required to account for the 
 phenomenon of martyrdom ; the universal practice of 
 " Ketman," or the concealment of religious opinions 
 from prudential motives, making it in that country 
 specially remarkable for a man to die for his faith. 
 
 And such an impulse would not be far to seek. 
 Quite apart from the content, ethical or otherwise, of 
 the Babi faith, the Babis did undoubtedly derive an 
 immense moral inspiration from the contemplation of 
 the Bab himself. The fascination, the kindling power, 
 the sway over human hearts which this marvellous man 
 exercised by sheer force of character, were well-nigh 
 miraculous. Strong of will, kind of heart and utterly 
 careless of self, his disciples saw in him a type of 
 manhood which both captivated and inspired. And 
 the accounts of the Babi martyrdoms seem to me to 
 show that the Babis did not die for their metaphysics ; 
 they died for the Bab they died, that is, for the 
 ethical ideal embodied in a life. " Subordinate," 
 
 1 Persia and the Persian Question, by the Hon. G. N. Curzon, vol. 
 i. p. 501; London, 1892. The case to which Lord Curzon 
 doubtless refers was, according to the best evidence, not in reality 
 a case of succumbing to the menace of suffering. The disciple in 
 question recanted by command of the Bab, in order that he might 
 escape and carry with him the scriptures which the Bab had written 
 in prison.
 
 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 in a sense, the ethics of Babism may have been 
 subordinate in order of professed importance, subor- 
 dinate in their intellectual system ; but yet it may 
 hold good that the ethical, albeit unconsciously, was 
 the real motive-power, kindling the affections and 
 controlling the actions. 
 
 There was, moreover, besides the concrete ethic of 
 the Bab's personal life, an express and very interesting 
 ethical nucleus in his doctrine, which, though it is 
 embedded in an enormous mass of transcendental 
 teaching, almost unintelligible to the Western mind, 
 and lying quite apart from the practical plane, indicates 
 that the movement had a vital moral bearing. His 
 doctrine of toleration, for instance, for all religions, 
 and even for unbelievers, is distinctly ethical ; and, 
 though such doctrines are elementary to us, they are by 
 no means elementary to a religion which was founded 
 by the sword, and according to which the hatred 
 and persecution of an unbeliever is a sacred duty. 
 
 Or, again, take the Utopia which the Bab pictured, 
 and for which all good Babis were to hope and pray : 
 A community characterised by brotherly love ; dignity 
 combined with courtesy in all dealings and transactions 
 between its members ; introduction and cultivation 
 of all useful arts ; prohibition of useless occupations 
 and studies ; general elementary education ; strict pro-
 
 AN ETHICAL REFORMER 315 
 
 hibition of mendicity, together with provision for the 
 poor out of the common purse ; religious pilgrimages 
 not to be encouraged ; children to be treated with 
 kindness and affection ; and last, but not least, the 
 emancipation of women, polygamy to cease, the harem 
 to be abolished, the veil to be disused and the women 
 to be allowed to appear in society. Such teachings 
 not only prove a distinctly ethical nucleus enshrined 
 in the surrounding metaphysics of the Bab's religion, 
 but they indicate a very advanced position when we 
 take into account the religious and social state by which 
 he was environed. 
 
 In illustration of this last statement I would instance 
 the system of temporary marriages which obtains in 
 Persia. A Shi'ite Muhammadan may, according to 
 his law, contract a marriage for a period which may 
 vary from a fraction of a day to several years. The 
 mulla or priest draws up a contract, and the marriage 
 is then regarded as regular. Now, the mullas have 
 made this bad practice worse by means of one of those 
 legal quibbles which, like the Scribes and Pharisees 
 of Palestine, they use to circumvent the moral law. 
 According to the law, a woman at the end of her 
 temporary marriage must, if the marriage has been 
 consummated, wait for two months before going to 
 another husband. But as many women who give
 
 3 i6 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 themselves to these marriages are practically prostitutes, 
 these holy men have invented a way of saving their 
 clients from this inconvenient interval. 
 
 " When the contracted period of marriage has come 
 to an end the man makes a fresh contract with the 
 woman for another very short period ; this second 
 (purely nominal) marriage, being with the same man 
 as the first, is legal without any intervening period 
 of probation, and is not consummated ; so that on its 
 expiration the woman is free to marry another man as 
 soon as she pleases." l 
 
 Such was the moral plane from which the Bab sought 
 to raise his co-religionists. And the men who invented 
 and supported such a system were, throughout his 
 career, his bitterest opponents. Against the mullas the 
 Bab mainly directed his assaults, and it was the mullas 
 who brought him to his death. Prince Hamze Mirza, 
 by whom the Bab was tried, like Pilate of old, declared 
 that he " could find no fault in him." " I will in no 
 wise meddle further in this affair," he said to the Shah's 
 delegate ; " it is for you to decide ; act as you think 
 best, and apply to the clergy in this matter." So the 
 Bab was dragged before the clergy, and by them, when 
 they had fiercely insulted him, he was condemned to 
 
 1 A Tear Amongst the Persians, by E. G. Browne, page 462 ; 
 London, 1893.
 
 AN ETHICAL REFORMER 317 
 
 death. The charge against him was that he had 
 claimed to be the Imam Mahdi the Muhammadan 
 Messiah ; but the true motive for their condemnation 
 of him was the bitter hatred which they bore him for 
 his denunciation of their lives, his contempt for their 
 quibbles and prevarications, his condemnation of their 
 sordid love of gold. His theology was the handle of 
 his enemies ; but it was not for theology he died : he 
 died for righteousness.
 
 THE PERSIAN BAB 
 
 IV. THE BABi MARTYRS 
 
 THE Babi Paley has not yet appeared. When he 
 arrives he will be able to write A Fiew of the Evidences 
 of Bdbism, very much on Paley's lines. There is no 
 reason why he should not start his Part I. : " On the 
 Direct Historical Evidence of Babism," with the same 
 Proposition, substituting " Babi " for " Christian," 
 which Paley maintains through ten chapters : 
 
 "PROP. I. 
 
 " That there is satisfactory evidence that many pro- 
 fessing to be original witnesses of the [Babi] miracles 
 passed their lives in labours, dangers and sufferings, 
 voluntarily undergone in attestation of the accounts 
 which they delivered, and solely in consequence of 
 their belief of those accounts ; and that they also sub- 
 mitted, from the same motives, to new rules of conduct." 
 
 For, although the Bab cared little about miracles, 
 
 318
 
 THE BABI MARTYRS 319 
 
 save the one miracle (as he held it to be) of his own 
 inspiration, any more than Jesus did, the same cannot 
 be said of his followers. And if it can scarcely be 
 maintained that the Babi martyrs died "solely" for 
 their belief in these miracles, neither does Paley very 
 successfully maintain the same of the Christians. 
 
 As to Proposition II., " That there is not satisfactory 
 evidence that persons pretending to be original wit- 
 nesses of any other similar miracles have acted in the 
 same way," etc., if the Babi Paley cannot, having 
 regard to Christianity (and some few other religions), 
 honestly assert that, neither can any reader of Paley who 
 has also read the story of the Babi martyrdoms honestly 
 uphold the great apologist in that contention. 
 
 The story of the Babi martyrs, who are to be 
 numbered by hundreds, is indeed a thrilling one ; and 
 if their martyrdoms do not, any more than the Chris- 
 tian martyrdoms, prove, or help to prove, the truth 
 of their religion, they do prove the sincerity of their 
 belief in it ; and they do, moreover, very convincingly 
 prove the immense ethical and spiritual impulse often 
 lying behind a faith which those who belong to other 
 religions take upon themselves to describe as " false." 
 
 Few martyrdoms in the history of any religion exceed 
 in pathos that of Mirza Muhammad Ali, one of the 
 three disciples who were imprisoned with the Bab after
 
 320 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 his final trial at Tabriz. On the night before they were 
 to be executed the Bab bade him recant, that so, 
 escaping, he might preserve and circulate the Scriptures 
 which he had written while in prison. 1 But Muhammad 
 Ali fell at the feet of his master, and, with tears and 
 passionate entreaties, begged that he might be permitted 
 to lay down his life with his master. In the morning 
 they dragged him, together with the Bab, to the 
 barracks, and there suspended him by ropes passed 
 beneath the arms. His relatives came, and sought to 
 save his life by pleading madness ; but he would not 
 allow their plea to be heard, continuing to exclaim : " I 
 am in my right mind, perfect in service and sacrifice." 
 Turning to him, they besought him to recant, and save 
 his life ; but he answered that this would be the part 
 of a liar and hypocrite. Then they brought him his 
 child, a sweet young boy, hoping to work upon his 
 parental love ; but he would not be moved. So they 
 shot him in the presence of his master. An eye- 
 witness of the occurrence declares that, as he hung 
 there awaiting the volley, he turned his face to the Bab, 
 and said : " My master, are you satisfied with me ? " 
 
 This was on 8th July 1850. Later in the same year 
 occurred the death of the " seven martyrs " at Teheran. 
 It arose out of a false report that the Babis in the 
 
 1 I do not defend the Bab's ethics in this instance. H. R.
 
 THE BABI MARTYRS 321 
 
 capital were meditating an insurrection. Thirty-eight 
 persons were seized, some of whom were only suspected 
 of sympathising with the Babis ; and seven of these 
 sealed their testimony with their blood. 
 
 On their way to the city square, in which they were 
 to die, the spectators reviled them, and cast stones at 
 them, saying : " These are Babis and madmen 1 " 
 Mulla Isma'il, one of their number, answered : " Yes, 
 we are Babis ; but mad we are not. By Allah, O people, 
 it is to awaken and enlighten you that we have forsaken 
 life, wealth, wife and child, and have shut our eyes on 
 the world and such as dwell therein." 
 
 These martyrs, also, had to withstand the impor- 
 tunities of friends, the promises of wealth, and in one 
 case the case of a learned man who was a favourite 
 with the Shah's mother even the persuasions of 
 royalty ; but in every case they met their fate with 
 firmness, and even with exultation. And "when all 
 was over," writes the Babi historian, "the heedless 
 rabble foully treated the lifeless corpses of those holy 
 martyrs, spitting upon them, casting stones at them, 
 and reviling them, saying : c This is the reward of 
 lovers and pilgrims on the path of wisdom and truth.' ' 
 
 One of these martyrs was a mere boy, a young 
 Seyyid, so fair of face and pleading of aspect that the 
 heart of the Shah's delegate was melted with pity, and 
 
 21
 
 322 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 he promised him, if he would recant, a pension for life, 
 a fine house and the hand of his own daughter in 
 marriage (such things happen in Persia) ; but the 
 youth only looked at him wonderingly and answered : 
 " Tempt me not with your beautiful daughter and the 
 perishable wealth of this world ; we readily relinquish 
 the world and the things thereof to you and such 
 others as seek after them. For us it sufficeth to drain 
 this draught of martyrdom in the way of the Beloved." 
 Whereupon the official smote him in the mouth, and 
 bade the headsman do his work. 
 
 The torture and execution undergone by a number 
 of Babis two years later (in August 1852) will perhaps 
 by some not be accounted martyrdom, since these 
 punishments were inflicted in revenge for the attempted 
 assassination of the Shah by three men of their 
 persuasion. 
 
 But these victims cannot be justly regarded as 
 suffering judicial retribution. They were, in fact, 
 martyrs pure and simple ; they did not die for any 
 complicity in the rash deed of their brethren of which, 
 indeed, there is abundant evidence that they had no 
 previous knowledge but wholly and solely for their 
 faith. Some of them had long been in strict confine- 
 ment, and their judges well knew that they could not 
 by any possibility have been concerned in the con-
 
 THE BABI MARTYRS 323 
 
 spiracy ; while others were convicted solely on account 
 of Babi Scriptures having been found in their possession, 
 or merely because they were suspected of sympathy 
 with the despised sect. 
 
 Twenty-eight of the brethren were on that occasion 
 put to death. Among them was Suleyman Khan, a 
 wealthy noble, who had embraced the Babi faith. He 
 was the Joseph of Arimathea among the Babis ; for he 
 it was who begged the body of the Bab, shrouded it 
 in white silk and placed it in a tomb. They arrested 
 him simply because he was known to be a follower of 
 the Bab. In consideration of his loyalty and faithful 
 service at court, the Shah offered him large rewards if 
 he would but abandon the creed which he had adopted. 
 He absolutely declined, and in doing so uttered this 
 noble sentiment very noble and very remarkable, 
 considering that it came from the lips of an Oriental 
 subject, and was spoken to an Oriental despot : " His 
 Majesty the king," said Suleyman Khan, "has a right 
 to demand from his servants fidelity, loyalty and 
 uprightness ; but he is not entitled to meddle with 
 their religious convictions." This utterance cost him 
 his life. By order of the Shah his body was gashed 
 with wounds, and into every wound was inserted a 
 lighted candle. In this guise he was paraded a living 
 torch through the streets and bazaars of the capital, to
 
 324 ESSAYS AND ADDRESSES 
 
 the sound of drums and music. During the long agony- 
 he never ceased to testify his joy that he was accounted 
 worthy to suffer for his master's sake. He even 
 sang hymns to the Bab's memory as he walked his 
 via dolorosa ; and whenever one of the candles fell from 
 its bleeding socket he would, with his own hand, pick 
 it up, re-light it from one of the other candles and 
 replace it in the wound. At length he was led out of 
 the city, and there, close to the city gate, his living 
 body was sawn asunder. 
 
 It was in this same persecution that Kurratul' Ayn, 
 that most wonderful of Persian heroines the one 
 woman included in the Bab's eighteen apostles met 
 her end. To her, too, was given the chance to live. 
 Entreaties were pressed upon her to recant simply pro 
 formd, on the understanding that she should be allowed 
 within her own private circle to retain and profess her 
 own religion ; but such prevarication she scorned to 
 practise. 
 
 On the day before her martyrdom she went to the 
 bath, and returned arrayed in white garments. She 
 then gathered about her the women of the house in 
 which she was held captive, and " spake to them of the 
 decease which she should accomplish." The next 
 day the executioner came and took her to the place 
 of death. There they bade her remove her veil. But
 
 THE BABI MARTYRS 325 
 
 she who, in the cause of religious freedom and the 
 social emancipation of women, had dared to preach veil- 
 less before men, refused to lay bare her beautiful face 
 to the lustful eyes of tyrants and their slaves. So they 
 applied the bowstring over her veil. Dr Polak, a 
 German professor, and formerly physician to the Shah, 
 who actually witnessed her execution, declares that she 
 met her cruel fate " with superhuman fortitude." 
 
 These are but a few out of hundreds of such 
 martyrdoms. What, then, becomes of Paley's " Pro- 
 position I." ? Nay, take this passage from the Babi 
 historian, and compare it with that same proposition of 
 Paley's : 
 
 " Our chief point, however, is that persons so 
 virtuous and reasonable as these would not have been 
 so convinced of the truth of the Bab's claim as thus 
 willingly and joyfully to forgo life, wealth, fame, name, 
 wife and child, unless they had observed in that Proof 
 of God the clearest evidences of Divine powers and 
 qualities." 
 
 I am not sure but that this is an improvement upon 
 Paley ! " They had observed in the Bab the clearest 
 evidences of Divine powers and qualities." Yes, rightly 
 understood, the Babi martyrdoms do prove that. 
 
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 A Catalogue ; 
 
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 Divisions of the Catalogue 
 
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 I. THEOLOGY 3 
 
 II. PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY 29 
 
 III. ORIENTAL LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND HISTORY . 34 
 
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 FULL INDEX OVER PAGE 
 
 London 
 
 Williams & Norgate 
 14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abyssinia, Shihae al Din, yj. 
 Agricultural Chemical Analysis, Wiley, 
 
 Alcyonium, Liverpool Marine Biol. C. 
 
 Metns., 49. 
 
 Americans, The, Munsteroerg, 30. 
 Anarchy and Law, Brewster, 29. 
 Anatomy, Cunningham Memoirs, 46. 
 
 Surgical, of the Horse, 49. 
 Antedon, Liverpool Mar. Biol. Mems.,4g. 
 Anthropology, Prehistoric, Avebury, 56 ; 
 
 Engelhardt, 57. 
 
 Evolution of Religion, Famell, 12. 
 Anurida, Liverpool Mar. Biol. Mems., 49. 
 Apocalypse, Bleek, 8 ; Clark, 16. 
 Apostles and Apostolic Times, Dob- 
 
 tchutz, 4 ; Hausrath, 19 ; Weinel, 
 
 4 ; Weizsdcker, 7 ; Zeller, 9. 
 Statutes of, edit. G. Homer, 26. 
 Apostolic Succession, Clark, 17. 
 Arabic, Grammar, Socin, 37. 
 
 Poetry, Faizullah Bhai, 35 ; Lyall, 36 ; 
 
 NSldeke, 36. 
 &x&D\co\a.,Liverpool Marine Biol.Mems. , 
 
 49- 
 
 Ascidia.,Liverpaol Marine Biol.Mems. ,48. 
 Assyrian, Dictionary, Muss-Arnolt, 36 ; 
 
 Norris, 36. 
 
 Grammar, Delitzsch, 34. 
 Language, Delitzsch, 34. 
 Assyriology, Brown, 56 ; Delitzsch, 10, 34 ; 
 Evans. 35; Sayce, 15; Schrader, 9. 
 Astigmatic Tests, /"ray, 52 ; Snellen, 54. 
 Astronomy, Cunningham Mems., V., 
 46 ; Memoirs of Roy. Astronom. 
 Soc., 62. 
 
 Atom, Study of, Venable, 55. 
 Augustine, St., Confessions of, Harnack, 
 
 18. 
 
 Babylonia, Assyriology. 
 Belief, Religious, Upton, 15. 
 Beneficence, Negative and Positive, 
 Spencer, Principles of Ethics, II., 31. 
 Bible, 16. 
 
 See also Testament. 
 Beliefs about, Savage, 25. 
 Hebrew Texts, 19. 
 History of Text, Weir, 27. 
 How to Teach, 22. 
 Plants, Henslow, 19. 
 Problems, Cheyne, n. 
 Bibliography,BibliographicalRegister,56. 
 Biology, Basiian, 45 ; Liverpool Marine 
 
 Biol. Mems., 49 ; Spencer, 31. 
 Botany, Jour, of the Linnean Soc., 48. 
 Brain, Cunningham Mems., VII., 46. 
 Buddha, Buddhism, Davids, 14 ; Hardy, 
 
 35 ; Oldenberr, 36. 
 Calculus, Hamack, 47. 
 Canons of Athanasius, Text &* Trans. 
 
 See., 38. 
 
 Cardium, Liverpool Mar.Biol. Mems. ,48. 
 Celtic, see also Irish. 
 
 Stokes, 43 ; Sullivan, 42. 
 Heathendom, Rhys, 15. 
 Ceremonial Institutions, Spencer, Princ. 
 
 of Sociology, II., 31. 
 Chaldee, Grammar, Turpie, 38. 
 
 Lexicon, Fuerst, 35. 
 Chemistry, K<wiV JY^", 47; /for/, 47; 
 
 Chemist's Pocket Manual, 49. 
 Christ, Early Christian Conception of, 
 Pfleiderer, u, 23. 
 
 Life of, Keim, 8. 
 
 No Product of Evolution, Henslow, 19. 
 
 Resurrection of, 13. 
 
 Study of, Robinson, 24. 
 
 Teaching of, Harnack, 6, n. 
 
 The Universal, Beard, 16. 
 Christianity, Evolution of, Gill, 18. 
 
 History of, Baur, 8 ; Dobschutx, 4 ; 
 Harnack, 6, n, 18; Hausrath, 8, 
 19 ; Johnson, 20 ; Wr&, 4. 
 
 in Talmud, Herford, 19. 
 
 Liberal, R faille, n. 
 
 Primitive, Pfleiderer, 3, 23. 
 
 Simplest Form of, Drummond, 14. 
 
 Spread of, Harnack, 4. 
 
 What is? Harnack, 6, n. 
 Church, Catholic, Renan, 14. 
 
 Catholic, A Free, 26. 
 
 Christian, Baur, 8 ; Clark, 16 ; ZW- 
 schiltz, 4 ; Hatch, 14 ; Wernlt, 4. 
 
 Christian, Sacerdotal Celibacy in, 21. 
 
 Coming, Hunter, 20. 
 
 History of, <? Schubert, 3, 25. 
 Codex Palatino-Vaticanus, TWtf Z.r- 
 
 tures, III., 43. 
 
 Codium, Liverpool Mar. Biol. Mems., 49. 
 Communion of Christian with God, /ftrr- 
 
 tnann, 6, 20. 
 Comte, Spencer, 32. 
 Conductivity of Liquids, Tower, 55. 
 Constellations, Primitive, Brown, 56. 
 Creed, Christian, 16. 
 Crown Theological Library, 10. 
 Cuneiform Inscriptions, Schrader, 9. 
 Daniel and his Prophecies, C. #. H. 
 Wright, 28. 
 
 and its Critics, C. H. H. Wright, 28. 
 Danish Dictionary, Rosing; 43. 
 Darwinism, Schurman, 30. 
 Denmark, Engelhardt, 57. 
 Doctrine and Principle, Beeby, 16. 
 Dogma, History of, Harnack, 5. 
 
 of Virgin Birth, Lobstein, 10. 
 Domestic Institutions, Spencer, Princ. 
 
 of Sociology, I., 31. 
 
 Duck Tribes, Morphology of, Cunning- 
 ham Mems., VI., 46. 
 Dutch, Cape, Oordt, 42 ; Werner, 43. 
 Dynamics, Cunningham Mems., IV., 47. 
 
 Chemical, Van't Hoff, 47. 
 Ecclesiastes, Taylor, 26. 
 Ecclesiastical Institutions, Spencer, 
 Princ. of Sociology, III., 31, 32. 
 
 of Holland, Wicksteed, 27. 
 Echinus, Liverpool Mar. Biol. Mems., 
 
 49. 
 
 Economy, Political, Mackenzie, 30. 
 Education, Herbert, 57 ; Lodge, 41 ; 
 
 Spencer, 30 ; Hagmann, 42. 
 Educational Works, sec Special Cata- 
 logue. 
 
 Egypt, Religion of, Renovf, 15. 
 Egyptian Grammar, Erman, 35. 
 Electric Furnace, The, Moisson, 51. 
 Electrolytic Laboratories, Arrange- 
 ments of, 51. 
 
 Engineering Cnemistry, Stillman, 54. 
 Enoch, Book of, Gill, 18.
 
 INDEX continued. 
 
 Epidemiology, Trans, of Epidemiolog. 
 
 Sac. , 55. 
 Epizootic Lymphangitis, Treatise on, 
 
 Pallin, 52. 
 Ethics, and Religion, Martineau, 32. 
 
 Data of, Spencer, Principles of E., I., 31. 
 
 Individualism and Collectivism, 30. 
 
 Induction of, Spencer, Principles of E., 
 I-, 3 1 - 
 
 Kantian, Schurman, 30. 
 
 of Evolution. Schurman, 30. 
 
 of Individual Life, Spencer. Principles 
 of E., I., 31. 
 
 of Reason, Laurie, 29. 
 
 Principles of, Spencer, 31. 
 Ethiopia Grammar, 34. 
 Ethnology, Cunningham Mems., X., 46. 
 Evolution, Spencer, 31, 32. 
 
 of the Idea of God, D'Alviella, 14. 
 
 of Religious Thought, D'Alviella, 15. 
 Exodus, Hoerning, 20. 
 Ezekiel, Mosheh ben Shesheth, 22. 
 Faith, Herrmann, H ; Rix, 24 ; Wim- 
 
 mer, 27. 
 
 Fisheries, British, Johnstone, 46. 
 Flinders Petrie Papyri, Cunningham 
 
 Mems., VIII., IX., 46. 
 Flora of Edinburgh, Sonntag, 54. 
 French, Boielle, 40 ; Delbos, 40 ; Eugene, 
 40 ; Hugo, 41, 42 ; Roget, 42 ; also 
 Special Education Catalogue. 
 
 Literature, Roget, 43. 
 
 Novels, Army Series, 39. 
 Gammarus, Liverpool Marine Biol. 
 
 Mems.. 49. 
 Genesis, Hebrew Texts. 19, 35 ; Wright, 
 
 C. H. H., 28. 
 
 Geography, Ancient, Kicpert, 58. 
 Geometry, Analytical, Elements of, 47. 
 German, Literature, Nibelungenlied, 
 41 ; Phillipps, 42. 
 
 Novels, Army Series, 39. 
 Germany, Marcks, 59. 
 God, Idea of, D'Alviella, 14. 
 Gospel, Fourth, Drummond, 17 ; Tayler, 
 26. 
 
 Social, Harnack and ffe>-rmann,i3,ig. 
 Gospels, Old and New Certainty, Robin- 
 son, 24. 
 
 Greek, Modern, Zompolides, 44. 
 Gymnastics, Medical, Sckreber, 53. 
 Hebrew, Biblical, Kennedy, 35. 
 
 Language, Delitzsch, 34. 
 
 Lexicon, Fuerst, 35. 
 
 New School of Poets, Albrecht, 36. 
 
 Scriptures, Sharpe, 25. 
 
 Story, Peters, 23. 
 
 Synonyms, Kennedy, 35. 
 
 Text of O.T., Weir, 27. 
 
 Texts, 19, 35. 
 
 Hebrews, History of, Kittel, 6 ; Peters, 
 ii ; Sharpe, 35. 
 
 Religion of, Kuenen, 9 ; Monte fiore, 14. 
 Heterogenesis, Bastian, 45. 
 Hibbert Lectures, 14, 15. 
 Horse, Life-size Models ot, 48. 
 Hygiene, Practical, Handbook of, 45. 
 Hymns, , Jones, 20. 
 Icelandic, 27/<z, 41 ; VigaGlumsSaga,^. 
 
 Dictionary, Zoega, 44. 
 
 Grammar, Bayldon, 39. 
 
 Individualism, Spencer ', Man v. State, 32. 
 Infinitesimals and Limits, 47. 
 Irish, Hogan, 40 ; Leabhar Breac, 41 ; 
 Leabharna H-Uidhri,^\; O'Grady, 
 42 ; Todd Lectures, 43 ; Yellow Book 
 of Lecan, 43. 
 
 Isaia.h,Dettrick, 34 ; Hebrew Texts, 19,35. 
 Israel, History of, Kittel, 6 ; Peters, 33 ; 
 
 Sharpe, 25. 
 
 Religion of, Kuenen, 9. 
 in Egypt, Wright, C. H. H., 28. 
 Jeremiah, Mosheh ben Shesheth, 22. 
 Jesus, Life of, Keim, 3. 
 Sayings of, 13. 
 The Real, Vickers, 27. 
 Times of, Hausrath, 8. 
 ,S>* a/i<? Christ. 
 Job, Book of, Ewald, 8 ; Hebrew Text, 
 
 19, 35 ; Wright, C. H. H., 28. 
 Rabbinical Comment, on, TVj:/ &* 
 
 Trans. Soc., 38. 
 
 Justice, Spencer, Princ. of Ethics, II., 31. 
 Kant, Schurman, 30. 
 Kindergarten, Goldammer, 57. 
 Knowledge, Evolution of, Perrin, 30. 
 Labour, Harrison, 57 ; Schloss, 59 ; 
 
 Vynne, 60. 
 
 Leabhar Breac, 41 ; Hogan, 40. 
 Life and Matter, Lodge, 21. 
 Ligia, Liverpool Marine Biol. Mems., 49. 
 Liverpool, History of, Muir, 59. 
 Lives of the Saints, Hogan, 40. 
 Logarithms, 5"a^-, 53 ; Schroen, 54 ; 
 
 f'4*. 55- 
 
 London Library Catalogue, 57. 
 Lumbar Curve, Cunningham Mems., 
 
 II., 46. 
 
 Mahabharata, SSrensen, 37. 
 Malaria, Annett, 45 ; Boyce, 45 ; Dutton, 
 
 46 ; Mems. of Liverpool School of 
 
 Tropical Medicine, 50 ; /?0M, 53 ; 
 
 Stephens, 54. 
 Maori, Dictionary, Williams, 43. 
 
 Manual, Maori, 41. 
 Materialism, Martineau, 22. 
 Mathematics, Harnack, 47. 
 
 S<? a/r<? Logarithms. 
 Mediaeval Thought, /W, 23. 
 Mesca Ulad, Todd Lectures, I., 42. 
 Metallic Objects, Production of, 52. 
 Metaphysics, Lavrie, 29. 
 Mexico, Religionsof, Reville, 15. 
 Micah, Book of, Taylor, 26. 
 Microscopy, Journal of the Roy. Micro. 
 
 Soc., 48; Journal of the Quekett 
 
 Micro. Club, 48. _ 
 
 Midrash, Christianity in, Herford, 19. 
 Mineral Systems, Chapman, 47. 
 Molecular Weights, Methods of Deter- 
 mining, 45. 
 
 Monasticism, Harnack, 18. 
 Moorhouse Lectures, 22. 
 Mosquitoes, Mems. of Liverpool School 
 
 of Trap. Medicine, 50. 
 Municipal Government, A History of, in 
 
 Liverpool, 59. 
 Mythology, Greek, Brown, 56 ; St. Clair, 
 
 59- 
 
 Northern, Stephens, 60. 
 Naturalism and Religion, Otto, 13. 
 Nautical Terms, Delbos, 40.
 
 I N D EX continued. 
 
 Nennius, The Irish, Hogan, 40. 
 New Guinea, Cunningham Menu., X., 46. 
 Newman, Mystery of, 16 
 New Testament, see Testament, 26. 
 New Testament Times, Hausrath, 8, 19. 
 Norwegian Dictionary, Rosing, 42. 
 Norsemen in the Orkneys, Die trie hson, 57. 
 Ophthalmic Tests, Pray, 52; Snellen, 54. 
 Optical Convention, Proceedings of, 52. 
 Ores, Methods for the Analysis of, 52. 
 Organic Analysis, Elementary, 45. 
 Origins, Christian, Johnson, 20. 
 
 of Religion, Hibbert Lectures, 14, 15. 
 Pali, Dtpavamsa, 34; Milanda Panho, 
 36 ; Vinaya Pitakam, 38. 
 
 Handbook, Frankfurter, 35. 
 
 Miscellany, 37. 
 
 Pathology, Inflammation Idea in, Ran- 
 som, 52. 
 Paul, St., Baur, 8; Pfleiderer, o; 
 
 Weinel, 4. 
 
 Periodic Law, Venable, 55. 
 Persian, Avesti Pahlavi, 34. 
 
 Grammar, Plaits, 37. 
 Peru, Religions of, Reville, 15. 
 Philo Judseus, Drummond, 29. 
 Philosophy, 29. 
 
 and Experience, Hodgson, 29. 
 
 Jewish Alexandrian, Drummond, 29. 
 
 of Religion, Pfleiderer, 9. 
 
 Reorganisation of, Hodgson, 29. 
 
 Religion of, Perrin, 22. 
 
 Synthetic, Collins, 29 ; Spencer, 31. 
 Political Institutions, Spencer, Princ. of 
 
 Sociology, II., 31. 
 Portland Cement, Meade, 49. 
 Pottery, Seger's Writings on, 54. 
 Prayers, Common Prayer, 17 ; Jones, 
 20 ; Personal, 23 ; Sadler, 24 ; TVn 
 Services, 26. 
 Prehistoric Man, Avebury, 56.; Engel- 
 
 hardt, 57. 
 
 Printing at Brescia, Freddie, 59. 
 Professional Institutions, Spencer, Princ. 
 
 of Sociology, III., 31. 
 Profit-sharing, Schloss, 59. 
 Prophets of O.T., Eiuald, 8. 
 Protestant Faith, Hermann, 12; 
 
 Reville, n. 
 Psalms, Hebrew Texts, 19, 35. 
 
 and Canticles, 7V Services, 26. 
 
 Commentary, Ewald, 8. 
 Psychology, Scripture, 30 ; Wundt, 33. 
 
 of Belief; Pikler, 30, 
 
 Principles of, Spencer, 31. 
 Reconciliation, Henslow, 19. 
 Reformation, Beard, 14. 
 Religion, Child and, 12. 
 
 History of, Kuenen, 9, it,;R(~jille, 9, 15. 
 
 and Naturalism, Otto, 13. 
 
 of Philosophy, Perrin, 22. 
 
 Philosophy of, Pfleiderer, 9. 
 
 Struggle for Light, Wimmer, 10. 
 
 6' <z&0 Christianity, History of. 
 Religions, National and Universal, 
 Kuenen, 21. 
 
 of Authority, Sabatiei, 4. 
 Resurrection, Z,a, 13 ; Macan, 22 ; 
 
 Marchant, 22. 
 
 Reviews and Periodical Publications, 
 6x. 
 
 Rigveda, Wallis, 38. 
 Rome, Kenan, 14. 
 Runes, Stephens, 60. 
 Ruth, Wright, C. H. H., 28. 
 Sanitation, in Cape Coast Town, Taylor, 
 
 54- 
 
 in Para, Notes, 51. 
 Sanscrit, Abhidhanaratnamala, 34; 
 
 Sffrensen, 37. 
 Sermons, Beard, 16 ; Broadbent, 16. 
 
 Addresses, and Essays, 24. 
 Services, Common Prayer, 16 ; Jones, 20 ; 
 
 7> Services, 26. 
 Silva Gadelica, O'Grady, 42. 
 Social Dynamics, Mackenzie, 30. 
 
 Statics, Spencer, 32. 
 Sociology, Descriptive, Spencer, 32. 
 
 Principles of, Spencer, 31. 
 
 Study of. Spencer, 32. 
 Soils and Fertilisers, 54. 
 Solomon, Song of, Reville, 23. 
 South Place Ethical Society, C0zi;<*><, 
 
 17. 
 
 Spanish Dictionary, Velasquez, 43. 
 Spinal Cord, Bruce, 46. 
 Sternum, Paterson, 52. 
 Stereochemistry, Elements of, 47. 
 Storms, Piddington, 52. 
 Sun Heat, Cunningham Mems., III., 
 
 46. 
 
 Surgery, System of, r<? Bergmann, 45. 
 Syriac, Bernstein, 34 ; Diettrich, 34 ; 
 
 NSldeke, 36. 
 
 Taal, Afrikander, Oordt, 42 ; Werner, 43. 
 Talmud, Christianity in, Herford, 19. 
 Tennyson, Weld, 60. 
 Tent and Testament, AV.r, 24. 
 Testament, New, Apologetic of, 13. 
 
 Books of, K<7 Soden, 26. 
 
 Commentary, Protestant Commentary, 
 
 Luke the Physician, 13, 18. 
 
 Textual Criticism, Nestle, 7. 
 
 Times, Hausratk, 8, 19. 
 
 5 a/so Gospels. 
 
 Testament, Old, Cuneiform Inscriptions, 
 Schroder, 9. 
 
 Introduction to the Canonical Books 
 of, 17. 
 
 Literature of, Kautzsch, 21. 
 
 Religion of, Marti, 13, 22. 
 Test Types, /Vox, 52 ; Snellen, 54. 
 Theism, PVyjo'i 2 7- 
 Theological Translation Library, 3. 
 
 Theology, Analysis of, ^t^T, 18. 
 
 History of, Pfleiderer, 9. 
 Thermometer, History of, 45. 
 Trypanosomiasis, Dutton, 47. 
 Urine Analysis, Text-book of, 49. 
 Virgil, Henry, 57. 
 Virgin Birth, Lobstein, 10, 
 Weissmann, Spencer, 32. 
 Woman's Labour, Englishwoman's 
 
 Review, 61; Harrison, 57; Vynne, 
 
 60. 
 
 Suffrage, Blackburn, 56. 
 Yellow Fever, Durham, 48. 
 Zoology, Fasciculi Malayenses, 48 ; 
 
 Journal o/ the Linnean Sac., 48 ; 
 
 Liverpool Marine Biology (Com- 
 
 mittee Mems., 48-49.
 
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